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684,315 | Arthur Nebe | 1,172,915,707 | German SS functionary and Holocaust perpetrator (1894–1945) | [
"1894 births",
"1945 deaths",
"Einsatzgruppen personnel",
"Executed German mass murderers",
"Executed members of the 20 July plot",
"German police chiefs",
"German police officers convicted of crimes",
"Holocaust perpetrators in Belarus",
"Interpol officials",
"Military personnel from the Province of Brandenburg",
"Nazis executed by Nazi Germany",
"Nazis executed by hanging",
"People executed by hanging at Plötzensee Prison",
"Perpetrators of World War II prisoner of war massacres",
"Police of Nazi Germany",
"Police officers executed for treason",
"Recipients of the Iron Cross (1914), 1st class",
"Recipients of the War Merit Cross",
"Reich Security Main Office personnel",
"SS-Gruppenführer"
]
| Arthur Nebe (; 13 November 1894 – 21 March 1945) was a German SS functionary who held key positions in the security and police apparatus of Nazi Germany and was, from 1941, a major perpetrator of the Holocaust.
Nebe rose through the ranks of the Prussian police force to become head of Nazi Germany's Criminal Police (Kriminalpolizei; Kripo) in 1936, which was amalgamated into the Reich Security Main Office (RSHA) in 1939. Before the 1941 German invasion of the Soviet Union, Nebe volunteered to serve as the commanding officer of Einsatzgruppe B, one of the four mobile death squads of the SS. The unit was deployed in the Army Group Centre Rear Area, in modern-day Belarus; it reported over 45,000 victims by November 1941. In late 1941, Nebe was posted back to Berlin and resumed his career with the RSHA. Nebe commanded the Kripo until he was denounced and executed after the failed attempt to kill Adolf Hitler in July 1944.
After the war, Nebe's career and involvement with the 20 July plot against Hitler were the subject of several apologetic accounts by surviving members of the plot, who portrayed him as a professional policeman and a dedicated anti-Nazi. These portrayals have since been discredited by historians who describe him as an opportunist and a mass murderer driven by racism and careerism.
## Before World War II
### Police career
Born in Berlin in 1894, the son of a school teacher, Nebe volunteered for military service during World War I and served with distinction. In 1920, he joined the Berlin detective force, the Kriminalpolizei (Kripo; Criminal Police). He attained the rank of police inspector in 1923 and police commissioner in 1924.
Nebe was a conservative nationalist, who embraced the shift of the country to right-wing rule in the 1930s. In July 1931, he joined the Nazi Party (party number 574,307) and the SS (SS number 280,152). Nebe became the Nazis' liaison in the criminal police in Berlin, with links to an early Berlin SS group led by Kurt Daluege. In early 1932, Nebe and other Nazi detectives formed the NS (National Socialist) Civil Service Society of the Berlin Police. In 1933, he came to know Hans Bernd Gisevius, then an official in the Berlin Police Headquarters; after the war, Gisevius produced an apologetic account of Nebe's Nazi era activities. In 1935, Nebe was appointed head of the Prussian Criminal Police. He obtained the rank of SS-Gruppenführer and Generalleutnant of Police on 9 November 1941.
### Head of National Criminal Police
In July 1936, the Prussian Criminal Police became the central criminal investigation department for Germany, the Reichskriminalpolizeiamt (Reich Criminal Police Office or RKPA). It was amalgamated, along with the secret state police, the Geheime Staatspolizei (Gestapo), into the Sicherheitspolizei (SiPo), with Reinhard Heydrich in overall command. Nebe was appointed head of the RKPA, reporting to Heydrich. The addition of the Kripo to Heydrich's control helped cement the foundations of the Nazi police state. It also led to an "overlap" of personnel from the SD, Gestapo and Kripo in leadership positions in the police and security forces in Germany.
On 27 September 1939, Himmler ordered the creation of the Reich Security Main Office (Reichssicherheitshauptamt or RSHA); the new organisation encompassed the intelligence service, security services, secret state and criminal police. The RSHA was divided into several main departments, including the Kripo, which became Department V of the RSHA. Kripo's stated mission, which Nebe embraced, was to "exterminate criminality". Under his leadership, equipped with arbitrary powers of arrest and detention, the Kripo acted more and more like the Gestapo, including the liberal use of so-called protective custody and large-scale roundups of "asocials".
In 1939, Nebe lent a commissioner of his Criminal Police Office, Christian Wirth of Stuttgart, to the Action T4, which ran the programme of involuntary euthanasia (murder) of the disabled. Also in 1939, as head of Kripo, he was involved in the discussions of the upcoming campaigns against the Sinti and Roma. Nebe wanted to include sending Berlin's "Gypsies" to the planned reservations for the Jews and others in the east. In October 1939, he ordered Adolf Eichmann to put Sinti and Roma with Jews on the transports to occupied Poland under the "Nisko Plan". In November, Nebe interrogated Georg Elser after Elser's failed assassination attempt on Hitler, concluding that Elser was telling the truth when he claimed that he was working alone.
## World War II
### Einsatzgruppe B
Just before the 1941 Nazi invasion of the Soviet Union in Operation Barbarossa, the Einsatzgruppen mobile death squads, which had previously operated in Poland, were reformed and placed once again under the overall command of Reinhard Heydrich. Nebe volunteered to command Einsatzgruppe B, an SS death squad that operated in the Army Group Center Rear Area as the invasion progressed. The unit's task was to exterminate Jews and other "undesirables", such as communists, "Gypsies", "Asiatics", the disabled, and psychiatric hospital patients in the territories that the Wehrmacht had overrun. The Einsatzgruppe also shot hostages and prisoners of war handed over by the army for execution.
#### Mass killing operations
Around 5 July 1941, Nebe consolidated Einsatzgruppe B near Minsk, establishing a headquarters and remaining there for two months. The murders progressed apace. In a 13 July Operational Situation Report, Nebe stated that 1,050 Jews had been killed in Minsk, also noting that the liquidation of the Jews was underway in Vilna where 500 Jews were shot daily. In the same report, Nebe remarked: "only 96 Jews were executed in Grodno and Lida during the first days. I gave orders to intensify these activities". He reported that the killings were being brought into smooth running order and that the shootings were carried out "at an increasing rate". The report also announced that his Einsatzgruppe was now killing non-Jews in Minsk.
In the 23 July report, Nebe advanced the idea of a "solution to the Jewish problem" being "impractical" in his assigned area of operation due to "the overwhelming number of the Jews"; i.e. there were too many Jews to be killed by too few men. By August 1941, Nebe came to realize that his Einsatzgruppe'''s resources were insufficient to meet the expanded mandate of the killing operations, resulting from the inclusion of Jewish women and children since that month.
#### New killing methods
In August 1941, Himmler, after a visit to Minsk, decided that alternative methods of killing should be found, instead of mass-shootings. He told Heydrich that he was concerned about the SS men's mental health. Himmler turned to Nebe to devise a more "convenient" method of killing, particularly one that would spare executioners elements of their grisly task. Murder with carbon monoxide gas, already in use in the Reich as part of the "euthanasia" program, was contemplated, but deemed too cumbersome for the mobile killing operations in the occupied Soviet Union.
Nebe decided to try experimenting by murdering Soviet psychiatric patients, first with explosives near Minsk, and then with automobile exhaust at Mogilev. The idea of using gas was partly inspired by an incident in Nebe's past. One night after a party, Nebe had driven home drunk, parked in his garage, and fallen asleep with the engine running, nearly dying of carbon monoxide poisoning from the exhaust fumes. To conduct the experiments, he ordered the SS chemist Albert Widmann, a member of the criminal-technical institute of the RKPA, to come to Minsk with 250 kilograms (550 lb) of explosives and exhaust hoses. The next day, Widmann, Nebe, and an explosives expert carried out their first experiment in prepared bunkers in the Minsk area. According to testimony presented at Widmann's postwar trial:
> One of the bunkers was loaded with explosives and 24 mental patients were put into it. Nebe gave the signal to detonate, but the resultant explosion failed to kill the patients. Several of them emerged from the bunker covered in blood and screaming loudly. Thereupon more explosives were brought up, the wounded patients were forced back into the bunker, and a second explosion finally finished the job. The bunker had become quiet and parts of bodies could be seen hanging from nearby trees.
Two days later, Nebe and Widmann carried out another killing experiment: five psychiatric patients from Mogilev were placed in a hermetically sealed room with pipes leading to the outside. At first, exhausts from a passenger vehicle were vented into the room, so that the carbon monoxide would kill those inside. This method failed to kill the patients, so a truck was added; the patients were dead within 15 minutes. Nebe and Widmann concluded that killing with explosives was impractical, while gassing "held promise", as vehicles were readily available and could be used as needed.
After these experimental killings, Nebe thought of remodelling a vehicle with a hermetically sealed cabin for killing. The carbon monoxide from the vehicle's exhaust would be channelled into the sealed cabin in which the victims stood. He discussed the idea's technical aspects with a specialist from Kripo's Technology Institute and together they brought the proposal to Heydrich, who approved it.
#### Mogilev conference and escalation of violence
The Wehrmacht's aggressive rear security doctrine and the use of the "security threat" to disguise genocidal policies, resulted in a close cooperation between the army and the security apparatus behind the front lines. Nebe, as the Einsatzgruppe B commander, participated in a three-day field conference at Mogilev in late September 1941. Organised by General Max von Schenckendorff, chief of Army Group Centre's rear area, the conference was to serve as an "exchange of experiences" for the Wehrmacht rear unit commanders.
Participating officers were selected on the basis of their "achievements and experiences" in security operations already undertaken. In addition to Nebe, the speakers included Higher SS and Police Leader Erich von dem Bach-Zelewski; Max Montua, commander of Police Regiment Centre; Hermann Fegelein, commander of the SS Cavalry Brigade; and Gustav Lombard, commander of the 1st SS Cavalry Regiment in Fegelein's brigade. Nebe's talk focused on the SD's role in the common fight against "partisans" and "plunderers". He also covered the "Jewish question" and its connection to the suppression of resistance movements in occupied territories. After the conference, a 16-page executive summary was distributed to the Wehrmacht troops and Order Police battalions in the rear area. There was a dramatic increase in atrocities against Jews and other civilians in the last three months of 1941.
Under Nebe's command, Einsatzgruppe B committed public hangings to terrorise the local population. Nebe's report dated 9 October 1941 stated that, due to suspected partisan activity near Demidov, all male residents aged 15 to 55 were put in a camp to be screened. Seventeen people were identified as "partisans" and "Communists" and five were hanged in front of 400 local residents assembled to watch; the rest were shot. Through 14 November 1941, Einsatzgruppe B reported the killing of 45,467 people; thereafter, Nebe returned to Berlin and resumed his duties as head of the Kripo.
### President of Interpol and Stalag Luft III murders
Following the 1942 assassination of Heydrich, Nebe assumed the additional post of President of the International Criminal Police Commission, the organization today known as Interpol, in June 1942. After the Anschluss in 1938, the organization had fallen under the control of Nazi Germany and was headed by Heydrich until his death. Nebe served in this capacity until June 1943, when he was replaced by Ernst Kaltenbrunner.
In March 1944, after the "Great Escape" from Stalag Luft III prisoner-of-war camp, Nebe was ordered by Heinrich Müller, Chief of the Gestapo, to select and kill 50 of the 73 recaptured prisoners in what became known as the "Stalag Luft III murders". Also in 1944, Nebe suggested that the Roma interned at Auschwitz would be good subjects for medical experiments at the Dachau concentration camp, after Himmler had asked Ernst-Robert Grawitz, a high-ranking SS physician, for advice.
### 1944 plot against Adolf Hitler
Nebe was involved in the 20 July plot against Adolf Hitler; he was to lead a team of 12 policemen to kill Himmler, but the signal to act never reached him. After the failed assassination attempt, Nebe fled and went into hiding. He was arrested in January 1945 after a former mistress betrayed him. Nebe was sentenced to death by the People's Court on 2 March and, according to official records, was executed in Berlin at Plötzensee Prison on 21 March 1945 by being hanged with piano wire from a meat hook, in accordance with Hitler's order that the bomb plotters were to be "hanged like cattle".
## Assessment
Historians have a negative view of Nebe and his motives, despite his participation in the 20 July plot. Robert Gellately writes that Nebe's views were virulently racist and antisemitic. Martin Kitchen casts Nebe as an opportunist, who saw the SS as the police force of the future, and as an "energetic and enthusiastic mass murderer, who seized every opportunity to undertake yet another massacre." Yet, according to Kitchen, he "was clearly unable to stand the strain and was posted back to Berlin."
Comprehensive reports filed by the Einsatzgruppen were analyzed by historian Ronald Headland in his 1992 book Messages of Murder. These documents provide insights into its leadership's worldview. Headland writes that the reports "bear witness to the fanatic commitment of the Einsatzgruppen leaders to their mission of extermination"; their ideology and racism are evident in the "constant debasement of the victims" and "ever present racial conceptions concerning Jews, Communists, Gypsies and other 'inferior' elements". Headland concludes that Nebe was an ambitious man who may have volunteered to lead an Einsatzgruppen unit for careerist reasons, to curry favor with Heydrich. Any misgivings he may have entertained as to the feasibility of the undertaking failed to prevent him from overseeing the murder of close to 50,000 people in the five months Nebe commanded his unit.
Gerald Reitlinger describes Nebe's reasons for joining the Einsatzgruppen as "placation" and a desire to hold on to his position in the Criminal Police Department, where, since 1934, Gestapo men were gaining influence, and which was later taken over by Heydrich. Reitlinger writes: "If Nebe did in fact retain his office till 1944, it was because of the five months he spent in Russia, or, as his friend Gisevius politely referred to, 'at the front'." Reitlinger calls Nebe a "very questionable member" of the German military resistance at the time of the 20 July bomb plot.
Alex J. Kay writes that "the role, character and motivation of those involved both in planning—and in some cases carrying out—mass murder and in the conspiracy against Hitler deserve to be investigated more closely". He places Nebe in this category, with Franz Halder, chief of staff of the Army High Command (OKH), and Georg Thomas, head of the Defence, Economy and Armament Office in the Armed Forces High Command (OKW).
### Apologetics
Several apologetic accounts produced by the conspirators behind the 20 July plot described Nebe as a professional police officer and a dedicated member of the German resistance. In 1947, Hans Bernd Gisevius described Nebe's position at the head of Einsatzgruppe B as a "brief command at the front"; Gisevius changed his story in the 1960s, when Nebe's role with the Einsatzgruppen was exposed. In the 1966 work Wo ist Nebe? ("Where is Nebe?"), Gisevius claimed that Nebe was reluctant to accept the posting, but had been persuaded to take it by the opposition leaders Hans Oster and Ludwig Beck, who had allegedly wanted Nebe to retain a key role in Heydrich's apparatus. Gisevius also claimed that Nebe exaggerated the number of victims in reports to Berlin by adding a zero to the number of those killed. A Swedish police official active in Interpol during the war years, Harry Söderman, described Nebe and , a key RSHA figure responsible for persecution of the Roma, in his 1956 book as “professional policemen.... very mild Nazis”.
The historian Christian Gerlach, writing about the 20 July conspirators and their complicity in war crimes of the Wehrmacht, calls Nebe a "notorious mass murderer". He discusses the role of Henning von Tresckow and his adjutant, Fabian von Schlabrendorff, who were members of the military opposition to Hitler, and writes:
> Schlabrendorff claimed that he and Tresckow had convinced themselves that "under the mask of the SS leader lurked a committed anti-Nazi.... who invented pretexts for sabotaging Hitler's murderous orders. We succeeded in saving the lives of many Russians. The Russian population often expressed their thanks to us". [....] According to Schlabrendorff, Tresckow personally brought Nebe to the army group [of conspirators]. Nothing was said about the 45,467 murder victims of Einsatzgruppe B by November 1941, the point at which Nebe returned to Berlin.
Gerlach doubts that Nebe falsified Einsatzgruppe B'' reports and puts Schlabrendorff's claims in the context of bomb plotters' memoirs and the then-prevalent assessments of the opposition group within the high command of Army Group Center: "Especially with reference to the murder of the Jews, [it is said that] 'the SS' had deceived the officers by killing in secret, filing incomplete reports or none at all; if general staff officers protested, the SS threatened them." Gerlach concludes: "This is, of course, nonsense."
The historian Waitman Wade Beorn writes that "some have argued that [Nebe] deliberately inflated the numbers of Jews he reported killed; yet all evidence indicates that he was quite content to play his role in Nazi genocide and that his subsequent displeasure with the regime may have stemmed from the imminent Nazi defeat, but not opposition to the Holocaust". Bernhard Wehner, Nebe's former colleague at the Kripo stated that "Nebe was worried the Allies would punish him for his crimes" - his only reason for joining the resistance. |
28,834,757 | Es wartet alles auf dich, BWV 187 | 1,109,091,354 | Church cantata by Johann Sebastian Bach | [
"1726 compositions",
"Church cantatas by Johann Sebastian Bach",
"Psalm-related compositions by Johann Sebastian Bach"
]
| Johann Sebastian Bach composed the church cantata Es wartet alles auf dich (Everything waits for You), BWV 187 in Leipzig for the seventh Sunday after Trinity and first performed it on 4 August 1726.
The text came from a 1704 libretto cycle published in Meiningen, following a symmetrical pattern in seven movements, which opens with a quotation from the Old Testament, is focused on a central quotation from the New Testament, and ends with a closing chorale. Symmetrical recitatives and arias form the other movements. Bach set the opening as a chorus based on two verses from Psalm 104, set the central movement as a bass solo on a quotation from the Sermon on the Mount, and concluded with two stanzas from Hans Vogel's hymn "Singen wir aus Herzensgrund" in a four-part setting. The arias and recitatives are performed by three vocal soloist. The cantata is scored for a Baroque instrumental ensemble of two oboes, strings and continuo.
Bach later used the music from four movements of this cantata for his Missa in G minor, BWV 235.
## History and words
Bach wrote the cantata in 1726 for the Seventh Sunday after Trinity as part of his third cantata cycle. The prescribed readings for the Sunday are from the Epistle to the Romans, "the wages of sin is death; but the gift of God is eternal life" (), and from the Gospel of Mark, the feeding of the 4000 ().
During 1726, Bach had performed several cantatas by his cousin Johann Ludwig Bach who worked in Meiningen, from 2 February (Purification) to 30 May (Ascension). The texts for these cantatas came from a 1704 anonymous libretto cycle published in Meiningen. They follow a symmetrical pattern: structured in seven movements, they begin with a chorus on a quotation from the Old Testament, turn in the central movement to a quotation from the New Testament, and end with a closing chorale, while a librettist added text for the inner movements as recitatives and arias.
Bach began to compose cantatas on texts in this format on the first Sunday after Trinity in 1726, with Brich dem Hungrigen dein Brot, BWV 39. The text for Es wartet alles auf dich follows the same pattern. The opening chorus is based on , directly related to the reading. A possible parallel source is Psalm 145:15-16.
Part two is opened by a bass solo on from the Sermon on the Mount. The cantata is closed by stanzas 4 and 6 of Hans Vogel's hymn "Singen wir aus Herzensgrund" (1563). The poet of the other movements is unknown; Walther Blankenburg suggested Christoph Helm. The librettist paraphrased in the third movement .
Bach first performed the cantata on 4 August 1726. He used the music of four movements, the opening chorus and the arias, for four movements of the Gloria of his Missa in G minor, BWV 235.
## Music
### Structure and scoring
Bach structured the cantata in seven movements in two parts, the first three movements to be performed before the sermon, the others after the sermon. The first movement is a choral setting of psalm verses, followed by recitative and aria, the fourth movement is a bass solo on a quotation of Jesus, followed by aria and recitative, and closed by a chorale. Bach scored the work for three vocal soloists (soprano (S), alto (A) and bass (B)), a four-part choir, and a Baroque instrumental ensemble: two oboes (Ob), two violins (Vl), viola (Va), and basso continuo (Bc). The duration of the cantata is around 25 minutes.
In the following table of the movements, the scoring follows the Neue Bach-Ausgabe. The keys and time signatures are taken from the Bach scholar Alfred Dürr, using the symbol for common time (4/4). The instruments are shown separately for winds and strings, while the continuo, playing throughout, is not shown.
### Movements
#### 1
The opening chorus is a setting of psalm verses, "Es wartet alles auf dich, daß du ihnen Speise gebest zu seiner Zeit." (These wait all upon You, that you may give them nourishment in due saeson). Grammatically this is a passive form where the subject (God) comes after the verb. This underlines the faith of the writer, who knows (s)he can totally rely on God for his/her daily needs. The following subjunctive (conditional form) underlines that God does this by grace, totally undeserved by the recipient. This is central to Bach's Lutheran faith.
These verses are often used as a prayer before a meal. Bach achieves a unity of form, but at the same time an individual handling of the four ideas of the text, as in a motet. The motifs of the instrumental sinfonia of 28 measures are continued through most of the movement, creating unity. "Es wartet alles auf dich" (a) is expressed in free polyphony embedded in the instrumental music, then repeated together with "daß du ihnen Speise gibest" (b) in free polyphony with canonic imitation on two themes, with the instruments playing mostly colla parte, then a and b are repeated within a part of the sinfonia, which is continued instrumentally. In the following second section, "Wenn du ihnen gibest ..." (c) is the theme of a choral fugue, "Wenn du deine Hand auftust ..." (d) is the countersubject. The instruments play colla parte first, then add motifs from the sinfonia. In the third concluding section the complete text is repeated within a part of the sinfonia.
#### 2
In the first recitative, "Was Kreaturen hält das große Rund der Welt!" (What creatures are contained by the great sphere of the world!), the librettist paraphases ideas from verses 17 to 25 of the same psalm, which praises God as the Creator of the universe.
#### 3
The first aria addresses God as the sustainer of life: "Du Herr, du krönst allein das Jahr mit deinem Gut." (You Lord, You alone crown the year with Your good.), in a close paraphrase of . The alto voice is accompanied by the full orchestra in a dance-rhythm with irregular grouping of measures in the ritornellos.
#### 4
The fourth and central movement sets the biblical words "Darum sollt ihr nicht sorgen noch sagen: Was werden wir essen, was werden wir trinken" (Therefore, do not be anxious, saying: "What will we eat, what will we drink), from the Sermon on the Mount. Bach gives them to the bass as the vox Christi (voice of Christ), accompanied by the violins in unison and the continuo, which also takes part in their motifs.
#### 5
The soprano aria, "Gott versorget alles Leben" (God takes care of every life), is in two contrasting parts. The first section is accompanied by festive dotted rhythms and a broad melody of the solo oboe, the second section, marked un poco allegro, is again like a dance. Only the instruments repeat afterwards the dotted rhythm of the beginning.
The dance seems to have an unusual confidence, almost a cheeky or upstart like confidence. It sounds more like a bassoon than an oboe. So God's grace allows the believer this confidence. It reminds me a little of Luther's instruction to his newborn son, who wouldn't be dissuaded from crying endlessly. Finally in desperation, Luther asked him, "Is the devil bothering you again? Why not do what I do and pull your pants down and fire a blast in his face." John Osborne used this scene in his "Luther" play. The incident may well be apocryphal, and my 'quotation' is based on my memory. Were he based in England, Luther may well have been nicknamed "fartin' Martin" (as I like to be). The bassoon/oboe certainly mimics the methanous outburst well. I can't help wondering if Bach had this Lutheran outburst in mind as he wrote.... I guess it should be added, this is about as irreverent as Bach got in his music.
#### 6
In the recitative "Halt ich nur fest an ihm mit kindlichem Vertrauen" (If I can only hold onto Him with childlike trust), the last words of the soprano are enriched by the strings, like the vox Christi in Bach's St Matthew Passion.
#### 7
The final chorale is a four-part setting for the choir and all instruments. It features two stanzas of the hymn. The fourth stanza, "Gott hat die Erde zugericht'" (God has provided for the earth) relates to the beginning, God as the Creator, while the sixth stanza, "Wir danken sehr und bitten ihn, daß er uns geb des Geistes Sinn, daß wir solches recht verstehn" (We thank profoundly and pray to Him that He give us the will of His Spirit, that we understand it rightly), expresses thanksgiving, ending on the Latin word "Gratias".
## Publication
The cantata was published in the first edition of Bach's works by the Bach-Gesellschaft in volume 37, edited by Alfred Dörffel in 1891. In the Neue Bach-Ausgabe, it appeared in volume I/18 in 1966, edited by Leo Treitler, followed by a critical report in 1967.
## Recordings
A list of recordings is provided on the Bach Cantatas Website. Ensembles playing period instruments in historically informed performance are shown with green background. |
44,817,531 | Histoire Naturelle | 1,144,456,143 | 1749–1804 encyclopedic collection by Buffon | [
"1749 books",
"18th-century encyclopedias",
"19th-century encyclopedias",
"French books",
"French encyclopedias",
"Natural history",
"Natural history books"
]
| The Histoire Naturelle, générale et particulière, avec la description du Cabinet du Roi (; English: Natural History, General and Particular, with a Description of the King's Cabinet) is an encyclopaedic collection of 36 large (quarto) volumes written between 1749–1804, initially by the Comte de Buffon, and continued in eight more volumes after his death by his colleagues, led by Bernard Germain de Lacépède. The books cover what was known of the "natural sciences" at the time, including what would now be called material science, physics, chemistry and technology as well as the natural history of animals.
## Histoire Naturelle, an encyclopaedic work
The Histoire Naturelle, générale et particulière, avec la description du Cabinet du Roi is the work that the Comte de Buffon (1707–1788) is remembered for. He worked on it for some 50 years, initially at Montbard in his office in the Tour Saint-Louis, then in his library at Petit Fontenet. 36 volumes came out between 1749 and 1789, followed by 8 more after his death, thanks to Bernard Germain de Lacépède. It includes all the knowledge available in his time on the "natural sciences", a broad term that includes disciplines which today would be called material science, physics, chemistry and technology. Buffon notes the morphological similarities between men and apes, although he considered apes completely devoid of the ability to think, differentiating them sharply from human beings. Buffon's attention to internal anatomy made him an early comparative anatomist. "L’intérieur, dans les êtres vivants, est le fond du dessin de la nature", he wrote in his Quadrupèdes, "the interior, in living things, is the foundation of nature's design."
The Histoire Naturelle, which was meant to address the whole of natural history, actually covers only minerals, birds, and the quadrupeds among animals. It is accompanied by some discourses and a theory of the earth by way of introduction, and by supplements including an elegantly written account of the epochs of nature.
The Suppléments cover a wide range of topics; for example, in (Suppléments IV), there is a Discours sur le style (Discourse on Style) and an Essai d'arithmétique morale (essay on Moral Arithmetic).
Louis Jean-Marie Daubenton assisted Buffon on the quadrupeds; Philippe Guéneau de Montbeillard worked on the birds. They were joined, from 1767, by Barthélemy Faujas de Saint-Fond, the abbot Gabriel Bexon and Charles-Nicolas-Sigisbert Sonnini de Manoncourt. The whole descriptive and anatomical part of l’Histoire des Quadrupèdes was the work of Daubenton and Jean-Claude Mertrud.
Buffon attached much importance to the illustrations; Jacques de Sève illustrated the quadrupeds and François-Nicolas Martinet illustrated the birds. Nearly 2000 plates adorn the work, representing animals with care given both to aesthetics and anatomical accuracy, with dreamlike and mythological settings.
On minerals, Buffon collaborated with André Thouin. Barthélemy Faujas de Saint-Fond and Louis Bernard Guyton de Morveau provided sources for the mineral volumes.
L’Histoire Naturelle met immense success, almost as great as Encyclopédie by Diderot, which came out in the same period. The first three volumes of L’Histoire Naturelle, générale et particulière, avec la description du cabinet du Roi were reprinted three times in six weeks.
The encyclopaedia appeared in 36 volumes :
- 3 volumes in 1749 : De la manière d’étudier l’histoire naturelle followed by Théorie de la Terre, Histoire Générale des animaux and Histoire Naturelle de l’homme
- 12 volumes on quadrupeds (1753 to 1767)
- 9 volumes on birds (1770 to 1783])
- 5 volumes on minerals (1783 to 1788), the last including Traité de l’aimant, the last work published by Buffon in his lifetime
- 7 volumes of supplements (1774 to 1789), including Époques de la nature (from 1778).
L’Histoire Naturelle was initially printed at the Imprimerie royale in 36 volumes (1749–1789). In 1764 Buffon bought back the rights to his work. It was continued by Bernard Germain de Lacépède, who described the egg-laying quadrupeds, snakes, fishes and cetaceans in 8 volumes (1788–1804).
Buffon was assisted in the work by Jacques-François Artur (1708–1779), Gabriel Léopold Charles Amé Bexon (1748–1785), Louis Jean-Marie Daubenton (1716–1799), Edme-Louis Daubenton (1732–1786), Jacques de Sève (actif 1742–1788), Barthélemy Faujas de Saint-Fond (1741–1819), Philippe Guéneau de Montbeillard (1720–1785), Louis-Bernard Guyton-Morveau (1737–1816), Bernard Germain de Lacépède (1756–1825), François-Nicolas Martinet (1731–1800), the anatomist Jean-Claude Mertrud [fr] (1728–1802), Charles-Nicolas-Sigisbert Sonnini de Manoncourt (1751–1812), and André Thouin (1747–1823).
## Approach
Each group is introduced with a general essay. This is followed by an article, sometimes of many pages, on each animal (or other item). The article on the wolf begins with the claim that it is one of the animals with a specially strong appetite for flesh; it asserts that the animal is naturally coarse and cowardly (grossier et poltron), but becoming crafty at need, and hardy by necessity, driven by hunger. The language, as in this instance, is elegant and elaborate, even "flowery and ornate". Buffon was roundly criticised by his fellow academics for writing a "purely popularizing work, empty and puffed up, with little real scientific value".
The species is named in Greek, Latin, Italian, Spanish, German, English, Swedish, and Polish. The zoological descriptions of the species by Gessner, Ray, Linnaeus, Klein and Buffon himself ("Canis ex griseo flavescens. Lupus vulgaris. Buffon. Reg. animal. pag. 235") are cited.
The text is written as a continuous essay, without the sections on identification, distribution and behaviour that might have been expected from other natural histories. Parts concern human responses rather than the animal itself, as for example that the wolf likes human flesh, and the strongest wolves sometimes eat nothing else. Measurements may be included; in the case of the wolf, 41 separate measurements are tabulated, in pre-revolutionary French feet and inches starting with the "Length of the whole body measured in a straight line from the end of the muzzle to the anus........3 feet. 7 inches." (1.2 m); the "Length of the largest claws" is given as "10 lines" (2.2 cm).
The wolf is illustrated standing in farmland, and as a complete skeleton standing on a stone plinth in a landscape. The account of the species occupies 32 pages including illustrations.
## Editions
### Buffon's original edition continued by Lacépède
The original edition of the Histoire Naturelle by Buffon comprised 36 volumes in quarto, divided into the following series: Histoire de la Terre et de l'Homme, Quadrupèdes, Oiseaux, Minéraux, Suppléments. Buffon edited 35 volumes in his lifetime. Soon after his death, the fifth and final volume of l’Histoire des minéraux appeared in 1788 at the Imprimerie des Bâtiments du Roi. The seventh and final volume of Suppléments by Buffon was published posthumously in 1789 through Lacépède's hands. Lacépède continued the part of the Histoire Naturelle which dealt with animals. A few months before Buffon's death, in 1788, Lacépède published, as a continuation, the first volume of his Histoire des Reptiles, on egg-laying quadrupeds. The next year, he wrote a second volume on snakes, published during the French Revolution. Between 1798 and 1803, he brought out the volume Histoire des Poissons. Lacépède made use of the notes and collections left by Philibert Commerson (1727–1773). He wrote Histoire des Cétacés which was printed in 1804. At that point, the Histoire Naturelle, by Buffon and Lacépède, thus contained 44 quarto volumes forming the definitive edition.
### Variations in the editions by Buffon and Lacépède
Another edition in quarto format was printed by the Imprimerie royale in 36 volumes (1774–1804). It consisted of 28 volumes by Buffon, and 8 volumes by Lacépède. The part containing anatomical articles by Louis Jean-Marie Daubenton was dropped. The supplements were merged into the relevant articles in the main volumes.
The Imprimerie royale also published two editions of the Histoire Naturelle in duodecimo format (1752–1805), occupying 90 or 71 volumes, depending on whether or not they included the part on anatomy. In this print format, the original work by Buffon occupied 73 volumes with the part on anatomy, or 54 volumes without the part on anatomy. The continuation by Lacépède took up 17 duodecimo volumes.
A de luxe edition of Histoire Naturelle des Oiseaux (Birds) (1771–1786) was produced by the Imprimerie royale in 10 folio and quarto volumes, with 1008 engraved and hand-coloured plates, executed under Buffon's personal supervision by Edme-Louis Daubenton, cousin and brother-in-law of Buffon's principal collaborator.
### Translations
The Histoire Naturelle was translated into languages including English, German, Swedish, Russian and Italian. Many translations, often partial (single volumes, or all volumes to a certain date), abridged, reprinted in the same translation by different printers, or with additional text (for example on insects) and new illustrations, were made at the end of the eighteenth century and the start of the nineteenth century, presenting a complicated publication history. Early translations were necessarily only of the earlier volumes. Given the complexity, all catalogue dates other than of single volumes should be taken as approximate.
R. Griffith published an early translation of the volume on The Horse in London in 1762. T. Bell published a translation of the first six volumes in London between 1775 and 1776. William Creech published an edition in Edinburgh between 1780 and 1785. T. Cadell and W. Davies published another edition in London in 1812. An abridged edition was published by Wogan, Byrne et al. in Dublin in 1791; that same year R. Morison and Son of Perth, J. and J. Fairbairn of Edinburgh and T. Kay and C. Forster of London published their edition. W. Strahan and T. Cadell published a translation with notes by the encyclopaedist William Smellie in London around 1785. Barr's Buffon in ten volumes was published in London between 1797 and 1807. W. Davidson published an abridged version including the natural history of insects taken from Swammerdam, Brookes, Goldsmith et al., with "elegant engravings on wood"; its four volumes appeared in Alnwick in 1814.
German translations include those published by Joseph Georg Trassler 1784–1785; by Pauli, 1772–1829; Grund and Holle, 1750–1775; and Johann Samuel Heinsius, 1756–1782.
Italian translations include those published by Fratelle Bassaglia around 1788 and Boringherieri in 1959.
Per Olof Gravander translated an 1802–1803 French abridgement into Swedish, publishing it in Örebro in 1806–1807.
A Russian version (The General and Particular Natural History by Count Buffon; "Всеобщая и частная естественная история графа Бюффона") was brought out by The Imperial Academy of Sciences (Императорской Академией Наук) in St. Petersburg between 1789 and 1808.
### Children's
An abridged edition for children was published by Frederick Warne in London and Scribner, Welford and Co. c. 1870.
## Contents by volume
The original edition was arranged as follows:
Natural history, and description of the king's cabinet of curiosities
- Volume I : Premier Discours - De la manière d’étudier et de traiter l’histoire naturelle, Second Discours - Histoire et théorie de la Terre, Preuves de la théorie de la Terre, 1749
- Volume II : Histoire générale des Animaux, Histoire Naturelle de l'Homme, 1749
- Volume III : Description du cabinet du Roi, Histoire Naturelle de l'Homme, 1749
Quadrupèdes (Quadrupeds)
- Volume IV (Quadrupèdes I) : Discours sur la nature des Animaux, Les Animaux domestiques, 1753
- Volume V (Quadrupèdes II) : 1755
- Volume VI (Quadrupèdes III) : Les Animaux sauvages, 1756
- Volume VII (Quadrupèdes IV) : Les Animaux carnassiers, 1758
- Volume VIII (Quadrupèdes V) : 1760
- Volume IX (Quadrupèdes VI) : 1761
- Volume X (Quadrupèdes VII) : 1763
- Volume XI (Quadrupèdes VIII) : 1764
- Volume XII (Quadrupèdes IX) : 1764
- Volume XIII (Quadrupèdes X) : 1765
- Volume XIV (Quadrupèdes XI) : Nomenclature des Singes, De la dégénération des Animaux, 1766
- Volume XV (Quadrupèdes XII) : 1767
Histoire Naturelle des Oiseaux (Birds) (1770–1783)
- Volume XVI (Oiseaux I) : 1770
- Volume XVII (Oiseaux II) : 1771
- Volume XVIII (Oiseaux III) : 1774
- Volume XIX (Oiseaux IV) : 1778
- Volume XX (Oiseaux V) : 1778
- Volume XXI (Oiseaux VI) : 1779
- Volume XXII (Oiseaux VII) : 1780
- Volume XXIII (Oiseaux VIII) : 1781
- Volume XXIV (Oiseaux IX) : 1783
Histoire Naturelle des Minéraux (Minerals) (1783–1788)
- Volume XXV (Minéraux I) : 1783
- Volume XXVI (Minéraux II) : 1783
- Volume XXVII (Minéraux III) : 1785
- Volume XXVIII (Minéraux IV) : 1786
- Volume XXIX (Minéraux V) : Traité de l'Aimant et de ses usages, 1788
Suppléments à l’Histoire Naturelle, générale et particulière (Supplements) (1774–1789)
- Volume XXX (Suppléments I) : Servant de suite à la Théorie de la Terre, et d’introduction à l’Histoire des Minéraux, 1774
- Volume XXXI (Suppléments II) : Servant de suite à la Théorie de la Terre, et de préliminaire à l’Histoire des Végétaux - Parties Expérimentale & Hypothétique, 1775
- Volume XXXII (Suppléments III) : Servant de suite à l'Histoire des Animaux quadrupèdes, 1776
- Volume XXXIII (Suppléments IV) : Servant de suite à l'Histoire Naturelle de l'Homme, 1777
- Volume XXXIV (Suppléments V) : Des Époques de la nature, 1779
- Volume XXXV (Suppléments VI) : Servant de suite à l'Histoire des Animaux quadrupèdes, 1782
- Volume XXXVI (Suppléments VII) : Servant de suite à l'Histoire des Animaux quadrupèdes, 1789
Histoire Naturelle des Quadrupèdes ovipares et des Serpents (Egg-laying Quadrupeds and Snakes) (1788–1789)
- Volume XXXVII (Reptiles I) : Histoire générale et particulière des Quadrupèdes ovipares, 1788
- Volume XXXVIII (Reptiles II) : Histoire des Serpents, 1789
Histoire Naturelle des Poissons (Fish) (1798–1803)
- Volume XXXIX (Poissons I) : 1798
- Volume XXXX (Poissons II) : 1800
- Volume XXXXI (Poissons III) : 1802
- Volume XXXXII (Poissons IV) : 1802
- Volume XXXXIII (Poissons V) : 1803
Histoire Naturelle des Cétacés (Cetaceans) (1804)
- Volume XXXXIV (Cétacés) : 1804
## Reception
### Contemporary
The Histoire Naturelle had a distinctly mixed reception in the eighteenth century. Wealthy homes in both England and France purchased copies, and the first edition was sold out within six weeks. But Buffon was criticised by some priests for suggesting (in the essay Les Epoques de Nature, Volume XXXIV) that the earth was more than 6,000 years old and that mountains had arisen in geological time. Buffon cites as evidence that fossil sea-shells had been found at the tops of mountains; but the claim was seen as contradicting the biblical account in the Book of Genesis. Buffon also disagreed with Linnaeus's system of classifying plants as described in Systema Naturae (1735). In Buffon's view, expounded in the "Premier Discours" of the Histoire Naturelle (1749), the concept of species was entirely artificial, the only real entity in nature being the individual; as for a taxonomy based on the number of stamens or pistils in a flower, mere counting (despite Buffon's own training in mathematics) had no bearing on nature.
The Paris faculty of theology, acting as the official censor, wrote to Buffon with a list of statements in the Histoire Naturelle that were contradictory to Roman Catholic Church teaching. Buffon replied that he believed firmly in the biblical account of creation, and was able to continue printing his book, and remain in position as the leader of the 'old school', complete with his job as director of the royal botanical garden. On Buffon's death, the 19-year-old Georges Cuvier celebrated with the words "This time, the Comte de Buffon is dead and buried". Soon afterwards, the French revolution went much further in sweeping away old attitudes to natural history, along with much else.
### Modern
#### Philosophy
The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy calls the Histoire Naturelle "Buffon's major work", observing that "In addressing the history of the earth, Buffon also broke with the 'counter-factual' tradition of Descartes, and presented a secular and realist account of the origins of the earth and its life forms." In its view, the work created an "age of Buffon", defining what natural history itself was, while Buffon's "Discourse on Method" (unlike that of Descartes) at the start of the work argued that repeated observation could lead to a greater certainty of knowledge even than "mathematical analysis of nature". Buffon also led natural history away from the natural theology of British parson-naturalists such as John Ray. He thus offered both a new methodology and an empirical style of enquiry. Buffon's position on evolution is complex; he noted in Volume 4 from Daubenton's comparative anatomy of the horse and the donkey that species might "transform", but initially (1753) rejected the possibility. However, in doing so he changed the definition of a species from a fixed or universal class (which could not change, by definition) to "the historical succession of ancestor and descendant linked by material connection through generation", identified by the ability to mate and produce fertile offspring. Thus the horse and donkey, which produce only sterile hybrids, are seen empirically not to be the same species, even though they have similar anatomy. That empirical fact leaves open the possibility of evolution.
#### Style
The botanist Sandra Knapp writes that "Buffon's prose was so purple that the ideas themselves are almost hidden", observing that this was also the contemporary academic opinion. She notes that some quite radical ideas are to be found in his work, but they are almost invisible, given the language they are cloaked in. She quotes Buffon's dramatic description of the lion, which along with the engraving in her view "emphasized both the lion's regal bearing and personality not only in his text but also in the illustration... A reader was left in no doubt as to the importance and character of the animal." She concludes "No wonder the cultured aristocratic public lapped it up – the text reads more like a romantic novel than a dry scientific treatise".
#### Evolutionary thought
The evolutionary biologist Ernst Mayr comments that "In this monumental and fascinating Histoire naturelle, Buffon dealt in a stimulating manner with almost all the problems that would subsequently be raised by evolutionists. Written in a brilliant style, this work was read in French or in one of the numerous translations by every educated person in Europe". Mayr argued that "virtually all the well-known writers of the Enlightenment" were "Buffonians", and calls Buffon "the father of all thought in natural history in the second half of the eighteenth century".
Mayr notes that Buffon was not an "evolutionist", but was certainly responsible for creating the great amount of interest in natural history in France. He agrees that Buffon's thought is hard to classify and even self-contradictory, and that the theologians forced him to avoid writing some of his opinions openly. Mayr argues however that Buffon was "fully aware of the possibility of 'common descent', and was perhaps the first author ever to articulate it clearly", quoting Buffon at length, starting with "Not only the ass and the horse, but also man, the apes, the quadrupeds, and all the animals might be regarded as constituting but a single family", and later "that man and ape have a common origin", and that "the power of nature...with sufficient time, she has been able from a single being to derive all the other organized beings". Mayr notes, however, that Buffon immediately rejects the suggestion and offers three arguments against it, namely that no new species have arisen in historical times; that hybrid infertility firmly separates species; and that animals intermediate between, say, the horse and the donkey are not seen (in the fossil record). |
30,409,027 | A Sick Day for Amos McGee | 1,157,031,015 | Book by Erin E. Stead | [
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| A Sick Day for Amos McGee is a 2010 children's picture book written by Philip C. Stead and was illustrated by Erin E. Stead. The book, published by Roaring Brook Press, depicts a zookeeper who has bonded with the animals he cares for and who come and visit him one day when he gets sick. Phillip Stead wrote the book hoping his wife Erin would illustrate it after a period where she had become discouraged with her art. The book was well reviewed, and Erin won the 2011 Caldecott Medal for her illustrations. The book received praise for its woodblock illustrations and for its message about what friends will do to help and support each other.
## Background and publication
Phillip, who goes by Phil, wrote the text specifically for his wife to illustrate after finding an illustration of an elephant she had done. Erin had become discouraged with her work and had quit drawing for three years. Phil, along with the book's future editor Neal Porter, took Erin to dinner to ask her to illustrate the book. After they began working on the book, it took Erin a year to create the pictures for the book, which was the first book she had illustrated. The couple worked together to decide on the pacing of the book and where text could be supplanted by illustrations. Before its release the couple and Porter had low expectations for the book given its "quiet" nature.
The book was released on May 25, 2010. After an initial print run of only a few thousand copies, the book would later have over 300,000 copies printed and be translated into multiple languages. Two audio books, a 2012 version narrated by David de Vries, released by Weston Woods Studios, Inc. and directed by Ed Mironuk and Kris Tercek and a 2017 version narrated by Jim Dale, were released.
## Plot
Amos McGee is a punctual man who goes about his day the same way every day. He swings his legs out of bed, puts on a fresh uniform and hops on the \#5 bus at 6:00 AM to go to the zoo. While at the City Zoo, Amos always makes time to visit his good friends and always gives them exactly what they need. He follows a reliable agenda of activities with each of his favorite animals: the elephant, the tortoise, the penguin, the rhinoceros and the owl. Amos plays chess with the elephant, who thinks long and hard before each move, races the tortoise and lets him win, sits quietly with the very shy penguin, lends a handkerchief to the runny-nosed rhinoceros, and at dusk reads to the owl, who is scared of the dark. One day, however, Amos wakes up with a terrible cold. He decides that he won't make it to work. Because Amos is a reliable friend, his dear friends start to wonder where he is. Getting worried, the animals leave the zoo and hop onto the \#5 bus to Amos' house. To comfort Amos, each animal stretches beyond his or her fears to help a friend recover. Afterwards, they all go to sleep, as they have a morning bus to catch that takes them back to the zoo.
## Writing and illustrations
The book has a kind of timeless quality, giving no real indication of the era in which it was created. A Sick Day for Amos McGee is about what friends will do to help each other. Erin's illustrations contain hidden details for the reader to find and which help give the animals and Amos character. These detailed but still subtle illustrations help to contribute to the book's overall feel for the reader. She created her illustrations using woodblock technique and pencils, primarily using muted colors with yellows and red added for contrast. The Horn Book Magazine reviewer Kitty Flynn called the illustrations well drawn to complement the "gentle text". Several reviewers gave particular praise to the book's final pages.
## Reception and awards
The book earned starred reviews from Kirkus Reviews and Publishers Weekly, who also named it a best book of the year. Lisa Von Drasek of Bank Street College of Education praised the book in The New York Times for "delightfully tak[ing] its loony scenario for granted." The Times also named it one of the best illustrated children's books of 2010. Paula Duffy Swan in Library Media Connection gave it a more mixed review, rating it an "additional selection" and summarizing the book as "a sweet, but simple story".
Erin won the 2011 Caldecott Medal for her illustrations. Caldecott committee chair Judy Zuckerman praised the book, writing, "Endearing, expressive characterization in spare illustrations rendered in muted tones distinguish this timeless picture book." When Erin received the phone call about the win, she worried her reaction – which was to become shaky and have a need to sit down – was a disappointment to the committee. She later reflected on how important it was to have won the award for a book she created with her husband. |
554,074 | Shahid Afridi | 1,173,454,173 | Pakistani cricketer | [
"1977 births",
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"Northamptonshire cricketers",
"Pakistan One Day International cricketers",
"Pakistan Test cricket captains",
"Pakistan Test cricketers",
"Pakistan Twenty20 International cricketers",
"Pakistan cricket team selectors",
"Pakistani Sunni Muslims",
"Pakistani cricket captains",
"Pakistani cricketers",
"Pakistani philanthropists",
"Paktia Panthers cricketers",
"Pashtun people",
"People from Khyber District",
"Peshawar Zalmi cricketers",
"Quetta Gladiators cricketers",
"Rangpur Riders cricketers",
"Recipients of Sitara-i-Imtiaz",
"Recipients of the Pride of Performance",
"Ruhuna Royals cricketers",
"Shahid Afridi",
"Sindh cricketers",
"South Australia cricketers",
"St Kitts and Nevis Patriots cricketers",
"Sylhet Strikers cricketers",
"World XI Twenty20 International cricketers"
]
| Sahibzada Mohammad Shahid Khan Afridi (Urdu: شاہد افریدی, Pashto: شاهد افریدی; born 1 March 1977) is a Pakistani former cricketer and captain of the Pakistan national cricket team. An all-rounder, Afridi was a right-handed leg spinner and a right-handed batsman.
Afridi made his ODI debut in 1996 against Kenya. In his second ODI match against Sri Lanka, he played his first international innings and broke the record for fastest century in ODI cricket (doing so in 37 deliveries). He made his Test debut against Australia in 1998. Afridi made his T20I debut against England in 2006. Afridi was named player of the tournament of the 2007 T20 World Cup. Afridi was player of the match in the final of the 2009 T20 World Cup scoring an unbeaten 54 and getting figures of 1/20 off of 4 overs as Pakistan went on to win the final. Shortly after Pakistan's win at the 2009 World Cup, Pakistan's captain, Younis Khan, announced his retirement from T20Is and Afridi was appointed as his successor. In 2010, Afridi was appointed Pakistan's ODI captain after the sacking of Mohammad Yousuf. Afridi was also appointed Pakistan's Test captain but retired from the format after one match as captain. He led the Pakistan team in the 2011 Cricket World Cup where they reached the semi-finals before losing to rival India. In 2011, Afridi was removed as ODI captain. In 2015, Afridi retired from ODI cricket. After Pakistan's group stage elimination from the 2016 T20 World Cup, Afridi stepped down from captaincy. He was not selected afterwards and on 19 February 2017, Afridi announced his retirement from international cricket. He made a brief return to international cricket after being selected to represent and captain the World XI against the West Indies in the 2018 Hurricane Relief T20 Challenge charity match. Following the conclusion of the match, Afridi announced his retirement from international cricket again on 31 May 2018. He served as the interim chief selector of the Pakistan cricket team for Pakistan's series against New Zealand.
Afridi runs his own charity, the Shahid Afridi Foundation which aims to provide education and healthcare facilities. He also teamed up with UNICEF to promote the anti-polio campaign in the country. During the 2019 Coronavirus pandemic, he was involved in helping people across Balochistan during the lockdown in the country. This led to him contracting COVID-19 on 13 June 2020. Afridi was also nominated among the top 20 most charitable athletes of 2015.
## Early and personal life
Afridi was born in Khyber Agency, Pakistan, to an Afridi tribe of Pashtuns in 1977.
He belongs to a family of Sufi pirs (teachers or spiritual masters) and his grandfather Maulana Muhammad Ilyas was a well-known spiritual figure in Bhutan Sharif, a locality in the Tirah Valley. His other grandfather, Sahibzada Abdul Baqi, was given the title Ghazi-e-Kashmir (conqueror of Kashmir) for his efforts during the Indo-Pakistani War of 1947–1948.
Afridi has six brothers, including fellow cricketers Tariq Afridi and Ashfaq Afridi, and five sisters. He is the fifth oldest of his siblings. He credits his uncle, a colonel in the Pakistan Army, for introducing him to sports in general and to cricket in particular. Afridi has said that he was inspired by the stories about Imran Khan's captaincy throughout the 1992 Cricket World Cup and that the 1992 World Cup defined his cricket and taught him to never be afraid of failure.
He is married to his maternal cousin Nadia Afridi and has five daughters. In 2021, Afridi announced his daughter Ansha's engagement to cricketer Shaheen Afridi. On 3 February 2023, his daughter, Ansha, married Shaheen Afridi in a nikah ceremony.
## Domestic career
Afridi was drafted to the Pakistan senior national team after fine performances at the under-19 championship circuit starting the 1994–95 season. Playing for the Karachi Whites, he helped his team win the title the following season picking 42 wickets in five matches at an average of 9.59. Later that season, Afridi had played against the visiting England A and West Indies Youth teams and a few first-class games for Karachi Whites in the senior National Championship. In 2001, Afridi signed a contract to represent Leicestershire. In five first-class matches he scored 295 runs at an average of 42.14, including a highest score of 164, and took 11 wickets at an average of 46.45; Afridi also played 11 one day matches for the club, scoring 481 runs at an average of 40.08 and taking 18 wickets at 24.04. His highest score of 95 came from 58 balls in a semi-final of the C&G Trophy to help Leicestershire beat Lancashire by seven wickets. Derbyshire County Cricket Club signed Afridi to play for them in the first two months of the 2003 English cricket season.
### T20 franchise career
#### IPL career
Afridi was signed by Deccan Chargers, and played in the inaugural season of the IPL. He could only score 81 runs in 10 matches and picked up 9 wickets in the tournament. He did not play in the 2nd edition of IPL due to the tense atmosphere after the 2008 Mumbai attacks.
#### Pakistan Super League
In the 2016 PSL, Afridi was a part of the franchise Peshawar Zalmi as captain and as their icon player. After the end of the 1st season, Afridi was made the president of Peshawar Zalmi. Afridi stepped down as Peshawar Zalmi captain before the start of the 2017 PSL and gave the captaincy to Daren Sammy. Peshawar went on to win the title. After the end of the second season, Afridi left Peshawar Zalmi. Afridi joined Karachi Kings for the 2018 PSL and was also made the President of Karachi Kings. He also transferred to Karachi as a player ahead of PSL drafts. Afridi left Karachi after they didn't retain him for the 2019 PSL. In the 2019 PSL draft, Afridi was picked by the Multan Sultans in the platinum category. During the 2020 PSL draft, Multan Sultans retained Afridi as a mentor. He was retained by Multan Sultans again prior to the 2021 PSL. Afridi played the initial part of the 2021 PSL but missed the remainder of the rescheduled tournament due to a back injury. For the 2022 PSL, Afridi played for Quetta Gladiators in what he announced would be his last PSL season. He later withdrew mid-season due to back problems.
#### Other Leagues
In June 2004, Afridi signed with English county side Kent to play for them in three Twenty20 matches and one Totesport League match. Afridi played for Southern Redbacks in the 2009–10 KFC Twenty20 Big Bash. He was part of Ruhuna Royals in 2012 Sri Lanka Premier League but he returned to Pakistan midway through the tournament to attend his ailing wife.
In January 2015, Afridi was signed by Northamptonshire Steelbacks for the 2015 T20 Blast where he reached to the final. In 2016, his services were acquired by Rangpur Riders for the fourth edition of Bangladesh Premier League.
Shahid Afridi was part of the St Kitts and Nevis Patriots in the third season of the Caribbean Premier League. He was included in the squad of Jamaica Tallawahs for the sixth edition of Caribbean Premier League but pulled out before the start of the tournament due to knee injury.
In 2018, Afridi was chosen as an icon player and captain by the Paktia Panthers in the first season of Afghanistan Premier League. In June 2019, he was selected to play for the Brampton Wolves franchise team in the 2019 Global T20 Canada tournament. In July 2019, he was selected to play for the Belfast Titans in the inaugural edition of the Euro T20 Slam cricket tournament. However, the following month the tournament was cancelled. For the sixth edition of Bangladesh Premier League, he was included in the A+ category and was signed by Comilla Victorians. In November 2019, he was selected to play for the Dhaka Platoon in the 2019–20 Bangladesh Premier League. In October 2020, he was drafted by the Galle Gladiators for the inaugural edition of the Lanka Premier League.
In July 2021, he was picked by Rawalakot Hawks for the first edition of the Kashmir Premier League. He was also announced as the Brand Ambassador of the KPL. Initially he was picked by Muzaffarabad Tigers but later he parted ways with Muzaffarabad Tigers to join Rawalakot Hawks and led the team to the title. On 26 July 2021, Afridi was signed by Kathmandu Kings XI to play in Nepal's Everest Premier League.
For the 2022 KPL, Afridi joined Jammu Janbaz as a mentor. Jammu Janbaz finished 5th and were eliminated in the group stage. In June 2022, he joined Mardan Warriors as a mentor for the inaugural season of Pakistan Junior League.
### T10 franchise career
In 2017, Afridi was announced as the brand ambassador of newly inaugurated T10 League in UAE. He was also signed by Team Pakhtoons and was given the captaincy. He was signed by Qalandars in 2020 as the icon player for the franchise. He had previously signed a similar deal in 2019 but the Pakistan Cricket Board (PCB) decided against issuing NOCs to Pakistan players for the tournament.
Afridi was chosen as the brand ambassador for the Qatar Premier T10 Cricket League (QPL) which was launched in 2019 by Qatar Cricket Association.
He was signed by Bangla Tigers for the 2021–22 T10 League.
In 2022 Afridi launched his own T10 league called the Mega Stars League.
## International career
### Early years
In October 1996, Afridi was drafted into the ODI team during the four-nation Sameer Cup 1996–97 as a replacement for the injured Mushtaq Ahmed. He made his debut on 2 October against Kenya; however, he didn't bat and went wicketless. In the next match against Sri Lanka, Afridi batted at number three in the role of a pinch-hitter. In his first international innings, Afridi broke the record for fastest century in ODI cricket, reaching his hundred from 37 balls. The eleven sixes he struck also equaled the record for most in an ODI innings. Pakistan posted a total of 371, at the time the second-highest in ODIs, and won by 82 runs; Afridi was named man of the match. The record for fastest century in ODI was broken by New Zealand cricketer Corey Anderson on 1 January 2014 who scored his century from 36 balls.
Two years after his international debut, Afridi made his Test debut in the third game of a three-match series against Australia on 22 October 1998. By this point he had already played 66 ODIs, at the time a record before playing Tests. He opened the batting, making scores of 10 and 6, and took five wickets in the first innings. He played his second Test the following January during Pakistan's tour of India; it was the first Test between the two countries since 1990. Again opening the batting, Afridi scored his maiden Test century, scoring 141 runs from 191 balls. In the same match he also claimed three wickets for 54 runs. After winning the first match by 12 runs, Pakistan lost the second to draw the series.
### Rise in significance
Afridi made his presence felt in the third Test against India in March 2005, scoring a quick-fire second-innings half-century and taking five wickets in the match (including Tendulkar twice) to help Pakistan to win the game and register a series draw. In April, Afridi struck what at the time was the equal second-fastest century in ODIs; he reached 100 off 45 deliveries against India, sharing the record with West Indian Brian Lara. Afridi was more consistent with his batting and bowling throughout 2005. Pakistan's coach, Bob Woolmer, helped Afridi to reach a fuller potential by improving his shot selection and giving him free rein over his batting attitude.
On 21 November 2005, Shahid Afridi was banned for a Test match and two ODIs for deliberately damaging the pitch in the second match of the three-Test series against England. Television cameras pictured him scraping his boots on the pitch scuffing the surface when play was held up after a gas canister exploded. Afridi later pleaded guilty to a level three breach of the ICC code of conduct relating to the spirit of the game. Match referee Roshan Mahanama said: "This ban should serve as a message to players that this type of behaviour is not allowed."
On 12 April 2006, Afridi announced a temporary retirement from Test cricket so that he could concentrate on ODIs, with a particular focus on the 2007 World Cup, and to spend more time with his family. He said he would consider reversing his decision after the World Cup. Afridi had played ten Tests since being recalled to the side in January 2005, averaging 47.44 with the bat including four centuries. However, on 27 April he reversed his decision, saying that "[Woolmer] told me that I am one of the main players in the team and squad and that Pakistan really needed me". Before Pakistan toured England in July to September, Afridi played for Ireland as an overseas player in the C&G Trophy. In six matches, he scored 128 runs and took seven wickets. England won the four-match Test series 3–0; Afridi played two matches, scoring 49 runs and took three wickets. It was the last Test cricket Afridi played until 2010.
Afridi was charged on 8 February 2007 of bringing the game into disrepute after he was seen on camera thrusting his bat at a spectator who swore at him on his way up the steps after being dismissed. Afridi was given a four-game ODI suspension, the minimum possible ban for such an offence, meaning that he would miss Pakistan's first two 2007 World Cup matches. The PCB and Afridi chose not to appeal the ban, despite feeling that the punishment was excessively harsh.
In the 2007 World Twenty20, he didn't perform well in terms of batting but ended the tournament as the joint-second highest wicket taker, earning the Man of the Series award. In the final he failed to take a wicket in the final and was out for a golden duck. He also became the first person to receive the Player of the Tournament award in T20 World Cup history. But in the next T20 World Cup, Afridi performed well, scoring 50 runs in the semi-final and 54 in the final which lead to Pakistan winning the World Cup.
### Captaincy (2009–2011)
Shortly after Pakistan won the 2009 ICC World Twenty20, the captain: Younis Khan, announced his retirement from Twenty20 cricket. The Pakistan Cricket Board (PCB) subsequently announced that Shahid Afridi had taken over as captain in T20Is; the appointment was initially for one match, with a decision on the permanent replacement to be made later. His spell of 6–38 against Australia in 2010 was voted as the Best ODI Bowling Performance of 2009 by ESPNCricinfo. On 31 January 2010, Afridi was caught on camera biting into the ball towards the end of the 5th Commonwealth Bank ODI series in Australia. Later Afridi pleaded guilty to ball tampering and he was banned from two Twenty20 internationals.
In March 2010 the board announced that Shahid Afridi had been appointed ODI captain in place of the sacked Mohammad Yousuf. He led Pakistan in the 2010 Asia Cup and during his first three matches as ODI captain he scored two centuries against Sri Lanka and Bangladesh he finished as the tournaments highest runscorer with 265 runs from 3 matches.
On 25 May 2010, Afridi was appointed captain of the national team in all three formats, after he announced his return to Test cricket. In July 2010, Afridi captained Pakistan in the first Test of the series at Lord's against Australia. He scored 31 off 15 deliveries in the first innings and 2 in the second but was dismissed succumbing to rash strokes in both the innings. After the match, he announced retirement from Test cricket again citing lack of temperament for Test cricket as the reason. Afridi was officially removed from the Test squad on the England tour, but after the spot-fixing scandal saw Mohammad Asif, Mohammad Amir and Test captain Salman Butt temporarily suspended by the International Cricket Council, he stated that he might return to Test cricket if "the team needs it". According to a representative of Afridi, he had voiced his concerns about Mazhar Majeed – who had approached Pakistan's players – in June. Majeed also confirmed that he approached Afridi, Abdul Razzaq, Younis Khan and Saeed Ajmal but all off them refused to be affiliated with him of his fixing menace. No disciplinary action was taken against them by the ICC.
In October, Afridi stated in an interview with Express News that the squad for the series against South Africa had been selected without his consultation; the PCB gave him an official warning for the interview. Coach Waqar Younis also expressed his unhappiness at having no input in the selection; however, Mohsin Khan, the chief selector, defended the decision, stating, "it is not written down in the PCB constitution that the coach and captain(s) must have a say in the selection of any squad". Pakistan lost the series 3–2.
The team toured New Zealand between December 2010 and February 2011 for two Tests, six ODIs, and three T20Is. Pakistan lost the first two T20Is but won the third; in final match Afridi became the first cricketer to reach 50 international wickets in the format. In the same match, he also became the first cricketer to have completed the double of 500 runs and 50 wickets in the T20 Internationals. When Pakistan's squad for the 2011 World Cup was announced no captain was named; Afridi, the incumbent ODI captain and Misbah-ul-Haq, the Test captain, were the front runners for the position. Pakistan lost the first match against New Zealand by 8-wickets, the second match got rained out and in the third Mohammad Hafeez scored a century and Afridi scored a blistering 65 from just 25 balls. The following match was a tight game but Pakistan prevailed by two-wickets thanks to three boundaries from Sohail Tanvir, the match was set up by a 93 not out from Misbah-ul-Haq. The fifth ODI was won for Pakistan by 43 runs courtesy of a maiden ODI-century from Ahmed Shehzad. Afridi helped in the lower order by scoring 24 and taking two crucial top order wickets to help guide Pakistan to a 43-run victory and their first ODI series win in two years.
After gaining victory as a captain against New Zealand, the PCB declared Shahid Afridi as Pakistan's captain for the 2011 World Cup. In Pakistan's opening match of the tournament, Afridi took 5 wickets for 16 runs against Kenya, giving him the best bowling figures by a Pakistan bowler in a World Cup. In the following match against Sri Lanka, which Pakistan won, Afridi claimed four more wickets to help his side to victory and became the second player to have scored 4,000 runs and taken 300 wickets in ODIs. He claimed 17 wickets from 6 matches in the first round of the Cup, including a five-wicket haul against Canada, as Pakistan finished top of their group and progressed to the next stage. After beating the West Indies in the quarter-final, with Afridi taking four wickets, Pakistan were knocked out of the semi-finals in a 29-run defeat to India. Afridi was the tournament's joint-leading wicket-taker with 21 wickets, level with India's Zaheer Khan, even though Afridi had played one match less than him.
Soon after the World Cup Pakistan toured the West Indies for a T20I, five ODIs, and two Tests. Pakistan lost the only T20I but won the ODI series that followed 3–2. Afridi took two wickets and scored 28 runs in the series. The coach, Waqar Younis, fell out with Afridi and in his report on the tour criticised Afridi, saying "as a captain he is very immature, has poor discipline, lacks a gameplan and is unwilling to listen to others' opinions or advice". After the series, on 19 May, the PCB replaced Afridi as ODI captain with Misbah-ul-Haq for the two-match ODI series against Ireland later that month. In 34 ODIs as captain, Afridi led his side to 18 wins and 15 defeats. Afridi subsequently withdrew from the touring squad, citing the illness of his father.
### Conditional retirement and return (2011–2015)
On 30 May, Afridi announced his conditional retirement from international cricket in protest against his treatment by the PCB. The condition on his return was that the board be replaced. The PCB suspended Afridi's central contract, fined him 4.5 million rupees (\$52,300), and revoked his no-objection certificate (NOC) which allowed Afridi to play for Hampshire. Afridi filed a petition with the Sindh High Court to overturn the sanctions. On 15 June, Afridi withdrew his petition after an out of court settlement and the PCB reinstated his NOC. When the PCB's central contracts were renewed in August, Afridi's was allowed to lapse. In October he withdrew his retirement as Ijaz Butt had been replaced as chairman of the PCB.
`Two weeks after his announcement, Afridi was included in Pakistan's squad to face Sri Lanka in three ODIs and a T20I. In November 2011, Afridi became the only cricketer to score a half-century and take five wickets on two separate occasions in ODIs. Afridi achieved this feat in the fourth ODI against Sri Lanka which helped Pakistan to secure the one-day series. He also became the first person to play 50 T20Is.`
In 2013 during the first ODI game against the West Indies in Guyana, Afridi scored 76(55) before taking figures of 7/12, the second best ODI bowling figures ever. In July 2014, he played for the Rest of the World side in the Bicentenary Celebration match at Lord's.
Afridi announced his retirement from ODI cricket after 2015 Cricket World Cup. Pakistan lost to Australia in the quarter-final and got eliminated from the tournament.
### 2016 ICC World Twenty20
In March 2016, Pakistan was unable to make it to the semi-finals in the 2016 ICC World Twenty20 after losing to New Zealand, India and Australia. Before Australia's match, the PCB hinted at Afridi's retirement. However, he went against their decision after the match and announced that he would make the decision himself after consulting family and other iconic players beforehand and also announce it in Pakistan. He also stated that 'as a player, I am fit. As a captain, I am not fit'. Former Australian player Ian Chappell praised his honesty in this confession.
Waqar Younis, the head coach, was initially blamed and he accepted responsibility and offered to retire. However, a six-page report by Younis was later leaked by the PCB to the media where he was shown to be pointing much of the blame onto Afridi. First Younis claimed that Afridi was 'unfair' to new cricketer Mohammad Nawaz by calling him up to bowl in the Asia Cup 2016 because it 'destroyed the youngster's confidence' after he gave 38-runs in 3 overs. Younis went on to accuse Afridi of being 'non-serious' in the game along with saying that he missed training sessions and meetings. He also said that Afridi showed poor performance with the bat, ball and as a captain and was clearly not listened to by other players. Younis expressed great anger on the report being leaked as it led to fans criticising him for shifting the blame onto Afridi instead of accepting equal responsibility. Manager Intikhab Alam also called Afridi 'clueless' in the 3 matches but said Younis was unable to ensure that the players were physically fit.
Afridi was asked to appear to the enquiry committee, made up of Misbah-ul-Haq and other iconic players, who would hear his view on the situation. However, it was said he refused to until it was revealed that his daughter was in hospital undergoing surgery at the time. He opted to be interviewed by phone.
Days after the match, Afridi posted a video on Twitter, in which he apologised to all his fans for the team's disappointing performance. He said he didn't care about what others were saying about him and only wanted to answer to his fans and wanted to apologise for letting them and Pakistan down. Despite earlier criticism, many fans supported him. Even during his arrival from Dubai back to Pakistan, a few days after the rest of the team, fans chanted 'Boom Boom Afridi' at the airport amidst high security.
In April 2016, he finally announced he was stepping down as T20I captain, but was not retiring. He said he wanted to "continue to play the game for my country". Sarfraz Ahmed was appointed as Pakistan's T20I captain following Afridi's resignation.
### Retirement
In September 2016, the PCB announced that they wanted Afridi to retire. Afridi said it was unfair for them to announce their plans in the media, but then said that he wanted a farewell match, which didn't happen as a result of him cancelling a meeting regarding the issue with the PCB. In February 2017, he announced his retirement from T20Is and international cricket. In April 2018, Afridi briefly returned to international cricket after he was named in the Rest of the World XI squad for the Hurricane Relief T20 Challenge. He went on to captain the side, after Eoin Morgan had to withdraw due to injury. After the match, Afridi stated that he would not be making a comeback to international cricket for Pakistan.
## Post-retirement
On 24 December 2022, Afridi was named the interim chief selector of the Pakistani cricket team by the newly appointed PCB Chairman, Najam Sethi. His term lasted until the end of the New Zealand series with Pakistan drawing the Test series 0–0 and losing the ODI series 2–1. Sethi had offered him a longer term but Afridi refused due to his commitments to charity work and his foundation.
## Playing style
### Batting
His general style of batting was very aggressive and attack oriented. Due to this reason, Indian cricketer Ravi Shastri gave him the nickname "Boom Boom". Moreover, out of the seven fastest ODI centuries of all time, Afridi has produced three of them. Throughout his career, he had an ODI strike rate of 117 runs per 100 balls, the third highest in the game's history. This attitude was transferred to Test cricket as well, with Afridi scoring at a relatively high strike rate of 86.97.
He was known for hitting long sixes. He holds the record for having hit the most sixes in the history of ODI cricket. However, his aggressive style increased his risk of getting out and he was regarded as an inconsistent batsmen. This is reflected by the fact that he is the only player to score more than 8,000 ODI runs at an average under 30 (23.57 to be exact). Afridi has moved about the batting order, and this lack of consistency has made it difficult for him to settle. In the Indian subcontinent, where the ball quickly loses its shine, he preferred to open the batting; however, elsewhere he would come to bat at number six or seven.
On 22 August 2017, in his 256th Twenty20 match, Afridi hit his first century in the format, scoring 101 for Hampshire in the 2017 NatWest t20 Blast against Derbyshire and setting the highest T20 score by a batsman at the County Ground, Derby in the process.
### Bowling
Having started as a fast bowler, Afridi decided to start bowling spin after he was told he was throwing. He modelled himself on Pakistan leg-spinner Abdul Qadir. Afridi began his career as primarily a bowler, but after scoring the fastest century in his maiden ODI innings more was expected of him with the bat. In 2011, he said, "I consider myself a bowler first". He took 541 International wickets in his career, most of which were from the ODI format. While his stock ball is the leg break, his armoury also includes the googly and a "quicker one" which he can deliver in the style of a medium-pacer, reaching speeds of around 134 km/h (83 mph).
On 23 August 2018, after a match winning all-round performance in the Caribbean Premier League for Barbados Tridents, Australian cricketer Steve Smith said that he tried to model the bowling action of Afridi. He praised Afridi, calling him "a terrific leg-spinner". Afghani cricketer Rashid Khan has said that he grew up idolising Afridi and modelled Afridi's bowling action.
## Philanthropy
In March 2014, Shahid Afridi established the Shahid Afridi Foundation which aims to provide healthcare and education facilities in Pakistan. He was named among the world's most charitable athletes by Do Something in August 2015.
UNICEF and many Pakistani authorities have taken Shahid Afridi on board for the anti-polio campaign in the tribal belt of Waziristan region.
## Awards
On 23 March 2010, Afridi was awarded the Pride of Performance by President of Pakistan Asif Ali Zardari.
On 23 March 2018, he was awarded the Sitara-i-Imtiaz by President of Pakistan Mamnoon Hussain.
## Controversies
In July 2016, Afridi said in an interview with BBC Urdu that there is no talent in Pakistan. This resulted in huge opposition against Afridi, while PCB issued a notice against him. Later, Afridi tried to clarify his statement by explaining that there is no competition among players in the present.
On 6 September 2018, in a Defence Day event at Rawalpindi, Afridi was reportedly caught on the camera chewing tobacco. He was highly criticised by the media for this. However, Afridi denied these claims and clarified that he had been eating fennel seeds and clove.
On 30 April 2019, Shahid Afridi was sued by Master Beverages for violating agreement. As per Master Beverages and Foods Limited, Shahid Afridi had signed a contract with Master Beverages as their brand ambassador, but also secretly signed an agreement to become a brand ambassador of another rival company. According to the agreement, Afridi couldn't sign for any other company. Master Beverages instituted a lawsuit against Afridi in Sindh High Court for damages amounting to 60,000,000 and recovery of a car which Afridi received as part of the agreement.
In May 2019, Afridi stated that being a "conservative" and religious father, he had banned his daughters from playing outdoor sports. He said "feminists can say what they want... I've made my decision," in response to the criticism.
### Confusion about age
Shahid Afridi, who made his debut at 16 as per the records, had claimed that he was born in 1975 in his autobiography 'Game Changer'. "Also, for the record, I was just nineteen, and not sixteen like they claim. I was born in 1975. So, yes, the authorities stated my age incorrectly", he wrote in his book. Although that created confusion as if he was born in 1975, it would have meant that he was 21 at the time of debut and not 19 as he wrote. Afridi later clarified that his autobiography's first edition carried the wrong year and it was confirmed that his year of birth was 1977. Afridi's claims created further controversy as this would have meant that Afghani batsman, Usman Ghani, would hold the record for the youngest centurion in ODI cricket which Afridi currently holds.
## In popular culture
Irish pop group The Duckworth Lewis Method included a song called "Boom Boom Afridi" in their second album "Sticky Wickets". |
18,434,177 | Tay Whale | 1,158,872,332 | Whale caught in Scotland and exhibited in Britain | [
"1880s in Dundee",
"1883 in Scotland",
"1884 animal deaths",
"1884 in Scotland",
"History of the North Sea",
"Individual humpback whales",
"Individual wild animals",
"University of Aberdeen",
"Wayward cetaceans",
"Whaling in Scotland"
]
| The Tay Whale, known locally as the Monster, was a humpback whale that swam into the Firth of Tay of eastern Scotland in 1883. It was harpooned in a hunt, but escaped, and was found floating dead off Stonehaven a week later. It was towed into Dundee by a showman, John Woods, and exhibited on a train tour of Scotland and England.
The Regius Professor of Anatomy at Aberdeen University, John Struthers dissected the whale, much of the time in public with a military band playing in the background, organised by Woods. The decomposing whale made Woods a great deal of money, and Struthers famous.
The doggerel poet William McGonagall wrote a notoriously bad poem, "The Famous Tay Whale", shortly after the events.
## History
In December 1883, a humpback whale appeared in the Firth of Tay off the shore of Dundee, at that time Scotland's major whaling port, and attracted much local interest. The whalers normally hunted in the Arctic, but as the whaling boats were in harbour for the winter, some of the whalers decided to hunt this animal in their own waters.
After several failed attempts, they harpooned the humpback on 31 December 1883. It was a strong male, and it towed two rowing boats and two steamboats as far as Montrose and then to the Firth of Forth. After a struggle that lasted all night, the harpoon lines broke and the whale escaped.
A week later the whale was found dead, floating out at sea. It was towed to Stonehaven and dragged onto the beach. John Struthers, the Regius professor of Anatomy at Aberdeen, quickly visited the carcass, recording it as 40 feet long with flukes measuring 11 feet 4 inches. A local entrepreneur, John Woods, bought the whale and had it transported to his yard in Dundee. On the first Sunday that it was there, 12,000 people paid to see it.
The local newspaper, the Dundee Courier, published at least 21 stories on the Tay Whale between 12 November 1883 and 11 January 1884. The headlines included:
> - Appearance of a Whale in the River – 12 November
> - Whale Hunting in the Tay – 16 November
> - Return of the Whale to the Tay – 21 November
> - On the Trail of the Whale – 7 December
> - Christmas Greeting from the Whale – 25 December
> - The Whale Interviewed by his Mother on his Exploits in the River Tay (poem) – 27 December
> - The Whale Hunt in the Tay. Exciting Chase – 1 January
> - The Whale Hunt in the Tay. Escape of the Whale – 2 January
> - The Runaway Whale – 4 January
> - The Tay Whale Found Dead – 8 January
> - The Whale's Corpus – 9 January
> - The Recovered Whale at Stonehaven. Sale of the Monster to a Dundee Man – 11 January
Finally on 25 January 1884, when the whale was too badly decomposed for further public exhibition, Struthers was allowed to come and dissect the famous specimen. He was well used to working on stinking carcasses: his dissecting room was reputed to stink "like the deck of a Greenland whaler". He had two assistants; but the dissection was disturbed by John Woods, who admitted the public, for a fee, to watch the dissection in progress, while a military band played in the background.
There were snow showers, but Struthers was able to remove much of the skeleton before Woods had the flesh embalmed; the carcass was then stuffed and sewn up to be taken on a profitable tour as far as Edinburgh and London. Finally on 7 August 1884 Struthers was able to remove the skull and the rest of the skeleton. Struthers eventually wrote seven anatomy articles over the next decade on the whale, and ultimately published a complete monograph on it in 1889, entitled Memoir on the Anatomy of the Humpback Whale, Megaptera Longimana.
In 2011, the whale's skeleton was displayed in the McManus Galleries in Dundee.
## Fame for anatomist
Struthers became famous for his dissection of the Tay Whale, his largest specimen. It was one of a wide range of specimens of many species that he energetically collected to form a museum of zoology, to illustrate Darwin's theories.
## Fame in doggerel
The whale became so famous that the doggerel poet William Topaz McGonagall (1825–1902) wrote a notably bad poem, "The Famous Tay Whale", about it. Two of the verses run:
> And my opinion is that God sent the whale in time of need,
> No matter what other people may think or what is their creed;
> I know fishermen in general are often very poor
> And God in His goodness sent it to drive poverty from their door.
>
>
> So Mr. John Wood has bought it for two hundred and twenty-six pound,
> And has brought it to Dundee all safe and all sound;
> Which measures forty feet in length from the snout to the tail,
> So I advise the people far and near to see it without fail.
This was not the only piece of doggerel verse about the whale, as a poet signing himself "Spectator" published "The Whale Interviewed by his Mother on his Exploits in the River Tay" in the Dundee Courier, with verses such as:
> Oh! why went you there, my son, my son,
> Within the range of their banging gun?
> "Fear not, mother, 'twas only a lark,
> I reckoned they would shoot wide of the mark."
## Anatomical drawings of the Tay Whale by John Struthers
## See also
- List of individual cetaceans |
61,700,993 | SMS Loreley (1859) | 1,163,069,708 | Aviso of the Prussian and German Imperial Navy | [
"1859 ships",
"Avisos of the Imperial German Navy",
"Ships of the North German Federal Navy",
"Ships of the Prussian Navy"
]
| SMS Loreley was an aviso of the Prussian Navy built in the late 1850s. Built as a paddle steamer, since the Prussian naval command was not convinced of the reliability of screw propellers, she was the first Prussian warship to be fitted with a domestically-produced marine steam engine. The ship carried a light armament of two 12-pound guns and had a top speed of 10.5 knots (19.4 km/h; 12.1 mph). Loreley was intended to serve as the flagship of the gunboat flotillas that formed the bulk of the Prussian fleet in the 1850s.
After entering service, the ship was sent to the Italian Peninsula in 1861 to protect Prussians and other German nationals during the Second Italian War of Independence, part of the unification of Italy. She thereafter went to Greece, the Ottoman Empire, and then to Romania before being recalled to Prussia in 1862. She served in her intended role during the Second Schleswig War, serving as the command ship for five flotillas of gunboats based in the Baltic Sea. She saw action against the Danish Navy during the war at the Battle of Jasmund, where she received a single hit that killed one man. After the war, she was decommissioned and saw little activity for the rest of the decade, by which time she was in poor condition.
Loreley was extensively rebuilt between 1869 and 1873, thereafter serving in the North Sea until 1879, when she was sent to the Ottoman Empire to serve as Germany's station ship in Constantinople. She remained there for nearly two decades to protect German interests during periods of unrest in the country. Worn out by 1896, she was struck from the naval register in August and sold in September. Her ultimate fate is unknown.
## Design
Following the sale of the two Nix-class avisos in 1855, the Prussian Navy had no smaller steam-driven warships; the aviso Grille, built the following year, was initially intended to serve as a royal yacht and carried no armament. The navy decided it needed a vessel that could serve as a flagship and scout for the small gunboats that formed the bulk of Prussia's small fleet. The Technical Department of the Admiralty drew up plans in 1857 for a paddle steamer that could serve in that role. At the time, naval designers had not settled on the use of screw propellers on warships, and the Prussian designers still had reservations about adopting the new technology. They also eschewed iron for the hull in favor of traditional wood planking.
### General characteristics
Loreley was 43.34 m (142 ft 2 in) long at the waterline and 47.08 m (154 ft 6 in) long overall. She had a beam of 6.6 m (21 ft 8 in) and a draft of 2.5 m (8 ft 2 in) forward and 3.02 m (9.9 ft) aft. As designed, she displaced 430 t (420 long tons) and at full load, her displacement increased to 470 t (460 long tons). Her hull was constructed with transverse wooden frames and was carvel-built; to protect from biofouling, the wooden hull planks were sheathed in copper. The hull was divided into seven watertight compartments. Her freeboard amounted to 4.9 m (16 ft 1 in).
Loreley was thoroughly rebuilt between 1869 and 1873; the reconstruction was so extensive, she is sometimes considered a different vessel. Her original wooden hull was rebuilt with iron frames, though she retained the wooden outer planking, still sheathed in copper. Displacement fell slightly, to 395 t (389 long tons) as designed and 450 t (440 long tons) at full load. She was also shortened slightly, with a waterline length of 42.84 m (140 ft 7 in) and an overall length of 46.6 m (152 ft 11 in). Beam remained the same, but her draft increased slightly to 2.51 m (8 ft 3 in) forward and 3.05 m (10 ft) aft.
Steering was controlled with a single rudder; Loreley was a mediocre sea boat and she was difficult to turn. She lost little speed in a head sea, though a beam sea caused considerable loss of speed. The ship had a crew of four officers and sixty-one enlisted men, though the latter figure was later reduced to fifty-three after the reconstruction. She carried two small boats of unrecorded type.
### Machinery
Loreley was propelled by a single oscillating, 2-cylinder marine steam engine manufactured by the machine shop operated by the Seehandlungsgesellschaft [de], the royal merchant shipping organization. This made her the first Prussian warship to be fitted with a domestically-produced engine, as all previous vessels, including those built in Prussia, used British propulsion systems. The engine drove a pair of paddle wheels, one on either side of the ship, that were 5.36 m (17 ft 7 in) in diameter and were fitted with twenty-four paddles per wheel. Steam for the engine was provided by a single coal-fired trunk boiler that was ducted into a single funnel just aft of the wheels. The boiler was built by AG Vulcan, Stettin. Her propulsion system was rated to produce 350 metric horsepower (345 ihp), for a top speed of 10.5 knots (19.4 km/h; 12.1 mph); steaming endurance figures have not survived for her original configuration. To supplement the steam engine, she was fitted as a gaff-rigged schooner, though they contributed little to her performance. Her sailing rig had a total area of 310 m<sup>2</sup> (3,300 sq ft), though this was later reduced to 200 m<sup>2</sup> (2,200 sq ft).
The ship initially retained her original propulsion system during her reconstruction, but in 1879, she received new boilers that were built by the Kaiserliche Werft (Imperial Shipyard) in Wilhelmshaven. As reconstructed, her top speed fell to 9.1 knots (16.9 km/h; 10.5 mph). She carried 34 t (33 long tons) of coal, which provided a cruising radius of 450 nautical miles (830 km; 520 mi) at a speed of 9 knots.
### Armament
Loreley carried an initial armament of two long-barreled 12-pounder guns in individual carriages. These were supplied with a total of 240 shells. After emerging from her refit in 1873, she carried a single 12.5 cm (4.9 in) 23-caliber (cal.) breechloading hoop gun that was supplied with 142 shells. It had a range of 5,200 m (17,100 ft). In addition, she received a pair of 8 cm (3.1 in) 23-cal. breechloading guns with a total of 190 shells.
## Service history
The keel for Loreley was laid down at the Königliche Werft (Royal Shipyard) in Danzig on 1 February 1858. She was launched on 20 May 1859, and was christened for the Loreley rock formation on the Rhine at Sankt Goar. She was commissioned for sea trials on 28 September, with Leutnant zur See (LzS—Lieutenant at Sea) Heinrich Köhler as her first commander; the trials revealed that her engine was too weak to meet the design requirements, but no improvements were made. The ship entered active service in 1860; she was sent to the Mediterranean Sea to protect Prussian and German interests and evacuate civilians in the Italian Peninsula, then in the midst of the Second Italian War of Independence that led to the unification of Italy. The ship still had not received her intended armament, so she received a pair of guns that had been fitted to Preussischer Adler in 1848. Since Loreley would be incapable of carrying the number of passengers that would be required, the navy chartered the steamship SS Ida to accompany Loreley. The aviso's commander for the operation was Korvettenkapitän (KK—Corvette Captain) Hans Kuhn.
Loreley left Danzig on 31 July 1860 and Ida followed on 9 August; the two ships rendezvoused off Naples, then in the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, on 31 August. Giuseppe Garibaldi's Expedition of the Thousand had forced King Francis II to flee to Gaeta, so Loreley embarked the Prussian and Austrian ambassadors, along with a pair of representatives from the Papal States, and carried them to Gaeta. She then returned to Naples, where she and Ida embarked civilians from the German states fleeing the fighting there. A senior Sicilian officer was also evacuated aboard Ida, which drew protests from the Kingdom of Sardinia. Loreley was sent first to Greece in October to show the flag in Piraeus, leaving Ida in Italian waters. From there, she directed to visit the Ottoman Empire and enter the Black Sea. Under the terms of the Treaty of Paris that had ended the Crimean War in 1856, Prussia and the other European Great Powers (excluding the Russian Empire) were permitted to station warships in the mouth of the Danube at Sulina. Loreley was the first Prussian warship to do so. She returned to the Ottoman capital, Constantinople, in mid-June 1861 to bring the Prussian ambassador to visit the new Sultan Abdülaziz. The ship's executive officer, LzS Otto Livonius, took command of the ship when Kuhn was recalled to Prussia to take command of the gunboat flotilla; Loreley then cruised to Mount Athos. She remained in the Mediterranean for another year, which passed uneventfully, before returning to Prussia, being decommissioned at Dänholm in August 1862.
### Second Schleswig War
The Second Schleswig War began in February 1864 and Loreley was recommissioned on 21 February and stationed in Swinemünde as the flagship of the gunboat flotilla there; her commander at this time was LzS Alexander von Monts. Now Kapitän zur See (KzS—Captain at Sea) Kuhn returned to the ship. Five gunboat flotillas were organized by the end of March; I Division was assigned to the fleet command, II Division was stationed in Swinemünde to defend the mouth of the Oder river, III and V Divisions were based in Stralsund to defend the Kubitzer Bodden and the Bay of Greifswald, and IV Division was tasked with defending Peenemünde. On 15 March, Kuhn took Loreley and three of the divisions for maneuvers off Rügen. Immediately after the start of the war, the Danish Navy imposed a blockade of Prussia's ports in the Baltic, along with those of the other German states in the North Sea. To avoid concerns that the navy would be unable to contribute to the Prussian war effort, the fleet commander Prince Adalbert ordered Eduard von Jachmann to attempt to break the blockade at Swinemünde. He had at his disposal the screw frigate Arcona and the screw corvette Nymphe, supported by Loreley and I Division, which consisted of six gunboats.
The Prussians scouted the blockade line on 16 March to determine the strength of the Danish squadron, which was commanded by Rear Admiral Edvard van Dockum, that was tasked with enforcing it. Late in the day, they spotted a group of three ships off Cape Arkona, but there was not sufficient daylight left to allow them to engage. The Prussians instead turned south and withdrew back to Swinemünde. Jachmann sortied with his two larger vessels at 07:30 on 17 March, followed by Loreley and the gunboats later that morning. The two groups rendezvoused at 13:15 to the east of Rügen and continued further north to locate the Danish squadron. Jachmann ordered Loreley to leave the gunboats off Rügen, where they would be in position to cover a retreat, and to join his two vessels. Arcona opened fire first, targeting the frigate Sjælland; a few minutes later, after Sjælland closed to 1,500 meters (1,600 yd), Dockum turned his flagship to starboard and began firing broadsides at Arcona. Jachmann turned Arcona to starboard as well, having realized the strength of the Danish squadron. He failed to inform the captains of Loreley and Nymphe of his decision to withdraw, and they continued to steam east for several minutes before they conformed to his maneuver. Loreley and Nymphe came under heavy fire from the pursuing Danish squadron and both vessels were hit by Danish fire. Loreley was hit once by a shell that tore off the davit for her starboard cutter, killing one man, her only casualty in the action. At 16:00, Loreley' broke off to the west toward Stralsund and Dockum allowed her to leave, preferring to continue after Jachmann's corvettes.
After the battle, Loreley took the gunboat division to Stralsund. Adalbert ordered all five gunboat divisions to concentrate at Stralsund on 29 March to support the Prussian Army's invasion of the island of Als, but bad weather prevented the vessels from taking part in the operation. Following a ceasefire in May, the Prussian fleet held a naval review in Swinemünde for King Wilhelm I on 6 June; Loreley led the gunboat divisions during the review. Loreley and the rest of the Prussian fleet in the Baltic saw little activity for the rest of the war. After the ceasefire ended in late June, the Danes reimposed the blockade and the Prussian fleet could not challenge it. The war ended quickly thereafter, however, as Prussian and Austrian armies had conquered the entire Jutland Peninsula and Als. The gunboat divisions were then deactivated and on 31 August, Kuhn's command was disestablished. Loreley was decommissioned on 23 September.
### Reconstruction and station ship in Constantinople
By the end of the decade, Loreley was in a badly-deteriorated condition, to the extent that she could not simply be overhauled and returned to service. It was decided to completely rebuild the vessel with a new iron-framed hull, though she retained copper-sheathed wood planking for the hull itself. The boilers were also replaced, though the original engine remained. Her old guns were replaced with newer breechloading guns. The reconstruction was carried out at the Königliche Werft in Wilhelmshaven and it lasted from 1869 to 1873, though the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–1871 delayed progress. She was launched on 19 August 1871, after the end of the war and after completing fitting-out, was commissioned into what was now the Kaiserliche Marine (Imperial Navy) of united Germany on 16 April 1873. She thereafter served as a tender for the Marinestation der Nordsee (North Sea Naval Station), based in Wilhelmshaven. In May, she embarked members of the Reichstag (Imperial Diet) during a visit to the port. Loreley next carried Crown Prince Friedrich and his family on a cruise to the island of Föhr in late July and into August. In September, she conducted a coastal survey cruise with members from the General Staff.
Little is known of Loreley's activity during the period from 1874 to 1878. She went to Folkestone on 18 June 1878 to take part in salvage work for the turret ship Grosser Kurfürst that had been sunk there in an accidental collision the previous month. Her crew assisted in the burial of those killed in the sinking at a local cemetery. She returned to Wilhelmshaven on 21 September, and the following year work began to prepare the vessel to serve as the station ship in Constantinople; Germany had inherited Prussia's rights under the 1856 Treaty of Paris to operate a vessel in the Black Sea, and Loreley was to fill this role once again. She left Germany on 20 July, bound for the Ottoman Empire, arriving in the Bosporus on 30 August. At that time, she was based in Büyükdere in Constantinople, and during her service in the Ottoman capital over the next decade, she periodically steamed to Galați, Romania, where she received new crews. Loreley began a tour of the region that continued into April 1880, which she repeated in 1881, this time extending it to include ports in the Aegean Sea.
During the 'Urabi revolt in 1882 that resulted in the British bombardment of Alexandria, Loreley joined other German warships in the eastern Mediterranean to protect German interests in the area. These included the screw corvettes Gneisenau and Nymphe, the aviso Zieten, and the gunboat Cyclop. The German vessels were primarily tasked with protecting the German embassy in Alexandria. In addition to her routine voyages in 1883, Loreley also carried the German ambassador to the Ottoman Empire on a cruise. On 2 November, she left Constantinople to rendezvous with the screw corvettes Sophie and Prinz Adalbert, the latter carrying Crown Prince Friedrich on a visit to Spain. She met the other vessels in Genoa, Italy four days later, and the three ships proceeded to Spain. While on the way, Loreley was damaged by a storm and had to be taken under tow by Sophie. One of the tow lines became entangled in one of Loreley's paddle wheels, forcing both ships to turn, but the crew cleared the line and the vessels reached Valencia, Spain on 22 November. Loreley had to be detached for repairs, which were conducted in La Valletta, Malta. She was dry-docked there on 19 December and after completing repairs, returned to the Bosporus, arriving on 10 April 1884.
The years 1884 and 1885 passed uneventfully for Loreley, with the only event of note another period in the shipyard in La Valletta from 20 January 1885 to 12 February. She saw more activity in 1886, conducting training cruises to Rhodes, Cyprus, and the coast of Palestine early in the year. Increased tensions between the Ottomans and Greece led to a blockade of Greece by the Great Powers to try to reduce the possibility of a conflict. The German chancellor, Otto von Bismarck, ordered Loreley to take the ambassador to Sultan Abdul Hamid II to convey German support; Loreley was to act as a hospital ship for Ottoman officers in the event of a conflict. The crisis abated following the intervention of the Great Powers, and Loreley instead went to La Valletta for another overhaul at the end of the year that lasted until 20 April 1887. In 1888, Loreley's berth was transferred to Therapia, where Germany's embassy was also relocated. The following year, the new Kaiser, Wilhelm II, and his wife traveled to Greece to attend the wedding of his sister Sophie to Constantine, the heir to the Greek throne. Wilhelm and his wife traveled with the ironclad training squadron, which Loreley met in Piraeus on 21 October. She remained there until 30 October, when she returned to Constantinople to make preparations for the Kaiser's visit with the Sultan.
Loreley saw no events of note from 1890 to 1892. She visited Greece in 1893 and while there had to go into drydock at the Salamis Naval Base for repairs to her propulsion system. In May 1894, Loreley and the other European vessels stationed in Constantinople took part in ceremonies overseen by King Carol I of Romania that marked the 50th anniversary of the opening of the Danube at Sulina during the Crimean War. In June, she conducted surveys of the waters around the Cyclades island group, followed by a visit to Alexandria, from which she returned to Constantinople on 10 July. She embarked Kapitänleutnant (KL—Lieutenant Captain) Eugen Kalau vom Hofe, the naval attache to Russia, for a tour of the Black Sea, including Russian ports in the region. The Russian government was concerned about the cruise and Loreley met unfriendly receptions in the Russian ports she inspected, but the Treaty of Paris permitted such visits. During unrest from Ottoman Armenians in 1895, Loreley conducted small-scale landings in the area to protect German interests. Germany sent limited reinforcements in the form of the screw corvette Moltke and the coastal defense ship Hagen to support these operations.
By this time, Loreley was once again badly worn out and in need of replacement. She conducted a final cruise in the Black Sea in early 1896 and was then struck from the naval register on 10 August, though she remained in commission until 7 September when she was replaced by a newly procured steam yacht. Her crew began their voyage home and the vessel remained under the supervision of the German station commander until 23 October, when she was sold. Her ultimate fate is unknown. |
6,275,287 | My Big Fat Greek Rush Week | 1,068,798,477 | null | [
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"Veronica Mars (season 3) episodes"
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| "My Big Fat Greek Rush Week" is the second episode of the third season of the American mystery television series Veronica Mars, and the forty-sixth episode overall. Written by executive producer Diane Ruggiero and directed by John T. Kretchmer, the episode premiered on The CW on October 10, 2006.
The series depicts the adventures of Veronica Mars (Kristen Bell) as she deals with life as a college student while moonlighting as a private detective. In this episode, Veronica infiltrates the Theta Beta sorority as part of her investigation into Parker's rape. Meanwhile, the Hearst sociology teacher, Dr. Kinny (Dan Castellaneta), conducts an experiment similar to the Stanford prison experiment.
"My Big Fat Greek Rush Week" featured several notable guest stars, including appearances from Dan Castellaneta, Samm Levine, Rider Strong, and Rachelle Lefevre. In addition, David Tom returned as Chip Diller after previously appearing in the second season. The episode was watched by 2.96 million people in its initial airing and received mixed to positive reviews from television critics.
## Synopsis
A police officer interrogates Parker (Julie Gonzalo) about her rape, but she does not remember any of it. Veronica tells Sheriff Lamb (Michael Muhney) that she ran into the room and heard Parker having sex, and Parker berates her for not checking to see what was happening. Keith (Enrico Colantoni) hikes through the desert after fleeing from Cormac Fitzpatrick (Jason Beghe); Cormac later realizes that Keith has disappeared and starts following him. Wallace (Percy Daggs III) and Logan's (Jason Dohring) sociology professor recruits volunteers for a Stanford prison experiment-like study. Veronica interviews for a photography position at the college newspaper, but the editor tasks her with writing an exposé of the Theta Beta sorority, where Parker was during the night of her rape. Parker’s parents appear at Hearst and announce that they are going to remove her from the college in light of her assault. During her investigation, Veronica poses as a potential recruit, but she does not note any suspicious activity. In the sociology experiment, Logan is assigned to the role of a prisoner, while Wallace acts as a "guard". While tracking Keith, Cormac gets stuck in a bear trap; his brother Liam (Rod Rowland) appears and shoots him. Veronica is invited to attend a "private party", which she believes will be the key to her exposé. At the party, Veronica encounters Dick (Ryan Hansen) and learns that Parker's room was easily accessible. Veronica pretends to be drunk in order to ascertain whether or not the sorority members collaborate with the rapist, but they just drive her home.
The police search Kendall's (Charisma Carpenter) apartment, but they only find a small amount of blood. In the fake prison during the experiment, the guards use sleep deprivation and verbal abuse to indicate the "prisoners". Returning home, Keith cries and tells Veronica that he made a mistake. The guard puts one prisoner in solitary confinement. Veronica learns that a student, Moe Flater (Andrew McClain), took Parker home the night of the rape. She confronts him, but upon further investigation, she accepts his alibi. Veronica learns that the main surveillance camera of the sorority was in the den mother's room. The prisoners in the experiment successfully escape from prison. Veronica breaks into the room that is under surveillance and finds that they are growing marijuana. Veronica types up her exposé and hands it to the newspaper editor, but before it is published, one of the sorority members informs Veronica that they are growing the cannabis in order to aid the den mother's cancer. Veronica cannot stop the publication of the article, but she warns the sorority about potential repercussions nonetheless. Mac (Tina Majorino) convinces Parker to stay at Hearst.
The prisoners believe they have won the study, but the guards have tricked them into winning, allowing them to escape. Keith tells the police the story of Kendall and Cormac's deaths: Kendall gave Keith a valuable painting disguised as money in a case, and Cormac tried to kill Kendall and Keith to get the case's contents. Liam killed Cormac out of anger that there was no money. The episode concludes with Logan streaking through sociology class, fulfilling a bet made earlier in the episode.
## Production
The episode was written by Diane Ruggiero and directed by John T. Kretchmer, marking Ruggiero's thirteenth writing credit and Kretchmer's eleventh directing credit for the series. The episode features several notable guest appearances. Dan Castellaneta, best known as the voice of Homer Simpson on The Simpsons, appears as Dr. Kinny, a sociology professor. Rider Strong guest stars as a student who participates as a guard in the experiment. The episode features a guest appearance by Samm Levine, best known for his role on Freaks and Geeks. Levine had previously worked with series star Chris Lowell on Life as We Know It, a show that had been cancelled in 2005. Rachelle Lefevre, known for her later roles as Victoria in The Twilight Saga and in Under the Dome, guest stars as Marjorie, one of the sorority girls who becomes friends with Veronica.
On the DVD Commentary, series creator Rob Thomas opined that the relationship between Veronica and Keith was the core of the series and listed the scene in which Keith stays up all night before scaring Veronica in the morning as one of his favorite examples of their chemistry in the season. Thomas highlighted the scene in which a girl shows Veronica around the sorority as indicative of Hansen's comedic talents; in addition, it marked the first appearance of David Tom in the season, a guest star in season two who was brought back for a recurring role in this season. The actress who played the girl showing Veronica around, Keri Lynn Pratt, previously appeared in the film Drive Me Crazy, which Thomas co-wrote.
## Reception
### Ratings
"My Big Fat Greek Rush Week" was watched by 2.96 million viewers in its initial airing, marking a decrease from the season premiere and ranking 83rd out of 88 in the weekly rankings.
### Reviews
The episode received mixed to positive reviews. Eric Goldman, writing for IGN, gave the episode an 8.3 out of 10, indicating that it was great. He wrote that it felt "more like a normal episode of the series" compared to the premiere's "introduction type" tone. He also praised the prison experiment subplot, writing that it "introduced a who's who of recognizable guest stars, all of whom could clearly rerun on a show that loves to build a large cast of periphery characters." Price Peterson, writing for TV.com, gave a positive review, writing "Anytime Veronica goes undercover as her polar opposite is just a good time, you know? [...] And as much as the Stanford Experiment thing was low-stakes and standalone, I enjoyed its unpredictable twists and reveals. Perfect early season plotline." Alan Sepinwall wrote that the prison experiment plotline never getting "out of hand [...] made it feel like a wasted opportunity" while writing that "Enrico Colantoni really sold Keith's despair at the resolution" of his plotline.
Writing for The A.V. Club, Rowan Kaiser gave a more mixed review, stating that the show and Veronica were both still discovering their place at the show's new setting. "The show is still tense, still powerful, still amusing. But it doesn't know how to apply those things in its new setting." However, Kaiser concluded that "Veronica Mars is a mess right now. But it’s an extremely ambitious mess. I’d watch rather 'ambitious and difficult' than 'boring,' and 'My Big Fat Greek Rush Week' was anything but boring." Television Without Pity gave the episode a "B". |
51,633,626 | BanG Dream! | 1,173,295,583 | Japanese music media franchise | [
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"2018 anime television series debuts",
"2020 anime television series debuts",
"2021 anime television series debuts",
"2023 anime television series debuts",
"ASCII Media Works manga",
"Animated musical groups",
"BanG Dream!",
"Bushiroad",
"Crunchyroll anime",
"Japanese idol video games",
"Japanese idols in anime and manga",
"Japanese pop music groups",
"Japanese rock music groups",
"Muse Communication",
"Music in anime and manga",
"OLM, Inc.",
"Sanzigen",
"Seinen manga",
"Sentai Filmworks",
"Shōnen manga",
"Studio A-Cat",
"Tokyo MX original programming",
"Xebec (studio)"
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| Shōnen' '
</td>
</tr>
BanG Dream!, also known as Bandori! (バンドリ!), is a Japanese music media franchise owned by Bushiroad. Created by Bushiroad president Takaaki Kidani in January 2015 with original story by Kō Nakamura, the project began as a manga before expanding to other media. In addition to other manga, BanG Dream! includes an anime television series, live concerts, singles and albums, and the mobile rhythm game BanG Dream! Girls Band Party! by Craft Egg.
The franchise's premise is based around all-female bands whose members are also voice actresses in the anime and mobile game; as of 2021, the project has seven groups, four of which are capable of playing their respective characters' instruments. The first band, Poppin'Party, was formed in February 2015, and further groups were introduced in 2017 with the launch of the mobile game: Afterglow, Pastel Palettes, Roselia, and Hello, Happy World!. In 2018, a backup band called The Third was renamed Raise A Suilen and joined the series, followed by a seventh unit named Morfonica in 2020. For live performances, Poppin'Party, Roselia, Raise A Suilen, and Morfonica's voice actresses play their own music, while the others are limited to vocals.
The anime, which follows fictional representations of the bands, has three seasons of 13 episodes each. The first season, produced by Issen (OLM with Bushiroad) and Xebec, aired from January to April 2017. Sanzigen took over production duties for the second and third seasons, which were respectively broadcast in winter 2019 and 2020. A concert-centric movie BanG Dream! Film Live was released in 2019, followed by a sequel Film Live 2nd Stage in 2021. Three band-focused films have also been produced: the two-part Episode of Roselia series premiered in 2021, followed by BanG Dream! Poppin'Dream! premiered in 2022. Spin-off anime series include BanG Dream! Girls Band Party! Pico and its sequels Pico: Ohmori and Pico Fever! by Sanzigen with DMM.futureworks and Pastel Life by Studio A-Cat.
The series has enjoyed international popularity for its live performances and mobile game, while the anime has seen mixed but improving reviews with later seasons. In 2018, the franchise expanded to include a male-based counterpart Argonavis from BanG Dream!, which was spun off into an independent brand From Argonavis in 2021.
## Plot
BanG Dream! follows Kasumi Toyama, a happy-go-lucky girl and a new student at Hanasakigawa Girls' High School. During her first weeks at the school, she tries out for numerous clubs in an effort to rediscover the "Star Beat", a "sparkling, heart-pounding" feeling she experienced while looking up at the stars in the night sky as a child.
One day, while returning from school, she spots a trail of star stickers that lead her to a pawnshop owned by her classmate Arisa Ichigaya. In the storage area, she finds a star-shaped guitar with glittery stickers on it and quickly becomes attached to it. The two later visit a local live house, Space, where Kasumi decides to create a band upon watching a performance by a group named Glitter Green. She then recruits Arisa and three of their classmates – Sāya Yamabuki, Tae Hanazono, and Rimi Ushigome – to join her, though they are reluctant for personal reasons. Despite their initial misgivings, the five overcome many hurdles and ultimately agree to form the band "Poppin'Party". With her bandmates, Kasumi finds the excitement that she had been looking for.
During their first year of high school, Poppin'Party meets and befriends four all-girl bands at Hanasakigawa and nearby Haneoka Girls' High School, each of whom has their own stories: Afterglow consists of five childhood friends who maintain their friendship through music; Pastel Palettes is an idol group who are capable of playing their own instruments; Roselia is a gothic rock band who strives to become the perfect band; and Hello, Happy World! is an eccentric band that seeks to spread happiness. As second-year students, they encounter Raise A Suilen, an electronic music group aiming to revolutionize the girl's band genre, and Morfonica, a newly formed classical band of first-years at Tsukinomori Girls' Academy with dreams of changing themselves for the better.
## History
### Early history (2015–2016)
The premise for BanG Dream! was conceptualized in March 2014 by Bushiroad president Takaaki Kidani, who wanted to lead a music project after seeing the success of Love Live! School Idol Festival, a mobile game published by his company. When a staff member attended The Idolmaster Masters of Idol World!! 2014 concert at Saitama Super Arena, they took interest in guitarist Aimi and proposed having her in an all-female band. Figuring that such a concept would best be viable as a media franchise, Kidani concluded his new project's best method to gain success would be to have voice actresses who could play their own instruments in live shows. To differentiate it from similar music works, Kidani has stressed that BanG Dream! is not an idol franchise but a "girl band" series.
Novelist Kō Nakamura was approached by a Bushiroad editor who had read his music book Round and Round Slide to write the story, and he partnered with Aya Ishida for the franchise's first work BanG_Dream! Star Beat; the manga started serialization in the Monthly Bushiroad magazine in January 2015. Star Beat's universe was retconned following the franchise's reboot in 2016 as BanG Dream! without the underscore. According to an August 24, 2016, post on Nakamura's Livedoor blog, the name BanG Dream! stemmed from the idea of "shooting" toward one's dreams. Nakamura, who is formally credited as the franchise's original story creator, based certain aspects of the plot on his high school life such as the desire and efforts to form a band, the guitarist finding the instrument in a pawnshop, and band meetings being held in a warehouse. To produce music, Kidani enlisted Noriyasu Agematsu of Elements Garden, who was skeptical of the franchise's concept due to the difficulties in balancing voice acting with practicing musical instruments but subsequently signed on to the project. Prior musical experience was not a prerequisite for voice actresses as their primary responsibility was to portray characters for in-universe media, though they remained committed to playing their instruments, a mindset that Kidani felt grew the series' charm with fans; in 2019, he noted that some cast members practiced for ten hours daily.
At her Love Generation concert on February 28, 2015, Aimi announced she had aligned with the franchise, which included creating a band and serving as its guitarist and vocalist. Rimi Nishimoto and Ayasa Itō joined the band in April, and the three hosted the project's first concert on April 18. In June, Aimi performed a solo concert at CharaExpo 2015 in Singapore, the franchise's first performance outside of Japan. The group was officially named Poppin'Party during the month, and Sae Ōtsuka and Ayaka Ōhashi completed the band lineup later in the year. In addition to live performances, the five would voice their own characters in other media such as an anime series and animated music videos; the character designs were also loosely modeled after their voice actresses to better reflect their ability to sing and perform.
Poppin'Party's debut single "Yes! BanG_Dream!" was released on February 24, 2016. A music video for the song was produced by Issen, a joint venture formed between Bushiroad and OLM, Inc. in 2015 that was also tasked with developing the anime. To lead the animation, Nakamura served as writer while Agematsu and Pixiv artist Hitowa managed music production and character design, respectively. Poppin'Party conducted the franchise's first in-character live on April 24; the group's early performances were inspired by fellow all-female group Silent Siren, and the two bands collaborated in May 2019 for the Battle of the Bands-style No Girl No Cry concert at MetLife Dome. Poppin'Party's third single "On Your New Journey / Tear Drops" ranked tenth on the Oricon Weekly Singles Chart in December, marking the first time an anime music group appeared in an Oricon chart's top ten prior to their show beginning broadcast.
### Launch of anime and game (2017–2019)
In 2017, BanG Dream! expanded to include the anime and the mobile game BanG Dream! Girls Band Party!. Prior to the latter's release, the franchise struggled to attract further fan support; in the spring, media attention was drawn to an official dōjinshi (self-published works like manga) event that saw only nine registered circles (a group of artists creating a certain work) despite organizing for 400 available circles. A lukewarm reception to the anime prompted Kidani to refocus his scope on the game; by its launch on March 16, GBP had attracted over 560,000 pre-registered players. Kidani attributed its eventual success to the collaboration with Craft Egg and Elements Garden and the inclusion of cover versions of popular songs. Four more bands—Afterglow, Pastel Palettes (stylized as Pastel*Palettes), Roselia, and Hello, Happy World!—were introduced with the game's arrival.
Roselia, who first appeared at Tokyo Game Show 2016, released its first single "Black Shout" on April 19, 2017. The group then enjoyed success in May 2018 when its debut album Anfang, which contained the band's first five singles, was first on the Oricon Weekly Digital and iTunes album charts; the album also sold 25,000 copies in the first week of release, the second-most on the Oricon Weekly Albums Chart. The band went through two member changes in 2018, with Yuki Nakashima replacing the retiring Yurika Endō as bassist Lisa Imai in May and Kanon Shizaki taking over for Satomi Akesaka, who left the project in September due to sensorineural hearing loss, as keyboardist Rinko Shirokane in November. In March 2020, Roselia won the 14th Seiyu Awards' Singing Award.
The vocalists for Afterglow (Ayane Sakura), Pastel Palettes (Ami Maeshima), and Hello, Happy World! (Miku Itō) were revealed during a presentation at Sunshine City, Tokyo on December 7, 2016. Afterglow's remaining cast members confirmed their involvement later in the month, while the voice actresses for the other bands were announced in a promotional event at EX Theater Roppongi on February 24, 2017. The three bands released their debut singles in 2017: Pastel Palettes' "Shuwarin Dreaming" (released July 12) ranked the highest on Oricon's weekly charts in fourth, followed by Hello, Happy World!'s "Orchestra of Smiles!" (August 2) and Afterglow's "That Is How I Roll!" (September 6) in ninth and 18th, respectively.
On January 13–14, 2018, the five bands participated in the Garupa Live and Garupa Party! at Tokyo Big Sight, which included activities to promote Girls Band Party! and performances. The Third (Beta), a backup band that provided instrumentals for Afterglow, Pastel Palettes, and Hello, Happy World! at the event as their voice actresses were not musicians, eventually became a standalone unit; the tentative name was a reference to being the third live-action band in the franchise after Poppin'Party and Roselia. The group's first live took place in March, and it was officially renamed Raise A Suilen (stylized as RAISE A SUILEN) in July.
BanG Dream! saw its first dual-single release day on February 21, 2018, with Poppin'Party and Roselia releasing their ninth ("CiRCLING") and fifth singles ("Opera of the wasteland"), respectively. A triple release took place on December 12 with Poppin'Party's "Kizuna Music", Roselia's "Brave Jewel", and Raise A Suilen's "R・I・O・T"; the three singles recorded top-ten Oricon Weekly Chart placements.
Poppin'Party's first album Poppin'on! came out January 30, 2019; consisting of the group's first 11 singles, it peaked at fourth on Oricon's album chart. On February 20, the franchise simultaneously released six singles, one from each band at the time; the tracks placed in the top ten on Oricon's daily chart for February 19, with Roselia's "Safe and Sound" being the highest in third.
### Morfonica's debut and COVID-19 (2020–present)
In January 2020, Poppin'Party's "Initial / Straight Through Our Dreams!", whose tracks serve as the theme music to the anime's third season, became BanG Dream!'s first single to top Oricon's Weekly Single Sales Chart after selling 27,000 copies from January 7 to 11. Shortly after the single's release, the franchise surpassed two million total music sales. Five months later, the BanG Dream! Girls Band Party! Cover Collection Vol. 4 ranked first on Oricon's Weekly Albums Chart with 2,231 first-week sales. Poppin'Party (Breakthrough! on June 24), Roselia (Wahl on July 15), and Raise A Suilen (Era on August 19) also released albums during the summer. "Initial / Straight Through Out Dreams!" (86th), Roselia's "Promise" (87th), and Raise A Suilen's "Drive Us Crazy" (97th) were among Billboard Japan's best-selling singles in 2020, while Wahl (62nd), Era (86th), and the fourth (93rd) and third cover collections (94th) were among the year's top albums; Wahl and Era were also respectively ranked 67th and 94th on Billboard's Hot Albums of 2020.
A seventh unit called Morfonica was introduced on March 1, 2020, to commemorate Girls Band Party!'s three-year anniversary. Morfonica is the only band in the franchise with a violinist, a distinction that was conceived by Craft Egg to better differentiate it from the others. The group's debut single "Daylight", which was released on May 27, sold over 15,000 copies in its first week and peaked at second on the Oricon Weekly Singles Chart. Morfonica's first live, Cantabile, took place on October 7.
Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, various franchise-related events since 2020 have been impacted. Breakthrough! was intended for a June 3 release before being pushed to June 24. The BanG Dream! Special Live Girls Band Party! 2020 was originally scheduled to take place on May 3 until it was postponed to June 5–6, 2021, before being delayed again to November 12, 2022, as cases rose in Japan. A stage play focusing on Raise A Suilen titled We are Raise A Suilen: BanG Dream! The Stage, which consisted of nine performances at the Tennozu Galaxy Theater from July 15 to 19, was streamed online with unused tickets being refunded. The BanG Dream! 8th Live Summer Outdoors 3 Days, held August 21–23, admitted only a quarter of the venue's capacity. On January 9, 2021, the franchise announced Shizaki had tested positive for COVID-19, forcing her to miss the project's Raukure! and Asuhamo events at Tokyo Dome City Hall two days later. Morfonica's bassist Yūka Nishio skipped her band's Resonance performance on April 24, 2022, following a positive test.
Poppin'Party's 16th single "Photograph", which was released in January 2021, became the band's second single to rank first on the Oricon Weekly Chart.
On November 30, 2022, Maeshima announced her departure from the franchise as part of a career hiatus for health reasons. She had missed the Special Live Girls Band Party! two weeks prior. Unlike Lisa and Rinko respectively having their voices in Girls Band Party! re-recorded by Nakashima and Shizaki, Maeshima's lines as Aya will remain in the game after her successor's entry. However, on September 1, 2023, Maeshima announced her return to the franchise, with no successor announced during that.
## Media
### Live concerts
The voice actresses of Poppin'Party, Roselia, Raise A Suilen, and Morfonica play their respective characters' instruments during live concerts, while the other groups are limited to providing vocals. In a 2019 interview with Billboard Japan, Roselia's Haruka Kudō and Megu Sakuragawa described this distinction of being a "voice actor's band" as helping the franchise gain popularity among those unfamiliar with the game and anime, while the anime's second- and third-season director Kōdai Kakimoto explained in 2020 that his staff implements events from the live-action concerts into the show to "portray the connection between real life and anime." For example, the third season's final episode features references to the BanG Dream! 7th Live as both take place at the Nippon Budokan. The first season under Issen also incorporated elements of the performances into the plot, such as Kasumi losing her voice in one episode being based on the same occurring to Aimi during the franchise's first show.
The first BanG_Dream! concert, titled I Started a Band in Spring! and held at Shimokitazawa Garden, took place on April 18, 2015, with Aimi, Nishimoto, and Itō; the three played mainly cover songs with the exception of the original song "Yes! BanG_Dream!". In 2016, the BanG Dream! First Live Sprin'Party 2016! on April 24 marked the first performance since the franchise's rebranding to BanG Dream!. The shows' increasing popularity was marked by the Second Live Starrin'Party 2016! selling out much of its tickets shortly after opening sales, while the 4th Live Miracle Party 2017! at the Budokan sold out its 11,000 tickets prior to general sale; Live Viewing Japan simulcasted the performance in 41 Japanese theaters, with showings also taking place in Hong Kong and Taiwan. Delayed screenings would also be provided for later lives; for instance, the BanG Dream! 5th Live in 2018 was shown in select North American and Australian theaters by Azoland Pictures and Madman Entertainment, respectively.
In December 2020, the franchise began streaming "Sound Only Lives", online concerts with exclusively song audio and interactions between the voice cast, on its YouTube channel. The first, Afterglow's As ever, took place on December 19 and 20, followed by Pastel Palettes' Flowerful on February 27 and 28, 2021. Hello, Happy World!'s Sound Only Live, titled Welcome to OUR MUSIC, was on May 15–16.
### Print
BanG_Dream! Star Beat by Ishida and Nakamura debuted in Monthly Bushiroad on January 8, 2015. Featuring numerous differences in character traits from the current series, the manga consisted of twelve chapters and ran from the magazine's February 2015 to January 2016 issues. A light novel by Nakamura and illustrated by Hitowa, which follows Star Beat's story, was published on August 25, 2016, by ASCII Media Works under their Dengeki Bunko imprint.
A manga series following the redesigned universe, BanG Dream! by Mami Kashiwabara and Nakamura, was serialized in Monthly Bushiroad from April 2016 to February 2019. Shogakukan Asia acquired the rights to translate the manga into English in February 2017; although the company first released the manga in Southeast Asia, its license was not exclusive to the region. 2016 and 2017 saw the release of two four-panel manga with Hakuto Shiroi's Yonkoma: Bandori!, which debuted in ASCII Media Works' seinen manga magazine Dengeki G's Comic and concluded in 2017, and the surrealist Banban Doridori by Nyaromeron in Sogakukan's Coro Coro Aniki.
In 2017, the first non-Poppin'Party-centric manga, BanG Dream! Girls Band Party! Roselia Stage, was written by Pepako Dokuta and circulated in Overlap's magazine Gardo Comics from February to September. On March 2, 2020, Tokyopop announced it had licensed the series for North American release. Raise A Suilen also received a series, titled RAiSe! The story of my music, by Nakamura and art by Ryū Shihara; RAiSe! began in 2019 in Monthly Bushiroad.
An anthology series manga of the chibi anime spin-off BanG Dream! Girls Band Party! Pico was published by Bushiroad and released by Kadokawa Corporation on March 14, 2019. Titled BanG Dream! Garupa Pico Comic Anthology, the book is a compilation work from 17 artists. An online manga titled BanG Dream! Girls Band Party! The First Page, which retells event stories from the game, was released on March 16, 2021.
### Anime
As of 2020, the franchise's anime television adaptation consists of three seasons. Sentai Filmworks licenses the series for digital and home release in regions like North America, Oceania, and Europe; the company also simulcast the second and third seasons on its HIDIVE platform. In Southeast Asia and South Asia, Muse Communication holds the show's rights.
The first season, which was animated by Issen and Xebec and directed by Atsushi Ōtsuki, aired from January 21 to April 22, 2017, on Tokyo MX. The 13-episode series follows Poppin'Party's creation and the band performs the show's opening and ending theme music "Tokimeki Experience!" and "Sparkling Dreaming: Sing Girls ". The anime was streamed on the Anime Network and by Crunchyroll, and was later released across seven Blu-ray and DVD volumes. An original video animation episode received advanced screenings before being available on the seventh BD/DVD volume released on November 22.
Sanzigen replaced Issen and Xebec for the second and third seasons, which saw a shift to primarily computer-generated animation; in comparison, the first season only used CGI during performances to better show the nuances in playing instruments. Although CGI was the focal animation type under Sanzigen, some aspects like various articles of clothing were still drawn by hand, and motion-capture acting was utilized for performances. BanG Dream! was the first non-science fiction production by Sanzigen, who prepared for the anime by creating a music video for the Roselia song "Neo-Aspect". Kōdai Kakimoto took over as director while staff members like composition and script writer Yuniko Ayana continued their roles.
Airing from January 3 to March 28, 2019, and simulcast on Crunchyroll and HIDIVE, BanG Dream! 2nd Season increases its scope to include Afterglow, Pastel Palettes, Roselia, Hello, Happy World!, and Raise A Suilen. Unlike its predecessor, the season features a larger emphasis on concerts, which Sanzigen reflected by titling each episode after songs (the first season used "fun and cute" titles that followed a subject and verb sentence structure). It had two opening themes: "Kizuna Music" by Poppin'Party and "Brave Jewel" by Roselia, and two ending themes: "Jumpin'" by Poppin'Party and "Safe and Sound" by Roselia. An English dub of the season was released on Blu-ray and began streaming on HIDIVE on April 21, 2020; the dub was directed by John Swasey and licensed by Sentai.
The third season was originally scheduled for October 2019 before being delayed to January 2020. It details Poppin'Party's participation in the BanG Dream! Girls Band Challenge and the growth of Raise A Suilen; the premise of a competition had been entertained by the animation staff prior to beginning production on the second season. With more focus on the bands' individual development, the season's episode titles were taken from lines stated by the characters in the episodes. BanG Dream! 3rd Season aired from January 23 to April 23, 2020, though the first episode came out on January 7 as it was bundled with a limited-edition Blu-ray release for Poppin'Party's "Initial / Straight Through Our Dreams!". The single's tracks are also the season's theme music, with "Initial" as the opening and "Straight Through Our Dreams!" as the ending. Kakimoto and the previous season's staff returned for the new installment. HIDIVE's simulcast began with the January 7 premiere date, while VRV also assumed streaming rights.
#### Spin-offs and films
Outside of the main series, two chibi spin-offs called Pastel Life and BanG Dream! Girls Band Party! Pico aired in May and July 2018, respectively. Studio A-Cat worked on Pastel Life with leadership from Tommy Hino, while Pico was animated by Sanzigen in conjunction with DMM.futureworks and directed by Seiya Miyajima. A second season of Pico titled BanG Dream! Girls Band Party! Pico: Ohmori aired from May to October 2020. A third season of Pico titled BanG Dream! Girls Band Party! Pico Fever! aired from October 7, 2021, to March 31, 2022.
BanG Dream! Film Live, a concert movie animated by Sanzigen and starring the original five bands, premiered on September 13, 2019. The movie was directed by Tomomi Umetsu with script by Nakamura; in addition to the main cast, Kazuyuki Ueda and Elements Garden returned to reprise their roles as character designer and music producer, respectively. After opening in 56 theaters, the film grossed approximately at the box office in its first month. After acquiring its license in August 2020, Sentai conducted limited cinematic screenings of the movie in addition to home release. A sequel, BanG Dream! Film Live 2nd Stage, adds Morfonica and Raise A Suilen to the cast and premiered on August 20, 2021.
A two-part film series focusing on Roselia called BanG Dream! Episode of Roselia (each subtitled Promise and Song I am.) saw a theatrical release in 2021; Promise premiered on April 23, while Song I am. did so on June 25. Online streaming platform Eventive carried both movies in the United States. A Poppin'Party-centric movie titled BanG Dream! Poppin'Dream! premiered on January 1, 2022. Crunchyroll licensed both films outside of Asia.
In 2022, to commemorate Girls Band Party!'s fifth anniversary, a two-episode animation titled BanG Dream! Girls Band Party! 5th Anniversary Animation: CiRCLE Thanks Party! was released on March 10 and 17.
On March 19, 2022, it was announced that Morfonica was receiving an original anime titled BanG Dream! Morfonication, which premiered on July 28 and 29, 2022.
### Game
BanG Dream! Girls Band Party!, also known as Garupa, is a free-to-play mobile rhythm game developed by Craft Egg and published by Bushiroad's Bushimo for the Android and iOS platforms. Revealed at Tokyo Game Show 2016, it was first released in Japan on March 16, 2017. An English-language global version was launched in Singapore on March 29, 2018, followed by a worldwide release on April 4. The game was also released in traditional Chinese in Taiwan, Hong Kong, and Macao on October 19, 2017, with Mobimon Inc. serving as publisher; mainland China received its own version by bilibili on May 30, 2019. A Korean-language edition was published by Kakao Games on February 6, 2018.
The gameplay consists of tapping notes as they scroll toward the bottom to the rhythm of a selected song. Playable tracks include original pieces from the series and cover versions of popular anime music, the latter of which was inspired by their popularity during the BanG Dream! lives. Kidani compared the inclusion of covers to the use of mainstream series in Bushiroad's Weiß Schwarz card game as "drops in momentum" are canceled out by "the addition of popular titles." Some covers were spawned by collaborations between the game and other series such as the anime Is the Order a Rabbit? and Re:Zero − Starting Life in Another World.
An augmented reality application based on the game titled Bandori! Garupa AR! was distributed for a limited period starting January 9, 2018. In 2019, Girls Band Party! partnered with SCRAP Co. to organize "Find the Random Star!", an escape room-like game in which participants search for Kasumi's lost guitar by solving riddles located throughout the city. The event ran from December 4, 2019, to February 29, 2020, in Tokyo, Nagoya, and Osaka.
A Nintendo Switch port was released on September 16, 2021.
## Side projects
### Argonavis
In May 2018, Bushiroad revealed a male-centric project titled Argonavis from BanG Dream! (stylized as ARGONAVIS). Despite sharing the BanG Dream! name, Kidani emphasized that Argonavis takes place in a different world from the main series, meaning there would be no interactions between the characters of both projects. The titular band began performing in December; like their female counterparts, Argonavis plays their own music in addition to portraying characters. Argonavis also overlapped with the main franchise at the BanG Dream! 7th Live on February 22, 2019, where they served as the opening act for Raise A Suilen's Genesis concert. Manga artist Hikaru Miyoshi designed the characters and Nobuhiro Mōri wrote the story.
An Argonavis anime series produced by Sanzigen debuted on April 10, 2020. The Argonavis from BanG Dream! AAside mobile game, a sequel to the anime that adds additional bands, was released on January 14, 2021.
In November 2021, Bushiroad announced the project would be changed from Argonavis from BanG Dream! to From Argonavis (stylized with a lowercase "f"), spinning it off into its own subsidiary separate from the BanG Dream! franchise. A new company to manage the project, Argonavis Co., Ltd. was also established with Argonavis member Daisuke Hyūga as the public relations manager.
### MyGO!!!!!
On April 28, 2022, Bushiroad announced the formation of a band called MyGO!!!!!, which is promoted as "synchronizing" the real and virtual universes. While they have named characters, the identities of the band's voice cast have remained secret. Their first concert took place on July 3 with Morfonica's drummer Mika as a supporting musician, and they opened for the Special Live Girls Band Party! in November. The band released their debut single "Mayoiuta" on November 9.
An anime television series adaptation centered around MyGO!!!!! was announced on April 9, 2023. The series will be animated by Sanzigen and directed by Kodai Kakimoto, with Yuniko Ayana writing and supervising series scripts. It premiered on June 29, 2023, with three episodes premiering on the same day. Crunchyroll licensed the series.
### Virtual band
A band for VTubers, which entails being hired by Bushiroad's voice acting agency HiBiKi for online streaming, was created in 2022. Open auditions were held from July 22 to August 14, though applicants were not required to play instruments.
## Reception
BanG Dream! has received worldwide acclaim for its live concerts and Girls Band Party!. In 2017, Jessica Liong of ComicsVerse described the "biggest appeal" of the franchise as being "its live performers. The key, it seems, is to draw people in with anime girls and keep them with the glamor of real-life concerts." After Poppin'Party's debut single "Yes! BanG_Dream!" sold less than 1,500 copies in its first week and their second song "Star Beat!" had 3,414 in the same time frame, performances such as at Animelo Summer Live 2016 helped boost the initial-week sales of the third single "On Your New Journey / Tear Drops" to 11,301. By 2018, the band's singles regularly saw over 10,000–20,000 sales in their opening weeks.
The series has become a financial boon for Bushiroad. In 2018, it averaged over in annual revenue, making it one of the company's top-producing intellectual properties. From August 2017 to July 2018, Bushiroad's Weiß Schwarz brand experienced record sales after adding BanG Dream! cards to its collection. Girls Band Party! grossed (\$million) between 2017 and 2018, including in 2017 and in 2018; during the latter year, the game was the 15th-most successful mobile game and the second-most successful rhythm game in Japan in terms of revenue, only behind The Idolmaster Cinderella Girls: Starlight Stage. BanG Dream! has also collaborated with various entities for promotions like Pacific League baseball, the Lawson convenience store chain, and Seiko watches.
### Anime
The anime has garnered mixed but gradually improving reception over time. Although the first season had lukewarm responses, the second and third have been regarded in a more positive light by reviewers. Chris Beveridge of The Fandom Post, who reviewed the first two seasons, praised the franchise's preparation for the anime's later seasons by producing other media to flesh out the setting rather than hastily creating additional seasons.
The first season was one of the most-discussed shows on Japanese social media during the winter 2017 season. However, it received mediocre reviews with particular criticism aimed at its plot. In a "C−"-grade critique, Anime News Network's Christopher Farris described the story as being "one of the downright emptiest [he had] seen in anime in a long while", citing the lack of true adversity faced by the characters. Opinions on the animation and design were divided, with Farris calling it "a great-looking product overall" while Otaku USA writer Brittany Vincent—who noted other music shows like Love Live! also use CGI—wrote they "don't look particularly great". Although Vincent praised the show for having "a lot of heart", she added "there are more inspired choices out there" for music anime. Beveridge expressed his pleasure with the cast's realism, though he stressed the viewer's opinion of the characters "will make or break the show." He ultimately described BanG Dream! as a "solid and serviceable show that felt like a lot of other girl band shows." In a 2018 interview with Real Sound, Kidani admitted the unenthusiastic reception from Japanese audiences led him to shift his investment to promoting Girls Band Party! before its release.
Among Western reviewers, the second season was generally seen as an improvement story- and animation-wise. In an article for Polygon, Julia Lee listed the season as one of "six new anime series to watch this winter", praising the emphasis on the new bands and the switch to CGI "without losing much of the artistic style that made the first (season) pop." Farris questioned the inclusion of new characters without much introduction, writing it was a jarring transition for those unfamiliar to Girls Band Party!. Nevertheless, he commended its emotional impact and increase in musical numbers, grading the season as a "C+" as he felt there were "still a lot of caveats to iron out before it can be called a true success for all but the most devoted." Beveridge praised the season's performances for its fluid animation and "infectious energy" in the songs, and added that although he was not invested in the individual characters, he found it "incredibly easy to be engaged from episode to episode and enjoy the journey."
The third season enjoyed favorable responses from writers like Farris and The Fandom Post's Shawn Hacaga, the former issuing a "B+" grade and the latter—who considers himself a fan of the franchise—writing reviews for each episode. Describing the season as "a generally solid show in its own right," Farris praised the storyline for its concrete emphasis on the three main bands (Poppin'Party, Roselia, and Raise A Suilen) and its success in promoting the franchise's premise that "playing in a band with your friends for fun is the ultimate goal of performing". Hacaga lauded Raise A Suilen's story, prompting him to regard the season as exceeding his expectations in his review of the fourth and fifth episodes, and described the bands' growths throughout the season as "an absolute joy" to watch in his final critique.
## Discography
Eight bands (Poppin'Party, Roselia, Raise A Suilen, Morfonica, Afterglow, Pastel Palettes, Hello Happy World, and Glitter Green) have each released singles and albums, the latter of which include original and cover songs. Glitter Green's lone single "Don't be afraid!", which was used as an insert song for the anime's first season, was released in collaboration with Tantei Opera Milky Holmes.
Kō Nakamura and Elements Garden's Asuka Oda serve as the franchise's primary lyricists, with the former writing lyrics for most Poppin'Party songs while the latter does so for the others. Elements Garden's other members such as Noriyasu Agematsu and Junpei Fujita also compose and arrange music for the series. In 2021, the project introduced a series of "tie-up" partnership songs that are written and composed by artists outside of Elements Garden; the first song, "Introduction" performed by Poppin'Party, was the creation of Yoasobi's Ayase. Afterglow also teamed up with the band Flow for the song "Winner" as part of Flow's single "Dice".
Various songs from BanG Dream! have been used as theme music for other Bushiroad properties. Poppin'Party's "Excellent (Hey, Let's Go!)" and "B.O.F." served as an opening and ending theme for the Future Card Buddyfight series, respectively; Aimi and Nishimoto also voiced characters in the show. In 2020, Raise A Suilen performed the opening "Sacred world" for the anime Assault Lily Bouquet. The following year, RAS' "Exist" and "Embrace of light" were the themes to Joran: The Princess of Snow and Blood. In July, Poppin'Party and Argonavis performed the theme songs "A Song No More" and "Possibility", respectively, for Remake Our Life!; Aimi and Argonavis' Masahiro Itō also starred in the show. Poppin'Party's "Moonlight Walk" was also used as the ending for The Fruit of Evolution.
The Cardfight!! Vanguard series has also made regular use of the franchise's music for theme songs. Its 2018 reboot saw Roselia perform the opening "Legendary" and ending "Heroic Advent" (the latter appearing in the G: Z arc), while RAS was responsible for one of the reboot's endings "Unstoppable" and Cardfight!! Vanguard: High School Arc Cont.'s themes with "Invincible Fighter" and "Takin' My Heart". In 2021, the first season of Cardfight!! Vanguard overDress respectively featured Roselia's "ZEAL of proud" and Argonavis' "Y" as its opening and ending, while the second season utilized Morfonica's "Fateful..." as an ending. The 2018 Cardfight!! spin-off Bermuda Triangle: Colorful Pastrale'' had the Pastel Palettes song "Wonderland Girl" as its opening. |
47,437,890 | The Little Mother | 1,167,818,083 | null | [
"1910s American films",
"1911 drama films",
"1911 films",
"1911 lost films",
"American black-and-white films",
"American drama short films",
"American silent short films",
"Lost American drama films",
"Silent American drama films",
"Thanhouser Company films"
]
| The Little Mother is an American silent short drama film produced by the Thanhouser Company. The film stars Marie Eline who goes to her mother's employer and asks for her mother's job after she dies. Her employer is an artist with a kind heart and though the girl does not do the chores well. One of the artists models plot against him makes false charges against him, leading to his arrest. The little girl follows them and learns that they were out to obtain a large amount of money to have the false case dropped. She reports it to the police and the artist is freed, whereby he adopts the girl out of gratitude. Released on February 28, 1911, the film received mixed reviews. The film is presumed lost.
## Plot
The official summary synopsis of the film was published in The Moving Picture World. It states, "A poor widow who supports her two children, one a baby and the other girl of six, by scrubbing, weakens under her hard work, and finally dies. Marie, the 'little mother,' anxious that her home may not be broken up, calls on one of her mother's employers and requests that she be given a chance to take the dead woman's place. The artist, a wealthy, good-hearted man, pleased with the child's pluck, laughingly employs her, and makes her believe that she is really doing all the 'chores.' The artist's kindness, much to his surprise, brings him recompense one thousand fold [sic]. One of his models plots to fleece him. She calls at his studio, faints in his arms, and when her confederate rushes in with a policeman, she makes charges that lead to the arrest of the innocent artist. Just as the policeman is leading her benefactor away, the little scrub woman sees what is happening. She follows the party to the police station, but is afraid to enter. When the complainant and her husband come out, the child is impressed with the fact that they seem to be on the best of terms. Her suspicions are aroused, and she shadows them like a regular detective. What crook would ever imagine that a little girl, wheeling a baby carriage, was a sleuth? This pair certainly did not, for when they meet a new friend in the park, they stop to tell him how they successfully arranged to trim a rich artist, never doubting that he would pay liberally to have the case dropped. The little girl, from her place in hiding, heard the story. So the little girl found a policeman, and told him about it. And the policeman went with her to the hiding place, and heard enough to warrant him in making what he afterward described as a 'two handed collar.' The adventurous and her confederate were hailed to the police station and locked up, while the artist was set free in a hurry. The result is that there is now a 'scrub woman' whose duties are a sinecure although the wages are high, and the future of the 'little mother' and her baby are assured."
## Production
The only credit known in the production is that of Marie Eline in the role of the little mother. Known and advertised prominently as the "Thanhouser Kid", Marie Eline received more attention then other Thanhouser staff. Historian Q. David Bowers wrote, "Her versatile acting was a major contributor to the success that the Thanhouser Company enjoyed during its formative years." The film harkens back to the role played by Eline in her film debut, A 29-Cent Robbery, in which she played a child detective to capture a thief.
## Release and reception
The single reel drama, approximately 990 feet long, was released on February 28, 1911. The film received mixed reviews by critics with the sharpest criticism of the improbable and illogical feats the "little mother" would perform. The Billboard said, "There is too much of the made-to-order situations in this film, causing the spectator to stretch his imagination to the straining point. That a little tot can accomplish in a way of detective work the feat set to 'kid' actor in this film performs, is hardly logical. The acting of the Thanhouser tot is great, giving the picture the greater part of the interest it contains. The other players acquit themselves well." The Moving Picture World largely agreed, but stated that the film only had one or two parts of the film were weak and the photography and acting were good. The Morning Telegraph found that the film would have been more logical should a scene with a police court to release the artist, for the police would not have been able to release them otherwise after the charges had been brought forth. The New York Dramatic Mirror review however states that this scene did occur with Marie acting outside the room and being consulted by an officer, whereupon the action take place off camera. The reviewer also stated that the production was admirably staged and acted.
The film is presumed lost because the film is not known to be held in any archive or by any collector. |
59,952,797 | Xu Shunshou | 1,115,236,252 | Chinese aircraft designer | [
"1917 births",
"1968 deaths",
"20th-century Chinese translators",
"Chinese aircraft designers",
"Chinese colonels",
"Chinese expatriates in the United States",
"Engineers from Shanghai",
"Engineers from Zhejiang",
"National Central University alumni",
"People from Huzhou",
"People persecuted to death during the Cultural Revolution",
"People's Liberation Army Air Force personnel",
"People's Republic of China translators",
"Republic of China Air Force personnel",
"Russian–Chinese translators",
"Tsinghua University alumni"
]
| Xu Shunshou (Chinese: 徐舜寿; pinyin: Xú Shùnshòu; Wade–Giles: Hsü Shun-shou; 21 August 1917 – 6 January 1968) was a Chinese aircraft designer and a founder of the aircraft manufacturing industry in the People's Republic of China. He was the founding director of the PRC's first aircraft design organization (later the Shenyang Aircraft Design Institute), where he oversaw the development of the Shenyang JJ-1, the first jet aircraft designed in China. He trained many of the country's top aircraft designers and also participated in the design of the Nanchang CJ-6 trainer, the Nanchang Q-5 jet attack aircraft, and the Xian H-6 bomber. He was severely persecuted during the Cultural Revolution and died at the age of 50.
## Republic of China
Xu Shunshou was born on 21 August 1917 in Shanghai, Republic of China, the youngest child of Xu Yibing, an educator and a member of Sun Yat-sen's revolutionary group Tongmenghui. When he was three, his family returned to their hometown Nanxun, in Huzhou, Zhejiang Province. He lost his father at a young age. In 1930, Xu attended secondary school in Nanjing, then China's capital. Two years later, the January 28 incident broke out and the Japanese army attacked Shanghai and threatened Nanjing. For safety, Xu transferred to the missionary Kashing High School (now Xiuzhou High School) in Jiaxing, near his hometown.
Xu entered the Department of Mechanical Engineering of Tsinghua University in 1933. Upon graduation four years later with a bachelor's degree in aerospace engineering, he briefly worked at the Central Aircraft Manufacturing Company in Jianqiao, Hangzhou, before entering the special aviation mechanics program of the National Central University in Nanjing. The Second Sino-Japanese War soon broke out in July 1937 and Nanjing fell to Japanese occupation. The National Central University relocated to Chongqing, China's wartime capital. Upon graduation in March 1939, Xu joined the Republic of China Air Force and served at the technical research office of the air force's aviation committee in Chengdu.
In 1942, Xu was sent by the Kuomintang government to work and train at the McDonnell Aircraft Corporation in the United States, where he participated in the design of jet interceptors. After the end of World War II, Xu returned to China and worked at the No. 2 Aircraft Manufacturing Factory in Chongqing (later moved back to Nanchang after the war).
## People's Republic of China
When the Communist Party defeated the Kuomintang in the Chinese Civil War and established the People's Republic of China in 1949, Xu stayed in mainland China and worked for the Aviation Industry Bureau of the Ministry of Heavy Industry. As the PRC was receiving technical assistance from the Soviet Union, Xu taught himself Russian and translated several Russian books on aircraft engineering into Chinese. In 1954, he oversaw the manufacture of the Nanchang CJ-5 trainer aircraft, which was based on the Soviet Yakovlev Yak-18.
In August 1956, the Aviation Industry Bureau established the PRC's first airplane design office at Shenyang Aircraft Corporation, with Xu Shunshou as its director designer, Huang Zhiqian and Ye Zhengda as deputy directors. Xu led a team of 108 people, whose average age was only 22. Most team members were recent university graduates, and only three people: Xu, Huang, and Lu Xiaopeng, had any aircraft design experience.
The team's first task was to design a subsonic jet trainer, the Shenyang JJ-1. It was chosen because the PLA Air Force needed to train jet fighter pilots, and Shenyang Aircraft needed a relatively easy project to train its inexperienced designers. The project started in October 1956, and the plane took its maiden flight less than two years later, on 26 July 1958. According to GlobalSecurity.org, the development cycle was less than half that of similar planes designed in Japan and Czechoslovakia and the performance was superior.
The development of the JJ-1 marked a new era of China's aircraft manufacturing industry, and a number of Xu's team members, including Gu Songfen, Guan De, Tu Jida, Chen Yijian [zh], and Feng Zhongyue (冯钟越), later became China's top aircraft designers. After the JJ-1, Xu participated in the design of the Nanchang CJ-6 trainer, the Nanchang Q-5 jet attack aircraft, and the Xian H-6 bomber. He also designed wind tunnels used for aircraft development.
In May 1964, Xu was abruptly transferred from Shenyang to the 603 Design Institute of the Xi'an Aircraft Company in Yanliang, Shaanxi. At the time, the 603 Institute had few technical experts and no well defined development goal. He designed an air conditioning system for the Ilyushin Il-28 bomber and its Chinese version, the Harbin H-5, but mainly focused on training engineers and translating and writing technical literature.
## Death and legacy
When the Cultural Revolution began in 1966, Xu was summoned back to Shenyang Aircraft in June, where he was denounced as a "capitalist academic authority". He was subject to almost a year of struggle sessions, although he still had time to read and translate technical documents. In April 1967, Xu received permission to return to the 603 Institute, and thought his ordeal was over. On the contrary, as the country descended into deeper chaos, he was labelled a "capitalist reactionary authority", "capitalist roader", and "anti-Communist spy". Soon after returning to Yanliang, he was imprisoned and repeatedly tortured. On 6 January 1968, after undergoing a final round of torture, he died at age 50.
Xu was politically rehabilitated after the end of the Cultural Revolution in 1976. The No. 1 Aircraft Research Institute (the former 603 Institute) erected a bronze statue of him on its campus in Yanliang, and established the "Xu Shunshou Science and Technology Progress Award" in his memory. On 19 May 2005, the first anniversary of the establishment of Tsinghua University School of Aerospace Engineering, a life-size marble statue of Xu was dedicated in the main building of the school. In 2008, the China Aviation Industry Press published Xu's biography, written by Shi Yuanguang and Xu's former trainee, academician Gu Songfen.
## Family
Xu was the youngest of five siblings. His brother, Xu Chi, was a famous writer known for his popular biographies of Chen Jingrun and Li Siguang. His third sister, Xu He (徐和), was the wife of Wu Xiuquan, who served as Vice Foreign Minister of China.
Xu married Song Shubi (宋蜀碧) in 1946, whom he had met four years before while working in Chengdu. She was a writer and translator known for her Chinese translation of Aylmer Maude's The Life of Tolstoy. The couple had three children. Their daughter, Xu Fan (徐汎), was an official of the World Tourism Organization of the United Nations. Their elder son, Xu Wen (徐汶), was still in middle school when Xu Shunshou died. He worked in a brick factory for eight years, and entered college after the Cultural Revolution and became an aerospace engineer. Their youngest son, Xu Yuan (徐源), became a tenured professor of mathematics at an American university. |
248,601 | A Hard Day's Night (film) | 1,173,245,821 | 1964 British-American musical comedy film | [
"1960s British films",
"1960s English-language films",
"1960s teen films",
"1964 films",
"1964 musical comedy films",
"1964 musical films",
"British black-and-white films",
"British musical comedy films",
"British rock music films",
"Films about the Beatles",
"Films directed by Richard Lester",
"Films set in London",
"Films shot in London",
"Jukebox musical films",
"Rail transport films"
]
| A Hard Day's Night is a 1964 musical comedy film directed by Richard Lester and starring the English rock band the Beatles—John Lennon, Paul McCartney, George Harrison and Ringo Starr—during the height of Beatlemania. It was written by Alun Owen and originally released by United Artists. The film portrays 36 hours in the lives of the group as they prepare for a television performance.
The film was a financial and critical success and was nominated for two Academy Awards including Best Original Screenplay. Forty years after its release, Time magazine rated it as one of the 100 all-time great films. In 1997, British critic Leslie Halliwell described it as a "comic fantasia with music; an enormous commercial success with the director trying every cinematic gag in the book" and awarded it a full four stars. The film is credited as being one of the most influential of all musical films, inspiring the Monkees' television show and pop music videos, and various other low-budget musical film vehicles starring British pop groups, such as the Gerry and the Pacemakers film Ferry Cross the Mersey and John Boorman's vehicle for The Dave Clark Five, Catch Us If You Can.
In 1999, the British Film Institute ranked it the 88th greatest British film of the 20th century.
## Plot
The Beatles evade a horde of fans while boarding a train for London to film a televised concert. En route, they meet Paul McCartney's trouble-making grandfather for the first time. The band play cards and entertain some schoolgirls before arriving at the London station, where they are quickly driven to a hotel and begin to feel confined. Their manager Norm tasks them with answering all their fan mail, but they sneak out to party, only to be caught by Norm and taken back. They then find out that Paul's grandfather went to a gambling club using an invitation sent to Ringo, and they bring him back to the hotel.
The next day, the Beatles arrive at a TV studio for a performance. After the initial rehearsal, the producer assumes bad faith in them due to something Paul's grandfather said. After a mundane press conference, they leave through a fire escape and cavort in a field until forced off by the owner. Back in the studio, they are separated when a woman named Millie recognizes John Lennon but cannot recall who he is. George Harrison is lured into a trendmonger's office to audition for an advertisement with a popular model. The band return to rehearse a second song and, after a quick trip to makeup, smoothly go through a third and earn a break.
An hour before the final run-through, Ringo Starr is forced to chaperone Paul's grandfather and takes him to the canteen for tea while he reads a book. The grandfather manipulates Ringo into going outside to experience life rather than reading books, passing a surprised John and Paul on the way out. He tries to have a quiet drink in a pub, takes pictures, walks alongside the river and rides a bicycle along a railway station platform. After nearly injuring a parrot and accidentally causing a woman to fall into a newly dug hole, Ringo is apprehended by a policeman as a troublemaker, and shortly after he is joined by Paul's grandfather who had been attempting to sell Beatles photos with forged signatures. The grandfather runs back to the studio and tells the others about Ringo. Norm sends John, Paul and George to retrieve him. While doing so, the boys wind up in a Keystone Cops-style foot chase before arriving back at the studio, with Ringo, with only minutes to spare before airtime. The televised concert goes on as planned, after which the Beatles are whisked away to another performance via helicopter.
## Cast
- John Lennon as himself
- Paul McCartney as himself
- George Harrison as himself
- Ringo Starr as himself
- Wilfrid Brambell as John McCartney, Paul's grandfather
- Norman Rossington as Norm, the Beatles' manager
- John Junkin as Shake, the Beatles' road manager
- Victor Spinetti as the TV director
- Anna Quayle as Millie
- Deryck Guyler as police sergeant
- Richard Vernon as Johnson, the gentleman on the train
- Edward Malin as the hotel waiter
- Robin Ray as the TV floor manager
- Lionel Blair as the TV choreographer
- Alison Seebohm as Dolly, Simon Marshall's secretary
- David Janson (as David Jaxon) as Charley, a young boy Ringo encounters
Uncredited:
- Kenneth Haigh as Simon Marshall
- Julian Holloway as Adrian, Simon's assistant
- John Bluthal as a car thief
- Michael Trubshawe as the casino manager
- Margaret Nolan as the buxom girl at the casino
- Pattie Boyd as Jean, a blonde schoolgirl on the train
- Prudence Bury as Rita, a brunette schoolgirl on the train
- Jeremy Lloyd as a nightclub dancer
- Charlotte Rampling as a nightclub dancer
- Phil Collins as a schoolboy watching the Beatles' TV performance
- Marianne Stone as Society Reporter at theatre
- Derek Nimmo as Leslie Jackson, the magician
- Terry Hooper as casino croupier
## Songs
The film's credits incorrectly state that all songs are composed by John Lennon and Paul McCartney. In the film, a portion of "Don't Bother Me" can be heard which is a George Harrison composition. The instrumentals are recorded by the George Martin Orchestra.
- "A Hard Day's Night" (opening credits)
- "I Should Have Known Better"
- "I Wanna Be Your Man" (sample)
- "Don't Bother Me" (Harrison) (sample)
- "All My Loving" (sample)
- "If I Fell"
- "Can't Buy Me Love"
- "And I Love Her"
- "I'm Happy Just to Dance with You"
- "Ringo's Theme (This Boy)" (instrumental)
- "A Hard Day's Night" (sample, instrumental)
- "Can't Buy Me Love" (reprise)
- "Tell Me Why"
- "If I Fell" (reprise)
- "I Should Have Known Better" (reprise)
- "She Loves You"
- "A Hard Day's Night" (reprise; closing credits)
In addition to the soundtrack album, an EP (in mono) of songs from the film titled Extracts From The Film A Hard Day's Night was released by Parlophone on 6 November 1964, having the following tracks:
- Side A
1. "I Should Have Known Better"
2. "If I Fell"
- Side B
1. "Tell Me Why"
2. "And I Love Her"
### Song notes
- "I'll Cry Instead" was among several songs considered for the film but ultimately not included either as an on-camera performance or for usage as an audio-only track. It was to be used during the "escape/fire escape" sequence of the film, but ultimately director Richard Lester vetoed it because of its downbeat lyrics and it was replaced for that scene by "Can't Buy Me Love". Its status as an early contender for inclusion led to the song being included on the US soundtrack album.
- In the 1982 US theatrical reissue of the film by Universal Pictures, under licence from Walter Shenson, the song "I'll Cry Instead" was used as the audio track for a prologue sequence to the film which consisted of stills from the film and publicity photographs as a tribute to Lennon consisting of a "Swingin'" early to mid-1960s-style collage of photos of the Beatles in 1964 around the time they were shooting the film. The prologue was assembled without the involvement or knowledge of the film's director Richard Lester, who subsequently expressed his disapproval of the addition. The prologue was not included on the 2000 restoration of the film.
- The song "You Can't Do That" was filmed as part of the film's TV concert sequence but was not included in the final cut of the film. At a point before a decision had been made to excise the song from the film, footage of that performance had been sent by the filmmakers and Brian Epstein to be aired on The Ed Sullivan Show as a tease to promote the forthcoming release of the film. The clip aired on the Sullivan show on Sunday, 24 May 1964 in conjunction with an interview with The Beatles specially filmed by Sullivan in London. An extract of the footage of the song performance was included in the 1994 documentary The Making of "A Hard Day's Night".
- The song "I Call Your Name" was cut from the film for unknown reasons.
## Screenplay
The screenplay was written by Alun Owen, who was chosen because the Beatles were familiar with his play No Trams to Lime Street, and he had shown an aptitude for Liverpudlian dialogue. McCartney commented, "Alun hung around with us and was careful to try and put words in our mouths that he might've heard us speak, so I thought he did a very good script." Owen spent several days with the group, who told him their lives were like "a train and a room and a car and a room and a room and a room"; the character of Paul's grandfather refers to this in the dialogue. Owen wrote the script from the viewpoint that the Beatles had become prisoners of their own fame, their schedule of performances and studio work having become punishing.
The script comments cheekily on the Beatles' fame. For instance, at one point a fan, played by Anna Quayle, apparently recognises John Lennon, though she does not actually mention Lennon's name, saying only "you are...". He demurs, saying his face is not quite right for "him", initiating a surreal dialogue ending with the fan, after she puts on her glasses, agreeing that Lennon doesn't "look like him at all", and Lennon saying to himself that "she looks more like him than I do". Other dialogue is derived from actual interviews with the Beatles. When Ringo is asked if he's a mod or a rocker, he replies: "Uh, no, I'm a mocker", a line derived from a joke he made on the TV show Ready Steady Go! The frequent reference to McCartney's grandfather (Wilfrid Brambell) as a "clean old man" refers both to the Beatles constantly being called “very clean” and also sets up a contrast with the stock description of Brambell's character, Albert Steptoe in Steptoe and Son, as a "dirty old man".
Audiences also responded to the Beatles' brash social impudence. Director Richard Lester said, "The general aim of the film was to present what was apparently becoming a social phenomenon in this country. Anarchy is too strong a word, but the quality of confidence that the boys exuded! Confidence that they could dress as they liked, speak as they liked, talk to the Queen as they liked, talk to the people on the train who 'fought the war for them' as they liked. ... [Everything was] still based on privilege—privilege by schooling, privilege by birth, privilege by accent, privilege by speech. The Beatles were the first people to attack this... they said if you want something, do it. You can do it. Forget all this talk about talent or ability or money or speech. Just do it."
Despite the fact that the original working titles of the film were first The Beatles and then Beatlemania, the group's name is never spoken in the film.
## Production
The film was shot for United Artists (UA) using a cinéma vérité style in black-and-white. The film was meant to be released in July 1964, and since it was already March when Lester got to filming, the entire film had to be produced over a period of sixteen weeks. It had a low budget for its time of £200,000 (\$500,000) () and filming was finished in under seven weeks, leaving the rest of the time for post-production. At first, the film itself was something of a secondary consideration to UA, whose primary interest was in being able to release the soundtrack album in the United States before Capitol Records (the American EMI affiliate who had first shot at releasing Beatles music in the States) got around to issuing their material; in the words of Bud Ornstein, the European head of production for United Artists: "Our record division wants to get the soundtrack album to distribute in the States, and what we lose on the film we'll get back on this disc." As film historian Stephen Glynn put it, A Hard Day's Night was intended as "a low-budget exploitation film to milk the latest brief musical craze for all it was worth."
Unlike most productions, it was filmed in near sequential order, as stated by Lennon in 1964. Filming began on 2 March 1964 at Marylebone station in London (sometimes misidentified as Paddington). The Beatles had joined the actors' union, Equity, only that morning. The first week of filming was on a train travelling between London and Minehead. On 10 March, scenes with Ringo were shot at the Turk's Head pub in Twickenham, and over the following week various interior scenes were filmed at Twickenham Studios. From 23 to 30 March, filming moved to the Scala Theatre, and on 31 March, concert footage was shot there, although the group mimed to backing tracks. On the 17 March and the 17 April scenes were shot at the Les Ambassadeurs Club in Mayfair. The "Can't Buy Me Love" segment, which featured creative camera work and the band running and jumping around in a field was shot on 23 April 1964 at Thornbury Playing Fields, Isleworth, West London. The final scene was filmed the following day in West Ealing, London, where Ringo obligingly drops his coat over puddles for a lady to step on, only to discover that the final puddle is actually a large hole in the road.
Before A Hard Day's Night was released in America, a United Artists executive asked Lester to dub the voices of the group with mid-Atlantic accents. McCartney angrily replied, "Look, if we can understand a fucking cowboy talking Texan, they can understand us talking Liverpool." Lester subsequently directed the Beatles' 1965 film, Help!
The film's costumes—except for those of the Beatles themselves—were designed by Julie Harris. The clothes of the Beatles were credited to Dougie Millings & Son.
### Casting
Irish actor Wilfrid Brambell, who played Paul McCartney's fictional grandfather John McCartney, was already well known to British television audiences as co-star of the British sitcom Steptoe and Son. The recurring joke that he was very "clean" reflects a contrast to his sitcom role, where he was always referred to as a "dirty old man". For American audiences the comment was more of a spoof on the Beatles continually being referenced as "very clean". Norman Rossington played the Beatles' manager Norm, John Junkin played the group's road manager Shake, and Victor Spinetti played the television director. Brian Epstein, the group's real manager, had an uncredited bit part.
The supporting cast included Richard Vernon as the "city gent" on the train and Lionel Blair as a featured dancer. There were also various cameos. John Bluthal played a car thief and an uncredited Derek Nimmo appeared as magician Leslie Jackson. David Janson (billed as David Jaxon here) played the small boy met by Ringo on his "walkabout". Rooney Massara, who went on to compete in the 1972 Munich Olympics, was the sculler in the river in the "walkabout" scene by the river at Kew (uncredited). Kenneth Haigh appeared as an advertising executive who mistakes George for a "new phenomenon". David Langton also made a cameo appearance as an actor in the dressing room scene.
Mal Evans, one of the Beatles' road managers, also appears briefly in the film—moving an upright bass through a tight hallway as Lennon talks with the woman who mistakes him for someone else.
George Harrison met his wife-to-be, Patricia Boyd, on the set when she made a brief (uncredited) appearance as one of the schoolgirls on the train. His initial overtures to her were spurned because she had a boyfriend at the time, but he persisted and they were married within 18 months. The girl with Boyd in the dining car scene is Prudence Bury. Phil Collins, later a member of the band Genesis, was an uncredited schoolboy extra in the concert audience and would subsequently go on to be a very successful musician in his own right. Playing the buxom woman with Paul's grandfather in the casino scene was popular British 1960s pinup model Margaret Nolan (aka Vicky Kennedy), who also appeared as "Dink", the golden girl during the opening credits of the James Bond film Goldfinger, later that same year.
### Cut for BBFC
The film had to be edited slightly to obtain the U certificate for British cinemas. The phrase "get knotted" (allegedly in reel 7 of the original submission) was judged inappropriate for a U film and had to be removed. When the film was submitted for release on VHS, the British Board of Film Censors (BBFC) could not locate the phrase and presumed that the clip was "pre-cut", but stated that the phrase was no longer of any concern. The BBFC noted a number of innuendos and one subtle reference to cocaine, but concluded that it was still within the "natural category" for a U certificate.
## Reception
The film premiered at the Pavilion Theatre in London on 6 July 1964—the eve of Ringo Starr's 24th birthday—and the soundtrack was released four days later. A Hard Day's Night set records at the London Pavilion by grossing over \$20,000 in the first week, ultimately becoming so popular that more than 1,600 prints were in circulation simultaneously.
### Critical response
Reviews of the film were mostly positive; one oft-quoted assessment was provided by Andrew Sarris of The Village Voice, labeling A Hard Day's Night "the Citizen Kane of jukebox musicals." When The Village Voice published the results of its first annual film poll, A Hard Day's Night placed second behind Stanley Kubrick's Dr. Strangelove. On Rotten Tomatoes the film holds an approval rating of 98% based on 112 reviews, with an average rating of 8.50/10. The website's critics consensus reads: "A Hard Day's Night, despite its age, is still a delight to watch and has proven itself to be a rock-and-roll movie classic." It is number four on Rotten Tomatoes' list of the Top Ten Musicals and Performing Arts films. On Metacritic, it has a weighted average score of 96 out of 100, based on 24 critics, indicating "universal acclaim".
Time magazine called the film "One of the smoothest, freshest, funniest films ever made for purposes of exploitation." Film critic Roger Ebert described the film as "one of the great life-affirming landmarks of the movies", and added it to his list of The Great Movies. In 2004, Total Film magazine named A Hard Day's Night the 42nd greatest British film of all time. In 2005, Time.com named it one of the 100 best films of the last 80 years. Leslie Halliwell gave the film his highest rating, four stars, the only British film of 1964 to achieve that accolade.
The New York Times film critic Bosley Crowther noted the film was a subtle satire on Beatlemania and the Beatles themselves. The Beatles are portrayed as likeable young lads who are constantly amazed at the attention they receive and who want nothing more than a little peace and quiet; however, they have to deal with screaming crowds, journalists who ask nonsensical questions, and authority figures who constantly look down upon them. In fact, their biggest problem is McCartney's elderly, but "clean" grandfather, played by Wilfrid Brambell. The New Yorker critic Brendan Gill wrote: "Though I don't pretend to understand what makes these four rather odd-looking boys so fascinating to so many scores of millions of people, I admit that I feel a certain mindless joy stealing over me as they caper about uttering sounds."
A Hard Day's Night was nominated for two Academy Awards: for Best Screenplay (Alun Owen), and Best Score (Adaptation) (George Martin).
By 1971, the film was estimated to have earned \$11 million worldwide ().
## Influence
British critic Leslie Halliwell states the film's influence as "it led directly to all the kaleidoscopic swinging London spy thrillers and comedies of the later sixties". In particular, the visuals and storyline are credited with inspiring The Monkees' television series. The "Can't Buy Me Love" segment borrowed stylistically from Richard Lester's earlier The Running Jumping & Standing Still Film, and it is this segment, in particular using the contemporary technique of cutting the images to the beat of the music, which has been cited as a precursor of modern music videos. Roger Ebert goes even further, crediting Lester for a more pervasive influence, even constructing "a new grammar": "he influenced many other films. Today when we watch TV and see quick cutting, hand-held cameras, interviews conducted on the run with moving targets, quickly intercut snatches of dialogue, music under documentary action and all the other trademarks of the modern style, we are looking at the children of A Hard Day's Night". Film theorist James Monroe writes, "The lively 1960s films of Richard Lester—especially his Musicals A Hard Day's Night (1964), Help! (1965), and A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum (1966)—popularized jump cuts, rapid and 'ungrammatical' cutting. Over time, his brash editorial style became a norm, now celebrated every night around the world in hundreds of music videos on MTV and in countless commercials." A Hard Day's Night also inspired a 1965 film featuring Gerry and the Pacemakers, entitled Ferry Cross the Mersey. In an interview for the DVD re-release of A Hard Day's Night, Lester said he had been labelled the father of MTV and had jokingly responded by asking for a paternity test.
## Title
The film's title originated from something said by Ringo Starr, who described it this way in an interview with disc jockey Dave Hull in 1964: "We went to do a job, and we'd worked all day and we happened to work all night. I came up still thinking it was day I suppose, and I said, 'It's been a hard day ...' and I looked around and saw it was dark so I said, '... night!' So we came to A Hard Day's Night."
According to Lennon in a 1980 interview with Playboy magazine: "I was going home in the car, and Dick Lester suggested the title, 'Hard Day's Night' from something Ringo had said. I had used it in In His Own Write, but it was an off-the-cuff remark by Ringo. You know, one of those malapropisms. A Ringo-ism, where he said it not to be funny... just said it. So Dick Lester said, 'We are going to use that title.'"
In a 1994 interview for The Beatles Anthology, however, McCartney disagreed with Lennon's recollections, recalling that it was the Beatles, and not Lester, who had come up with the idea of using Starr's verbal misstep: "The title was Ringo's. We'd almost finished making the film, and this fun bit arrived that we'd not known about before, which was naming the film. So we were sitting around at Twickenham studios having a little brain-storming session ... and we said, 'Well, there was something Ringo said the other day.' Ringo would do these little malapropisms, he would say things slightly wrong, like people do, but his were always wonderful, very lyrical ... they were sort of magic even though he was just getting it wrong. And he said after a concert, 'Phew, it's been a hard day's night.'"
Yet another version of events appeared in 1996; producer Walter Shenson said that Lennon had described to him some of Starr's funnier gaffes, including "a hard day's night", whereupon Shenson immediately decided that that was going to be the title of the film.
Regardless of which of these origin stories is the true one, the original tentative title for the film had been "Beatlemania" and when the new title was agreed upon, it became necessary to write and quickly record a new title song, which was completed on 16 April, just eight days before filming was finished. John Lennon wrote the song in one night, (credited to Lennon-McCartney) writing the lyrics on the back of a birthday card sent to his young son Julian, and it went on to win a Grammy for Best Performance by a Vocal Group.
The film was titled Yeah Yeah Yeah in Germany and Sweden, Tutti Per Uno (All for One) in Italy, Quatre garçons dans le vent (Four Boys in the Wind) in France Yeah! Yeah! Tässä tulemme! (Yeah! Yeah! Here We Come!) in Finland and Os Reis do Iê-Iê-Iê (The Kings of Yeah-yeah-yeah) in Brazil.
## Novelisation
In 1964, Pan Books published a novelisation of the film by author John Burke, described as "based on the original screenplay by Alun Owen". The book was priced at two shillings and sixpence and contained an 8-page section of photographs from the film. It is the first book in the English language to have the word 'grotty' in print.
## Release history
- 1964: A Hard Day's Night was released by United Artists.
- 1967: The film premiered on American television on the NBC network on 24 October; the usual Peacock introduction, which preceded all NBC color broadcasts of the era, was replaced by a humorous black-and-white animated cartoon penguin, with cartoon representations of the Beatles jumping out of its stomach, as A Hard Day's Night was not shot in color;
- 1970: The film premiered on UK television on BBC1 on 28 December. John Lennon watched the broadcast at home and was inspired to write the song "I'm the Greatest", which was later recorded by Ringo Starr on his 1973 album Ringo.
- 1979: Rights to the film were transferred to its producer, Walter Shenson;
- 1982: Universal Pictures, under license from Shenson, reissued the film in theaters. This release included a prologue consisting of production stills set to the song "I'll Cry Instead", which would remain on subsequent home video editions until 2000;
- 1984: MPI Home Video, under license from Shenson, first released A Hard Day's Night on home video in the VHS, Betamax, CED Videodisc, and Laserdisc formats, which all included the prologue.
- The film was also released by Janus Films as part of The Criterion Collection in both a single-disc CLV and a DualDisc CAV Laserdisc format. The additional features section on the CAV edition include the original theatrical trailer, an interview with Richard Lester, and his The Running Jumping & Standing Still Film.
- There were notable pitch problems with the songs in this version, precisely one semitone lower than the original recordings. This was fixed in subsequent releases.
- 1993: Voyager Company produced a CD-ROM for Mac and PC platforms with video in QuickTime 1 format, containing most of Criterion's elements, including the original script.
- 1997: MPI Home Video released the first DVD edition. It contains the 1982 prologue and trailer, newsreels, an interview with Richard Lester, and The Running Jumping & Standing Still Film.
- 2000: Miramax Films reissued the film in theatres in the United States and then as a collector's edition DVD two years later, as well as its final issue in the VHS format. The film had been transferred from the restored 35 mm negative and presented in 1.66:1 Widescreen. The prologue that Universal added in 1982 is absent on the Miramax releases.
- In addition to the original film, the DVD edition contained a bonus disc with over 7 hours of additional material including interviews with cast and crew members and Beatles associates. The DVD was produced by Beatles historian and producer Martin Lewis, a longtime friend of Walter Shenson.
- 2009: The film was released on Blu-ray Disc in Canada; however, the disc is region free and will play in any Blu-ray machine. It contains most of the 2000 DVD bonus features.
- 2010: Miramax was sold by Disney to Filmyard Holdings, LLC, and the home video sub-licence transferred to Lionsgate, although no U.S. Blu-ray release date had been announced.
- 2011: A new Blu-ray edition was released in Mexico, this version has Spanish subtitles.
- 2014: Janus Films acquired the rights to the film from Miramax (on behalf of the Shenson Estate, managed by Bruce A. Karsh) and announced a domestic video re-release via The Criterion Collection on 24 June 2014. This dual-format edition (which incorporates the first ever U.S. issue on Blu-ray) contains various supplements from all previous video re-issues. This marks the return of this film to Criterion for the first time in two decades. The film was also released in theaters across the U.S. and in the UK (by Metrodome in the latter region) on 4 July 2014. On 6 July 2014, the film was shown in re-mastered HD on BBC Four in the UK to mark its 50th anniversary. Criterion's DVD/Blu-ray release of A Hard Day's Night was duplicated by Umbrella Entertainment in Australia (released 2 July) and Second Sight Films in the UK (released 21 July).
- 2015: On 15 December, Criterion re-released their Blu-ray as part of The Rock Box, a collection of rock music-related films that also includes Monterey Pop (1968), Gimme Shelter (1970) and Quadrophenia (1979).
- 2022: On 11 August 2021, Criterion announced their first 4K Ultra HD releases, a six-film slate, will include A Hard Day's Night. Criterion indicate each title will be available in a 4K UHD+Blu-ray combo pack including a 4K UHD disc of the feature film as well as the film and special features on the companion Blu-ray. A Hard's Day Night was released on 18 January 2022.
### 40th anniversary cast and crew reunion screening
On 6 July 2004, the 40th anniversary of the film's world premiere, a private cast and crew reunion screening was hosted in London by DVD producer Martin Lewis. The screening was attended by McCartney, actors Victor Spinetti, John Junkin, David Janson and many crew members. In media interviews at the event, McCartney disclosed that while he had seen the film many times on video, he had not seen the film on the "big screen" since its 1964 premiere.
## See also
- 1964 in film |
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"Transportation in Aurora, Colorado",
"Transportation in Denver"
]
| Federico Peña Boulevard, named for former Denver Mayor Federico Peña, is an 11.1-mile-long (17.9 km) freeway located in Adams County and the City and County of Denver, Colorado. The freeway, which opened in 1993, provides the primary vehicular access into Denver International Airport which opened at the same time. Peña Boulevard begins as an extension of Airport Boulevard in Aurora at an interchange with Interstate 70 (I-70) and travels north, then east to end at the airport, with an intermediate interchange with the E-470 tollway.
## Route description
Peña Boulevard begins at an interchange with I-70 in Aurora as a northern continuation of Airport Boulevard. The first freeway interchange is at East 40th Avenue, which also provides traffic access to and from to Aurora's Airport Boulevard running to the south. Travelers leaving the airport use this exit for access to eastbound I-70 through the adjacent Airport Boulevard/I-70 interchange. Travelers inbound to the airport from I-70 East do not have access to the first interchange. Continuing north, the freeway leaves Aurora and passes into the Denver Gateway area, Aurora's Gateway Park development is adjacent. An interchange with Green Valley Ranch Boulevard provides access to the neighborhood of the same name. The East 56th Avenue interchange is the final exit along Peña Boulevard before it turns east near the Rocky Mountain Arsenal National Wildlife Refuge, and reaches the interchange with Tower Road, which serves several airport hotels.
The only intermediate freeway interchange on Peña Boulevard is a full cloverleaf interchange with the tolled E-470, which provides an alternate north–south route to I-25 for travelers wishing to bypass on the eastern side of Metropolitan Denver area. E-470 also intersects I-70 and has a ten-mile-per-hour (16 km/h) higher speed limit than Peña Boulevard. The interchange with E-470 is the easternmost exit before entering Denver International Airport. Once inside airport grounds, the freeway intersects the car rental return area, and connects to the parking garages and terminal access roads.
The segment of the freeway between I-70 and E-470 is listed on the National Highway System (NHS), a system of roads that are important to the nation's economy, defense and mobility. The portion between E-470 and the airport is listed as a MAP-21 NHS Principal Arterial.
## History
Construction of the \$18 million (equivalent to \$ in ) freeway, which opened in 1995, was halted for six weeks during summer 1992 due to a family of burrowing owls living in the right-of-way near the interchange at 56th Avenue. Ten thousand people were employed during the construction of the airport and the connecting freeway. Originally the toll booths that served the parking lots were located 3.5 mi (5.6 km) from the entrance to the airport causing delays for persons just dropping off people at the airport. The toll booth was removed in 2000, and new booths were installed at the exits of the airport parking garages. Peña Boulevard was named for Federico Peña because he was very influential in bringing about the construction of Denver International Airport. In October 2018, a missing ramp at Tower Road and Peña Blvd. was finally added and opened to the public in October 2018, completing the interchange.
## Future
The Denver City Council has approved an expansion of the freeway; the project will add lanes, modify interchanges, add new signage, and modify many areas along the route at a cost of \$93 million. The Jackson Gap interchange will become a Diverging diamond interchange, with a Texas U-turn style ramp between the westbound Peña off-ramp and eastbound Peña onramp for traffic to return to the terminal. The project is expected to begin in January 2020, and last around two-and-a-half years.
## Exit list
## See also |
1,254,248 | Jacob Pavlovich Adler | 1,166,373,621 | Russian, British, and American Yiddish-language actor (1855–1926) | [
"1855 births",
"1926 deaths",
"Actors from Odesa",
"American people of Ukrainian-Jewish descent",
"Emigrants from the Russian Empire to the United Kingdom",
"Jewish American male actors",
"Jewish Ukrainian actors",
"Odesa Jews",
"People from Odessky Uyezd",
"Yiddish theatre performers"
]
| Jacob Pavlovich Adler (Yiddish: יעקבֿ פּאַװלאָװיטש אַדלער; born Yankev P. Adler; February 12, 1855 – April 1, 1926) was a Jewish actor and star of Yiddish theater, first in Odessa, and later in London and in New York City's Yiddish Theater District.
Nicknamed "nesher hagodol", ("the Great Eagle", Adler being the German for "eagle"), he achieved his first theatrical success in Odessa, but his career there was rapidly cut short when Yiddish theater was banned in Russia in 1883. He became a star in Yiddish theater in London, and in 1889, on his second voyage to the United States, he settled in New York City. Adler soon started a company of his own, ushering in a new, more serious Yiddish theater, most notably by recruiting the Yiddish theater's first realistic playwright, Jacob Gordin. Adler scored a great triumph in the title role of Gordin's Der Yiddisher King Lear (The Jewish King Lear), set in 19th-century Russia, which along with his portrayal of Shakespeare's Shylock would form the core of the persona he defined as the "Grand Jew".
Nearly all his family went into theater; probably the most famous was his daughter Stella, who taught method acting to, among others, Marlon Brando.
## Childhood and youth
Adler was born in Odessa, Russian Empire (now Ukraine). Adler's father Feivel (Pavel) Abramovitch Adler was a (rather unsuccessful) grain merchant. His mother, née Hessye Halperin, was a tall, beautiful woman, originally from a wealthy family in Berdichev. She became estranged from her family after divorcing her first husband (and leaving behind a son) to marry Adler's father. The marriage to a divorcée cost Feivel Adler (and therefore Jacob Adler) his status as a Kohen (priest). His paternal grandfather lived with them for some eight years; he was a pious man, and the family was much more observant of Jewish religious practices during the time he lived with them. However, according to Adler, the real patriarch of the family was his wealthy uncle Aaron "Arke" Trachtenberg, who would later be the model for his portrayal of roles such as Gordin's Jewish King Lear.
Adler grew up with one foot in a traditional Jewish world and one in a more modern, European one. His granddaughter Lulla Rosenfeld writes, "Of the haskala [Jewish Enlightenment] as an organized system of ideas, he probably knew little or nothing." His education was irregular: as the family fortunes rose and fell, he would be sent to cheder (Jewish religious school) or to a Russian language county school, pulled out of school entirely, or have a private tutor for a few months. He wrote that "the sum of my learning was a little arithmetic, some Russian grammar, and a few French phrases."
He grew up with both Jewish and Christian playmates, but also survived one of the Odessa pogroms around 1862. He played hooky; as a 12-year-old he started going to witness public floggings, brandings, and executions of criminals; later he would develop more of an interest in attending courtroom trials. At 14 he began working in a textile factory, and soon rose to a white collar job there at a salary of 10 rubles a month, which would have been decent even for an adult. Still living at home, he began to frequent the disreputable district of Moldovanka. His first brush with stardom was that he briefly became a boxer, known as Yankele Kulachnik, "Jake the Fist". He soon got bored with boxing, but not with his new connections to the "sons of rich fathers, attorneys without diplomas", etc. A good dancer, he became part of a crowd of young toughs who regularly crashed wedding parties. His local celebrity continued, with a reputation as Odessa's best can-can dancer.
He left the factory, becoming a raznoschik, a peddler; his memoir hints at back-door assignations with "servant girls and chambermaids"; by his own description, his life at this point was just a step from a life of crime. Through his uncle Arke, "a hot theater lover", he became interested in the theater, at first in the beauty of Olga Glebova and the cut of Ivan Kozelsky's clothes, but he had the good fortune to be in one of the great theater cities of his time.
At 17 he became the leader of Glebova's claque, was working as a copyist for lawyers, and going out to a theater, a tavern, or a party every night. He would later draw on his own life at this time for his portrayal of Protosov in Tolstoy's The Living Corpse. Over the next few years he had numerous love affairs, and was prevented from a love marriage with one Esther Raizel because his own dubious reputation compounded the taint of his mother's divorce. He survived another pogrom, but his family was financially ruined by the destruction of their possessions and the theft of their money.
In writing about this period in his memoir, Adler mentions attending and admiring performances by Israel Grodner, a Brody singer and improvisational actor who would soon become one of the founders of professional Yiddish theater. A song of Grodner's about an old father turned away by his children would later be the germ of the idea for The Yiddish King Lear. He writes that he would have become a Brody singer, like Grodner, except "I had no voice". This lack of a singing voice would be a major factor in the direction of his acting career: according to Rosenfeld, although Yiddish theater was long dominated by vaudevilles and operettas, "He was the only Yiddish actor to rely entirely on classics and translations of modern European plays."
## Sanitar and Inspector
The outbreak of the Russo-Turkish War brought on universal conscription of young men. At his family's urging, Adler bribed his way into becoming a sanitar, an assistant in the Red Cross Medical Corps. He was selected (apparently on little more than his appearance) by Prince Vladimir Petrovich Meshersky to work at a German hospital in Bender, Moldova, dealing mainly with typhus patients. In his four months there, he became a favorite with the established Jewish families there, and earned a Gold Medal for Outstanding Achievement for his brief service to the Tsar.
Returning to Odessa, he got a job distributing newspapers. This respectable work required getting up at 6 a.m., not good for a carouser. Still, newspaper connection meant that he soon heard of one of the war's other effects: the many Jewish merchants and middlemen war brought to Bucharest were a boon to Abraham Goldfaden's nascent Yiddish theater there. Two of his Odessa acquaintances—Israel Rosenberg, a personable con-man, and Jacob Spivakofsky, scion of a wealthy Jewish family—had become actors there, then had left Goldfaden to found their own company, touring in Moldavia. Adler wrote them to urge them to bring their troupe to Odessa.
Adler managed to leverage a recommendation from Prince Meshersky and another from Avrom Markovich Brodsky—a businessman so successful as to have earned the nickname "the Jewish Tsar"—to get a job as a marketplace inspector for the Department of Weights and Measures, rather unusual for a Jew at that time. His mildly corrupt tenure there gave him good contacts with the police. These would soon come in handy for smoothing over certain problems of a young and unlicensed theater troupe when Rosenberg and Spivakofsky returned from Romania, penniless because the end of the war had meant the collapse of Yiddish theater in the provinces, and ready to start a troupe in Odessa.
Adler aspired to be an actor, but found himself at first serving the troupe more as critic and theoretician, making use of his now-vast knowledge of Russian theater. The first productions (Goldfaden's Grandmother and Granddaughter and Shmendrick) were popular successes, but Adler's own account suggests that they were basically mediocre, and his Uncle Arke was appalled: "Is this theater? No my child, this is a circus."
## Acting career
Lulla Rosenfeld's remark that Adler "...rel[ied] entirely on classics and translations of modern European plays" does not quite tell the whole story. On one hand, he was also responsible for recruiting the Yiddish theater's first naturalistic playwright, Jacob Gordin, and he scored a great triumph in the title role of Gordin's Der Yiddisher King Lear (The Jewish King Lear), set in 19th-century Russia. On the other, until his 50s, he was not hesitant to take advantage of his prowess as a dancer, and even occasionally took on roles that called for some singing, although by all accounts (including his own) this was not his forte.
### Ukraine, Moldova, Belarus, Poland, Lithuania, Latvia, Russia
Adler wrote in his memoir that the passion of his future wife Sonya Oberlander (and of her family) for theater, and their vision of what Yiddish theater could become, kept him in the profession despite his uncle's view. When she was cast by Rosenberg opposite Jacob Spivakovsky in the title role of Abraham Goldfaden's darkly comic operetta Breindele Cossack, she pulled strings so that the role of Guberman would be reassigned to Adler.
His success in the role was cut short by the news that Goldfaden, whose plays they were using without permission, was coming with his troupe to Odesa. Goldfaden's own account says he came there at the urging of his father; Adler attributes it to Rosenberg and Spivakovsky's "enemies". Rosenberg, never the most ethical of men, withdrew his troupe from Odesa to tour the hinterland (soon, though, he would come to an accommodation by which his troupe would be an officially recognized touring company attached to Goldfaden's own troupe). (For greater detail on Adler's time with Rosenberg's company, see Israel Rosenberg.)
By his own account, Adler took a leave of absence from his job to travel with Rosenberg's troupe to Kherson, where he made a successful acting debut as the lover Marcus in The Witch of Botoşani. He overstayed his leave, lost his government post, and the decision to become a full-time actor was effectively made for him. Adler was unhappy that under Tulya Goldfaden there were "No more communistic shares, no more idealistic comradeship". Still, under this same Goldfaden regime he had his first taste of real stardom when people in Chişinău camped in the courtyards awaiting performances. Even the police seemed to have "fallen in love" with the troupe, dressing up the actors in their uniforms at riotous parties after shows, while trying on the troupe's costumes themselves.
Unsatisfied with the low pay, in Kremenchuk Adler led an unsuccessful actors' strike. A series of intrigues almost led to a breakup with Sonya, but ultimately led both back into Rosenberg's troupe and led to their marriage in Poltava. When this particular troupe broke up, the Adlers were among the few players to remain with Rosenberg to form a new one that included the actress who later became famous under the name of Keni Liptzin. In Chernihiv, Adler turned down the opportunity to act in a Russian-language production of Boris Gudonov. Around this time Goldfaden appeared again and, after using an elaborate intrigue to demonstrate to the Adlers that Rosenberg had no loyalty to them, recruited them to his own troupe, which at the time appeared to be headed for a triumphant entry into Saint Petersburg.
All that changed with the assassination of Tsar Alexander II. The mourning for the tsar meant there would be no performances in the capital; in addition the political climate of Russia turned sharply against the Jews. Goldfaden's troupe soldiered on for a time—to Minsk (Belarus), to Bobruisk where they played mainly to Russian soldiers, and to Vitebsk, where he and Sonya ended up having to sue Goldfaden for their pay, and left to rejoin Rosenberg, who was playing in a tent theater in Nizhyn. However, matters there proved even worse: Nizhyn soon fell prey to a pogrom. The troupe managed to avoid bodily harm, partly by convincing the rioters that they were a French theater troupe and partly by making judicious use of the money the Adlers had won in court from Goldfaden.
In Łódź, Adler triumphantly played the title role in Karl Gutzkow's Uriel Acosta, the first of a series of roles through which he developed a persona he would later call "the Grand Jew". After Łódź, they landed in Zhytomyr, under an incompetent investor/director named Hartenstein. They thought they had found "a quiet corner" of the Russian Empire in which "to make a bit of a livelihood", but in fact Hartenstein was simply running through his money.
The financial consequences of the collapse of their company were mitigated by a series of three benefit performances, in coordination with the local Russian-language theater company. Sonya returned to Odessa to give birth to their daughter Rivka; Adler stayed on six weeks in Zhytomyr and had sort of a belated apprenticeship with two Russian character actors of national fame, Borisov and Philipovsky. However, he returned to Odesa thinking that he would most likely leave theater behind.
Late in life, when he looked back at his years acting in Adler and Goldfaden's companies, Adler saw it as merely the "childhood" of his career. He describes his thoughts toward the end of this period, "For three years I had wandered in the cave of the Witch in the clown's rags of Shmendrick and what did I really know of my trade?... If someday I return to the Yiddish theater, let me at least not be so ignorant."
Returning to Odesa, he discovered that no one would employ him in any job other than as an actor. In 1882, he put together a troupe of his own with Keni Liptzin, and brought Rosenberg in as a partner. This troupe toured to Rostov, Taganrog, around Lithuania, to Dünaburg (now Daugavpils, Latvia). Aiming to bring the troupe to Saint Petersburg, they brought back their sometime manager Chaikel Bain. They were in Riga in August 1883 when the news arrived that a total ban was about to be placed on Yiddish theater in Russia.
The troupe were left stranded in Riga. Chaikel Bain took ill and died. With some difficulty, passage to London for the troupe was arranged on a cattle ship, in exchange for entertaining the crew. However, about this time Israel Grodner and his wife Annetta reappeared. Adler wanted to include them in the group headed for London. According to Adler, Rosenberg, who played many of the same roles as Israel Grodner, essentially told Adler "it's him or me". Adler attempted to convince him to change his mind, but insisted on including Grodner in the travel party: Adler considered him one of the best actors in Yiddish theater, a great asset to any performances they would give in London, while he felt Rosenberg lacked depth as an actor. He tried to get Rosenberg to come with them to London, but Rosenberg would not budge.
### London
Of his time in London, Adler wrote, " if Yiddish theater was destined to go through its infancy in Russia, and in America grew to manhood and success, then London was its school."
Adler arrived in London with few contacts. In Whitechapel, the center of Jewish London at that time, he encountered extremes of poverty that he describes as exceeding any he had ever seen in Russia or would ever see in New York. The Chief Rabbi of the British Empire at that time, Dr. Nathan Marcus Adler, was a relative. Adler's father had written him a letter of introduction in Hebrew, but nothing could have been farther from the rabbi's desires than to assist Yiddish-language theater. Nathan Marcus Adler viewed Yiddish as a "jargon" that existed at the expense of both liturgical Hebrew and the English necessary for upward mobility, and his Orthodox Judaism "could not endure so much as a blessing given on stage, for such a blessing would be given in vain"; further, he was afraid that the portrayals of Jews on stage would give aid and comfort to their enemies.
At this time, Yiddish theater in London meant amateur clubs. The arrival of professional Yiddish actors from Russia worked great changes, bringing Yiddish theater in London to a new level and allowing a modest professionalism, though never at much more than a poverty wage. Adler's memoir acknowledges many people who helped him out in various ways. Eventually, with the aid in particular of Sonya's relative Herman Fiedler—a playwright, orchestra leader, and stage manager—the Adlers and the Grodners were able to take over the Prescott Street Club. There they presented generally serious theater to audiences of about 150. Fiedler adapted The Odessa Beggar from Felix Pyat's The Ragpicker of Paris, a tragicomic play written on the eve of the Revolutions of 1848. Adler starred in it, in a role he would continue to play throughout his career.
Two months later, he played Uriel Acosta at the Holborn Theatre to an audience of 500, including the "Jewish aristocrats of the West End". The piety of the London Jews was such that they had to use an (unplayable) cardboard ram's horn so as to avoid blasphemy. Chief Rabbi Adler and his son and eventual successor Hermann Adler were present, and both, especially the younger rabbi, were favorably impressed. There were even mentions in the English-language press.
Playing to small audiences, on tiny stages, in communal troupes where all but the stars had day jobs, and playing only Saturday and Sunday (the pious London Jews would never have tolerated Friday performances), Adler focused on serious theater like never before. However, he and Grodner soon fell out: they wrangled over ideology and over parts, and their verbal duels boiled over into improvised stage dialogue. The Grodners ultimately left to do theater in a series of other locations, notably Paris, but eventually came back to London, where Israel Grodner died in 1887.
By November 1885, Adler had a theatrical club of his own, the Princes Street Club, No. 3 Princes Street (now Princelet Street, E1), purpose-built, financed by a butcher named David Smith. It seated 300; playing every night except Friday, he was earning about £3 s.10 a week, but with a fame well out of proportion to the meagre money. Many of the most prominent figures in Yiddish theater, including Sigmund Mogulesko, David Kessler, Abba and Clara Shoengold, and Sara Heine (the future Sara Adler), gave guest performances when they passed through London.
One of Adler's roles from this period was as the villain Franz Moore in Herman Fiedler's adaptation of Schiller's The Robbers, which introduced Schiller into Yiddish theater. On at least one occasion in 1886, he played both Franz Moore and the play's hero, Franz's brother Karl Moore: in the play they never meet.
In 1886, Adler's daughter Rivka died of croup; Sonya died of an infection contracted while giving birth to their son Abram; meanwhile, he had been carrying on an affair with a young woman, Jenny ("Jennya") Kaiser, who was also pregnant, with his son Charles. Depressed after Sonya's death, he passed up an offer to relocate to the United States, which was taken up instead by Mogulesko and Finkel. In winter 1887, an audience at the Princes Street Club panicked when they thought a simulated stage fire was real; 17 people died in the stampede. While the authorities determined that this was not Adler's fault, and the club was allowed to reopen, the crowds did not return; "the theater," he writes, "was so cold, dark, and empty you could hunt wolves in the gallery."
Adler's affair with Jennya continued; he also took up with a young chorus girl from an Orthodox Jewish family, Dinah Shtettin. His memoir is extremely unclear on the sequence of events, and hints at other affairs at this time. The memoir does make clear that the "hot-blooded" Jennya had little interest in a marriage, while Dinah's father insisted on a marriage, even though he despised Alder and made it clear that he doubted the marriage would last.
### Coming to America
With the aid of a small sum of money from his distant relative the Chief Rabbi, Adler got together the money to travel by steerage to New York, with his infant son Abrom, Alexander Oberlander and his family, Keni and Volodya Liptzin, and Herman Fiedler, among others. Adler did not doubt that the rabbi was glad to see Yiddish actors leaving London. In New York, they promptly discovered that neither Mogulesko and Finkel at the Romanian Opera House nor Maurice Heine at the Oriental Theater had any use for them. They headed on to Chicago, where, after a brief initial success, the troupe fell apart due to a combination of labor disputes and cutthroat competition. The Oberlanders managed to start a restaurant; he and Keni Liptzin headed to New York that autumn, where she managed to sign on at the Romanian Opera House; failing to find a similar situation for himself, he returned to London, drawn back to the charms of both Dinah and Jennya.
He did not remain long in London. After some major successes in Warsaw, which was under Austrian rule, he returned to London in the spring of 1889, and then again to New York, this time to play for Heine at Poole's Theater. After an initial failure in The Odessa Beggar (he writes that the New York audience of the time was not ready for "tragicomedy"), he was a success in the melodrama Moishele Soldat, and "a more worthy success" in Uriel Acosta. This gave him the basis to bring Dinah to America. Their marriage didn't last, though the divorce was amicable: she remarried, to Siegmund Feinman. Adler fell out with Heine, initially over business; at this time Heine's marriage was also falling apart, and Sara Heine would eventually become Sara Adler.
Adler went on the road with Boris Thomashefsky, who at the time was pioneering the touring circuit for Yiddish theater in America. They played in Philadelphia and Chicago, where word arrived of an opportunity to take over Poole's, Heine having moved on to the Thalia. Adler returned to New York, where he managed also to win Mogulesko and Kessler away from Heine.
### New York
Renaming Poole's as the Union Theater, Adler attempted to produce the most serious Yiddish-language theater New York had yet seen in the Yiddish Theater District, with plays such as Scribe's La Juive, Zolotkev's Samson the Great, and Sinckievich's Quo Vadis. However, after Thomashefsky became an enormous popular success in Moses Halevy Horowitz's operetta David ben Jesse at Moishe Finkel's National Theater, the Union Theater temporarily to abandon its highbrow programming and competed head on, with operettas Judith and Holofernes, Titus Andronicus, or the Second Destruction of the Temple, and Hymie in America.
Adler was not content to continue long in this mode, and sought a playwright who could create pieces that would appeal to the Jewish public, while still providing a type of theater he could be proud to perform. He recruited Jacob Gordin, already a well-respected novelist and intellectual, recently arrived in New York and eking out a living as a journalist at the Arbeiter Zeitung, precursor to The Forward. Gordin's first two plays, Siberia and Two Worlds were commercial failures—so much so that Mogulesko and Kessler quit the company—but The Yiddish King Lear, starring Adler and his new wife Sara was such a success that the play eventually transferred to Finkel's larger National Theater. This play (based only very loosely on Shakespeare) played well with the popular audience, but also with Jewish intellectuals who until this time had largely ignored Yiddish Theater, ending for a time the commercial dominance of operettas such as those of Horowitz and Joseph Lateiner. The next year, Gordin's The Wild Man solidified this change in the direction of Yiddish theater, which was entering what is retrospectively seen as its first period of greatness.
Over the next decades, Adler would play in (or, in some cases, merely produce) numerous plays by Gordin, but also classics by Shakespeare, Schiller, Lessing; Eugène Scribe's La Juive; dramatizations of George du Maurier's Trilby and Alexandre Dumas, fils' Camille; and the works of modern playwrights such as Gorky, Ibsen, Shaw, Strindberg, Gerhart Hauptmann, Victor Hugo, Victorien Sardou, and Leonid Andreyev. Frequently the works of the great contemporary playwrights—even Shaw, who was writing in English—would be staged in New York in Yiddish years, even decades, before they were ever staged there in English.
Having already famously played Shylock in Shakespeare's The Merchant of Venice on the Yiddish stage at the People's Theater, he played the role again in a 1903 Broadway production, directed by Arthur Hopkins. In this production, Adler spoke his lines in Yiddish while the rest of the cast spoke in English. The New York Times review of Adler's performance was not favorable: in particular his naturalistic acting style was not what audiences of the period expected in a production of Shakespeare. Some other reviews (such as that in Theater magazine) were friendlier; in any event the same production was revived two years later.
Lulla Rosenfeld writes that Henry Irving, the great Shylock before that time, played Shylock as "morally superior to the Christians around him... driven to cruelty only by their more cruel persecutions." In contrast, "Adler scorned justification. Total vindication was his aim." In Adler's own words, "Shylock from the first was governed by pride rather than revenge. He wishes to humble and terrify Antonio for the insult and humiliation he has suffered at his hands. This is why he goes so far as to bring his knife and scales into the court. For Shylock, however, the desired climax was to refuse the pound of flesh with a gesture of divine compassion. When the verdict goes against him, he is crushed because he has been robbed of this opportunity, not because he lusts for Antonio's death. This was my interpretation. This is the Shylock I have tried to show." The road from this to method acting is clear.
After his two Broadway triumphs, Adler returned to Yiddish theater.
In the wake of the Kishinev pogrom, Adler went back briefly to Eastern Europe in summer 1903, where he tried to convince various family members to come to America. Although he was greeted as a hero, he was only partially successful in convincing people to leave; his mother, in particular, was determined to finish out her life where she was. (His father had died some years earlier.) He persuaded his sister Sarah Adler to follow him to America as her husband had died of heart disease in Verdun in 1897 and she was raising seven children on her own. She emigrated in 1905.
Returning to New York, he and Thomashefsky jointly leased The People's Theater, intending to use it on different nights of the week. Adler, exhausted from his Russian trip, was often leaving his nights unused, and Thomashefsky offered to buy him out for \$10,000 on the condition that he would not return to performing in New York. Adler was so insulted that the two did not speak for months, even though at the time they were living across a courtyard from one another, and could see into each other's St. Mark's Place apartments. Adler decided to perform Tolstoy's The Power of Darkness, and decided that he would do his own translation from Russian to Yiddish. The play was a great success, the first successful production of a Tolstoy play in the U.S., and Thomashefsky was so obviously happy for Adler that their friendship was renewed. Adler followed with equally successful productions of Gordin's dramatization of Tolstoy's Resurrection and the Gordin original The Homeless.
In 1904 Adler had the Grand Theater built in what was to be the Yiddish Theater District at the corner of Bowery and Canal Street, the first purpose-built Yiddish theater in New York. His wife Sara had branched out to do her own plays at the Novelty Theater in Brooklyn, and the family had taken up residence in a four-story brownstone, with an elevator, in the East Seventies. (They would later move one more time, to Riverside Drive.) Around this time Lincoln Steffens wrote a piece saying that Yiddish theater in New York had eclipsed English-language theater in quality.
This golden age was not to last. The years 1905–1908 saw half a million new Jewish immigrants to New York, and once again the largest audience for Yiddish theater was for lighter fare. Adler hung on, but the Thomashefskys were making a fortune at the Thalia; plays with titles like Minke the Servant Girl were far outdrawing fare like Gordin's Dementia Americana (1909). It would be 1911 before Adler scored another major success, this time with Tolstoy's The Living Corpse (also known as Redemption), translated into Yiddish by Leon Kobrin.
In 1919–1920, Adler, despite his own socialist politics, found himself in a labor dispute with the Hebrew Actors' Union; he played that season in London rather than New York. A stroke in 1920 while vacationing in upstate New York nearly ended his acting career, although he continued to appear occasionally, usually as part of a benefit performance for himself, often playing Act I of The Yiddish King Lear: the title character remains seated throughout the entire act. In 1924, he was well enough to perform in the title role of a revival of Gordin's The Stranger, inspired by Tennyson's "Enoch Arden": the character is "a sick and broken man", so the Adler was able to integrate his own physical weakness into the portrayal. However, March 31, 1926, he collapsed suddenly, dying almost instantly.
He is buried in Old Mount Carmel Cemetery in Glendale, Queens.
## Family
Adler was married three times, first to Sophia (Sonya) Oberlander (died 1886), then to Dinah Shtettin (m. 1887- divorced. 1891) and finally to actress Sara Adler (previously Sara Heine) (m. 1891), who survived him by over 25 years.
His and Sonya's daughter Rivkah (Rebecca) died at the age of 3. Sonya died from an infection contracted while giving birth to their son Abram in 1886. Abram's son Allen Adler (1916–1964) was, among other things, the screenwriter of Forbidden Planet. While still married to Sonya, Adler had an affair with Jenny "Jennya" Kaiser, with whom he had a son, stage actor Charles Adler (1886–1966).
He and Dinah had a daughter, Celia Adler (1889–1979).
He and Sara had six children: the well-known actors Luther (1903–1984) and Stella Adler (1901–1992) and the lesser-known actors Jay (1896–1978), Frances, Julia, and Florence. Jacob and Stella Adler are both members of the American Theater Hall of Fame.
His sister Sarah/Soore Adler and her seven children emigrated to New York in 1905. His niece, Francine Larrimore, Sarah's daughter, became a Broadway actress, who also appeared in films. He was also the great-uncle of actor Jerry Adler.
## Memoir
Adler's memoirs were published in the New York socialist Yiddish-language newspaper Die Varheit in 1916–1919, and briefly resumed in 1925 in an unsuccessful revival of that paper; his granddaughter Lulla Rosenfeld's English translation was published only in 1999. The 1916–1919 portion of the memoir gives a detailed picture of his Russian years. The 1925 portion gives a comparably detailed picture of his time in London, although with some evasions around the relative timing of his relationships with his wife Sonya and with Jennya Kaiser and Dinah Shtettin. It contains only a relatively fragmentary description of his New York career. In the English-language book of these memoirs, Rosenfeld attempts to fill the gaps with her own commentary.
Adler writes vividly and with humor. He describes the director Hartenstein as "a young man from Galicia with long hair and short brains, half educated in Vienna, and half an actor", and refers to the poor of Whitechapel as looking as if they "had come out of their mothers already gray and old." Of his early London years, he writes, "We played for a tiny audience, on a stage the size of a cadaver, but we played well, with a drunkenness of happiness."
In a small essay, "Shmendrick, My Mephistopheles", one of the last passages he wrote, Adler describes the last time he saw Shmendrick played, at a memorial for Goldfaden in 1912. Lamenting the choice of play for the memorial—"Goldfaden has written better things"—he nonetheless acknowledges, "that same bitter Shmendrick was our livelihood... I gritted my teeth. I called on the ghosts of Aristophanes, of Shakespeare, of Lope de Vega. I wept and swallowed my own tears... And I cursed the fate that bound me to him... Yet even as I cursed and condemned, the tears rose. For my whole life, my whole past, was before me on that stage... Poor weak first step of our Yiddish theater... I thank you for the happiness you gave us... I thank you Shmendrick—my beloved—my own."
## See also
- Solomon the Wise, 1906 play starring Adler |
7,755,316 | Bermuda at the 1994 Winter Olympics | 1,144,794,614 | null | [
"1994 in Bermudian sport",
"Bermuda at the Winter Olympics by year",
"Nations at the 1994 Winter Olympics"
]
| Bermuda sent a delegation to compete at the 1994 Winter Olympics in Lillehammer, Norway from 12–27 February 1994. This was the territory's second appearance in a Winter Olympic Games following their debut in the 1992 Albertville Olympics. The only Bermudian athlete was luge racer Simon Payne. In the men's singles, he came in 30th place.
## Background
Bermuda first participated in Olympic competition at the 1936 Berlin Summer Games. The territory made their Winter Olympic Games debut in 1992 at the Albertville Games, and have appeared in every Olympics since their respective debuts bar one, the boycotted 1980 Summer Olympics in Moscow. The only medal the territory has won so far is a bronze in the sport of boxing at the 1976 Summer Olympics in Montreal. The 1994 Winter Olympics were held from 12–27 February 1994; a total of 1,737 athletes representing 67 National Olympic Committees took part. Lillehammer was the territory's second appearance at a Winter Olympics. Simon Payne was the only athlete Bermuda sent to Lillehammer, just as he had been the only athlete sent to Albertville two years prior. John Hoskins, who would later be president of the Bermuda Olympic Association, served as the flagbearer for the opening ceremony.
## Competitors
The following is the list of number of competitors in the Games.
## Luge
Simon Payne was 29 years old at the time of the Lillehammer Olympics, and was making his second Olympic appearance. Payne was one of the founders of the Bermuda luge federation, and was the first Winter Olympian from the territory. He had raced the men's singles in Albertville, where he finished in 30th place. In Lillehammer, the men's singles competition was held on 13–14 February, with two runs being held on each day; the sum of an athlete's four run times determined the final rankings. On 13 February, Payne posted run times of 52.606 seconds and 52.855 seconds. Overnight he was in 31st place out of 33 competitors. The next day, he finished the third run in 52.543 seconds and the fourth in 52.633 seconds. This meant he had a total time of 3 minutes and 30.637 seconds, which put him in 30th position. The gold medal was won by Germany's Georg Hackl in a time of 3 minutes and 21.571 seconds; the silver medal was earned by Markus Prock of Austria, and the bronze was taken by Italian Armin Zöggeler. |
26,702,791 | Hurricane Karl (1980) | 1,171,665,125 | Category 1 Atlantic hurricane in 1980 | [
"1980 Atlantic hurricane season",
"Category 1 Atlantic hurricanes",
"Tropical cyclones in 1980"
]
| Hurricane Karl was a late-season and unusual tropical cyclone that formed within a larger extratropical cyclone. Karl was also the northernmost forming Atlantic hurricane on record in November. The fifteenth and final tropical cyclone, twelfth named storm, and ninth hurricane of the 1980 Atlantic hurricane season, Karl developed at the center of another, larger extratropical cyclone over the North Atlantic. After being classified a subtropical cyclone on November 25, it became more independent of its parent storm and grew into a full-fledged Category 1 hurricane. It peaked in intensity on November 26, and ultimately dissipated on November 29, as it merged with another system.
Karl holds the record for the northernmost formation of a November tropical or subtropical cyclone in the Atlantic Ocean. It also attained hurricane strength at an unusual latitude, and contributed to one of the most active Novembers on record in terms of tropical cyclones. However, it stayed over open waters and did not have any effects on land. It was the 11th named storm of the season.
## Meteorological history
Hurricane Karl originated in a low pressure area that formed along a frontal boundary near the southeastern United States. It approached the Canadian Maritimes the next day and strengthened to below 1000 millibars. On November 24, the broad cyclone was located south of Newfoundland, and early the next day a mass of convection developed near the core. It evolved into a separate vortex, and due to the lack of inhibiting wind shear, a small cyclone developed. It became a subtropical storm at 00:00 UTC before executing a tight counterclockwise loop as it rotated within the larger cyclone. About 18 hours later, the storm strengthened and gained enough tropical characteristics to be designated a hurricane, accompanied by the formation of a pronounced eye feature. At the time, it was situated around 610 miles (1,110 km) west-southwest of the Azores. Although the development of a tropical cyclone within a non-tropical storm is rare, it is not unprecedented. The "Perfect Storm" unnamed hurricane in November 1991 and Subtropical Storm Alpha in September 2020 also formed in this manner.
After being classified as a hurricane, Karl gradually strengthened, and its circulation became more distinguished from the surrounding cloudiness. A trough that emerged from North America steered the hurricane eastward, and on November 26, it reached its peak intensity with maximum sustained winds of 85 mph (140 km/h) and a central barometric pressure reading of 985 mbar (hPa; 29.09 inHg). Karl maintained this strength for approximately 18 hours until beginning to weaken slightly as it accelerated towards the northeast. On November 27, the storm's eye became more ragged as the cyclone passed within 230 miles (370 km) of the Azores and started to show signs of deterioration. The trough over the North Atlantic developed into the dominant low pressure area, and Karl turned northward around its periphery. Karl became extratropical on November 28 and later merged with another approaching system within a day, and was declared dissipated by November 29.
## Records
Hurricane Karl was unusual in several aspects. It developed late in the hurricane season, which runs from June 1 through November 30, over waters colder than the standard limit for tropical cyclone formation. It marked the farthest-north development of a November tropical or subtropical cyclone on record. While the 1991 unnamed hurricane was farther north, it became a subtropical storm late on October 31, and had moved south by November 1. Karl was reported at the time to be the farthest-east hurricane during the last 10 days of the month of November. Additionally, it maintained hurricane intensity until reaching 45.0°N, at which point it became extratropical; only Hurricane Lois in 1966 lasted as a hurricane farther north in the month of November.
When Karl became a hurricane on November 25, the 1980 season became notable for having two November hurricanes; the other was Jeanne. This tied 1932 and 1969 for the record of the most November hurricanes, which was later accomplished during the 1994 season. Later, 2001 broke this record with three hurricanes.
## See also
- Other tropical cyclones named Karl |
1,923,137 | M-45 (Michigan highway) | 1,166,822,511 | State highway in Ottawa and Kent counties in Michigan, United States | [
"State highways in Michigan",
"Transportation in Kent County, Michigan",
"Transportation in Ottawa County, Michigan"
]
| M-45 is a state trunkline highway in the US state of Michigan that is also called Lake Michigan Drive. The highway runs from Agnew near Lake Michigan to the west side of Grand Rapids in the western Lower Peninsula. Lake Michigan Drive continues in each direction from M-45's termini, extending west of US Highway 31 (US 31) and east of Interstate 196 (I-196). In between, the road runs through rural and suburban areas of Ottawa and Kent counties, including the main campus of Grand Valley State University in Allendale. Lake Michigan Drive was originally part of M-50 until the mid-1960s. Previously in the 1920s and 1930s, the M-45 number was designated along a highway in the Upper Peninsula (UP).
## Route description
Lake Michigan Drive starts near Lake Michigan at an intersection with Lakeshore Drive near the Grand Rapids water filtration plant. The road runs east to an intersection with US 31 in Agnew, where the M-45 designation begins. The area is marked by a mix of woodland and agricultural properties. The road runs through rural Ottawa County to Allendale. Through town, Lake Michigan Drive widens to a four-lane divided boulevard with a median. East of the main part of town, M-45 passes the main campus of Grand Valley State University before crossing the Grand River. At 24th Avenue, the highway loses its median and gains a central turn lane. The landscape becomes more suburban as the highway crosses into Kent County near the M-11 intersection in Walker. From here east to the terminus in Grand Rapids, the road is lined with residential subdivisions and commercial properties. At Bridge Street, Lake Michigan Drive turns to the southeast and approaches John Ball Zoological Garden. M-45 ends at the interchange with I-196. Lake Michigan Drive continues east to its end where it becomes Pearl Street near the Grand River downtown.
The Michigan Department of Transportation (MDOT) maintains M-45 like all other parts of the state trunkline highway system. As part of these responsibilities, the department tracks the volume of the traffic using its roadways which is expressed using a metric called average annual daily traffic (AADT). This is a calculation of the traffic levels for a segment of roadway for any average day of the year. In 2009, 4,910 vehicles used the section of M-45 near the western terminus daily. Near the interchange with I-196, 32,376 vehicles were observed along Lake Michigan Drive each day. No segment of the highway is listed on the National Highway System, a network of roads important to the country's economy, defense, and mobility.
## History
### Previous designation
M-45 was originally designated in the UP on what is now M-95 by July 1, 1919. The highway ran between M-12 in Sagola and M-15 in Humboldt Township. When the United States Numbered Highway System was created on November 11, 1926, US 2 replaced most of M-12 through the UP. M-45 was extended south of Sagola to the north side of Iron Mountain. Along with this change, M-69 replaced another previous section of M-12 and all of M-90. M-69 ran concurrently with M-45 between Sagola and Randville to connect these two highway segments. By 1933, M-45 was extended concurrently along US 2/US 141 into Iron Mountain and then as an independent routing through Kingsford to the Wisconsin state line. Before the next year, the M-95 replaced M-45 in the UP.
### Current designation
The current designation of M-45 dates back to 1964. M-50 was truncated to end near Lowell at I-96. The remainder of M-50 on Cascade Road, Fulton Street and Lake Michigan Drive was redesignated as M-45. The eastern section from Business US 131 (Division Avenue) to I-96 was turned over to local control in 1972, shortening the route. The east end would be shortened again by 1995, removing the M-45 designation east of I-196. Jurisdiction was only transferred to the City of Grand Rapids on the portion from Division Avenue west to the Grand River, leaving part of West Fulton Street under state maintenance as an unsigned trunkline. M-45 was upgraded to a four-lane divided highway in 2001–02 between Walker and the Grand Valley State campus in Allendale. The new alignment bypassed a section of road between 24th and 40th avenues. That section was renamed River Hill Drive, but retained as an unsigned state trunkline (Old M-45).
## Major intersections
## See also |
13,481,345 | Elizabeth Kekaʻaniau | 1,158,915,263 | Hawaiian chief, great grandniece of Kamehameha I (1834–1928) | [
"1834 births",
"1928 deaths",
"Burials at Oahu Cemetery",
"Hawaiian Kingdom people of French descent",
"Hawaiian ladies-in-waiting",
"Heirs to the Hawaiian throne",
"House of Kalokuokamaile",
"Native Hawaiian writers",
"People from Honolulu",
"Royal School (Hawaii) alumni",
"Royalty of the Hawaiian Kingdom",
"Writers from Hawaii"
]
| Elizabeth Kekaʻaniau Laʻanui Pratt, full name Elizabeth Kekaʻaniauokalani Kalaninuiohilaukapu Kekaikuihala Laʻanui Pratt (September 11, 1834 – December 20, 1928), was a Hawaiian high chiefess (aliʻi) and great-grandniece of Kamehameha I, being a great-granddaughter of Kalokuokamaile, the older brother of Kamehameha I, founder of the Kingdom of Hawaii. She was the daughter of Gideon Peleʻioholani Laʻanui and Theresa Owana Kaheiheimalie Rives.
At a young age, Kekaʻaniau was chosen to attend the Chiefs' Children's School (later renamed the Royal School) taught by American missionaries and declared eligible to succeed to the Hawaiian throne by King Kamehameha III. She married American businessman Franklin Seaver Pratt and became known as Mrs. Pratt. Five of her classmates became reigning monarchs of Hawaii until the 1893 overthrow of the Kingdom of Hawaii. In 1920, she wrote History of Keoua Kalanikupuapa-i-nui: Father of Hawaii Kings, and His Descendants, a book about her ancestor Keōua and his descendants including her own branch of the family and the House of Kamehameha. Outliving all her royal classmates, she was the last surviving member of the Royal School.
## Early life and education
High Chiefess Elizabeth Kekaʻaniauokalani Kalaninuiohilaukapu Kekaikuihala Laʻanui was born September 11, 1834, in her family home at Waialua. Her parents were Gideon Peleʻioholani Laʻanui and Theresa Owana Kaheiheimalie Rives. She was given the name Elizabeth after Kaʻahumanu who had adopted her mother and was baptized with the name. Kaʻahumanu was a favorite wife of Kamehameha I and the co-ruler of the kingdom under the title of Kuhina Nui. She was also the namesake of Kekaikuihala II, her father's older sister. Her younger brother Gideon Kailipalaki Laʻanui was born in 1840, and despite medical treatment by missionary physician Gerrit P. Judd, their mother died two months afterward from complications from childbirth. Laʻanui later married on July 9, 1842, to Amelia Puohu, who became the children's stepmother.
Her family were of the aliʻi class of the Hawaiian nobility and were collateral relations of the reigning House of Kamehameha, sharing common descent from the early 18th-century aliʻi Keōua Kalanikupuapaʻīkalaninui Ahilapalapa. From her father's side, Kekaʻaniau was a great-granddaughter of Kalokuokamaile, an elder half-brother of Kamehameha I. Both were sons of the aforementioned Keōua. Due to this familial tie, her father Laʻanui escaped the slaughter of Kawaihae in 1791 where Kamehameha I defeated and sacrificed his opponent Keōua Kūʻahuʻula in the process of unifying the Hawaiian Islands. Her mother Owana was the daughter of Kamehameha II's French secretary Jean Baptiste Rives and a relation of Kaʻahumanu through her mother Holau II, who was hānai (adopted) by the queen. Also through her father's first marriage to Namahana Piʻia, Kekaʻaniau was the stepniece of Kaʻahumanu. She was of one-fourth French and three-fourths Native Hawaiian descent.
At a young age, Kekaʻaniau was placed in the Chiefs' Children's School, also known as the Royal School, a select school for the royal children of the highest rank who were eligible to be rulers. Along with her other classmates, she was chosen by Kamehameha III to be eligible for the throne of the Kingdom of Hawaii. Out of the sixteen children of the school, five of her cousins would rule as monarchs of the kingdom. Called Lizzy or Lizzie by her classmates, she was taught by the missionary couple Juliette Montague Cooke and Amos Starr Cooke. In the classroom students were divided by their age and length of time at the school. She was a member of the senior level class. During their Sunday procession to church, when it was customary for boys and girls to walk side by side, she would walk beside James Kaliokalani, the eldest brother of future monarchs Kalākaua and Liliʻuokalani.
During their school years, Kekaʻaniau developed a close relationship with her cousins Emma (who married Kamehameha IV and became queen consort) and Bernice Pauahi Bishop, who later founded Kamehameha Schools. She was one of the few invited guests at the 1850 wedding of Bernice Pauahi to American businessman Charles Reed Bishop, which was conducted against the wishes of Pauahi's parents, and she also later served as bridesmaid to Queen Emma during her royal wedding in 1856. She was also one of the bridesmaids at the 1862 wedding of Liliʻuokalani and John Owen Dominis. Kekaʻaniau was among the young social elite active in the royal courts of Kamehameha IV and his successor Kamehameha V. On formal occasions, she would also serve as lady-in-waiting to Queen Emma.
## Marriage
Kekaʻaniau married Franklin Seaver Pratt (1829–1894) on April 27, 1864. The wedding was held at the residence of the bride, and Reverend Eli S. Corwin, the pastor of the Fort Street (Congregational) Church, officiated the ceremony. According to contemporary opinion, she was "well-known as one of the brightest and most cultivated women of Honolulu" and "became his faithful companion and helper" after their marriage. A native of Boston, Massachusetts, and naturalized citizen of the kingdom, Pratt was a respected businessman and sugar plantation owner who held a few court and governmental positions during the monarchy, including Staff Colonel to Kamehameha V, member of the Privy Council for Queen Liliʻuokalani, Registrar of Public Accounts and Hawaiian Consul General in San Francisco. However, according to historian James L. Haley, he was kept on the "periphery of power."
The Pratts did not have any children of their own, although they adopted Kekaʻaniau's niece, Theresa Owana Kaʻōhelelani Laʻanui, daughter of her younger brother High Chief Gideon Kailipalaki Laʻanui II, after he died in 1871. Theresa married four times and had descendants by her first and second husbands: Alexander Cartwright III, son of Honolulu fire chief Alexander Cartwright, and Robert William Wilcox, a Hawaiian revolutionary leader and the first Congressional Delegate from the Territory of Hawaii. The Pratts also later adopted Alexander and Theresa's younger daughter Eva Kuwailanimamao Cartwright, who married Dwight Jarvis Styne and had three children. The Pratts owned a beachside residence, which they called the Franklin Villa or Bath Villa, in the Waikīkī area of Honolulu. The property was sold in 1897 and is now part of Fort DeRussy.
Kekaʻaniau was present at the deathbed of King Kamehameha V with Queen Emma Pauahi and other members of the royal court. She later claimed that the dying monarch had offered her the throne before asking Pauahi to succeed him. Haley noted that if this was true she would have a been a strong candidate, being a descendant of an elder brother of the kingdom's founder. Neither woman accepted, and Kamehameha V died without naming an heir. Thus, the 1864 Constitution of the Kingdom of Hawaii called for the legislature to elect the next monarch. By both popular vote and the unanimous vote of the legislature, her cousin Lunalilo became the first elected king of Hawaii. Kekaʻaniau was given a place of honor at the prorogation of the Legislative Assembly of 1873 alongside Queen Emma, High Chiefess Fanny Kekelaokalani, and wives of the king's cabinet ministers. After the death of Lunalilo, the Pratts became supporters of Queen Emma during her unsuccessful candidacy during the royal election of 1874 against Kalākaua. Emma had promised to reward their loyalty with a government appointment by removing John Owen Dominis as Governor of Oahu and appointing Pratt in his place if she had won. Despite popular support for the queen dowager, the assembly voted thirty-nine to six in favor of Kalākaua over Emma. The subsequent announcement triggered the Honolulu Courthouse riot as Emmaite supporters hunted down and attacked native legislators who supported Kalākaua. In order to quell the civil disruption, American and British troops were landed with the permission of the Hawaiian government, and the rioters were arrested.
During the final years of the monarchy, the Pratts lived in San Francisco where her husband served as Hawaiian Consul General for the Pacific states of Oregon, Washington, California and Nevada, from 1892 until the time of the overthrow of the Kingdom of Hawaii.
In March 1893, she was elected as an honorary president of Hui Aloha ʻĀina o Na Wahine (Hawaiian Women's Patriotic League) or Hui Aloha ʻĀina for Women. This patriotic group was founded shortly after its male counterpart the Hui Aloha ʻĀina for Men to oppose the overthrow and plans to annex the islands to the United States and to support the deposed queen Liliʻuokalani. She resigned this position on April 17, 1893 after a dispute arose between two factions of the group over the wordings to the memorial seeking the restoration of the monarchy to be presented to the United States Commissioner James Henderson Blount sent by President Grover Cleveland to investigate the overthrow.
## Later life and civic involvement
After the overthrow in 1893, her husband defended Kekaʻaniau's traditional claims to the Hawaiian crown lands as an heir of Kamehameha III and was removed from his government post as Hawaiian Consul. These lands transferred to the United States Federal Government after the annexation of the Hawaiian Islands in 1898. During Queen Liliʻuokalani's attempts to seek restitution and compensation for the lost crown lands, Kekaʻaniau and her niece Theresa Laʻanui petitioned in 1903 the Senate Subcommittee on the Pacific Islands and Puerto Rico in order to support the petition of the queen.
In 1895, she helped founded the Hawaiian Relief Society to assist the victims of a cholera epidemic in the islands. She co-founded the organization with other leading Hawaiian women including Emma Kaili Metcalf Beckley Nakuina, Abigail Kuaihelani Campbell and Emilie Widemann Macfarlane. She served as the organization's first vice-president.
Because of her rank and connection to the past, Kekaʻaniau participated in many civic ceremonies during her later life. On June 28, 1909, Kekaʻaniau officiated and unveiled the tablet of the 1795 Battle of Nuʻuanu, which was installed at the Pali lookout by the organization Daughters of Hawaii. On March 17, 1912, she officiated with Queen Liliʻuokalani when they both unveiled the Cooke Memorial Tablet, dedicated to Amos Starr and Juiette Montague Cooke and the sixteen students of the Royal School, in the vestibule of Kawaiahaʻo Church. The ceremony marked the 100th anniversary of the birth of Mrs. Cooke. On March 17, 1914, Kekaʻaniau officiated with Liliʻuokalani at the unveiling of the tablet for the 100th commemoration birthday of King Kamehameha III. During the ceremony, Queen Liliʻuokalani represented the Kalakaua Dynasty, and Kekaʻaniau represented the Kamehameha Dynasty, seated on opposite sides of the memorial stone in the nave of the church. The palace chairs in which they sat were draped with ancient Hawaiian feather capes. The Queen drew the cord releasing her Royal Standard or personal flag, while Kekaʻaniau released the Hawaiian flag covering the tablet. In 1897, Kekaʻaniau donated to the Bishop Museum the bust figure of Kamehameha II that was given by the British monarch, King George IV, when Kamehameha II died while on his state visit in London with his queen Kamāmalu in 1825. The British crown bought the lavish coffins and made the bust according to the English royal traditions during funeral services. She also donated to the Bishop Museum the following items: 2 pictures, 6 feather leis, 15 kāhili's, 5 kāhili handles, 13 ʻumeke, 5 coconut bowls and 1 Niʻihau mat. In 1996, two of her kahili's were featured in the museum exhibit in "The Legacy of Excellence, Highlights of Hawaiian Culture" and was described as being "the only ones of their kind".
Following the death of Liliʻuokalani in 1917, Kekaʻaniau became the only survivor of the Royal School. In 1920, Kekaʻaniau wrote History of Keoua Kalanikupuapa-i-nui: Father of Hawaii Kings, and His Descendants, with Notes on Kamehameha I, First King of All Hawaii, as a tribute to her great-grandfather Keōua Kalanikupuapaʻīkalaninui Ahilapalapa and his descendants. The book consisted of a genealogical history of the branches of the House of Keōua Nui including her family and the House of Kamehameha.
## Death and funeral
In her later years, Kekaʻaniau lived at the home of her grandniece Eva Kuwailanimamao Cartwright Styne at 1036 Kinau Street, Makiki, Honolulu. On her 94th birthday on September 11, 1928, a large contingent of Honolulu residents made a pilgrimage to her home to bedeck the residence with floral tributes and offer expressions of affection and respect. The Honolulu Star-Bulletin noted the home of the nonagenarian "was a veritable bower of flowers, redolent with beauteous blossoms." One of her last functions, in October of the same year, was helping arrange partners for a quadrille in a historic reenactment of the court of Kamehameha IV and Queen Emma. Kekaʻaniau had been a participant in the original 1856 quadrille where she had danced with Kalākaua. After a brief illness, Kekaʻaniau died at the age of 94 at the home of her grandniece at 9am on December 20, 1928.
Although not given a state funeral, the tradition of lying in state was observed on the night before the funeral. The watches were led by members of two Hawaiian royal societies of which she had been a ranking member: the Māmakakaua (Daughters and Sons of Hawaiian Warriors) and the ʻAhahui Kaʻahumanu (Kaʻahumanu Society), of which Kekaʻaniau was the first honorary president. Princess Elizabeth Kahanu Kalanianaʻole (Moʻi of Māmakakaua) and Emma Ahuena Taylor (Kuhina Nui of Māmakakaua) led the watches.
The funeral services were conducted at Kawaiahaʻo Church by Reverend Akaiko Akana at 3:30 pm on December 23. The silver-gray coffin was draped with two ʻahuʻula, or feather cloaks, symbolizing the rank she held in the two royal societies. Territorial Governor and Mrs. Wallace Rider Farrington, former Governor and Mrs. Walter F. Frear, and former Honolulu Mayor John C. Lane joined prominent families of chiefly lineage and members of the two royal societies at the services. Lane and Colonel Curtis P. Iaukea served as two of the six pallbearers. After the simple ceremony, which only lasted half an hour, the mourners accompanied the casket to its final burial place where Akana read the burial service in Hawaiian. Per her request, Kekaʻaniau was buried with solemn ceremony next to her husband at Oʻahu Cemetery.
## Descendants and legacy
The descendants from her niece Theresa Laʻanui to Cartwright and Wilcox continue to claim to be the rightful successors of the Kamehameha line and claimant to the Hawaiian crown lands. They base their claims through Kekaʻaniau's status as the last surviving member of the Royal School chosen by Kamehameha III to be eligible for the throne of the Kingdom of Hawaii. One notable contemporary member of this family is Hawaiian musician and activist Owana Salazar, who with her son were involved with the Hawaiian activist group Ka Lāhui Hawaiʻi from 1988 to 1998.
Kekaʻaniau's 1920 book was republished in 1999 under the title Keoua: Father of Kings by her great-great-grandnephew, David Castro. It was republished again in 2009. Castro also wrote a biography of her titled Princess Elizabeth Kekaaniau Laanui: Member of the Kamehameha Dynasty, Eligible to Hawaiian the Throne in 2008.
On September 15, 1985, a portrait painted of Kekaʻaniau was unveiled at the Kawaiahaʻo Church by Helena Kalokuokamaile Wilcox (mother of Owana Salazar). The artwork was created by commissioned artist Mary Koski, who was known for her Flemish-Dutch and realistic style of painting. This painting now stands on an easel within the royal pew of Kawaiahaʻo Church, where Kekaʻaniau once sat with King Kamehameha III and other students of the Royal School. In 1989, a second painting was installed in the library of the modern day Royal Elementary School in Honolulu.
### Family tree |
41,165,427 | Battle of Velestino | 1,153,419,853 | Two battles during the Greco-Ottoman War of 1897 | [
"1890s battles",
"1897 in Greece",
"1897 in the Ottoman Empire",
"Battles involving Greece",
"Battles involving the Ottoman Empire",
"Conflicts in 1897",
"Greco-Turkish War (1897)"
]
| The Battle of Velestino (Greek: Μάχη του Βελεστίνου, Turkish: Velestin Muharebesi) comprised two separate combats, which took place on – and –, between the Greek and Ottoman armies at Velestino in Thessaly, as part of the Greco-Turkish War of 1897.
The pass of Velestino controlled the road and railway lines linking the port city of Volos with the interior of the Thessalian plain. As the Greek army withdrew from Larissa to Farsala, a reinforced brigade under Colonel Konstantinos Smolenskis was sent to occupy the pass and cover Volos and the right of the new Greek position. At the same time, the Ottoman high command dispatched a mixed force of cavalry and infantry in the same direction to capture Volos. The first Greek detachments arrived in the area in the morning of 27 April, some hours ahead of the Ottomans, and occupied the heights around Velestino. As a result, a first clash developed in the same evening as the first Ottoman forces arrived in the area. The Ottomans were repelled and retreated to Kileler, while the bulk of Smolenskis' command arrived during the night and took up defensive positions on the next day, while the Ottomans remained inactive.
The Ottoman forces resumed their attack on 29 April, chiefly through the arrival of Colonel Mahmud Muhtar as the representative of the Ottoman commander-in-chief Edhem Pasha. The Ottoman forces advanced up to the Greek positions planning to concentrate their attack on the Greek right, but in the event the advance of the Ottoman left under Naim Pasha was delayed, while on the Ottoman right, Mahmud Muhtar launched attacks on the Greek left. As a result, the Ottoman commanders altered their plans to focus on the Greek left, planning to outflank the Greek positions on the next day. However, both the outflanking manoeuvre as well as frontal infantry attacks and an attempt to penetrate the Greek lines with a massed cavalry charge failed on 30 April, both due to Greek resistance and poor coordination among the Ottoman units. As a result, the Ottomans broke off their attack and withdrew. Edhem Pasha retired the cavalry from the battle to recuperate, and replaced it with the 5th Infantry Division. The First Battle of Velestino was thus a Greek victory; the only major battlefield success for the Greek army during the war, which propelled Smolenskis to the status of a national hero.
The Second Battle of Velestino began on 5 May, to coincide with the Battle of Farsala between the main body of the Ottoman army and the bulk of the Greek forces. Once again the Ottomans attempted to turn the Greek left flank, but the active Greek resistance thwarted them. On the next day, however, the Ottoman attack in the same area was more successful, as this time the Greeks were unable to bring in sufficient reinforcements to counter the outflanking manoeuvre. The Ottoman success forced the Greek left back, obliging Colonel Smolenskis to order a retreat. As the Ottomans did not exploit their success, the Greek forces were able to withdraw unmolested to Almyros, where they remained until the main Greek army was defeated at the Battle of Domokos.
## Background
Following the Greek defeats in the battles of the frontier, the Greek forces of the Army of Thessaly were forced to withdraw to Larissa, but a panic broke out and the withdrawal degenerated into chaos during the night of 11/12 April. This forced the Greek commander-in-chief, Crown Prince Constantine, to abandon any idea of defending the line of the Pineios River, and withdraw further to Farsala. The Greek withdrawal was disorderly, leaving behind large quantities of material. Ottomans followed hesitantly, losing the chance to destroy the Greek army or capture the port city of Volos. This gave the Greeks time to regroup and organize a defensive position at Farsala, and also send forces from there to cover the approaches to Volos at Velestino.
Velestino is a small town located in southwestern Thessaly. Its strategic significance lies in its geographic position in a pass between the Chalkodonion–Karadagh Mountains (the ancient Cynoscephalae Hills) to the west and a western spur of Mount Pelion on the east, through which the road and railway line linking the Pagasetic Gulf and the port of Volos to the inland Thessalian plain and Larissa. The railway line from Volos also branched off to Farsala, and was thus vital for the supply of the Greek army at Farsala by sea, since the overland route via Lamia was difficult due to the lack of transport means.
## First Battle of Velestino, 27–30 April
### 27 April
On 26 April, a "Mixed Brigade" was established to occupy the Velestino position. It was formed around the 3rd Brigade (7th and 8th Infantry Regiments) commanded by Colonel Konstantinos Smolenskis, with the addition of the 6th Evzone Battalion, a mountain artillery battalion, an engineer company from the 2nd Engineer Battalion, and a cavalry company. Two days later, a field artillery battery from the 2nd Artillery Regiment was added to it. Due to shortage of rail carriages, most of this force moved from Farsala to Velestino on foot. Only the Evzone Battalion, an engineer company, and an infantry company of the 7th Regiment's III Battalion (III/7) were sent by rail, arriving at Velestino at 11:00 on 27 April. There they established a defensive position around the Velestino railway station, and deployed a company to cover the eaves of the forest to the east, near the fork of railway line from Larissa to Volos and Farsala. The artillery and cavalry arrived next, around 15:00, with the rest of the troops following behind on foot. Only towards the end of the day were trains found to carry the 8th Regiment's III Battalion (III/8), an infantry company, and Colonel Smolenskis himself to the area.
On the Ottoman side, the commander-in-chief, Edhem Pasha, dispatched a mixed force to capture Volos, as the Ottomans had received information that the latter city was held by only 200 men. The force, under Suleiman Pasha, was composed of the 13th and 14th Cavalry Regiments plus three companies of the 6th Imperial Horse Guards Regiment (12 companies in total), a horse artillery battery, and the 3rd Bursa Regiment of the 5th Infantry Division. Setting out from Larissa at 10:00 on 27 April, they moved via Gherli (modern Armenio) and its cavalry vanguard reached the area of Velestino at 17:30 on 27 April, when they crossed the bridge of Rizomylos.
The Greek forces at Velestino, themselves having arrived hours before, only became aware of the Ottoman approach at 17:00. Immediately the 6th Evzone Battalion, along with the other units on site, deployed its forces: two companies moved to the direction of the Ottoman advance, two others moved to occupy the height of Velestino and Ovrias Gala, and another company covered the artillery, which took position around the railway station. The two cavalry squadrons were ordered to launch a spoiling attack against the Ottoman advance. At 17:30, as the Ottomans were crossing the Rizomylos bridge and their leading cavalry company was approaching Velestino, the Evzones opened fire.
Unaware of the size of the opposing forces, Suleiman Pasha decided to break through in force, and sent three cavalry companies to capture the railway station. Faced with stiff resistance, Suleiman Pasha now employed his own artillery about one kilometre north of the Rizomylos bridge, and deployed his entire division: three companies were to continue the attack on the railway station, while the other seven were to advance towards Volos. Each of the two groups was divided into three echelons, the first in open order and the second and third in close-order formation. The firefight continued until 18:30, when the Greek forces launched a counterattack in the direction of the Rizomylos bridge. With their backs to the Rizomylos stream, Suleiman Pasha's forces were in danger of being cut off if the bridge were captured. Mistakenly estimating the Greek forces at much larger than they actually were, the Ottoman commander ordered a retreat, first to Gherli and then, along with the Bursa Regiment, to Kileler.
Despite the Ottoman withdrawal, rumours spread in the Greek rear that the heights around Velestino had been captured, and that the Greek forces were about to be encircled. This led to cases of panic, sporadic wild shots and desertions. The entire artillery battalion withdrew to Volos, followed by two cavalry platoons, and a few Evzones and infantrymen. The 2nd Company of the 2nd Cavalry Regiment took flight towards Almyros, spreading panic; the field hospitals also fled to Volos, while the peasant carters hired to carry supplies for the troops simply abandoned their carts and fled. When Smolenskis arrived at the nearby village of Aerino after nightfall, the local railway station staff informed him of the rumours that Velestino had been captured by the Ottomans. He nevertheless pushed on foot towards Velestino with the bulk of his brigade, which had begun arriving; but being unaware of the terrain, and due to the late hour, after making contact with the units of the 8th Regiment, both he and his men spent the night on the heights to the southwest of Velestino. On the next morning, Smolenskis busied himself with deploying his troops in a defensive position, and trying to restore discipline and morale. His requests to the Greek headquarters to be allowed to shoot deserters on the spot were denied, but his arrival did calm nerves and restore order in the Greek units.
### 28 April
The Ottoman commander-in-chief Edhem Pasha dispatched one of the 5th Division's brigade commanders, Naim Pasha, to take over command of the operation, and sent another infantry regiment and a mountain artillery battery as well. Arriving at Kileler around noon on the 28th, Naim Pasha sent two cavalry companies towards Velestino on reconnaissance at 13:30, while half an hour later his main force, comprising his entire infantry brigade and Suleiman Pasha's cavalry division, followed suit, encamping at Gherli. Apart from reconnaissance activity and torching the village of Rizomylos, the Ottoman forces remained quiet that day.
The cavalry detachments returned in the evening, reporting that the pass was held by a few Greek battalions and artillery. In the meantime, however, Edhem Pasha had become worried at the inactivity of Naim Pasha, and in the early hours of the 29th sent one of his staff officers, Cavalry Colonel Mahmud Muhtar, to examine the situation on the ground and take any necessary measures.
### 29 April
After his arrival at Gherli around noon on 29 April, Mahmud Muhtar urged Naim Pasha and Suleiman Pasha to attack before the Greeks had had enough time to establish strong fortifications; he also pointed out that the rest of the Ottoman army was at the very same time preparing to advance on Farsala, and that the Greek forces opposing them were not as strong as they thought.The energetic Mahmud Muhtar would prove to be the driving force of the Ottoman efforts to break through the Velestino position, but the Ottomans remained hampered by the lack of unified command: Naim Pasha, who outranked Mahmud Muhtar, disregarded his advice and proved himself a dilatory and hesitant commander.
The Ottoman commanders worked out a plan of attack in two columns. Suleiman Pasha was put in charge of the right (western) column, although Colonel Mahmud Muhtar, who joined the column ostensibly as the commander-in-chief's liaison, was its de facto commander. It comprised the Bursa, Orhaneli, and Bilecik infantry battalions, a horse artillery battery, and 7 cavalry companies (three from the 6th Guards Regiment and the 13th Cavalry Regiment), and was intended to operate as a diversion, while the main attack would be led by Naim Pasha on the left (eastern) flank along the road to Volos, against the Greek centre and right. Naim Pasha's column comprised the Adapazarı, Elmalı, Çakırca, and Tuzca battalions and two companies from the Mihaliç battalion, the 14th Cavalry Regiment, and a field artillery battery.
On the Greek side, the forces under Smolenskis' command on 29 April numbered 6 infantry companies on the feet of Malouka Hill, to the west of Velestino, with an artillery battery on the Panagia height. A battalion occupied the low ground before the pass itself, between the Velestino railway station and the height of Ovrias Gala to the northeast, near Rizomylos. The 6th Evzone Battalion held the Ovrias Gala height itself. Another infantry battalion, with an artillery battery, was placed at the Pilaf Tepe height. Two battalions (minus a company sent to Volos) remained at Velestino as a reserve. The Greek troops had dug trenches and field works before their positions.
The Ottomans began their march at 14:00, and were detected by the Greek scouts an hour later, as the Ottoman vanguard detachments approached the village of Koniari (modern Chloi) in front of the Greek left. At around 16:00, Suleiman Pasha's troops occupied the heights around Koniari, and started firing on the Greek positions. After about half an hour, Mahmud Muhtar had gauged the Greek strength, which he estimated at 3–4 battalions with a few mountain artillery pieces, and, given the numerical superiority of the Ottoman forces, decided to launch an all-out attack. However, before giving this order, he had to coordinate with Naim Pasha's column, and set out to meet with him at Rizomylos, only to find that the latter's column had moved slowly and not yet reached its planned positions. Only at around 17:00 did the leading elements of Naim Pasha's column arrive at Rizomylos, with the main body following half an hour behind. Naim Pasha launched an attack against the Greek positions at Ovrias Gala at 18:00, but was repulsed, and nightfall halted any further operations.
According to Colmar von der Goltz, Mahmud Muhtar suggested a night attack against the Greek left at 03:00, but again this did not take place because the additional battalion promised by Naim Pasha for this operation failed to arrive on time. With the shift of troops and focus to their right, the Ottomans effectively reversed their original plan and made their main effort against the Greek left.
On the Greek side, Colonel Smolenskis asked Crown Prince Constantine for urgent reinforcements, and in the same night received by rail the 4/2 field artillery battery, which took up position near the railway station, and the 4th Evzone Battalion, which took up positions at Ayvali (modern Rigaion) to cover Smolenskis' left flank. As a result, by the next morning, the heights of Malouka Hill on the Greek left were defended by the equivalent of two full battalions (III/7 Battalion minus two companies, IV/8 Battalion, two companies of 8th Regiment) and two mountain batteries (12 guns), while the positions on the low ground between the railway station and the Ovrias Gala height also strengthened to six companies (II/7 Battalion and two companies from 8th Regiment), leaving 7 companies of 8th Regiment as a reserve. On the right, Ovrias Gala was held by six companies: the 6th Evzone Battalion, minus a company detached to cover the village of Kapourna (modern Glafyra), along with a company from III/7 Battalion. The engineer company was placed on the Latomi heights east of the Velestino railway station, while the last company of III/7 Battalion had been detached to maintain order in Volos.
### 30 April
The Ottoman attack began at dawn (5:00) on the 30th, with Naim Pasha's column attacking the Ovrias Gala and Pilaf Tepe heights, with support from a battery at Rizomylos. The attacking Ottoman forces, however, were repulsed both at Ovrias Gala and in front of Velestino. The Greeks were aided by the recently arrived field battery, which took position near the railway station at 9:00.
At Ovrias Gala, the commander of the Greek II/7 Battalion, Major Kopsidas, launched a counterattack with two companies against the Ottoman reserves, throwing them into panic and dispersing them, until an Ottoman battalion and cavalry company came to their rescue, and attacked the Greeks' left. Eventually, the Greek column withdrew back to its trenches before the railway station around noon. The Ottomans then launched an attack on the Megavouni height with a battalion, but the attack was repulsed by 17:00. Likewise, in the centre, the repeated attempts of the Adapazarı battalion and the two companies from the Mihaliç battalion to evict the Greek defenders from the forest north of Velestino, failed. At 11:30 a Greek company attempted to launch a counterattack but was likewise repulsed.
On the Ottoman right, Mahmud Muhtar left the Bursa battalion with the horse artillery battery to pin down the Greek left, while personally leading six infantry companies from the Orhaneli and Bilecik battalions on a wide outflanking manoeuvre around Mount Karadagh to the rear of the Greek left's positions. Two infantry companies of the Bilecik battalion and seven cavalry companies were kept as a reserve to exploit any success.
By noon, Mahmud Muhtar's manoeuvring element still had not made sufficient progress, hampered by the hard terrain, and thwarted by the reaction of the III/7 Battalion commander, Major Nikolaos Demestichas, who progressively sent out companies to extend the Greek left flank to the west and occupy crucial heights before the Turks arrived. At the same time, on the Ottoman left, Naim Pasha grew increasingly anxious about the situation of his forces, which were engaged already for seven hours without success, and pleaded with his fellow commanders to apply more pressure on their own front. The bad situation on Naim Pasha's front was exacerbated by the inept disposition of his forces: contrary to the advice of Mahmud Muhtar, he had strung out his entire force on an 8 kilometres (5.0 mi) wide front, without keeping any reserves. As a result, Mahmud Muhtar and Suleiman Pasha decided to launch a frontal attack against the Greek left at Karadagh with the infantry they had held in reserve, and the seven cavalry companies, 300 men under Ibrahim Bey, were instructed to stand by to intervene at the "suitable moment".
The Ottoman infantry quickly captured the first Greek line, while the Greeks withdrew to their second, main defensive position. Ibrahim Bey had sent an officer to the front line to determine the "suitable moment" and give the signal for the cavalry to attack; the officer did so at that point, when it was clearly premature, as the line of the Greek infantry had not yet been broken.
Consequently, at 13:00 the Ottoman cavalry began to move into position to attack: a first echelon of two companies under Colonel Mahmud Muhtar were tasked with penetrating the Greek positions at the western slopes of Panagia height; Ibrahim Bey led a second echelon of three companies to the left and rear of the first, to assist it in its breakthrough; and a third echelon of two companies followed to the right and rear as a reserve force. While Mahmud Muhtar's first echelon successfully reached the slopes of Panagia and turned south as planned, the second echelon missed the turn and continued advancing to the east. When Ibrahim Bey realized this, it was too late: if he tried to turn south, his men would suffer heavy casualties to the entrenched Greeks on its flank. Thus he ordered his bugler to signal the retreat north. The third echelon followed suit, returning to the positions it had started from. This left Mahmud Muhtar's first echelon, already charging against the Greek trenches west of Panagia, alone and without any support. The Ottoman attack reached the Greek trenches, with some of the cavalrymen fighting with their sabres or dismounting to shoot at the defending Greeks; in the end, the Ottomans were forced to retreat by the heavy fire of the well-entrenched infantry.
At about the same time, at 13:30, the Bursa battalion attacked the second Greek line on Karadagh, defended by IV/7 Battalion. By 15:00, the Ottoman troops found themselves separated from their comrades in the six outflanking companies by a single trench still held by the Greeks. The Greeks, with good artillery support, managed to force the Ottomans to withdraw, leaving two artillery pieces behind.
In the meantime, the six outflanking companies launched five successive attempts to break through or outflank the Greek positions, without success. At 16:30, the Greek III/7 Battalion's 2nd company launched a fierce counterattack which forced them back, leaving 40 dead. With the Greek positions intact, at 16:30 Naim Pasha and Mahmud Muhtar ordered their forces to retreat towards Gherli. By 18:00, with the Ottoman withdrawal in full effect, fire ceased.
Although the day had been a success for the Greeks, the Greek commanders, committed to the doctrine of passive defence, completely failed to exploit their success by launching a pursuit against the strung-out Ottoman forces, even though they disposed of twice as much infantry (7,000 men) as the Ottomans. The counterattack launched by Major Kopsidas, if properly supported, might have destroyed the eastern Ottoman column, but the opportunity was allowed to be lost.
The casualties of the two sides during the First Battle of Velestino were 138 killed and 254 wounded for the Ottomans, and 28 killed and 142 wounded for the Greeks.
## Second Battle of Velestino, 5–6 May
Smolenskis expected the Ottomans to try again on the next day, and therefore asked for and received ammunition and reinforcements in the form of the 1st Independent Infantry Battalion and three dismounted cavalry companies, which arrived on 3 May.
On the Ottoman side, Mahmud Muhtar reported to Edhem Pasha in person on 1 May, and expressed the opinion that the bulk of the Greek army was at Velestino, recommending an immediate attack with greater forces. Edhem Pasha disagreed, recalled the units of the Cavalry Division to Larissa, and instead sent the rest of the 5th Division, under Hakki Pasha, to assume a defensive position at Gherli. In preparation for renewing the attack, the division was reinforced during the next days to a total of 17 battalions, 4 cavalry companies, and 4 artillery batteries, a total of 8,500 infantry, 24 guns, and 160 cavalry. The role assigned to the 5th Division was to keep the Greek forces at Velestino pinned in place, so that they could not come to the aid of the rest of the Greek army, which faced the main Ottoman attack around Farsala.
By 5 May, Smolenskis' Mixed Brigade counted 11 battalions (7th and 8th Infantry Regiments, 1st Independent, 6th Evzones), an engineer company, three dismounted and one mounted cavalry companies, and three artillery batteries. At the nearby village of Ayvali, although not placed under Smolenskis' command until the morning of 6 May, was the 4th Evzone Battalion and a mixed sapper-firemen company. In total, the Greek forces numbered 10,228 infantry, 150 cavalry, and 18 guns. The Greek dispositions did not change much since 30 April, except that Smolenskis appointed 8th Regiment commander, Colonel Nikolaos Giannikostas, to command his right wing, while 7th Regiment commander Lieutenant Colonel Stylianos Reglis assumed command of the left wing.
### 5 May
On 5 May in the morning, the Ottoman 5th Division began to move towards Velestino in four columns. Its rightmost (western) column, with the 2nd Infantry Regiment and one mountain artillery company, marched ahead, so as to engage the Greek left and prevent a possible Greek withdrawal towards Farsala. Furthermore, the column was to again attempt the flanking manoeuvre around Karadagh that had been attempted on 30 April. The central column, comprising the heavily reinforced 3rd Regiment (six battalions) and three artillery companies, was to attack the heights directly west of Velestino, while the 4th Regiment formed a left column and marched towards Ovrias Gala. The cavalry formed a separate column between the central and right columns, while an infantry regiment remained at Gherli as reserve. In total, the Ottoman forces deployed for the day's attack were estimated at 6,000 men, two batteries, and small numbers of cavalry.
The Ottomans deployed for battle at 9:00, and by 9:30 captured the Petroto height in front of the positions of the Greek left wing, while other detachments passed through the ravines of Karadagh to try and outflank the Greek positions. The remaining Ottoman columns did not seriously probe the Greek positions. Around 10:00, as the Ottoman forces had approached the Greek positions on the left, a sudden rain and hail storm broke out, reducing visibility to almost zero. The Ottomans exploited this to approach the Greek lines even closer, and managed to occupy some Greek trenches. This led to a brief panic on the Greek front, but order was quickly restored by the officers. As the storm passed after 10:30, the fighting resumed. The Greek batteries were particularly exposed, as the Ottoman artillery had greater range and could fire at them with impunity, and they were forced to cease fire. Nevertheless, aided by gradual reinforcements from the 1st Independent Battalion, the Greek line held against repeated Ottoman attacks. The Ottoman commander also fed 3.5 battalions as reinforcements into the attack, but to no avail. Ottoman artillery fire became more sparse after 18:30, and fighting ended entirely at 19:30. On the extreme Greek left, the Ottoman outflanking manoeuvre was stopped thanks to the timely intervention of two companies from the 4th Evzone Battalion at Ayvali.
Already at 16:30, Hakki Pasha had sent requests for reinforcement of at least a brigade or even an entire division to Edhem Pasha. As the continued presence of the Greeks at Velestino might threaten the flanks of the main Ottoman army, Edhem ordered the 3rd Infantry Division and a reserve brigade to Velestino on the next day, but they did not arrive in time to play any role in the battle. The Greek forces retained their previous dispositions, except that the two companies of the 4th Evzone Battalion were withdrawn as the entire battalion moved to occupy the Ayvali pass to secure the Mixed Brigade's rear from the direction of Farsala.
### 6 May
At 5:00 on 6 May, the Ottoman attack resumed, pushing against the Greek left with greater forces than the previous day, while applying pressure along the rest of the Greek front as well. Due to the withdrawal of the Evzone companies, the extreme Greek left flank was left exposed. Despite repeated requests of the III/7 Battalion commander, no reinforcements arrived, so that by noon, the Ottoman forces broke through and forced the Greek left to retreat. As the Ottoman forces did not force a pursuit, the Greek retreat did not degenerate to a collapse of the front.
Once informed of these developments, Colonel Smolenskis ordered 7th Regiment to hold at all costs and sent two reserve companies to bolster its position, but they arrived too late. At the same time, Smolenskis was informed by telegram of the defeat of the main Greek army at the Battle of Farsala and its withdrawal to Domokos. Combined with the critical situation on his left, around 15:00 Smolenskis ordered the Brigade to start retreating, beginning with the more exposed units of 8th Regiment in the lower ground. Although the Greek retreat was somewhat disorderly, the Ottomans did not exploit the situation: once they captured the Greek left, they stopped to rest, and another rain storm that broke out around 16:30 helped cover the Greek retreat. The Greeks managed to break off contact with the Ottomans and retire without trouble to Almyros, while some of the units of the right flank withdrew to Volos, where they were picked up by ships of the Greek fleet.
Velestino was captured by the Ottomans on 7 May, where Edhem Pasha met with the European consuls from Volos, who announced to him that the city had been evacuated by the Greek forces. As a result, Edhem sent only two battalions to occupy the city, while the 5th Division remained in the wider area of Velestino.
The total casualties for the Second Battle of Velestino were 59 killed and 361 wounded for the Ottomans and 73 killed and 306 wounded for the Greeks.
## Aftermath
The main Greek army withdrew to Domokos, where they began hastily setting up fortifications. The reinforcements that had been sent to Smolenskis' command—1st Independent Battalion, 4th Evzone Battalion, the dismounted cavalry companies, a field artillery battery and the sappers company—were recalled to bolster the defensive position there, while the 3rd Brigade remained at Almyros for the time being, covering the coastal road. The Ottoman 5th Division resumed contact with the positions of the Greek 3rd Brigade on 17 May, but no clashes occurred other than a brief bombardment of the Ottoman positions by Greek warships. On the same day, at the Battle of Domokos, the right flank of the main Greek army was turned back. Without any available reserves, the Greek army was likely to be surrounded, so Crown Prince Constantine decided to again withdraw south. As a result, 3rd Brigade was ordered to retreat to Lamia. An armistice took effect on the next day, which was finalized on 3 June, ending the war.
Amidst a string of humiliating Greek defeats, the successful ten-day defence of Velestino by Smolenskis stood out. Already during the battle, the press clamoured for promoting him to general and commander-in-chief, and contrasted his capable performance during the war with the general ineffectiveness of the military and political leadership. On 19 May he received a field promotion to major general and was placed in command of the 1st Infantry Division. He was decorated with the Grand Commander of the Order of the Redeemer, and was propelled to the status of a national hero. Already in 1897, the Municipality of Athens gave his name to a street, and he received honorary citizenships from several Greek cities. Medals and lithographs with his portrait were in widespread demand and prominently displayed for several years thereafter. This popularity was quickly used to launch his political career: Smolenskis was twice elected Member of the Hellenic Parliament for the Attica and Boeotia Prefecture, and served twice as Minister for Military Affairs, in the 1897 Alexandros Zaimis cabinet, and in the 1903 Georgios Theotokis cabinet. |
44,308,554 | Italian cruiser Basilicata | 1,170,388,719 | Protected cruiser of the Italian Royal Navy | [
"1914 ships",
"Campania-class cruisers",
"Maritime incidents in 1919",
"Ships built in Castellammare di Stabia",
"Ships sunk by non-combat internal explosions",
"World War I cruisers of Italy"
]
| Basilicata was a small protected cruiser built for the Italian Regia Marina (Royal Navy) in the 1910s. She was the second and final member of the Campania class, along with the lead ship Campania. The Campania-class cruisers were intended for service in Italy's colonies, and so were given a heavy armament and designed to emphasize long cruising range over high speed. Basilicata's career was cut short in mid-1919 when one of her boilers exploded and sank her while in Tewfik, Egypt. The ship was raised in 1920 but deemed not worth repairing; she was sold for scrapping in July 1921.
## Design
Basilicata was 83 meters (272 ft) long overall and had a beam of 12.7 m (42 ft) and a draft of 5 m (16 ft). She displaced 2,483 long tons (2,523 t) normally and up to 3,187 long tons (3,238 t) at full load. Her propulsion system consisted of a pair of vertical triple-expansion steam engines each driving a single screw propeller. Steam was supplied by four coal-fired, cylindrical fire-tube boilers that were vented into a single funnel. Her engines were rated at 4,129 indicated horsepower (3,079 kW) and produced a top speed of 15.5 knots (28.7 km/h; 17.8 mph). The ship had a cruising radius of about 1,850 nautical miles (3,430 km; 2,130 mi) at a speed of 10 knots (19 km/h; 12 mph). She had a crew of 11 officers and 193 enlisted men.
Basilicata was armed with a main battery of six 152 mm (6 in) L/40 guns mounted singly; one was placed on the forecastle, one at the stern, and two on each broadside in sponsons on the main deck. She was also equipped with two 76 mm (3 in) L40 guns, three 76 mm L/40 guns in anti-aircraft mountings, two 47 mm (1.9 in) guns, and a pair of machine guns. The ship was only lightly armored, with a 25 mm (0.98 in) thick deck, and 50 mm (2 in) thick plating on her conning tower.
## Service history
Basilicata was laid down at the Castellammare shipyard on 9 August 1913, the same day as Campania. Both ships were built on the same slipway. They were launched less than a year later on 23 July 1914. Fitting-out work proceeded more slowly on Basilicata, and she was completed on 1 August 1917, four months after her sister ship. After completion, Basilicata was stationed in Italian Libya.
On 13 August 1919, while moored in Tewfik at the southern end of the Suez Canal, one of Basilicata's boilers exploded, which sank the ship. Salvage operations began thereafter, and on 12 September 1920 after three days of work, the ship was refloated. The Regia Marina decided that repairing the ship was not worth the cost, and so on 1 July 1921 she was sold to ship breakers in Suez. |
988,796 | Jevons paradox | 1,169,978,138 | Efficiency leads to increased demand | [
"Energy conservation",
"Energy policy",
"Environmental social science concepts",
"Industrial ecology",
"Paradoxes in economics"
]
| In economics, the Jevons paradox (/ˈdʒɛvənz/; sometimes Jevons effect) occurs when technological progress or government policy increases the efficiency with which a resource is used (reducing the amount necessary for any one use), but the falling cost of use increases its demand—increasing, rather than reducing, resource use. However, governments assume that efficiency gains will lower resource consumption, ignoring the possibility of the effect arising.
In 1865, the English economist William Stanley Jevons observed that technological improvements that increased the efficiency of coal use led to the increased consumption of coal in a wide range of industries. He argued that, contrary to common intuition, technological progress could not be relied upon to reduce fuel consumption.
The issue has been re-examined by modern economists studying consumption rebound effects from improved energy efficiency. In addition to reducing the amount needed for a given use, improved efficiency also lowers the relative cost of using a resource, which increases the quantity demanded. This may counteract (to some extent) the reduction in use from improved efficiency. Additionally, improved efficiency increases real incomes and accelerates economic growth, further increasing the demand for resources. The Jevons effect occurs when the effect from increased demand predominates, and the improved efficiency results in a faster rate of resource utilization.
Considerable debate exists about the size of the rebound in energy efficiency and the relevance of the Jevons effect to energy conservation. Some dismiss the effect, while others worry that it may be self-defeating to pursue sustainability by increasing energy efficiency. Some environmental economists have proposed that efficiency gains be coupled with conservation policies that keep the cost of use the same (or higher) to avoid the Jevons effect. Conservation policies that increase cost of use (such as cap and trade or green taxes) can be used to control the rebound effect.
## History
The Jevons effect was first described by the English economist William Stanley Jevons in his 1865 book The Coal Question. Jevons observed that England's consumption of coal soared after James Watt introduced the Watt steam engine, which greatly improved the efficiency of the coal-fired steam engine from Thomas Newcomen's earlier design. Watt's innovations made coal a more cost-effective power source, leading to the increased use of the steam engine in a wide range of industries. This in turn increased total coal consumption, even as the amount of coal required for any particular application fell. Jevons argued that improvements in fuel efficiency tend to increase (rather than decrease) fuel use, writing: "It is a confusion of ideas to suppose that the economical use of fuel is equivalent to diminished consumption. The very contrary is the truth."
At that time, many in Britain worried that coal reserves were rapidly dwindling, but some experts opined that improving technology would reduce coal consumption. Jevons argued that this view was incorrect, as further increases in efficiency would tend to increase the use of coal. Hence, improving technology would tend to increase the rate at which England's coal deposits were being depleted, and could not be relied upon to solve the problem.
Although Jevons originally focused on coal, the concept has since been extended to other resources, e.g., water usage. The Jevons effect is also found in socio-hydrology, in the safe development paradox called the reservoir effect, where construction of a reservoir to reduce the risk of water shortage can instead exacerbate that risk, as increased water availability leads to more development and hence more water consumption.
## Cause
Economists have observed that consumers tend to travel more when their cars are more fuel efficient, causing a 'rebound' in the demand for fuel. An increase in the efficiency with which a resource (e.g. fuel) is used causes a decrease in the cost of using that resource when measured in terms of what it can achieve (e.g. travel). Generally speaking, a decrease in the cost (or price) of a good or service will increase the quantity demanded (the law of demand). With a lower cost for travel, consumers will travel more, increasing the demand for fuel. This increase in demand is known as the rebound effect, and it may or may not be large enough to offset the original drop in fuel use from the increased efficiency. The Jevons effect occurs when the rebound effect is greater than 100%, exceeding the original efficiency gains.
The size of the direct rebound effect is dependent on the price elasticity of demand for the good. In a perfectly competitive market where fuel is the sole input used, if the price of fuel remains constant but efficiency is doubled, the effective price of travel would be halved (twice as much travel can be purchased). If in response, the amount of travel purchased more than doubles (i.e. demand is price elastic), then fuel consumption would increase, and the Jevons effect would occur. If demand is price inelastic, the amount of travel purchased would less than double, and fuel consumption would decrease. However, goods and services generally use more than one type of input (e.g. fuel, labour, machinery), and other factors besides input cost may also affect price. These factors tend to reduce the rebound effect, making the Jevons effect less likely to occur.
## Khazzoom–Brookes postulate
In the 1980s, economists Daniel Khazzoom and Leonard Brookes revisited the Jevons effect for the case of society's energy use. Brookes, then chief economist at the UK Atomic Energy Authority, argued that attempts to reduce energy consumption by increasing energy efficiency would simply raise demand for energy in the economy as a whole. Khazzoom focused on the narrower point that the potential for rebound was ignored in mandatory performance standards for domestic appliances being set by the California Energy Commission.
In 1992, the economist Harry Saunders dubbed the hypothesis that improvements in energy efficiency work to increase (rather than decrease) energy consumption the Khazzoom–Brookes postulate, and argued that the hypothesis is broadly supported by neoclassical growth theory (the mainstream economic theory of capital accumulation, technological progress and long-run economic growth). Saunders showed that the Khazzoom–Brookes postulate occurs in the neoclassical growth model under a wide range of assumptions.
According to Saunders, increased energy efficiency tends to increase energy consumption by two means. First, increased energy efficiency makes the use of energy relatively cheaper, thus encouraging increased use (the direct rebound effect). Second, increased energy efficiency increases real incomes and leads to increased economic growth, which pulls up energy use for the whole economy. At the microeconomic level (looking at an individual market), even with the rebound effect, improvements in energy efficiency usually result in reduced energy consumption. That is, the rebound effect is usually less than 100%. However, at the macroeconomic level, more efficient (and hence comparatively cheaper) energy leads to faster economic growth, which increases energy use throughout the economy. Saunders argued that taking into account both microeconomic and macroeconomic effects, the technological progress that improves energy efficiency will tend to increase overall energy use. Besides the neoclassical interpretation, hypotheses generated from heterodox economics also are consistent with the existence of the Jevons effect.
## Energy conservation policy
Jevons warned that fuel efficiency gains tend to increase fuel use. However, this does not imply that improved fuel efficiency is worthless if the Jevons effect occurs; higher fuel efficiency enables greater production and a higher material quality of life. For example, a more efficient steam engine allowed the cheaper transport of goods and people that contributed to the Industrial Revolution. Nonetheless, if the Khazzoom–Brookes postulate is correct, increased fuel efficiency, by itself, will not reduce the rate of depletion of fossil fuels.
There is considerable debate about whether the Khazzoom-Brookes Postulate is correct, and of the relevance of the Jevons effect to energy conservation policy. Most governments, environmentalists and NGOs pursue policies that improve efficiency, holding that these policies will lower resource consumption and reduce environmental problems. Others, including many environmental economists, doubt this 'efficiency strategy' towards sustainability, and worry that efficiency gains may in fact lead to higher production and consumption. They hold that for resource use to fall, efficiency gains should be coupled with other policies that limit resource use. However, other environmental economists point out that, while the Jevons effect may occur in some situations, the empirical evidence for its widespread applicability is limited.
The Jevons effect is sometimes used to argue that energy conservation efforts are futile, for example, that more efficient use of oil will lead to increased demand, and will not slow the arrival or the effects of peak oil. This argument is usually presented as a reason not to enact environmental policies or pursue fuel efficiency (e.g. if cars are more efficient, it will simply lead to more driving). Several points have been raised against this argument. First, in the context of a mature market such as for oil in developed countries, the direct rebound effect is usually small, and so increased fuel efficiency usually reduces resource use, other conditions remaining constant. Second, even if increased efficiency does not reduce the total amount of fuel used, there remain other benefits associated with improved efficiency. For example, increased fuel efficiency may mitigate the price increases, shortages and disruptions in the global economy associated with crude oil depletion. Third, environmental economists have pointed out that fuel use will unambiguously decrease if increased efficiency is coupled with an intervention (e.g. a fuel tax) that keeps the cost of fuel use the same or higher.
The Jevons effect indicates that increased efficiency by itself may not reduce fuel use, and that sustainable energy policy must rely on other types of government interventions as well. As the imposition of conservation standards or other government interventions that increase cost-of-use do not display the Jevons effect, they can be used to control the rebound effect. To ensure that efficiency-enhancing technological improvements reduce fuel use, efficiency gains can be paired with government intervention that reduces demand (e.g. green taxes, cap and trade, or higher emissions standards). The ecological economists Mathis Wackernagel and William Rees have suggested that any cost savings from efficiency gains be "taxed away or otherwise removed from further economic circulation. Preferably they should be captured for reinvestment in natural capital rehabilitation." By mitigating the economic effects of government interventions designed to promote ecologically sustainable activities, efficiency-improving technological progress may make the imposition of these interventions more palatable, and more likely to be implemented.
## Other examples
### Agriculture
Increasing the yield of a crop, such as wheat, for a given area will reduce the area required to achieve the same total yield. However, increasing efficiency may make it more profitable to grow wheat and lead farmers to convert land to the production of wheat, thereby increasing land use instead.
### 5G internet
5G is far more energy efficient than 4G. However, the lower cost will lead to more internet use, which in turn may result in an increase of energy consumption.
## See also
- Andy and Bill's law, new software will always consume any increase in computing power that new hardware can provide
- Downs–Thomson paradox, increasing road capacity can make traffic congestion worse
- Tragedy of the commons, a phenomenon in which common resources to which access is not regulated tend to become depleted
- Wirth's law, faster hardware can trigger the development of less-efficient software |
31,713,550 | Chrono Trigger: Crimson Echoes | 1,169,222,381 | 2009 fan developed video game | [
"Cancelled Super Nintendo Entertainment System games",
"Chrono (series)",
"Fan games",
"Single-player video games",
"Unauthorized video games",
"Video games about time travel",
"Video games developed in France",
"Video games developed in the United States"
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| Chrono Trigger: Crimson Echoes is a fangame developed by the international team Kajar Laboratories as a ROM hack of Square's role-playing video game Chrono Trigger for the Super Nintendo Entertainment System. It was conceived as an unofficial installment in the Chrono series, set between the events of Chrono Trigger and its sequel Chrono Cross.
The game, as a ROM hack, runs on the Chrono Trigger game engine and has gameplay similar to the original. It is based five years after the events of Chrono Trigger and features all the playable characters from the original game, who come together across different time periods to fight an enemy attempting to change the past. The plot includes elements from both official games. Crimson Echoes concludes by setting up several plot points that were used in Chrono Cross.
The project was in development from 2004–09, with 98% of the game completed. The game reportedly totaled around 35 hours of play time, and had ten alternate endings. A few weeks prior to the expected released date, Square Enix sent the developers a cease-and-desist letter for knowingly violating Square Enix's intellectual property, which led to the cancellation of the project. This cancellation was widely reported in the gaming press, who were largely sympathetic to the project. Despite its cancellation, versions of the game ranging from an alpha to a release candidate have since been leaked onto the internet and can be played through to the end.
## Gameplay
As Crimson Echoes runs on the Chrono Trigger game engine, the gameplay is similar to that of the original title. Players and enemies may use physical or magical attacks to wound targets during battle, and players may use items to heal or protect themselves. Each character and enemy has a certain number of hit points that are reduced by successful attacks and can be restored through potions and spells. When a playable character loses all hit points, they faint. It also uses the Active Time Battle 2.0 system from the first game. The game features new maps, graphics and sprites. New minigames were designed to reward players with items and equipment, including a "Coliseum" battle mode based on that of Final Fantasy VII and a casino featuring luck-based games.
## Characters
Crimson Echoes features all the playable characters of the original game, and is set five years after the events of Chrono Trigger. Crono and Marle are junior regents of the Kingdom of Guardia; Lucca continues her scientific endeavors. The three struggle to ease tensions with Porre, which has modernized its military and seeks to end Guardia's economic hegemony. Frog lives in 605 A.D., restored to his human form, though this was not implemented before the cease and desist letter. Magus searches for Schala in the still-frozen 11,995 B.C., and feuds with Dalton, obsessed with finding artifacts from the lost Kingdom of Zeal. Ayla dwells in 64,999,995 B.C., and has given birth to her tribe's successor. Robo assists the Guru of Reason, Belthasar, who has established a clandestine temporal research facility named Chronopolis in 2305 A.D. Belthasar claims it will be a guardian of time to ensure a threat such as Lavos will never arise. He nonetheless harbors darker wishes to leave a grand legacy in history, and is almost recklessly pragmatic. He fixes the Epoch during the story's course, which returns as the Neo-Epoch (akin to its design in Chrono Cross).
The main villain of Crimson Echoes is King Zeal, revived by Lavos through the Frozen Flame. Confused and saddened by the loss of his kingdom, he is easily manipulated by Lavos, who uses him to attempt revenge on Crono and his friends. He later learns of his deception, and seeks to dominate Lavos and recreate his kingdom through unmatched temporal power. While under Lavos's influence, he recruits Dalton and Kasmir to his cause. Kasmir is an illusionist who served under Magus in the Mystic War. King Zeal gives him the Masamune, and he assumes leadership of the Mystics after 600 A.D. Other foes come from the Reptite timeline, an alternate universe temporarily brought into existence by King Zeal's meddling. They number the Dragon God—a Reptite artificial intelligence created in an alternate timeline—and the Xamoltan time travelers, who were used by King Zeal and survive into the restored human world. The party also visit 1 A.D., the era of the founding of Guardia. There, they meet Cedric the Executor, the ruthless first King of Guardia, as well as Antaeus, the ancestor of Porre.
## Plot
The game begins as Crono, Marle, and Lucca attend a political meeting between the Kingdom of Guardia and Porre. An assassin attacks; the party pursues him to the Denadoro Mts., where Lucca's prototype Time Egg backfires and sends them to the future. They find Belthasar there, who has established a research facility called Chronopolis. He warns of a new threat to the timeline, and sends the party to the Ocean Palace ruins of 11,995 B.C. to investigate. They find Magus, still searching for Schala and feuding with Dalton. They confront a mysterious villain who resurrects Schala and robs the early Masamune, still embedded in the husk of the Mammon Machine. Its theft changes history, causing the Mystics' war in the Middle Ages to drag on another 50 years, led by the illusionist Kasmir. The party retrieve Frog (named Glenn in Crimson Echoes) from 605 A.D. and meet with Belthasar.
He explains the mysterious villain was King Zeal, somehow alive and in possession of the Frozen Flame, a shard of Lavos with incredible powers. Melchior takes up residence in Chronopolis to aid the fight against him. The party goes to 64,999,995 B.C. to find the Dragon's Tooth, an enchanted totem that will assist Chronopolis. King Zeal confronts them at the old Lavos impact crater, scattering them through time and unleashing the "Atash Kedah", a destructive spell that changes history. Marle awakens in 1 A.D. to discover Reptites have survived the long ice age, and war with humanity for control of the planet. Lucca and Robo arrive in 2305 A.D., awaking in the midst of a futuristic Reptite civilization. They ally with rebellious, sentient robots and venture to Dinopolis, the equivalent of Chronopolis in this timeline. They destroy the Vision Serpent, an artificial intelligence created to administrate the world. Crono, Magus, and Glenn awaken in 1005 A.D., and assault the earlier Dinopolis, where Reptite time travelers from 2305 A.D. have come to conduct research on the past. The party use the temporal technology in place to return to 64,999,995 B.C. and stop the Atash Kedah spell, restoring the human timeline.
Marle awakens in 1 A.D. once more, this time witnessing her ancestor, Cedric Guardia, brutally unify the world with the Frozen Flame. A ubiquitous agent from Chronopolis—code-named 12—brings her back to the future. The party learn that the Reptite time travelers—named Cakulha, Coyopa, and Yaluk—survived the human world's restoration, and had been manipulated by King Zeal. The party fix the Mystic War by retrieving the Masamune from Kasmir and putting it back in antiquity. In 1005 A.D., new diplomatic talks are about to begin. Porre instead launches an assault, backed by King Zeal and Dalton, placed in Porre's high command by the king. King Guardia dies in the attack. The party venture to 11,995 B.C. once more with Schala, intent on striking the Frozen Flame in antiquity to lure out King Zeal. This unleashes wild energies, and the party must overcome individual mental assaults by the Flame. King Zeal retreats, and the energies cause Schala to fall into the Darkness Beyond Time, a temporal netherworld. Unsuccessful, the party seek out Gaspar tens of millions of years in the past (known as the Dreamtime), where he's gone to witness the birth of the planet's consciousness. King Zeal attacks them there; Crono falls near the rifts of the forming planet and is partly infused with its natal awareness. The party learn that King Zeal's ultimate goal is to resurrect the Kingdom of Zeal in 11,995 B.C.
The party return to antiquity and defeat Dalton. King Zeal nears the fruition of his plan, but Melchior and Belthasar enter the time period to dissuade him. King Zeal leaves the Sun Stone, the trigger for the revival of Zeal, with a follower and walks to the North Cape. He reveals that Lavos survived defeat in Chrono Trigger and clung to life in the Darkness Beyond Time. He used the Frozen Flame to revive King Zeal, manipulating him to take revenge on the heroes. He is now merging with Schala, as he has done with all the other "Arbiters" who have used the Frozen Flame throughout history. Lavos calls King Zeal, intending to merge with him as well and evolve to become the Dream Devourer (as seen in Chrono Trigger DS). The party convince Zeal's followers not to activate the Sun Stone, and pursue Zeal to the Darkness Beyond Time. King Zeal confronts them once more, revealing his will is stronger than that of Lavos; he'll merge, but become the dominant personality within the Dream Devourer and create a new Zeal using its vast power. The party defeat him and return to Chronopolis. They notice the planet's Gates are closing again, and depart to their homes, promising to stay in touch. Belthasar meanwhile reveals he has the Frozen Flame, which activates and informs him that Lavos is still alive and will become the Time Devourer, the enemy of Chrono Cross. It challenges Belthasar to a grand game, and he begins drawing up plans for Project Kid. The game closes with King Zeal, shown to be alive and imprisoned by Magus in 11,995 B.C., who forces him to teach advanced temporal magic.
## Development
The Crimson Echoes project was launched by ZeaLitY in 2004. The development team, dubbed Kajar Laboratories, primarily consisted of members of the Chrono fansite Chrono Compendium. The team was led by a game director, Agent 12, and two co-directors, ZeaLitY and Chrono'99. To create a story that was compatible with Chrono Trigger and Chrono Cross, the team took full advantage of the Chrono Compendium's encyclopedia and the fandom's knowledge and analysis of the series.
The game took the form of a ROM hack of the Super Nintendo Entertainment System version of Chrono Trigger. It was coded using Chrono Trigger ROM editing software, and was meant to be played on a Super Nintendo Entertainment System emulator. The finished game was intended to be released as a patch file in the IPS (International Patching System) format, so as to avoid illegal distribution of a full Chrono Trigger ROM.
The project lasted four and a half years, with a planned release date of May 31, 2009. However, Square Enix sent ZeaLitY and Agent 12 a cease-and-desist letter on May 8, 2009 for trademark and copyright infringement, ordering that the team stop development and cancel all ROM hacking activities, including translation and distribution of all their other projects that were in progress or already released. The letter noted that ZeaLitY and Agent 12 risked being sued for "up to \$150,000 per work" in damages. At the time of the cancellation, the game was "around 98% complete"; it allegedly featured 23 story chapters adding up to roughly 35 hours of gameplay and ten alternate endings.
## Internet circulation
Shortly after the project received the cease and desist letter, an alpha version of the patch was leaked on the internet. ZeaLitY expressed his disapproval and embarrassment on the Crimson Echoes website, noting that the alpha version was extremely buggy and lacked many of the improvements made in the beta version. In January 2011, a more complete beta version was leaked which could be played from beginning to end, believed to be the final build of the project prior to cancellation. Also, "Chrono Trigger: Flames of Eternity" was forked from an Crimson Echoes around 2010 with the aim to fully complete the game's development, switching from using the earlier version as a base to the latest released version. Development was ongoing until June 2017.
## Reaction
Kajar Laboratories complied with the cease-and-desist letter and all traces of Crimson Echoes were removed from the Chrono Compendium. CNET senior associate editor Eric Franklin noted that it was "sad to see four and a half years of work go spinning down the drain", stating: "I feel for the fans who were anticipating this." 1UP.com called the project "ambitious," noting that "This wasn't just some fly-by-night hack." Earnest Cavalli, from Wired, stated: "I fully understand Square Enix's desire to protect its properties, but that doesn't make this any less depressing. The game looked quite good (if obviously derivative)." The project's cancellation was also reported by gaming journalists in the Netherlands, France, and Japan. In February 2010, GamesRadar included the game in an article about the "10 fan games that shouldn't be ceased or desisted".
Keith Stuart, from The Guardian, pointed out the contrast between Square Enix's policy and that of companies like Valve, which officially adopted the Half-Life fan mods Counter-Strike and Day of Defeat, and Vivendi Universal Games, which granted a licence to the King's Quest fan game The Silver Lining. He noted that since Crimson Echoes was a ROM hack, it was in a "trickier area of copy protection law" than those other projects, but felt that its release would have had next to no commercial impact since the game was to be distributed as an IPS patch rather than a ROM image. Finally, he noted that an official port of the fangame to the Nintendo DS or WiiWare would have had more "marketing benefits" for Square Enix. |
12,319,016 | The Bill | 1,172,807,873 | British police procedural television series | [
"1980s British crime drama television series",
"1980s British police procedural television series",
"1980s British workplace drama television series",
"1983 British television series debuts",
"1990s British crime drama television series",
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"1990s British workplace drama television series",
"2000s British crime drama television series",
"2000s British police procedural television series",
"2000s British workplace drama television series",
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"2010s British crime drama television series",
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"2010s British workplace drama television series",
"English-language television shows",
"ITV crime dramas",
"Television series by Fremantle (company)",
"Television shows produced by Thames Television",
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| The Bill is a British police procedural television series, first broadcast on ITV from 16 August 1983 until 31 August 2010. The programme originated from a one-off drama, Woodentop, broadcast in August 1983.
The programme focused on the lives and work of one shift of police officers of all ranks, and the storylines dealt with situations faced by uniformed officers working on the beat, as well as plainclothes detectives. The Bill was the longest-running police procedural television series in the United Kingdom, and among the longest running of any British television series at the time of its cancellation. The title originates from "Old Bill", a slang term for the police.
The series attracted controversy on several occasions. An episode broadcast in 2008 was criticised for featuring fictional treatment for multiple sclerosis. The series has also faced more general criticism concerning its levels of violence, particularly prior to 2009, when it occupied a pre-watershed slot. The Bill won several awards, including BAFTAs, a Writers' Guild of Great Britain award, and Best Drama at the Inside Soap Awards in 2009, this being the series' fourth consecutive win.
Throughout its 27-year run, the programme was always broadcast on the main ITV network. In later years, episodes of the show were repeated on ITV3 on their week of broadcast. The series has also been repeated on other digital stations, including Gold, Alibi, W, Dave, and Drama.
In March 2010, following a spell of declining audiences and negative public and media reception, executives at ITV announced that the network did not intend to recommission The Bill and that filming would cease on 14 June 2010. The final episode aired on 31 August 2010.
## History
The Bill was originally conceived by Geoff McQueen in 1983, then a new television writer, as a one-off drama. McQueen had originally titled the production Old Bill. It was picked up by Michael Chapman for ITV franchise holder Thames Television, who retitled it Woodentop as part of Thames's "Storyboard" series of one-off dramas and broadcast on ITV under the title Woodentop on 16 August 1983. Woodentop starred Mark Wingett as PC Jim Carver and Trudie Goodwin as WPC June Ackland of London's Metropolitan Police, both attached to the fictional Sun Hill police station.
Although originally only intended as a one-off, Woodentop so impressed ITV that a full series was commissioned, first broadcast on 16 October 1984 with one post-watershed episode per week, featuring an hourlong, separate storyline for each episode of the first three series. The first episode of the full series was "Funny Ol' Business – Cops & Robbers". With serialisation, the name of the show changed from Woodentop to The Bill. Series one had 11 episodes and was broadcast in 1984, series two and three had 12 episodes each and were broadcast in 1985-6 and 1987 respectively. With a full ensemble cast to explore new characters not featured or just mentioned in Woodentop, the focus of the storylines soon shifted away from new recruit Carver and towards Detective Inspector Roy Galloway and Sergeant Bob Cryer.
The series then changed to two 30-minute episodes per week, on Tuesdays and Thursdays in 1988 (from July 1988 onwards, and began being broadcast all year round without a summer break), increasing to three a week beginning in 1993, with the third episode being broadcast on Fridays. In 1998, The Bill returned to hour-long episodes, which later became twice-weekly, with the Friday episode being dropped, at which point the series adopted a much more serialised approach. When Paul Marquess took over as executive producer in 2002, as part of a drive for ratings, the series was revamped, bringing more of a soap-opera feel to many of its stories. Many veteran characters were written out, leading to the Sun Hill fire during 2002. Marquess stated that the clearout was necessary to introduce "plausible, powerful new characters". As part of the new serial format, much more of the characters' personal lives were explored but, as Marquess put it, the viewers still "don't go home with them". The change also allowed The Bill to become more reflective of modern policing, with the introduction of officers from ethnic minorities, most notably the new superintendent, Adam Okaro. It also allowed coverage of the relationship of homosexual Sergeant Craig Gilmore and PC Luke Ashton, a storyline which Marquess was determined to explore before rival Merseybeat.
In 2005, Johnathan Young took over as executive producer. The serial format was dropped and The Bill returned to stand-alone episodes with more focus on crime and policing than on the officers' personal lives. 2007 saw the reintroduction of episode titles, which had been dropped in 2002. In 2009, The Bill moved back to the 9 pm slot it previously held, and the theme tune, "Overkill", was replaced as part of a major overhaul of the series.
### Cancellation
On 26 March 2010, ITV announced that it would be cancelling the series later that year after 26 years on air. ITV said that this decision reflected the "changing tastes" of viewers. The last episode of The Bill was filmed in June 2010 and broadcast on 31 August 2010 followed by a documentary titled Farewell The Bill. Fans of the show started a 'Save the Bill' campaign on social networking website Facebook to persuade ITV to reconsider the cancellation, and BBC Radio 1's Chris Moyles promoted the campaign on air.
At the time the series ended in August 2010, The Bill was the United Kingdom's longest-running police drama and was among the longest-running of any British television series. The series finale, entitled "Respect", was aired in two parts and was dedicated to "the men and women of the Metropolitan Police Service past and present". The finale storyline concerned gang member Jasmine Harris being involved in the murder of fellow member Liam Martin who died in the arms of Inspector Smith after being stabbed. Jasmine is then gang raped because she talked to the police, and when Callum Stone found the person responsible he was held at gunpoint. Of the finale's title, executive producer Jonathan Young said "It's called "Respect" and we hope it will respect the heritage of the show". The finale episodes featured all the cast and the final scene was specially written so all cast members would be featured. Following the final episode, ITV aired a documentary entitled Farewell The Bill which featured interviews from past and present cast and crew members. The finale was watched by 4.4 million viewers, with Farewell The Bill averaging 1.661 million viewers.
### Possible revival
On 17 April 2021, various media outlets began reporting that the series may be set for a reboot. Writer Simon Sansome was understood to have bought the rights to the original series, and was planning a revival, dubbed Sun Hill (as licensing meant the series could not be named The Bill once more), alongside Holby City creator and former EastEnders writer Tony McHale, who had previously written episodes of The Bill and one of its spin-offs, Beech is Back. Sansome had been in talks with various cast members during a 2020 reunion and discussed possible appearances for show legends Mark Wingett (Jim Carver), Trudie Goodwin (June Ackland) and Graham Cole (Tony Stamp). However, no official date had been set for a return, nor had the mooted Sun Hill project been picked up by any TV network. On 18 April, Mark Wingett confirmed this on his Twitter account, stating they had been "approached" by production companies but the Sun Hill project had not been given the green light.
## Broadcasting and production
### Filming locations
Throughout the series, there have been three filming locations for Sun Hill police station. From the first series, the police station consisted of a set of buildings in Artichoke Hill, Wapping, East London. However, these buildings were next to the News International plant and during the winter of 1985–86 there was much industrial action which resulted in some altercations between the strikers and what they thought were the real police but were actually actors working on The Bill. Working conditions got so dire, that the production team realised they needed to find another base to set Sun Hill police station.
The second location was an old record distribution depot in Barlby Road, North Kensington in North West London. Filming began here in March 1987. In 1989, the owners of the Barlby Road site ordered The Bill out, due to their redevelopment plans for the area. After an extensive search, two sites were selected, the favourite being a disused hospital in Clapham. However, this fell through and the second option was chosen—an old wine distribution warehouse in Merton, South West London. The move was made in March 1990 and was disguised on screen by the 'ongoing' refurbishment of Sun Hill police station and then finally the explosion of a terrorist car-bomb in the station car-park, which ended up killing PC Ken Melvin.
Filming for the series took place all over London, mainly in South London and particularly the London Borough of Merton, where the Sun Hill set was located. Locations used when the show was filmed on a housing estate included:
- Cambridge Estate, in Kingston, south-west London
- High Path Estate, in South Wimbledon, south-west London (approx. 10-minute walk from the Sun Hill set)
- Alton Estate, in Roehampton, south-west London
- Phipps Bridge, Mitcham
- Roundshaw Estate in Wallington, London
- Sutton Estate, which includes Durand Close in Carshalton, where a housing block regularly used by The Bill for filming was demolished in November 2009.
Scenes were often filmed in east London, most notably the London Docklands, with other scenes filmed in Tooting, Greenwich and Croydon among other locations around London.
The Bill's set of "Sun Hill" police station remained until mid 2013 when it was finally dismantled.
#### Locations from individual episodes
- Brockwell Lido, SE24 0PA: "Sun Hill Boulevard" series 15, 31 August 1999
- Former Salvation Army Men's Hostel (now demolished), SE16 3FE: "Lock In" series 15, 9 December 1999
- Crossness Pumping Station, SE2 9AQ: "Haunted" series 15, 23 December 1999
- Centre Court Shopping Centre, SW19 8YA: "All Fall Down, Part 1" series 16, 27 October 2000
- The Gorbals, Glasgow (now demolished): "Demolition Girl", series 24, 21 August 2008
#### "Sun Hill"
The Bill is set in and around Sun Hill police station, in the fictional "Canley Borough Operational Command Unit" in East London. Geoff McQueen, creator of The Bill, claimed that he named Sun Hill after a street name in his home town of Royston, Hertfordshire.
The fictional Sun Hill suburb is located in the fictional London borough of Canley in the East End, north of the River Thames (Canley is a real suburb in Coventry). The Borough of Canley is approximately contiguous to the real-life London Borough of Tower Hamlets, and in the first few years of The Bill, Sun Hill police station was actually stated as being located in Wapping in Tower Hamlets. Sun Hill has a London E1 postcode (the 'address' of Sun Hill police station is given as '2 Sun Hill Road, Sun Hill, Canley E1 4 km'), which corresponds to the real-life areas of Whitechapel and Stepney.
### Production details
When filming The Bill, some outdoor scenes were re-enacted indoors with microphones surrounding the actors and the extra sounds being "dubbed" on later. Some of the more aggressive scenes were also filmed indoors either for dubbing or safety reasons. The sirens used in the series were added later in the dubbing suite as The Bill did not have permission to use them while on location. However, the police uniforms used in the series were genuine, again making The Bill unique amongst police dramas. When the series ended, London's Metropolitan Police Service, after talks with the production company, bought 400 kilograms of police-related paraphernalia, including uniforms and body armour, to prevent them falling into the hands of criminals after the programme's production ceased.
The Bill is unique amongst police dramas in that it takes a serial format, focusing on the work and lives of a single shift of police officers, rather than on one particular area of police work. Also unique is that The Bill adapted to this format after several series, whereas comparable series started with the serial format.
### Broadcast in the United Kingdom
During its initial broadcast, The Bill was always shown on ITV. In 2009, STV, ITV's regional franchise in Central and Northern Scotland, opted out of broadcasting the series along with a number of other dramas, a decision that later became the subject of legal proceedings between STV and the main ITV network. The legal dispute was settled on 27 April 2011, with ITV receiving £18 million from STV.
Aside from repeats of episodes on ITV3, which occurred on the original week of their broadcast, the show has regularly been repeated on other digital stations. Re-runs of the series began on 1 November 1992, when new digital channel UKTV Gold began broadcasting. The channel broadcast repeats of the series for nearly 16 years, until 6 October 2008, when the channel was given a revamp by the owners of the network. During the 16-year period, re-runs of the series covered every episode broadcast between 16 October 1984, and 8 March 2007. On 7 October 2008, UKTV launched a new British drama channel, Alibi, and from this point on, episodes of the series were broadcast at 8 am. Alibi broadcast episodes until 23 December 2009, when the show was taken from the channel's schedule due to poor viewer feedback. During the 14 months that the show broadcast on Alibi, the channel covered all of the episodes broadcast between 25 August 1998 and 27 February 2002. On 27 January 2010, UKTV relocated The Bill to one of its more recent entertainment channels, Watch, which began by airing the episode "Sweet Revenge", broadcast on 21 March 2007, continuing in broadcast order, carrying on from where UKTV Gold, had finished. Through the course of the year, the channel continued to broadcast episodes from the latter years of the show, concluding in November 2010 with the episode "Conviction: Judgement Day", broadcast on 16 July 2009. Following a short break from the network, the series returned in December 2010, beginning with Episode \#001, broadcast on 28 February 2002. This continued on from the broadcast order of episodes repeated on Alibi, carrying on from where the network had finished. As of April 2012, Watch had repeated every single episode from 28 February 2002 to 24 February 2005, and was to begin airing episodes from March 2005. In July 2013 the show started to be broadcast by UKTV channel Drama, starting with episodes from 1998. On 14 August 2017, Drama started showing The Bill from the beginning. As of 6 November, Drama jumped approximately a decade.
### Broadcast outside the UK
The Bill has been broadcast in over 55 countries.
- In Australia, The Bill was shown on the ABC. The final episode was shown on 16 October 2010, with Farewell The Bill shown the following week on 23 October. On Wednesday 3 February 2016, ABC commenced repeated the series from the pilot episode until midway through series 7 in an afternoon weekday timeslot, with early-morning repeats. The ABC does not have the rights to show series 8 to the last episode of series 26.
- On pay television services in Australia and New Zealand, older episodes were previously broadcast on UKTV. The Bill was re-aired on ABC TV from series 1 from July 2017 in the 5.00 am time slot.
- In Denmark, the series was retitled "Lov og Uorden" (Law and Disorder). Two episodes of the series were broadcast every afternoon on TV2 Charlie.
- In Ireland, the series was broadcast on RTÉ television, first starting in the early 1990s on RTÉ Two, and in the early 2000s RTÉ began broadcasting it on RTÉ One at 5:30 pm each weekday, splitting hour long episodes into two-part half-hour episodes. RTÉ discontinued this in 2009, moving the show to Monday Nights on RTÉ Two. RTÉ showed episodes from 2005. In 2010, RTÉ moved the show from its prime time slot on RTÉ Two to a midnight slot on RTÉ One on Thursday nights, but the show remained on the RTÉ Player.
- In Sweden, the series was retitled "Sunhills polisstation" (Sun Hill Police Station) by broadcaster TV4. In 2011, it was broadcast daily on Kanal 9 in the early afternoon with a repeat early the following morning.
## Themes and title sequences
- The series' pilot episode, Woodentop, featured a short theme composed by Mike Westergaard that was used specifically for the episode and never used at any other time during the main series. The episode's title sequence consisted of the word Woodentop being spelt out letter-by-letter, as if it were being typed out on a typewriter.
- The first-ever opening sequence of The Bill was first seen in the episode "Funny Ol' Business – Cops & Robbers". The sequence consisted of two police officers, one male and one female, walking down a street while images of Sun Hill were interspersed between them. This sequence was used for the first series only. It featured the first version of the iconic theme tune, "Overkill", composed by Charlie Morgan and Andy Pask. The theme is notable for its use of septuple meter. The end titles of the series simply showed the feet of the two police constables pounding the beat.
- In the show's second series, the opening sequence consisted of a police car, a Rover SD1, racing down a street with its siren wailing and its blue light flashing. The car would screech to a stop, and the camera zoomed in on the blue light. Various clips were then shown from the series of the characters in action, often chasing suspects. This sequence kept the first version of "Overkill", and also used the same ending credits from series one. This sequence was also used in the third series.
- From the fourth series onwards, the opening sequence was kept generally the same, but the clips used were regularly updated to remove departed characters and keep current with the show's events. Minor changes to the sequence included the Rover SD1 changing into a Ford Sierra in 1993, which was replaced by a Vauxhall Vectra in 1997. In the 1997 sequence, the Vectra was seen overtaking a Leyland Titan bus, before screeching to a halt, and the main sequence starting. The end credits remained the same, but a new version of "Overkill" was used, also composed by Andy Pask and Charlie Morgan.
- On 6 January 1998, starting with "Hard Cash", the third episode of the show's 14th series, the title sequence and theme used for nearly 10 years were scrapped. This time, the title sequence consisted of various police procedural images, including a suspect being shown into a police cell, another suspect being interviewed, and a third posing for mug-shot photographs. Clips of any actors featured were removed, as was the initial sequence involving the police car racing down the street. Mark Russell revamped "Overkill", giving it a jazz feel, with the majority of the theme played by a saxophone. The end credits of the series were also completely revamped. This time, the credits featured various images of the Metropolitan Police uniform, combined with images of feet tapping on a kerb. A longer version of "Overkill," composed by Mark Russell, was also used in the final credits. These opening and closing sequences were used for nearly three years, although both saw minor updates on 11 February 1999. The text sequence at the very start of the opening sequence was changed into a different font, and the images of the police uniform and feet tapping on a curb were removed from the closing sequence to make way for a preview of the next episode. The closing sequence remained this way until 16 February 2001, but the opening titles were once again updated on 5 September 2000 to remove certain images from the sequence to make it shorter. It is also noted that during this period, a 'previously on The Bill' segment was aired before the title sequence, to inform viewers what had occurred in the last episode.
- On 20 February 2001, starting with "Going Under", the 14th episode of the show's 17th series, the opening and closing sequences were again scrapped to make way for a completely new sequence and theme. This time, the opening sequence consisted of a montage image of the entire cast, backed by a darker, slower version of "Overkill". The closing credits featured a montage of various police-related images, also backed by the new version of "Overkill". The opening sequence was designed by the visuals company "Blue", and the new arrangement of "Overkill" was produced by Miles Bould and Mike Westergaard. These titles remained essentially the same for two years, with two small updates. The font used on the closing credits was changed towards the end of 2001, and the characters featured in the opening sequence were updated on 9 May 2002, to remove characters who had departed, and include new characters. These titles were broadcast from Episode No. 017, and are notable as several of the characters in these titles had not yet appeared in the show. DS Samantha Nixon appeared in the titles from Episode No. 017, but did not first appear until Episode No. 038, some four months later.
- On 26 February 2003, starting with Episode No. 091, the opening and closing sequences were once again updated. This time, the opening sequence consisted of several generic police images, such as a police car and uniform. A new arrangement of "Overkill", composed by Lawrence Oakley, was also used for both the opening and closing sequences. The background of the closing sequence, designed by company "Roisin at Blue", was simply a police shade of blue, with all generic images being removed. Throughout its four-year use, these titles were never updated or changed, with the exception of the police shade of blue, which was changed to a dark shade of black in 2006.
- On 3 January 2007, starting with Episode No. 471, the opening and closing sequences were once again changed. This time, the opening sequence, for the first time, features an image of the Sun Hill sign, and returns to featuring images of officers in action. This sequence also featured a further new arrangement of "Overkill", once again arranged by Lawrence Oakley. This time, the closing sequence follows a police car on patrol, watching it as it drives through the streets of Sun Hill. These titles were used for nearly two and a half years.
- On 23 July 2009, after the programme underwent a major overhaul, the opening sequence and theme were heavily changed. This time, the classic "Overkill" theme was completely removed, and a new theme created by Simba Studios was used. However, producer Jonathan Young stated that echoes of "Overkill" can still be heard in the theme. The opening sequence featured a patrol car driving through the streets of Sun Hill. The closing sequence follows the same patrol car, however, this time, from an overhead view. These titles remained the same until the show's final episode, where the theme tune was replaced by a final version of "Overkill", in homage to the show.
## Episodes
When The Bill was first commissioned as a series by ITV, it started with 12 episodes per year, each an hour long with a separate storyline. In 1988, the format changed to a year-round broadcast with two 30-minute episodes per week. In 1993, this expanded to three 30-minute episodes per week. In 1998, the broadcast format changed to two one-hour episodes each week, also recording in 16:9 widescreen Digibeta. In 2009, The Bill began broadcasting in HD and as part of a major revamp, was reduced to broadcasting once a week. The Bill finished on 31 August 2010 after 2,425 episodes.
### Special episodes
The Bill broadcast two live episodes. The first was in 2003 to celebrate the 20th anniversary of the pilot, Woodentop. The second was in 2005 to celebrate the 50th birthday of ITV.
The live episode in 2003 was episode No. 162, originally broadcast on 30 October 2003 at 8 pm, and produced with a crew of 200 staff including seven camera crews. It was reported to be the first live television broadcast of a programme where filming was not largely confined to a studio. Detective Constable Juliet Becker and Constable Cathy Bradford are being held hostage by a man called Mark in a van in the station yard. Bradford raises the custody suite alarm. When the rest of the station arrive outside, Mark makes it known that he intends to kill Becker. The police get permission to break into the carrier, only to find that Juliet has been stabbed. She is rushed to hospital, but attempts to resuscitate her fail. The episode was watched by around 10 million viewers. This special was later released onto DVD in United Kingdom 31 October 2011, as part of Network DVD's "Soap Box: Volume 1".
The live episode in 2005 was episode No. 349, broadcast on 22 September 2005 at 8 pm. In this episode, it was revealed that PC Gabriel Kent had assumed a false identity. It is revealed that he has been operating under his brother's name and is, in fact, David Kent. In this episode the "real" Gabriel Kent arrived in Sun Hill to meet his mother, Sergeant June Ackland. In this episode, Sun Hill police station is hosting a reception party and, as the police arrive, they are taken hostage by a distraught father whose son was killed by a stolen car. A struggle ensues in which a shot is fired, alerting others in the building the incident. After an evacuation of the station, Superintendent Amanda Prosser encourages PC Dan Casper to attempt to overpower the man. As he does so, both Casper and the real Gabriel Kent are shot. The real Gabriel Kent is rushed to hospital where the false Gabriel Kent threatens him to keep the identity switch a secret.
A series of special episodes titled The Bill Uncovered were produced to reflect the stories of select characters and events. The first was The Bill Uncovered : Des and Reg (2004) – The story of the unusual friendship between PC Des Taviner and PC Reg Hollis, traversing their history from Des's first day at Sun Hill to his death in a Sun Hill cell. The second was The Bill Uncovered : Kerry's Story (2004), the story of PC Kerry Young, who met her death outside Sun Hill. The third special was The Bill Uncovered : Jim's Story (2005), the story of DC Jim Carver – from his first day at Sun Hill (in the pilot "Woodentop"). The last was The Bill Uncovered: On The Front Line (2006), in which Superintendent Adam Okaro recounts the extraordinary events that have surrounded Sun Hill over his time in charge. A review of the second of these specials criticised the "increasingly degenerative plotlines" of the series, and characterised the special as a "cheerless outing" covering The Bill's "travesties of plot". All four editions of The Bill Uncovered were released on DVD in Australia as part of The Bill Series 26 DVD boxset, 30 April 2014.
In 2008 a special programme called "The Bill Made Me Famous" in light of the show's 25th anniversary was broadcast, which saw former actors and special guest stars telling their accounts of working on the show and how it changed their lives. It included old favourites such as Billy Murray (DS Don Beech), Chris Ellison (DI Frank Burnside) and popular TV personalities such as Paul O'Grady and Les Dennis.
A two-part crossover episode with the German series Leipzig Homicide, entitled "Proof of Life", was broadcast in November 2008. This included scenes filmed in Germany; other countries in which episodes were filmed included France (Foreign Body, 1999) and Australia (Beech on the Run, 2001).
Following The Bill's final episode, on 31 August 2010, a one-hour special titled Farewell The Bill was broadcast. The special explored the history of the series and gave viewers a behind the scenes look at the filming of the last episode. This special was later released on DVD in Australia on 5 October 2011, along with the last two-part episode "Respect".
## Cast
The Bill had a large regular cast to support the number of episodes that were produced each year. Working on The Bill had become something of a comical joke in British acting, with 174 actors having formed part of the series' main cast since the series began.
### Notable cast members
The following list contains characters whose roles transformed the series, and in some cases led to spin-offs, as well as characters who hold individual accolades for their time on the series. An expanded version is available at List of characters of The Bill.
- Billy Murray played Don Beech from 1995 to 2004. The character was a corrupt detective sergeant from 1995 to 2000 whose notoriety in the role led to its own scandal, with the defining moment being his killing of fellow DS John Boulton. Beech later featured in a 90-minute special Beech on the Run, filmed in Australia, and led to the six-part Beech is Back spin-off, both of which aired in 2001. His final stint on the series came in 2004 when he made six appearances as a prisoner turned informant as part of an elaborate scheme that saw him escape from prison
- Tony O'Callaghan played Sergeant Matt Boyden from 1991 to 2003. Boyden's murder at the hands of his daughter's boyfriend formed the basis for the pilot of spin-off M.I.T.: Murder Investigation Team.
- Diane Parish as DC Eva Sharpe was the only character to appear as a regular on both The Bill (2002-2004) and the MIT spin-off (2005). A handful of the cast from spring 2003, when the MIT pilot aired, appeared in the spin-off - but only for that one episode.
- Christopher Ellison played Frank Burnside from 1984 to 2000. Burnside was a recurring character as a DS in the early years before becoming Sun Hill's DI in 1988, a role he held for five years. After a five-year absence, Burnside returned as a DCI with the National Crime Squad before being written out in 2000 to star in his own spin-off, Burnside, however it lasted for just one series before being axed. Burnside made many enemies both at Sun Hill and with the villains, indeed Chief Superintendent Pearson tried to frame Burnside in a corruption inquiry.
- Mark Wingett played Jim Carver from 1983 to 2005. Jim was the central protagonist in the pilot Woodentop, the episode centred around his first day at Sun Hill as a probationary PC. A promotion to DC in 1988 saw him in CID until 1999, when he was transferred back to uniform so the series could highlight the real-life Metropolitan Police's controversial tenure system that saw officers moved back to uniform if they hadn't been considered for promotion after ten years in the same role. Addiction to alcohol and a marriage that saw him domestically abused came before his return to DC in 2004, with a gambling addiction and marriage to long-term friend June Ackland coming before his exit in 2005. He came back as a DS in 2007 for June's final three episodes, revealing he moved to Manchester after leaving Sun Hill.
- Trudie Goodwin portrayed June Ackland from 1983 to 2007. She initially appeared as a WPC in the pilot who puppywalked Jim Carver on his first day on the job. She was promoted to Sergeant in 1996 and held that rank until her exit in 2007. Her time in the role broke a world record for the longest time an actor had portrayed a police officer.
- Eric Richard played Sergeant Bob Cryer from 1984 to 2001, making him the longest serving sergeant on the series. The character was axed in a plot that saw him accidentally shot by then PC Dale Smith. The character later made brief re-appearances in the series between 2002 and 2004, and Moya Brady was cast to portray his niece Roberta from 2002 to 2003.
- Kevin Lloyd played DC Tosh Lines from 1988 to 1998. The character was written out as having accepted a position in the Coroner's Office after Lloyd was sacked for turning up for work drunk. Lloyd died a week after his dismissal, meaning he appeared on screen for over a month after his death.
- Jeff Stewart played PC Reg Hollis from 1984 to 2008, which made him the character with the longest run on the series. The character was seen as the station "odd-ball" and took part in several major plots, including being injured in the 1990 station fire and forming an unlikely friendship with brute PC turned cop-killer Des Taviner. Reg was written out after resigning following the death of a colleague in a bomb blast, his scripted exit never airing after a devastated Stewart attempted suicide on set by slashing his wrists after learning of his dismissal after 24 years.
- Graham Cole played PC Tony Stamp from 1987 to 2009, and was also an uncredited extra from 1984 to 1987. The character was key to several major plots throughout the series including killing a pedestrian on duty and being accused of sexual assault on a minor. When the series revamped in 2009 he was written out after 1204 credited appearances, more than any other character in the series history. The character took up a driving instructor's post at Hendon after being the show's primary advanced driver since his debut.
- Alex Walkinshaw played Dale "Smithy" Smith from 1999 to 2010. He joined as a PC in 1999 before being written out in 2001, his exit coming due to a clash with new station Superintendent Tom Chandler. He returned as a sergeant in 2003 before a promotion to inspector in 2009, making him the only character on the series to play a regular role in all three ranks below the top brass positions.
- Simon Rouse played Jack Meadows from 1990 to 2010. He joined as a recurring cast member in 1990 when he was a Detective Superintendent with AMIP (Area Major Investigation Pool), later renamed MIT (Murder Investigation Team). His demotion to DCI in 1992 saw him take over the post at Sun Hill, holding the rank until 2009 when he was promoted back to superintendent. He was the longest serving character by the series finale and appeared in 884 episodes, recording more appearances than any other top brass officer. He also made an appearance on Leipzig Homicide in 2012, where it was revealed the character had retired since the series finale.
- Colin Tarrant played Inspector Andrew Monroe from 1990 to 2002 when he was axed as part of a series overhaul. Appearing in 704 episodes meant no other Inspector or DI made more appearances than him.
### Notable guest stars
The constant need for minor characters, normally appearing in only a single episode, inevitably led to numerous guest roles in The Bill being played by actors and actresses who later achieved a high profile, some of whom appeared as child actors. The following actors appeared in the show at least once.
- Sean Bean (1984)
- Marc Warren (1987)
- Paul O'Grady (1988 and 1990)
- Mark Strong (1990)
- Andy Serkis (1990)
- Anthony Daniels (1992)
- Brendan Coyle (1992)
- Adrian Lester (1992)
- Pete Postlethwaite (1992)
- Paul Ritter (1992 and 1996)
- Steve Shill (1992)
- Hugo Speer (1992)
- Tim McInnerny (1992)
- Stephen K Amos (1993)
- Emma Bunton (1993)
- Elizabeth Estensen (1993)
- Russell Brand (1994)
- Idris Elba (1994 and 1995)
- Sarah Parish (1994)
- David Tennant (1995)
- Keira Knightley (1995)
- James McAvoy (1997)
- Martin Freeman (1997)
- Emmanuel Petit (1998)
- Nicholas Hoult (2000)
- David Walliams (2002)
- Jack O'Connell (2005)
- Brett Goldstein (2009)
Some guest parts were also played by guest actors who were already well known when they appeared, including:
- Larry Martyn (1989 and 1993)
- Ray Winstone (1991 and 1995)
- Charlotte Coleman (1992)
- Leslie Phillips (1996)
- Rik Mayall (1997)
- Hugh Laurie (1998)
- Roger Daltrey (1999)
- Lynda Bellingham (2004)
- Andrew Sachs (2006)
## Ratings
The Bill was a popular drama in the United Kingdom and in many other countries, most notably in Australia.
The series attracted audiences of up to six million viewers in 2008 and 2009. Ratings during 2002 peaked after the overhaul of the show which brought about the 2002 fire episode, in which six officers were killed, and the 2003 live episode attracted 10 million viewers – 40% of the UK audience share. Immediately following The Bill'''s revamping and time slot change, it was reported that the programme had attracted 4.5 million viewers, 19% of the audience share, but it lost out in the ratings to the BBC's New Tricks, with the Daily Mirror later reporting that ITV's schedule change was behind a two million viewer drop in ratings.
In 2001, prior to Paul Marquess's appointment as executive producer, ratings had dropped to approximately six million viewers, and advertising revenues had fallen, in part due to the ageing demographic of its viewers, leading ITV to order a "rejuvenation", which saw the series adopt a serial format.
In 2002, The Independent reported that The Bill's Thursday episode was viewed by approximately 7 million people, a fall of approximately 3 million viewers in the space of six months. After the cast clearout resulting from the Sun Hill fire in April 2002, BBC News reported that the show attracted 8.6 million viewers, the highest figure for the year to that point, and by October 2003, the program had around 8 million viewers each week.
In 2005, The Bill was averaging around 11 million viewers, in comparison to Coronation Street, which was attracting around 10 million viewers.
In 2009, The Daily Mirror reported that The Bill was to be moved to a post-watershed slot to allow it to cover grittier storylines. It was reported that it was the first time in British Television that ITV had broadcast a drama all year in the 9 pm slot. The changeover happened at the end of July 2009. Before the move, the program was averaging 5 million viewers between the two episodes each week. BARB reported that the week of 12–18 October 2009 saw 3.78 million viewers watch the show.
## Awards
The Bill has achieved a number of awards throughout its time on air, ranging from a BAFTA to the Royal Television Society Awards. and the Inside Soap Awards, particularly the Best Recurring Drama category.
In 2010, The Bill was nominated for a Royal Television Society award for Best Soap/Continuing Drama, beating both Coronation Street and Emmerdale onto the nominations list. The only soap to be nominated was EastEnders and the results were announced on 16 March 2010. In 2009 an episode of The Bill won the Knights of Illumination Award for Lighting Design- Drama.
## Impact and history
It has been compared to Hill Street Blues due to the similar, serial, format that both series take. However, The Bill has seen little direct competition on British television in the police procedural genre over its 25-year history, though the BBC has twice launched rival series. The first was Merseybeat, which ran from 2001 but was cancelled in 2004 due to poor ratings and problems with the cast. The second, HolbyBlue, launched in 2007, was a spin-off of successful medical drama Holby City (itself a spin-off of the long-running Casualty). It was scheduled to go "head to head" with The Bill, prompting a brief "ratings war" but, in 2008, HolbyBlue was also cancelled by the BBC, again, largely due to poor ratings.
When The Bill started, the majority of the Police Federation were opposed to the programme, claiming that it portrayed the police as a racist organisation, but feelings towards the programme later mellowed, to the extent that, in 2006, executive producer, Johnathan Young, met Sir Ian Blair, then Commissioner of the Met, and it was decided that the editorial relationship between the police and the programme was sufficient. However, Young stressed that The Bill is not "editorially bound" to the police.
Despite better relations with the police, The Bill was still not without controversy. It was sometimes criticised for the high levels of violence, especially prior to 2009, when it occupied a pre-watershed timeslot. Specific story lines also came under fire in the media, such as that involving a gay kiss in 2002, as well as an episode broadcast in March 2008 which featured a fictional treatment for multiple sclerosis, leading the MS Society to brand the plot "grossly irresponsible".
## Spin-offs and related series
The Bill spawned several spin-off productions, as well as related series in German and Dutch.
- Burnside: Spin-off from the main British series, following ex-DI Frank Burnside in his transfer and promotion to the National Crime Squad. The programme lasted for just a single series of six episodes, debuting in the UK on 6 July 2000. The series was created and produced by Richard Handford. On 8 October 2008, the series was released on DVD in Australia in a three-disc-set.
- MIT: Murder Investigation Team: Spin-off from the main British series. Lasting for two series, the drama began with a group of MIT officers investigating the drive-by shooting of Sgt. Matthew Boyden, who had been at Sun Hill for eleven years. The first series consisted of eight one-hour episodes. The second series consisted of four ninety-minute episodes. The series was created by Paul Marquess, produced by Johnathan Young and starred ex-Bill DC Eva Sharpe (Diane Parish).
- Bureau Kruislaan: Dutch interpretation of the series. Produced by Joop van den Ende for VARA Television, the programme lasted for four series running from 1992 to 1995. In 1995, the show was nominated for the Gouden Televizier Ring, an award for the best television programme in the Netherlands. All four series of the show have been released on DVD there.
- Die Wache'': German interpretation of the series. As decent script-writers were hard to find at the time, the German producers were given the licence to use (re-use) scripts from the British series. The series was produced by RTL Television, running for nearly 250 episodes from 1994 to 2006.
## Merchandise
### VHS and DVD
### Books
#### Novels
### Music
### Merchandising
## See also
- "Woodentop" (The Bill)
- Hill Street Blues
- Holby Blue
- NYPD Blue |
4,366,471 | Everybody Hates Hugo | 1,166,292,395 | null | [
"2005 American television episodes",
"Lost (season 2) episodes",
"Television episodes directed by Alan Taylor (director)",
"Television episodes written by Edward Kitsis and Adam Horowitz"
]
| "Everybody Hates Hugo" is the fourth episode of the second season of the American drama television series Lost, and the show's 29th episode overall. The episode was written by Edward Kitsis and Adam Horowitz, and directed by Alan Taylor. It first aired in the United States on October 12, 2005, on ABC.
In this episode, flashbacks reveal why Hurley is hesitant at his new job of distributing food found in the newly discovered Swan station. Meanwhile, a few castaways become worried that the raft sent by them for rescue may have not gone as far as they hoped. Jack and Sayid explore the hatch, while Sawyer, Jin, and Michael find out that their captors are from the tail section of the plane.
## Plot
### Flashbacks
Following Hugo "Hurley" Reyes's (Jorge Garcia) discovery of his winning lottery numbers. Hurley keeps his win a secret, and quits his job at a fast food restaurant along with his friend Johnny (DJ Qualls). The pair enjoy themselves by pulling a prank on their former boss, and going to a record store where Hurley asks out his crush, Starla (Marguerite Moreau). Hurley asks Johnny to promise that they will never change, and Johnny does so. Johnny pulls into a local gas station to buy some beer, but notices news crews talking to the attendant. When the clerk loudly points out Hurley as the buyer of the winning lottery ticket, Johnny's stunned expression clearly reveals that, despite his promise, everything has changed.
### On the island
In the Swan station, Hurley struggles with the task of food rationing. Charlie Pace (Dominic Monaghan) asks Hurley if the bunker contains food, specifically peanut butter for Claire Littleton (Emilie de Ravin), but Hurley will not answer him. Hurley decides to enlist Rose Henderson-Nadler (L. Scott Caldwell) to help him take inventory. At one point, Hurley has a strange dream, in which Jin-Soo Kwon (Daniel Dae Kim) tells Hurley, in English, that "everything is going to change." Hurley becomes less and less certain of his ability to ration the food in a manner that keeps everyone happy. He attempts to quit, but John Locke (Terry O'Quinn) refuses to permit it. Hurley then prepares to blow up the pantry with dynamite, but Rose intervenes. He explains that the food, newfound wealth to the survivors, will change everything and everyone will come to hate him, just as things changed when everyone knew he won the lottery; however Rose talks him out of his plan. Later, Hurley informs Jack Shephard (Matthew Fox) of his decision to give all the food away, arguing that the food stores do not amount to very much when divided among all the survivors. The food is distributed freely and the survivors enjoy a feast. Everyone appreciates Hurley's decision, including Charlie, who gives his benefactor a hug of reconciliation.
James "Sawyer" Ford (Josh Holloway), Michael Dawson (Harold Perrineau) and Jin learn that their captors are survivors from the tail section of Oceanic 815 and are taken to a DHARMA Initiative station, which they use for sanctuary. A woman named Libby (Cynthia Watros) says that there were 23 survivors from the tail section of the plane, although very few remain.
Meanwhile, the bottle of messages from the raft, on which Michael, Sawyer, Jin and Walt Lloyd were travelling, washes ashore. Claire and Shannon Rutherford (Maggie Grace) give it to Sun-Hwa Kwon (Yunjin Kim), Jin's wife, and she opts to bury the bottle on the beach. In the hatch, Jack and Sayid Jarrah (Naveen Andrews) inspect the mysterious concrete barricade blocking what appears to be a corridor to another section of the bunker. They discover that the barrier is very thick and that the corridor is also blocked on the foundation level. Later, Jack and Kate Austen (Evangeline Lilly) share a moment of sexual tension when she exits the shower wearing only a towel.
## Production
"Everybody Hates Hugo" was the only episode of the series directed by Alan Taylor. Taylor had previously directed episodes of The Sopranos and Sex and the City. The episode was written by Edward Kitsis and Adam Horowitz, the pair had previously written the episode "Born to Run".
The character of Libby, played by Cynthia Watros, was introduced in this episode. Originally, Libby had been written to be in her late 40s or early 50s. Jennifer Jason Leigh was approached to play the part, but it went to Watros instead. When Watros auditioned for the part of Libby, she did not think that she would end up being cast. Once she was, Watros and her twin daughters immediately moved from Los Angeles to Hawaii. Bernard is also introduced in this episode. As Rose is black, the producers thought the audience would expect Rose's husband to also be black, and made Bernard white to surprise the audience. They expected the audience to assume Mr. Eko (Adewale Akinnuoye-Agbaje), the only black man in the tail-section survivors, was Bernard. L. Scott Caldwell, Rose's portrayer, was unaware of their plans and had been picturing her own husband, a tall black man, when playing the scenes. When she found out Bernard was white she was surprised, but not shocked.
This was the first time in which Raj K. Bose, who played the shop clerk, was credited. Bose had been a background actor on the series, playing a crash survivor and a flight attendant. Bose was originally cast to play the role of Sanjay in the first season episode "Born to Run", but was forced to give up the role after he had to teach a marketing class at the University of Phoenix. Casting agent Margaret Doversola later asked Bose to audition for the part of the shop clerk and he got the part.
For the flashback scene at the gas station, the crew rented out a 7-11 for a day. When Hurley drove in, the van was actually being pushed instead of driven to eliminate any sound from the vehicle. However, every time the van was pushed it would stall or the timing would be off. Once that problem had been solved, it started to rain, but eventually it stopped and the crew was able to get the shots before ending shooting at midnight. Hurley's dream scene was shot in the Hawaii Film Studio, where the hatch had been constructed.
## Reception
According to the Nielsen ratings system, "Everybody Hates Hugo" was viewed by an average of 21.7 million viewers. The episode achieved a 9.4/22 in the key 18–49 demographic, meaning that 9.4% of all 18- to 49-year-olds watched the episode, along with 22% of all 18- to 49-year-olds watching television at the time of the broadcast. "Everybody Hates Hugo" was the most watched episode of the night for the fourth week in a row, and the second most watched episode of the week. It also performed better than the previous episode in the key 18–49 demographic, and earned its second highest ever rating among teens 12-17.
Film Fodder's Mac Slocum said that he was glad that the show "downshifted this week into a far more reasonable gear". He felt that an upside to the downshifting was the "return to characters", and thought that there was no better representation of character than Hurley. Keith McDuffee of TV Squad wrote that although he heard "that this episode would be mostly filler", he did not "think that's true". He liked the fact that there was more revelations of Hurley's background, and enjoyed the "awesome reveals from the other half of downed Oceanic 815". TelevisionWithoutPity.com graded the episode with a "B-". |
16,283,254 | History of aspirin | 1,173,446,621 | Aspect of history | [
"Aspirin",
"Bayer",
"History of pharmacy"
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| Aspirin (acetylsalicylic acid) is a novel organic compound that does not occur in nature, and was first successfully synthesised in 1899. In 1897, scientists at the drug and dye firm Bayer began investigating acetylated organic compounds as possible new medicines, following the success of acetanilide ten years earlier. By 1899, Bayer created acetylsalicylic acid and named the drug 'Aspirin', going on to sell it around the world. The word Aspirin was Bayer's brand name, rather than the generic name of the drug; however, Bayer's rights to the trademark were lost or sold in many countries. Aspirin's popularity grew over the first half of the twentieth century, leading to fierce competition with the proliferation of aspirin brands and products.
Aspirin's popularity declined after the development of acetaminophen/paracetamol in 1956 and ibuprofen in 1962. In the 1960s and 1970s, John Vane and others discovered the basic mechanism of aspirin's effects, while clinical trials and other studies from the 1960s to the 1980s established aspirin's efficacy as an anti-clotting agent that reduces the risk of clotting diseases. Aspirin sales revived considerably in the last decades of the twentieth century, and remain strong in the twenty-first with widespread use as a preventive treatment for heart attacks and strokes.
## History of willow in medicine
Numerous authors have claimed that willow was used by the ancients as a painkiller, but there is no evidence that this is true. All such accounts date from after the discovery of aspirin, and are possibly based on a misunderstanding of the chemistry. Bartram's 1998 Encyclopedia of Herbal Medicine is perhaps typical when it states, 'in 1838 chemists identified salicylic acid in the bark of White Willow. After many years, it was synthesised as acetylsalicylic acid, now known as aspirin.' It goes on to claim that willow extract has the same medical properties as aspirin, which is incorrect.
Ancient medical uses for willow were more varied. The Roman author Aulus Cornelius Celsus recommended using the leaves, pounded and boiled in vinegar, as treatment for uterine prolapse, but it is unclear what he considered the therapeutic action to be; it is unlikely to have been pain relief, as he recommended cauterization in the following paragraph (De Medicina, book VI, p. 287, chapter 18, section 10). Gerard quotes Dioscorides, 'that [the bark] being burnt to ashes, and steeped in vinegar, takes away corns and other like risings in the feet and toes,' which is similar to modern uses of salicylic acid. Translations of Hippocrates make no mention of willow at all.
Nicholas Culpeper, in The Complete Herbal, gave many uses for willow, including to staunch wounds, to 'stay the heat of lust' in man or woman, and to provoke urine ('if stopped') but, like Celsus, made no mention of any analgesic properties. He also used the burnt ashes of willow bark, mixed with vinegar, to 'take away warts, corns, and superfluous flesh.'
Although Turner (1551) thought that fevers could be cured by 'cooling the air' with boughs and leaves of willow, the earliest known mention of willow bark extract for treating fever came in 1763, when a letter from English chaplain Edward Stone to the Royal Society described the dramatic power of powdered white willow bark to cure intermittent fevers, or 'ague'. Stone had 'accidentally' tasted the bark of a willow tree in 1758 and noticed an astringency reminiscent of Peruvian bark, which he knew was used to treat malaria. Over the next five years he treated some 50 ague sufferers, with universal success, except in a few severe cases, where it merely reduced their symptoms. Stone's remedy was trialled by a few pharmacists, but was never widely adopted. During the American Civil War, Confederate forces experimented with willow as a cure for malaria, without success.
## Synthesis of acetylsalicylic acid
In the 19th century, as the young discipline of organic chemistry began to grow in Europe, scientists attempted to isolate and purify alkaloids and other novel organic chemicals. After unsuccessful attempts by Italian chemists Brugnatelli and Fontana in 1826, Johann Buchner obtained relatively pure salicin crystals from willow bark in 1828; the following year, Pierre-Joseph Leroux developed another procedure for extracting modest yields of salicin. In 1834, Swiss pharmacist Johann Pagenstecher extracted a substance from meadowsweet which, he suggested, might reveal an "excellent therapeutic aspect", although he was uninterested in increasing the number of chemicals available to pharmaceutical science. By 1838, Italian chemist Raffaele Piria found a method of obtaining a more potent acid form of willow extract, which he named salicylic acid. The German chemist who had been working to identify the Spiraea extract, Karl Jacob Löwig, soon realized that it was in fact the same salicylic acid that Piria had found.
The first evidence that salicylates might have medical uses came in 1876, when the Scottish physician Thomas MacLagan experimented with salicin as a treatment for acute rheumatism, with considerable success, as he reported in The Lancet. Meanwhile, German scientists tried salicylic acid in the form of sodium salicylate with less success and more severe side effects. The treatment of rheumatic fever with salicin gradually gained some acceptance in medical circles.
By the 1880s, the German chemical industry, jump-started by the lucrative development of dyes from coal tar, was branching out to investigate the potential of new tar-derived medicines. The turning point was the advent of Kalle & Company's Antifebrine, the branded version of acetanilide —the fever-reducing properties of which were discovered by accident in 1886. Antifebrine's success inspired Carl Duisberg, the head of research at the small dye firm Friedrich Bayer & Company, to start a systematic search for other useful drugs by acetylation of various alkaloids and aromatic compounds. Bayer chemists soon developed Phenacetin, followed by the sedatives Sulfonal and Trional.
Upon taking control of Bayer's overall management in 1890, Duisberg began to expand the company's drug research program. He created a pharmaceutical group for creating new drugs, headed by former university chemist Arthur Eichengrün, and a pharmacology group for testing the drugs, headed by Heinrich Dreser (beginning in 1897, after periods under Wilhelm Siebel and Hermann Hildebrandt). In 1894, the young chemist Felix Hoffmann joined the pharmaceutical group. Dreser, Eichengrün and Hoffmann would be the key figures in the development of acetylsalicylic acid as the drug Aspirin (though their respective roles have been the subject of some contention).
In 1897, Hoffmann used salicylic acid refluxed with acetic anhydride to synthesise acetylsalicylic acid. Eichengrün sent the ASA to Dreser's pharmacology group for testing, and the initial results were very positive. The next step would normally have been clinical trials, but Dreser opposed further investigation of ASA because of salicylic acid's reputation for weakening the heart—possibly a side effect of the high doses often used to treat rheumatism. Dreser's group was soon busy testing Felix Hoffmann's next chemical success: diacetylmorphine (which the Bayer team soon branded as heroin because of the heroic feeling it gave them). Eichengrün, frustrated by Dreser's rejection of ASA, went directly to Bayer's Berlin representative Felix Goldmann to arrange low-profile trials with doctors. Though the results of those trials were also very positive, with no reports of the typical salicylic acid complications, Dreser still demurred. However, Carl Duisberg intervened and scheduled full testing. Soon, Dreser admitted ASA's potential and Bayer decided to proceed with production. Dreser wrote a report of the findings to publicize the new drug; in it, he omitted any mention of Hoffmann or Eichengrün. He would also be the only one of the three to receive royalties for the drug (for testing it), since it was ineligible for any patent the chemists might have taken out for creating it. For many years, however, he attributed Aspirin's discovery solely to Hoffmann.
The controversy over who was primarily responsible for aspirin's development spread through much of the twentieth century and into the twenty-first. As of 2016 Bayer still described Hoffmann as having "discovered a pain-relieving, fever-lowering and anti-inflammatory substance." Historians and others have also challenged Bayer's early accounts of Bayer's synthesis, in which Hoffmann was primarily responsible for the Bayer breakthrough. In 1949, shortly before his death, Eichengrün wrote an article, "Fifty Years of Aspirin", claiming that he had not told Hoffmann the purpose of his research, meaning that Hoffmann merely carried out Eichengrün's research plan, and that the drug would never have gone to the market without his direction. This claim was later supported by research conducted by historian Walter Sneader. Axel Helmstaedter, General Secretary of the International Society for the History of Pharmacy, subsequently questioned the novelty of Sneader's research, noting that several earlier articles discussed the Hoffmann–Eichengrün controversy in detail. Bayer countered Sneader in a press release stating that according to the records, Hoffmann and Eichengrün held equal positions, and Eichengrün was not Hoffmann's supervisor. Hoffmann was named on the US Patent as the inventor, which Sneader did not mention. Eichengrün, who left Bayer in 1908, had multiple opportunities to claim the priority and had never before 1949 done it; he neither claimed nor received any percentage of the profit from aspirin sales.
### Naming the drug
The name Aspirin was derived from the name of the chemical ASA—Acetylspirsäure in German. Spirsäure (salicylic acid) was named for the meadowsweet plant, Spirea ulmaria, from which it could be derived. Aspirin took a- for the acetylation, -spir- from Spirsäure, and added -in as a typical drug name ending to make it easy to say. In the final round of naming proposals that circulated through Bayer, it came down to Aspirin and Euspirin; Aspirin, they feared, might remind customers of aspiration, but Arthur Eichengrün argued that Eu- (meaning "good") was inappropriate because it usually indicated an improvement over an earlier version of a similar drug. Since the substance itself was already known, Bayer intended to use the new name to establish their drug as something new; in January 1899 they settled on Aspirin.
### Rights and sale
Under Carl Duisberg's leadership, Bayer was firmly committed to the standards of ethical drugs, as opposed to patent medicines. Ethical drugs were drugs that could be obtained only through a pharmacist, usually with a doctor's prescription. Advertising drugs directly to consumers was considered unethical and strongly opposed by many medical organizations; that was the domain of patent medicines. Therefore, Bayer was limited to marketing Aspirin directly to doctors.
When production of Aspirin began in 1899, Bayer sent out small packets of the drug to doctors, pharmacists and hospitals, advising them of Aspirin's uses and encouraging them to publish about the drug's effects and effectiveness. As positive results came in and enthusiasm grew, Bayer sought to secure patent and trademark wherever possible. It was ineligible for patent in Germany (despite being accepted briefly before the decision was overturned), but Aspirin was patented in Britain (filed 22 December 1898) and the United States (US Patent 644,077 issued 27 February 1900). The British patent was overturned in 1905, the American patent was also besieged but was ultimately upheld.
Faced with growing legal and illegal competition for the globally marketed ASA, Bayer worked to cement the connection between Bayer and Aspirin. One strategy it developed was to switch from distributing Aspirin powder for pharmacists to press into pill form to distributing standardized tablets—complete with the distinctive Bayer cross logo. In 1903 the company set up an American subsidiary, with a converted factory in Rensselaer, New York, to produce Aspirin for the American market without paying import duties. Bayer also sued the most egregious patent violators and smugglers. The company's attempts to hold onto its Aspirin sales incited criticism from muckraking journalists and the American Medical Association, especially after the 1906 Pure Food and Drug Act that prevented trademarked drugs from being listed in the United States Pharmacopeia; Bayer listed ASA with an intentionally convoluted generic name (monoacetic acid ester of salicylic acid) to discourage doctors referring to anything but Aspirin.
## World War I and Bayer
By the outbreak of World War I in 1914, Bayer was facing competition in all its major markets from local ASA producers as well as other German drug firms (particularly Heyden and Hoechst). The British market was immediately closed to the German companies, but British manufacturing could not meet the demand—especially with phenol supplies, necessary for ASA synthesis, largely being used for explosives manufacture. On 5 February 1915, Bayer's UK trademarks were voided, so that any company could use the term aspirin. The Australian market was taken over by Aspro, after the makers of Nicholas-Aspirin lost a short-lived exclusive right to the aspirin name there. In the United States, Bayer was still under German control—though the war disrupted the links between the American Bayer plant and the German Bayer headquarters—but phenol shortage threatened to reduce aspirin production to a trickle, and imports across the Atlantic Ocean were blocked by the Royal Navy.
### Great Phenol Plot
To secure phenol for aspirin production, and at the same time indirectly aid the German war effort, German agents in the United States orchestrated what became known as the Great Phenol Plot. By 1915, the price of phenol rose to the point that Bayer's aspirin plant was forced to drastically cut production. This was especially problematic because Bayer was instituting a new branding strategy in preparation of the expiry of the aspirin patent in the United States. Thomas Edison, who needed phenol to manufacture phonograph records, was also facing supply problems; in response, he created a phenol factory capable of pumping out twelve tons per day. Edison's excess phenol seemed destined for trinitrophenol production.
Although the United States remained officially neutral until April 1917, it was increasingly throwing its support to the Allies through trade. To counter this, German ambassador Johann Heinrich von Bernstorff and Interior Ministry official Heinrich Albert were tasked with undermining American industry and maintaining public support for Germany. One of their agents was a former Bayer employee, Hugo Schweitzer. Schweitzer set up a contract for a front company called the Chemical Exchange Association to buy all of Edison's excess phenol. Much of the phenol would go to the German-owned Chemische Fabrik von Heyden's American subsidiary; Heyden was the supplier of Bayer's salicylic acid for aspirin manufacture. By July 1915, Edison's plants were selling about three tons of phenol per day to Schweitzer; Heyden's salicylic acid production was soon back on line, and in turn Bayer's aspirin plant was running as well.
The plot only lasted a few months. On 24 July 1915, Heinrich Albert's briefcase, containing details about the phenol plot, was recovered by a Secret Service agent. Although the activities were not illegal—since the United States was still officially neutral and still trading with Germany—the documents were soon leaked to the New York World, an anti-German newspaper. The World published an exposé on 15 August 1915. The public pressure soon forced Schweitzer and Edison to end the phenol deal—with the embarrassed Edison subsequently sending his excess phenol to the U.S. military—but by that time the deal had netted the plotters over two million dollars and there was already enough phenol to keep Bayer's Aspirin plant running. Bayer's reputation took a large hit, however, just as the company was preparing to launch an advertising campaign to secure the connection between aspirin and the Bayer brand.
### Bayer loses foreign holdings
Beginning in 1915, Bayer set up a number of shell corporations and subsidiaries in the United States, to hedge against the possibility of losing control of its American assets if the U.S. should enter the war and to allow Bayer to enter other markets (e.g., army uniforms). After the U.S. declared war on Germany in April 1917, alien property custodian A. Mitchell Palmer began investigating German-owned businesses, and soon turned his attention to Bayer. To avoid having to surrender all profits and assets to the government, Bayer's management shifted the stock to a new company, nominally owned by Americans but controlled by the German-American Bayer leaders. Palmer, however, soon uncovered this scheme and seized all of Bayer's American holdings. After the Trading with the Enemy Act was amended to allow sale of these holdings, the government auctioned off the Rensselaer plant and all Bayer's American patents and trademarks, including even the Bayer brand name and the Bayer cross logo. It was bought by a patent medicine company, Sterling Products, Inc. The rights to Bayer Aspirin and the U.S. rights to the Bayer name and trademarks were sold back to Bayer AG in 1994 for US\$1 billion.
## Interwar years
With the coming of the deadly Spanish flu pandemic in 1918, aspirin—by whatever name—secured a reputation as one of the most powerful and effective drugs in the pharmacopeia of the time. Its fever-reducing properties gave many sick patients enough strength to fight through the infection, and aspirin companies large and small earned the loyalty of doctors and the public—when they could manufacture or purchase enough aspirin to meet demand. Despite this, some people believed that Germans put the Spanish flu bug in Bayer aspirin, causing the pandemic as a war tactic.
The U.S. ASA patent expired in 1917, but Sterling owned the aspirin trademark, which was the only commonly used term for the drug. In 1920, United Drug Company challenged the Aspirin trademark, which became officially generic for public sale in the U.S. (although it remained trademarked when sold to wholesalers and pharmacists). With demand growing rapidly in the wake of the Spanish flu, there were soon hundreds of "aspirin" brands on sale in the United States.
Sterling Products, equipped with all of Bayer's U.S. intellectual property, tried to take advantage of its new brand as quickly as possible, before generic ASAs took over. However, without German expertise to run the Rensselaer plant to make aspirin and the other Bayer pharmaceuticals, they had only a finite aspirin supply and were facing competition from other companies. Sterling president William E. Weiss had ambitions to sell Bayer aspirin not only in the U.S., but to compete with the German Bayer abroad as well. Taking advantage of the losses Farbenfabriken Bayer (the German Bayer company) suffered through the reparation provisions of the Treaty of Versailles, Weiss worked out a deal with Carl Duisberg to share profits in the Americas, Australia, South Africa and Great Britain for most Bayer drugs, in return for technical assistance in manufacturing the drugs.
Sterling also took over Bayer's Canadian assets as well as ownership of the Aspirin trademark which is still valid in Canada and most of the world. Bayer bought Sterling Winthrop in 1994 restoring ownership of the Bayer name and Bayer cross trademark in the US and Canada as well as ownership of the Aspirin trademark in Canada.
### Diversification of market
Between World War I and World War II, many new aspirin brands and aspirin-based products entered the market. The Australian company Nicholas Proprietary Limited, through the aggressive marketing strategies of George Davies, built Aspro into a global brand, with particular strength in Australia, New Zealand, and the U.K. American brands such as Burton's Aspirin, Molloy's Aspirin, Cal-Aspirin and St. Joseph Aspirin tried to compete with the American Bayer, while new products such Cafaspirin (aspirin with caffeine) and Alka-Seltzer (a soluble mix of aspirin and bicarbonate of soda) put aspirin to new uses. In 1925, the German Bayer became part of IG Farben, a conglomerate of former dye companies; IG Farben's brands of Aspirin and, in Latin America, the caffeinated Cafiaspirina (co-managed with Sterling Products) competed with less expensive aspirins such as Geniol.
## Competition from new drugs
After World War II, with the IG Farben conglomerate dismantled because of its central role in the Nazi regime, Sterling Products bought half of Bayer Ltd, the British Bayer subsidiary—the other half of which it already owned. However, Bayer Aspirin made up only a small fraction of the British aspirin market because of competition from Aspro, Disprin (a soluble aspirin drug) and other brands. Bayer Ltd began searching for new pain relievers to compete more effectively. After several moderately successful compound drugs that mainly utilized aspirin (Anadin and Excedrin), Bayer Ltd's manager Laurie Spalton ordered an investigation of a substance that scientists at Yale had, in 1946, found to be the metabolically active derivative of acetanilide: acetaminophen. After clinical trials, Bayer Ltd brought acetaminophen to market as Panadol in 1956.
However, Sterling Products did not market Panadol in the United States or other countries where Bayer Aspirin still dominated the aspirin market. Other firms began selling acetaminophen drugs, most significantly, McNeil Laboratories with liquid Tylenol in 1955, and Tylenol pills in 1958. By 1967, Tylenol was available without a prescription. Because it did not cause gastric irritation, acetaminophen rapidly displaced much of aspirin's sales. Another analgesic, anti-inflammatory drug was introduced in 1962: ibuprofen (sold as Brufen in the U.K. and Motrin in the U.S.). By the 1970s, aspirin had a relatively small portion of the pain reliever market, and in the 1980s sales decreased even more when ibuprofen became available without prescription.
Also in the early 1980s, several studies suggested a link between children's consumption of aspirin and Reye's syndrome, a potentially fatal disease. By 1986, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration required warning labels on all aspirin, further suppressing sales. The makers of Tylenol also filed a lawsuit against Anacin aspirin maker American Home Products, claiming that the failure to add warning labels before 1986 had unfairly held back Tylenol sales, though this suit was eventually dismissed.
## Investigating how aspirin works
The mechanism of aspirin's analgesic, anti-inflammatory and antipyretic properties was unknown through the drug's heyday in the early- to mid-twentieth century; Heinrich Dreser's explanation, widely accepted since the drug was first brought to market, was that aspirin relieved pain by acting on the central nervous system. In 1958 Harry Collier, a biochemist in the London laboratory of pharmaceutical company Parke-Davis, began investigating the relationship between kinins and the effects of aspirin. In tests on guinea pigs, Collier found that aspirin, if given beforehand, inhibited the bronchoconstriction effects of bradykinin. He found that cutting the guinea pigs' vagus nerve did not affect the action of bradykinin or the inhibitory effect of aspirin—evidence that aspirin worked locally to combat pain and inflammation, rather than on the central nervous system. In 1963, Collier began working with University of London pharmacology graduate student Priscilla Piper to determine the precise mechanism of aspirin's effects. However, it was difficult to pin down the precise biochemical goings-on in live research animals, and in vitro tests on removed animal tissues did not behave like in vivo tests.
After five years of collaboration, Collier arranged for Piper to work with pharmacologist John Vane at the Royal College of Surgeons of England, in order to learn Vane's new bioassay methods, which seemed like a possible solution to the in vitro testing failures. Vane and Piper tested the biochemical cascade associated with anaphylactic shock (in extracts from guinea pig lungs, applied to tissue from rabbit aortas). They found that aspirin inhibited the release of an unidentified chemical generated by guinea pig lungs, a chemical that caused rabbit tissue to contract. By 1971, Vane identified the chemical (which they called "rabbit-aorta contracting substance," or RCS) as a prostaglandin. In a 23 June 1971 paper in the journal Nature, Vane and Piper suggested that aspirin and similar drugs (the nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs or NSAIDs) worked by blocking the production of prostaglandins. Later research showed that NSAIDs such as aspirin worked by inhibiting cyclooxygenase, the enzyme responsible for converting arachidonic acid into a prostaglandin.
## Revival as heart drug
Aspirin's effects on blood clotting (as an antiplatelet agent) were first noticed in 1950 by Lawrence Craven. Craven, a family doctor in California, had been directing tonsillectomy patients to chew Aspergum, an aspirin-laced chewing gum. He found that an unusual number of patients had to be hospitalized for severe bleeding, and that those patients had been using very high amounts of Aspergum. Craven began recommending daily aspirin to all his patients, and claimed that the patients who followed the aspirin regimen (about 8,000 people) had no signs of thrombosis. However, Craven's studies were not taken seriously by the medical community, because he had not done a placebo-controlled study and had published only in obscure journals.
The idea of using aspirin to prevent clotting diseases (such as heart attacks and strokes) was revived in the 1960s, when medical researcher Harvey Weiss found that aspirin had an anti-adhesive effect on blood platelets (and unlike other potential antiplatelet drugs, aspirin had low toxicity). Medical Research Council haematologist John O'Brien picked up on Weiss's finding and, in 1963, began working with epidemiologist Peter Elwood on aspirin's anti-thrombosis drug potential. Elwood began a large-scale trial of aspirin as a preventive drug for heart attacks. Nicholas Laboratories agreed to provide aspirin tablets, and Elwood enlisted heart attack survivors in a double-blind controlled study—heart attack survivors were statistically more likely to suffer a second attack, greatly reducing the number of patients necessary to reliably detect whether aspirin had an effect on heart attacks. The study began in February 1971, though the researchers soon had to break the double-blinding when a study by American epidemiologist Hershel Jick suggested that aspirin prevented heart attacks but suggested that the heart attacks were more deadly. Jick had found that fewer aspirin-takers were admitted to his hospital for heart attacks than non-aspirin-takers, and one possible explanation was that aspirin caused heart attack sufferers to die before reaching the hospital; Elwood's initial results ruled out that explanation. When the Elwood trial ended in 1973, it showed a modest but not statistically significant reduction in heart attacks among the group taking aspirin.
Several subsequent studies put aspirin's effectiveness as a heart drug on firmer ground, but the evidence was not incontrovertible. However, in the mid-1980s, with the relatively new technique of meta-analysis, statistician Richard Peto convinced the U.S. FDA and much of the medical community that the aspirin studies, in aggregate, showed aspirin's effectiveness with relative certainty. By the end of the 1980s, aspirin was widely used as a preventive drug for heart attacks and had regained its former position as the top-selling analgesic in the U.S.
In 2018, three major clinical trials cast doubt on that conventional wisdom, finding few benefits and consistent bleeding risks associated with daily aspirin use. Taken together, the findings led the American Heart Association and American College of Cardiology to change clinical practice guidelines in early 2019, recommending against the routine use of aspirin in people older than 70 years or people with increased bleeding risk who do not have existing cardiovascular disease. |
3,047,058 | John W. Stevenson | 1,152,766,627 | American politician, Kentucky (1812–1886) | [
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| John White Stevenson (May 4, 1812 – August 10, 1886) was the 25th governor of Kentucky and represented the state in both houses of the U.S. Congress. The son of former Speaker of the House and U.S. diplomat Andrew Stevenson, John Stevenson graduated from the University of Virginia in 1832 and studied law under his cousin, future Congressman Willoughby Newton. After briefly practicing law in Mississippi, he relocated to Covington, Kentucky, and was elected county attorney. After serving in the Kentucky legislature, he was chosen as a delegate to the state's third constitutional convention in 1849 and was one of three commissioners charged with revising its code of laws, a task finished in 1854. A Democrat, he was elected to two consecutive terms in the U.S. House of Representatives where he supported several proposed compromises to avert the Civil War and blamed the Radical Republicans for their failure.
After losing his reelection bid in 1861, Stevenson, a known Confederate sympathizer, stayed out of public life during the war and was consequently able to avoid being imprisoned, as many other Confederate sympathizers were. In 1867, just five days after John L. Helm and Stevenson were elected governor and lieutenant governor, respectively, Helm died and Stevenson became acting governor. Stevenson subsequently won a special election in 1868 to finish Helm's term. As governor, he opposed federal intervention in what he considered state matters but insisted that blacks' newly granted rights be observed and used the state militia to quell post-war violence in the state. Although a fiscal conservative, he advocated a new tax to benefit education and created the state bureau of education.
In 1871, Stevenson defeated incumbent Thomas C. McCreery for his seat in the U.S. Senate after criticizing McCreery for allegedly supporting the appointment of Stephen G. Burbridge, who was hated by most Kentuckians, to a federal position. In the Senate, he opposed internal improvements and defended a constructionist view of the constitution, resisting efforts to expand the powers expressly granted in that document. Beginning in late 1873, Stephenson functioned as the first chairman (later called floor leader) of the Senate Democratic caucus. He did not seek reelection in 1877, returning to his law practice and accepting future Kentucky Governor William Goebel as a law partner. He chaired the 1880 Democratic National Convention and was elected president of the American Bar Association in 1884. He died in Covington on August 10, 1886, and was buried in Spring Grove Cemetery at Cincinnati, Ohio.
## Early life and family
John White Stevenson was born May 4, 1812, in Richmond, Virginia. He was the only child of Andrew and Mary Page (White) Stevenson. His mother—the granddaughter of Carter Braxton, a signer of the Declaration of Independence—died during childbirth. Stevenson was sent to live with his maternal grandparents, John and Judith White, until he was eleven; by then, his father had remarried. His father, a prominent Virginia lawyer, rose to political prominence during Stevenson's childhood. He was elected to Congress, eventually serving as Speaker of the House and was later appointed Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary to the Court of St. James's (now called the United States Ambassador to the United Kingdom) by President Martin Van Buren, where he engendered much controversy by his pro-slavery practices. Because of his father's position, young Stevenson had met both Thomas Jefferson and James Madison.
Stevenson was educated by private tutors in Virginia and Washington, D.C., where he frequently lived while his father was in Congress. In 1828, at the age of 14, he matriculated from the Hampden–Sydney Academy (now Hampden–Sydney College). Two years later, he transferred to University of Virginia, where he graduated in 1832. After graduation, he read law with his cousin, Willoughby Newton, who would later serve in the U.S. Congress. In 1839, Stevenson was admitted to the bar in Virginia.
Following Madison's advice, Stevenson decided to settle in the west. He traveled on horseback through the western frontier until he reached the Mississippi River, settling at Vicksburg, Mississippi. Vicksburg was a small settlement at the time and did not provide enough work to satisfy him, and, in 1840, he decided to travel to Covington, Kentucky, settling there permanently in 1841. In Covington, he formed a law partnership with Jefferson Phelps, a respected lawyer in the area; the partnership lasted until Phelps' death in 1843.
A devout Episcopalian, Stevenson frequently attended the conventions of that denomination. He was elected as a vestryman of the Trinity Episcopal Church in Covington on November 24, 1842. In 1843, he married Sibella Wilson of Newport, Kentucky. They had five children: Sally C. (Stevenson) Colston, Mary W. (Stevenson) Colston, Judith W. (Stevenson) Winslow, Samuel W. Stevenson, and John W. Stevenson.
## Political career
Soon after arriving in Covington, Stevenson was elected county attorney for Kenton County. He was chosen as a delegate to the 1844 Democratic National Convention and was elected to represent Kenton County in the Kentucky House of Representatives the following year. He was reelected in 1846 and 1848. In 1849, he was chosen as a delegate to the state constitutional convention that produced Kentucky's third state constitution. In 1850, he, Madison C. Johnson, and James Harlan were appointed as commissioners to revise Kentucky's civic and criminal code. Their work, Code of Practise in Civil and Criminal Cases was published in 1854. He was again one of Kentucky's delegates to the Democratic National Conventions in 1848, 1852, and 1856, serving as a presidential elector in 1852 and 1856.
### U.S. Representative
In 1857, Stevenson was elected to the first of two consecutive terms in the U.S. House of Representatives. For the duration of his tenure in that body, he served on the Committee on Elections. He favored admitting Kansas to the Union under the Lecompton Constitution.
Like many Kentuckians, Stevenson was sympathetic to the southern states' position in the lead-up to the Civil War, but he opposed secession as a means of dealing with sectional tensions. In the 1860 presidential election, he supported his close friend, John C. Breckinridge. Desiring to avert the Civil War, he advocated acceptance of the several proposed compromises, including the Crittenden Compromise, authored by fellow Kentuckian John J. Crittenden. He blamed the Radical Republicans' rigid adherence to their demands for the failure of all such proposed compromises, and on January 30, 1861, denounced them in a speech that the Dictionary of American Biography called the most notable of his career in the House.
Stevenson was defeated for reelection in 1861. For the duration of the war, which lasted until April 1865, he stayed out of public life in order to avoid being arrested as many other Confederate sympathizers were. After the war, he was a delegate to the National Union Party's convention in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, in 1865. He was a supporter of the Reconstruction policies of President Andrew Johnson.
### Governor of Kentucky
Ex-Confederates dominated the Kentucky Democratic convention that met in Frankfort on February 22, 1867. John L. Helm, father of the late Confederate general Benjamin Hardin Helm, was nominated for governor and Stevenson was nominated for lieutenant governor. The entire Democratic slate of candidates was elected, including Stevenson, who received 88,222 votes to R. Tarvin Baker's 32,505 and H. Taylor's 11,473. The only non-Confederate sympathizer to win election that year was George Madison Adams, congressman for the state's 8th district who, although a Democrat, was a former federal soldier. Helm took the oath of office on his sick bed at his home in Elizabethtown, Kentucky, on September 3, 1867. He died five days later, and Stevenson was sworn in as governor on September 13. Among his first acts as governor were the appointments of Frank Lane Wolford, a former Union soldier, as adjutant general and Fayette Hewitt, a former Confederate soldier, as state quartermaster general.
Because Helm died so soon after taking office, a special election for the remainder of his term was set for August 1868. Democrats held a convention in Frankfort on February 22, 1868 and nominated Stevenson to finish out Helm's term. R. Tarvin Baker, formerly Stevenson's opponent in the election for lieutenant governor, was the choice of the Republicans. The Republicans faced many disadvantages, including the national party's persecution of President Johnson and a lack of local organization in many Kentucky counties. Despite Stevenson's shortcomings as a public speaker, he was elected in a landslide—115,560 to 26,605. At the time, it was the largest majority obtained by any candidate in a Kentucky election.
#### Civil rights
Post-war Kentucky Democrats had split into two factions—the more conservative Bourbon Democrats and the more progressive New Departure Democrats. Stevenson governed moderately, giving concessions to both sides. He urged the immediate restoration of all rights to ex-Confederates and denounced Congress for failing to seat a portion of the Kentucky delegation because they had sided with the Confederacy. A champion of states' rights, he resisted federal measures he saw as violating the sovereignty of the states and vehemently denounced the proposed Fifteenth Amendment. Following Stevenson's lead, the General Assembly refused to pass either the Fourteenth or Fifteenth Amendment, but after their passage by a constitutional majority of the states Stevenson generally insisted that blacks' newly granted rights not be infringed upon. He was silent, however, when state legislators and officials from various cities used lengthy residency restrictions and redrawn district and municipal boundaries to exclude black voters from specific elections. His 1867 plea for legislators to call a constitutional convention to revise the state's pro-slavery constitution to better conform to post-war reality was completely ignored.
Stevenson opposed almost every effort to expand blacks' rights beyond the minimums assured by federal amendments and legislation. The Civil Rights Act of 1866 guaranteed that blacks could testify against whites in federal courts, but he opposed New Departure Democrats when they insisted that Kentucky amend its laws to also allow black testimony against whites in state courts, and the measure failed in the 1867 legislative session. Later that year, the Kentucky Court of Appeals declared the Civil Rights Act unconstitutional, but a federal court soon overturned that decision. Stevenson backed Bourbon Democrats' appeal of that decision to the Supreme Court of the United States. By 1871, however, he had changed his mind and supported blacks' right to testify. Despite Stevenson's support, the measure failed in the General Assembly again in 1871, but it passed the following year, after Stevenson had left office.
In the 1870 election, the first state in which blacks were allowed to vote, Stevenson warned that violence against them would not be tolerated. Although he relied on local authorities to suppress any incidents, he offered rewards for the apprehension of perpetrators of election-related violence. Stevenson also recommended that the carrying of concealed weapons be outlawed. The General Assembly passed the requested legislation on March 22, 1871. The law imposed small fines for the first offense, but the amount rapidly increased for subsequent infractions in order to deter repeat offenders.
#### State matters
In Stevenson's first message to the legislature, he called on legislators to finally decide whether the state capital would remain at Frankfort or be moved to Lexington or Louisville, as some had wanted. His address made it clear that he favored keeping the capital at Frankfort, but he noted that additional space was needed at the present capitol building because the existing building could not continue to house enough room both the state treasurer and auditor. He laid out a vision for an addition to the capitol that would make it more spacious and more grandiose. To pay for the expansion, the fiscally conservative Stevenson pressed the federal government to pay claims due Kentucky from Civil War expenses. By the end of his term, the state had collected over \$1.5 million in claims. The legislature, however, disregarded his plan for expanding the capitol, instead opting to construct a separate executive office building next to the capitol.
Stevenson also advocated careful study of the state's finances to deal with increasing expenditures. He insisted that the state stop covering its short-term indebtedness using bonds. However, Stevenson was willing to tax to benefit segregation in schools, and helped create the state bureau of education in 1870. Because most blacks possessed little property of significant value, the new tax yielded little revenue to support their educational institutions. State legislators rejected his 1870 proposal to create a state bureau of immigration and statistics to spur interest in and migration to the state. He did persuade the legislators to make some improvements in the state's penal and eleemosynary institutions, including establishing a House of Reform for juvenile offenders.
Mob violence, much of it perpetrated by vigilantes calling themselves "Regulators" who felt that local authorities had failed in their duties to protect the people, was an ongoing problem during Stevenson's administration. In September 1867, Stevenson urged all Kentuckians to defer to local authorities and ordered that all vigilante groups be disbanded. On October 1, however, a group calling themselves "Rowzee's band" began perpetrating anti-Regulator violence in Marion County. He dispatched Adjutant General Wolford to Marion County, authorizing him to use the state militia to quell the violence if necessary. Wolford called out three companies of militia who suppressed "Rowzee's band" and sent another to put down a similar movement in Boyle County. Later in October, Stevenson dispatched the state militia to Mercer County, and militiamen were dispatched to Boyle, Garrard, and Lincoln counties in 1869. The governor declared that he would never hesitate to send troops "whenever it becomes necessary for the arrest and bringing to justice of all those who combine together, no matter under what pretense, to trample the law under their feet by acts of personal violence."
### U.S. Senator
Beginning in late 1869, Stevenson attacked Kentucky Senator Thomas C. McCreery and Representative Thomas Laurens Jones for allegedly supporting President Ulysses S. Grant's nomination of former Union General Stephen G. Burbridge to a federal position in the revenue service. Although born in northern Kentucky, Burbridge had commanded colored troops during the Civil War, and had also been specifically ordered to suppress Confederate guerillas in his home state. Kentucky's General Assembly had sought to bring him to trial for war crimes in 1863 and 1864. Historian E. Merton Coulter wrote of Burbridge: "[The people of Kentucky] relentlessly pursued him, the most bitterly hated of all Kentuckians, and so untiring were their efforts, that it finally came to the point where he had not a friend left in the state who would raise his voice to defend him." Stevenson's attacks on McCreery and Jones were likely designed to discredit them both in advance of the expiration of McCreery's Senate term in 1870. McCreery vigorously denied Stevenson's charges and eventually challenged him to a duel. Stevenson declined the challenge, citing his Christian beliefs. The General Assembly met to choose McCreery's successor in December 1869 and, on the fifth ballot, chose Stevenson over McCreery for the six-year Senate term. Stevenson resigned the governorship on February 13, 1871, in advance of the March congressional session.
In the Senate, Stevenson was a conservative stalwart, steadfastly opposing spending on internal improvements and maintaining a strict constructionist view of the constitution. He urged his fellow senators to oppose the Civil Rights Act of 1871, claiming that its provision that the president could suspend the right of habeas corpus in cases where he believed violence was imminent amounted to giving the chief executive the powers of a dictator. He also opposed the appropriation of federal money to fund the Centennial Exposition in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, because he did not believe Congress was given the authority to make such an allocation under the Constitution.
At the 1872 Democratic National Convention, Stevenson received the votes of Delaware's six delegates for the Democratic vice-presidential nomination, although Benjamin Gratz Brown was ultimately nominated. In February 1873, Vice-President Schuyler Colfax named Stevenson as one of five members of the Morrill Commission to investigate New Hampshire Senator James W. Patterson's involvement in the Crédit Mobilier of America scandal. Stevenson and fellow Senator John P. Stockton of New Jersey both asked to be removed from the commission, but the Senate refused to grant their request. On February 27, 1873, the commission recommended Patterson's expulsion from the Senate, but the chamber adjourned on March 4 without acting on the recommendation. Patterson's term ended with the end of the session, and he was not re-elected, rendering moot further consideration of the matter.
From December 1873 until the expiration of his term in 1877, Stevenson was generally recognized as the chairman (later known as the floor leader) of the minority Democratic caucus in the Senate; he was the first person to have acted in the capacity. During the Forty-fourth Congress, he chaired the Committee on Revolutionary Claims. He did not seek reelection at the end of his term. In the disputed 1876 presidential election, he was one of the visiting statesmen who went to New Orleans, Louisiana, and concluded that the election had been fairly conducted in that state.
## Later life and death
After his service in the Senate, Stevenson returned to his law practice in Covington. In addition, he accepted a position teaching criminal law and contracts at the University of Cincinnati College of Law. He remained interested in politics and was chosen chairman of the 1879 Democratic state convention in Louisville and president of the 1880 Democratic National Convention in Cincinnati, Ohio.
In 1883, the American Bar Association began exploring the concept of dual federalism. Because of his personal acquaintance with James Madison, whom he characterized as a proponent of dual federalism, Stevenson delivered an address on the subject at the Association's annual meeting. Stevenson maintained that Madison believed strongly in the rights of the sovereign states and regarded a Supreme Court appeal as "a remedy for trespass on the reserved rights of the states by unconstitutional acts of Congress." Stevenson was elected its president that year's and his address published. Association member Richard Vaux characterized Stevenson's presidential report reviewing state and federal legislation in 1885 as "most interesting and valuable to the profession".
Among the men who studied law under Stevenson in his later years were future U.S. Treasury Secretary John G. Carlisle and future Kentucky Governor William Goebel. Goebel eventually became Stevenson's law partner and the executor of his will.
In early August 1886, Stevenson traveled to Sewanee, Tennessee, to attend the commencement ceremonies of Sewanee University. While there, he fell ill and was rushed back to his home in Covington, where he died on August 10, 1886. He was buried in Spring Grove Cemetery in Cincinnati. |
4,242,826 | Pearl Jam (album) | 1,171,965,456 | null | [
"2006 albums",
"Albums produced by Adam Kasper",
"Albums produced by Eddie Vedder",
"Albums produced by Jeff Ament",
"Albums produced by Matt Cameron",
"Albums produced by Mike McCready",
"Albums produced by Stone Gossard",
"J Records albums",
"Pearl Jam albums"
]
| Pearl Jam is the eighth studio album by American rock band Pearl Jam, released on May 2, 2006 on J Records. It was Pearl Jam's first and only release for J Records, their last album issued by Sony Music. It was the band's first full-length studio release in almost four years, since Riot Act (2002). The band commenced work on Pearl Jam in November 2004 at Studio X in Seattle, Washington and finished in February 2006.
The music on the record was proclaimed as a return to the band's roots, with an emphasis on up-tempo songs with an aggressive sound. The song lyrics are mostly told from the point of view of characters and deal with the socio-political issues in the United States at the period, such as the War on Terror.
Pearl Jam was critically well received and a commercial success, debuting at number two on the Billboard 200 chart and eventually outselling the band's previous release, Riot Act. The album also produced three singles—"World Wide Suicide", "Life Wasted" and "Gone"—which were moderately successful. The band supported the album with a full-scale world tour in 2006. Writing for Kerrang!, George Garner called the album "criminally underrated".
## Recording
Pearl Jam was recorded at Studio X in Seattle, Washington. The band began work on the album following the 2004 Vote for Change tour in November 2004, and again employed producer Adam Kasper, who worked with them on predecessor Riot Act. The recording sessions started in February 2005, and they worked on it off and on throughout the year, with the sessions being interrupted toward the end of the year when the band toured North America and South America. The album was completed in early 2006. Bassist Jeff Ament attributed the length of time recording to lead vocalist Eddie Vedder having a child and the band touring in the middle of recording. The album was mixed by Kasper at Studio X.
For the first time since 1993's Vs., the band members did not go into the recording sessions with any completed songs, only guitar riffs. Vedder admitted that the band "really went in with nothing". The band sat around playing music together and discussed the song arrangements, and in just one week had completed ten songs. Ament described it as a "real collaborative effort", and Vedder described it as "absolute democracy". Guitarist Mike McCready stated that the band members were feeling "fresh and energetic" and "were communicating better than ever". Toward the end of the sessions it came down to Vedder to finish up the material, with Ament observing that "the way the record started and the way that it finished is probably two different things." Regarding his lyric writing process, Vedder said that he wrote at least four different sets of lyrics for each song, with many going as high as eight. Vedder described as a process that demands "the patience of like a National Geographic photographer sitting underneath the bush in a tent", adding he would at times "figure out after eight, nine or eleven drafts that the first one was actually the one". A total of 25 songs were written before coming down to the 13 on the final track listing. Outtakes include "The Forest", later featured on Ament's 2008 solo album Tone, and "Of the Earth", which started being played live in 2010.
Pearl Jam's contract with Epic Records had ended in 2003, but the band was not ready to release an album without label backing. Independent label Epitaph Records was considered, but the band wanted a company that would guarantee a wide release. Manager Kelly Curtis signed a one-record deal with J Records - which ironically during production became, like Epic, a subsidiary of Sony Music after said company merged with J's parent company BMG. J had approached Pearl Jam as early as 2001, and had its first experiments with the band issuing the live album Live at Benaroya Hall in 2004. Vedder said J was picked as they searched for "somebody who'll allow us to be who we are and respects how we do things" and contributed with the "facilitation of getting the music out there". Gossard added the label did not input any time or creative constraints upon the band—"We didn't play them much music until it was basically done, and they were pleased. They weren't expecting us to do something that was unnatural for us."
## Music and lyrics
A number of critics cited the album as a return to the band's roots. Stephen Thomas Erlewine of Allmusic said, "Nearly 15 years after Ten, Pearl Jam finally returned to the strengths of their debut with 2006's Pearl Jam, a sharply focused set of impassioned hard rock." Vedder said, "It's easily the best stuff we've done but also some of the hardest stuff. It's very aggressive, because again, it's kind of a product of what it's like to be an American these days. It's pretty aggressive, especially when you turn it loud." Gossard added that after many experimental albums, Pearl Jam was "like a coming together again in terms of accepting our natural strengths and also incorporating the best of our experiments".
The album begins with a number of up-tempo songs before expanding to a variety of tempos for its second half. Vedder attributed the faster and more aggressive songs to the band writing a lot of material that kept getting pared down, with the band leaving behind mid-tempo songs, while Ament suggested that it was because of the band balancing recording and touring which resulted in "physicality ... from being out on the road." The band attempted to create an environment in which McCready and drummer Matt Cameron could play much as they do live. Ament said that there was "a lot of honing of the guitars and vocals in the middle and toward the end", which resulted in the album sounding "more polished". On the overall feeling of the album, Ament said, "The band playing in a room—that came across. There's a kind of immediacy to the record, and that's what we were going for."
Current socio-political issues in the United States are addressed on the album, with Vedder claiming the record "deals with real content and the moral issues of our time", and crediting as inspiration both the frustration with George W. Bush being reelected, and the birth of Vedder's daughter—"Now that I see it as my daughter's planet, I'm even more (angry)." McCready said, "We all feel that we're living in tumultuous, frightening times, and that ranges from the Iraq war to Hurricane Katrina to wiretapping to anything that smacks of totalitarianism. And just bad political decisions being made. We feel that as Americans, and we're frustrated. So a lot of those feelings have come out in these songs." Vedder also added that among all the dark themes "the hope was going to be in the guitar solos. It was the guitars and drums going at it that was going to lift you out of the dark abyss that I had painted." The Iraq War is addressed in the songs "World Wide Suicide", "Marker in the Sand", and "Army Reserve". The lyrics of "World Wide Suicide" depict anger against the war. Other themes addressed on the album include alcohol use ("Severed Hand"), religion ("Marker in the Sand"), poverty ("Unemployable"), leaving everything behind to seek a fresh start ("Gone"), and loneliness ("Come Back").
Many of the songs are written from the point of view of a protagonist, which emerged from an early idea of turning the record into a concept album - as guitarist Stone Gossard explained, "we did consider using narration to thematically unify the album, but ultimately a less conceptual structure just felt right." Vedder added that using characters in the tracks helped with the themes, as the stories could "transmit an emotion or a feeling or an observation of modern reality rather than editorializing, which we've seen plenty of these days".
Vedder added that many songs were inspired by the death of fellow musician Johnny Ramone, whom he described as "the best friend I ever had on the planet". The lyrics of "Life Wasted" in particular were written after attending Ramone's funeral. Vedder said that "Gone" is about a man "needing to find a new life without his past, without his possessions, and not really looking for more possessions." Damien Echols, one of the three members of the West Memphis 3, co-wrote the lyrics to "Army Reserve". For the first time McCready contributed lyrics to a Pearl Jam album, writing the lyrics to the closing track "Inside Job". McCready said that he wrote the lyrics while touring in São Paulo as he "want[ed] this song to happen" despite Vedder not having done the lyrics yet, and added that the lyrical inspiration was the realization that "I had to go inside myself first before I could be open to outside ideas."
## Packaging and versions
The album's cover art, photographed by Brad Klausen, depicts an avocado cut in half with the pit still in place. McCready said, "That symbolizes just kind of ... Ed's at the end of the process and said, for all I care right now, we've done such a good job on this record, and we're kind of tired from it. Let's throw an avocado on the cover. I think that's what happened, and our art director goes, hey, that's not a bad idea. I think we were watching the Super Bowl, and we had some guacamole or something." Because the album is self-titled, many fans refer to it as "Avocado" or "The Avocado Album." The cover was named in Pitchfork Media's top 25 worst album covers of 2006. The liner notes art features footage from the "Life Wasted" music video, directed by artist Fernando Apodaca. The photographs involve the band members with their skin decaying and animals crawling in and out of it, as Apodaca felt the songs, "Life Wasted" in particular, fit "my interpretation of the how fragile life is". The album was also issued on a double vinyl.
On the choice of a self-titled album, Vedder explained, "In the end, we thought there was enough there with the title of the songs, so to put another title on the album would have seemed pretentious. So, really, it's actually Nothing by Pearl Jam." During the making of the album Vedder considered the title Superun-owned, a play on Soundgarden's 1994 album, Superunknown. He explained, "We're un-owned. We want to remain un-owned."
Copies of the album were made available for pre-order through Pearl Jam's official website with different CD art and packaging than the retail version, and also a bonus disk featuring the band's show on December 31, 1992 at The Academy Theater in New York City. Pre-order campaigns were also set with iTunes, Amazon and Best Buy, each retailer receiving an exclusive behind-the-scenes or rehearsal clip shot by photographer Danny Clinch.
## Release and promotion
The album was released on May 2, 2006. The Sony BMG merger lead to some problems in the international distribution, something the band took into consideration during the release of the self-published Backspacer three years later. While Pearl Jam is normally averse to press, to promote the album they performed the album songs on Sessions@AOL, and went to various television shows, including Saturday Night Live, Late Show with David Letterman, and Later... with Jools Holland. Vedder said the exposition happened because "it seem[ed] like a critical time to participate in our democracy." The band also decided to shoot their first conceptual music videos in eight years, "World Wide Suicide" and "Life Wasted".
Three singles were released from Pearl Jam. The lead single "World Wide Suicide" was made available through online music stores (backed with "Unemployable"), and also issued for free download on the band's website. "World Wide Suicide" entered the Billboard Hot 100 at number 41, reached number two on the Mainstream Rock charts, and spent a total of three weeks at number one on the Modern Rock charts. Neither of the album's other commercially released singles, "Life Wasted" and "Gone", charted on the Hot 100, but the former placed on both the Mainstream Rock and Modern Rock charts, while the latter placed on the Modern Rock chart "Big Wave" was featured in the 2006 Twentieth Century Fox movie, Aquamarine and on the soundtrack to the 2007 Columbia Pictures movie, Surf's Up.
## Tour
Pearl Jam promoted the album with a tour across North America, Europe, and Australia in 2006. The tour originally had 69 concerts, which were then expanded with three gigs in Hawaii, one of them opening for U2's Vertigo Tour in Honolulu. The first leg of the North American tour focused on the Northeastern United States, and then the band moved to the Midwest and the West Coast for the tour's second leg.
Pearl Jam went on to tour Europe for its first time in six years. The band played a small secret show at the Astoria in London, and headlined the Reading and Leeds Festivals in August 2006, despite having vowed to never play at a festival again after Roskilde. In an interview in advance of the band's return to the festival circuit, Gossard commented, "It seems like an era to trust that we're aware enough to get through those bigger shows. We have a heightened awareness of what needs to happen every night so people are as safe as they can possibly be." Vedder started both concerts with an emotional plea to the crowd to look after each other. He commented during the Leeds set that the band's decision to play a festival for the first time after Roskilde had nothing to do with "guts" but with trust in the audience. On September 19, 2006, at the Torino, Italy show at Palaisozaki, Pearl Jam played Pearl Jam in its entirety in order midway through its set. After Europe, the band headed to Australia and then finished the year with two shows in Hawaii. The official bootlegs on this tour were available only in digital form, in both MP3 and lossless FLAC formats. The band's shows at The Gorge Amphitheatre were released as part of the Live at the Gorge 05/06 box set. A DVD documenting the band's shows in Italy entitled Immagine in Cornice was released in 2007.
## Reception
### Commercial performance
Pearl Jam entered the UK charts at number five, the band's highest position there since 2000's Binaural, while it reached number two in the U.S., selling 279,564 copies in its first week. It was held off the top spot by the Tool album, 10,000 Days. As of July 2009, the album has sold 750,000 copies in the United States according to Nielsen SoundScan. Pearl Jam is considered a comeback hit, outselling 2002's Riot Act—by 2009, 750,000 copies as opposed to Riot Act's 508,000—and ranking 90th in Billboard's list of the 200 best-selling albums of 2006. It has been certified gold by the RIAA.
### Critical response
According to Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics, the album received an average score of 74, based on 28 reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews." The album was named in Rolling Stones top 50 albums of the year at number 13. Rolling Stone staff writer David Fricke gave Pearl Jam four out of five stars, calling it the band's best album in ten years. He said it's "the most overtly partisan—and hopeful—record of their lives", adding that it's "as big and brash in fuzz and backbone as Led Zeppelin's Presence." Allmusic staff writer Stephen Thomas Erlewine gave the album four and a half out of five stars, saying that "Pearl Jam has embraced everything they do well, whether it's their classicist hard rock or heart-on-sleeve humanitarianism." Chris Willman of Entertainment Weekly gave the album a B+, saying that Vedder's "passionate howl seems more valuable now, pitted against the navel-gazing emo whine that's commandeered the landscape," and he went on to say that "in a world full of boys sent to do a man's job of rocking, Pearl Jam can still pull off gravitas." Jon Pareles of The New York Times said, "Now as ever, Pearl Jam takes itself seriously. But it delivers that seriousness not with the sodden self-importance of rock superstardom, but with the craft and hunger of a band still proving itself on the spot." PopMatters writer Michael Metivier gave the album a 9/10 rating and viewed it as a progression in "melody and songcraft" over the band's previous work, writing that it "more consistently achieves the grandeur, rage, and beauty they've always pursued, throughout its entirety".
Brian D. Schiller of Slant Magazine gave the album three and a half out of five stars. He stated that "the album is at best another good step toward their once great state and not a full return to it. What's true, though, is that it's the group's best full album since Vitalogy." Noel Murray of The A.V. Club ranked the album B+, considering it the "tightest Pearl Jam album in a decade", describing the album as a comeback "filled with straight-up, riff-a-riffic rock songs." Mojo gave the album three out of five stars. The review said, "[S]elf-titled with good reason: Pearl Jam sound reborn, vital." Kyle Anderson of Spin gave the album three out of five stars. He said that "rather than rage against the time machine, they seem to be having fun ... Pearl Jam are taking themselves less seriously, and it fits them like a snug flannel shirt." Mat Snow of The Guardian also gave the album three out of five stars. In the review he stated that Vedder "musters absolute conviction in writing and singing lyrics of male teenage angst." Snow observed, "And though few of these 13 numbers have the drama of tracks by the Who or Led Zeppelin, from whom the band draw much of their style, Pearl Jam play like men on a mission." David Raposa of Pitchfork called it the "most consistent effort the group's released since its second album," but he added that it "gets pretty boring pretty ... quick."
## Track listing
I "Inside Job" contains a brief instrumental hidden track at 6:35.
II "Wasted Reprise" contains a reprise of "Life Wasted".
## Personnel
Pearl Jam
- Jeff Ament – bass guitar
- Matt Cameron – drums, percussion, backing vocals
- Stone Gossard – guitar
- Mike McCready – guitar
- Eddie Vedder – lead vocals, guitar, layout and design; credited as "Jerome Turner" for album concept
Additional musicians and production'
- Fernando Apodaca – art and sculpture, disc design
- John Burton, Sam Hofstedt – engineering
- Boom Gaspar – Hammond B3, piano, pump organ
- Adam Kasper – production, recording, mixing
- Gregg Keplinger, Aaron Mlasko, Steve Rinkov – drum technicians
- Brad Klausen – cover photographs, layout and design
- Jason Mueller – artistic facilitater, disc design
- Pearl Jam – production
- George Webb – guitar technician
- Gary Westlake – optigan
## Charts and certifications
### Weekly charts
### Year-end charts
### Certifications
### Singles |
4,913,637 | Ali Hewson | 1,169,476,824 | Irish activist and businesswoman | [
"1961 births",
"20th-century Irish businesspeople",
"21st-century Irish businesspeople",
"Alumni of University College Dublin",
"Bono",
"Businesspeople from Dublin (city)",
"Irish Anglicans",
"Irish activists",
"Irish anti–nuclear power activists",
"Irish women in business",
"Living people",
"People educated at Mount Temple Comprehensive School",
"People from Raheny",
"U2"
]
| Alison Hewson (née Stewart; born 23 March 1961) is an Irish activist and businesswoman. She is married to singer and musician Paul Hewson, known as Bono, from the rock group U2.
Raised in Raheny, she met her future husband at age 12 at Mount Temple Comprehensive School, and married him in 1982. She was awarded a degree in politics and sociology from University College Dublin (UCD) in 1989. The couple have four children together and live at residences in Ireland, France, and the United States. She has inspired several U2 songs, most famously "Sweetest Thing".
Hewson became involved in anti-nuclear activism in the 1990s. She narrated Black Wind, White Land, a 1993 Irish documentary about the lasting effects of the Chernobyl disaster, and has worked closely with activist Adi Roche. She has been a patron of Chernobyl Children's Project International since 1994 and has participated in a number of aid missions to the high-radiation exclusion zones of Belarus. She has also campaigned against Sellafield, the northern English nuclear facility. In 2002 she helped lead an effort which sent more than a million postcards, urging the site be closed, to Prime Minister Tony Blair and others. Hewson has repeatedly been discussed by tabloid newspapers as a possible candidate for political offices, including President of Ireland; none of these suggestions have come to fruition.
Hewson is the co-founder of two ethical businesses, the EDUN fashion line in 2005, and Nude Skincare products in 2007. The former, intended to promote fair trade with Africa, has struggled to become a viable business. French conglomerate LVMH has made substantial investments into both companies.
## Early life
Alison Stewart was born on 23 March 1961, the daughter of Terry and Joy Stewart. She has an older brother, Ian, and nephew, Ross Stewart, who both live in Australia. The Stewart family, who resided in the suburb of Raheny on Dublin's Northside, raised their children as Protestants. Her father was a self-educated electrical worker who, according to Hewson, was "constantly questioning" things. Her mother, who was a housewife, had a secretarial career in mind for her daughter.
Stewart studied at Mount Temple Comprehensive School. At the age of twelve, she met Paul Hewson, who was in the year above at the school. He pursued her immediately, but she initially kept her distance, labeling him "an eejit" even though she secretly admired him. In September 1974, Paul's mother Iris died suddenly, leaving him emotionally adrift and in conflict with his father and brother. Soon after, Alison began taking care of Hewson: cleaning his clothes, walking to school with him, and cooking for him. In September 1976, Hewson met the other members of what would become U2; the band members adopted nicknames, and Hewson soon became known as Bono. At around the same time, he and Ali, as she was known, began dating, and soon became a steady couple. It took Stewart a while to enjoy the band's music, as her own tastes ran toward her father's Frank Sinatra and Nat King Cole records.
At one point, the pair split up, but soon reunited. The relationship became more serious as she accompanied him in his efforts to break through in the music industry, and by 1979 they were discussing marriage, conditional upon his career becoming established. In the meantime she worked in a motor insurance company and in her father's electrical business.
## Marriage and family
Hewson married Bono on 31 August 1982 in a Church of Ireland ceremony at All Saints Church, Raheny. The ceremony combined rituals of both conventional Protestantism and the Shalom Friendship Christian group that Bono and other U2 members had belonged to. In debt to U2's record label, Island Records, the couple could not afford a honeymoon, but Island founder Chris Blackwell gave them use of the Goldeneye estate he owned in Jamaica. Having returned to Ireland, the couple moved to a small mews house in Howth, which they shared with the rest of U2.
As the band broke through in popularity with the War Tour in 1983, Ali Hewson did not readily adapt to the new circumstances. After seeing her with the group at a trendy Hollywood nightspot, journalist Ethlie Ann Vare commented that Ali looked "as out of place as a dairymaid in a brothel." Although she had wanted to become a nurse, Hewson gave up on the notion, as the intense schooling required would have been incompatible with the direction that her husband's life had taken. Instead she focused on studying in the social sciences, to give her an ability to understand social policy and make a difference to people, similar to what nursing would have enabled. By Bono's own description, the marriage hit a period of strain in 1986 due to time commitments during the group's recording of The Joshua Tree. Tensions continued in 1987 during the subsequent Joshua Tree Tour.
Hewson received a degree in social science, politics and sociology from University College Dublin in 1989 at age 28, giving birth to the couple's first daughter, Jordan, two weeks before her final exams. Further plans to earn a master's degree in moral and political ethics were put on hold after the birth of their second daughter, Memphis Eve, in 1991. Two sons, Elijah Bob Patricus Guggi Q and John Abraham, were born in 1999 and 2001, respectively. Being effectively a single parent while U2 toured was difficult for Hewson, but she now found Bono helpful even at a distance.
## Activism
In late 1985, following U2's participation in Live Aid, Bono and Hewson spent five weeks as aid volunteers in Ajibar during the 1983–1985 famine in Ethiopia. She saw children with no possessions and at risk of death; despite this, to her they appeared more spiritually alive than those in Ireland who had material comforts but seemed spoiled and spiritually unaware, like her own children. In 1986, the couple traveled to strife-torn areas in Nicaragua and El Salvador on a visit organised by Central American Mission Partners.
In 1992, Hewson participated in Greenpeace protests against the Sellafield plant for nuclear reprocessing, located across the Irish Sea in Cumbria, England. She was especially set against the under-construction Thermal Oxide Reprocessing Plant component being opened. She was aboard Greenpeace's MV Solo when it staged a publicity-oriented "raid" wherein the band members landed on the beach at the plant in rubber dinghies, but she said she had not been responsible for that particular protest.
This involvement led her to become interested in the Chernobyl nuclear disaster of 1986. After a request by activist Adi Roche, she went to blighted, high-radiation exclusion zones in Belarus for three weeks to narrate part of Black Wind, White Land. The 1993 Irish documentary, shown on RTÉ, highlighted the plight of fallout victims of the Chernobyl event. Hot Press magazine wrote that Hewson had "obvious gifts as a presenter, which include a sense of quiet compassion that draws forth the best from the people she talks with." Another reviewer said that the documentary was very effective until she started speaking.
Since 1994, Hewson has been a patron of Chernobyl Children's Project International (shortened to Chernobyl Children International in 2010), an organisation founded and run by Roche that works with children, families, and communities that continue to be affected by Chernobyl. Through the years, Hewson has taken at least ten trips to Belarus and other nations in the region despite the risk to her health. She has organised overland aid convoys and sometimes driven ambulances filled with medical supplies herself; in one case she had to retreat quickly when a fire spread in a village a few miles from Chernobyl. Hewson has made sure her own children met those from Chernobyl with birth deformities and other illnesses, so that they would have a broader appreciation of the world and what to be thankful for. She has said that fundraising for those affected is very difficult, given that many people believe the problems of Chernobyl are all in the past.
She was aware from the outset that her circumstances would make her vulnerable to "ladies who lunch"-style remarks (sometimes made against women, married to wealthy, high-profile men, who engage in charitable activities), but said, "People who criticise these women are probably giving in to cynicism, and I think if you get cynical about life, you lose the real meaning of it." In 2007, she became a member of the board of directors for Chernobyl Children's Project International, a role that would give her a voice in the organisation's policy making. In 2009, she staged a public abseil of the 17-storey Elysian Tower in Cork to raise funds for the organisation.
She returned to the Sellafield issue in 2002, noting that while Ireland had no nuclear power plants itself, Belarus had been the most affected region even though Chernobyl was not in it, and that was "exactly what could happen in Ireland if there was an explosion at Sellafield." In addition, she feared the ongoing low-level emissions from Sellafield: "I started to wonder how safe it was for [children] to play on the beach or to swim in the sea or even to eat fish." In the aftermath of the 11 September 2001 attacks, she also viewed the plant as vulnerable to terrorists.
In April 2002, Hewson was one of the leaders of an effort which delivered over a million postcards demanding that the facility be shut down; recipients included British Prime Minister Tony Blair, Prince Charles, and Norman Askew, head of British Nuclear Fuels Limited. (The message to the first said, "Tony, look me in the eye and tell me I'm safe.") She personally delivered a giant postcard to Blair at 10 Downing Street. The Shut Sellafield Campaign had its postcards stocked in Superquinn and Dunnes Stores supermarkets, and Hewson publicly engaged Tesco when they refused to do the same. The campaign was backed by celebrities, including Ronan Keating and Samantha Mumba, and Hewson made many newspaper and radio appearances on its behalf. It was the first prolonged exposure Hewson had to the public eye, after two decades of mostly being focused upon maintaining her privacy. Her continued activism also meant that she too would not always be around for the couple's children.
As the postcard effort was reaching its peak, tabloid newspapers speculated that the Labour Party wanted to put Hewson up for the Irish presidential election of 2004, with the Daily Mirror quoting an unnamed party insider as saying, "She's a mother of four but she has always had world issues at heart and she'd make the perfect candidate." (Labour had succeeded with its candidate Mary Robinson in the 1990 election but came in fourth with Roche in the 1997 election.) Hewson stated that she had not been approached, and that "It's not a serious proposition. It would obviously be a huge honour if I was asked to take on such a huge task, but for one thing I'm not sure I'm qualified, and for another I've got four small kids to bring up first." She also expressed contentment with incumbent President Mary McAleese staying for another term. She jokingly added that she could not see Bono agreeing to live in a smaller house. Hewson received a media mention two years later as a possible Social Democratic and Labour Party candidate in the 2004 European Parliament elections after John Hume had stood down. The notion of her running for Irish president came up again in 2008 in conjunction with the 2011 election. Hewson demurred once more, saying she did not speak the Irish language well enough, this time adding humorously that she could not see her husband being willing to walk behind her at events. The candidate that Labour did put up, Michael D. Higgins, won the post. Notwithstanding this speculation, Hewson generally shies away from political comments in the media.
Hewson has long advocated for a children's museum for Ireland, inspired by a positive experience her daughters had at the Dallas Children's Museum in the mid-1990s. In 2003, plans were announced to build the so-called Exploration Station as part of an overall €500 million Heuston Gate development project near the Dublin Heuston railway station. The children-oriented science centre was to be owned by the Irish Children's Museum charitable trust, established in 2006, with Hewson as a prominent member of the board led by Danny O'Hare. Hewson said, "Seeing as we're nearly the last European country in on it, we can learn from children's museums already up and running and expand on them." However, over the next few years the science centre faced significant cost overruns in the planning stages and a possible European Commission investigation into how the Office of Public Works had handled the awarding of the contract for it. The effects of the financial crisis of 2007–2008 then put a halt to the entire Heuston Gate project. As of August 2016, the site was finally fixed as between Earlsfort Terrace and the Iveagh Gardens, and as of October 2019, the post of CEO was advertised.
In 2015 Hewson signed an open letter which the ONE Campaign had been collecting signatures for; the letter was addressed to Angela Merkel and Nkosazana Dlamini-Zuma, urging them to focus on women as they serve as the head of the G7 in Germany and the AU in South Africa respectively, which will start to set the priorities in development funding before a main UN summit in September 2015 that will establish new development goals for the generation.
## Business career
In 2005, Hewson, Bono and designer Rogan Gregory co-founded the EDUN fashion label. It was intended to help bring about positive change in Africa through a fair trade-based relationship rather than by direct aid. Another aim of the label was to set an ethical example in an industry they felt had long exploited child labour. She said they wanted "to show that you can make a for-profit business where everybody in the chain is treated well." Hewson had not been particularly interested in fashion prior to this undertaking.
Hewson emphasised that Edun would have to be profitable to be considered a success, but in this it struggled. She later admitted that the couple were naive about what it takes to make a successful fashion enterprise. Edun encountered problems with both quality of goods and delivery times from their African suppliers, and most of the stores originally carrying the line dropped it. It lost €9.7 million in 2007 and €12.8 million in 2008, suffering along with the rest of the apparel sector from the financial crisis of 2007–2008.
After the couple had put \$20 million of their own funds into the venture, they sold 49% of it to French conglomerate LVMH in 2009. The relaunched Edun featured Sharon Wauchob as its new chief designer. By 2010, the company had outsourced much of the manufacturing for its new fashion line to China, generating some negative reactions, while simpler garments were still African-made. Hewson said that business realities compelled this action, but that she hoped more work could be done in Africa in the future. Hewson devoted a large amount of time to Edun, saying in 2011, "I think [the fashion industry] is the toughest business there is," and that despite the obstacles and struggles, "you just keep going." The proposition remained difficult, however, and Edun lost €6.8 million in 2011 and €5.9 million in 2012. The Hewsons said the company was in an investment phase and they were satisfied with the five-year strategic business plan underway.
Hewson is also co-founder, along with Bryan Meehan, of Nude skincare – a luxury, natural skincare company. Established in 2007, the venture sought to combine ethical principles and environmentally friendly, yet chic, packaging, with a high-performance product based on probiotics and omega oils.
In 2009, Hewson brought legal action in England against Stella McCartney for bringing out Stella Nude, a new eau de toilette version of the Stella perfume, saying that it amounted to copyright infringement of her own Nude Skincare. Hewson lost in the High Court when Mr Justice Floyd ruled against her.
In February 2011, LVMH purchased 70 percent of Nude skincare. The following year, Hewson said that being part of a much larger corporation gave them research and development resources that they previously lacked and a more focused approach to marketing. She added, "It took us much longer to get here than we anticipated. But we still have very big ambitions for the brand to go much farther." Hewson herself has pale skin and very dark hair, wears little jewellery, and has eschewed cosmetic surgery. The Evening Standard described Hewson's style as "the antithesis of bling" and columnist Amanda Brunker wrote that at age 50 her attractive appearance "seems to defy all the odds" given her hectic lifestyle.
## Hewson and U2
Hewson has served as at least partial inspiration for many Bono-authored U2 songs, going back to the track "Another Time, Another Place" from their 1980 debut album Boy. She helped Bono get through a bad period of writer's block during the lead-up to the 1983 War album, particularly in the composition of the lyrics to "Sunday Bloody Sunday". She inspired the personal themes in "New Year's Day", from the same record. That album and the accompanying War Tour brought financial success to the band, and Bono and Hewson moved into a three-level, three-room Martello tower in Bray. The group's 1984 song "Promenade" reflects both that location and the spiritual aspects of his desire for her.
The U2 song "Sweetest Thing" was written for Hewson as a gift because Bono forgot her birthday whilst recording with the band during The Joshua Tree sessions. Originally released as a B-side in 1987, it was later re-recorded and released as a single from the compilation album The Best of 1980–1990 in 1998. Hewson agreed to appear in the single's music video as long as all proceeds from it went to Chernobyl Children's Project.
Bono wrote the lyric of the 1988 song "All I Want Is You" as a meditation on the idea of commitment. He later said, "[It]'s clearly about a younger version of myself and my relationship with Ali," and added that by nature he was a wanderer, not a family man, and that "The only reason I'm here is because I met someone so extraordinary that I just couldn't let that go." U2 lyrics usually have several possible levels of interpretation, and it is not always possible to definitively ascribe Hewson's influence upon them, but music writer Niall Stokes believes that inspiration from Hewson is pronounced throughout the group's 1997 album Pop, particularly on "Staring at the Sun", which he believes reflects her Chernobyl Children's Project involvement and the feelings of both danger and hopefulness that it triggered in Bono. Stokes also believes that the 2000 song "When I Look at the World" is an explicit acknowledgement of Hewson's strength and commitment as exemplified by that Chernobyl work, while others think it is about Jesus or God. Bono has seemed to deflect those interpretations, saying that song is in part a hard-edged look at himself from the eyes of one losing faith. In any case, Bono has said that he does not feel constrained in his writing or interviews by what Hewson might think, as "[she] doesn't read newspapers. Or listen to the radio. There's a mysterious distance between us."
Hewson and her family live in Killiney, in south County Dublin, in a mansion and grounds that overlook the Irish Sea and that have been expanded by purchasing the adjoining property. Bill Clinton and Salman Rushdie are among those who have stayed at the guest house there. With U2 bandmate The Edge, the couple co-own a 20-room villa in Èze in the Alpes-Maritimes in the south of France, where Bono and Hewson often mix with top celebrities. Hewson in particular has been friendly with several supermodels, which she uses to her advantage when booking charity events. Bono and Hewson also own a \$14.5 million penthouse apartment at The San Remo on the Upper West Side of Manhattan, which they purchased from Steve Jobs. By 2011, the couple's fortune was placed at €572 million.
While her husband has provoked a variety of critical responses—some negative—assessments of Hewson have generally been favourable, characterising her as down-to-earth. She views herself as "not a typical rock star wife". Their marriage has been considered one of the most long-lived and stable in the entertainment world. She does have to deal with the psychological effects of her husband coming off tour and readjusting to domestic life. After the extended 1992–1993 Zoo TV Tour, full of sensory overloads and alternate stage personae for Bono, the couple began a practice of hosting Sunday lunches at home, to establish a sense of regular, ordinary activities. The family became fixtures at Sunday services in Killiney as well, with a bond of Christianity still existing between the couple. She has stated, "I've no desire to be a star," seeing the effect intense public attention has had on both her husband and on activist Adi Roche. While she dislikes being referred to as "Bono's wife", she has said, " [...] I really don't have a big problem with my own identity, because I am a very private person, so I've always let Bono take the brunt of anything that was coming along. He is happy to do that; I am quite happy to make my own way around things."
## Awards and honours
The Cranberries' 2001 song "Time Is Ticking Out" was inspired by Hewson's work with Chernobyl Children's Project. In 2002, Hewson received an honorary Doctor of Laws degree from the National University of Ireland for her work on environmental issues, particularly the Chernobyl Children's Project. Bono and Ali Hewson were given the Council of Fashion Designers of America board of directors' Special Tribute Award in 2007 for their humanitarian work via the Edun clothing line. Hewson was also voted Sexiest Celebrity Other Half in a 2008 poll by entertainment.ie. |
48,159,694 | Oman at the 2016 Summer Olympics | 1,137,498,542 | Country at the Rio 2016 Olympics | [
"2016 in Omani sport",
"Nations at the 2016 Summer Olympics",
"Oman at the Summer Olympics by year"
]
| Oman competed at the 2016 Summer Olympics in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, when the event was held from 5 to 21 August 2016. This was the nation's ninth consecutive appearance at the Summer Olympics. Four Omani athletes, two men and two women, were selected to compete in athletics and shooting at the Games. Among them were sprinter Barakat Al-Harthi, the lone returning Olympian from the previous Games.
During their debuts, Mazoon Al-Alawi competed in running while Wadha Al-Balushi was the first woman to represent Oman in shooting. Rifle shooter Hamed Said Al-Khatri was the nation's flag bearer in the opening ceremony. None of the runners progressed past the heats and the shooters did not advance beyond the qualification rounds. Overall, both Al-Harthi and Al-Balushi had the highest placing for Oman with their 26th place finishes in the men's 100 metres and women's 10 m air pistol events.
## Background
In 1982, the Oman Olympic Committee was created and became part of the International Olympic Committee. After appearing at the 1984 Summer Olympics, Oman competed in seven consecutive Summer Olympics leading up to the 2016 Summer Olympics. As part of his Olympic training, Barakat Al-Harthi ran in several countries including Bahrain and Bulgaria. While flying to Rio to compete at the 2016 Summer Olympics, Al-Harthi missed his layover and lost some of his sports equipment.
In the 2016 Olympics held from 5 to 21 August, Al-Harthi was competing in his second Olympics after appearing at the 2012 Summer Olympics, while runner Mazoon Al-Alawi was making her Olympic debut. The other Olympians making their first appearances for Oman were shooters Hamed Said Al-Khatri and Wadha Al-Balushi. Al-Khatri was selected as the first woman to represent Oman in shooting. Al-Khatri was the flag bearer at the opening ceremony and a volunteer carried the flag at the closing ceremony. Apart from the four Omani competitors, the country sent several coaches and sports executives to the 2016 Olympics.
## Athletics (track & field)
Al-Harthi qualified for the Olympics with a time of 10.16 seconds at the 2015 Military World Games. In 2016, his Olympic qualifying time of 10.05 seconds was 0.11 seconds faster than the required time to enter the men's 100 metres. On 13 August, Al-Harthi did not appear in the preliminary round and competed in the sixth race of the heats. Al-Harthi finished in third in his heat with a time of 10.22 seconds. His placing meant Al-Harthi did not qualify as one of the first two runners in his individual heat. As he also did not have one of the eight fastest times from the remaining runners, Al-Harthi did not progress to the semi-finals. Out of 84 competitors, Al-Harthi finished in a tie for 26th place overall.
Mazoon Al-Alawi entered the 2016 Olympics as a wild card. Her entry time of 12.04 seconds was 0.72 seconds slower than the Olympic qualifying time for the women's 100 metres. On 12 August, Al-Alawi finished third in the second heat of the preliminary round with a time of 12.30 seconds, which qualified her as one of the two fastest remaining runners following the top two finishers of all of the heats. In the subsequent round (held the same day) Al-Alawi came in eighth in the seventh heat. She did not automatically advance to the next round as she did not finish in the top two of her heat and, with a time of 12.43 seconds, she was slower than the next eight qualifiers and so she did not progress past the heats. Al-Alawi finished 62nd overall out of 80 runners.
## Shooting
Before the Olympics, each shooter required a Quota Place and Minimum Qualification Score. With invitations from the Tripartite Commission, Quota Places were given to Hamed Said Al-Khatri and Wadha Al-Balushi. To qualify for the men's 50 metre rifle three positions event, shooters needed at least 1135 points. Al-Khatri reached his requirement by scoring 1149 points at the 2014 ISSF World Shooting Championships in this division. For the women's 10 metre air pistol Olympic event, qualifiers needed 365 points or more. During the 2015 ISSF World Cup, Al-Balushi accumulated 381 points and reached her score requirement.
At his qualification round on 14 August, Al-Khatri scored 1138 points during the 50 m rifle three positions event. While achieving 397 points in the prone position round for his highest score, Al-Khatri scored 40 ten-pointers during the three rounds, but his score was too low to make him one of the eight qualifiers for the final. Out of 44 competitors, Al-Khatri finished overall in 43rd.
On 7 August, Al-Balushi scored 379 points during qualification at the 10 m air pistol Olympic competition. While scoring five ten-pointers throughout the four rounds, Al-Balushi's highest score was 96 points in the third round. As she did not have one of the eight highest overall scores, Al-Balushi did not qualify for the final. Overall, Al-Balushi finished 26th out of 44 competitors. |
232,315 | Numerically controlled oscillator | 1,151,080,973 | Digital signal generator | [
"Digital electronics",
"Digital signal processing",
"Electronic oscillators",
"Synthesizers"
]
| A numerically controlled oscillator (NCO) is a digital signal generator which creates a synchronous (i.e., clocked), discrete-time, discrete-valued representation of a waveform, usually sinusoidal. NCOs are often used in conjunction with a digital-to-analog converter (DAC) at the output to create a direct digital synthesizer (DDS).
Numerically controlled oscillators offer several advantages over other types of oscillators in terms of agility, accuracy, stability and reliability. NCOs are used in many communications systems including digital up/down converters used in 3G wireless and software radio systems, digital phase-locked loops, radar systems, drivers for optical or acoustic transmissions, and multilevel FSK/PSK modulators/demodulators.
## Operation
An NCO generally consists of two parts:
- A phase accumulator (PA), which adds to the value held at its output a frequency control value at each clock sample.
- A phase-to-amplitude converter (PAC), which uses the phase accumulator output word (phase word) usually as an index into a waveform look-up table (LUT) to provide a corresponding amplitude sample. Sometimes interpolation is used with the look-up table to provide better accuracy and reduce phase error noise. Other methods of converting phase to amplitude, including mathematical algorithms such as power series can be used, particularly in a software NCO.
When clocked, the phase accumulator (PA) creates a modulo-2<sup>N</sup> sawtooth waveform which is then converted by the phase-to-amplitude converter (PAC) to a sampled sinusoid, where N is the number of bits carried in the phase accumulator. N sets the NCO frequency resolution and is normally much larger than the number of bits defining the memory space of the PAC look-up table. If the PAC capacity is 2<sup>M</sup>, the PA output word must be truncated to M bits as shown in Figure 1. However, the truncated bits can be used for interpolation. The truncation of the phase output word does not affect the frequency accuracy but produces a time-varying periodic phase error which is a primary source of spurious products. Another spurious product generation mechanism is finite word length effects of the PAC output (amplitude) word.
The frequency accuracy relative to the clock frequency is limited only by the precision of the arithmetic used to compute the phase. NCOs are phase- and frequency-agile, and can be trivially modified to produce a phase-modulated or frequency-modulated output by summation at the appropriate node, or provide quadrature outputs as shown in the figure.
## Phase accumulator
A binary phase accumulator consists of an N-bit binary adder and a register configured as shown in Figure 1. Each clock cycle produces a new N-bit output consisting of the previous output obtained from the register summed with the frequency control word (FCW) which is constant for a given output frequency. The resulting output waveform is a staircase with step size $\Delta F$, the integer value of the FCW. In some configurations, the phase output is taken from the output of the register which introduces a one clock cycle latency but allows the adder to operate at a higher clock rate.
The adder is designed to overflow when the sum of the absolute value of its operands exceeds its capacity (2<sup>N</sup>−1). The overflow bit is discarded so the output word width is always equal to its input word width. The remainder $\phi _n$, called the residual, is stored in the register and the cycle repeats, starting this time from $\phi _n$ (see figure 2). Since a phase accumulator is a finite state machine, eventually the residual at some sample K must return to the initial value $\phi _0$. The interval K is referred to as the grand repetition rate (GRR) given by
$\mbox{GRR}=\frac{2^N}{\mbox{GCD}(\Delta F,2^N)}$
where GCD is the greatest common divisor function. The GRR represents the true periodicity for a given $\Delta F$ which for a high resolution NCO can be very long. Usually we are more interested in the operating frequency determined by the average overflow rate, given by
$F_{out} = \frac{\Delta F}{2^N}F_{clock}$ (1)
The frequency resolution, defined as the smallest possible incremental change in frequency, is given by
$F_{res} = \frac{F_{clock}}{2^N}$ (2)
Equation (1) shows that the phase accumulator can be thought of as a programmable non-integer frequency divider of divide ratio $\Delta F/2^N$.
## Phase-to-amplitude converter
The phase-amplitude converter creates the sample-domain waveform from the truncated phase output word received from the PA. The PAC can be a simple read only memory containing 2<sup>M</sup> contiguous samples of the desired output waveform which typically is a sinusoid. Often though, various tricks are employed to reduce the amount of memory required. This include various trigonometric expansions, trigonometric approximations and methods which take advantage of the quadrature symmetry exhibited by sinusoids. Alternatively, the PAC may consist of random access memory which can be filled as desired to create an arbitrary waveform generator.
## Spurious products
Spurious products are the result of harmonic or non-harmonic distortion in the creation of the output waveform due to non-linear numerical effects in the signal processing chain. Only numerical errors are covered here. For other distortion mechanisms created in the digital-to-analog converter see the corresponding section in the direct-digital synthesizer article.
### Phase truncation spurs
The number of phase accumulator bits of an NCO (N) is usually between 16 and 64. If the PA output word were used directly to index the PAC look-up table an untenably high storage capacity in the ROM would be required. As such, the PA output word must be truncated to span a reasonable memory space. Truncation of the phase word causes phase modulation of the output sinusoid which introduces non-harmonic distortion in proportion to the number of bits truncated. The number of spurious products created by this distortion is given by:
$n_W=\frac{2^W}{\mbox{GCD}(\Delta F,2^W)}-1$ (3)
where W is the number of bits truncated.
In calculating the spurious-free dynamic range, we are interested in the spurious product with the largest amplitude relative to the carrier output level given by:
$\zeta _{max}=2^{-M} \frac{\pi \mbox{GCD}(\Delta F,2^W)}{\sin \left( \pi \cdot 2^{-P}\mbox{GCD}(\Delta F,2^W) \right)}$
where P is the size of the phase-to-amplitude converter's lookup table in bits, i.e., M in Figure 1. For W \>4,
$\zeta _{max} \approx -6.02 \cdot P\;\mbox{dBc}.$
Another related spurious generation method is the slight modulation due to the GRR outlined above. The amplitude of these spurs is low for large N and their frequency is generally too low to be detectable but they may cause issues for some applications.
One way to reduce the truncation in the address lookup is to have several smaller lookup tables in parallel and use the upper bits to index into the tables and the lower bits to weigh them for linear or quadratic interpolation. Ie use a 24-bit phase accumulator to look up into two 16-bit LUTS. Address into the truncated 16 MSBs, and that plus 1. Linearly interpolate using the 8 LSBs as weights. (One could instead use 3 LUTs instead and quadratically interpolate). This can result in decreased distortion for the same amount of memory at the cost of some multipliers.
### Amplitude truncation spurs
Another source of spurious products is the amplitude quantization of the sampled waveform contained in the PAC look up table(s). If the number of DAC bits is P, the AM spur level is approximately equal to −6.02 P − 1.76 dBc.
### Mitigation techniques
Phase truncation spurs can be reduced substantially by the introduction of white gaussian noise prior to truncation. The so-called dither noise is summed into the lower W+1 bits of the PA output word to linearize the truncation operation. Often the improvement can be achieved without penalty because the DAC noise floor tends to dominate system performance. Amplitude truncation spurs can not be mitigated in this fashion. Introduction of noise into the static values held in the PAC ROMs would not eliminate the cyclicality of the truncation error terms and thus would not achieve the desired effect.
## See also
- Digital-to-analog converter (DAC)
- Digitally controlled oscillator (DCO)
- Direct digital synthesis (DDS) |
2,193,264 | Publishers Clearing House | 1,170,946,754 | American Direct Marketing Company | [
"1953 establishments in New York (state)",
"Companies based in Nassau County, New York",
"Direct marketing",
"Marketing companies established in 1953",
"Metasearch engines",
"Privately held companies based in New York (state)"
]
| Publishers Clearing House (PCH) is a direct marketing company that markets merchandise and magazine subscriptions with sweepstakes and prize-based games.
It was founded in 1953 by Harold Mertz to replace door-to-door magazine subscription sales by a single vendor offering multiple subscriptions by mail. It introduced its sweepstakes in 1967. In the early 1990s, the company was the subject of concerns and legal actions regarding whether consumers were misled about their odds of winning the sweepstakes and whether purchases increased their chances. By 2010, the company had reached settlements with all 50 states.
The company acquired search company Blingo in 2006, online gaming company Funtank in 2010, mobile marketing company Liquid Wireless in 2012, and internet news aggregator Topix in 2019.
## History
### Early history
Publishers Clearing House was founded in 1953 in Port Washington, New York by Harold Mertz, a former manager of a door-to-door sales team for magazine subscriptions. The company started in Mertz's basement with help from his first wife LuEsther and daughter Joyce. Its first mailings were of 10,000 envelopes from Mertz's home in Long Island, New York, and offered 20 magazine subscriptions. A hundred orders were received. Within a few years the company moved out of Mertz's basement into an office building and started hiring staff. When PCH moved its headquarters in 1969, its prior location was donated to the city and renamed the Harold E. Mertz Community Center. The company revenue had grown to US\$50 million by 1981, and \$100 million by 1988.
In 1967 PCH ran its first sweepstakes as a way to increase subscription sales, based on the sweepstakes held by Reader's Digest. The first prizes ranged from \$1 to \$10 and entrants had a 1 in 10 chance of winning. After the sweepstakes increased response rates to mailings, prizes of \$5,000 and eventually \$250,000 were offered. PCH began advertising the sweepstakes on TV in 1974. It was the only major multi-magazine subscription business until 1977. Former client Time Inc. and several other publishers formed American Family Publishers (AFP) to compete with PCH after the company refused repeated requests by Time for a larger share of sales revenue from magazine subscriptions.
AFP and PCH competed for exclusive rights to magazines and for the better promotion and prize ideas. When AFP increased their jackpot to \$1 million, and then to \$10 million in 1985, PCH raised its prizes to match. \$7 million in prizes were distributed by 1979, \$40 million by 1991, and \$137 million by 2000. In 1989, two members of its advertising team, Dave Sayer and Todd Sloane, started the Prize Patrol, a publicized event where winners are surprised with a check at their home. The idea was inspired by the 1950s television series The Millionaire. The two companies were often mistaken for each other, with Star Search host Ed McMahon and The \$25,000 Pyramid host Dick Clark, the spokespeople for AFP, mistaken for representatives of the better-known PCH.
In 1992 thousands of discarded sweepstakes entries from contestants who had not bought magazine subscriptions were found in the company's trash, reinforcing beliefs that the company favored those who made purchases in selecting a sweepstakes winner. PCH said this was done by a disgruntled employee at their mail processing vendor. A class action lawsuit ensued, which PCH settled by giving discarded entrants a second chance to win.
### Government regulation
In the 1990s PCH and its primary competitor, AFP, experienced a series of legal troubles due to concerns that their mailings misled consumers about their odds of winning and implied that magazine purchases increased their chances. This led to the Deceptive Mail Prevention and Enforcement Act of 2000, which regulates direct mail businesses. At the senate hearings regarding this Act, PCH said most consumers were not confused about their chances of winning or that purchases did not increase their chances. The company said that fewer than five percent of participants spend more than \$300. Government officials from California said 5,000 local consumers paid more than \$2,500 each in magazine purchases under the false belief that they were increasing their odds of winning the sweepstakes.
Industry sources estimated PCH's response rates decreased by 7 to 12 percent and its sales volume by 22 to 30 percent in response to the bad publicity from the lawsuits. In 2000, PCH laid off a quarter of its 800-person work force.
#### Lawsuits and settlements
In 1994 PCH sent mailings telling recipients they were all "finalists", which led to a lawsuit involving the attorneys general of 14 US states. Later that year, PCH denied wrongdoing, but agreed to pay a settlement of \$490,000 and to change their practices. Under the agreement, PCH said it would define terms like "finalist" and disclose the chances of winning.
In 1997, a contestant of competitor AFP flew to Tampa, Florida thinking he had won, though he had not. The resulting publicity caused more lawsuits for both companies. PCH reached a \$30 million national settlement in 1999. In 2000, another \$18 million settlement was reached with 24 states, after the company sent mass mailings which said "You are a winner!" and used mock personalized checks. PCH agreed to avoid similar mailings in the future, and add a "sweepstakes fact box" to mailings.
State attorneys spoke out against the national settlement from 2000 and additional lawsuits were filed by individual states. Another \$34 million settlement was reached in 2001 in a lawsuit involving 25 states, bringing the total settlements since 1999 to \$82 million. As part of the settlement, PCH was required to avoid terms including "Guaranteed Winner," add disclaimers to mailings saying that the recipient had not yet won and that purchasing merchandise would not increase their chances of being a winner. PCH reached settlements with all fifty states and agreed to work with a "compliance counsel." PCH apologized in the settlement and said it would contact customers who had spent more than \$1,000 on merchandise the prior year.
PCH also reached an agreement with Iowa in 2007. In 2010 the company paid \$3.5 million to the attorneys general of 32 states and the District of Columbia to settle possible contempt charges that it had violated the terms of the 2001 agreement. The company denied wrongdoing, but agreed to work with both an ombudsman and a compliance counsel who would review its mailings quarterly.
In April 2014, an investigation by the Senate Special Committee on Aging concluded that PCH had "pushed the limits" of prior agreements and that additional legislation may be needed.
In late 2021 PCH was hit with another lawsuit. "Publishers Clearing House sells and rents mailing lists containing subscribers’ personal information to a variety of third parties, including data miners and list brokers, multiple new class action lawsuits allege. Five plaintiffs have filed separate class action lawsuits against Publishers Clearing House (PCH), with each claiming the publishing company monetizes its subscribers’ private information—including their names and addresses—without consent.
### Online development
PCH began selling merchandise in 1985 with two products. After a Hershey's Chocolate Cookbook and a diet cookbook sold more than other products, the company began expanding into jewelry, media, collectibles, household products, and others. The company also shifted its focus online. It began selling magazine subscriptions and merchandise on PCH.com in 1996. In 2006, it acquired Blingo Inc., an ad-supported metasearch engine that was later re-branded as PCH Search and Win. PCH ran contests on Twitter, Facebook, and Myspace. iPhone apps for slot games and trivia were developed. The company created online play-and-win sites like PCH Games (formerly Candystand) and PCHQuiz4Cash, with air-hockey and video poker games.
In December 2010, PCH acquired Funtank and its online gaming site Candystand.com. In 2011, PCH promoted a "\$5,000 every week for life" sweepstakes in TV ads and the front page of AOL.com. The following year the company acquired a mobile marketing company, Liquid Wireless. The company utilized, then stopped then started again utilizing coregistration (through other websites) to expand its customer base.
In 2008, a PCH spokesperson said the digital properties were intended to attract younger consumers. By 2013, the internet had become PCH's primary channel of interaction with consumers. The New York Times described the digital transition as "part of an overall effort to collect information on Web users, show them advertisements and use the registration information for PCH’s mailing lists."
In 2020, PCH acquired digital publisher Wide Open Media Group, publisher of websites Wide Open Spaces, Wide Open Country, and FanBuzz.
## Products
PCH is a direct-marketing company that sells merchandise and magazine subscriptions and operates several prize-based websites. While best known for the sweepstakes and Prize Patrol it uses to promote its magazine subscriptions, the majority of the company's revenue is from merchandise. The company has been selling books, media, jewelry, and other consumer items since the 1980s. PCH operates eight websites, including PCH Search and Win, PCH Lotto, PCH Games, PCH Save and Win, and Candystand.
The company also sells magazine subscriptions at a discount and advertises subscriptions along with its sweepstakes. It's estimated that companies like PCH keep 75 to 90 percent of the fees from the original subscription, while publishers use the increased distribution to improve circulation numbers and revenue from renewals. PCH popularized the idea of using sweepstakes to sell magazine subscriptions in the direct-marketing market and became known by detractors as a producer of junk mail for advertising through mass-mailings. Documents filed with the New York State Department in 1993 said that year the company mailed 220 million envelopes. Frequent buyers can receive 30 to 40 mailings a year.
## Sweepstakes
Although PCH advertises its sweepstakes along with magazine subscriptions, no purchase is necessary to enter or win. In 1995, PCH began the tradition of announcing winners of its \$10 million prize just after the Super Bowl. As of 2012, \$225 million in prizes have been distributed. Some of its larger prizes are for \$5,000 a week for life, or \$10 million. Prizes can also range from \$1 Amazon gift cards to \$2,500, \$1 million or \$3 million. The larger cash prizes are paid in installments, typically with a balloon payment at 30 years, reducing the present value of prizes to much less than their nominal values.
### Odds of winning
According to the official rules, as of June 2020, the odds of winning "\$5,000 a Week for Life" in Giveaway 16000 are 1 in 6.2 billion.
### Prize Patrol
The Prize Patrol surprises sweepstakes winners at their homes, work, or other locations with cash prizes capturing the event on video. Since their introduction in 1989, these reality TV-style videos of prize-winners surprised at their doorstep with checks for \$1,000 to \$10 million have been used in widely broadcast television commercials, and, more recently, in the company's online acquisition efforts, websites and social media communications. In 2013, a \$5 million television campaign modified the traditional prize patrol commercial by digitally altering video from classic sitcoms like The Brady Bunch and Gilligan's Island to show the prize patrol visiting characters in the show. Major winners are never contacted in advance; any letters, telephone calls, and social media messages claiming that a person may have already won a major prize, or claiming that they need to pay a fee to collect the prize, are always scams.
The Prize Patrol has made in-person appearances or delivered prizes on TV programs including The Oprah Winfrey Show, The Price Is Right, and Let's Make a Deal. Their surprise winning moments have been spoofed by Jay Leno, Conan O'Brien, and the cast of Saturday Night Live; woven into the plots of movies such as Let's Go to Prison, The Sentinel, and Knight and Day; and Early Edition. They have been the subject of cartoons.
### Spokesperson
In the summer of 2020 Marie Osmond became a spokesperson for Publishers Clearing House with television and online advertisements as well as direct-to-home mailings. In January 2021, Steve Harvey made his debut in television commercials as a spokesperson for PCH.
## Charitable giving
Over 40% of net profits are donated to charity.
## See also
- List of New York companies |
35,052,502 | Capture of Jenin | 1,118,650,268 | Part of the Middle Eastern theatre of World War I | [
"1918 in British-administered Palestine",
"Aerial operations and battles of World War I",
"Battles of World War I involving Australia",
"Battles of World War I involving British India",
"Battles of World War I involving France",
"Battles of World War I involving Germany",
"Battles of World War I involving New Zealand",
"Battles of World War I involving the Ottoman Empire",
"Battles of World War I involving the United Kingdom",
"Battles of the Sinai and Palestine Campaign",
"Conflicts in 1918",
"History of the Royal Air Force during World War I",
"September 1918 events"
]
| The Capture of Jenin occurred on 20 September 1918, during the Battle of Sharon which together with the Battle of Nablus formed the set piece Battle of Megiddo fought between 19 and 25 September during the last months of the Sinai and Palestine Campaign of the First World War. During the cavalry phase of the Battle of Sharon carried out by the Desert Mounted Corps, the 3rd Light Horse Brigade, Australian Mounted Division attacked and captured the town of Jenin located on the southern edge of the Esdraelon Plain (also known as the Jezreel Valley and the plain of Armageddon) 40–50 miles (64–80 km) behind the front line in the Judean Hills. The Australian light horse captured about 2,000 prisoners, the main supply base and the ordnance depot of the Seventh and the Eighth Armies in and near the town. They also cut the main road from Nablus and a further 6,000 Ottoman Empire and German Empire prisoners, were subsequently captured as they attempted to retreat away from the Judean Hills.
The Egyptian Expeditionary Force (EEF) cavalry had ridden through a gap on the Mediterranean Sea coast, created by the infantry during the Battle of Tulkarm, to capture the two Ottoman armies' main lines of communication and supply north of the Judean Hills, while the infantry battles continued. On 20 September, the Desert Mounted Corps captured Afulah, Beisan and Jenin on the Esdrealon Plain. The next day the headquarters of the Seventh Army at Nablus, and the General Headquarters (GHQ) of the Yilderim Army Group at Nazareth, were both captured, while Haifa was captured two days later. During a subsequent early morning attack on 25 September, a German rearguard was captured during the Battle of Samakh, which ended the Battle of Sharon. During these operations the greater part of one Ottoman army was captured in the Judean Hills and at Jenin. These and other battles fought during the Battle of Megiddo including the Battle of Nablus and Third Transjordan attack, forced the retreating Ottoman Fourth, and remnants of the Seventh and the Eighth Armies, to the eastern side of the Jordan River. As they withdrew northwards towards Damascus they were pursued by the Desert Mounted Corps.
After the infantry established a gap in the Ottoman front line on the coast early on the morning of 19 September, the Australian Mounted Division's 3rd and 4th Light Horse Brigades (less the 5th Light Horse Brigade temporarily detached to the 60th Division) in reserve, followed the 4th Cavalry Division north on the Plain of Sharon and across the Mount Carmel Range, by the Musmus Pass, to Lejjun on the Esdrealon Plain. While the 4th Light Horse Brigade remained to garrison Lejjun and provide various guards for artillery, supplies, and corps headquarters before being ordered to capture Samakh, the 3rd Light Horse Brigade advanced to Jenin, where the 9th and 10th Light Horse captured the town after a brief fire fight. Subsequently, these two regiments captured some 8,000 Ottoman soldiers, who had been attempting to retreat northwards out of the Judean Hills, during the night of 20/21 September. The outnumbered Australian Light Horsemen were reinforced as quickly as possible, and the majority of the prisoners were marched back into holding camps, near Lejjun in the morning. The 3rd Light Horse Brigade remained in the area to garrison Jenin until they advanced to capture Tiberias on 25 September 1918, before participating in the pursuit to Damascus.
## Background
Following the Capture of Jericho in February, the commander of the Egyptian Expeditionary Force (EEF), General Edmund Allenby ordered the occupation of the Jordan Valley. In March–April and April–May 1918, the First and the Second Transjordan attacks took place, while the front line across the Judean Hills to the Mediterranean Sea was defended. During this time, three-quarters of the British infantry and yeomanry cavalry regiments were redeployed to the Western Front to counter Ludendorff's German spring offensive. They were replaced by British India Army infantry and cavalry which required a reorganisation. These newly arrived soldiers carried out a series of attacks on sections of the Ottoman front line in the Judean Hills during the summer months, as part of their training. These attacks including the Battle of Tell 'Asur and Action of Berukin in March and April, were aimed at pushing the front line to more advantageous positions in preparation for a major attack, and to acclimatise the newly arrived infantry. This fighting continued during the summer months. By the middle of September the consolidated EEF was once again ready for large-scale offensive operations.
On 19 September, the Battle of Megiddo commenced with the XXI Corps (commanded by Lieutenant General Edward Bulfin), under cover of a creeping barrage, broke through the Ottoman front line to begin the Battle of Sharon. In the afternoon the XX Corps commanded by Lieutenant General Philip Chetwode began the Battle of Nablus, also supported by an artillery barrage. This offensive by the XX and XXI Corps, continued until midday on 21 September, when a successful flanking attack by the XXI Corps, combined with the XX Corps assault, forced the Seventh and the Eighth Armies, to disengage. The Seventh Army retreated from the Nablus area towards the Jordan River, crossing at the Jisr ed Damieh bridge before a rearguard at Nablus was captured. While the EEF infantry were fighting the Seventh and Eighth Armies in the Judean Hills, the Desert Mounted Corps commanded by the Australian Lieutenant General Harry Chauvel advanced through the gap created by the XXI Corps infantry on the morning of 19 September, to ride northwards and virtually encircle the Ottoman forces before they disengaged. The cavalry divisions captured Nazareth, Haifa, Afulah, Beisan, and Jenin before and Samakh and the Capture of Tiberias ended the Battle of Megiddo. During this time, Chaytor's Force (temporarily detached from Desert Mounted Corps) commanded by Major General Edward Chaytor, captured part of the retreating Ottoman and German column at the Capture of Jisr ed Damieh bridge over the Jordan River to cut off this line of retreat, during the Third Transjordan attack. To the east of the river, as the Ottoman Fourth Army began its retreat, Chaytor's Force advanced to capture Es Salt on 23 September and Amman on 25 September. Units of Chaytor's Force captured Amman after defeating a strong Fourth Army rearguard during the Second Battle of Amman.
## Prelude
In preparation for the Battle of Megiddo, the Desert Mounted Corps, consisting of the 4th and 5th Cavalry Divisions, the Australian Mounted Division's 3rd and 4th Light Horse Brigades, concentrated near Ramleh, Ludd (Lydda), and Jaffa. Here dumps were formed of all surplus equipment, before the brigades and divisions moved up close behind the XXI Corps infantry divisions, near the Mediterranean coast.
Each mounted division of about 3,500 troopers, consisted of three brigades, each brigade being made up of three regiments. Five of the six brigades of the 4th and 5th Cavalry Divisions, most of which had recently arrived from France, consisted of one British yeomanry regiment and two British Indian Army cavalry regiments, one of which was usually lancers, including the Indian Princely States' 15th Imperial Service Cavalry Brigade of three lancer regiments. Some of the cavalry regiments were armed in addition to their Lee–Enfield rifles, bayonets and swords, with lances. The Australian Mounted Division consisting of three light horse brigades, each with three regiments, containing a headquarters and three squadrons. With 522 men and horses in each regiment, they were armed in addition to their rifles and bayonets with swords. The mounted divisions were supported by machine gun squadrons, three artillery batteries from the Royal Horse Artillery or the Honourable Artillery Company, and light armoured car units—two Light Armoured Motor Batteries, and two Light Car Patrols.
By 17 September the 5th Cavalry Division, which would lead the advance, was deployed north-west of Sarona, eight miles (13 km) from the front line, with the 4th Cavalry Division in orange groves to the east, ten miles (16 km) from the front, and the Australian Mounted Division in reserve near Ramleh and Ludd, 17 miles (27 km) from the front line. All movement, restricted to the night hours, culminated in a general move forward on the eve of battle during the night of 18/19 September, when the Australian Mounted Division moved up to Sarona. The supplies for the three divisions concentrated in the rear in divisional trains, in massed horse-drawn transport and on endless strings of camels, clogging every road in the area. One iron ration and two days' special emergency ration for each man, and 21 pounds (9.5 kg) of grain for each horse, was carried on the trooper's horse, with an additional day's grain for each horse, carried on the first-line transport limbered wagons.
### Advance to Lejjun
During the initial cavalry advance up the coastal Plain of Sharon to Litera on the Nahr el Mefjir, the Desert Mounted Corps was to advance, "strictly disregarding any enemy forces" which were not on the path of their advance. The mounted units were to cross the Mount Carmel Range from the coast to the Esdraelon Plain, through two passes. The 5th Cavalry Division took a northern and more difficult track from Sindiane to Abu Shusheh, 18 miles (29 km) south-east of Haifa, heading towards Nazareth, while the 4th Cavalry Division followed by the Australian Mounted Division in reserve crossed the mountain range by the historic southern Musmus Pass, (used by armies of the Egyptian Pharaoh Thothmes III in the 15th century BC, and the Roman Emperor Vespasian in the 1st century AD) to Lejjun before advancing to Afulah in the centre of the Esdrealon Plain. This southern pass was about 14 miles (23 km) long and about 300 yards (270 m) wide, as it followed the Wadi Ara up the side of the Samarian Hills to 1,200 feet (370 m) above sea level, before falling to the plain. During their advance, the Australian Mounted Division halted for ten minutes every hour, when saddle girths may have been loosened and a few minutes sleep snatched, with the reins looped around an arm jammed deeply into a pocket.
The Esdrealon Plain, also known as the Jezreel Valley, and the Plain of Armageddon, stretches to the white houses of Nazareth in the foothills of the Galilean Hills on its northern edge 10 miles (16 km) away, to Jenin on its southern edge at the foot of the Judean Hills, through Afulah to Beisan on its eastern edge, close to the Jordan River. On its western edge near Lejjun, at the mouth of the Musmus Pass, the ancient fortress of Megiddo on Tell al Mutesellim, dominates the Esdrealon Plain, across which Romans, Mongols, Arabs, Crusaders and the army of Napoleon had marched and fought. The road and railway network, on which the German and Ottoman forces in Palestine depended for supplies and communications, crossed this plain via the two important communication hubs of Afulah and Beisan. (See Falls Map 21 Cavalry advances detail) The railway passed from the plain into the Judean Hills south of Jenin, to wind through a narrow pass in the foothills before climbing to Messudieh Junction, where it again branched. One line ran westward to Tulkarm and Eighth Army headquarters, before turning south to the railhead to supply the Eight Army front line troops on the coastal plain, while the main railway line continued south-eastward to Nablus, and the Seventh Army headquarters.
No defensive works of any kind had been identified on the Esdrealon Plain, or covering the approaches to it during aerial reconnaissance flights, except German troops known to garrison the commander of the Yildirim Army Group, General Otto Liman von Sanders' headquarters in Nazareth. However, at 12:30 on 19 September, Liman von Sanders ordered the 13th Depot Regiment at Nazareth and military police, a total of six companies with 12 machine guns, to occupy Lejjun to defend the Musmus Pass against a possible attack. In reserve, the 3rd and 4th Light Horse Brigades, Australian Mounted Division rode 28 miles (45 km) from the south-east of Jaffa at 08:45 to arrive at 01:45 at the Nahr Iskanderun, still on the coast, on the Plain of Sharon. The 3rd Light Horse Brigade and divisional troops of the Australian Mounted Division resumed their advance, passing through Kerkuk at 05:00 on 20 September, to move through the Musmus Pass before rest between 07:30 and 08:30 for breakfast. They arrived on the Esdrealon Plain at Lejjun at 11:45 on 20 September. The 4th Light Horse Brigade had been detached to various escort and guard duties. The 4th Light Horse Regiment served as escort to the Desert Mounted Corps' headquarters, while the 11th Light Horse Regiment escorted divisional transport. The remainder of the brigade moved to Liktera at 03:00 on 20 September to organize and escort the transport convoy through the Musmus Pass. The transport of the Australian Mounted Division, and the Desert Mounted Corps, was consolidated by the brigade at Liktera, before moving at 14:00 to Kerkuk, where the 5th Cavalry Division's transport joined their column. At 16:30 the combined transport began moving through the Musmus Pass. 'A' echelon arrived at Lejjun at 21:00 on 20 September.
### Desert Mounted Corps objectives
According to Woodward, "[c]oncentration, surprise, and speed were key elements in the blitzkrieg warfare planned by Allenby." The question of whether or not it was Allenby's plan has been raised in the literature. According to Chauvel, Allenby had already decided on his plan before the Second Transjordan attack in April/May. Victory at the Battle of Megiddo depended on the intense British Empire artillery barrage successfully covering the front line infantry attacks, and to drive a gap in the line so the cavalry could advance quickly to the Esdraelon Plain 50 miles (80 km) away during the first day of battle. Control of the skies was achieved and maintained by destroying German aircraft or forcing them to retire. Constant bombing raids by the Royal Flying Corps (RFC) and Australian Flying Corps (AFC), were carried out on Afulah, Tulkarm and Nablus, which cut communications with the Yildirim Army Group commander, Liman von Sanders at Nazareth.
After entering the Esdraelon Plain the Desert Mounted Corps was to ride as far as the Jordan River to encircle the Seventh and Eighth Ottoman Armies in the Judean Hills, where they were still busy fighting the XXI and the XX Corps. If the Esdraelon Plain could be quickly captured, the railways cut, the roads controlled, the lines of communication and retreat cut, two Ottoman armies could be captured. The main objectives for 20 September were:
- The 5th Cavalry Division's attack on Nazareth and Liman von Sanders' Yildirim Army Group's headquarters 70 miles (110 km) from Asurf, before clearing the plain to Afulah.
- The 4th Cavalry Division's capture of Afulah and Beisan and occupation of the bridges over the Jordan River—in particular, they were to hold or destroy the Jisr Majami bridge 12 miles (19 km) north of Beisan, 97 miles (156 km) from the old front line.
- The Australian Mounted Division, in reserve, was to occupy Lejjun, while the 3rd Light Horse Brigade advanced to capture Jenin, 68 miles (109 km) from their starting point, cutting the main line of retreat for the German and Ottoman soldiers. Nazareth has been mentioned as the place where the brigade was to "await the retreating Turks beginning to stream back through the Dothan pass." Without communications, no combined action could be organized by the Ottoman forces, and the continuing EEF infantry attack forced the Ottoman Seventh and Eighth Armies to withdraw northwards from the Judean Hills. They withdrew along the main roads and railways from Tulkarm and Nablus through the Dothan Pass to Jenin. After capturing Jenin, the 3rd Light Horse Brigade was to wait for them.
## Battle
At 15:35 on 20 September, Major General Henry Hodgson, commanding the Australian Mounted Division, ordered Brigadier General Lachlan Wilson's 3rd Light Horse Brigade to capture Jenin. The 9th and 10th Light Horse Regiments, accompanied by the Nottinghamshire Battery (RHA), and four cars of the 11th Light Armoured Motor Battery moved out, leaving the 8th Light Horse Regiment for local protection at Lejjun. By 16:30, this force had left Lejjun to advancing at the fast rate of ten miles (16 km) per hour towards Jenin. As they were approaching Kufr Adan, three miles (4.8 km) north-west of Jenin, a detached troop "rode down an enemy outpost" of between 1,200 and 1,800 German and Ottoman soldiers in an olive grove on the right flank. They had "immediately deployed" with swords drawn before charging "right into the Turks." The whole force was captured including several wounded.
The 10th Light Horse Regiment with six machine guns of the 3rd Machine Gun Squadron formed the advanced guard. With the Afulah to Nazareth road already cut, one squadron of the advanced guard moved swiftly to control the road north from Jenin to Zir'in, on which a column of Ottoman soldiers was retiring. The remainder of the advanced guard rode directly towards Jenin, passing the railway station about 1⁄2 mile (0.80 km) on their right to cut the main road leading north, and the road east towards Beisan, with the 9th Light Horse Regiment following at the trot. Having cut the road and railway the 10th Light Horse Regiment turned south riding directly towards the village and railway station. They had galloped the 11 miles (18 km) from Lejjun in 70 minutes to arrive from the north-west. The Australian light horsemen charged into the town with drawn swords, to swiftly overwhelm all the German and Ottoman troops caught in the open. The 9th and the 10th Light Horse Regiments had attacked the town from two different directions, throwing the garrison into confusion. However, a "machine gun duel" between the 3rd Machine Gun Squadron and Germans, firing from windows and gardens on the light horsemen in the streets, developed. After about two hours of fighting, the Germans attempted to withdraw, when a number were killed and the remainder were captured. A total of about 4,000 prisoners were captured, along with what the General Staff Headquarters of the Australian Mounted Division's War Diary described as, an "enormous amount of booty."
Jenin had been the main supply and ordnance depot of the Ottoman Seventh and Eighth Armies, and huge quantities of war material, including guns, machine guns, and ammunition, were captured. In nearby caves, large stores of German beer, wine, and canned food were found. Jenin had also been the main German air base, and 24 burnt aircraft were found on two aerodromes. At the railway station, locomotives and rolling stock were captured, along with a number of well-equipped workshops. Three hospitals were also captured. An armed guard was placed on 120 cases of champagne (some of which was later distributed) and a "wagon load of bullion", worth nearly £20,000. Some of the gold was later used to buy food and forage for the Desert Mounted Corps, when they had outdistanced their lines of communication, and were forced to requisition supplies from the local population.
After securing the town, the 9th and 10th Light Horse Regiments were deployed across the main line of retreat from the Judean Hills, at the outlet of the Dothan Pass, about one mile (1.6 km) south of Jenin, to wait for the expected retreating columns. At 21:00 on 20 September, a burst of machine gun fire stopped a long column of retreating German and Ottoman soldiers, resulting in the capture of 2,800 prisoners and four guns. During the night the light horsemen were to capture 8,000 prisoners who had retreated, in the face of EEF infantry attacks in the Judean Hills, along the good quality road from Nablus and Tulkarm, north towards Jenin and Damascus.
## Aftermath
Outnumbered many times over, the 3rd Light Horse Brigade force patrolled 7,075 prisoners for the remainder of the night, with drawn swords until reinforcements began to arrive. The first were the 12th Light Armoured Motor Battery, which arrived at 04:15 on 21 September. The 4th Light Horse Brigade left Lejjun at 04:30 on 21 September, to reinforce the 3rd Light Horse Brigade at Jenin. The brigade moved out less one squadron, but with the 4th and 11th Light Horse Regiments and a section of the Nottinghamshire Battery RHA, and/or the 19th Brigade RHA (less one battery and one section) to arrive at 06:00. They found virtually the whole plain covered with prisoners, motor cars, lorries, wagons, animals, and stores "in an inextricable confusion." The headquarters of the Australian Mounted Division arrived Jenin at 06:30 and, half an hour later, the 14th Cavalry Brigade (5th Cavalry Division) also arrived at Jenin to help manage the thousands of prisoners, but were able to return to their division at Afulah at 16:15 that afternoon. Meanwhile, the 8th Light Horse Regiment (3rd Light Horse Brigade) also quickly followed after being relieved at Lejjun. They arrived at Jenin at 07:00 and two hours later departed, on their way back to Lejjun, escorting a convoy of about 7,000 prisoners. It took 10 hours to escort them to the prison compound, where a total of about 14,000 prisoners would eventually be held.
More than 40 hours after the offensive began, substantial columns of the Seventh Ottoman Army were seen withdrawing northeastwards from Nablus, in the direction of the Jordan River where many would be captured by the 11th Cavalry Brigade of the 4th Cavalry Division. Liman von Sanders, the commander of the Yildirim Army Group, had been surprised by the arrival of EEF cavalry at Nazareth in the early hours of 20 September. With no combat formations available to stop the EEF cavalry, he and his staff were forced to retire from Nazareth, driving via Tiberias, to reach Samakh in the late afternoon. Here he made arrangements to establish a strong rearguard garrison in what he planned would be the center of a rearguard line which was to stretch from Lake Hule to Irbid. Liman von Sanders drove on to Deraa on the morning of 21 September, where he received a report from the Ottoman Fourth Army, which he ordered to withdraw to the Deraa-to-Irbid line, without waiting for the southern Hejaz garrisons. He subsequently continued his journey back to Damascus.
As a result of the capture of Jenin, all the main direct northern routes across the Esdrealon Plain, which the retreating Ottoman Seventh and Eighth Armies could have used, were now held by the Desert Mounted Corps. The 4th Cavalry Division controlled the Beisan area on the eastern edge of the plain after they captured both Afulah and Beisan, while the 5th Cavalry Division garrisoned the Afulah and Nazareth areas in the center and to the north, with the Australian Mounted Division holding Jenin in the south and patrolling the surrounding area.
The 4th Cavalry Division had ridden 70 miles (110 km) (the first 20 miles (32 km) over sandy soil) and fought two actions, in 34 hours. The 13th Brigade of the 5th Cavalry Division covered 50 miles (80 km) in 22 hours. On its way to Jenin, the Australian Mounted Division rode 62 miles (100 km), with its 3rd Light Horse Brigade riding 51 miles (82 km) in less than 25 hours. These cavalry divisions had started the advance with three days rations, so they were on their last day's supplies when their brigade transport and supply companies arrived. These divisional trains had been supplied from motor lorry convoys, one of which arrived at Jenin during 21 September. The Australian Mounted Division motor ambulance transport, also rejoined their division at Jenin on 21 September, after the main road had been cleared.
The 5th Light Horse Brigade (Australian Mounted Division), which had been attached to the infantry in the Judean Hills, was ordered to rejoin their division at Jenin. The brigade doubled back to turn down the road to Jenin, arriving on dusk at 18:00 on 22 September to relieve the 3rd Light Horse Brigade, which then withdrew to Afulah. The 4th Light Horse Brigade remained at Jenin until 22 September, when it was ordered back to Afulah, where they arrived at midday on 23 September. The 5th Light Horse Brigade was still at Jenin on 25 September, the last day of the Battle of Megiddo, when it was ordered to send a regiment to reinforce the 4th Light Horse Brigade's pre-dawn attack on Samakh. They charged against a well prepared German and Ottoman rearguard during the Battle of Samakh. Later in the day, one squadron of the 8th Light Horse Regiment, 3rd Light Horse Brigade approached Tiberias along the road from Nazareth, while a squadron from the 12th Light Horse Regiment, advanced north from Samakh. Together they captured Tiberias and 56 prisoners, half of which were German. The next day Allenby held a corps commanders' conference at Jenin where he ordered the pursuit to Damascus. Infantry from the 7th Brigade of the 3rd (Lahore) Division were detached to the Desert Mounted Corps to relieve the mounted and cavalry divisions of their garrison duties. The infantry took over the captured areas, marching via Jenin, and Nazareth, to arrive at Samakh on 28 September. |
62,236,523 | 2019 New York City Marathon | 1,120,595,977 | 49th running of the marathon | [
"2019 in American sports",
"2019 in sports in New York City",
"2019 marathons",
"New York City Marathon",
"November 2019 sports events in the United States"
]
| The 2019 New York City Marathon was the 49th running of the annual marathon race held in New York City, United States, which took place on November 3, 2019. The men's race was won by Kenyan Geoffrey Kamworor in a time of 2:08:13. The women's race was won in 2:22:38 by Kenyan Joyciline Jepkosgei, making her official debut at the distance. The men and women's wheelchair races, were won by American Daniel Romanchuk (1:37:24) and Switzerland's Manuela Schär (1:44:20), respectively. A total of 53,508 runners finished the race, comprising 30,794 men and 22,714 women.
## Course
The marathon distance is officially 42.195 kilometres (26.219 mi) long as sanctioned by World Athletics (IAAF). The New York City Marathon starts at Fort Wadsworth on Staten Island, New York City. The first two miles of the course stay on the island, before the runners cross the Verrazzano-Narrows Bridge into Brooklyn. The streets in this borough are flat and the runners remain here until mile 12. The runners then enter Queens before crossing the Queensboro Bridge at mile 13.
After crossing the bridge, the runners enter Manhattan and run down First Avenue. The runners then enter The Bronx for miles 19 and 20 and pass the 'Entertainment Zone' which includes bands and dancers. The course then re-enters Manhattan for the final 6.2 miles (10.0 km). After running through Harlem, there is a slight uphill section along Fifth Avenue before it flattens out and runs parallel to Central Park. The course then enters the park around mile 24, passes Columbus Circle at mile 25 and re-enters the park for the finish.
## Field
In the women's race, 2018 winner Mary Keitany and half-marathon world record holder Joyceline Jepkosgei were favorites. Keitany was a four-time winner of the race, but Jepkosgei had never run a marathon race before. Also racing were Des Linden, Worknesh Degefa, and Ruti Aga, the respective winners of the 2018, and 2019 Boston Marathon, and 2019 Tokyo Marathon. The men's field included three sub-2:06 runners; Tamirat Tola, Lelisa Desisa, and Shura Kitata, all of whom are from Ethiopia. Desisa was the favorite, however, having won the 2013 and 2015 Boston Marathon, and the 2018 New York City Marathon. 2017 winner Geoffrey Kamworor of Kenya also raced.
In the wheelchair race, the men's favorite was 20-year-old Daniel Romanchuk who had won the 2018 edition, 2019 Chicago Marathon, 2019 Boston Marathon, and the 2019 London Marathon. Also racing were David Weir, Ernst Van Dyk, and Marcel Hug, all previous winners of the race. In the women's wheelchair race, the favorite was Manuela Schär who had won the last six World Marathon Majors in a row. She faced the greatest competition from Americans Tatyana McFadden, Amanda McGrory, and Susannah Scaroni.
The wheelchair race started at 8:30 EST (UTC-5), the women's at 9:10 EST and the men's at 9:40 EST. The winners of the men and women's races each won \$100,000, and \$25,000 each in the wheelchair category whilst a prize of \$25,000 was given to the fastest man and woman from the United States. The temperature on the day of the race was an "ideal" 45 °F (7 °C).
## Race summary
In the women's wheelchair race, Schär took an early lead and won with little competition from the other athletes in a time of 1:44:20. McFadden and Scaroni finished second and third in 1:48:19 and 1:51:37, respectively. The men's wheelchair race, on the other hand, was much more tightly contested. Romanchuk pulled away early on and had put a 20 second gap between himself and Hug at the 5 kilometres (3.1 mi) mark, but this was reduced to nine seconds at 10 kilometres (6.2 mi). They went through 15 kilometres (9.3 mi) in 31:11 side-by-side and at halfway were both over a minute ahead of the chasing group comprising Weir and Aaron Pike. At 25 kilometres (16 mi) the gap had been brought down to 50 seconds and 10 kilometres later, the two groups had joined up. Once again, Romanchuk was able to get clear of the rest, and crossed the finish line in first place just one second ahead of Hug, as was the case the previous year. Romanchuk finished in 1:37:24, Hug in 1:37:25, Weir finished three seconds behind in 1:37:28, and Pike finished 5 seconds behind in 1:37:33. The men's handcycle race was won by Omar Duran and the women's was won by Devann Murphy.
In the women's race Linden broke away from the leading pack and had built up a 15 second gap by 8 miles (13 km) which extended to 31 seconds by mile 11, but she was later caught by a pack of four before the halfway mark. American Sara Hall dropped out with a stomach illness after 18 miles (29 km). At 20 miles (32 km) into the race, Keitany and Jepkosgei were in the lead together, but 3 miles (4.8 km) later, Jepkosgei began to pull away and had put a four second gap between the two. The lead further increased to 16 seconds by mile 25 and she eventually finished in a time of 2:22:38, 54 seconds ahead of Keitany who finished second. Ruti Aga finished third in a time of 2:25:51. Jepkosgei's time is the second fastest on the course, behind the 2003 performance by Margaret Okayo. She was also the youngest winner, at the age of 25, since Okayo won in 2001. Sinead Diver, at 42-years-old, was the oldest woman to finish in the top five since Priscilla Welch won in 1987. Jepkosgei, in addition to the \$100,000 of prize money, also earned \$45,000 for finishing in under 2:23:00. Linden won the prize for fastest American, finishing sixth in 2:26:26.
In the men's race, Desisa dropped out after 7 miles (11 km) due to tightness in his hamstring. ABC News suggested that the cause was his "taxing" victory in the marathon event at the 2019 World Athletics Championships in Doha, Qatar just 29 days earlier. The leading group went through 10 kilometres (6.2 mi) in 30:32, and halfway in 1:04:49, with fourteen still present. Brett Robinson broke away from the pack and led through mile 15 in 1:14:13, but was caught within the next mile. The group had dwindled to just five runners when they reached mile 20 in 1:38:59; Kamworor, Girma Bekele Gebre, Albert Korir, Kitata, and Tola. The group further broke up and Kamworor eventually left Korir in the 24th mile and was able to win the race in 2:08:13. Korir finished in second with a time of 2:08:36. Girma Bekele Gebre, an unsponsored Ethiopian who started with the open field instead of the elite runners, finished in third place in 2:08:38. He also came to the race with no agent, and had stayed with a friend in The Bronx. Jared Ward won the prize for the top American, finishing sixth in 2:10:45.
### Non-elite race
There were 53,627 finishers from 141 countries in the non-elite race, up from 52,812 in 2018, making it the largest marathon in history. The race had a 98.9 percent completion rate with 578 dropping out.
## Results
Sources:
### Men
### Women
### Wheelchair men
### Wheelchair women
### Handcycle men
### Handcycle women |
26,237,603 | 2009 Atlantic hurricane season | 1,169,841,558 | Hurricane season in the Atlantic Ocean | [
"2009 Atlantic hurricane season",
"Articles which contain graphical timelines",
"Atlantic hurricane seasons",
"Tropical cyclones in 2009"
]
| The 2009 Atlantic hurricane season was a below-average Atlantic hurricane season that produced eleven tropical cyclones, nine named storms, three hurricanes, and two major hurricanes. It officially began on June 1 and ended on November 30, dates that conventionally delimit the period of each year when most tropical cyclones develop in the Atlantic basin. The season's first tropical cyclone, Tropical Depression One, developed on May 28, while the final storm, Hurricane Ida, dissipated on November 10. The most intense hurricane, Bill, was a powerful Cape Verde-type hurricane that affected areas from the Leeward Islands to Newfoundland. The season featured the lowest number of tropical cyclones since the 1997 season, and only one system, Claudette, made landfall in the United States. Forming from the interaction of a tropical wave and an upper-level low, Claudette made landfall on the Florida Panhandle with maximum sustained winds of 45 mph (70 km/h) before quickly dissipating over Alabama. The storm killed two people and caused \$228,000 (2009 USD) in damage.
Pre-season forecasts issued by Colorado State University (CSU) called for fourteen named storms and seven hurricanes, of which three were expected to attain major hurricane status. The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) later issued its initial forecast, which predicted nine to fourteen named storms, four to seven hurricanes, and one to three major hurricanes. After several revisions in the projected number of named storms, both agencies lowered their forecasts by the middle of the season.
Several storms made landfall or directly affected land outside of the United States. Tropical Storm Ana brought substantial rainfall totals to many of the Caribbean islands, including Puerto Rico, which led to minor street flooding. Hurricane Bill delivered gusty winds and rain to the island of Newfoundland, while Tropical Storm Danny affected the U.S. state of North Carolina, and Erika affected the Lesser Antilles as a poorly organized tropical system. Hurricane Fred affected the Cape Verde Islands as a developing tropical cyclone and Tropical Storm Grace briefly impacted the Azores, becoming the farthest northeast forming storm on record. The season's final storm, Ida, affected portions of Central America before bringing significant rainfall to the Southeast United States as an extratropical cyclone.
## Seasonal forecasts
Forecasts of hurricane activity are issued before each hurricane season by noted hurricane experts Philip J. Klotzbach, William M. Gray, and their associates at Colorado State University; and separately by NOAA forecasters.
Klotzbach's team (formerly led by Gray) defined the average number of storms per season (1950 to 2000) as 9.6 tropical storms, 5.9 hurricanes, 2.3 major hurricanes (storms reaching at least Category 3 strength in the Saffir–Simpson hurricane scale) and an accumulated cyclone energy (ACE) Index of 96.1. ACE is, broadly speaking, a measure of the power of the hurricane multiplied by the length of time it existed, so storms that last a long time, as well as particularly strong hurricanes, have high ACE numbers. ACE is only calculated for full advisories on tropical systems at or exceeding 39 mph (63 km/h), which is the threshold for tropical storm intensity. NOAA defines a season as above-normal, near-normal or below-normal by a combination of the number of named storms, the number reaching hurricane strength, the number reaching major hurricane strength and ACE Index.
### Pre-season forecasts
On December 10, 2008, Klotzbach's team issued its first extended-range forecast for the 2009 season, predicting above-average activity (14 named storms, 7 hurricanes, 3 of Category 3 or higher and ACE Index of 125). On April 7, 2009, Klotzbach's team issued an updated forecast for the 2009 season, predicting near-average activity (12 named storms, 6 hurricanes, 2 of Category 3 or higher and ACE Index of 100), citing the possible cause as the high probability of a weak El Niño forming during the season. On May 21, 2009, NOAA issued their forecast for the season, predicting near or slightly above average activity, (9 to 14 named storms, 4 to 7 hurricanes, and 1 to 3 of Category 3 or higher).
### Midseason outlooks
On June 2, 2009, Klotzbach's team issued another updated forecast for the 2009 season, predicting slightly below average activity (11 named storms, 5 hurricanes, 2 of Category 3 or higher and ACE Index of 85). Also on June 2, 2009, the Florida State University Center for Ocean-Atmospheric Prediction Studies (FSU COAPS) issued its first ever Atlantic hurricane season forecast. The FSU COAPS forecast predicted 8 named storms, including 4 hurricanes, and an ACE Index of 65. On June 18, 2009, the UK Met Office (UKMO) issued a forecast of 6 tropical storms in the July to November period with a 70% chance that the number would be in the range 3 to 9. They also predicted an ACE Index of 60 with a 70% chance that the index would be in the range 40 to 80. On August 4, 2009, Klotzbach's team updated their forecast for the 2009 season, again predicting slightly below average activity (10 named storms, 4 hurricanes, and 2 major hurricanes). On August 6, 2009, the NOAA also updated their forecast for the 2009 season, predicting below average activity (7–11 named storms, 3–6 hurricanes, and 1–2 major hurricanes).
## Seasonal summary
During the 2009 season, nine of the eleven tropical cyclones affected land, of which five actually made landfall. The United States experienced one of its quietest years, with no hurricanes making landfall in the country. Throughout the basin, six people were killed in tropical cyclone-related incidents and total losses reached roughly \$77 million. Most of the damage resulted from Hurricane Bill, which caused severe beach erosion throughout the east coast of the United States. In the United States, tropical cyclones killed six people and caused roughly \$46 million in damage. In the Lesser Antilles, Tropical Storms Ana and Erika brought moderate rainfall to several islands but resulted in little damage. Elsewhere in the Atlantic, the Azores Islands, Atlantic Canada, Bermuda, Cape Verde Islands and Wales were affected by tropical cyclones or their remnants. In Canada, Hurricane Bill produced widespread moderate rainfall in Nova Scotia and Newfoundland, leaving roughly \$10 million in losses. The hurricane also produced tropical storm-force winds in Bermuda. Hurricane Fred briefly impacted the southern Cape Verde Islands as it bypassed the islands early in its existence. The Azores and Wales were also affected by Tropical Storm Grace; however, both areas recorded only minor effects.
The ACE index for the 2009 Atlantic hurricane season as calculated by Colorado State University using data from the National Hurricane Center was 52.6 units. Due to the low number of storms in the season, many of which were short-lived, the overall ACE value was ranked as below-average. Hurricane Bill was responsible for the ACE value for August being 30% above average.
## Systems
### Tropical Depression One
During late-May, a frontal boundary stalled near The Bahamas and slowly degenerated. On May 25, 2009, an area of low pressure developed along the tail-end of a decaying cold front near the northern Bahamas. Tracking northward, this low gradually developed as it moved within 85 mi (135 km) of North Carolina's Outer Banks. By May 28, deep convection developed across a small area over the low-pressure system, leading to the National Hurricane Center classifying the system as Tropical Depression One. It was the northernmost forming May tropical cyclone in Atlantic history, though subtropical cyclones formed equally far north in 1972 and 2007. It also marked the third consecutive year with pre-season tropical or subtropical cyclones in the basin. The depression moved over the warm waters of the Gulf Stream for the following 24 hours, allowing it to maintain its convection, before moving into a hostile environment characterized by strong wind shear and cooler waters. Late on May 29, the system degenerated into a remnant low. Several hours later, on May 30, about 345 mi (555 km) south-southeast of Halifax, Nova Scotia, Tropical Depression One was absorbed by a warm front.
As a tropical cyclone, the depression had no impact on land. However, the precursor to the system brought scattered rainfall and increased winds to parts of the North Carolina coastline, but no damage. Rainfall in Hatteras amounted to 0.1 in (2.5 mm) on May 27; sustained wind reached 15 mph (24 km/h) and gusts were measured up to 23 mph (37 km/h). The lowest sea level pressure recorded in relation to the system was 1009 mbar (hPa; 29.80 inHg). Increased winds along coastal areas of the state was possible in relation to the outer edges of the depression.
### Tropical Storm Ana
Ana formed out of an area of low pressure associated with a tropical wave on August 11, Ana briefly attained tropical storm intensity on August 12 before weakening back to a depression. The following day, the system degenerated into a non-convective remnant low as it tracked westward. On August 14, the depression regenerated roughly 1,075 mi (1,735 km) east of the Leeward Islands. Around 06:00UTC on August 15, the storm re-attained tropical storm status, at which time it was named Ana. After reaching a peak intensity with winds of 40 mph (65 km/h) and a barometric pressure of 1003 mbar (hPa; 29.62 inHg), the storm began to weaken again due to increasing wind shear and the unusually fast movement of Ana. In post-storm analysis, it was discovered that Ana had degenerated into a tropical wave once more on August 16, before reaching any landmasses.
Numerous tropical storm watches were issued for the Lesser Antilles, Puerto Rico and the Dominican Republic between August 15 and 17. Several islands took minor precautions for the storm, including St. Croix which evacuated 40 residents from flood-prone areas ahead of the storm. In the Dominican Republic, officials took preparations by setting up relief agencies and setting up shelters. Impact from Ana was minimal, mainly consisting of light to moderate rainfall. In Puerto Rico, up to 2.76 in (70 mm), causing street flooding and forcing the evacuation of three schools. High winds associated with the storm also downed trees and power lines, leaving roughly 6,000 residents without power.
### Hurricane Bill
As Ana regenerated into a tropical depression, a new tropical depression developed early on August 15 southwest of the Cape Verde Islands. Light wind shear and warm waters allowed the depression to steadily intensify, becoming Tropical Storm Bill later that day. By August 17, Bill attained hurricane-status about midway between the Cape Verde Islands and the Lesser Antilles. Eventually the hurricane attained its peak intensity as a Category 4 storm roughly 345 mi (555 km) east-northeast of the Leeward Islands. The storm attained maximum winds of 130 mph (210 km/h), the highest of any storm during the season, before weakening slightly as it turned north. The large storm passed roughly 175 mi (280 km) west of Bermuda as a Category 2 hurricane. Further weakening took place as Bill brushed the southern coast of Nova Scotia the following day. Shortly before making landfall in Newfoundland, Bill weakened to a tropical storm and accelerated. The storm eventually transitioned into an extratropical cyclone after moving over the north Atlantic before being absorbed by a larger non-tropical low on August 24.
Two people were killed by the storm's large swells—one in Maine and another in Florida. The hurricane came close enough to warrant tropical cyclone watches and warnings in both the US and Canada. Bill was one of three tropical storms active on August 16. Large, life-threatening swells produced by the storm impacted north-facing coastlines of Puerto Rico and Hispaniola as Hurricane Bill approached Bermuda. Along the coasts of North Carolina, waves averaging 10 ft (3.0 m) in height impacted beaches. On Long Island, beach damage was severe; in some areas the damage was worse than Hurricane Gloria in 1985. In New York, severe beach erosion caused by the storm resulted in over \$35.5 million in losses.
### Tropical Storm Claudette
Just one day after the formation of Hurricane Bill, the season's third named storm developed on August 16. Forming out of a tropical wave and an upper-level low-pressure system, Claudette quickly intensified into a tropical storm offshore south of Tallahassee, Florida. By the afternoon, the storm had attained winds of 60 mph (95 km/h) and steadily tracked towards the Florida Panhandle. Early on August 17, the center of Claudette made landfall on Santa Rosa Island. Several hours after landfall, the storm weakened to a tropical depression and the Hydrometeorological Prediction Center took over primary responsibility of the storm. The system quickly dissipated and was last noted over Alabama on August 18.
The National Hurricane Center issued tropical storm warnings for the Florida coastline and residents in some counties were advised to evacuate storm-surge-prone areas. Tropical Storm Claudette, produced moderate rainfall across portions of Florida, Georgia, and Alabama between August 16 and 18. Two people were killed offshore amidst rough seas from the storm. An EF-0 tornado spawned by the storm in Cape Coral damaged 11 homes, leaving \$103,000 in damages. Additional damages to coastal property and beaches amounted to \$125,000 as a result of Claudette.
### Tropical Storm Danny
Around the same time the remnants of Hurricane Bill dissipated over the northern Atlantic, a new tropical storm developed near the Bahamas on August 26. The system, immediately declared Tropical Storm Danny on its first advisory, erratically moved in a general northwestward direction. Danny attained peak winds of 60 mph (95 km/h) before succumbing to high wind shear. After turning northward, the storm weakened and was eventually absorbed by another low-pressure system off the east coast of the United States early on August 29. High waves from Danny killed a boy in the Outer Banks.
### Tropical Storm Erika
On September 1, the season's fifth named storm, Tropical Storm Erika, formed east of the Lesser Antilles. Upon forming, the storm had attained its peak intensity with winds of 50 mph (80 km/h). Persistent wind shear prevented the system from intensifying and resulted in the storm's convection being completely displaced from the center of circulation by the time it passed over Guadeloupe on September 2. After entering the Caribbean Sea, Erika briefly regained strength before fully succumbing to strong shear. The system eventually dissipated on September 4, to the south of Puerto Rico. Damages were minor, though one island received several inches of rain.
### Hurricane Fred
Several days after Erika dissipated, a new tropical depression formed southeast of the Cape Verde Islands on September 7. This depression rapidly intensified within an environment of low wind shear and high sea surface temperatures. Receiving the name Fred on September 8, the storm quickly developed an eye feature and was upgraded to a hurricane roughly 24 hours after being named. Within a 12‐hour span, the storm's winds increased by 40 mph (65 km/h) to its peak of 120 mph (195 km/h). Upon reaching this intensity, Fred became the strongest storm on record south of 30°N and east of 35°W in the Atlantic basin. Not long after the intensification ceased, it began to weaken as dry air became entrained within the system. By September 11, the storm nearly stalled northwest of the Cape Verde Islands and weakened to a tropical storm. The following day, Fred degenerated into a remnant low before taking a westward track across the Atlantic. The remnants of Fred persisted for nearly a week, nearly regenerating into a tropical depression several times. The low eventually dissipated on September 19, to the south of Bermuda.
### Tropical Depression Eight
In late September, a new, well-defined tropical wave moved off the west coast of Africa into the Atlantic Ocean. By September 25, the system had developed sufficient deep convection for the NHC to classify it as Tropical Depression Eight. At this time, the depression attained its peak intensity with winds of 35 mph (55 km/h) and a minimum pressure of 1008 mbar (hPa). Shortly thereafter, wind shear and decreasing sea surface temperatures caused the depression to weaken. The system degenerated into a remnant low on September 26 before degenerating into a trough of low pressure.
### Tropical Storm Grace
Originating from an extratropical cyclone east of Newfoundland on September 27, the precursor to Tropical Storm Grace tracked southeastward towards the Azores, gaining subtropical characteristics. After executing a counterclockwise loop between October 1 and 3, deep convection wrapped around a small circulation center that had developed within the larger cyclone. On October 4, this smaller low developed into a tropical storm while situated near the Azores Islands, becoming the northeasternmost forming Atlantic tropical cyclone on record. The storm quickly turned northeastward and intensified, developing an eye-like feature as it attained peak winds of 65 mph (105 km/h) and a minimum pressure of 986 mbar (hPa; 29.12 inHg). It weakened over increasingly colder waters and began merging with an approaching frontal boundary. Early on October 6, Grace transitioned into an extratropical cyclone before dissipating later that day near Wales.
Although Grace passed through the Azores Islands, the storm had little known effects there. In Europe, the system and its remnants brought rain to several countries, including Portugal, the United Kingdom and Belgium. No fatalities were linked to Grace and overall damage was minimal.
### Tropical Storm Henri
A tropical wave left the coast of Africa on October 1, moving westward with intermittent showers and thunderstorms. On October 5, the system became better organized, and a low-pressure area formed. Although the thunderstorms were displaced east of the center of circulation and the probability for development was never high, the disturbance became a tropical depression around 0000 UTC on October 6 about 775 mi (1,245 km) east of the Lesser Antilles. Operationally, the storm was not designated a tropical cyclone until later on October 6, when it was immediately declared a tropical storm.
Affected by strong wind shear, Henri remained disorganized with its center located on the western edge of the convection. Moving northwestward, Henri intensified slightly to peak winds of 50 mph (80 km/h) on October 7 after the convection increased. Shortly thereafter, the wind shear grew stronger, and on October 8 the storm weakened to a tropical depression. The structure became further disorganized with several low-level vortices. Just twelve hours after weakening into a depression, Henri degenerated into a remnant area of low pressure. The remnants continued northwestward before turning to the west-southwest due to a ridge. On October 11, the storm's circulation dissipated near Hispaniola, having never impacted land.
### Hurricane Ida
The final storm of the 2009 season formed over the southern Caribbean Sea on November 4. The slow moving system quickly developed into Tropical Storm Ida within a favorable environment as it neared the coastline of Nicaragua. Several hours before moving over land, Ida attained hurricane-status, with winds reaching 80 mph (130 km/h). Hours after moving inland, Ida weakened to a tropical storm and further to a tropical depression as it turned northward. On November 7, the depression re-entered the Caribbean Sea and quickly intensified. Early on November 8, the system re-attained hurricane intensity as it rapidly intensified over warm waters. Ida attained its peak intensity as a Category 2 hurricane early the next day with winds of 105 mph (170 km/h) as it moved over the Yucatán Channel. Not long after reaching this intensity, Ida quickly weakened to a tropical storm as it entered the Gulf of Mexico. Despite strong wind shear, the storm briefly re-attained hurricane status for a third time near the southeastern Louisiana coastline before quickly weakening to a tropical storm. Shortly before moving inland over the southern United States, Ida transitioned into an extratropical cyclone. The remnants of Ida persisted until November 11, at which time the low dissipated. Remnant energy from Ida provided energy for another system which became a powerful nor'easter, causing significant damage in the Mid-Atlantic States. The resulting storm came to be known as Nor'Ida.
In the southern Caribbean, Hurricane Ida caused roughly \$2.1 million in damage in Nicaragua after destroying numerous homes and leaving an estimated 40,000 people homeless. Ida also produced significant rainfall across portions of western Cuba, with some areas recording up to 12.5 in (320 mm) of rain during the storm's passage. In the United States, the hurricane and the subsequent nor'easter caused substantial damage, mainly in the Mid-Atlantic States. One person was killed by Ida after drowning in rough seas while six others were killed in various incidents related to the nor'easter. Overall, the two systems caused nearly \$300 million in damage throughout the country.
## Storm names
The following list of names was used for named storms that formed in the North Atlantic in 2009. This was the same list used in the 2003 season, with the exceptions of Fred, Ida, and Joaquin, which replaced Fabian, Isabel, and Juan, respectively. The names Fred and Ida were used for the first time this year. There were no names retired this year; thus, the same list was used again in the 2015 season.
## Season effects
This is a table of all of the storms that formed in the 2009 Atlantic hurricane season. It includes their duration, names, intensities, areas affected, damages, and death totals. Deaths in parentheses are additional and indirect (an example of an indirect death would be a traffic accident), but were still related to that storm. Damage and deaths include totals while the storm was extratropical, a wave, or a low, and all of the damage figures are in 2009 USD.
## See also
- Tropical cyclones in 2009
- 2009 Pacific hurricane season
- 2009 Pacific typhoon season
- 2009 North Indian Ocean cyclone season
- South-West Indian Ocean cyclone seasons: 2008–09, 2009–10
- Australian region cyclone seasons: 2008–09, 2009–10
- South Pacific cyclone seasons: 2008–09, 2009–10
- South Atlantic tropical cyclone
- Mediterranean tropical-like cyclone |
44,506,279 | The Boat Race 1953 | 1,130,254,257 | null | [
"1953 in English sport",
"1953 in rowing",
"1953 sports events in London",
"March 1953 sports events in the United Kingdom",
"The Boat Race"
]
| The 99th Boat Race took place on 28 March 1953. Held annually, the Boat Race is a side-by-side rowing race between crews from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge along the River Thames. The race, in which the Oxford crew was slightly heavier than their opponents, was umpired by former rower Gerald Ellison. Cambridge won by eight lengths in a time of 19 minutes 54 seconds. It was their sixth win in seven years and took the overall record in the event to 54–44 in their favour.
## Background
The Boat Race is a side-by-side rowing competition between the University of Oxford (sometimes referred to as the "Dark Blues") and the University of Cambridge (sometimes referred to as the "Light Blues"). First held in 1829, the race takes place on the 4.2-mile (6.8 km) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London. The rivalry is a major point of honour between the two universities; it is followed throughout the United Kingdom and, as of 2014, broadcast worldwide. Oxford went into the race as reigning champions, having won the 1952 race by a canvas, with Cambridge leading overall with 53 victories to Oxford's 44 (excluding the "dead heat" of 1877).
Cambridge were coached by James Crowden (who had represented Cambridge in the 1951 and 1952 races), David Jennens (who rowed three times between 1949 and 1951), Roy Meldrum (a coach for Lady Margaret Boat Club) and R. H. H. Symonds (who had rowed in the 1931 race). Oxford's coaches were A. J. M. Durand (who had rowed for the Dark Blues in the 1920 race), Hugh "Jumbo" Edwards (who rowed for Oxford in 1926 and 1930), R. D. Hill (who rowed in the 1940 wartime race) and J. H. Page. The race was umpired for the second time by former Oxford rower and Gerald Ellison, the Bishop of Willesden.
In the build-up to the race, opinions were divided on which crew was favourite to win. According to the rowing correspondent of The Manchester Guardian, upon arrival at Putney, Oxford demonstrated "great superiority" over Cambridge, yet the Light Blues had improved, and had "the pace, if not the form, to win". The Times had declared "Oxford the stronger crew" on the day of the race. Queen Mary had died four days prior to the race; the coxes wore black armbands and the flag post on the umpire's launch was draped in black as marks of respect. The umpire was accompanied on his launch by Lord Tedder, the Chancellor of the University of Cambridge.
## Crews
The Oxford crew weighed an average of 12 st 13 lb (81.9 kg), 3 pounds (1.4 kg) per rower more than their opponents. Cambridge saw two rowers return to their crew: J. S. M. Jones at number two and G. T. Marshall at number four. Oxford's crew contained three rowers with Boat Race experience: A. J. Smith, M. L. Thomas and H. M. C. Quick. Two of the participants in the race were registered as non-British: Oxford's Smith was Australian while Cambridge's L. B. McCagg was from the United States. The rowing correspondent for The Times described Oxford's crew as containing "no outstanding individuals" yet "no weak links". Conversely, Cambridge's crew was "variable" in quality but in former Harvard University rower Louis McCagg, they had the "outstanding oarsman in either crew".
## Race
Cambridge won the toss and elected to start from the Surrey station, handing the Middlesex side of the river to Oxford. On a poor tide and in a strong south-westerly wind, umpire Ellison started the race at 12 noon. Both crews rated 36 for the first minute, after which the Light Blues held a quarter-length lead. Passing Beverley Brook, the bend in the river began to favour Oxford but Cambridge continued to pull away and were clear by a length as the crews passed the Mile Post. They increased the lead by a further half-length as they passed the Crab Tree pub, and although Oxford made several bursts, they passed below Hammersmith Bridge six seconds behind the Light Blues, and fell in behind them, the "first visible gesture of despair" according to The Manchester Guardian'''s rowing correspondent.
Pushing away from the bridge, Oxford stayed in touch with Cambridge for a brief period, although could not reduce their lead. Rowing into rough water towards Chiswick Eyot, Cambridge moved across to seek shelter closer to the Surrey shore, while Oxford continued in the difficult conditions. A lead of 14 seconds by Chiswick Steps was calmly extended to 20 seconds by the time the crews passed below Barnes Bridge. Cambridge won by eight lengths in a time of 19 minutes 54 seconds, a time which "could have been shortened by at least half a minute had the winners been pressed". It was their sixth victory in the past seven and the fastest winning time since the 1949 race. The rowing correspondent for The Times'' described the result as a "spectacular reversal of form" having failed to show the pace they demonstrated in practice. |
10,997,912 | Norfolk Spaniel | 1,154,171,086 | null | [
"Dog breeds originating in England",
"Extinct animals in the United Kingdom",
"Extinct dog breeds"
]
| The Norfolk Spaniel or Shropshire Spaniel is an extinct breed of dog since the early 20th century. It was originally thought to have originated from the work of one of the Dukes of Norfolk, but this theory was disproven after being in doubt during the later part of the 19th century. The term was used to designate springer type spaniels that were neither Sussex nor Clumber Spaniels, and attempts were made to use it to specify a breed that would later become known as the English Springer Spaniel.
With a liver-and-white or black-and-white coat, the Norfolk Spaniel was described as being a large cocker spaniel. The Spaniel Club set out a breed standard for Norfolk Spaniels, but specimens of the breed varied greatly across England. Members of the breed were difficult to train, but formed a strong attachment with their owners and were useful for hunting both on land and in water. The breed ceased to exist after 1903, when it was rolled into the new English Springer Spaniel breed created by The Kennel Club to contain all spaniels of this type.
## History
The Norfolk Spaniel was believed to have come about from a cross of spaniels with the Black and Tan Terrier, which was cultivated by an unspecified Duke of Norfolk. However, later historians disagree with this theory, saying that the Duke of Norfolk's spaniels were of the King Charles type and that terrier stock had nothing to do with the origins of the Norfolk Spaniel. The theory of the Duke of Norfolk-based origins of the Norfolk Spaniel was thought disproved by the investigation of James Farrow, a 19th-century spaniel breeder, who wrote to Henry Fitzalan-Howard, 15th Duke of Norfolk in order to find out the truth about the origins of the breed. The Duke responded, denying any connection to the breed, although he did state that his grandfather, Henry Howard, 13th Duke of Norfolk, owned Sussex Spaniels. The letter from the Duke was printed in The Kennel Gazette in 1899. An alternative origin was proposed by Rawdon Briggs Lee in volume two of his 1897 work A History and Description of the Modern Dogs of Great Britain and Ireland. Lee argued that the Norfolk Spaniel was descended from a crossing of a curly-coated water spaniel and a Sussex Spaniel or another strain of land spaniel.
In the 18th century, spaniels were split into three categories: land spaniels, water spaniels and toy spaniels. The land spaniels were split into two further types, the cocker spaniel and the springer spaniel. It was within the springer spaniel type that the Norfolk Spaniel was placed, along with the Sussex Spaniel and the Clumber Spaniel. By the 1860s, the breed was described as the "commonest breed in England", but with a description that varies so much that the only standard point is that they averaged 16 inches (41 cm) in height at the withers.
The Spaniel Club was formed in 1885, and issued a breed standard for the Norfolk Spaniel, recognising it as a variety of spaniel. However, the general public saw it only as a generic land spaniel. By the 1890s, the breed had become common throughout the counties of England, leading dog writers such as Rawdon Briggs Lee to question the authenticity of its origins, or that the various liver and white spaniels from around England constituted a single breed; "Personally, I do not consider the liver and white spaniel any particular variety at all, nor do I believe that it has ever been indigenous to Norfolk." He states that similar dogs exist in Devonshire that do not trace ancestry to Norfolk, and that liver and white spaniels pre-date the breeding of the Black and Tan Terrier with an ordinary spaniel. F.H.F. Mercer described the breed in 1890 as being "virtually extinct in its purity", with its liver and white colours running through any numbers of miscellaneous spaniels, and he too discredits the origins involving the Duke of Norfolk.
The Kennel Club (UK) designated all medium legged spaniels which were not Clumber nor Sussex Spaniels as English Springer Spaniels in 1902. The Norfolk Spaniel was included under this designation, with the term "Norfolk Spaniel" considered for use to cover these types of spaniels, but ultimately rejected as the Club believed that the breed was always liver and white in colour. The change in terminology was not smooth or immediate, with James Watson in his 1905 work, The Dog Book, still referring to the Norfolk Spaniel as a breed name. In the modern era, the Norfolk Spaniel is thought to be the previous name for the English Springer Spaniel, prior to recognition by The Kennel Club (UK).
## Temperament
The Norfolk Spaniel would typically be unhappy when they were separated from their owners, as they formed a strong attachment. Compared to the springer spaniels of the 19th century, they were more ill-tempered, and could be headstrong and wilful if not successfully broken. Some members of the breed could be noisy, and were described as "babbling" and making noise on the hunt in a similar fashion to hounds, while others were far quieter.
Its use in hunting was varied, and the breed was useful both on land and in the water. In particular, it became successful in America and towards the beginning of the 20th century were popular in the area around Boston. They were described by the Spaniel Club of America as being as good in the water as the Chesapeake Bay Retriever.
## Appearance
The breed was a freckled white dog with either liver or black markings, the breed standard in 1859 set their measurements at 17–18 inches (43–46 cm) in height at the withers. It had long legs, feathered ears, a white area on forehead, which was said to "[add] a great deal to his beauty", but there were differences from the English Springer, including a broader skull and shorter neck. It was also compared to the English Setter in its build, shape, and proportions, although it was a much smaller size. While other field spaniels of this era displayed colours other than liver and white or liver and black, the Norfolk did not. The breed-specific qualities varied greatly as in some places the breeding lines were not kept particularly pure, those lines having had stock from Sussex and Clumber Spaniels bred into them.
By the end of the 19th century the description of a Norfolk Spaniel had changed slightly, The Spaniel Club breed standard for a Norfolk Spaniel in 1897 was for the animal to have a coat of either black and white or liver and white which was not curly, a reasonably heavy body and legs which are longer than other field spaniels but shorter than the Irish Water Spaniel, a deep chest with long sloping shoulders and strength in the back and loins, as well as features typical of a spaniel such as lobular ears. This standard also included the requirement for the tail to be docked. In brief, the standard described the Norfolk as simply looking like a large cocker spaniel. |
1,999,305 | Sara Ramirez | 1,173,275,338 | American actor and singer | [
"1975 births",
"20th-century American LGBT people",
"20th-century American actors",
"20th-century Mexican LGBT people",
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"American LGBT singers",
"American actresses of Mexican descent",
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"American bisexual musicians",
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"Mexican people of Irish descent",
"Mexican stage actors",
"Mexican television actors",
"Musicians from San Diego",
"Non-binary activists",
"Non-binary singers",
"Non-binary voice actors",
"People from Mazatlán",
"Queer people",
"Singer-songwriters from California",
"Tony Award winners"
]
| Sara Elena Ramírez (; born August 31, 1975) is an American actor and singer. Born in Mazatlán, Sinaloa, Ramírez moved to the United States at eight years old, eventually graduating with a fine arts degree from the Juilliard School.
Ramírez began acting in Broadway productions, making their debut in Paul Simon's The Capeman, and later ventured into film and television roles. Ramírez's breakthrough came with their portrayal of the original Lady of the Lake in the 2005 Broadway musical Spamalot, winning the Tony Award for Best Featured Actress in a Musical. Ramírez was offered to pick their own primetime television show in an array of ABC lineups, choosing Grey's Anatomy. They portrayed Dr. Callie Torres, one of the longest-running LGBT characters in US television history, appearing in 11 seasons and 239 episodes. Ramírez's volunteered addition of the character's bisexuality marked one of the earliest series regular queer roles on primetime television. After departing from the series, Ramirez came out as bisexual and later non-binary, using they/them pronouns. They later portrayed the bisexual, non-binary roles of Kat Sandoval in Madam Secretary and Che Díaz in And Just Like That..., respectively.
Ramirez debuted as a voice actor in the 1999 video game entitled Um Jammer Lammy, and has voiced Queen Miranda in the animated series Sofia the First (2012–2018). Ramírez released their first single "Silent Night" in 2009. Their self-titled EP debuted at no. 37 on the Billboard 200 in 2011.
Ramírez's extensive campaigns for LGBT rights won the Ally for Equality Award from the Human Rights Campaign Foundation in 2015. In addition to the Tony Award, Ramírez has also been the recipient of a Screen Actors Guild Award and a Satellite Award, among other accolades.
## Early life
Ramírez was born on August 31, 1975, in Mazatlán, Sinaloa in northwestern Mexico. Ramírez's father and mother are Mexican. When Ramírez was eight years old, their parents divorced, and Ramírez went to live with their mother, eventually settling in Tierrasanta, San Diego, California. Ramírez's interest in music encouraged their mother to send them to San Diego School of Creative and Performing Arts, where their singing talent was discovered during an audition. Ramírez started acting in stage productions in high school.
After having played such roles as the Witch in Into the Woods, Dolly in Hello, Dolly! and Miss Hannigan in Annie, Ramírez was recommended for the Juilliard School, New York City, from which they graduated with a Bachelor of Fine Arts in drama. At Juilliard, Ramírez further worked on their acting skills and trained as a vocalist. Ramírez speaks both Spanish and English fluently.
## Career
### Broadway breakthrough and other roles (1998–2005)
While still at Juilliard, Ramírez was discovered by a casting director and was offered the role of Wahzinak in Paul Simon's 1998 Broadway musical The Capeman. Based on the life of the Puerto Rican gangster Salvador Agron, the production garnered negative reviews, but Ramirez was singled out for their "outstanding" performance. They made their screen debut in the same year, with a minor yet "memorable" role in the romantic comedy You've Got Mail. Starring Tom Hanks and Meg Ryan, the film had Ramírez play Rose, a Zabar's cashier who was "very serious about her line's cash-only policy." Ramirez voiced the titular character of Lammy in the video game UmJammer Lammy, a spin-off of PaRappa the Rapper, on Sony's PlayStation console. They later reprised their role in the latter's sequel for PlayStation 2, but had a smaller role.
In 1999, Ramírez appeared in Mark Lamos' The Gershwins' Fascinating Rhythm (1999). They garnered praise for their performance and received an Outer Critics Circle Award nomination for their role. Charles Isherwood of Variety praised their "beautiful, smoky voice" but was critical of their "torchy" performance of "The Man I Love," which ignored "the wry irony that infuses Ira's lyrics". Ramirez then appeared in the 2001 Broadway production of Edward Kleban's A Class Act. They replaced Julia Murney (from the off-Broadway) to play the role of Felecia, the protagonist Ed's boss. The same year, they starred in other productions including Fascinating Rhythm and Dreamgirls, and then performed in the 2002 production of The Vagina Monologues with Tovah Feldshuh and Suzanne Bertish. During this time, Ramírez also appeared in guest roles in several television series, including NYPD Blue, Law & Order: SVU, Third Watch, and Spin City among others.
Ramírez's breakout role came upon being cast as the Lady of the Lake in Eric Idle and John Du Prez's musical Spamalot. Based on the 1975 film Monty Python and the Holy Grail, the musical opened on Broadway in 2005 to widespread acclaim. Ramírez was singled out for their performance, winning several awards including the 2005 Tony Award for Best Featured Actress in a Musical and the Drama League Award for Distinguished Performance. Ben Brantley of The New York Times described them as "a toothsome devourer of scenery", and another reviewer for The Playgoer emphasizing their stage presence remarked that their "intensity is totally serious and totally ludicrous and totally on key". An Entertainment Weekly review gave them the highest praise by calling them a show-stealer.
### Grey's Anatomy and other projects (2006–2021)
After success on Broadway, Ramírez joined the cast of the ABC medical drama Grey's Anatomy in a recurring role as Dr. Calliope 'Callie' Torres, a love interest for Dr. George O'Malley, in the show's second season. On a special Grey's Anatomy-themed episode of The Oprah Winfrey Show, Ramírez revealed that top executives from ABC, who were greatly impressed by their performance in Spamalot, offered them a role in any ABC show they wanted. Ramírez picked Grey's, as they were already a fan of the show. Ramírez further explained that at their initial audition, the producers liked them and intended to add them to the show but did not know who to cast them as. Ramírez also said they were in awe of how the executives said, "Pick a show, any show," explaining that it is rare. The series creator and executive producer, Shonda Rhimes explained, "I was looking for a girlfriend for George, but it was in the infancy stages, so I had no idea what I was looking for." Rhimes built the character around Ramírez after Rhimes met them. Ramírez, who was initially given a recurring status at the time of the character's inception, received a star billing in the show's third season, alongside fellow cast member Eric Dane, who portrayed Dr. Mark Sloan.
Ramírez provided a cappella vocals in the song "Silent Night" for the soundtrack of the show's sixth-season episode "Holidaze," airing on November 19, 2009. Ramirez served as the main vocalist for the musical episode of Grey's Anatomy, "Song Beneath the Song", which aired on March 31, 2011. Marcus James Dixon of Gold Derby called them the "show-stopper" and wrote that they "stole the show in a gut-wrenching performance worthy of an Emmy award."
As the series progressed, the character's popularity soared and Ramírez garnered widespread recognition and critical acclaim for their portrayal of a complex character on television. Maggie Fremont, a TV critic for Vulture, reviewed Ramírez and Jessica Capshaw's performances during an 11th season episode, calling them "goddesses walking amongst mere mortals". Ramírez was nominated for Outstanding Actress in a Drama Television Series at the Alma Awards in 2007 and 2008. Also in 2007, at the 13th Screen Actors Guild Awards, the cast of Grey's Anatomy received the Award for Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Drama Series. They and the cast were nominated for the same award in 2008. In 2011, at the 42nd NAACP Image Awards, Ramírez was nominated for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series.
In May 2016, Ramírez left the show at the conclusion of the 12th season, after having played the character for a decade. They released a statement saying, "I'm deeply grateful to have spent the last 10 years with my family at Grey's Anatomy and ABC, but for now I'm taking some welcome time off." Rhimes wrote of Ramírez's work on the show, "Dr. Callie Torres came into our lives dancing it out in her underwear almost a decade ago, and I could not be happier or more proud of her journey. Sara Ramírez's performance inspired me as well as millions of fans each week."
Ramírez turned producer with the 2016 teen comedy film, Loserville. The project was released in partnership with the Pacer Foundation's Center for Bullying Prevention & Stomp Out Bullying.
From 2017 to 2019, Ramírez co-starred in the fourth and fifth seasons of the CBS political drama Madam Secretary, replacing Bebe Neuwirth, who played Nadine Tolliver. They played Kat Sandoval, the new policy advisor of Secretary Elizabeth McCord (Téa Leoni).
In 2021, Ramírez was cast as non-binary podcast host and comedian Che Díaz in the Sex and the City revival series And Just Like That.... The character of Che has received mixed to negative reviews.
## Personal life
On June 27, 2011, Ramírez got engaged to longtime boyfriend Ryan DeBolt, a business analyst at TIMEC in Paris, France. They were married on July 4, 2012, in a private beachside ceremony in New York. On July 6, 2021, Ramirez announced in an Instagram post that they had separated from DeBolt.
In September 2016, Ramírez donated their hair to Locks of Love, an organization that makes wigs for children who suffer from medical conditions that lead to hair loss. Afterward, they sported a buzz cut, styled as an undercut.
In October 2016, Ramírez described themself as queer and bisexual at the True Colors Fund's 40 To None Summit (now known as the Impact Summit) in Los Angeles, California. In an email to the Huffington Post, they wrote that their decision to come out publicly was a "very organic and natural" one. In August 2020, Ramirez said they had recently determined they identify as nonbinary and used she/they pronouns, which were changed to they/them sometime in 2021.
## Off-screen work
### Singing career
Ramírez released their first single, a rendition of Silent Night, in 2009. The song was featured in the tenth episode of the sixth season of Grey's Anatomy. Their debut, self-titled, extended play came out in March 2011 on the iTunes Store under the label of Atrevida Records. The EP included four songs, including a cover of "The Story", which was originally recorded by Brandi Carlile in her 2007 album. Two of the three songs were co-written by Ramirez and the album's writer-producer Rob Giles. Sara Ramirez debuted at number 37 on the Billboard 200, number nine on Billboard's Independent Albums chart, and number 38 on the Canadian Albums Chart. "The Story" debuted the same week at number 69 on the Billboard Hot 100, number 72 on the Canadian Hot 100, and number 34 on the Irish Singles Chart. Soundtracks for Monty Python's Spamalot (Original Broadway Cast Recording) (2005) and Grey's Anatomy: The Music Event (2011) were released under the labels of Decca Records and ABC Studios respectively.
### Philanthropy
Ramírez is an activist and extensively campaigns for LGBT rights. They are a member of the True Colors United board of directors and The Task Force, and the San Diego, New York, and San Francisco LGBT Centers. They spoke in support of homeless LGBTQ youth at a True Colors Fund conference. In addition, Ramirez supports other groups including BiNetUSA, Bisexual Organizing Project, American Institute of Bisexuality, NDLON, and Mujeres De Maíz. In 2015, they were awarded the Ally for Equality Award by the Human Rights Campaign Foundation.
## Filmography and awards
### Accolades
Ramírez won the Tony Award for Best Performance by a Featured Actress in a Musical and the Outstanding Featured Actress in a Musical for their role in the 2005 Broadway musical Spamalot. They gained widespread acclaim for their portrayal of Dr. Callie Torres in ABC's medical drama Grey's Anatomy. They garnered nominations for the Best Actress at the NAACP Image Award, the ALMA Award, and won the Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Drama Series.
## Discography
### Extended plays
### Singles
- "Silent Night" (2009)
- "Rollercoaster" (2015)
### Soundtracks |
5,642,215 | A Different Kind of Love Song | 1,160,357,578 | null | [
"2001 songs",
"2002 singles",
"Cher songs",
"Songs written by Johan Åberg",
"Songs written by Michelle Lewis",
"Songs written by Sigurd Rosnes"
]
| "A Different Kind of Love Song" is a song by American recording artist Cher, taken from her 24th studio album, Living Proof (2001). The song was written and produced by Sigurd Rosnes and Johan Aberg, with additional writing done by Michelle Lewis, and was co-produced by Anders Hansson. The dance-pop song alludes to themes of tragedy, heroism and brotherhood, and was released as a double A-side single with "The Music's No Good Without You" in July 2002 through Warner Bros. Records and WEA.
"A Different Kind of Love Song" received mostly positive reviews from music critics, who deemed it one of the album's highlights, although noting Cher's heavily processed vocals due to the use of auto-tune. The song charted on a few Billboard components, such as Dance/Club Play Songs, where it reached number one, Hot Dance Music/Maxi-Singles Sales, peaking at number two, and on the Adult Contemporary chart. No accompanying music video was commissioned for "A Different Kind of Love Song"; however, the track was performed a few times by Cher, including on a Will & Grace episode, her concert tour Living Proof: The Farewell Tour, and during the 50th American Bandstand in 2002.
## Composition and release
"A Different Kind of Love Song" is a dance-pop song written and produced by Johan Aberg, while additional writing was done by Michelle Lewis, and Sigurd Rosnes. Anders Hansson co-produced the song. According to Michael Paoletta of Billboard, the track "finds [Cher] not rocking the "Believe" boat too much: the chorus is soaring, the beats are foot-stomping, and the singer's vocals are gloriously affected." Jim Farber of Entertainment Weekly perceived that Cher's vocals are heavily processed due to the use of auto-tune. Lyrically, "A Different Kind of Love Song" alludes to themes of tragedy, heroism and brotherhood, as noted by Rolling Stone journalist Barry Walters. The song was also treated with different remixes done by producers such as Rodney Jerkins. In an interview with MTV News, Jerkins expressed that he was flattered to be working with Cher. He further added, "It's incredible to be able to work with a true diva. Cher said she just wanted me to do my thing, which was the most incredible thing in the world. And I had fun doing it." His remix was included on the 2003 compilation album The Very Best of Cher. "A Different Kind of Love Song" was released as a single in July 2002, with "The Music's No Good Without You" as its A-side.
## Promotion
No music video was made for "A Different Kind of Love Song". However, Cher performed it on the comedy series Will & Grace in 2002, where she made a special guest appearance in the episode, "AI: Artificial Insemination Part 2", as God. The singer also performed the track during the first leg of the Living Proof: The Farewell Tour, and on April 20, 2002, during the 50th American Bandstand. A live video taken from Living Proof: The Farewell Tour is included as a bonus on The Farewell Tour DVD.
## Reception
Michael Paoletta of Billboard considered the album version of the song "perfect", but questioned that "it may be too upbeat for clubland". Reviewing Living Proof, Jim Farber of Entertainer Weekly noted that the songs "have enough oomph to make this more than a one-shot comeback," while Kerry L. Smith of Allmusic selected it as a "track pick" from his album review. Slant Magazine called the song "euphoric".
"A Different Kind of Love Song" charted on a few Billboard components. On the chart issue dated August 31, 2002, the song reached the top position on the Dance/Club Play Songs, and peaked at number 30 on the Adult Contemporary chart. It also peaked at number two on the Hot Dance Music/Maxi Singles chart.
## Track listings
US CD Maxi Single (942455-2)
1. "A Different Kind Of Love Song" (Rosabel Attitude Vocal) - 8.56
2. "A Different Kind Of Love Song" (Murk Main Mix) - 9.06
3. "A Different Kind Of Love Song" (Ralph's Alternative Vox) - 9.17
4. "A Different Kind Of Love Song" (Rodney Jerkins Main Mix (Faster)) - 4.19
5. "A Different Kind Of Love Song" (Johnny Rocks Mix Show Edit) - 5.58
6. "A Different Kind Of Love Song" (Lenny B.'s Different Kind Of Club Mix) - 7.15
7. "A Different Kind Of Love Song" (Craig J Classic Love Mix) - 7.04
8. "The Music's No Good Without You" (Almighty 12" Mix) 8.04
9. "The Music's No Good Without You" (Walter Taieb Mix) - 7.40
## Credits and personnel
- Cher - vocals
- Johan Aberg - writer, producer, bass, guitars, keyboard, programming, mixing
- Michelle Lewis - writer
- Sigurd Rosnes - writer
- Anders Hansson - producer
- Neil Tucker - assistant engineer
- Esbjörn Gunnarsson - bass
- Ziggy - backing vocals, keyboard, programming
- Dennis B - keyboard, programming, mixing
- Björn Engelmann - mixing
- Marie Diephuise - backing vocals
Credits adapted from Living Proof liner notes.
## Charts
### Weekly charts
### Year-end charts
## See also
- List of number-one dance singles of 2002 (U.S.) |
4,257,297 | Charles Wilson Cross | 1,171,057,605 | Canadian politician (1872–1928) | [
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| Charles Wilson Cross (November 30, 1872 – June 2, 1928) was a Canadian politician who served in the Legislative Assembly of Alberta and the House of Commons of Canada. He was also the first Attorney-General of Alberta. Born in Ontario, he studied law at Osgoode Hall Law School before coming west to practise in Edmonton. He became active with the Liberal Party of Canada, and when Alberta was created in 1905 he was chosen by Premier Alexander Cameron Rutherford to be its first Attorney-General. Implicated in the Alberta and Great Waterways Railway scandal, he resigned in 1910 along with the rest of Rutherford's government.
As a backbencher, he became the leader of Liberals opposed to the government of Rutherford's successor, Arthur Sifton, until Sifton re-appointed him Attorney-General in 1912. Cross served in this capacity under Sifton and his successor Charles Stewart until 1918, when Stewart fired him after receiving no response to his request for Cross's resignation. Cross remained in provincial politics until 1925, but in a radically diminished role. After leaving provincial politics, he was elected to the Canadian House of Commons, only to be defeated in his 1926 re-election bid. He died in 1928.
## Early life
Cross was born in Madoc, Ontario to merchant Thomas Cross and his wife, Marie Mouncey. He studied at Upper Canada College, the University of Toronto, and Osgoode Hall Law School. He moved west to Edmonton in 1897, where he opened a law practice with William Short; it exists today as Duncan Craig LLP. When the idea of creating one or more new provinces out of the Northwest Territories gained currency, Cross was one of three people selected by Edmonton City Council to travel to Ottawa and ensure that Edmonton's interests were respected.
## Provincial politics
### Early provincial career
Cross was a Liberal, and fast established himself was one of the party's leading Edmonton lights. By some assessments, he was the second most influential Liberal in the city after Frank Oliver, the owner of the Edmonton Bulletin and local Member of Parliament. Once the decision was made to create the province of Alberta, the question emerged of who would govern it: the Northwest Territories were governed on a non-partisan basis by Premier Frederick W. A. G. Haultain, who was a Conservative in federal politics. Some Liberals, such as Peter Talbot, were amenable to Haultain's becoming the first Premier of Alberta, either as the head of a non-partisan government or one formed by a coalition of Liberals and Conservatives. Cross was not among them.
Cross's view prevailed, and Alberta's first Lieutenant-Governor, Liberal George Bulyea, invited Alexander Cameron Rutherford to form a government. Haultain went to Saskatchewan, created from a portion of the Northwest Territories at the same time as Alberta was, to lead the Provincial Rights Party. Though Cross was only 32, Rutherford named him to his cabinet as Alberta's first Attorney-General. In consequence, he was required to contest the 1905 election. He did so in the district of Edmonton, against Conservative William Antrobus Griesbach. Griesbach fought his campaign on the Liberal federal government's imposition on Alberta of a requirement to fund separate schools, an imposition to which older provinces were not subject. Cross won the election with such a margin that Griesbach lost his deposit.
One of the first questions considered by the new Legislative Assembly of Alberta was the choice of provincial capital. The terms of autonomy had made Edmonton the provisional capital, but there was a movement to make Calgary the permanent choice. This movement was led in the legislature by Minister of Public Works William Henry Cushing, Cross's cabinet colleague, who argued that it would be cheaper to build a legislature building in Calgary than in Edmonton and that Calgary was the economic centre of the province and therefore ought to be capital. Cross countered that Edmonton's history as capital of the Canadian fur trade and its geographic location close to the centre of the province gave it the stronger claim. Edmonton was eventually selected by a vote of 16 to 8. It would not be the last issue on which Cross and Cushing disagreed.
As Attorney-General, Cross was responsible for overseeing prosecutions. He was especially aggressive in his enforcement of the Sabbath Observance Act, which prohibited most business activities on Sundays. He also introduced new workers' compensation legislation, the highlight of which was making compensation automatic, rather than the result of a lawsuit by the injured worker. Though the bill addressed some of the labour movement's concerns, there remained many criticisms: it failed to fine employers responsible for workplace hazards, did not apply to injuries sustained while building or repairing buildings of less than 40 feet (12 m) in height, did not protect casual labourers, and limited compensation to a maximum of Can\$1,500. In response to these concerns, Cross lowered the minimum building height to 30 feet (9.1 m) and raised the maximum compensation to \$1,800. To assuage farm leaders, he also included an exemption for farm labour.
### Railway scandal
Cross was re-elected in the 1909 election as one of two members elected in the newly expanded Edmonton district. Soon after, in February 1910, Cushing resigned from cabinet, stating that he disagreed with Rutherford's approach to railway policy and specifically with his actions regarding the Alberta and Great Waterways Railway (A&GW). The A&GW was one of several new railways to take advantage of the government's offer, made under considerable public pressure, of loan guarantees. Cushing and John R. Boyle attacked Rutherford's government, with the latter charging that the Deputy Attorney-General, S. B. Woods, had removed papers from the government's files on the A&GW. Cross denied these charges on his deputy's behalf. Boyle followed with a motion that the assets of the A&GW, which he believed was taking advantage of the government's guarantees to build a sub-standard railway at government expense, be expropriated. Cross led the government's opposition to the motion.
On March 9, Cross abruptly resigned as Attorney-General; Woods resigned the next day. Cross gave as his reason that Rutherford had told him that Cushing was re-entering cabinet, and Cross felt that that made his position untenable. Cushing gave a different account: he said that he had been asked by Rutherford to re-enter cabinet, and that the Premier had told him that if he did, Cross would resign. However, he denied ever having agreed to do so, and accused Cross of fabricating his story completely. Rutherford stayed silent until March 11, when he announced that he had refused Cross's resignation, and that he was still Attorney-General. Soon after, Boyle made his own set of accusations, saying that agents of the liquor license department, which was under Cross, had been demanding bribes from hoteliers in exchange for licenses and that Cross was aware of this. Cross denied the charge.
The crisis divided the Liberal Party into two camps: the pro-government Liberals, led by Cross and Rutherford, and the insurgent Liberals, led by Cushing and Boyle. The insurgents' objective was to replace Rutherford with Cushing. Though most important Liberals outside the legislature, including Bulyea and Oliver, lacked confidence in Rutherford, they had little more in Cushing. Some newspapers characterized the struggle as the visible element of a battle for influence between Oliver, long Alberta's most prominent Liberal, and Cross, seen as its rising star. Though Rutherford never actually lost a confidence motion, Bulyea pressured him to resign in favour of Arthur Sifton, the province's chief justice. Several of Cross's supporters attempted to extract a promise to keep Cross as Attorney-General in exchange for their support of Sifton's government, but Sifton was unwilling to agree. Rutherford eventually and reluctantly complied with Bulyea's wishes, and the rest of his government, including Cross, followed suit. Subsequent rumours suggested that Cross and his followers had agreed to resign only because of a belief that Sifton would be appointed to the Supreme Court of Canada after approximately a year as Premier, with Cross then being asked to form a government. A subsequent commission declined to find Cross guilty of wrongdoing in relation to the A&GW incident, but criticized him and Rutherford for granting over-generous terms to the railway.
### Backbenches and return to cabinet
In keeping with Sifton's policy of excluding all prominent players in the A&GW affair from cabinet, Cross was not re-appointed (Cushing, Rutherford, and Boyle were also left out). Despite this, Cross declared his support for Sifton's government while restating his admiration for Rutherford's. In response to the A&GW's default of its obligations to the government, Sifton introduced a bill confiscating the money the A&GW had raised through the sale of government-guaranteed bonds. Cross, still a supporter of building the A&GW and concerned that the bill did not include a commitment to use the money to do so, opposed it. The bill passed, but was disallowed by the courts. Sifton, left with little choice but to use the money for the purpose for which it had been raised, announced a new policy of railway construction. At the same time, he invited Cross to resume his post as Attorney-General. Boyle was also admitted to cabinet, as Minister of Education; Cushing and Rutherford, the other major players in the A&GW affair, had withdrawn from the limelight, and neither would return to the legislature after the 1913 election. Cross accepted Sifton's offer, telling the public that Sifton's new railway policy "made it proper for me to support and join his government".
In keeping with custom at the time, once appointed to cabinet Cross resigned his seat in the legislature and contested it in a by-election. His by-election was held at the same time as four others, and while Liberal papers were unhesitant about endorsing the Liberal candidates in those, in Edmonton they gave Cross a somewhat bumpier ride. The Calgary Albertan, in an editorial advocating the return of Liberal candidates in all five by-elections, criticized Cross as "disloyal to [Sifton] in the beginning, and doubtless will be to the end." The Edmonton Bulletin, still owned by Oliver, complained that while in the other four by-elections voters were being asked to judge Sifton's government, in Edmonton it appeared that they were being asked to judge Rutherford's. Cross defeated his main opponent, Conservative Albert Ewing, but by a much smaller margin than he had managed in 1905 and 1909. Ewing claimed electoral fraud and appealed the outcome to the courts, but the 1913 election pre-empted his appeal. In that election, perhaps recalling the narrowness of his by-election win, Cross ran in two ridings, Edmonton and Edson. He won both (Ewing was the second victor from the two-member Edmonton district), making him the only person in Alberta history to represent two constituencies at the same time (though not the only one to try: Sifton also did so in 1913, and Boyle would in 1921). The Edmonton contest was a close contest and only after several recounts was Cross declared a winner.
Prohibition was gaining currency in Alberta: the Conservatives had included it in their 1913 platform, and it was supported by the increasingly powerful United Farmers of Alberta (UFA). The government generally opposed the idea, and Cross held up Manitoba as example of its failures. But the government had also (at the UFA's behest) introduced direct democracy measures, one of which allowed citizens to initiate plebiscites. The well-organized temperance movement did so on prohibition, which was endorsed by a majority of voters in the ensuing plebiscite; the legislature passed the Prohibition Act in the spring of 1916. As Attorney-General, Cross was responsible for enforcing it.
### Conscription and the Stewart cabinet
In 1917, the Alberta Liberal Party, held delicately together since 1910, burst once again into conflict with the conscription crisis. The Conservative federal government of Robert Borden supported imposing conscription to help win World War I, and most of English Canada supported him. The Liberal leader, Wilfrid Laurier, opposed conscription, but many of the party's English-speaking members supported it and defected to a Borden-led Union government. This dispute had repercussions in the Alberta party: Sifton supported conscription, and shortly after winning the 1917 election (in which Cross was re-elected in Edson but did not run in Edmonton) resigned as Premier to move to federal politics and a ministry in Borden's government. Cross opposed conscription. In this he was joined by Oliver, and the two put aside years of animosity to campaign together for Laurier in the 1917 federal election. Cross regarded Laurier as something of a hero, and proclaimed that he was "fairly convinced that the first duty of Canadians to their country is to get rid of the crowd of profiteers at Ottawa who have brought the country to its present condition."
Sifton's successor as Premier was Charles Stewart, the Minister of Public Works in his cabinet. Stewart, who supported conscription but did not actively campaign for it or the Unionists, kept Cross as Attorney-General, despite rumours that he would not. Cross's major challenge was enforcing prohibition, which was proving challenging. The Conservatives, and in particular George Douglas Stanley, were unreluctant to accuse Cross of mismanagement. In the meantime, a rift was opening between Cross and Stewart (whom the Conservatives accused, somewhat ironically, of being unduly influenced by his Attorney-General). Stewart found Cross neglectful of his duties, and after Cross refused to dismiss two detectives from his department whose work Stewart felt could be better done by the Alberta Provincial Police, Stewart requested his resignation. When twelve days passed without a reply from Cross, Stewart fired him August 26, 1918. His replacement as Attorney-General was Boyle, his nemesis of the Alberta and Great Waterways era.
Cross remained in the legislature for several more years, but took no active role in its proceedings, and soon ceased to be regarded as a major force. He was re-elected in the 1921 election, making him and Boyle the only veterans of the first legislature still in office. The UFA, fielding candidates for the first time, won a majority of seats in the election, and Stewart resigned as Premier. Cross continued his indifferent performance as MLA until May 1925, when he resigned to enter federal politics.
## Federal career and later life
Cross ran as a Liberal in the 1925 federal election in the riding of Athabaska, and defeated Donald Ferdinand Kellner, the Progressive incumbent from Edmonton East. Stewart, who had also left provincial politics, was elected in the adjacent Edmonton West. The Liberals, under incumbent Prime Minister William Lyon Mackenzie King, won fewer seats than the Conservatives, but King decided to remain as Prime Minister anyway. As a result, Cross sat in the House of Commons of Canada throughout the King-Byng Affair. In the ensuing 1926 election, Cross was soundly defeated in a rematch with Kellner. Charles Wilson Cross died of a heart attack June 2, 1928, in Calgary.
## Electoral record |
78,262 | Van Morrison | 1,173,886,542 | Northern Irish musician (born 1945) | [
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| Sir George Ivan Morrison OBE (born 31 August 1945), known professionally as Van Morrison, is a Northern Irish singer, musician and songwriter whose recording career spans seven decades.
Morrison began performing as a teenager in the late 1950s, playing a variety of instruments including guitar, harmonica, keyboards and saxophone for various Irish showbands, covering the popular hits of that time. Known as "Van the Man" to his fans, Morrison rose to prominence in the mid-1960s as the lead singer of the Northern Irish R&B band Them, with whom he wrote and recorded "Gloria", which became a garage band staple. His solo career started under the pop-hit oriented guidance of Bert Berns with the release of the hit single "Brown Eyed Girl" in 1967. After Berns's death, Warner Bros. Records bought Morrison's contract and allowed him three sessions to record Astral Weeks (1968). While initially a poor seller, the album has become regarded as a classic. Moondance (1970) established Morrison as a major artist, and he built on his reputation throughout the 1970s with a series of acclaimed albums and live performances.
Much of Morrison's music is structured around the conventions of soul music and early rhythm and blues. An equal part of his catalogue consists of lengthy, spiritually inspired musical journeys that show the influence of Celtic tradition, jazz and stream of consciousness narrative, such as the album Astral Weeks. The two strains together are sometimes referred to as "Celtic soul", and his music has been described as attaining "a kind of violent transcendence".
Morrison's albums have performed well in Ireland and the UK, with more than 40 reaching the UK top 40. He has scored top ten albums in the UK in four consecutive decades, following the success of 2021's Latest Record Project, Volume 1. Eighteen of his albums have reached the top 40 in the United States, twelve of them between 1997 and 2017. Since turning 70 in 2015, he has released – on average – more than an album a year. He has received two Grammy Awards, the 1994 Brit Award for Outstanding Contribution to Music, the 2017 Americana Music Lifetime Achievement Award for Songwriting and has been inducted into both the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame and the Songwriters Hall of Fame. In 2016, he was knighted for services to the music industry and to tourism in Northern Ireland.
## Life and career
### Early life and musical roots: 1945–1964
George Ivan Morrison was born on 31 August 1945, at 125 Hyndford Street, Bloomfield, Belfast, Northern Ireland, as the only child of George Morrison, a shipyard electrician, and Violet Stitt Morrison, who had been a singer and tap dancer in her youth. The previous occupant of the house was the writer Lee Child's father. Morrison's family were working class Protestants descended from the Ulster Scots population that settled in Belfast. From 1950 to 1956, Morrison, who began to be known as "Van" during this time, attended Elmgrove Primary School. His father had what was at the time one of the largest record collections in Northern Ireland (acquired during his time in Detroit, Michigan, in the early 1950s) and the young Morrison grew up listening to artists such as Jelly Roll Morton, Ray Charles, Lead Belly, Sonny Terry and Brownie McGhee and Solomon Burke; of whom he later said, "If it weren't for guys like Ray and Solomon, I wouldn't be where I am today. Those guys were the inspiration that got me going. If it wasn't for that kind of music, I couldn't do what I'm doing now."
His father's record collection exposed him to various musical genres, such as the blues of Muddy Waters; the gospel of Mahalia Jackson; the jazz of Charlie Parker; the folk music of Woody Guthrie; and country music from Hank Williams and Jimmie Rodgers, while the first record he ever bought was by blues musician Sonny Terry. When Lonnie Donegan had a hit with "Rock Island Line", written by Huddie Ledbetter (Lead Belly), Morrison felt he was familiar with and able to connect with skiffle music as he had been hearing Lead Belly before that.
Morrison's father bought him his first acoustic guitar when he was 11, and he learned to play rudimentary chords from the song book The Carter Family Style, edited by Alan Lomax. In 1957, at the age of twelve, Morrison formed his first band, a skiffle group, "The Sputniks", named after the satellite, Sputnik 1, that had been launched in October of that year by the Soviet Union. In 1958, the band played at some of the local cinemas, and Morrison took the lead, contributing most of the singing and arranging. Other short-lived groups followed – at 14, he formed Midnight Special, another modified skiffle band and played at a school concert. Then, when he heard Jimmy Giuffre playing saxophone on "The Train and The River", he talked his father into buying him a saxophone, and took lessons in tenor sax and music reading. Now playing the saxophone, Morrison joined with various local bands, including one called Deanie Sands and the Javelins, with whom he played guitar and shared singing. The line-up of the band was lead vocalist Deanie Sands, guitarist George Jones, and drummer and vocalist Roy Kane. Later the four main musicians of the Javelins, with the addition of Wesley Black as pianist, became known as the Monarchs.
Morrison attended Orangefield Boys Secondary School, leaving in July 1960 with no qualifications. As a member of a working-class community, he was expected to get a regular full-time job, so after several short apprenticeship positions, he settled into a job as a window cleaner—later alluded to in his songs "Cleaning Windows" and "Saint Dominic's Preview". However, he had been developing his musical interests from an early age and continued playing with the Monarchs part-time. Young Morrison also played with the Harry Mack Showband, the Great Eight, with his older workplace friend, Geordie (G. D.) Sproule, whom he later named as one of his biggest influences.
At age 17, Morrison toured Europe for the first time with the Monarchs, now calling themselves the International Monarchs. This Irish showband, with Morrison playing saxophone, guitar and harmonica, in addition to back-up duty on bass and drums, toured seamy clubs and US Army bases in Scotland, England and Germany, often playing five sets a night. While in Germany, the band recorded a single, "Boozoo Hully Gully"/"Twingy Baby", under the name Georgie and the Monarchs. This was Morrison's first recording, taking place in November 1963 at Ariola Studios in Cologne with Morrison on saxophone; it made the lower reaches of the German charts.
Upon returning to Belfast in November 1963, the group disbanded, so Morrison connected with Geordie Sproule again and played with him in the Manhattan Showband along with guitarist Herbie Armstrong. When Armstrong auditioned to play with Brian Rossi and the Golden Eagles, later known as the Wheels, Morrison went along and was hired as a blues singer.
### Them: 1964–1966
The roots of Them, the band that first broke Morrison on the international scene, came in April 1964 when he responded to an advert for musicians to play at a new R&B club at the Maritime Hotel in College Square North – an old Belfast hostel frequented by sailors. The new club needed a band for its opening night. Morrison had left the Golden Eagles (the group with which he had been performing at the time), so he created a new band out of the Gamblers, an East Belfast group formed by Ronnie Millings, Billy Harrison and Alan Henderson in 1962. Eric Wrixon, still a schoolboy, was the piano player and keyboardist. Morrison played saxophone and harmonica and shared vocals with Billy Harrison. They followed Eric Wrixon's suggestion for a new name, and the Gamblers morphed into Them, their name taken from the horror movie Them!
The band's R&B performances at the Maritime attracted attention. Them performed without a routine and Morrison ad libbed, creating his songs live as he performed. While the band did covers, they also played some of Morrison's early songs, such as "Could You Would You", which he had written in Camden Town while touring with the Manhattan Showband. The debut of Morrison's "Gloria" took place on stage here. Sometimes, depending on his mood, the song could last up to twenty minutes. Morrison has said, "Them lived and died on the stage at the Maritime Hotel", believing the band did not manage to capture the spontaneity and energy of their live performances on their records. The statement also reflected the instability of the Them line-up, with numerous members passing through the ranks after the definitive Maritime period. Morrison and Henderson remained the only constants, and a less successful version of Them soldiered on after Morrison's departure.
Dick Rowe of Decca Records became aware of the band's performances, and signed Them to a standard two-year contract. In that period, they released two albums and ten singles, with two more singles released after Morrison departed the band. They had three chart hits, "Baby, Please Don't Go" (1964), "Here Comes the Night" (1965), and "Mystic Eyes" (1965), but it was the B-side of "Baby, Please Don't Go", the garage band classic "Gloria", that went on to become a rock standard covered by Patti Smith, the Doors, the Shadows of Knight, Jimi Hendrix and many others.
Building on the success of their singles in the United States, and riding on the back of the British Invasion, Them undertook a two-month tour of America in May and June 1966 that included a residency from 30 May to 18 June at the Whisky a Go Go in Los Angeles. The Doors were the supporting act on the last week, and Morrison's influence on the Doors singer Jim Morrison was noted by John Densmore in his book Riders on the Storm. Brian Hinton relates how "Jim Morrison learned quickly from his near namesake's stagecraft, his apparent recklessness, his air of subdued menace, the way he would improvise poetry to a rock beat, even his habit of crouching down by the bass drum during instrumental breaks." On the final night, the two Morrisons and the two bands jammed together on "Gloria".
Toward the end of the tour the band members became involved in a dispute with their manager, Decca Records' Phil Solomon, over the revenues paid to them; that, coupled with the expiry of their work visas, meant the band returned from America dejected. After two more concerts in Ireland, Them split up. Morrison concentrated on writing some of the songs that would appear on Astral Weeks, while the remnants of the band reformed in 1967 and relocated in America.
### Start of solo career with Bang Records and "Brown Eyed Girl": 1967
Bert Berns, Them's producer and composer of their 1965 hit "Here Comes the Night", persuaded Morrison to return to New York to record solo for his new label, Bang Records. Morrison flew over and signed a contract he had not fully studied. During a two-day recording session at A & R Studios starting 28 March 1967, he recorded eight songs, originally intended to be used as four singles. Instead, these songs were released as the album Blowin' Your Mind! without Morrison's consultation. He said he only became aware of the album's release when a friend mentioned that he had bought a copy. Morrison was unhappy with the album and said he "had a different concept of it".
"Brown Eyed Girl", one of the songs from Blowin' Your Mind!, was released as a single in mid-June 1967, reaching number ten in the US charts. "Brown Eyed Girl" became Morrison's most-played song. The song spent a total of sixteen weeks on the chart. It is considered to be Morrison's signature song. An evaluation in 2015 of downloads since 2004 and airplay since 2010 had "Brown Eyed Girl" as the most popular song of the entire 1960s decade. In 2000, it was listed at No. 21 on the Rolling Stone/MTV list of 100 Greatest Pop Songs and as No. 49 on VH1's list of the 100 Greatest Rock Songs. In 2010, "Brown Eyed Girl" was ranked No. 110 on the Rolling Stone magazine list of 500 Greatest Songs of All Time. In January 2007, "Brown Eyed Girl" was inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame.
Following the death of Berns in 1967, Morrison became involved in a contract dispute with Berns' widow, Ilene Berns, that prevented him from performing on stage or recording in the New York area. The song "Big Time Operators", released in 1993, is thought to allude to his dealings with the New York music business during this period. He moved to Boston, Massachusetts, and faced personal and financial problems; he had "slipped into a malaise" and had trouble finding concert bookings. He regained his professional footing through the few gigs he could find, and started recording with Warner Bros. Records.
Warner Bros bought out Morrison's Bang contract with a \$20,000 cash transaction that took place in an abandoned warehouse on Ninth Avenue in Manhattan. A clause required Morrison to submit 36 original songs within a year to Berns' music publishing company. He recorded them in one session on an out-of-tune guitar, with lyrics about subjects including ringworm and sandwiches. Ilene Berns thought the songs were "nonsense" and did not use them. The throwaway compositions came to be known as the "revenge" songs, and did not see official release until the 2017 compilation The Authorized Bang Collection.
### Astral Weeks: 1968
Morrison's first album for Warner Bros Records was Astral Weeks (which he had already performed in several clubs around Boston), a mystical song cycle, often considered to be his best work and one of the best albums of all time. Morrison has said, "When Astral Weeks came out, I was starving, literally." Released in 1968, the album originally received an indifferent response from the public, but it eventually achieved critical acclaim.
The album is described by AllMusic's William Ruhlmann as hypnotic, meditative, and as possessing a unique musical power. It has been compared to French Impressionism and mystical Celtic poetry. A 2004 Rolling Stone magazine review begins with the words: "This is music of such enigmatic beauty that thirty-five years after its release, Astral Weeks still defies easy, admiring description." Alan Light later described Astral Weeks as "like nothing he had done previously—and really, nothing anyone had done previously. Morrison sings of lost love, death, and nostalgia for childhood in the Celtic soul that would become his signature." It has been placed on many lists of best albums of all time. In the 1995 Mojo list of 100 Best Albums, it was listed as number two and was number nineteen on the Rolling Stone magazine's The 500 Greatest Albums of All Time in 2003. In December 2009, it was voted the top Irish album of all time by a poll of leading Irish musicians conducted by Hot Press magazine.
### Moondance to Into the Music: 1970–1979
Morrison's third solo album, Moondance, which was released in 1970, became his first million selling album and reached number twenty-nine on the Billboard charts. The style of Moondance stood in contrast to that of Astral Weeks. Whereas Astral Weeks had a sorrowful and vulnerable tone, Moondance restored a more optimistic and cheerful message to his music, which abandoned the previous record's abstract folk compositions in favour of more formally composed songs and a lively rhythm and blues style he expanded on throughout his career.
The title track, although not released in the US as a single until 1977, received heavy play in FM radio formats. "Into the Mystic" has also gained a wide following over the years. "Come Running", which reached the American Top 40, rescued Morrison from what seemed then as Hot 100 obscurity. Moondance was both well received and favourably reviewed. Lester Bangs and Greil Marcus had a combined full page review in Rolling Stone, saying Morrison now had "the striking imagination of a consciousness that is visionary in the strongest sense of the word." "That was the type of band I dig," Morrison said of the Moondance sessions. "Two horns and a rhythm section – they're the type of bands that I like best." He produced the album himself as he felt like nobody else knew what he wanted. Moondance was listed at number sixty-five on the Rolling Stone magazine's The 500 Greatest Albums of All Time. In March 2007, Moondance was listed as number seventy-two on the NARM Rock and Roll Hall of Fame list of the "Definitive 200".
Over the next few years, he released a succession of albums, starting with a second one in 1970. His Band and the Street Choir had a freer, more relaxed sound than Moondance, but not the perfection, in the opinion of critic Jon Landau, who felt like "a few more numbers with a gravity of 'Street Choir' would have made this album as perfect as anyone could have stood." It contained the hit single "Domino", which charted at number nine in the Billboard Hot 100.
In 1971, he released another well-received album, Tupelo Honey. This album produced the hit single "Wild Night" that was later covered by John Mellencamp and Meshell Ndegeocello. The title song has a notably country-soul feel about it and the album ended with another country tune, "Moonshine Whiskey". Morrison said he originally intended to make an all country album. The recordings were as live as possible – after rehearsing the songs the musicians would enter the studio and play a whole set in one take. His co-producer, Ted Templeman, described this recording process as the "scariest thing I've ever seen. When he's got something together, he wants to put it down right away with no overdubbing."
Released in 1972, Saint Dominic's Preview revealed Morrison's break from the more accessible style of his previous three albums and moving back towards the more daring, adventurous, and meditative aspects of Astral Weeks. The combination of two styles of music demonstrated a versatility not previously found in his earlier albums. Two songs, "Jackie Wilson Said (I'm in Heaven When You Smile)" and "Redwood Tree", reached the Hot 100 singles chart. The songs "Listen to the Lion" and "Almost Independence Day" are each over ten minutes long and employ the type of poetic imagery not heard since Astral Weeks. It was his highest-charting album in the US until his Top Ten debut on Billboard 200 in 2008.
He released his next album, Hard Nose the Highway, in 1973, receiving mixed, but mostly negative, reviews. The album contained the popular song "Warm Love" but otherwise has been largely dismissed critically. In a 1973 Rolling Stone review, it was described as: "psychologically complex, musically somewhat uneven and lyrically excellent."
During a three-week vacation visit to Ireland in October 1973, Morrison wrote seven of the songs that made up his next album, Veedon Fleece. Though it attracted scant initial attention, its critical stature grew markedly over the years—with Veedon Fleece now often considered to be one of Morrison's most impressive and poetic works. In a 2008 Rolling Stone review, Andy Greene writes that when released in late 1974: "it was greeted by a collective shrug by the rock critical establishment" and concludes: "He's released many wonderful albums since, but he's never again hit the majestic heights of this one." "You Don't Pull No Punches, but You Don't Push the River", one of the album's side closers, exemplifies the long, hypnotic, cryptic Morrison with its references to visionary poet William Blake and to the seemingly Grail-like Veedon Fleece object.
Morrison took three years to release a follow-up album. After a decade without taking time off, he said in an interview, he needed to get away from music completely and ceased listening to it for several months. Also suffering from writer's block, he seriously considered leaving the music business for good. Speculation that an extended jam session would be released either under the title Mechanical Bliss, or Naked in the Jungle, or Stiff Upper Lip, came to nothing, and Morrison's next album was A Period of Transition in 1977, a collaboration with Dr. John, who had appeared at The Last Waltz concert with Morrison in 1976. The album received a mild critical reception and marked the beginning of a very prolific period of song making.
> Into the Music: The album's last four songs, "Angelou", "And the Healing Has Begun", and "It's All in the Game/You Know What They're Writing About" are a veritable tour-de-force with Morrison summoning every vocal trick at his disposal from Angelou's climactic shouts to the sexually-charged, half-mumbled monologue in "And the Healing Has Begun" to the barely audible whisper that is the album's final sound.
> --Scott Thomas Review
The following year, Morrison released Wavelength; it became at that time the fastest-selling album of his career and soon went gold. The title track became a modest hit, peaking at number forty-two. Making use of 1970s synthesisers, it mimics the sounds of the shortwave radio stations he listened to in his youth. The opening track, "Kingdom Hall" – the name given by Jehovah's Witnesses to their places of worship – evoked Morrison's childhood experiences of religion with his mother, and foretold the religious themes that were more evident on his next album, Into the Music.
Considered by AllMusic as "the definitive post-classic-era Morrison", Into the Music, was released in the last year of the 1970s. Songs on this album for the first time alluded to the healing power of music, which became an abiding interest of Morrison's. "Bright Side of the Road" was a joyful, uplifting song that featured on the soundtrack of the movie, Michael.
### Common One to Avalon Sunset: 1980–1989
With his next album, the new decade found Morrison following his muse into uncharted territory and sometimes merciless reviews. In February 1980, Morrison and a group of musicians travelled to Super Bear, a studio in the French Alps, to record (on the site of a former abbey) what is considered to be the most controversial album in his discography; later "Morrison admitted his original concept was even more esoteric than the final product." The album, Common One, consisted of six songs; the longest, "Summertime in England", lasted fifteen and a half minutes and ended with the words "Can you feel the silence?". NME magazine's Paul Du Noyer called the album "colossally smug and cosmically dull; an interminable, vacuous and drearily egotistical stab at spirituality: Into the muzak." Greil Marcus, whose previous writings had been favourably inclined towards Morrison, critically remarked: "It's Van acting the part of the 'mystic poet' he thinks he's supposed to be." Morrison insisted the album was never "meant to be a commercial album." Biographer Clinton Heylin concludes: "He would not attempt anything so ambitious again. Henceforth every radical idea would be tempered by some notion of commerciality." Later, critics reassessed the album more favourably with the success of "Summertime in England". Lester Bangs wrote in 1982, "Van was making holy music even though he thought he was, and us rock critics had made our usual mistake of paying too much attention to the lyrics."
Morrison's next album, Beautiful Vision, released in 1982, had him returning once again to the music of his Northern Irish roots. Well received by the critics and public, it produced a minor UK hit single, "Cleaning Windows", that referenced one of Morrison's first jobs after leaving school. Several other songs on the album, "Vanlose Stairway", "She Gives Me Religion", and the instrumental, "Scandinavia" show the presence of a new personal muse in his life: a Danish public relations agent, who would share Morrison's spiritual interests and serve as a steadying influence on him throughout most of the 1980s. "Scandinavia", with Morrison on piano, was nominated in the Best Rock Instrumental Performance category for the 25th Annual Grammy Awards.
Much of the music Morrison released throughout the 1980s continued to focus on the themes of spirituality and faith. His 1983 album, Inarticulate Speech of the Heart, was "a move towards creating music for meditation" with synthesisers, uilleann pipes and flute sounds, and four of the tracks were instrumentals. The titling of the album and the presence of the instrumentals were noted to be indicative of Morrison's long-held belief that "it's not the words one uses but the force of conviction behind those words that matters." During this period of time, Morrison had studied Scientology and gave "Special Thanks" to L. Ron Hubbard on the album's credits.
A Sense of Wonder, Morrison's 1985 album, pulled together the spiritual themes contained in his last four albums, which were defined in a Rolling Stone review as: "rebirth (Into the Music), deep contemplation and meditation (Common One); ecstasy and humility (Beautiful Vision); and blissful, mantra like languor (Inarticulate Speech of the Heart)." The single "Tore Down a la Rimbaud" was a reference to Rimbaud and an earlier bout of writer's block that Morrison had encountered in 1974. In 1985, Morrison also wrote the musical score for the movie Lamb starring Liam Neeson.
Morrison's 1986 release, No Guru, No Method, No Teacher, was said to contain a "genuine holiness ... and musical freshness that needs to be set in context to understand." Critical response was favourable with a Sounds reviewer calling the album "his most intriguingly involved since Astral Weeks" and "Morrison at his most mystical, magical best." It contains the song "In the Garden" that, according to Morrison, had a "definite meditation process which is a 'form' of transcendental meditation as its basis. It's not TM". He entitled the album as a rebuttal to media attempts to place him in various creeds. In an interview in the Observer he told Anthony Denselow:
> There have been many lies put out about me and this finally states my position. I have never joined any organisation, nor plan to. I am not affiliated to any guru, don't subscribe to any method and for those people who don't know what a guru is, I don't have a teacher either.
After releasing the "No Guru" album, Morrison's music appeared less gritty and more adult contemporary with the well-received 1987 album, Poetic Champions Compose, considered to be one of his recording highlights of the 1980s. The romantic ballad from this album, "Someone Like You", has been featured subsequently in the soundtracks of several movies, including 1995's French Kiss, and in 2001, both Someone Like You and Bridget Jones's Diary.
In 1988, he released Irish Heartbeat, a collection of traditional Irish folk songs recorded with the Irish group the Chieftains, which reached number 18 in the UK album charts. The title song, "Irish Heartbeat", was originally recorded on his 1983 album Inarticulate Speech of the Heart.
The 1989 album, Avalon Sunset, which featured the hit duet with Cliff Richard "Whenever God Shines His Light" and the ballad "Have I Told You Lately" (on which "earthly love transmutes into that for God" (Hinton)), reached 13 on the UK album chart. Although considered to be a deeply spiritual album, it also contained "Daring Night", which "deals with full, blazing sex, whatever its churchy organ and gentle lilt suggest"(Hinton). Morrison's familiar themes of "God, woman, his childhood in Belfast and those enchanted moments when time stands still" were prominent in the songs. He can be heard calling out the change of tempo at the end of this song, repeating the numbers "1 – 4" to cue the chord changes (the first and fourth chord in the key of the music). He often completed albums in two days, frequently releasing first takes.
### The Best of Van Morrison to Back on Top: 1990–1999
The early to middle 1990s were commercially successful for Morrison with three albums reaching the top five of the UK charts, sold-out concerts, and a more visible public profile; but this period also marked a decline in the critical reception to his work. The decade began with the release of The Best of Van Morrison; compiled by Morrison himself, the album was focused on his hit singles, and became a multi-platinum success remaining a year and a half on the UK charts. AllMusic determined it to be "far and away the best selling album of his career." In 1991 he wrote and produced four songs for Tom Jones released on the Carrying A Torch album and performed a duet with Bob Dylan on BBC Arena special.
The 1994 live double album A Night in San Francisco received favourable reviews as well as commercial success by reaching number eight on the UK charts. 1995's Days Like This also had large sales – though the critical reviews were not always favourable. This period also saw a number of side projects, including the live jazz performances of 1996's How Long Has This Been Going On, from the same year Tell Me Something: The Songs of Mose Allison, and 2000's The Skiffle Sessions – Live in Belfast 1998, all of which found Morrison paying tribute to his early musical influences.
In 1997, Morrison released The Healing Game. The album received mixed reviews, with the lyrics being described as "tired" and "dull", though critic Greil Marcus praised the musical complexity of the album by saying: "It carries the listener into a musical home so perfect and complete he or she might have forgotten that music could call up such a place, and then populate it with people, acts, wishes, fears." The following year, Morrison finally released some of his previously unissued studio recordings in a two-disc set, The Philosopher's Stone. His next release, 1999's Back on Top, achieved a modest success, being his highest-charting album in the US since 1978's Wavelength.
### Down the Road to Keep It Simple: 2000–2009
Van Morrison continued to record and tour in the 2000s, often performing two or three times a week. He formed his own independent label, Exile Productions Ltd, which enables him to maintain full production control of each album he records, which he then delivers as a finished product to the recording label that he chooses, for marketing and distribution.
In 2001, nine months into a tour with Linda Gail Lewis promoting their collaboration You Win Again, Lewis left the tour, later filing claims against Morrison for unfair dismissal and sexual discrimination. Both claims were later withdrawn, and Morrison's solicitor said, "(Mr Morrison's) pleased that these claims have finally been withdrawn. He accepted a full apology and comprehensive retraction which represents a complete vindication of his stance from the outset. Miss Lewis has given a full and categorical apology and retraction to Mr Morrison." Lewis' legal representative Christine Thompson said both parties had agreed to the terms of the settlement.
The album Down the Road, released in May 2002, received a good critical reception and proved to be his highest-charting album in the US since 1972's Saint Dominic's Preview. It had a nostalgic tone, with its fifteen tracks representing the various musical genres Morrison had previously covered—including R&B, blues, country and folk; one of the tracks was written as a tribute to his late father George, who had played a pivotal role in nurturing his early musical tastes.
Morrison's 2005 album, Magic Time, debuted at number twenty-five on the US Billboard 200 charts upon its May release, some forty years after Morrison first entered the public's eye as the frontman of Them. Rolling Stone listed it as number seventeen on The Top 50 Records of 2005. Also in July 2005, Morrison was named by Amazon as one of their top twenty-five all-time best-selling artists and inducted into the Amazon.com Hall of Fame. Later in the year, Morrison also donated a previously unreleased studio track to a charity album, Hurricane Relief: Come Together Now, which raised money for relief efforts intended for Gulf Coast victims devastated by hurricanes Katrina and Rita. Morrison composed the song, "Blue and Green", featuring Foggy Lyttle on guitar. This song was released in 2007 on the album, The Best of Van Morrison Volume 3 and also as a single in the UK. Van Morrison was a headline act at the international Celtic music festival, The Hebridean Celtic Festival in Stornoway, Outer Hebrides in the summer of 2005.
He released an album with a country music theme, entitled Pay the Devil, on 7 March 2006 and appeared at the Ryman Auditorium, where the tickets sold out immediately after they went on sale. Pay the Devil debuted at number twenty-six on the Billboard 200 and peaked at number seven on Top Country Albums. Amazon Best of 2006 Editor's Picks in Country listed the country album at number ten in December 2006. Still promoting the country album, Morrison's performance as the headline act on the first night of the Austin City Limits Music Festival on 15 September 2006 was reviewed by Rolling Stone magazine as one of the top ten shows of the 2006 festival. In November 2006, a limited edition album, Live at Austin City Limits Festival, was issued by Exile Productions, Ltd. A later deluxe CD/DVD release of Pay the Devil, in the summer of 2006, contained tracks from the Ryman performance. In October 2006, Morrison had released his first commercial DVD, Live at Montreux 1980/1974, with concerts taken from two separate appearances at the Montreux Jazz Festival.
A new double CD compilation album, The Best of Van Morrison Volume 3, was released in June 2007 containing thirty-one tracks, some of which were previously unreleased. Morrison selected the tracks, which ranged from the 1993 album Too Long in Exile to the song "Stranded" from the 2005 album Magic Time. On 3 September 2007, Morrison's complete catalogue of albums from 1971 through 2002 were made available exclusively at the iTunes Store in Europe and Australia and during the first week of October 2007, the albums became available at the US iTunes Store.
Still on Top – The Greatest Hits, a thirty-seven-track double CD compilation album, was released on 22 October 2007 in the UK on the Polydor label. On 29 October 2007, the album charted at number two on the Official UK Top 75 Albums—his highest UK charting. The November release in the US and Canada contains twenty-one selected tracks. The hits released on albums with the copyrights owned by Morrison as Exile Productions Ltd. — 1971 and later – had been remastered in 2007.
Keep It Simple, Morrison's 33rd studio album of completely new material, was released by Exile/Polydor Records on 17 March 2008 in the UK and released by Exile/Lost Highway Records in the US and Canada on 1 April 2008. It comprised eleven self-penned tracks. Morrison promoted the album with a short US tour including an appearance at the SXSW music conference, and a UK concert broadcast on BBC Radio 2. In the first week of release Keep It Simple debuted on the Billboard 200 chart at number ten, Morrison's first Top Ten charting in the US.
### Born to Sing to Three Chords: 2010–2020
Morrison released two albums in the first half of the decade, followed by a further six in just five years, his productivity increasing noticeably as he turned 70. Born to Sing: No Plan B was released on 2 October 2012 on Blue Note Records. The album was recorded in Belfast, Morrison's birthplace and hometown. The first single from this album, "Open the Door (To Your Heart)", was released on 24 August 2012. A selection of Morrison's lyrics, Lit Up Inside, was published by City Lights Books in the US and Faber & Faber in the UK. The book was released on 2 October 2014 and an evening of words and music commenced at the Lyric Theatre, London on 17 November 2014 to mark its launch. Morrison himself selected his best and most iconic lyrics from a catalog of 50 years of writing.
In 2015, Morrison sold the rights to most of his catalogue to Legacy Recordings, the catalog division of Sony Music. This resulted in 33 of his albums being made available as digital releases and through all streaming services for the first time that August. His first album recorded with Sony under the new contract was Duets: Re-working the Catalogue, released on 24 March 2015 on the subsidiary, RCA Records. Morrison's 70th birthday in 2015 was marked by celebrations in his hometown of Belfast, commencing with BBC Radio Ulster presenting programs including "Top 70 Van Tracks" between 26 and 28 August. As the headline act ending the Eastside Arts Festival, Morrison performed two 70th-birthday concerts on Cyprus Avenue on his birthday 31 August. The first of the concerts was broadcast live on BBC Radio Ulster and a 60-minute BBC film of highlights from the concerts, entitled Up On Cyprus Avenue, was first shown on 4 September. The following year, on 30 September, Morrison released Keep Me Singing, his 36th studio album. "Too Late", the first single, was released on the same day. The songs are twelve originals and one cover and the album represents his first release of originals since Born to Sing: No Plan B in 2012. A short tour of the U.S. followed with six dates in October 2016, followed by a short tour of the U.K. with eight dates in October–December 2016, including a London show at The O2 Arena on 30 October. The U.S. tour resumed in January 2017 with five new dates in Las Vegas and Clearwater, Florida.
Morrison's album Roll with the Punches was released on 22 September 2017. That July, he and Universal Music Group were sued by former professional wrestler Billy Two Rivers for using his likeness on its cover and promotional material without his permission. On 4 August, Two Rivers' lawyer said the parties had reached a preliminary agreement to settle the matter out of court. He released his 38th studio album, Versatile, on 1 December 2017. It features covers of nine classic jazz standards and seven original songs including his arrangement of the traditional "Skye Boat Song". He quickly followed up with his 39th studio album, You're Driving Me Crazy, released on 27 April 2018 via Sony Legacy Recordings. The album features a collaboration with Joey DeFrancesco on a mixture of blues and jazz classics that include eight Morrison originals from his back catalog.
In October 2018, Morrison announced that his 40th studio album, The Prophet Speaks, would be released by Caroline International on 7 December 2018. A year later, in November 2019, he released his 41st studio album, Three Chords & the Truth. On 5 March 2020 Faber and Faber published Keep 'Er Lit, the second volume of Van Morrison's selected lyrics. It features a foreword of fellow poet Paul Muldoon and comprehends 120 songs from across his career. In November 2020 Morrison and Eric Clapton collaborated on a single called "Stand and Deliver", whose profits from sales will be donated to Morrison's Lockdown Financial Hardship Fund.
### Coronavirus controversy
During the COVID-19 pandemic, Morrison made numerous statements against social distancing measures which affected live music events, and made calls to "fight pseudo-science". Continuing with this narrative, Morrison released three new songs in September 2020, which had messages of protest against COVID-19 lockdowns in the UK. Morrison accused the UK government of "taking our freedom". He had performed socially distanced concerts previously, but said that the shows were not a sign of "compliance".
There have been calls in Belfast for Belfast City Council to revoke his Freedom of the City honour following the intervention: city councillor Emmet McDonough-Brown said that his lyrics were "undermining the guidance in place to protect lives and are ignorant of established science as we grapple with Covid-19." In addition, the Northern Ireland health minister, Robin Swann, accused Morrison of smearing public health practitioners and called Morrison's anti-lockdown songs "dangerous". In November 2021, Swann sued Morrison for defamation, over his comments that Swann was a "fraud" and "very dangerous" during COVID-19 restrictions in 2020. In 2022, Morrison issued legal proceedings against Swann over an opinion piece in Rolling Stone magazine that was critical of Morrison's anti-lockdown songs and actions.
### 2020s
In March 2021, Morrison announced that his 42nd album, Latest Record Project, Volume 1, would be released by Exile Productions and BMG on 7 May. The 28-track album includes songs such as "Why Are You on Facebook?", "They Own The Media" and "Western Man". In addition to digitally, it was released as a 2-CD set and on triple vinyl. The album marked a return to the UK Top Ten for Morrison, making the 2020s the fourth consecutive decade in which he has achieved such success.
The following year, What's It Gonna Take? explored many of the same themes, but was less successful commercially. In 2023, he returned to his roots with Moving on Skiffle.
Van Morrison's songs were used extensively in Kenneth Branagh's Oscar-winning 2021 film Belfast: Morrison received his first nomination for the Academy Award for Best Original Song for "Down to Joy". Several tracks were also featured in Cherry, released the same year.
## Live performances
### 1970s
By 1972, after being a performer for nearly ten years, Morrison began experiencing stage fright when performing for audiences of thousands, as opposed to the hundreds he had experienced in his early career. He became anxious on stage and had difficulty establishing eye contact with the audience. He once said in an interview about performing on stage, "I dig singing the songs but there are times when it's pretty agonising for me to be out there." After a brief break from music, he started appearing in clubs, regaining his ability to perform live, albeit with smaller audiences.
The 1974 live double album It's Too Late to Stop Now has been called one of the greatest recordings of a live concert and has appeared on lists of greatest live albums of all time. Biographer Johnny Rogan wrote, "Morrison was in the midst of what was arguably his greatest phase as a performer." Performances on the album were from tapes made during a three-month tour of the US and Europe in 1973 with the backing group the Caledonia Soul Orchestra. Soon after recording the album, Morrison restructured the Caledonia Soul Orchestra into a smaller unit, the Caledonia Soul Express.
On Thanksgiving Day 1976, Morrison performed at the farewell concert for the Band. It was his first live performance in several years, and he considered skipping his appearance until the last minute, even refusing to go on stage when they announced his name. His manager, Harvey Goldsmith, said he "literally kicked him out there." Morrison was on good terms with the members of the Band as near-neighbours in Woodstock, and they had the shared experience of stage fright. At the concert, he performed two songs. His first was a rendition of the classic Irish song "Too Ra Loo Ra Loo Ral". His second song was "Caravan", from his 1970 album Moondance. Greil Marcus, in attendance at the concert, wrote: "Van Morrison turned the show around ... singing to the rafters and ... burning holes in the floor. It was a triumph, and as the song ended Van began to kick his leg into the air out of sheer exuberance and he kicked his way right offstage like a Rockette. The crowd had given him a fine welcome and they cheered wildly when he left." The filmed concert served as the basis for Martin Scorsese's 1978 film, The Last Waltz.
During his association with the Band, Morrison acquired the nicknames "Belfast Cowboy" and "Van the Man". On the Band's album Cahoots, as part of the duet "4% Pantomime" that Morrison sings with Richard Manuel (and that he co-wrote with Robbie Robertson), Manuel addresses him, "Oh, Belfast Cowboy". When he leaves the stage after performing "Caravan" on The Last Waltz, Robertson calls out "Van the Man!"
### 1990s
On 21 July 1990, Morrison joined many other guests for Roger Waters' massive performance of The Wall – Live in Berlin. He sang "Comfortably Numb" with Roger Waters and several members from The Band: Levon Helm, Garth Hudson and Rick Danko. At concert's end, he and the other performers sang "The Tide Is Turning". The live audience was estimated at between three hundred thousand and half a million people, and it was broadcast live on television as well.
Morrison performed before an estimated audience of sixty to eighty thousand people when US President Bill Clinton visited Belfast, Northern Ireland on 30 November 1995. His song "Days Like This" had become the official anthem for the Northern Irish peace movement.
### 2000s and live albums
Van Morrison continued performing concerts throughout the year, rather than touring. Playing few of his best-known songs in concert, he has firmly resisted relegation to a nostalgia act. During a 2006 interview, he told Paul Sexton:
> I don't really tour. This is another misconception. I stopped touring in the true sense of the word in the late 1970s, early 1980s, possibly. I just do gigs now. I average two gigs a week. Only in America do I do more, because you can't really do a couple of gigs there, so I do more, 10 gigs or something there.
On 7 and 8 November 2008, at the Hollywood Bowl in Los Angeles, California, Morrison performed the entire Astral Weeks album live for the first time. The Astral Weeks band featured guitarist Jay Berliner, who had played on the album that was released forty years previously in November 1968. Also featured on piano was Roger Kellaway. A live album entitled Astral Weeks Live at the Hollywood Bowl resulted from these two performances. The new live album on CD was released on 24 February 2009, followed by a DVD from the performances. The DVD, Astral Weeks Live at the Hollywood Bowl: The Concert Film was released via Amazon Exclusive on 19 May 2009. In February and March 2009, Morrison returned to the US for Astral Weeks Live concerts, interviews and TV appearances with concerts at Madison Square Garden and at the Beacon Theatre in New York City. He was interviewed by Don Imus on his Imus in the Morning radio show and put in guest appearances on Late Night with Jimmy Fallon and Live with Regis and Kelly. Morrison continued with the Astral Weeks performances with two concerts at the Royal Albert Hall in London in April and then returned to California in May 2009 performing the Astral Weeks songs at the Hearst Greek Theatre in Berkeley, the Orpheum Theatre in Los Angeles, California and appeared on The Tonight Show with Jay Leno. Morrison filmed the concerts at the Orpheum Theatre so they could be viewed by Farrah Fawcett, confined to bed with cancer and thus unable to attend the concerts.
In addition to It's Too Late to Stop Now and Astral Weeks Live at the Hollywood Bowl, Morrison has released three other live albums: Live at the Grand Opera House Belfast in 1984; A Night in San Francisco in 1994 that Rolling Stone magazine felt stood out as: "the culmination of a career's worth of soul searching that finds Morrison's eyes turned toward heaven and his feet planted firmly on the ground"; and The Skiffle Sessions – Live in Belfast 1998 recorded with Lonnie Donegan and Chris Barber and released in 2000.
Morrison was scheduled to perform at the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame's 25th anniversary concert on 30 October 2009, but cancelled. In an interview on 26 October, Morrison told his host, Don Imus, he had planned to play "a couple of songs" with Eric Clapton (who had cancelled on 22 October due to gallstone surgery), and they would do something else together at "some other stage of the game".
### 2010s to present
Morrison performed for the Edmonton Folk Music Festival in Edmonton, Alberta, Canada on 4 August 2010 as the headline act for the fundraiser and scheduled as second day headliner at the Feis 2011 Festival in London's Finsbury Park on 19 June 2011. He appeared in concert at Odyssey Arena in Belfast on 3 February and at the O2 in Dublin on 4 February 2012. He appeared at the 46th Montreux Jazz Festival as a headliner on 7 July 2012.
In 2014, Morrison's former high school Orangefield High School, formerly known as Orangefield Boys' Secondary School closed its doors permanently. To mark the school's closure Morrison performed in the school assembly hall for three nights of concerts from 22 to 24 August. The performance on 22 August was exclusively for former teachers and pupils and the two remaining concerts were for members of the public The first night of the Nocturne Live concerts at Blenheim Palace, Oxfordshire, UK on 25 June 2015, featured Morrison and Grammy Award-winning American Jazz vocalist and songwriter Gregory Porter.
In June 2021, The Times noted that "fittingly for someone who has been so vocally opposed to the lockdown" resulting from the 2020–2021 coronavirus pandemic, "Van Morrison played one of the first big-scale concerts in London since events, albeit tentatively, started up again." Will Hodgkinson wrote that the show "was as good an argument for the return of live music as you could wish for."
## Collaborations
Van Morrison has collaborated extensively with a variety of artists throughout his career. He has worked with many legends in soul and blues, including John Lee Hooker, Ray Charles, George Benson, Eric Clapton, Bobby Womack, and BB King, along with The Chieftains, Gregory Porter, Michael Bublé, Joss Stone, Natalie Cole and Mark Knopfler.
### 1980s
Morrison and the internationally renowned Irish folk band The Chieftains recorded the album Irish Heartbeat (1988). Consisting of Irish folk songs, it entered the UK Top 20. "Whenever God Shines His Light", on Avalon Sunset (1989), is a duet with Cliff Richard, which charted at No. 20 on the UK Singles Chart and No. 3 on the Irish Singles Chart. AllMusic critic Jason Ankeny found it to be a "standout opener" on the album. For critic Patrick Humphries, it was "the most manifest example of Morrison's Christian commitment," and while "not one of Morrison's most outstanding songs" it works as "a testament of faith".
### 1990s
The decade saw an upsurge in Van Morrison's collaborations. He developed a close association with two vocal talents at opposite ends of their careers: Georgie Fame (with whom Morrison had already worked occasionally) lent his voice and Hammond organ skills to Morrison's band; and Brian Kennedy's vocals complemented the grizzled voice of Morrison, both in studio and live performances. He reunited with The Chieftains on their 1995 album, The Long Black Veil, with a reworking of Morrison's song "Have I Told You Lately" winning the Grammy Award for Best Pop Collaboration with Vocals. He produced, and was featured on, several tracks with blues legend John Lee Hooker on Hooker's 1997 album, Don't Look Back. This album won a Grammy Award for Best Traditional Blues Album in 1998, and the title track "Don't Look Back", a duet with Morrison, took the Grammy for Best Pop Collaboration with Vocals. The project capped a series of Morrison and Hooker collaborations that began in 1971 when they performed a duet on the title track of Hooker's 1972 album Never Get Out of These Blues Alive. On this album, Hooker also recorded a cover of Morrison's "T.B. Sheets". Morrison collaborated with Tom Jones on his 1999 album Reload, when the pair sang on Morrison's song, "Sometimes We Cry".
### 2000s to present
Morrison delivered vocals on "The Last Laugh" on Mark Knopfler's Sailing to Philadelphia (2000), and that year also recorded a classic country music duet album, You Win Again with Linda Gail Lewis. The album received a three-star review from AllMusic, who called it "a roots effort that never sounds studied". In 2004, Morrison was one of the guests on Ray Charles' album Genius Loves Company. The pair performed Morrison's "Crazy Love". In 2015 he recorded an album of collaborations, Duets: Re-working the Catalogue, which featured, among others, Steve Winwood, Taj Mahal, Mavis Staples, Mick Hucknall, and Morrison's daughter Shana Morrison. Morrison also developed a partnership with Joey DeFrancesco, with the pair collaborating on a number of albums. During the COVID pandemic Morrison recorded tracks with Eric Clapton criticizing harm-reduction measures.
## Artistry
### Vocals
Featuring his characteristic growl—a mix of folk, blues, soul, jazz, gospel, and Ulster Scots Celtic influences—Morrison is widely considered by many rock historians to be one of the most unusual and influential vocalists in the history of rock and roll. Critic Greil Marcus has said "no white man sings like Van Morrison." In his 2010 book, Marcus wrote, "As a physical fact, Morrison may have the richest and most expressive voice pop music has produced since Elvis Presley, and with a sense of himself as an artist that Elvis was always denied."
As Morrison began live performances of the 40-year-old album Astral Weeks in 2008, there were comparisons to his youthful voice of 1968. His early voice was described as "flinty and tender, beseeching and plaintive". Forty years later, the difference in his vocal range and power were noticeable but reviewers and critic's comments were favourable: "Morrison's voice has expanded to fill his frame; a deeper, louder roar than the blue-eyed soul voice of his youth – softer on the diction – but none the less impressively powerful." Morrison also commented on the changes in his approach to singing: "The approach now is to sing from lower down [the diaphragm] so I do not ruin my voice. Before, I sang in the upper area of my throat, which tends to wreck the vocal cords over time. Singing from lower in the belly allows my resonance to carry far. I can stand four feet from a mic and be heard quite resonantly."
### Songwriting and lyrics
Morrison has written hundreds of songs during his career with a recurring theme reflecting a nostalgic yearning for the carefree days of his childhood in Belfast. Some of his song titles derive from familiar locations in his childhood, such as "Cyprus Avenue" (a nearby street), "Orangefield" (the boys school he attended), and "On Hyndford Street" (where he was born). Also frequently present in Morrison's best love songs is a blending of the sacred-profane as evidenced in "Into the Mystic" and "So Quiet in Here".
Beginning with his 1979 album, Into the Music, and the song "And the Healing Has Begun", a frequent theme of his music and lyrics has been based on his belief in the healing power of music combined with a form of mystic Christianity. This theme has become one of the predominant qualities of his work.
His lyrics show an influence of the visionary poets William Blake and W. B. Yeats and others such as Samuel Taylor Coleridge and William Wordsworth. Biographer Brian Hinton believes "like any great poet from Blake to Seamus Heaney he takes words back to their origins in magic ... Indeed, Morrison is returning poetry to its earliest roots – as in Homer or Old English epics like Beowulf or the Psalms or folk song – in all of which words and music combine to form a new reality." Another biographer, John Collis, believes Morrison's style of jazz singing and repeating phrases preclude his lyrics from being regarded as poetry or as Collis asserts: "he is more likely to repeat a phrase like a mantra, or burst into scat singing. The words may often be prosaic, and so can hardly be poetry."
Morrison has described his songwriting method by remarking: "I write from a different place. I do not even know what it is called or if it has a name. It just comes and I sculpt it, but it is also a lot of hard work doing the sculpting."
### Performance style
Critic Greil Marcus argues that, given the truly distinctive breadth and complexity of Morrison's work, it is almost impossible to cast his work among that of others: "Morrison remains a singer who can be compared to no other in the history of rock & roll, a singer who cannot be pinned down, dismissed, or fitted into anyone's expectations." Or in the words of Jay Cocks: "He extends himself only to express himself. Alone among rock's great figures—and even in that company he is one of the greatest—Morrison is adamantly inward. And unique. Although he freely crosses musical boundaries— R&B, Celtic melodies, jazz, rave-up rock, hymns, down-and-dirty blues—he can unfailingly be found in the same strange place: on his own wavelength."
His spiritually themed style of music first came into full expression with Astral Weeks in 1968 and he was noted to have remained a "master of his transcendental craft" in 2009 while performing the Astral Weeks songs live. This musical art form was based on stream of consciousness songwriting and emotional vocalising of lyrics that have no basis in normal structure or symmetry. His live performances are dependent on building dynamics with spontaneity between himself and his band, whom he controls with hand gestures throughout, sometimes signalling impromptu solos from a selected band member. The music and vocals build towards a hypnotic and trance-like state that depends on in-the-moment creativity. Scott Foundas with LA Weekly wrote "he seeks to transcend the apparent boundaries of any given song; to achieve a total freedom of form; to take himself, his band and the audience on a journey whose destination is anything but known." Greil Marcus wrote an entire book devoted to examining the moments in Morrison's music where he reaches this state of transcendence and explains: "But in his music the same sense of escape from ordinary limits – a reach for, or the achievement of, a kind of violent transcendence – can come from hesitations, repetitions of words or phrases, pauses, the way a musical change by another musician is turned by Morrison as a bandleader or seized on by him as a singer and changed into a sound that becomes an event in and of itself. In these moments, the self is left behind, and the sound, that "yarragh," becomes the active agent: a musical person, with its own mind, its own body." A book reviewer further described it as "This transcendent moment of music when the song and the singer are one thing not two, neither dependent on the other or separate from the other but melded to the other like one, like breath and life ..."
Morrison has said he believes in the jazz improvisational technique of never performing a song the same way twice and except for the unique rendition of the Astral Weeks songs live, doesn't perform a concert from a preconceived set list. Morrison has said he prefers to perform at smaller venues or symphony halls noted for their good acoustics. His ban against alcoholic beverages, which made entertainment news during 2008, was an attempt to prevent the disruptive and distracting movement of audience members leaving their seats during the performances. In a 2009 interview, Morrison stated: "I do not consciously aim to take the listener anywhere. If anything, I aim to take myself there in my music. If the listener catches the wavelength of what I am saying or singing, or gets whatever point whatever line means to them, then I guess as a writer I may have done a day's work."
### Genre
The music of Van Morrison has encompassed many genres since his early days as a blues and R&B singer in Belfast. Over the years he has recorded songs from a varying list of genres drawn from many influences and interests. As well as blues and R&B, his compositions and covers have moved between pop music, jazz, rock, folk, country, gospel, Irish folk and traditional, big band, skiffle, rock and roll, new age, classical and sometimes spoken word ("Coney Island") and instrumentals. Morrison defines himself as a soul singer.
Morrison's music has been described by music journalist Alan Light as "Celtic soul", or what biographer Brian Hinton referred to as a new alchemy called "Caledonian soul." Another biographer, Ritchie Yorke quoted Morrison as believing that he has "the spirit of Caledonia in his soul and his music reflects it." According to Yorke, Morrison claimed to have discovered "a certain quality of soul" when he first visited Scotland (his Belfast ancestors were of Ulster Scots descent) and Morrison has said he believes there is some connection between soul music and Caledonia. Yorke said Morrison "discovered several years after he first began composing music that some of his songs lent themselves to a unique major modal scale (without sevenths) which of course is the same scale as that used by bagpipe players and old Irish and Scottish folk music."
### 'Caledonia' theme
The name "Caledonia" has played a prominent role in Morrison's life and career. Biographer Ritchie Yorke had pointed out already by 1975 that Morrison has referred to Caledonia so many times in his career that he "seems to be obsessed with the word". In his 2009 biography, Erik Hage found "Morrison seemed deeply interested in his paternal Scottish roots during his early career, and later in the ancient countryside of England, hence his repeated use of the term Caledonia (an ancient Roman name for Scotland/northern Britain)". As well as being his daughter Shana's middle name, it is the name of his first production company, his studio, his publishing company, two of his backing groups, his parents' record store in Fairfax, California in the 1970s, and he also recorded a cover of the song "Caldonia" (with the name spelled "Caledonia") in 1974. Morrison used "Caledonia" in what has been called a quintessential Van Morrison moment in the song, "Listen to the Lion" with the lyrics, "And we sail, and we sail, way up to Caledonia". Morrison used "Caledonia" as a mantra in the live performance of the song "Astral Weeks" recorded at the two Hollywood Bowl concerts. As late as 2016's Keep Me Singing album, he recorded a self-penned instrumental entitled "Caledonia Swing."
### Influence
Morrison's influence can readily be heard in the music of a diverse array of major artists. According to The Rolling Stone Encyclopedia of Rock and Roll (Simon & Schuster, 2001), "his influence among rock singers/song writers is unrivaled by any living artist outside of that other prickly legend, Bob Dylan. Echoes of Morrison's rugged literateness and his gruff, feverish emotive vocals can be heard in latter day icons ranging from Bruce Springsteen to Elvis Costello". He has influenced an array of top tier performers, including U2, with Bono recalling, "I am in awe of a musician like Van Morrison. I had to stop listening to Van Morrison records about six months before we made The Unforgettable Fire because I didn't want his very original soul voice to overpower my own". He has inspired John Mellencamp ("Wild Night"); Jim Morrison; Joan Armatrading (the only musical influence she will acknowledge); Nick Cave; Rod Stewart; Tom Petty; Rickie Lee Jones (recognises both Laura Nyro and Van Morrison as the main influences on her career); Elton John; Graham Parker; Sinéad O'Connor; Phil Lynott of Thin Lizzy; Bob Seger ("I know Bruce Springsteen was very much affected by Van Morrison, and so was I") Kevin Rowland of Dexys Midnight Runners ("Jackie Wilson Said"); Jimi Hendrix ("Gloria"); Jeff Buckley ("The Way Young Lovers Do", "Sweet Thing"); Nick Drake; and numerous others, including Counting Crows (their "sha-la-la" sequence in Mr Jones is a tribute to Morrison). Morrison's influence reaches into the country music genre, with Hal Ketchum acknowledging, "He (Van Morrison) was a major influence in my life." Ray Manzarek of the Doors described Van Morrison as "our [the Doors] favourite singer".
Morrison has typically been supportive of other artists, often willingly sharing the stage with them during his concerts. On the live album A Night in San Francisco, he had as his special guests, among others, his childhood idols: Jimmy Witherspoon, John Lee Hooker and Junior Wells. Although he often expresses his displeasure (in interviews and songs) with the music industry and the media in general, he has been instrumental in promoting the careers of many other musicians and singers, such as James Hunter, and fellow Belfast-born brothers Brian and Bap Kennedy. He has also influenced the visual arts: the German painter Johannes Heisig created a series of lithographs illustrating the book In the Garden – for Van Morrison, published by Städtische Galerie Sonneberg, Germany, in 1997.
#### Next generation
Morrison's influence on a younger generation of singer-songwriters is pervasive. The list of such singer-songwriters influenced by Morrison includes Irish singer Damien Rice, who has been described as on his way to becoming the "natural heir to Van Morrison"; Ray Lamontagne; James Morrison; Paolo Nutini; Eric Lindell David Gray and Ed Sheeran are also several of the younger artists influenced by Morrison. Glen Hansard of the Irish rock band the Frames (who lists Van Morrison as being part of his holy trinity with Bob Dylan and Leonard Cohen) commonly covers his songs in concert. American rock band the Wallflowers have covered "Into the Mystic". Canadian blues-rock singer Colin James also covers the song frequently at his concerts. Actor and musician Robert Pattinson has said Van Morrison was his "influence for doing music in the first place". Morrison has shared the stage with Northern Irish singer-songwriter Duke Special, who admits Morrison has been a big influence.
## Recognition and legacy
Morrison has received several major music awards in his career, including two Grammy Awards, with five additional nominations (1982–2004); inductions into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame (January 1993), the Songwriters Hall of Fame (June 2003), and the Irish Music Hall of Fame (September 1999); and a Brit Award (February 1994). In addition he has received civil awards: an OBE (June 1996) and an Officier de l'Ordre des Arts et des Lettres (1996). He has honorary doctorates from the University of Ulster (1992) and from Queen's University Belfast (July 2001).
### Halls of Fame
The Hall of Fame inductions began in 1993 with the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame. Morrison was the first living inductee not to attend his own ceremony, – Robbie Robertson from the Band accepted the award on his behalf. When Morrison became the initial musician inducted into the Irish Music Hall of Fame, Bob Geldof presented Morrison with the award. Morrison's third induction was into the Songwriters Hall of Fame for "recognition of his unique position as one of the most important songwriters of the past century". Ray Charles presented the award, following a performance during which the pair performed Morrison's "Crazy Love" from the album Moondance. Morrison's BRIT Award was for his Outstanding Contribution to British Music. Former Beirut hostage John McCarthy presented the award; while testifying to the importance of Morrison's song "Wonderful Remark" McCarthy called it "a song ... which was very important to us."
Three of Morrison's songs appear in The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame's 500 Songs that Shaped Rock and Roll: "Brown Eyed Girl", "Madame George" and "Moondance". The Songwriter's Hall of Fame awarded Morrison the Johnny Mercer Award on 18 June 2015 at their 46th Annual Induction and Awards Dinner in New York City.
### Civil awards and honours
Morrison received two civil awards in 1996: he was appointed Officer of the Order of the British Empire for services to music, and was also recognized with an award from the French government which made him an Officier de l'Ordre des Arts et des Lettres. Along with these state awards he has two honorary degrees in music: an honorary doctorate in literature from the University of Ulster, and an honorary doctorate in music from Queen's University in his hometown of Belfast.
In 2013, Morrison was awarded the Freedom of Belfast, the highest honour the city can bestow. On 15 November 2013, Morrison became the 79th recipient of the award, presented at the Waterfront Hall for his career achievements. After receiving the award, he performed a free concert for residents who won tickets from a lottery system.
In August 2014, a "Van Morrison Trail" was established in East Belfast by Morrison in partnership with the Connswater Community Greenway. It is a self-guided trail, which over the course of 3.5 kilometres (2.2 mi) leads to eight places that were important to Morrison and inspirational to his music.
Morrison was made a Knight Bachelor in the Queen's Birthday Honours List in 2015 for services to the music industry and to tourism in Northern Ireland. The ceremony was performed by Prince Charles.
### Industry recognition
Other awards include an Ivor Novello Award for Lifetime Achievement in 1995, the BMI ICON award in October 2004 for Morrison's "enduring influence on generations of music makers", and an Oscar Wilde: Honouring Irish Writing in Film award in 2007 for his contribution to over fifty films, presented by Al Pacino, who compared Morrison to Oscar Wilde – both "visionaries who push boundaries". He was voted the Best International Male Singer of 2007 at the inaugural International Awards in Ronnie Scott's Jazz Club, London.
In 2010, Morrison was given a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame. On 2 September 2014, Morrison was presented with the Legend award at the GQ Men of the Year ceremony at Royal Opera House in London. On 13 October 2014, Morrison received his fifth BMI Million-Air Award for 11 million radio plays of the song "Brown Eyed Girl", making it one of the Top 10 Songs of all time on US radio and television. Morrison has also received Million-Air awards for "Have I Told You Lately". In 2017, the Americana Music Association gave Van Morrison the Lifetime Achievement Award for Songwriting.
Morrison was chosen to be honoured by Michael Dorf at his annual charity concert at Carnegie Hall. The Music of Van Morrison was performed on 21 March 2019 by twenty musical acts including Glen Hansard, Patti Smith and Bettye LaVette. In 2019, Morrison received the Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement presented by Jimmy Page during the International Achievement Summit in New York City.
In 2022, Morrison and his song "Down to Joy" for "Belfast" were nominated for the Academy Award for Best Original Song at the 94th Academy Awards.
### Lists
Morrison has also appeared in a number of "Greatest" lists, including the TIME magazine list of The All-Time 100 Albums, which contained Astral Weeks and Moondance, and he appeared at number thirteen on the list of WXPN's 885 All Time Greatest Artists. In 2000, Morrison ranked twenty-fifth on American cable music channel VH1's list of its "100 Greatest Artists of Rock and Roll". In 2004, Rolling Stone magazine ranked Van Morrison forty-second on their list of "100 Greatest Artists of All Time".
Paste ranked him twentieth in their list of "100 Greatest Living Songwriters" in 2006. Q ranked him twenty-second on their list of "100 Greatest Singers" in April 2007 and he was voted twenty-fourth on the November 2008 list of Rolling Stone magazine's 100 Greatest Singers of All Time.
### Tribute albums
- No Prima Donna: The Songs of Van Morrison (1994)
- The Van Morrison Songbook (1997)
- Into the Mystic: An Instrumental Tribute to Van Morrison (2000)
- Vanthology: A Tribute to Van Morrison (2003)
- The String Quartet Tribute to Van Morrison (2003)
- Smooth Sax Tribute to Van Morrison (2005)
- Mystic Piano: Piano Tribute to Van Morrison (2006)
## Personal life
### Family and relationships
Morrison lived in Belfast from birth until 1964, when he moved to London with the rock group Them. Three years later, he moved to New York after signing with Bang Records. Facing deportation due to visa problems, he managed to stay in the US when his American girlfriend Janet (Planet) Rigsbee, who had a son named Peter from a previous relationship, agreed to marry him. Once married, Morrison and his wife moved to Cambridge, Massachusetts, where he found work performing in local clubs. The couple had one daughter in 1970, Shana Morrison, who has become a singer-songwriter. Morrison and his family moved around America, living in Boston; Woodstock, New York; and a hilltop home in Fairfax, California. His wife appeared on the cover of the album Tupelo Honey. They divorced in 1973.
Morrison moved back to the UK in the late 1970s, first settling in London's Notting Hill Gate area. Later, he moved to Bath, where he purchased the Wool Hall studio in January 1994. He also has a home in the Irish seaside village of Dalkey near Dublin, where legal actions were taken against Morrison by two neighbours who objected to Morrison attempting to widen his driveway. The case was taken to court in 2001, with the initial rulings going against Morrison. Morrison pursued the matter all the way to the Irish Supreme Court, but his appeal was denied. A separate case in 2010, in which Morrison's then-wife Michelle took legal action against a different neighbour, who was building a balcony that she felt would overlook the Morrison home and intrude on their privacy, was withdrawn in 2015.
Morrison met Irish socialite Michelle Rocca in the summer of 1992, and they often featured in the Dublin gossip columns, an unusual event for the reclusive Morrison. Rocca also appeared on one of his album covers, Days Like This. The couple married and have two children; a daughter was born in February 2006 and a son in August 2007. According to a statement posted on his website, they were divorced in March 2018.
In December 2009, Morrison's tour manager Gigi Lee gave birth to a son, who she asserted was Morrison's and named after him. Lee announced the birth of the child on Morrison's official website, but Morrison denied paternity. Lee's son died in January 2011 from complications of diabetes, and Lee died soon after from throat cancer in October 2011.
Morrison's father died in 1988, and his mother, Violet, died in 2016.
### Religion and spirituality
Morrison and his family have been affiliated with St Donard's Parish Church, an Anglican congregation of the Church of Ireland located in east Belfast. During the Troubles, the area was described as "militantly Protestant", although Morrison's parents have always been freethinkers, with his father openly declaring himself an atheist and his mother being connected to Jehovah's Witnesses at one point. Van Morrison had been linked to Scientology in the early 1980s and even thanked its founder, L. Ron Hubbard, in one of his songs. Later, he became wary of religion, saying: "I wouldn't touch it with a 10-foot pole." He also said it is important to distinguish spirituality from religion: "Spirituality is one thing, religion ... can mean anything from soup to nuts, you know? But it generally means an organisation, so I don't really like to use the word, because that's what it really means. It really means this church or that church ... but spirituality is different, because that's the individual."
### The Troubles
Morrison left Northern Ireland before The Troubles started and distanced himself from the conflict, although later "yearned for" Protestant and Catholic reconciliation. In 1972, he gave an interview with the Dublin-based magazine Spotlight, in which he said, "I'm definitely Irish ... I don't think I want to go back to Belfast. I don't miss it with all the prejudice around. We're all the same and I think it's terrible what's happening. But I'd like to get a house in Ireland ... I'd like to spend a few months there every year."
## Discography
- Blowin' Your Mind! (1967)
- Astral Weeks (1968)
- Moondance (1970)
- His Band and the Street Choir (1970)
- Tupelo Honey (1971)
- Saint Dominic's Preview (1972)
- Hard Nose the Highway (1973)
- It's Too Late to Stop Now (1974; live)
- Veedon Fleece (1974)
- A Period of Transition (1977)
- Wavelength (1978)
- Into the Music (1979)
- Common One (1980)
- Beautiful Vision (1982)
- Inarticulate Speech of the Heart (1983)
- A Sense of Wonder (1985)
- No Guru, No Method, No Teacher (1986)
- Poetic Champions Compose (1987)
- Irish Heartbeat (In collaboration with The Chieftains) (1988)
- Avalon Sunset (1989)
- Enlightenment (1990)
- Hymns to the Silence (1991)
- Too Long in Exile (1993)
- Days Like This (1995)
- How Long Has This Been Going On (1995)
- Tell Me Something: The Songs of Mose Allison (1996)
- The Healing Game (1997)
- Back on Top (1999)
- You Win Again (2000)
- Down the Road (2002)
- What's Wrong with This Picture? (2003)
- Magic Time (2005)
- Pay the Devil (2006)
- Keep It Simple (2008)
- Born to Sing: No Plan B (2012)
- Duets: Re-working the Catalogue (2015)
- Keep Me Singing (2016)
- Roll with the Punches (2017)
- Versatile (2017)
- You're Driving Me Crazy (2018)
- The Prophet Speaks (2018)
- Three Chords & the Truth (2019)
- Latest Record Project, Volume 1 (2021)
- What's It Gonna Take? (2022)
- Moving On Skiffle (2023)
- Beyond Words: Instrumental (2023)
## See also
- List of people on the postage stamps of Ireland |
11,244,951 | Pokey Allen | 1,166,619,575 | American football player and coach (1943–1996) | [
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"Utah Utes football players"
]
| Ernest Duncan "Pokey" Allen Jr. (January 23, 1943 – December 30, 1996) was a gridiron football player and coach in the United States and Canada. He played college football for the Utah Utes before going on to play professionally for the BC Lions and the Edmonton Eskimos of the Canadian Football League (CFL) in the 1960s.
Allen began a coaching career after retiring as a player in 1968. His early assistant and position coaching jobs included several NCAA football teams and the Los Angeles Express of the United States Football League. He was the head coach at Portland State University from 1986 to 1992 and at Boise State University from 1993 to 1996, compiling a career college football record of 87–41–2 (.677). Allen led Portland State to consecutive appearances in the Division II championship game in 1987 and 1988 and guided Boise State to the Division I-AA title game in 1994.
In 1994, Allen was diagnosed with rhabdomyosarcoma, a rare form of muscle cancer. He continued coaching until shortly before his death in 1996.
## Playing career
Born in Superior, Montana, Allen attended Missoula County High School in Missoula and was a high school athlete in football, basketball, and track. Allen primarily played quarterback in high school. He accepted a scholarship to play college football at the University of Utah in Salt Lake City under head coach Ray Nagel. Utah was a member of the Skyline Conference, and in 1962 became a charter member of the WAC.
As a freshman in 1961, Allen played as a quarterback and returned punts on the freshman team. By his sophomore year, Allen was primarily a defensive player, serving also as the third-string quarterback. As a quarterback and cornerback in his senior season in 1964, Allen and end/placekicker Roy Jefferson led the Utes to a 9–2 record, including a 32–6 victory over favored West Virginia in the Liberty Bowl, played indoors in Atlantic City; Allen was named the game's most valuable player.
Allen played three seasons of professional football in the Canadian Football League with the BC Lions and Edmonton Eskimos, primarily as a defensive back. Through 38 total regular season games, he recorded eight interceptions and two fumble recoveries. While with the BC Lions from 1965 to 1967, Allen was also used sporadically as a punt returner, returning 79 punts for 412 yards. In 1967, Allen moved to the Eskimos, where he played only two games. He retired prior to the 1968 season.
## Early coaching career
Following his CFL playing career, Allen became an assistant coach in 1968 at Simon Fraser University in Burnaby, B.C., Canada. Five years later, he was named co-coach of the team along with Bob DeJulius. After nine years at Simon Fraser, Allen returned to the U.S. in 1977 as the defensive coordinator at Montana under head coach Gene Carlson, followed by other assistant coaching positions with Eastern Washington and California.
In 1983, Allen signed on as an assistant coach for the Los Angeles Express of the USFL, a newly formed professional league which played its games in the spring during the NFL offseason. Two years later, he moved to Portland, Oregon as defensive coordinator for the Portland Breakers.
## Portland State
Following the collapse of the USFL, Allen became the head coach of the Portland State Vikings in 1986. Allen coached the Vikings to their first playoff appearances, including back-to-back trips to the Division II finals in 1987 and 1988, though the team lost both games. He was named coach of the year in the Western Football Conference five times. The Vikings had a 63–26–2 record while Allen coached the team.
Allen was as much noted for his personality as his coaching. He took part in a humorous series of television commercials to sell tickets for Portland State games, with stunts such as dancing the Hokey Pokey, betting a month's salary on attendance at the game, allowing fans to vote on whether to pick heads or tails at the coin toss, and most famously, a series of commercials in which Allen promised to have a meteor, an elephant, or himself (shot out of a cannon) land in the backyard of anyone not buying Portland State season tickets.
## Boise State
In 1992, Allen's Division II Vikings visited Bronco Stadium in Boise in late October and soundly defeated the I-AA Broncos 52–26. After Boise State lost their next three games to close out the season, head coach Skip Hall promptly resigned, and Allen and his entire coaching staff were hired away from Portland State.
In his second year at Boise State in 1994, BSU began the season unranked. Allen led the Broncos to a 10–1 regular season and a Big Sky championship, the first since 1980, and a \#3 ranking at the end of the regular season. As conference champions, the Broncos were included in the 16-team Division I-AA playoffs and advanced to the national finals. BSU lost 24–14 to Jim Tressel's Youngstown State Penguins at Huntington, West Virginia, and finished the season at 13–2.
Allen maintained his reputation for publicity stunts at Boise State. During the run to the 1994 national championship game, he challenged local supporters and promised to ride a horse in downtown Boise if Bronco Stadium was sold out for their annual rivalry game versus Idaho, who had won twelve straight games over the Broncos. The stadium was sold out, BSU won 27–24, and Allen kept his promise.
## Cancer and legacy
Bothered by shoulder pain for about a month, Allen had outpatient surgery in Boise for a biopsy three days prior to the 1994 championship game, and was diagnosed two days after the game with rhabdomyosarcoma, a rare form of muscle cancer. The tumor in his upper right arm was removed in March and he underwent extensive chemotherapy and a stem-cell transplant in July at the Fred Hutchinson Center in Seattle. He returned to coach the Broncos in 1995 while going through treatment, and the cancer was declared in remission in December 1995, but the doctors warned of likely recurrence. After finding a lump on his chest the following summer, cancer was found in both lungs and Allen took a medical leave of absence on August 6; several days later he underwent extensive surgery at the University of Washington Medical Center in Seattle.
Defensive coordinator Tom Mason filled in as interim head coach in 1996, the Broncos' first in the Big West Conference and Division I-A, and they stumbled to just one win in their first ten games. Allen returned for the final two games of the season, against New Mexico State and Idaho. His win at NMSU was his only Division I-A win, but a week later the Broncos were routed 64–19 by rival Idaho in Boise. Three weeks later, after additional tests revealed more tumors in his lungs, he resigned as head coach on December 11. While visiting family in Montana over the holidays, Allen fell and his condition worsened; he died at St. Patrick Hospital in Missoula at the age of 53. His memorial service was on New Year's Day at St. Anthony Catholic Church in Missoula.
Allen was inducted into the Oregon Sports Hall of Fame in 1998.
## Head coaching record
## Personal life
Allen was born to Ernest Duncan Allen Sr. and Esther Allen. Allen Sr. was one of the first patrolmen in the Montana Highway Patrol as well as a veteran of both World War I and World War II. Allen had one daughter. |
5,325,658 | Give Me Love (Give Me Peace on Earth) | 1,158,338,763 | null | [
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| "Give Me Love (Give Me Peace on Earth)" is a song by English musician George Harrison, released as the opening track of his 1973 album Living in the Material World. It was also issued as the album's lead single, in May that year, and became Harrison's second US number 1, after "My Sweet Lord". In doing so, the song pushed Paul McCartney and Wings' "My Love" from the top of the Billboard Hot 100, marking the only occasion that two former Beatles have held the top two chart positions in America. The single also reached the top ten in Britain, Canada, Australia, and Holland.
"Give Me Love (Give Me Peace on Earth)" is one of its author's most popular songs, among fans and music critics, and features a series of much-praised slide-guitar solos from Harrison. The recording signalled a deliberate departure from his earlier post-Beatles work, in the scaling down of the big sound synonymous with All Things Must Pass and his other co-productions with Phil Spector over 1970–71. Aside from Harrison, the musicians on the track are Nicky Hopkins, Jim Keltner, Klaus Voormann and Gary Wright. In his lyrics, Harrison sings of his desire to be free of karma and the constant cycle of rebirth; he later described the song as "a prayer and personal statement between me, the Lord, and whoever likes it".
Harrison performed "Give Me Love" at every concert during his rare tours as a solo artist, and a live version was included on his 1992 album Live in Japan. The original studio recording appears on the compilation albums The Best of George Harrison (1976) and Let It Roll: Songs by George Harrison (2009). At the Concert for George tribute to Harrison, in November 2002, Jeff Lynne performed "Give Me Love" with Andy Fairweather-Low and Marc Mann playing the twin slide-guitar parts. Marisa Monte, Dave Davies, Elliott Smith, Ron Sexsmith, Sting, James Taylor, Elton John, and Grace Vanderwaal are among the other artists who have covered the song.
## Background and inspiration
As with most of the songs on his Living in the Material World album, George Harrison wrote "Give Me Love (Give Me Peace on Earth)" over 1971–72. During this period, he dedicated himself to assisting refugees of the Bangladesh Liberation War, by staging two all-star benefit concerts in New York and preparing a live album and concert film for release. In addition, much of his time was spent occupied with the business and legal problems afflicting the humanitarian aid project. Author Andrew Grant Jackson writes that Harrison's frustration with this last issue resulted in a sombre quality pervading much of Material World, yet he "pushed his disillusionment aside for the lead single ['Give Me Love']".
The same period coincided with the height of Harrison's devotion to Hindu spirituality. As with his religious-themed 1970–71 hit, "My Sweet Lord", and his subsequent singles "What Is Life" and "Bangla Desh", Harrison wrote "Give Me Love" very quickly. Author Alan Clayson describes it as having "flowed from George with an ease as devoid of ante-start agonies as a Yoko Ono 'think piece'". In his autobiography, I, Me, Mine, Harrison recalls of the writing process:
> Sometimes you open your mouth and you don't know what you are going to say, and whatever comes out is the starting point. If that happens and you are lucky, it can usually be turned into a song. This song is a prayer and personal statement between me, the Lord, and whoever likes it.
## Composition
"Give Me Love (Give Me Peace on Earth)" continues the precedent that Harrison set on "My Sweet Lord", through its fusion of the Hindu bhajan (or devotional song) with Western gospel tradition. Author Simon Leng comments that the song repeats another of its composer's hit formulas, by using a three-syllable lyrical hook as its title, like "My Sweet Lord", "What Is Life" and "Bangla Desh".
The song's time signature is 4/4 throughout, and the musical key is F major. As on Harrison's recording, this requires the placing of a capo on the guitar's third fret, to transpose the chords from D up to the correct key. The intro features strummed acoustic guitar, similar in style to the opening of Bob Dylan's "Mr. Tambourine Man". The song builds gradually from its understated introduction, with the rhythm section only fully arriving after the first bridge segment. Harrison biographer Gary Tillery describes the musical mood as "bouncy yet soothing".
In his lyrics, Harrison expresses his vision for life in the physical world. Following the opening instrumental passage, the song begins with a chorus in which he first pleads for a life devoid of the karmic burden of reincarnation (rebirth): "Give me love, give me love, give me peace on earth / Give me light, give me life, keep me free from birth." These lyrics bear a simple, universal message, one that, in the context of the time, related as much to the communal "peace and love" idealism of the 1960s as it did Harrison's personal spiritual quest.
Harrison also asks for divine assistance to "cope with this heavy load", while his stated attempt to "touch and reach you with heart and soul" recalls the same plea for a direct relationship with his deity that he expresses in "My Sweet Lord". These two lines, which complete the chorus, imply a deficiency or unfulfilment on the singer's part. According to author Ian Inglis, they serve as "an acknowledgment of the trials and tribulations he was facing in a more earthly setting" in the aftermath to the Concert for Bangladesh.
During the two bridge sections, Harrison incorporates the sacred term "Om" within his extended phrase "Oh ... my Lord". Author Joshua Greene describes this as an example of a theme found in several songs on Material World, whereby Harrison "distilled" spiritual concepts into phrases "so elegant they resembled Vedic sutras: short codes that contain volumes of meaning". The use of the word "Om" was a further comment from Harrison on the universality of faith, after his switching in "My Sweet Lord" from "hallelujah" refrains to the Hare Krishna mantra. Referring to the second half of the bridges in "Give Me Love", Inglis views the drawn-out "Please ..." as "highly symbolic", given the "unresolved conflict" that appears to be at the heart of the composition.
## Recording
Harrison's commitment to overseeing the release of the Concert for Bangladesh documentary film prevented him from being able to start on the follow-up to his All Things Must Pass triple album until midway through 1972. Another delay was caused by producer Phil Spector's unreliability, as Harrison waited for him to turn up for the start of the sessions. Author Bruce Spizer writes that "the eccentric producer's erratic attendance caused George to realize the project would never get done if he kept waiting for Spector", and by October that year, Harrison had decided to produce the album alone.
As for the majority of Living in the Material World, Harrison recorded the basic track for "Give Me Love" in the autumn of 1972 with the assistance of former Beatles engineer Phil McDonald. The recording location was either FPSHOT, Harrison's new home studio at Friar Park in Henley-on-Thames, or Apple Studio in London. In a departure from Harrison's co-productions with Spector, where a large line-up of musicians had been standard, "Give Me Love" featured a pared-down arrangement and more subtle instrumentation. Another contrast was Harrison's adoption of a production style that partly recalls George Martin's work with the Beatles. On "Give Me Love", Inglis notes the same "supple and clear [acoustic] guitar-playing that distinguished 'Here Comes the Sun'" in 1969, while the less grand production, relative to All Things Must Pass, allowed greater expression for Harrison as a slide guitarist.
Harrison carried out overdubs on the backing track, including twin slide-guitar parts, during the first two months of 1973. Aside from Harrison's guitar work, the most prominent instrument on the recording is Nicky Hopkins' piano, double-tracked and played in his usual melodic style. The rhythm section consisted of bassist Klaus Voormann and drummer Jim Keltner. The organ player on the song was American musician Gary Wright, whose 1971 album Footprint was one of many musical projects in which Harrison was involved between All Things Must Pass and Material World. Peter Lavezzoli, author of The Dawn of Indian Music in the West, comments on how quickly Harrison's "unique approach" to slide-guitar playing had matured since 1970, to incorporate sitar, veena and other Hindustani musical stylings, and rates the mid-song solo on "Give Me Love" as "one of his most intricate and melodic".
## Release
"Give Me Love (Give Me Peace on Earth)" was Harrison's first single in close to two years, after "Bangla Desh" in July 1971. As with Living in the Material World, however, its release was delayed to allow for other items on Apple Records' release schedule during the first half of 1973: the Beatles' compilations 1962–1966 and 1967–1970, and Paul McCartney and Wings' second album, Red Rose Speedway. In the years since All Things Must Pass, according to author Robert Rodriguez, the public bickering between John Lennon and McCartney and their "subpar" music had done much to diminish the "cachet of being an ex-Beatle". In his 1977 book The Beatles Forever, Nicholas Schaffner wrote that, because of the altruism inherent in the Bangladesh project compared to the twin "fiascos" of McCartney's Wild Life album and the Lennon–Ono collaboration Some Time in New York City, "[a] receptive audience was guaranteed" for Harrison's new songs.
Backed by "Miss O'Dell", "Give Me Love" was issued on 7 May 1973 in America (as Apple R 5988) and 25 May in Britain (Apple 1862). Three weeks later, the song appeared as the opening track on Living in the Material World. As with all the songs on the album bar the 1971-copyright "Sue Me, Sue You Blues" and "Try Some, Buy Some", Harrison assigned his publishing royalties for "Give Me Love" to his newly launched Material World Charitable Foundation.
Apple's US distributor, Capitol Records, mastered the single to run at a faster speed than the album track, in order to make the song sound brighter on the radio. Unusually for an Apple release by a former Beatle, the single was packaged in a plain sleeve in the main markets of Britain and the United States. A variety of picture sleeves were available in European countries, including a design incorporating Harrison's signature and a red Om symbol, both of which were aspects of Tom Wilkes's artwork for the Material World album.
### US chart feat
The single topped the Billboard Hot 100 at the end of June, for one week, and peaked at number 8 on the UK Singles Chart. Repeating the feat of January 1971, when "My Sweet Lord" and All Things Must Pass sat atop the Billboard charts simultaneously, "Give Me Love" hit number 1 part-way through Material World's five-week stay at the top of the albums listings.
"Give Me Love (Give Me Peace on Earth)" replaced Wings' "My Love" at number 1 on the Hot 100 singles chart, and in turn was replaced by "Will It Go Round in Circles", by Harrison's former Apple Records protégé Billy Preston. For the week ending 30 June that year, the Harrison, McCartney and Preston songs were ranked numbers 1, 2 and 3, respectively, on the Billboard Hot 100, marking the first time since 25 April 1964 that the Beatles occupied the top two positions on that chart. Schaffner described this period as "reminiscent of the golden age of Beatlemania", due to the amount of Beatles-related product dominating the charts in America. As of October 2013, the week of 30 June 1973 remained the only time that two former members of the Beatles held the first and second positions on a US singles chart.
### Reissue
"Give Me Love" later appeared on the 1976 compilation The Best of George Harrison, as one of just six selections from the artist's solo career. The song was also included on 2009's Let It Roll: Songs by George Harrison.
In Martin Scorsese's 2011 documentary George Harrison: Living in the Material World, released ten years after Harrison's death, the song plays over footage of the Friar Park grounds and of Harrison making music in the house with Keltner and Voormann. During the segment, Voormann discusses Harrison's practice of preparing the studio with incense to create a suitable environment, adding: "He really made it into a real tranquil, nice surrounding – everybody felt just great."
## Reception
### Contemporary reviews
"Give Me Love (Give Me Peace on Earth)" became one of Harrison's most popular songs, both from his years with the Beatles and from his subsequent solo career. On release, McCartney described it as "very nice", adding: "The guitar solo is ace and I like the time changes." Billboard magazine's reviewer wrote: "Harrison's voice and sweet, country tinged guitar work within a rippling but controlled rhythm base, lends itself to this plea for human understanding. His sincere sound engulfs the listener and brings [them] into the story." In Rolling Stone, Stephen Holden lauded the song for its "strong, short-phrased melody whose lyrics are sheer exhortation", and said that the single was "every bit as good as 'My Sweet Lord'". Record World called it "an outstanding message song that will please fans around the world."
In Britain, where the national economy was heading into recession after the boom years of the 1960s, lines such as "help me cope with this heavy load", according to Alan Clayson, "touched a raw nerve or two". In the NME, Tony Tyler derided Harrison for "lay[ing] the entire Krishna-the-Goat trip on us", while Michael Watts of Melody Maker suggested that "Living in the Material World" might have been a better choice for the album's lead single. Writing in their 1975 book The Beatles: An Illustrated Record, Tyler and Roy Carr said that "Give Me Love" bore "more than a distant resemblance" to Dylan's "I Want You", but praised the track for its "excellent and highly idiosyncratic slide-guitar playing".
### Retrospective reviews and legacy
Reviewing the song for AllMusic, Lindsay Planer highlights Harrison's guitar contribution to this "serene rocker" and likewise acknowledges Hopkins' "warm and soulful keyboard runs and fills". Zeth Lundy of PopMatters describes "Give Me Love" as "effervescent" and "a \#1 single that remains one of Harrison's most iconic and well-loved". In his liner notes to the Let It Roll compilation, music historian Warren Zanes views "Give Me Love" as "perhaps the best example" of how Harrison's "post-Beatles songwriting blurs the line between music and prayer without ever sacrificing the pure melodic force for which he was known".
Mojo contributor John Harris cites "Give Me Love" as evidence of Material World's standing as "something of a Hindu concept album ... a pleasing fusion of Eastern religion, gospel, and the ghost of 'For You Blue'". Hugh Fielder of Classic Rock admires Harrison's "painstaking craftsmanship" and "sublime playing" on this and other Material World tracks and describes it as "one of Harrison's finest songs". Writing for Uncut, David Cavanagh considers the album to be a "utopian follow-up" to All Things Must Pass, on which "Give Me Love" "encapsulates the deal: simple message of hope, with gorgeous slide guitar ... and fantastic rhythm section".
Among Harrison and Beatles biographers, Robert Rodriguez recognises Harrison's achievement in "cloak[ing] philosophical concerns in a thoroughly commercial package", which included his "impossibly compelling slide work". Simon Leng finds more superlatives for the song's guitar lines, describing them as "almost too euphonious to be true". Leng continues: "Living in the Material World could hardly have reveled in a stronger opening song ... A gorgeous ballad, awash with marvelously expressive guitar statements, 'Give Me Love' retains the emotional power of All Things Must Pass in a compelling three minutes."
Writing in Still the Greatest: The Essential Solo Beatles Songs, Andrew Grant Jackson considers that with "Give Me Love", Harrison "captured the essence of what he had set out to do with the [Bangladesh] concerts – and what the Beatles had tried to do in their more idealistic moments". Describing it as Harrison's "finest plea to God", with a vocal that "perfectly suits the yearning" implicit in the lyrics, Jackson adds: "'Give Me Love (Give Me Peace on Earth)' stands alongside 'All You Need Is Love,' 'Let It Be,' and 'Imagine' as the purest expression of the Aquarian Age dream." In his Harrison obituary for The Guardian in December 2001, former Melody Maker critic Chris Welch concluded with a reference to the track, saying that the ex-Beatle's "feelings and needs were best expressed in one of his simplest songs – 'Give Me Love (Give Me Peace on Earth)'".
In the Concert for George documentary film (2003), Eric Clapton names "Give Me Love" as one of his favourite Harrison compositions, along with "Isn't It a Pity". AOL Radio listeners voted the track fifth in a 2010 poll to find Harrison's best post-Beatles songs, while Michael Gallucci of Ultimate Classic Rock placed it fourth on a similar list that he compiled. Guitar World editor Damian Fanelli includes the track among his choice of Harrison's ten best post-Beatles "Guitar Moments", praising the mid-song solo as "simply one of the most intricate and melodic things the former Beatle ever played on slide". David Fricke includes "Give Me Love" in his list of "25 essential Harrison performances" for Rolling Stone magazine, and describes it as "a soft, intimate hymn, a small-combo reaction to the Wagnerian spectacle of All Things Must Pass".
## Performance
Harrison performed "Give Me Love (Give Me Peace on Earth)" throughout both his 1974 North American tour with Ravi Shankar and his 1991 Japanese tour with Eric Clapton, and during his 1992 benefit show for the Natural Law Party. The latter took place at London's Royal Albert Hall on 6 April that year and was Harrison's only full concert as a solo artist in Britain.
At his press conference in Los Angeles before the 1974 tour, Harrison said he would be playing "Give Me Love" with a "slightly different" arrangement, adding that, as with "My Sweet Lord", "It should be much more loose." The song usually appeared midway through the shows and featured Billy Preston's synthesizer and a flute solo from Tom Scott instead of the familiar slide-guitar breaks. Although widely bootlegged, no version of the song from this tour has been released officially.
### Live in Japan version
The Japanese tour in December 1991 was Harrison's only other tour as a solo artist. His 1992 album Live in Japan contains a version of "Give Me Love" from this tour, recorded at Tokyo Dome on 15 December 1991. Harrison again delegated the solos to a fellow musician: in this case Andy Fairweather-Low reproduced the slide-guitar parts from the original studio recording. Ian Inglis notes the "impressive interplay", particularly towards the end of the song, between Harrison and his backup singers, Tessa Niles and Katie Kissoon.
This live version of "Give Me Love", along with the accompanying concert footage, was subsequently included in the Living in the Material World reissue in September 2006, as part of a deluxe CD/DVD package. The performance also appears on the DVD included in the eight-disc Apple Years 1968–75 box set, released in September 2014.
## Cover versions
Lindsay Planer writes that two covers of the song "worth noting" are a version by Bob Koenig, issued on his Prose & Icons album in 1996, and one by Brazilian singer Marisa Monte from the same year. Monte's version appeared on her album Barulhinho Bom, later released in English-speaking countries as A Great Noise. In 1998, "Give Me Love (Give Me Peace on Earth)" was one of five Harrison songs that composers Steve Wood and Daniel May adapted for their soundtrack to the documentary film Everest; part of the piece "The Journey Begins" incorporates "Give Me Love".
Artists other than Harrison who have performed the song live include Elliott Smith and, in April 2002, Sting, James Taylor and Elton John. These three musicians played "Give Me Love" as part of a tribute to Harrison during the Rock for the Rainforest benefit concert at Carnegie Hall in New York City. In what Planer describes as a "stirring reading", Jeff Lynne performed the song at the Concert for George on 29 November 2002, held at the Royal Albert Hall exactly a year after Harrison's death. Lynne was supported by a band comprising Harrison's friends and musical associates, including Eric Clapton, Andy Fairweather-Low, Marc Mann, Jim Keltner, Dhani Harrison, Niles and Kissoon.
Dave Davies of the Kinks contributed a version of "Give Me Love" to the multi-artist compilation Songs from the Material World: A Tribute to George Harrison in 2003. In a statement released in advance of the compilation, Davies explained that he was normally reluctant to perform other artists' songs yet had made "an exception" with "Give Me Love", in order to honour Harrison "as a great musical talent but primarily as an advanced soul who was unafraid to share his spiritual vision and journey with us". Davies subsequently issued the recording on his 2006 album Kinked.
In 2010, Broadway actress Sherie Rene Scott featured "Give Me Love" in her autobiographical musical Everyday Rapture as the show's final number. Canadian singer Ron Sexsmith has included the song in his live performances; a version by him appeared on Harrison Covered, a tribute CD accompanying the November 2011 issue of Mojo magazine. In January 2017, the Avett Brothers performed "Give Me Love (Give Me Peace on Earth)" live on The Late Show with Stephen Colbert.
In 2020 Disney+ released the movie Stargirl. During the closing credits Grace Vanderwaal sings her version of "Give Me Love". It also appears in the soundtrack.
## Personnel
According to Simon Leng:
- George Harrison – vocals, acoustic guitars, slide guitars, backing vocals
- Nicky Hopkins – pianos
- Gary Wright – organ
- Klaus Voormann – bass
- Jim Keltner – drums
## Chart performance
### Weekly charts
### Year-end charts |
28,322,637 | Spooks (series 7) | 1,169,597,481 | 7th series of the British television show Spooks | [
"2008 British television seasons",
"Spooks (TV series)"
]
| The seventh series of the BBC espionage television series Spooks (known as MI-5 in the United States) began broadcasting on 27 October 2008 on BBC One before ending on 8 December 2008 on the same channel, and consists of eight episodes, two fewer than previous series. It follows the actions of Section D, a counter-terrorism division in MI5. The primary storyline involves Sugarhorse, a top secret operation set up by MI5 during the final years of the Cold War, and a mole working for the FSB who intends to leak the operation to the Russians. Peter Firth, Rupert Penry-Jones, Hermione Norris, Richard Armitage, Miranda Raison, Gemma Jones, Hugh Simon and Alex Lanipekun are credited as the main cast.
Penry-Jones announced his intention to leave the series in December 2007, while it was later announced Armitage would join. Norris and Raison were both asked back after their characters were left open to return at the end of the last series. In developing the series, the producers wanted to repeat the serialised style from series six, and settled on using the resurgence of Russia as the primary storyline as they felt it was, at the time, subtly threatening the security of the West. The producers also participated in several meetings with the writers to discuss the purpose of Sugarhorse. Filming started in London in March 2008, and finished in August 2008 in Moscow, the first time in series history where Spooks was filmed outside the United Kingdom.
The seventh series received healthy ratings, with both BBC One and BBC Three ratings together achieving 6.13 million viewers per episode. The series also attracted critical acclaim, with some reviewers considering it to be the best series of Spooks so far. Both factors allowed the BBC to commission an eighth series of the programme for 2009. The seventh series was released on DVD on 12 October 2009 in the United Kingdom, 30 March 2009 in Australia, and 26 January 2010 in the United States.
## Episodes
## Cast
The series consists of eight main cast members. Rupert Penry-Jones returned as Adam Carter for the first episode. In December 2007 Penry-Jones announced his intention to leave the series after appearing on the show for four years, because he felt his character had run its course and "getting to the point where I needed to move on," adding he would like to explore other avenues in his career. To keep the series fresh, the producers still wanted Adam's exit to be a shock to the audience. The actor found that his last days on Spooks were generally upsetting and "welled up" on his final day.
In March 2008 the BBC announced that Richard Armitage would join the series as Lucas North. The character was designed by the producers to become a "new heroic figure", and to become much more distant than Adam. Armitage was chosen early in the casting process as the producers believed he could carry the mystery of the character. Armitage was approached by the producers after he finished work on the second series of Robin Hood in which he portrayed the regular part of Sir Guy of Gisbourne. He accepted the role but was initially hesitant to join because of the "tall order" of replacing Penry-Jones. Armitage lost a stone in weight in preparation to keep with the description that Lucas is malnourished in the first episode, but still kept physically fit.
Elsewhere, Hermione Norris returns as Ros Myers. The character was initially written off after the eighth episode of the sixth series due to the actress's pregnancy, however when the seventh series entered pre-production, Norris was asked to return and she accepted. Miranda Raison also returned as Jo Portman. The cliffhanger of the sixth series finale, where Jo was apparently killed, was to leave the audience wondering whether she survived. Raison stated that she realised the producers wanted her to return, as did she. Alex Lanipekun returned as Ben Kaplan, and was upgraded to a series regular. Lanipekun believed that the seventh series was "kind of for Ben," adding that there was an episode that would see his coming of age by dealing with his first undercover operation and the burden of getting close to someone who is involved with the group he was sent to stop. Peter Firth, Gemma Jones and Hugh Simon returned as Harry Pearce, Connie James and Malcolm Wynn-Jones, respectively.
## Production
### Writing
The writers and producers got together to discuss what direction they would take for the seventh series. They wanted to repeat the same style for series six, which was to add a serial element to be carried throughout the duration of the series. They got together to think about what they would believe to be a big political story that would affect politics in the United Kingdom in within twelve to eighteen months after their initial meetings early in 2008. They settled on using Russia, which was facing a resurgence in power after the Cold War, which the producers felt, in subtle ways, would threaten the security of the west. Sometime through the writing process, the producers set up a story-arc, Sugarhorse, to be a threat throughout the series and have it resolved by the finale. The writers enjoyed making the Sugarhorse storyline because it was one of the instances that "really brings Harry to the edge" and causing him to doubt everything he has done or achieved. The writing team took several meetings together to discuss what it is and how it should work into the storyline. Christian Spurrier noted it was "kind of a headache" to figure out how to "weave it in" to the series and work out what parts would be used in which episodes. The producers wanted to use a scene relating to Sugarhorse as the finale scene of every episode it was featured in, as the producers believed it would provide a "right hook" to the audience. Adding the new storyline would allow the series to return to the world of spying, truth, and who the characters should trust.
Throughout the writing process, several cast members would give suggestion notes to the writers on how to improve some scenes. The writers were frequently annoyed with Armitage, who gave out more notes than any other cast members, however the writers also liked some of his ideas and included them in the scripts. The producers believed that the seventh series was among the more brutal than the others, citing the violent death of Ben.
### Filming
Filming started in March 2008, and finished in August of the same year. Before principal photography commenced, director Colm McCarthy participated in helicopter shots over London. In each block of episodes, the cast and crew would often film all scenes held in certain locations at once, for instance all scenes set on the Grid, although taking place in different parts of each episodes, would all be filmed together before moving on to another set. However, the cast had trouble following the storylines with this method. A different Director of Photography was hired in each episode. Because of this, the filming style inside the Grid set changed in every episode. To film public shots, a small film crew was used so as to not attract too much attention from passers by. However, by using the small crew, they and the actors generally film the scenes unnoticed by the public, which the producers felt gave the characters such gravitas.
Filming finished in August 2008 in Moscow, Russia; it was the first time in series history where filming took place outside the United Kingdom; producer Katie Swinden stated that Spooks is usually "London-orientated," including when it comes to filming scenes set in other countries, and it usually does not take place outside the confines of the M25, the orbital motorway which encircles the UK's capital. However, the producers were able to afford to shoot in another country. A small crew was used to save costs. Armitage and Norris were the only two of the main actors who participated in the shoot. However, the main problem with filming in Moscow was the 30 °C (86 °F)-plus heat, and the actors had to wear winter coats because the episodes were set during the colder months.
### Stunts
The producers allow the cast to perform many of their own stunts. In filming fight sequences, they were carefully choreographed beforehand so the actors could participate themselves. The guns featured on the series are real. In scenes where guns are included, an armourer is on hand throughout the entirety of the sequence to see if the actors are handling them properly and gives out the guns to the actors at the last possible second before filming. After the sequence is shot, the guns have to be returned and locked in a case to prevent anybody from playing with them, even if the guns are not loaded. Among other stunt work, Armitage was asked to be subjected to an actual waterboarding scene to ensure the authenticity of the sequence. The actor agreed after he was convinced by consultants from the FSB and CIA. Kudos film and television, the production company behind Spooks, had to follow several health and safety provisions from an advisor to ensure the sequence strictly adheres to the advice. The advisor and a medic were present during filming. Armitage was only waterboarded for a short time, and was filmed in slow motion to make it appear as if he was on for longer. The ambient temperature of the room was also raised to make Armitage as comfortable as possible. Following the sequence, Armitage stated "I only lasted five to ten seconds, and the sound of my voice crying out to stop isn't me acting."
## Broadcast and reception
### Broadcast and ratings
The series was broadcast every Monday from 27 October to 8 December 2008 on BBC One, with the exception of the second episode, which aired on a Tuesday, the day after the first episode. However, the second through to the seventh episodes were repeated on BBC Three sometime after the BBC One broadcasts of the previous episode. The first episode "New Allegiances" was seen by 5.5 million and was given a strong audience share of 23.4 per cent. Although ratings were high, the premiere was down from the 6.6 million seen by the premiere of the previous sixth series. Some of the later episodes faced heavy competition from I'm a Celebrity, Get Me Out of Here! on ITV1, however despite this, ratings for Spooks remained steady. The finale "Nuclear Strike" gave the seventh series its strongest ratings, with six million viewers. Combining both BBC One and BBC Three viewings, viewing figures for the seventh series averaged 6.13 million per episode. The series also became the ninth most watched series from BBC iPlayer, an Internet television service, of 2008.
### Critical reception
The seventh series attracted critical acclaim, with some reviewers considering it to be the best series of Spooks. Leigh Holmwood of The Guardian feared that the death of Adam "would have cast a long shadow", but barely noticed his absence given the pace of the episodes. Holmwood also believed that Lucas's introduction "more than made amends" for replacing Adam, and also felt the return of Ros Myers and her promotion was "a genius move". Mark Wright of The Stage thought that it was "stunning" with the last three episodes in particular "hitting new heights of tension and storytelling for the series," adding it is "as good as, if not the better, than the first couple of seasons". Wright also believed the series performed well with a reduced series length of eight as opposed to the ten episodes from the last few series, which he said allowed for "tighter, more focussed storytelling". He also felt the cast changes "always felt naturally organic", and praised Adam's exit, Lucas's introduction, and the "fantastic, strong female role model" of Hermione Norris's portrayal. Wright ended by saying "Spooks has been my favourite show of the last few months and indeed of 2008".
Mof Gimmers of TV Scoop named Spooks series seven as the best television show of 2008 out of 50 programmes. Gimmers felt the seventh series performed better than the previous, as it "lost its way slightly" with the concentration of Islamic extremists. The seventh series however, was praised for bringing back the more traditional enemy, the Russians. With the introduction of Lucas North, Gimmers stated "the possibilities for double-blinding the audience were legion and every single one was exploited to the max". Gimmers also cited the more "pacy" plots due to a shorter series as another factor of the series's success, and also said "the only problem with having a series as good as this in the bag is how they will match it next year?". David Blackwell of Enterline Media said that the series's storylines "have a grain of truth reflecting today's climate" and also "more deeply rooted in gritty realism and preying on the real dangers that terrorists and other countries pose to the UK". Blackwell also posed the storylines also "keeps the characters human and show what they go through" and reacted positively towards Lucas's introduction, stating "I like Lucas North better than Adam Carter or Tom Quinn. His dark and conflicted persona adds to the story and makes him a more interesting character than Adam or Tom ever were". Blackwell summed up the series as "as great as the first six seasons. The show maintains a high standard of quality".
Following the end of the eighth series, Last Broadcast held a poll for the top five most shocking death scenes in Spooks. Two of them were deaths from the seventh series. Adam Carter's death was voted the fourth most shocking, while Ben Kaplan's death was voted third. Connie's death however, was not listed. The featuring of an actual waterboarding scene drew criticism from Guardian columnist Zoe Williams, who wrote "it's really unpleasant, [Armitage] concurred. 'I only lasted five to 10 seconds, and the sound of my voice crying out to stop isn't me acting.' Pal, that's nice that you're not showing off but this is all wrong and despicable: it's like locking yourself and 10 friends into a loo on a commuter train, to see what it would be like on the train to Auschwitz. If you can make it stop whenever you like, you're learning nothing and kicking people in the face while you're at it".
### Award nomination and renewal
The seventh series was nominated for a British Academy Television Award (BAFTA) for "Best Drama Series" in 2009, but lost to Wallander. Because of the strong ratings and positive feedback from fans and critics, the BBC announced they would recommission Spooks for an eighth series for 2009 on 4 December 2008, just days before the finale was set to air.
## Home video release
The series has been released on DVD in the United Kingdom (Region 2) on 12 October 2009. It was also released in the United States (Region 1) on 26 January 2010, and in Australia (Region 4) on 30 March 2009. The set consists of four discs and contain all eight episodes, as well as a few special features, including a Behind the Scenes documentary, which contain cast and crew interviews covering the characters and storylines of the series, "Spooks in Russia", a featurette behind the scenes of filming in Russia, "Action Sequence", which covers filming a chase sequence in episode six, and audio commentaries for episodes five and eight. The box set also contains the original trailer for the series, while the Region 1 release also contains trailers for other British television programmes, including Doctor Who, Torchwood and Primeval. |
35,598,323 | Props (Glee) | 1,173,275,167 | null | [
"2012 American television episodes",
"Fiction about body swapping",
"Glee (season 3) episodes",
"Television episodes about domestic violence"
]
| "Props" is the twentieth episode of the third season of the American musical television series Glee, and the sixty-fourth overall. Written and directed by Ian Brennan, the episode is the first of two new episodes that aired back-to-back on Fox in the United States on May 15, 2012. It features New Directions preparing a heavily props-dependent routine for the impending Nationals competition, an extended sequence in which Tina (Jenna Ushkowitz) has a vision of the glee club having swapped roles, including herself as Rachel, and an appearance by special guest star Whoopi Goldberg as NYADA dean Carmen Tibideaux.
The episode received mostly positive reviews overall, though reaction to the musical performances was not as strong. The body-swap sequence was given an enthusiastic reception. The scenes featuring Coach Beiste (Dot-Marie Jones) and Puck (Mark Salling) were also much praised, and in particular the pair's acting was highlighted. Their performance of the song "Mean", by contrast, received the most divergent reactions from reviewers, yet it was the one song from the four singles released from the episode to chart in North America, and debuted on the Billboard Canadian Hot 100.
Upon its initial airing, this episode was viewed by 6.09 million American viewers and received a 2.5/8 Nielsen rating/share in the 18–49 demographic. The total viewership was down significantly from "Prom-asaurus" the week before.
## Plot
When New Directions starts planning a setlist for the impending Nationals competition, Tina (Jenna Ushkowitz) is frustrated that Rachel (Lea Michele) is again singing lead while she remains stuck in the background, and walks out. When Rachel tries to bribe her to withdraw her objections, she tells Rachel that she wants to experience a standing ovation of her own. Tina later falls into a fountain and strikes her head, which causes her to experience a vision in which all of the glee club members have switched roles,—most notably, she sees herself as Rachel and Rachel as Tina. "Rachel" performs "Because You Loved Me", and the club gives her a standing ovation. She thanks "Tina" for her support, and "Tina" in turn gives "Rachel" advice on how to salvage her failed NYADA audition. After Tina comes back to reality, she conveys that advice: Rachel should see NYADA dean Carmen Tibideaux (Whoopi Goldberg) in person—she is conducting a master class at Oberlin. Tina drives Rachel there, but Carmen has been annoyed by Rachel's repeated messages and says she does not deserve any special attention. Tina disagrees, telling Carmen that although Rachel gets whatever she wants and is "a pain in the ass", Rachel gets it all because she is exceptional. Rachel invites Carmen to attend their Nationals performance, and pledges to audition for NYADA every year until she is accepted.
Sue (Jane Lynch) announces that rival glee club Vocal Adrenaline is the team to beat, thanks mostly to its transgender lead singer Wade "Unique" Adams (Alex Newell), who has become a media star. Sue decides that New Directions needs a similar gimmick to win and she tells Kurt (Chris Colfer) to dress in drag, but he adamantly refuses. Puck (Mark Salling) dons a dress and volunteers to lead the drag number, but Will vetoes the gimmickry and refocuses the group on its choreography.
Santana (Naya Rivera), Brittany (Heather Morris), and Mercedes (Amber Riley) are worried because Coach Beiste (Dot-Marie Jones) has not left her abusive husband, Cooter (Eric Bruskotter), as she claimed. Beiste tells them that adult relationships are more complex and insists she is fine. Hockey player Rick "The Stick" (Rock Anthony) ridicules Puck for being seen in the dress; they agree to a fight outside the school. Rick gains the upper hand and Puck is thrown into a dumpster, but he emerges brandishing a switchblade. Coach Beiste breaks up the fight; in the locker room, Puck tells her that the knife is a fake stage prop, and she retorts that he could have gotten expelled. Puck replies that he is flunking out anyway and a failure, telling her that she does not know what it feels like to be worthless. He breaks down, and Beiste comforts him as he cries. At home, Beiste tells Cooter that she is leaving him, and removes her wedding ring. He asks who else would love her; she answers: "Me". Back at the school auditorium, she joins Puck in singing "Mean", tells him that she has arranged for him to retake a crucial test to graduate, and promises to help him pass. As the episode ends, Rachel and Tina sing "Flashdance... What a Feeling", and board the glee club's bus to Nationals.
## Production
This episode was written by Glee co-creator Ian Brennan, who also made his directorial debut in this episode. While the first scenes for the episode were shot on March 30, 2012, on a day that also saw scenes shot for the previous two episodes, shooting on the episode began in earnest on Monday, April 9, 2012, after the completion of the prior episode at the end of the week before. Filming continued into the following week at least through Wednesday, April 18, 2012, by which point the next episode had begun shooting in parallel.
The plot has Tina suffering a "mild" head injury—she falls into a fountain—that causes her to see an alternate reality version of New Directions: actors playing club members had to swap roles with another actor in the cast. Chris Colfer, who normally plays Kurt Hummel, said that the portrayals "were really hard to nail—they're not over the top by any means". Pairs who are swapping roles include Tina and Rachel, Kurt and Finn (Cory Monteith), Mike (Harry Shum Jr.) and Joe (Samuel Larsen), Puck and Blaine (Darren Criss), Artie (Kevin McHale) and Santana (Naya Rivera), Quinn (Dianna Agron) and Sugar (Vanessa Lengies), Rory (Damian McGinty) and Sam (Chord Overstreet), Mercedes (Amber Riley) and Brittany (Heather Morris), and Will (Matthew Morrison) and Sue (Jane Lynch).
In addition to those mentioned above, other recurring roles include football coach Shannon Beiste (Jones) and her husband, football recruiter Cooter Menkins (Bruskotter), and Newell as Vocal Adrealine lead singer Wade "Unique" Adams. Special guest star Whoopi Goldberg returns for a second appearance as NYADA dean Carmen Tibideaux.
Four songs from the episode were released in the US as singles available for digital download: Taylor Swift's "Mean" performed by Jones and Salling, Jason Mraz's "I Won't Give Up" performed by Michele, Irene Cara's "Flashdance... What a Feeling" performed by Michele and Ushkowitz, and Celine Dion's "Because You Loved Me" performed by Ushkowitz as Rachel. "I Won't Give Up" is also featured on the soundtrack album Glee: The Music, The Graduation Album. A fifth song, an excerpt of "Always True to You in My Fashion" from Kiss Me Kate, is performed by an unnamed male student (Derek L. Butler) singing in a master class for Carmen; it was not released as a single.
## Reception
### Ratings
"Props" was first broadcast on May 15, 2012 in the United States on Fox. It aired at the usual time for an episode as the first hour in a two-hour special evening with "Nationals" as the second hour. It received a 2.5/8 Nielsen rating/share in the 18–49 demographic, and attracted 6.09 million American viewers during its initial airing, down from the 2.7/8 rating/share and 6.67 million viewers of the previous episode, "Prom-asaurus", which was broadcast on May 8, 2012. Viewership was down significantly in Canada, which also aired the episode as the first hour of a two-episode special, where 1.34 million viewers watched the episode on the same day as its American premiere, down over 18%. It was the fourteenth most-viewed show of the week, down from thirteenth in the previous week, when 1.65 million viewers watched "Prom-asaurus".
Although the United Kingdom also aired these two episodes together, viewership rose rather than fell. "Props" first aired on May 17, 2012, and was watched on Sky 1 by 795,000 viewers. This was an increase of nearly 7% from the previous episode, "Prom-asaurus", which attracted 744,000 viewers when it aired the week before. In Australia, "Props" was broadcast on May 17, 2012, but unlike in the other three countries, it was the only episode broadcast that week. It was watched by 607,000 viewers, a decrease of over 4% from the 636,000 viewers for "Prom-asaurus" on May 10, 2012. Glee was the seventeenth most-watched program of the night, down from thirteenth the week before.
### Critical reception
The episode received mostly positive reviews. John Kubicek of BuddyTV called it "easily my favorite episode of the past two seasons, and quite possibly one of the best episodes the show has ever made". Damian Holbrook of TV Guide described it and the episode that followed, "Nationals", as "clever, funny and filled with moments that felt like little gifts to the fans who have hung in there". Houston Chronicle's Bobby Hankinson said the "double feature continued the recent hot streak" of episodes, and Michael Slezak of TVLine highlighted this episode's "script that winkingly acknowledged fan complaints that Ryan Murphy & Co. all too often ignore some of Glee's original players in favor of new and more-hyped flavors". The A.V. Club's Emily VanDerWerff wrote that it showcased writer and director Ian Brennan's "strengths of acid comedy and sad stories of small-town teenagers who'll never get anything but to sweat it out on the streets of a runaway American dream"; she gave "Props" a "B" grade. Rae Votta of Billboard said, "It felt organically Glee, zany but with heart."
E! Online's Jenna Mullins thought the body-swap sequence "breathed fresh 'n' crazy air into Glee", and Kubicek called it "the best thing Glee has ever done and will ever do". Jyll Saskin of MTV said it was "super trippy, makes no sense plot-wise" and was a "totally awesome Glee moment"; Entertainment Weekly's Erin Strecker wrote that "the entire cast deserved an MVP award for their completely on-point mannerisms", and singled out "Finn and Puck all snuggly together, holding hands and dressed up like Kurt and Blaine". VanDerWerff, however, described it as a "totally odd curiosity that comes out of nowhere", and said that the car trip taken by Tina and Rachel later in the episode was more successful at showing Tina "what Rachel's life is like". Kubicek called the offer of the trip and subsequent drive a "sweet bonding moment" between the pair, and called it "great" that "Tina is the one who saves the day" at the meeting with Carmen, but Chaney wondered why it took Rachel two episodes to regain her drive and aspirations.
The scenes with Puck and Beiste were much praised, as were the actors. While reviewers such as Bell and VanDerWerff criticized the domestic abuse storyline, both were far happier with the way it was ended than with how it had been introduced in "Choke"—VanDerWerff wrote that "the fact that both Puck and Beiste's storylines resolve at the same time in the same scene is a nice piece of writing, with some strong acting". Votta called the pair's scenes "delightful" and thought they merited a "road trip adventure spin-off"; Bell said that she "could have seriously watched an hour dedicated to Beiste and Puck". Slezak highlighted "terrific work" by Jones and Salling, and the scenes with "Beiste holding a sobbing Puck" and confronting Cooter as "pretty remarkable". Strecker called the latter scene "painful to watch, in the best possible way", and Bell described Salling's performance in the former as "truly incredible".
### Music and performances
The musical performances were greeted with somewhat less enthusiasm than the episode as a whole, and given mixed to positive reviews. An example of this was the song's opening number, "I Won't Give Up". Saskin wrote that "Rachel sings Jason Mraz, like everything else, beautifully", while Rolling Stone's Erica Futterman credits her for having made a "sappy ballad mildly more tolerable". Strecker gave the performance a "B+" grade and called it a "classic Berry power ballad"; "B" grades were given by Slezak and Washington Post's Jen Chaney, who also noted Rachel's "vocal power".
"Because You Loved Me" performed by Tina as Rachel received the most consistently positive reviews, though both Chaney, who gave the song an "A−", and Strecker, who graded it a "B+", stated their belief that the real Rachel would have done it better, and Saskin was more blunt: "We love you, Tina, but you just can't belt like Rachel". Futterman was the most pleased, and wrote: "The richness of her voice removes some of the Lite FM softness embedded in the tune, and it really is great to see Tina get a song that suits her vocal abilities".
The most divergent views were expressed about Puck and Beiste's performance of "Mean". Crystal Bell of Huffington Post asked, "How could you not be moved by their duet in the auditorium?" E! Online's Jenna Mullins called it "one of the highlights of the season", and Slezak gave it a grade of "A". Chaney's "B+" followed her statement that "it was more effective than Swift's version because I can believe that both Puck and Beiste have had it rough", and Strecker described it as "lovely and thematically perfect" and gave it a "B". VanDerWerff said he "could have done without" their duet, and Futterman was even harsher: "it was quite unfortunate". Houston Chronicle's Bobby Hankinson wrote that he "sort of liked" how the pair were "simultaneously improving upon and butchering a Taylor Swift song", and Saskin characterized it as "heartfelt and passionate".
Futterman said of "Flashdance... What a Feeling" that "there was a glimmer of old-school Glee in the performance, carefree underdog status that made me smile". Saskin and Chaney both found the performance lacking; the former wrote that "something about this version falls flat", and Chaney gave it a "B−" and said it "wasn't as soaring as it could have been", though "Rachel and Tina's bonding moment was sweet" and she liked "the way it took us from hour one into hour two and Nationals". Slezak and Strecker both gave the performance an "A−".
### Chart history
One of the four singles released for the episode, "Mean", charted on the Billboard Canadian Hot 100 at number 71, which was higher than either of the two songs that debuted on that chart from "Nationals" in the same week; none of these songs charted in the US. One other single from the episode, "I Won't Give Up", though it did not sell well enough to chart on the US Billboard Hot 100 the week it was released, affected the charting there of the Jason Mraz original, which moved up from 34 to 29 on the Hot 100; it had previously charted as high as number eight. |
45,537,539 | Constantine Angelos | 1,160,802,924 | Byzantine aristocrat | [
"1090s births",
"12th-century Byzantine people",
"12th-century deaths",
"Angelid dynasty",
"Byzantine admirals",
"Byzantine prisoners of war",
"Generals of Manuel I Komnenos",
"People from Alaşehir",
"Year of birth uncertain",
"Year of death unknown"
]
| Constantine Angelos (Greek: Κωνσταντῖνος Ἄγγελος; – after 1166) was a Byzantine aristocrat who married into the Komnenian dynasty and served as a military commander under Manuel I Komnenos, serving in the western and northern Balkans and as an admiral against the Normans. He was the founder of the Angelos dynasty, which went on to rule the Byzantine Empire in 1185–1204 and found and rule the Despotate of Epirus (1205–1318) and the Empire of Thessalonica (1224–1242/46).
## Life
Constantine was born in to an obscure family of the local aristocracy of Philadelphia. The family's surname, "Angelos", is commonly held to have derived from the Greek word for "angel", but such an origin is rarely attested in Byzantine times, and it is possible that their name instead derives from A[n]gel, a district near Amida in Upper Mesopotamia. The historian Suzanne Wittek-de Jongh suggested that Constantine was the son of a certain patrikios Manuel Angelos, whose possessions near Serres were confirmed by a chrysobull of Emperor Nikephoros III (r. 1078–1081), but this is considered unlikely by other scholars.
Despite his lowly origin, Constantine was reportedly brave and exceedingly beautiful, and managed to win the heart of Theodora Komnene (born 1097), the fourth daughter of Emperor Alexios I Komnenos (r. 1081–1118) and Irene Doukaina. Theodora had already been married once, to Constantine Kourtikes, but her husband had died without having had children. The marriage probably took place in , certainly after the death of Alexios I; Empress Irene apparently disapproved of it, and it seems to have soured her relations with Theodora, who is listed last and with the least favourable provisions in the typikon that Irene granted to the Kecharitomene Monastery.
Constantine's marriage lifted him out of obscurity, and gave him the title of sebastohypertatos, one of the highest Byzantine dignities, given to the husbands of an emperor's younger daughters. The rank may have been created specifically for Constantine, as he is one of the first two recorded holders. His activities during the reign of Theodora's brother John II Komnenos (r. 1118–1143) are unknown, but he, like his brothers, Nicholas, John, and Michael, enjoyed the favour of John's son and successor, Manuel I Komnenos (r. 1143–1180). Thus on 26 February 1147 he participated in the church council of Blachernae that deposed Patriarch Cosmas II Attikos, being ranked in fourth place behind the heir-apparent, despotes Bela-Alexios, the Caesar John Rogerios Dalassenos, and the panhypersebastos Stephen Kontostephanos. In summer 1149, he accompanied Emperor Manuel in his campaign in Dalmatia. After Manuel captured the fortress of Razon, Constantine was left to guard the area, and launched an expedition into the Nishava valley.
In 1154, as Manuel prepared for war with William I of Sicily, he gave his uncle command of the Byzantine fleet and ordered him to proceed to Monemvasia, where to await further reinforcements. Constantine, however, was persuaded by his astrologers that if he attacked the Sicilians he would win. Disobeying the Emperor's orders, he proceeded to intercept a far larger Sicilian fleet returning from a raid against Fatimid Egypt. In the ensuing engagement, the Byzantines were defeated and most of their ships were captured. His brother Nicholas managed to escape with a handful of ships, but Constantine was captured and imprisoned in Palermo until 1158, when Manuel concluded a peace treaty with William.
In June or July 1166, Emperor Manuel charged him and Basil Tripsychos with repairing and strengthening the fortifications of Zemun, Belgrade, and Niš, and generally strengthen Byzantium's frontier with Hungary along the middle Danube. As part of this process, he organized the resettlement of Braničevo. The date of his death is unknown; his wife possibly predeceased him, as she is last mentioned in 1136.
## Children
Through his marriage with Theodora, Constantine had seven children, three sons and four daughters. Through his sons, Constantine was the progenitor of the Angelos dynasty, which produced three Byzantine emperors in 1185–1204, as well as the "Angelos Komnenos Doukas" dynasty that ruled over Epirus and Thessalonica in the 13th–14th centuries.
- John Doukas ( – ), had several children by one or two marriages, and a bastard son. The latter, Michael I Komnenos Doukas (r. 1205–1214/15), would go on to found the Despotate of Epirus, and was succeeded by his half-brothers.
- Maria Angelina (born ), married Constantine Kamytzes, by whom she had a number of children, including Manuel Kamytzes.
- Alexios Komnenos Angelos (born ), married and fathered one son.
- Andronikos Angelos Doukas ( – before September 1185), married Euphrosyne Kastamonitissa, by whom he had nine children, including emperors Isaac II Angelos (r. 1185–1195, 1203–1204) and Alexios III Angelos (r. 1195–1203).
- Eudokia Angelina (born ), married Basil Tzykandeles Goudeles. The couple had no children.
- Zoe Angelina (born ), married Andronikos Synadenos. The couple had several children, whose names are unknown.
- Isaac Angelos Doukas (born ), married and had at least four children, including the unsuccessful usurper Constantine Angelos Doukas and the wife of Basil Vatatzes.
## Identity
Beginning with Du Cange, many earlier historians distinguished between two persons of this name, since the sources record that a minor noble named Constantine Angelos, from Philadelphia, married the fourth daughter of Alexios I Komnenos and received the title of pansebastohypertatos, whereas the Constantine Angelos, uncle of Manuel I and active during the latter's reign, is recorded in the sources as a sebastohypertatos. However, in 1961 Lucien Stiernon demonstrated that the two persons are in fact the same, with pansebastohypertatos being merely a rhetorical augmentation of the proper title. |
54,103,267 | 5th Massachusetts Militia Regiment | 1,128,615,397 | null | [
"Military units and formations disestablished in 1864",
"Military units and formations established in 1861",
"Units and formations of the Union Army from Massachusetts"
]
| The 5th Regiment Massachusetts Volunteer Militia was a peacetime infantry regiment that was activated for federal service in the Union army for three separate tours during the American Civil War. In the years immediately preceding the war and during its first term of service, the regiment consisted primarily of companies from Essex County as well as Boston and Charlestown.
The regiment first served a 90-day term of service from April to July 1861. Near the end of this first enlistment, the 5th Massachusetts was heavily engaged in the First Battle of Bull Run. Their second term of service lasted 9 months from September 1862 to July 1863 during which they were stationed in New Bern, North Carolina, participated in several expeditions and saw minor combat including the Battle of Goldsboro Bridge. Their third enlistment in response to the emergency call for troops to defend Washington, D.C. lasted 100 days from July to November 1864 during which they were stationed in various fortifications around Baltimore, Maryland, primarily in Fort McHenry.
## Earlier units
Other units dating back to the 18th century were given the designation 5th Regiment Massachusetts Militia. They were formed and disbanded repeatedly over more than a century prior to the Civil War. These included a regiment that served during King George's War in the siege of Louisbourg in 1745. During the Revolutionary War, the 5th Massachusetts Regiment saw action at the Battle of Bunker Hill, New York Campaign, Battle of Trenton, Battle of Princeton and Battle of Saratoga. The 5th Massachusetts that saw service during the Civil War was formed during the reorganization of the Massachusetts militia in 1855. At that time of its formation, the regiment was commanded by Colonel Charles B. Rogers. By the start of the Civil War in 1861, Samuel C. Lawrence commanded the unit and led it during its first term of service.
## 1861 term of service
On April 15, when President Lincoln called for 75,000 troops in response to the attack on Fort Sumter, the 5th Massachusetts was ordered by Massachusetts Governor John A. Andrew to prepare for active service in the field. Andrew dispatched four regiments on April 17 and 18, holding the 5th Massachusetts in reserve for the time being. On April 19, pro-secessionist rioters in Baltimore attacked the 6th Massachusetts as that regiment attempted to make their way to Washington. Alarmed by the escalation in violence, Andrew summoned the 5th Massachusetts to Boston to prepare for departure. The first companies arrived in Boston that same day on April 19. By April 20 the remaining companies reported and the regiment was prepared to depart. That night, the unit barracked in Faneuil Hall and departed for Virginia on April 21, 1861.
The regiment spent their first month of service drilling in Washington D.C. During this time they were barracked in the U.S. Treasury Building. On May 25, they marched to Alexandria, Virginia where they set up camp and remained for a month and a half. During this time, President Lincoln and his cabinet reviewed the regiment and dubbed them the "Steady Fifth" due to their performance during the review. While encamped in Alexandria, the unit received new uniforms consisting of dark blue coats and trousers—the Regular Army uniform of the time. The 5th Massachusetts was one of very few volunteer units to take the field in Regular Army uniforms and were frequently mistaken for Regular troops during the Bull Run campaign. On July 13, the 5th Massachusetts received orders to march for Centreville, Virginia.
On July 21, 1861, just days before the end of their 90-day term of service, the 5th Massachusetts took part in the First Battle of Bull Run, the first major engagement of Civil War. Before their departure from Alexandria, Major General Irvin McDowell, commanding the Union Army of Northeastern Virginia, addressed the 5th Massachusetts and, in light of their term of service being nearly at an end, offered them the option of foregoing the campaign. The 5th Massachusetts voted unanimously to go with McDowell's army. Assigned to the First Brigade (Franklin's), Third Division (Heintzelman's) of the Army of Northeastern Virginia, the 5th Massachusetts was among those units sent to probe the Confederate right flank on July 18 resulting in the Battle of Blackburn's Ford. When this maneuver failed, McDowell opted to send a large portion of his forces on a wide flanking maneuver across Sudley Springs Ford, hoping to get around the Confederate left flank. On July 21, precisely three months after they departed Boston, the 5th Massachusetts crossed Sudley Springs Ford and participated in pitched combat on Henry House Hill.
The regiment advanced more than a mile from Sudley Springs Ford to Henry House Hill at the double-quick in full gear. This rapid pace executed with heavy knapsacks was a challenge for the inexperienced regiment. When they reached the foot of the hill, General Heintzelman led the 5th Massachusetts, the 11th Massachusetts and Ricketts's Battery up the slope in an effort to retake several Union batteries and turn the Confederate right flank. Confederate artillery stopped their advance and the 5th Massachusetts was ordered to lay prone on the slope of the hill under direct artillery fire. Color Sergeant W. H. Lawrence stood during this time and was killed by artillery fire. Colonel Lawrence, who also remained standing at the center of his regiment, was among the wounded and carried from the field. When Confederate General Thomas "Stonewall" Jackson led a counterattack, the 5th Massachusetts retreated in disorder from Henry House Hill with the rest of the Union Army. The unit suffered casualties of 9 killed and 11 wounded and 22 prisoners.
The 5th Massachusetts embarked for Boston less than a week after the Union army's retreat back to Washington. They were mustered out on July 30, 1861.
## 1862-1863 term of service
The regiment was again activated for federal service following Lincoln's call in August 1862 for 300,000 troops to serve for nine months. Five of the original companies (half the regiment) returned for the second tour. The other five companies were newly recruited. The unit was mustered in at Camp Lander in Wenham, Massachusetts beginning September 16, 1862. The regiment departed Massachusetts on October 22, assigned to Major General John G. Foster's Department of North Carolina, later designated as the XVIII Corps. Colonel George H. Peirson of Salem, Massachusetts commanded the regiment during its second term of service.
The 5th Massachusetts joined General Foster's command at New Bern, North Carolina at the end of October 1862. During November, they took part in an expedition to Williamston, North Carolina but met with no serious opposition from the enemy. In the fall of 1862, New Bern suffered from an outbreak of yellow fever which affected the soldiers encamped around the city. During their service in North Carolina, the 5th Massachusetts suffered no fatalities in combat but lost 16 men to disease.
In December, the regiment saw its first combat of their second enlistment during the Goldsboro Expedition. The objective of this maneuver was to disrupt the Confederate supply line along the Wilmington and Weldon Railroad by destroying the Goldsboro Bridge. Over the course of this expedition, the unit marched 180 miles and took part in the Battles of Kinston, White Hall and Goldsboro Bridge. During the latter engagement on December 15, 1862, the Goldsboro Bridge was destroyed by Union troops. On December 17, the expedition began its return march to New Bern while the 5th Massachusetts was posted to act as rear guard. In meeting these orders, they withstood heavy fire for two hours and repulsed one infantry charge. At the close of the expedition, the regiment had suffered light casualties of eight wounded.
In January 1863, the regiment received orders to fortify their camp outside of New Bern. The improved camp was named Fort Peirson in honor of their commanding officer. During the spring of 1863, the unit took part in several expeditions to reconnoiter and dislodge enemy positions along the Pamlico and Neuse Rivers. These expeditions involved only minor skirmishing.
The regiment left New Bern for Boston on June 22, 1863, arriving on June 25. On June 26, the 5th Massachusetts paraded through Boston and Charlestown accompanied by various ceremonial units and marching bands. On July 2, 1863, the unit was mustered out at Camp Lander.
## 1864 term of service
In the spring of 1864, as Major General Ulysses Grant prepared to launch his Overland Campaign, he removed fresh troops from the defensive fortifications of Washington and transferred them into the field to strengthen the Army of the Potomac. Capitalizing on this reduction of manpower, Confederate General Robert E. Lee ordered Jubal Early to launch an offensive against the largely undefended capital from the Shenandoah Valley. The attack failed, however the fact that Confederate troops advanced to the outskirts of Washington D.C. caused widespread panic. This prompted Lincoln to issue a call for 500,000 troops to serve a brief term of 100 days to bolster defenses around the capital.
The 5th Massachusetts was activated for a third time in response to this call. Men began to be mustered in on July 16, 1864 at Camp Meigs just outside Boston. Colonel George H. Peirson again commanded the regiment. The roster of officers was fundamentally the same as that of the 9-months term of service as was that of the rank and file. Recruitment was rushed, new enlistments were given only most minimal training, and the regiment departed Boston on July 28, 1864 for Baltimore.
Shortly after reaching Baltimore, the 5th Massachusetts occupied Fort McHenry. Three companies were later detached to serve garrison duty at Fort Marshall. Other companies were stationed on Federal Hill. The 5th Massachusetts men who remained at Fort McHenry were present for the 50th anniversary of the famed bombardment of the fort during the Battle of Baltimore on September 13, 1814. The regimental historian noted that their duties in Baltimore were focused more on maintaining order in a city known for its secessionist views rather than external threats. During the presidential election in October 1864, detachments of the 5th Massachusetts guarded the election polls in various locations in and around Baltimore.
On November 1, 1864, the 5th Massachusetts departed Baltimore and reached Boston on November 7. They were mustered out for the final time at Camp Meigs on November 16, 1864.
## Memorials
Soldiers of the 5th Massachusetts who died during their second term of service with the Department of North Carolina are buried in the New Bern National Cemetery. The 5th Massachusetts is one of 17 Massachusetts regiments listed on the monument placed there by the Commonwealth of Massachusetts in 1908.
## See also
- List of Massachusetts Civil War units
- Massachusetts in the Civil War |
7,732,196 | Turkey at the 1994 Winter Olympics | 1,145,881,323 | null | [
"1994 in Turkish sport",
"Nations at the 1994 Winter Olympics",
"Turkey at the Winter Olympics by year"
]
| Turkey sent a delegation to compete at the 1994 Winter Olympics in Lillehammer, Norway from 12–27 February. Turkey was making its 11th appearance at the Winter Olympic Games. The delegation consisted of a single athlete, cross-country skier Mithat Yıldırım. In his only event, he finished in 87th place.
## Background
The Turkish Olympic Committee was recognised by the International Olympic Committee on 1 January 1911. They have participated in almost every Summer Olympic Games since, except for 1920, 1932, and the boycotted 1980 Summer Olympics. Since their first Winter Olympics participation at the 1936 Winter Olympics, Turkey has only missed three editions of the Winter Games, the 1952, 1972, and the 1980 Winter Olympics. Thus Lillehammer was Turkey's 11th appearance at a Winter Olympics. The 1994 Winter Olympics were held from 12–27 February 1994, a total of 1,737 athletes representing 67 National Olympic Committees took part. The Turkish delegation to Lillehammer consisted of a single athlete, cross-country skier Mithat Yıldırım. He was chosen as the flag bearer for the opening ceremony.
## Competitors
The following is the list of number of competitors in the Games.
## Cross-country skiing
Mithat Yıldırım was 28 at the time of the Lillehammer Olympics, and he had previously represented Turkey two years before in the 1992 Albertville Olympics. In his only event, the 10 kilometre classical held on 17 February, he finished with a time of 32 minutes and 34.8 seconds. This put him in 87th place out of 88 men who finished the competition, and he was slightly over eight minutes behind the gold medal time, set by Bjørn Dæhlie of Norway. The silver medal was won by Kazakhstan's Vladimir Smirnov, and the bronze was taken by Marco Albarello of Italy. |
16,987,358 | Western Mexico shaft tomb tradition | 1,159,384,805 | Western Mexico shaft tomb tradition | [
"Archaeological sites in Colima",
"Archaeological sites in Jalisco",
"Archaeological sites in Nayarit",
"Capacha culture",
"Mesoamerican cultures",
"Pre-Columbian art"
]
| The Western Mexico shaft tomb tradition refers to a set of interlocked cultural traits found in the western Mexican states of Jalisco, Nayarit, and, to a lesser extent, Colima to its south, roughly dating to the period between 300 BCE and 400 CE, although there is not wide agreement on this end date. Nearly all of the artifacts associated with this shaft tomb tradition have been discovered by looters and are without provenance, making dating problematic.
The first major undisturbed shaft tomb associated with the tradition was not discovered until 1993 at Huitzilapa, Jalisco.
Originally regarded as of Purépecha origin, contemporary with the Aztecs, it became apparent in the middle of the 20th century, as a result of further research, that the artifacts and tombs were instead over a thousand years older. Until recently, the looted artifacts were all that was known of the people and culture or cultures that created the shaft tombs. So little was known, in fact, that a major 1998 exhibition highlighting these artifacts was subtitled: "Art and Archaeology of the Unknown Past".
It is now thought that, although shaft tombs are widely diffused across the area, the region was not a unified cultural area. Archaeologists, however, still struggle with identifying and naming the ancient western Mexico cultures of this period.
## Description
The shaft tomb tradition is thought to have developed around 300 BCE. Some shaft tombs predate the tradition by more than 1000 years – for example, the shaft tomb at El Opeño in Michoacán has been dated to 1500 BCE but is linked to Central, rather than Western, Mexico. Like much else concerning the tradition, its origins are not well understood, although the valleys around Tequila, Jalisco, which include the archaeological sites of Huitzilapa and Teuchitlan, constitute its "undisputed core". The tradition lasted until at least 300 CE although there is not wide agreement on the end date.
The Western Mexico shaft tombs are characterized by a vertical or nearly vertical shaft, dug 3 to 20 metres down into what is often underlying volcanic tuff. The base of the shaft opens into one or two (occasionally more) horizontal chambers, perhaps 4 by 4 metres (varying considerably), with a low ceiling. The shaft tombs were often associated with an overlying building.
Multiple burials are found in each chamber and evidence indicates that the tombs were used for families or lineages over time. The labor involved in the creation of the shaft tombs along with the number and quality of the grave goods indicate that the tombs were used exclusively by the society's elites, and demonstrate that the shaft tomb cultures were highly stratified at this early date.
The sites of El Opeño and La Campana in Colima feature some shaft tombs, and are often associated with the Capacha culture.
## Ceramic figurines and tableaus
Grave goods within these tombs include hollow ceramic figures, obsidian and shell jewelry, semi-precious stones, pottery (which often contained food), and other household implements such as spindle whorls and metates. More unusual items include conch shell trumpets covered with stucco and other appliques. Unlike those of other Mesoamerican cultures such as the Olmec and the Maya, shaft tomb artifacts carry little to no iconography and so are seemingly bereft of symbolic or religious meaning.
The plentiful ceramic figurines have attracted the most attention, and are among the most dramatic and interesting produced in Mesoamerica. In fact, these ceramics were apparently the primary outlet for artistic expression for the shaft tomb cultures and there is little to no record of associated monumental architecture, stelae, or other public art.
Since the vast majority of these ceramics are without provenance, analysis has largely focused on the ceramics' styles and subjects.
### Styles
The major stylistic groups include:
- Ixtlan del Rio. These abstract figurines have flat, squarish bodies with highly stylized faces complete with nose rings and multiple earrings. Seated figurines have thin rope-like limbs while the standing figurines have short stocky limbs. One of the first styles to be described, noted ethnographer, and caricaturist Miguel Covarrubias stated that it "reaches the limits of absurd, brutal caricature, a peculiar aesthetic concept that relishes the creation of haunting subhuman monstrosities". Art historian George Kubler finds that "the square bodies, grimacing mouths, and staring eyes convey a disturbing expression which is only in part resolved by the animation and plastic energy of the turgid forms".
- "Chinesca" or "Chinesco" figurines were named by art dealers after their supposed Chinese-like appearance. An early type, Chinesco is identified with Nayarit and up to five major subgroups have been identified, although there is considerable overlap. Type A figurines, the so-called "classic Chinesco", are realistically rendered. One prominent curator, Michael Kan, finds that "their calm, subtle exterior suggests rather than demonstrates emotion". These Type A figures are so similar to one another that it has been suggested that they were the production of a single "school". Types B through E are more abstract, characterized by puffy, slit-like eyes blended into the face, and broad rectangular or triangular heads. These figures are often shown seated or reclining, with shortened bulbous legs quickly tapering to a point.
- The Ameca style, associated with Jalisco, is characterized by an elongated face and a high forehead which is often capped by braids or turban-like headgear. The aquiline nose is also elongated and the large eyes are wide and staring, with pronounced rims created by adding separate strips of clay ("fillets") around the eyes. The wide mouth is closed or slightly opened and the large hands have carefully delineated nails. Kubler detects both an early "sheep-faced" style that seem "eroded or melted in the continuous passages of modelling that unite rather than divide the parts of the body" and a later style which are "more animated and more incisively articulated".
- Colima ceramics can be identified by their smooth, round forms and their warm brown-red slip. Colima is particularly known for its wide range of animal, especially dog, figurines. Human subjects within the Colima style are more "mannered and less exuberant" than other shaft tomb figurines.
Other styles include El Arenal, San Sebastián, and Zacatecas. Although there is general agreement on style names and characteristics, it is not unanimous. Moreover, these styles often overlap to one degree or another, and many figurines defy categorization.
### Subject matter
Common subjects of shaft tomb tradition ceramics are:
- Ceramic tableaus showing several or even several dozen people engaged in various seemingly typical activities. Concentrated in highland Nayarit and adjoining Jalisco, these tableaus present rich ethnographic insight into funerary practices, the Mesoamerican ballgame, architecture (most importantly perishable architecture), and perhaps even religious thought during the late Formative period.
Some tableaus are almost photographic in their detail and have even been associated with architecture ruins in the field.
- Ceramic dogs are widely known from looted tombs in Colima. Dogs were generally believed in Mesoamerican cultures to represent soul guides of the dead and several dog ceramics wear human masks. Nonetheless, it should also be noted that dogs were often the major source of animal protein in ancient Mesoamerica.
- Ancestor (or marriage) pairs of female and male figurines are common among shaft tomb tradition grave goods. These figurines, perhaps representing ancestors, may be joined or separate and often are executed in the Ixtlán del Río style.
- Many shaft tomb figurines, spanning various Western Mexico styles and locations, wear a horn set high on the forehead. Several theories have been advanced for these horns: that they show that the figure is a shaman, that they are abstract conch shells (a not uncommon shaft tomb relic) and as such, are an emblem of rulership, or are a phallic symbol. These theories are not mutually exclusive.
### Uses
While these ceramics were obviously recovered as grave goods, there is a question of whether they were specifically created for a mortuary rite, or whether they were used prior to burial, perhaps by the deceased. While some ceramics do show signs of wear, it is as yet unclear whether this was the exception or the rule.
## Context
### Western Mexico cultures
Considerable effort has been made connecting the shaft tomb tradition to the Teuchitlán tradition, a complex society that occupies much the same geography as the shaft tomb tradition.
Unlike the typical Mesoamerican pyramids and rectangular central plazas, the Teuchitlán tradition is marked by central circular plazas and unique conical pyramids. This circular architectural style is seemingly mirrored in the many circular shaft tomb tableau scenes. Known primarily from this architecture, the Teuchitlán tradition rises at roughly the same time as the shaft tomb tradition, 300 BCE, but lasts until 900 CE, many centuries after the end of the shaft tomb tradition. The Teuchitlán tradition then appears to be an outgrowth and elaboration of the shaft tomb tradition.
### Mesoamerican cultures
Because western Mexico is on the very periphery of Mesoamerica, it has long been considered outside the Mesoamerican mainstream and the cultures at this time appear to be particularly insulated from many mainstream Mesoamerican influences. For example, no Olmec-influenced artifacts have been recovered from shaft tombs, nor are any Mesoamerican calendars or writing systems in evidence, although some Mesoamerican cultural markers, particularly the Mesoamerican ballgame, are present.
Despite this, the inhabitants of this area lived much like their Mesoamerican counterparts elsewhere. The usual trio of beans, squash, and maize was supplemented with chiles, manioc and other tubers, various grains, and with animal protein from domestic dogs, turkeys, and ducks, and from hunting. They lived in thatched roof wattle-and-daub houses, grew cotton and tobacco, and conducted some long-distance trade in obsidian and other goods.
Shaft tombs themselves are not encountered elsewhere in Mesoamerica and their nearest counterparts come from northwestern South America.
### South American shaft tombs
Shaft tombs also appear in northwestern South America in a somewhat later timeframe than western Mexico (e.g. 200-300 CE in northern Peru, later in other areas). To Dorothy Hosler, Professor of Archaeology and Ancient Technology at MIT, "The physical similarities between the northern South American and West Mexican tomb types are unmistakable." while art historian George Kubler finds that the western Mexican chambers "resemble the shafted tombs of the upper Cauca river in Colombia". However, others disagree that the similarity of form demonstrates cultural linkages—Karen Olsen Bruhns states that "this sort of contact . . . seems mainly in the (muddled) eye of the synthesizer".
However, other linkages between Western Mexico and northwestern South America have been proposed, in particular the development of metallurgy. See Metallurgy in pre-Columbian Mesoamerica.
## History of scholarly research
The first major work to discuss artifacts associated with the shaft tomb tradition was Carl Sofus Lumholtz's 1902 work, Unknown Mexico. Along with illustrations of several of the grave goods, the Norwegian explorer described a looted shaft tomb he had visited in 1896. He also visited and described the ruins of Tzintzuntzan, the seat of the Tarascan state some 250 kilometres (160 mi) to the east, and was one of the first to incorrectly use the term "Tarascan" (Purépecha) to describe the shaft tomb artifacts.
During the 1930s, artist Diego Rivera began accumulating many Western Mexico artifacts for his private collection, a personal interest that sparked a wider public interest in West Mexican grave goods. It was in the late 1930s that one of the most prominent of Western Mexico archaeologists, Isabel Truesdell Kelly, began her investigations. In the period from 1944 until 1985, Kelly would eventually publish over a dozen scholarly papers on her work in this region. In 1948, she was the first to hypothesize the existence of the "shaft tomb arc", the geographic distribution of shaft tomb sites over western Mexico (see map above).
In 1946, Salvador Toscano challenged the attribution of shaft tomb artifacts to the Purépechans, a challenge that was echoed in 1957 by Miguel Covarrubias who firmly declared that Purépecha culture appeared only "after the 10th century". Toscano's and Covarrubias's views were later upheld by radiocarbon dating of plundered shaft tombs' charcoal and other organic remains salvaged in the 1960s by Diego Delgado and Peter Furst. As the result of these excavations and his ethnological investigations of the modern-day indigenous Huichol and Cora peoples of Nayarit, Furst proposed that the artifacts were not only mere representations of ancient peoples, but also contained deeper significance. The model houses, for example, showed the living dwelling in context with the dead – a miniature cosmogram – and the horned warriors (as discussed above) were shaman battling mystical forces.
In 1974, Hasso von Winning published an exhaustive classification of Western Mexico shaft tomb artifacts (including, for example, the Chinesco A through D types mentioned above), a classification still largely in use today.
The 1993 discovery of an unlooted shaft tomb at Huitzilapa is the latest major milestone, providing "the most detailed information to date on the funerary customs" associated with shaft tomb tradition.
## See also
- La Campana (archaeological site)
- Naguals, mythical shape-shifters often portrayed on West Mexico ceramics. |
34,153,686 | The Beguiling | 1,131,608,131 | Comic shop in Toronto, Ontario, Canada | [
"Comics retailers in Canada",
"Harry Kremer Retailer Award winners",
"Shops in Toronto"
]
| The Beguiling is a comic shop in Toronto, Ontario, Canada. It specializes in underground and alternative comics, classic comic strip reprints, and foreign comics. It has built an international reputation for focusing on and promoting non-superhero comics in the superhero-dominated North American comic book market.
The store has made effort to promote comics culture in Toronto by organizing the annual Toronto Comic Arts Festival (TCAF) in coöperation with the Toronto Public Library, which also hosts Page & Panel, a nonprofit shop to support TCAF. The Beguiling also runs a sister store, Little Island Comics, the first North American comic shop aimed exclusively at children.
## History
Founded in 1987 by Steve Solomos and Sean Scoffield on Harbord Street near the University of Toronto in Toronto, Ontario, Canada, The Beguiling quickly built a reputation for the diversity of its stock, focused on art-oriented, avant-garde, underground and alternative comics—"anything that is even peripherally comic book-oriented", according to current owner Peter Birkemoe. In the earliest days, much of the store's income was made through mail order, as the material it dealt in was not mainstream. It also built a reputation for stocking the works of cartoonists such as Chester Brown and Julie Doucet, whose comics most stores would not handle due to the controversial nature of their contents. Well-known Toronto-based cartoonists such as the trio of Brown, Seth and Joe Matt became associated with the store, and sometimes depicted it in their comics. Others such as Jay Stephens made it their shop of choice.
In 1998, Solomos and Scoffield decided to devote their time to creating art (and later film production), and ownership was passed to Peter Birkemoe and Shane Chung, who expanded operations. In 1992 it relocated to a two-floor Victorian building in Mirvish Village in Toronto, and has since branched out into selling to libraries, organizing the Toronto Comic Arts Festival, and running two more locations: Little Island Comics, which caters to children; and the nonprofit Page & Panel in the Toronto Public Library. By 2017, 50% of its sales were to libraries across Canada.
Plans to redevelop Mirvish Village as condominiums pushed The Beguiling to find a new location. It moved 3 January 2017 to a 900-square-foot (84 m<sup>2</sup>) location at 319 College Street, near the University of Toronto. The new location has since grown to about double the floor space of the previous one.
## Description and reputation
The Beguiling is "a store with an agenda", according to Birkemoe, and has been derided for some for its perceived elitism, which stems in part from its sponsoring of Crash, a journal of comics criticism that mainly condemned bad comics. Others, such as comics historian Charles Hatfield, have praised the store for its sense of history, saying, "You always leave the shop with a larger sense of what comics are about." The Beguiling is patronized by an international audience. The store has made the top five retailer list in The Comics Journal, and among the awards it has received, it shared the inaugural Eisner Spirit of Retailing Award in 1993, and it won the Joe Shuster Awards' Harry Kremer Retailer Award in 2010.
## Toronto Comic Arts Festival
In 2003, Peter Birkemoe and Chris Butcher of The Beguiling first organized the Toronto Comic Arts Festival (TCAF). Unusual in the world of comics conventions, TCAF is a free-admission event. It focuses on alternative and independent comics, but includes other creative arts besides comics. Rather than being like a traditional comics convention, it is patterned after European festivals such as Angoulême, and the American Small Press Expo.
## Little Island Comics
As most North American comic shops focus on teenage and adult customers, and The Beguiling itself mainly on adults, the owners wanted to fill a void by opening the first children's comic shop in North America, and possibly the world. Little Island Comics opened 6 September 2011 at 742 Bathurst Street in the Annex, close to The Beguiling. The shop was designed with children in mind, with bright colours and shelves at child-height.
When Mirvish Village closed in 2017, so did Little Island; several of the staff moved to Page & Panel. Little Island Comics re-opened at 323 College Street in February 2018, next to The Beguiling's new location there.
## See also
- The Silver Snail |
1,325,895 | SR N15X class | 1,171,654,506 | Design of British 4-6-0 steam locomotives converted from 4-6-4 tank locomotives | [
"4-6-0 locomotives",
"Railway locomotives introduced in 1934",
"Scrapped locomotives",
"Southern Railway (UK) locomotives",
"Standard gauge steam locomotives of Great Britain"
]
| The SR N15X class or Remembrance class were a design of British 4-6-0 steam locomotives converted in 1934 by Richard Maunsell of the Southern Railway from the large LB&SCR L class 4-6-4 tank locomotives that had become redundant on the London–Brighton line following electrification. It was hoped that further service could be obtained from these locomotives on the Southern's Western Section, sharing the duties of the N15 class locomotives. The locomotives were named after famous Victorian engineers except for Remembrance, which was the LBSCR's memorial locomotive for staff members who died in the First World War.
In their new form the locomotives were similar in outline to the N15 class, though suffered from the expectation amongst crews that they were an improved version of this type. Despite this, their ability to accelerate well was put to good use on cross-country trains between main lines. The class saw service into nationalisation in 1948. All had been withdrawn by 1957, with none preserved.
## Background
With the impending electrification of the Southern Railway's Central Section (the former LB&SCR lines), the question arose as to what to do with the relatively new and powerful LB&SCR designs. Maunsell looked at the possibility of converting the LB&SCR “Remembrance” or L Class 4-6-4 tanks built by L. B. Billinton between 1914 and 1922. These Baltics had proved to be capable machines on the Brighton line, although their relatively low boiler pressure (170 psi or 1.17 MPa), the excessive difference between "first valve" and "second valve" on the regulator, and more particularly their small (8 in or 203 mm) piston valves in relation to their large (21 in or 533 mm) cylinders were a significant limitation, precluding their use on any other part of the Southern system. The limited coal and water capacity also limited their range, though adequate for the short runs on the Brighton line. The decision was taken to rebuild them into more conventional 4-6-0 tender locomotives.
## Conversion
All seven of the Billinton L Class locomotives entered Eastleigh works in 1934 for rebuilding, each leaving the works the same year. Conversion into the 4-6-0 tender type, entailed removing the trailing bogie, water tanks, and bunker, shortening the mainframes and fitting new cabs; these were of the side-window variety already used on the Lord Nelson class. At the same time there was a revision of the locomotives' front end arrangement incorporating a "King Arthur" N15 type of blast pipe and chimney; boiler pressure was increased to 180 psi (1.24 MPa), whilst the piston diameter was marginally decreased from 22 in (559 mm) to 21 in (533 mm).
The class received 5,000 imperial gallons (23,000 L; 6,000 US gal) bogie tenders from Robert Urie's S15 class and Southern-type smoke deflectors on either side of the smokebox. The result was classified N15X, the suffix corresponding to the old LBSCR designation for a rebuilt/modified locomotive. The conversion process created a locomotive that was similar in appearance to the N15 "King Arthur" class as modified by Maunsell in the 1920s.
### Naming the locomotives
Two of the locomotives retained their original names: number 2333 Remembrance and 2329 Stephenson, whilst the other members of the L class, were newly named after famous railway engineers. The new locomotive names were suggested by Maunsell's assistant, Harry Holcroft, and were distributed as thus:
2327 Trevithick, 2328 Hackworth, 2329 Stephenson, 2330 Cudworth, 2331 Beattie, 2332 Stroudley, 2333 Remembrance
2333 Remembrance retained its name as it had been the LBSCR's designated memorial to employees lost in the First World War. However the original LBSCR nameplates were straight for water tank mounting, necessitating new rounded plates to fit over the central wheel splashers (see colour plate in infobox above).
## Operational details
The rebuilding caused a certain amount of controversy among footplate crews, with some maintaining that one could not make so many changes and have a reliable locomotive at the end of the process. The class suffered on the South Western section from the expectation that they were an improved version of the N15 "King Arthur" class. Once this misconception was overcome, the class came into their own on the Basingstoke services, where their ability to accelerate well was put to good use. However, the rebuilds gained a reputation for rough riding and relatively poor efficiency when compared to the N15s, and were dissimilar in performance to the original L class locomotives, making them unpopular with crews. Because of this, the class was used on secondary duties, cross-country and inter-regional trains around Basingstoke rather than the heavy London to Exeter expresses for which they were intended.
Several of the class were loaned to the Great Western Railway between 1942 and 1944 to assist in bolstering freight power, of which there was an acute shortage on that railway during the Second World War. The class saw use after nationalisation in 1948, but with increasing numbers of Bulleid Pacifics able to take over their duties the Remembrance class began to be withdrawn from service during the mid-1950s. Hackworth was the first to be withdrawn, in 1955, and finally Beattie in 1957. The early withdrawal of the class ensured that none were preserved.
## Accidents and incidents
- In 1940, No. 2328 Hackworth was at the Nine Elms shed when it and LSWR T14 No. 458 and four LSWR Class N15 express engines which included 751 Etarre, No. 755 The Red Knight, No. 775 Sir Agravaine, and No. 776 Sir Galagars suffered air raid damage. The T14 engine was scrapped while the other engines were eventually repaired.
- On 23 December 1955, locomotive No. 32327 Trevithick was hauling a passenger train that ran into the rear of another at Woking, Surrey. The locomotive was deemed beyond economic repair and was scrapped at Eastleigh Works, Hampshire.
## Livery and numbering
### Southern
Under Southern ownership, the "Remembrances" were originally painted in Maunsell's Olive Green livery as seen above, with "Southern" and the locomotive's number on the tender tank. Wartime service under the Southern saw the locomotives painted in black livery with "Sunshine Yellow" lettering. Numbers allocated to the locomotives were 2327 to 2333. After the war, the locomotives were turned out in Bulleid's Southern Railway Malachite Green livery with "Sunshine Yellow" lettering.
### British Railways
After nationalisation in 1948, the locomotives' initial livery was a slightly modified Southern Malachite Green livery, where "British Railways" replaced "Southern" in "Sunshine Yellow" lettering on the tender sides. From 1949, the class was turned out in British Railways mixed-traffic black livery with red and cream lining. The British Railways crest was placed on the tender water tank sides. Numbering was in the 32xxx series, as numbers 32327 to 32333. |
377,386 | 1947 BSAA Avro Lancastrian Star Dust accident | 1,168,468,422 | Fatal aviation accident | [
"1947 disasters in Argentina",
"Airliner accidents and incidents involving controlled flight into terrain",
"August 1947 events in South America",
"Aviation accidents and incidents in 1947",
"Aviation accidents and incidents in Argentina",
"British South American Airways accidents and incidents"
]
| On 2 August 1947, Star Dust, a British South American Airways (BSAA) Avro Lancastrian airliner on a flight from Buenos Aires, Argentina, to Santiago, Chile, crashed into Mount Tupungato in the Argentine Andes. An extensive search operation failed to locate the wreckage, despite covering the area of the crash site. The fate of the aircraft and its occupants remained unknown for over fifty years, giving rise to various conspiracy theories about its disappearance.
In the late 1990s, pieces of wreckage from the missing aircraft began to emerge from the glacial ice. It is now believed that the crew became confused as to their exact location while flying at high altitudes through the (then poorly understood) jet stream. Mistakenly believing they had already cleared the mountain tops, they started their descent when they were in fact still behind cloud-covered peaks. Star Dust crashed into Mount Tupungato, killing all aboard and burying itself in snow and ice.
The last word in Star Dust's final Morse code transmission to Santiago airport, "STENDEC", was received by the airport control tower four minutes before its planned landing and repeated twice; it has never been satisfactorily explained.
## Background
The accident aircraft, an Avro 691 Lancastrian 3, was built as constructor's number 1280 for the Argentine Ministry of Supply to carry thirteen passengers, and first flew on 27 November 1945. Its civil certificate of airworthiness (CofA) number 7282 was issued on 1 January 1946. It was delivered to BSAA on 12 January 1946, was registered on 16 January as G-AGWH and given the individual aircraft name "Star Dust".
Star Dust carried six passengers and a crew of five on its final flight. The captain, Reginald Cook, was an experienced former Royal Air Force pilot with combat experience during the Second World War, as were his first officer, Norman Hilton Cook, and second officer, Donald Checklin. Cook had been awarded the Distinguished Service Order (DSO) and the Distinguished Flying Cross (DFC). The radio operator, Dennis Harmer, also had a record of wartime as well as civilian service. Iris Evans, who had previously served in the Women's Royal Naval Service ("Wrens") as a chief petty officer, was the flight attendant.
Star Dust's last flight was the final leg of BSAA Flight CS59, which had started in London on an Avro York named Star Mist on 29 July 1947, landing in Buenos Aires on 1 August. The passengers were one woman and five men of Palestinian, Swiss, German and British nationality. One was a British diplomatic courier, a King's Messenger. Marta Limpert, a German émigré, was the only passenger known for certain to have initially boarded Star Mist in London before changing aircraft in Buenos Aires to continue on to Santiago with the other passengers.
## Disappearance
Star Dust left Buenos Aires at 1:46 pm on 2 August. This leg of the flight was apparently uneventful until the radio operator (Harmer) sent a routine message in Morse code to the airport in Santiago at 5:41 pm, announcing an expected arrival of 5:45 pm. However, Star Dust never arrived, no more radio transmissions were received by the airport, and intensive efforts by both Chilean and Argentine search teams, as well as by other BSAA pilots, failed to uncover any trace of the aircraft or of the people on board. The head of BSAA, Air Vice Marshal Don Bennett, personally directed an unsuccessful five-day search.
A report by an amateur radio operator who claimed to have received a faint SOS signal from Star Dust initially raised hopes that there might have been survivors, but all subsequent attempts over the years to find the vanished aircraft failed. In the absence of any hard evidence, numerous theories arose—including rumours of sabotage (compounded by the later disappearance of two other aircraft also belonging to BSAA); speculation that Star Dust might have been blown up to destroy diplomatic documents being carried by the King's Messenger; or even the suggestion that Star Dust had been taken or destroyed by a UFO (an idea fuelled by unresolved questions about the flight's final Morse code message).
## Discovery of wreckage and reconstruction of the crash
In 1998, two Argentine mountaineers climbing Mount Tupungato—about 60 mi (100 km) west-southwest of Mendoza, and about 50 mi (80 km) east of Santiago—found the wreckage of a Rolls-Royce Merlin aircraft engine, along with twisted pieces of metal and shreds of clothing, in the Tupungato Glacier at an elevation of 15,000 ft (4,600 m).
In 2000, an Argentine Army expedition found additional wreckage—including a propeller and wheels (one of which had an intact and inflated tyre)—and noted that the wreckage was well localised, a fact which pointed to a head-on impact with the ground, and which also ruled out a mid-air explosion. Human remains were also recovered, including three torsos, a foot in an ankle boot and a manicured hand. By 2002, the bodies of five of the eight British victims had been identified through DNA testing.
A recovered propeller showed that the engine had been running at near-cruising speed at the time of the impact. Additionally, the condition of the wheels proved that the undercarriage was still retracted, suggesting controlled flight into terrain rather than an attempted emergency landing. During the final portion of Star Dust's flight, heavy clouds would have blocked visibility of the ground. It has therefore been suggested that, in the absence of visual sightings of the ground due to the clouds, a navigational error could have been made as the aircraft flew through the jet stream—a phenomenon not well understood in 1947, in which high-altitude winds can blow at high speed in directions different from those of winds observed at ground level. If the airliner, which had to cross the Andes mountain range at 24,000 feet (7,300 m), had entered the jet-stream zone—which in this area normally blows from the west and south-west, resulting in the aircraft encountering a headwind—this would have significantly decreased the aircraft's ground speed.
Mistakenly assuming their ground speed to be faster than it really was, the crew might have deduced that they had already safely crossed the Andes, and so commenced their descent to Santiago, whereas in fact they were still a considerable distance to the east-north-east and were approaching the cloud-enshrouded Tupungato Glacier at high speed. Some BSAA pilots, however, expressed scepticism at this theory; convinced that Cook would not have started his descent without a positive indication that he had crossed the mountains; they have suggested that strong winds may have brought down the craft in some other way. One of the pilots recalled that "we had all been warned not to enter cloud over the mountains as the turbulence and icing posed too great a threat."
A set of events similar to those that doomed Star Dust also caused the crash of Uruguayan Air Force Flight 571 in 1972 (depicted in the film Alive), although there were survivors from that crash because it involved a glancing blow to a mountainside rather than a head-on collision.
Star Dust is likely to have flown into a nearly vertical snowfield near the top of the glacier, causing an avalanche that buried the wreckage within seconds and concealed it from searchers. As the compressed snow turned to ice, the wreckage would have been incorporated into the body of the glacier, with fragments emerging many years later and much further down the mountain. Between 1998 and 2000, about ten per cent of the total expected wreckage emerged from the glacier, prompting several re-examinations of the accident. More debris is expected to emerge in future, not only as a result of normal glacial motion, but also as the glacier melts.
A 2000 Argentine Air Force investigation cleared Cook of any blame, concluding that the crash had resulted from "a heavy snowstorm" and "very cloudy weather", as a result of which the crew "were unable to correct their positioning".
## STENDEC
The last Morse code message sent by Star Dust was "ETA SANTIAGO 17.45 HRS STENDEC". The Chilean Air Force radio operator at Santiago airport described this transmission as coming in "loud and clear" but very fast; as he did not recognise the last word, he requested clarification and heard "STENDEC" repeated twice in succession before contact with the aircraft was lost. This word has not been definitively explained and has given rise to much speculation.
The staff of the BBC television series Horizon—which presented an episode in 2000 on the Star Dust disappearance—received hundreds of messages from viewers proposing explanations of "STENDEC". These included suggestions that the radio operator, possibly suffering from hypoxia, had scrambled the word "DESCENT" (of which "STENDEC" is an anagram); that "STENDEC" may have been the initials of some obscure phrase or that the airport radio operator had misheard the Morse code transmission despite it reportedly having been repeated multiple times. The Horizon staff concluded that, with the possible exception of some misunderstanding based on Morse code, none of these proposed solutions was plausible. It has also been suggested that World War II pilots used this seemingly obscure abbreviation when an aircraft was in hazardous weather and was likely to crash, meaning "Severe Turbulence Encountered, Now Descending Emergency Crash-landing".
The simplest explanation put forward to date is that the spacing of the rapidly sent message was misheard or sloppily sent. In Morse code, determining accurate spacing between characters is vital to properly interpret the message; "STENDEC" uses exactly the same dot/dash sequence as "SCTI AR" (the four-letter code for Los Cerrillos Airport in Santiago, "over"). Alternatively, the Morse spelling for "STENDEC" is one character off from instead spelling VALP, the call sign for the airport at Valparaiso, 110 kilometers north of Santiago.
## See also
- BSAA Star Tiger disappearance
- BSAA Star Ariel disappearance
- LAN Chile Flight 621
- Uruguayan Air Force Flight 571 |
3,960,891 | Connecticut Southern Railroad | 1,161,311,302 | Freight railroad in Connecticut and Massachusetts | [
"Connecticut railroads",
"Genesee & Wyoming",
"Massachusetts railroads",
"RailAmerica",
"Railway companies established in 1996",
"Spin-offs of Conrail"
]
| The Connecticut Southern Railroad is a 90-mile (140 km) long short-line railroad operating in Connecticut and Massachusetts. The company was formed in 1996 as a spinoff of Conrail by shortline holding company RailTex and subsequently acquired in 2000 by RailAmerica. Since 2012, it has been a subsidiary of Genesee & Wyoming. CSO is headquartered in Hartford, Connecticut, site of its Hartford Yard. The company also operates East Hartford Yard.
Connecticut Southern connects with CSX Transportation at yards in West Springfield, Massachusetts and North Haven, Connecticut (Cedar Hill Yard). It also connects with the Providence and Worcester Railroad and Central New England Railroad in Hartford, and Pan Am Southern in Berlin. The company's main line is Amtrak's New Haven–Springfield Line, which CSO has trackage rights over; branches are also operated to Suffield, Windsor Locks, Manchester, and South Windsor. Much of the railroad's traffic comes from imports to Connecticut, such as lumber, steel, and carbon dioxide. The railroad also hauls exports of trash and recycling. As of 2022, CSO carries approximately 18,500 carloads annually.
## History
The Connecticut Southern Railroad began operations on September 22, 1996, following the purchase of several Conrail routes in Connecticut and Massachusetts by RailTex, the CSO's initial parent. CSO purchased or leased trackage in East Hartford, Manchester, and East Windsor, along with a pair of branch lines to Suffield and Windsor Locks. To connect with Conrail trains, the Connecticut Southern paid for trackage rights over both the New Haven–Springfield Line, owned and operated by Amtrak, and portions of Conrail's remaining trackage in Connecticut and Massachusetts.
Operations started with locomotives leased from Conrail, until the Connecticut Southern was able to acquire locomotives of its own. Conrail served as a partner of Connecticut Southern, supporting the company in working with customers, and in turn benefiting from increased customer satisfaction and carloads produced by the new shortline railroad.
In 1998, the company was reported to still use a caboose on trains. To access the yard in West Springfield, CSO trains need to enter the yard with a reverse move. For safety, a caboose was used to allow a crew member to watch the rear of the train during the reverse movement. Conrail's New England assets were absorbed by CSX Transportation in 1999, which became CSO's new connection in West Springfield and New Haven. Connecticut Southern was subsequently acquired by RailAmerica in 2000. Before the Great Recession, CSO peaked at 26,000 carloads per year.
In 2009, the Connecticut Department of Transportation filed a \$7,775,000 TIGER grant application which included bridge work and track improvements for the entirety of the Connecticut Southern's trackage. In 2012, the railroad opened a new \$1.4 million headquarters in Hartford, moving from a previously rented space in East Hartford. The project included a 10,500 square foot indoor facility for repairing locomotives and railcars, as well as 3,500 square feet of office space. Genesee & Wyoming acquired the railroad as part of its acquisition of RailAmerica in 2012.
Genesee & Wyoming subsequently purchased the Providence and Worcester Railroad in November 2016, which connects with the Connecticut Southern, bringing both railroads under the same parent company. The State of Connecticut began Hartford Line commuter rail service in June 2018. This significantly expanded passenger train service on the New Haven–Springfield Line, but CSO's freight service was also taken into account during the project. Despite shifting freight operations to nocturnal hours, conflicts with Amtrak's maintenance of way operations have had a negative impact on freight traffic by causing delays.
## Operations
As of December 2019, the Connecticut Southern Railroad owns or operates on 90 miles (140 km) of trackage in Connecticut and Massachusetts. Major commodities transported include lumber, steel, and carbon dioxide, which are mostly imported from elsewhere. Another source of traffic is the export of trash and recycling from Connecticut. The company's base of operations is at Hartford Yard. As of 2022, the Connecticut Southern hauls approximately 18,500 carloads per year. As of 2018, CSO does not serve any customers within Massachusetts.
### Lines operated
#### New Haven - Springfield Line
Connecticut Southern's main line is Amtrak's New Haven–Springfield Line. As Amtrak is strictly a passenger railroad, Connecticut Southern provides freight service over the entirety of the line, which it has trackage rights on. On this line, Connecticut Southern interchanges with CSX at Cedar Hill Yard in North Haven and at another yard in West Springfield, with Pan Am Southern in Berlin, and with both fellow Genesee and Wyoming subsidiary Providence and Worcester Railroad and the Central New England Railroad in Hartford.
#### Suffield Secondary
This line is a spur between Windsor Locks and Suffield, with a second spur that reaches Bradley International Airport. It was originally built in 1870 by the Windsor Locks and Suffield Railroad, which contracted operations to the Hartford and New Haven Railroad before the latter purchased it in 1871. The line was used by trolleys from the early 1900s until 1925, and then fully dedicated to freight services until 2008. The trackage leading to Suffield is now out of service and overgrown, leaving only the spur to the airport and the portion of the secondary leading to the second spur in operation. Rail service to Suffield had ended by July 2009, and Connecticut Southern filed for abandonment of the 2.4 miles (3.9 km) of track leading to the town in 2012. CSO announced they would remove the railroad ties and steel tracks for salvage in their abandonment filing. The town of Suffield attempted to stop the abandonment and salvage of the tracks to preserve them for potential future use. Bradley Airport is a CSO customer, as is Camp Hartell, an Army National Guard facility in Windsor Locks.
#### Wethersfield Subdivision
This line connects Hartford and Middletown. Connecticut Southern owns and operates the northernmost 3 miles (4.8 km) of the line; the remainder is owned by the state of Connecticut and operated by the Providence and Worcester Railroad. A short spur on this line, known as the Market Spur, connects to the Hartford Regional Market. The connection with the P&W was placed out of service in 2008, and restored to active use in 2019.
#### East Windsor Secondary
This line travels between East Hartford, where it diverges from the Highland Division, and East Windsor Hill, where the track beyond is operated by the Central New England Railroad.
#### Highland Division
Connecticut Southern operates this line between Hartford and the end of track in Manchester, beyond which the right of way has been converted into the Hop River State Park Trail. This line formerly extended to Willimantic. CSO filed for abandonment of the final mile of this line in November 2021; the right-of-way was then purchased by the Connecticut Department of Transportation to allow removal of a grade crossing as part of an intersection improvement project. |
3,427,369 | Whatever (Ayumi Hamasaki song) | 1,122,060,291 | null | [
"1999 singles",
"1999 songs",
"2001 singles",
"Avex Trax singles",
"Ayumi Hamasaki songs",
"Songs with music by Kazuhito Kikuchi",
"Songs written by Ayumi Hamasaki"
]
| "Whatever" (capitalized as "WHATEVER") is a song recorded by Japanese recording artist Ayumi Hamasaki for her second studio album, Loveppears (1999). It was written by Hamasaki, while production was handled by Max Matsuura. The track is Hamasaki's sixth single with Matsuura since her debut single in April 1998, "Poker Face". "Whatever" premiered on February 10, 1999 as the lead single from the album. It was re-released on February 28, 2001 as a CD single.
Musically, "Whatever" was described as a dance song, and is written in third person narrative. Upon its release, the track garnered mixed reviews from music critics. Critics praised Hamasaki's move from pop rock to dance music, but criticized her vocal delivery and song writing. It also achieved success in Japan, peaking at number five on the Japanese Oricon Singles Chart. The re-released single peaked at number 28 on the same chart. As of March 2016, "Whatever" has sold over 218,000 units in Japan alone and was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of Japan (RIAJ).
The accompanying music video for "Whatever" was shot in Tokyo; it features Hamasaki in a small white room with waterfalls, with inter cut scenes of an angel in the middle of a destroyed city. An alternative music video was shot for an alternative arrangement of the song; it features Hamasaki singing in front of a red backdrop. However, Avex scrapped it after they preferred the former version. For additional promotion, the song was featured on several concert tours and New Years live countdown shows by Hamasaki.
## Background and composition
"Whatever" was written by Hamasaki, composed by Kazuhito Kikuchi, and produced by Max Matsuura. Japanese composer Izumi Miyazaki was in charge of arranging the song, which included instrumentation of synthesizers, keyboards, and a drum machine. It was one of three songs from the Loveppears album composed by Kikuchi. The song was also the only song from Loveppears to be arranged by Miyazaki, and was his final collaboration with Hamasaki.
"Whatever" was selected as the lead single from Loveppears and was released in Japan on February 10, 1999 by Avex Trax. The Mini CD features: the original track, the instrumental version, and alternative versions (under the alias "J Version") of the former tracks. A CD single was released on February 28, 2001 by Avex Trax in Japan, with a full-frontal body image of Hamasaki in front of a blue backdrop. She is wearing angel wings on her back, with Hamasaki's and the song's title superimposed on her. The CD single features: the original version, the instrumental, the two alternative versions, one remix of "Whatever", one remix of "Appears", and one remix of "Immature".
"Whatever" is a dance song that lasts five minutes and 36 seconds long. An extended version appeared on the album, which lasts seven minutes and 20 seconds. The song was noted for its musical similarities to other tracks from Loveppears, and is written in third person narrative. It became Hamasaki's first single to have featured any English language, with the word "Wow" in its lyrics. However, it does not count in using English–language conversation like Hamasaki did in tracks from her 2002 album Rainbow.
## Critical response
"Whatever" received mixed reviews from most music critics. Alexey Eremenko, who had written her extended biography at AllMusic, highlighted the song as an album and career stand out track. A reviewer from Yahoo! GeoCities criticized Hamasaki's "thin" and "harsh" vocal delivery, but went on to state that her music have "improved" from her debut album, A Song for ×× (1999). Morimasa from Nifty.com highlighted it as one of the album's best tracks. He commented that despite the "easily" written lyrics for the sing, he commended Hamasaki's emotional delivery in both the production and her singing. A reviewer from Amazon.co.jp was positive towards the track. The reviewer praised Miyazaki's arrangement of both the original version and the J version, and commended the song's composition and Hamasaki's "homoeopathic" delivery. In early 2014, in honor of Hamasaki's sixteenth-year career milestone, Japanese website Goo.ne.jp hosted a poll for fans to rank their favourite songs by Hamasaki out of thirty positions; the poll was held in only twenty-four hours, and thousands submitted their votes. As a result, "Whatever" was ranked the lowest at thirty, with 13.6 percent of the votes.
## Commercial performance
In Japan, the Mini CD format entered at number five on the Oricon Singles Chart. The Mini CD stayed in the top fifty for nine weeks, selling over 189,610 units, and was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of Japan (RIAJ) for shipments of 200,000 units. The re-released CD single format entered at number twenty-eight on the chart, the highest entry of her re-released singles. The CD single stayed in the top fifty for three weeks, tallying both the Mini CD and the CD single to twelve charting weeks. The CD single sold an additional 27,560 units, combing both the Mini CD and the CD single sales to 217,170. "Whatever" is her thirty-fifth and fifty-seventh best selling single in Japan, her lowest in both the Loveppears and format re-release era respectively.
The Mini CD format entered at number five on the Japanese Count Down TV Chart, Hamasaki's highest charting single and first top ten at the time of February 1999. The Mini CD slipped to number fifteen the next week, and lasted nine weeks inside the top 100. "Whatever" was released twice as double A-side vinyl's with Hamasaki's single "Appears". The second vinyl managed to reach ninety-six on the Japanese Count Down chart. The re-released CD single format entered at number twenty-nine on the Count Down TV chart. The CD single stayed in the chart for three weeks, tallying the total weeks to twelve.
## Music video
The accompanying music video was directed by Wataru Takeishi. This is Takeishi's first video collaboration with Hamasaki since "Trust". The overall appearance of the video was inspired by the cover sleeve of "Whatever", which also featured Hamasaki in an angel costume. Several photoshoot out takes were considered to be released in the CD single, but Avex restricted this. Because of this, only two photos of Hamasaki in the angel costume were distributed; one for the front cover, and one for the back. The music video also appeared on Hamasaki's DVD compilation box sets: A Clips, her self-titled video compilation (2000), Complete Clip Box (2004), A Clip Box 1998–2011 (2011), and the bonus DVD version with A Complete: All Singles.
### Synopsis
The video opens with a bench chair inside a pale-blue room, surrounded by interior waterfalls. Glitches of Hamasaki appears, and she starts singing the song while seated. The next scene features damaged–archive footage of a destroyed town, fenced in with barbed wires. A young boy, with pale white skin, blonde dreads, and angel wings, appears in the distance. Several scenes features the boy looking towards the camera, which then inter cuts to scenes with Hamasaki singing the song in the room. The young boy wonders through the destroyed town, observing damaged homes and objects. The boy places his hands upon a dying tree, where he envisions the events of how the town became destroyed and dismantled. These scenes include burning flowers, falling construction, and broken religious statues. The second chorus has Hamasaki singing, and the song break shows the boy observing a blossoming flower which hasn't died. Smiling, he walks towards it, unbeknown that there is sharp barbed wire surrounding it. Scenes features Hamasaki singing, and shows brief inter cut scenes of barbed wire wrapped around the young boy. Struggling to become free from the wire, the young boy dies and leaves behind a large pile of angel feathers. The final scene features Hamasaki wearing exactly the same outfit as the angel, trapped in a large bird cage, in the room the video started with. The video zooms out on the overall appearance of her.
### Alternative music video
An accompanying music video for an alternative version for "Whatever" (labelled the "J Version") was also directed by Takeishi. The J version, composed and arranged by Keisuke Kikuchi, was intended to be the lead single from Loveppears and use the M version as the b-side. When Kikuchi and Miyazaki submitted their J and M versions of "Whatever" to the head offices of Avex, Matsuura favored Miyazaki's version over Kikuchi. Kikuchi was disappointed of the verdict, but Avex went ahead in releasing the M version. Because Takeishi had already shot and produced the music video for the J version of "Whatever", Takeishi had to re-shoot a new video for the M version. The J Version was used in Valentine's Day commercials for 7-Eleven.
The J version features Hamasaki singing the J version on a white platform in front of a silky red backdrop. The entire full-length video has never been released, but a thirty-second snippet was used as the commercial video for "Whatever". The J version has been included on her self-titled video compilation (2000), Complete Clip Box (2004), and its most recent appearance is on the A Clip Box 1998–2011 (2011).
## Live performances and other appearances
Hamasaki has performed "Whatever" on several concert tours and New Years countdown shows throughout Asia. The song has been included in one of Hamasaki's New Years countdown concerts, the 2004-2005 live tour. The song has been included on several of Hamasaki's national and Asian concert tours. The song had made its debut tour performance on Hamasaki's 2001 Dome Tour and part two of the Dome Tour. Since then, "Whatever" has been included on Hamasaki's Ayumi Hamasaki Stadium Tour 2002 A, and its most recent inclusion was on her Premium Showcase: Feel the Love concert tour in 2014. During Hamasaki's performance, she wears a metallic mini dress, and dances to back-up dancers wearing robotic outfits. "Whatever" has been included on one greatest hits compilation, which is A Complete: All Singles (2008),
"Whatever" has been remixed by several professional disc jockeys and producers, and has appeared on several remix albums by Hamasaki. This list is: the Laurent Newfield remix on Super Eurobeat Presents Ayu-ro Mix, the FPM's Winter Bossa remix on Ayu-mi-x II Version JPN, the Ferry Corsten remix on ayu-mi-x II Version US+EU, and both appeared again on Hamasaki's remix compilation Ayu-mi-x II Version Non-Stop Mega Mix (2000). The orchestral acoustic remix was included on her fifth orchestral remix album, Ayu-mi-x 7 Version Acoustic Orchestra (2011).
## Track listings
- Japanese and Taiwanese Mini CD
1. "Whatever" (version M) –
2. "Whatever" (version J) –
3. "Whatever" (version M Instrumental) –
4. "Whatever" (version J Instrumental) –
- 12 inch vinyl
1. "Whatever" (Dub's 1999 Club Remix) –
2. "Whatever" (version M) –
3. "Whatever" (version M Instrumental) –
- Ferry Corsten 12 inch vinyl
1. "Whatever" (Ferry 'System F' Corsten vocal extended mix) –
2. "Whatever" (Ferry 'System F' Corsten vocal dub mix) –
- Japanese CD single
1. "Whatever" (version M) –
2. "Whatever" (version J) –
3. "Whatever" (Ferry 'System F' Corsten vocal extended mix) –
4. "Appears" (JP's SoundFactory mix) –
5. "Immature" (D-Z Dual Lucifer mix) –
6. "Whatever" (version M Instrumental) –
7. "Whatever" (version J Instrumental) –
- Digital EP
1. "Whatever" (version M) –
2. "Whatever" (version J) –
3. "Whatever" (version M Instrumental) –
4. "Whatever" (version J Instrumental) –
- Digital Music Video
1. "Whatever" (version M) –
2. "Whatever" (version M) –
## Credits and personnel
Credits adapted from the singles liner notes;
Song credits
- Ayumi Hamasaki - songwriting, vocals
- Max Matsuura - production
- Kazuhito Kikuchi - composer
- Izumi Miyazaki - arrangement
- Shigeru Kasai - design
Visual and video credits
- Kiyoshi Utsumi - art direction
- Wataru Takeishi - director
- Yoshiko Ishibashi - production manager
- Tetsuji Nakamichi - assistant director
- Tetsuya Kamoto - photographer
- Koji Noguchi - lighting
- Koji Matsumoto - stylist
- Chu and Tamotsu - hair and make-up assistant
## Charts and certifications
### Weekly charts
### Certifications
## Release history |
36,560,638 | Count of the Székelys | 1,125,788,721 | Leader of the Hungarian-speaking Székelys in Transylvania | [
"Counts of the Székelys",
"Székelys"
]
| The Count of the Székelys (Hungarian: székelyispán, Latin: comes Sicolorum) was the leader of the Hungarian-speaking Székelys in Transylvania, in the medieval Kingdom of Hungary. First mentioned in royal charters of the 13th century, the counts were the highest-ranking royal officials in Székely Land. From around 1320 to the second half of the 15th century, the counts' jurisdiction included four Transylvanian Saxon districts, in addition to the seven Székely seats (or administrative units).
The counts also held important castles outside the territories under their administration, including their seat at Görgény (now Gurghiu in Romania). They were the supreme commanders of the Székely troops; their military campaigns against Bulgaria and the Golden Horde were mentioned in royal charters and medieval chronicles. The counts presided over the general assemblies of both the individual Székely seats and the entire Székely community. They also heard appeals of the decisions of the supreme court of Székely Land.
Beginning in the late 14th century, Hungarian monarchs appointed two or three noblemen to jointly hold the office. From the 1440s, at least one of these joint holders was also regularly made Voivode of Transylvania, because frequent Ottoman raids against Transylvania required the centralization of the military command of the province. The offices of the count and the voivode were in practice united after 1467. From the late 16th century, the princes of Transylvania (as successors to the voivodes) also styled themselves as counts of the Székelys. After the integration of the principality with the Habsburg Empire, in the early 18th century, the title was in abeyance until Maria Theresa revived it at the Székelys' request. She and her successors on the Hungarian throne used the title until 1918.
## Origins
The origin of the office is obscure. The Hungarian-speaking Székelys were a "well organized community of warriors" in the medieval Kingdom of Hungary. They originally lived in scattered groups along the frontiers of the kingdom. In Transylvania, they first settled along the rivers Kézd (Saschiz), Orbó (Gârbova), and Sebes (Sebeș), but started to migrate to the easternmost region of the province when the ancestors of the Transylvanian Saxons began to arrive around 1150.
Bishop Otto of Freising mentioned that "two counts" commanded the archers in the vanguard of the Hungarian army in the Battle of the Fischa, in 1146. The Hungarian chronicles recorded that Székelys and Pechenegs formed the vanguard of the Hungarian army in that battle, thus the bishop's report may contain the first reference to a count of the Székelys, according to Attila Zsoldos, Gyula Kristó, and other historians. On the other hand, as historian Zoltán Kordé emphasizes, 13th-century royal charters mentioned other royal officials who ruled Székely groups, suggesting that the office had not been established in the previous century. For instance, a royal charter tells of an army of Saxon, Vlach, Székely, and Pecheneg troops fighting in Bulgaria under the command of Joachim, Count of Hermannstadt (now Sibiu in Romania), in the early 1210s.
The earliest royal charter mentioning a "count and commander of the Székelys" was issued in 1235. It refers to a military campaign launched against Bulgaria in 1228. Thus, the office must have existed in that year at the latest, but the count was not the sole ruler of all Székelys for decades after. For instance, a diploma of Béla IV of Hungary refers to the count of the Székelys of Nagyváty in Baranya County. Lack Hermán, who held the office from 1328 to 1343, was styled as "count of the three clans of the Székelys"; but the exact meaning of the title is unknown.
## Functions
The Székelys were organized into special administrative units (originally known as "lands", "districts", "communities" or "universities") in Transylvania. These units were known as "seats" beginning in the second half of the 14th century. Székely Land was divided into seven seats. Udvarhelyszék, Marosszék, Csíkszék, Kézdiszék, Orbaiszék, and Sepsiszék formed a contiguous territory in south-eastern Transylvania; Aranyosszék was located apart from them in the central region.
The jurisdiction of the counts was not limited to Székely Land. The Saxon district of Mediasch (now Mediaș in Romania) was subject to them until Sigismund of Luxemburg, King of Hungary, exempted the inhabitants from the counts' authority in 1402. The counts were almost continuously also the rulers of the Saxons of Bistritz (present-day Bistrița in Romania) from 1320. This district was granted to John Hunyadi by Ladislaus V of Hungary in 1453. The Saxons of Kronstadt and Burzenland (now Brașov and Țara Bârsei in Romania) were also under the jurisdiction of the counts from 1344 until the mid-15th century.
The counts held one of the most important honors in the Kingdom of Hungary. The system of honors allowed a great officer of the realm to enjoy all royal revenues connected to his office. The fines imposed in the Székely seats were to be paid to the counts. Each seat was also required to give a horse to the new count at his installation. The counts also received the royal revenues from the Saxon territories under their jurisdiction. However, most of their revenues came from the estates attached to the royal castles that they held outside Székely Land. The counts kept the right of possession of these royal castles after most high officers of the realm had lost such rights around 1402. The counts most frequently held court in the castle of Görgény, in Torda County (at present-day Gurghiu in Romania). The castle was first mentioned as being in the counts' possession in 1358. It was granted to Hunyadi in 1453. The castle of Höltövény in Alsó-Fehér County (now Hălchiu in Romania) was first mentioned as the counts' honor in 1335. The counts also seized the castles of Törcsvár and Királykő in Felső-Fehér County (now Bran Castle and Oratea Fortress in Romania), the latter being listed among the castles held by Hunyadi's sons in 1457.
The counts were the supreme commanders of the Székely troops. They were responsible for the regular supervision of the Székely warriors' military equipment. Bogomer, the first known count, was captured during a military campaign in Bulgaria in 1228. Lack Hermán, who held the office from 1328 to 1343, also styled himself the commander of the royal army stationed between the rivers Rába and Rábca during a campaign against Austria in 1336. Andrew Lackfi and his Székely troops inflicted a crushing defeat on the Tatars of the Golden Horde in early February 1345. The counts Michael Jakcs and Henry Tamási helped the Hungarian noblemen against rebellious Transylvanian peasants in 1437 and 1438. They commanded the Székely army in the first battle against the peasants at Bábolna (now Bobâlna in Romania) in the summer of 1437. They signed the agreement between the leaders of the noblemen, the Saxons, and the Székelys that declared their "Brotherly Union" against their enemies on 16 September.
The counts had important judicial functions in Székely Land and the Saxon districts subject to them. They headed the general assemblies of each Székely seat and the entire Székely community. Such an assembly was first recorded in 1344. Thereafter, the assemblies developed into important forums for the administration of justice. Lack Hermán was mentioned as the "judge of the Székelys" in the first half of the 14th century, evidence that the counts had acquired significant judicial authority by that time. The medieval judicial system of Székely Land is poorly documented. Available data suggests that the court of Udvarhelyszék was an appellate court, hearing appeals of the decisions of the courts of other seats. Appeals of the decisions of the court of Udvarhelyszék were heard by the count. The courts of justice in the seats were initially presided over by elected officials, the seat judge, and the captain. New officials, known as royal judges, appear in the sources in the 1420s. Appointed by the count, royal judges supervised the activities of the elected officials.
## Monarchs and counts
The counts represented the kings of Hungary in the territories under their jurisdiction and were independent of the voivodes of Transylvania. This separation of the two offices helped preserve the Székelys' special legal status. However, the kings never appointed a Székely to the office, which they tended to give to a kinsman of the voivode. The counts were regarded as barons of the realm, although they were not listed among the great officers in royal charters.
Ladislaus Kán took control of the whole of Transylvania after the death of Andrew III of Hungary in 1301. During the ensuing interregnum, Kán also usurped the administration of Székely Land. Royal authority was restored only after his death in about 1315. In that year, Charles I of Hungary made the brothers Thomas and Stephen Losonci counts. Their successor, Simon Kacsics, was dismissed in 1327 or 1328, because he had committed "serious crimes", according to a contemporaneous royal charter. Thereafter, the office was almost continuously held by the Lackfis for about 50 years.
The Lackfis and their immediate successors were the kings' loyal supporters, but Sigismund of Luxemburg appointed close allies of John Kanizsai, Archbishop of Esztergom, to the office, for helping him seize the throne in 1387. Sigismund strengthened his position after he punished a rebellion by Kanizsai and his allies in 1403. Thereafter, he regularly appointed two noblemen to jointly hold the office. The 15th-century counts rarely visited Transylvania, and their deputies, the vice-counts, took over much of the performance of their duties. The existence of new officials (known as "governors", "captains", or "supreme captains of the Székelys") among the Székelys in this period is also documented, but their duties cannot be determined.
## End of the office
The Ottomans made a series of plundering raids against Transylvania in the 1420s and 1430s, which led to better coordination of the defense of the province. Wladislas I, who was elected King of Hungary over the minor Ladislaus the Posthumous in 1440, decided to centralize the command of the southern border of Hungary. After his two principal military commanders, John Hunyadi and Nicholas Újlaki, annihilated the army of Ladislaus's supporters in early 1441, Wladislas made them joint voivodes of Transylvania and counts of the Székelys. This was the first occasion that the offices of voivode and count were conferred upon the same persons.
The unification of the two offices lasted for decades. Initially, between 1446 and 1467, two or three noblemen were jointly made voivodes and counts, and some of them occasionally held both offices. The two offices were in practice united after the death of John Daróci in 1467. Thereafter, the same person was made voivode and count until 1504; furthermore, the offices of vice-voivode and vice-count were also unified. A decree of 1498 still separately obliged the voivode and the count to muster troops; but after 1507, no separate counts were appointed.
The title of count was continuously used by the voivodes, and later by the princes of Transylvania, for almost two centuries. After the integration of the Principality of Transylvania into the Habsburg Empire in the late 17th century, the Habsburg monarchs did not style themselves counts of the Székelys. The title was revived at the Székelys' request by Maria Theresa. Thereafter, all kings of Hungary used the title.
## List of counts
### Thirteenth century
### Fourteenth century
### Fifteenth century
### Sixteenth century
## See also
- History of the Székely people
- Judge of the Cumans |
16,752,047 | Strangeways Prison riot | 1,159,933,065 | 25-day prison riot in Manchester, England | [
"1990 in the United Kingdom",
"1990 riots",
"1990s in Manchester",
"April 1990 events in the United Kingdom",
"History of Manchester",
"Media bias controversies",
"Prison uprisings in the United Kingdom",
"Protests in England",
"Riots and civil disorder in Manchester"
]
| The 1990 Strangeways Prison riot was a 25-day prison riot and rooftop protest at Strangeways Prison in Manchester, England. The riot began on 1 April 1990 when prisoners took control of the prison chapel, and quickly spread throughout most of the prison. The incident ended on 25 April when the final five prisoners were removed from the rooftop. One prisoner was killed during the riot, and 147 prison officers and 47 prisoners were injured. Much of the prison was damaged or destroyed, with the cost of repairs coming to £55 million (equivalent to £ million in ). It was the longest prison riot in British penal history.
The riot was followed by a series of disturbances in prisons across England, Scotland and Wales, resulting in the British government announcing a public inquiry into the riots headed by Lord Woolf. The resulting Woolf Report concluded that conditions in the prison had been intolerable, and recommended major reform of the UK prison system. The Guardian described the report as a blueprint for the restoration of "decency and justice into jails where conditions had become intolerable".
## Background
Strangeways Prison, which opened in Manchester in 1868, was a "local prison" designed to hold prisoners from the surrounding area, mainly those on remand or serving sentences of less than five years. At the time of the riot, the main prison consisted of six wings connected by a central rotunda known as the Centre. Convicted adult prisoners were held in wings A, B, C and D, and convicted young offenders were held in E wing, which was physically separated from the Centre by gates. Convicted prisoners on Rule 43(a) were held on landings C1 and C2 of C wing, and remand prisoners on Rule 43(a) were held on the fourth landing on E wing. F wing contained administrative offices on the lower floor and the chapel on the upper floor. Remand prisoners were held in wings G, H, I and K of a separate prison, linked to the main prison through workshops and a kitchen. The Certified Normal Accommodation for Strangeways, the number of prisoners the prison was designed to hold, was 970. The population of the prison had increased in the months before the riot, from 1,417 in January 1990 to a peak of 1,658 on 27 March. On 1 April, the prison contained 1,647 prisoners – about 925 convicted adult prisoners, 500 remand prisoners and 210 convicted young offenders.
Prisoners felt their complaints about conditions were being ignored. Remand prisoners were only allowed out of their cells for eighteen hours per week, and Category A prisoners were locked in their cells for twenty-two hours a day, and rarely left their cells except for "slopping out", a one-hour exercise period each day or a weekly shower. In March 1990, Dominic Noonan was transferred from Strangeways to HM Prison Hull. Noonan was the organiser of the Prisoners' League Association (PLA), an organisation formed in 1989 which campaigned for prisoners' rights. Its aims included initiating legal proceedings against prison staff for mistreatment of prisoners and picketing outside prisons in which prisoners were mistreated. The PLA were active at Strangeways, and Noonan's transfer demonstrated prison officers were aware of rising tensions inside the prison.
On 26 March 1990, Barry Morton was taken to the "punishment block" and strip-searched after being visited by his mother, as prison officers believed she had brought drugs into the prison for him. During a struggle he sustained a black eye and swollen nose, and the following day he was released back into the main prison along with another prisoner, Tony Bush. Later the same day, Morton and Bush climbed onto the roof of the prison and staged a twenty-hour rooftop protest. On 31 March there was a thirty-minute sit-down protest in the chapel after a film was shown, which ended after a prison officer promised to listen to the prisoners' grievances. The same evening it is reported that a black prisoner was assaulted by prison officers in front of other prisoners, and injected with Largactil – a sedative used to control prisoners, known in prisons as the "liquid cosh". Prisoners then decided to stage a further protest in the chapel the following day, 1 April.
## The riot
### Disturbance in the chapel
Prison officers had advance warning that an incident would occur in the chapel on 1 April, and security was increased. Extra prison officers were used to escort prisoners to the service, and fourteen officers were inside the chapel supervising the service instead of the usual total of eight. An additional seven officers were also stationed in the vestry outside the chapel. The service was attended by 309 prisoners which was about the usual attendance, but all Rule 43(a) prisoners were prevented from attending as a precautionary measure. A senior prison officer believed the prisoners would attempt another sit-down protest with the possibility of hostage-taking, and instructed staff to evacuate the chapel if trouble began. At approximately 11:00am, a visiting Anglican minister had just delivered the sermon and the prison chaplain, Reverend Noel Proctor, stood to thank the minister when prisoner Paul Taylor took the microphone from him and addressed the congregation. Reverend Proctor was recording the service for distribution to a prayer group, and the subsequent events were recorded:
> Noel Proctor: After that remarkable message that has...
>
> Paul Taylor: I would like to say, right, that this man has just talked about blessing of the heart and a hardened heart can be delivered. No it cannot, not with resentment, anger and bitterness and hatred being instilled in people.
>
> [General noise, over which]
>
> A prisoner: Fuck your system, fuck your rules.
>
> [Applause]
>
> Noel Proctor: Right lads, sit down.
>
> [More noise]
>
> Noel Proctor: Right lads, down. Down. Come on, this is no way to carry on in God's house.
>
> [More noise]
>
> A prisoner: Fuck your system.
>
> [More noise]
>
> Noel Proctor: Right lads, sit down. This is completely out of order. Sit down.
>
> A prisoner: Why is it? It's been waiting to happen for ever. It will never change.
>
> Noel Proctor: Come on. This is terrible.
>
> [More noise, banging, shouting, cheering]
>
> Noel Proctor: All of you who want to go back to your cells go the back of the church please.
>
> A prisoner: What? You're a fucking hypocrite, you.
>
> Noel Proctor: I'm trying to help you, to keep you.
>
> A prisoner: Leave it, mate.
>
> [More noise until microphone goes dead]
As Proctor was appealing for calm, a prisoner brandishing two sticks shouted out, "You've heard enough, let's do it, get the bastards". Other prisoners responded by donning masks and brandishing weapons, and three prison officers started to leave the chapel as earlier instructed. A set of keys was taken from a prison officer when a number of officers were attacked by prisoners wielding fire extinguishers, table legs and fire buckets. A number of prisoners attempted to leave the chapel via the vestry; at the same time, the seven prison officers there attempted to gain entry to the chapel. Once they managed to do so, the officers were attacked by prisoners, and a second set of keys was taken from one of them. Some prisoners helped to get Proctor and injured officers to a place of safety via the vestry, while others barricaded entrances to the chapel or attempted to gain access to the roof.
### The riot spreads
The prison officers guarding the gates outside the chapel abandoned them, and ran towards the Centre. The prison officer in charge of the Centre saw his colleagues running from the direction of the chapel, but due to the presence of scaffolding he was in a poor position to view the upper levels and mistakenly assumed he saw prisoners running from the chapel. He informed other officers on C1 and D1 of this and, upon hearing that prisoners were in possession of keys, told them and officers on A1 that they should evacuate the prison. Governor Morrison, who was responsible for the main prison, then ordered officers to evacuate the Centre at 11:13am as he mistakenly believed prisoners had entered the Centre. By this time prisoners had gained access to the roofs of E and F wings, and from there gained access to other wings by making holes in unprotected office ceilings.
The prisoners found A and B wings unsupervised as the prison officers had already evacuated, and began to free other prisoners who were still locked in their cells. The prison officer in charge of the first landing of C wing was ordered to evacuate, and with the help of three other officers evacuated the 73 Rule 43(a) prisoners being held there, being fearful for the safety of the prisoners who were regarded as sex offenders. Due to rioting prisoners entering the wing, the officers were unable to evacuate a further seven Rule 43(a) prisoners who were being held on the second landing.
Rioting prisoners also gained access to E wing, where the Rule 43(a) prisoners had been left locked in their cells after the prison officers evacuated. A number of these Rule 43(a) prisoners were attacked by rioting prisoners. One such prisoner was Derek White, who was being held on remand on charges of indecent assault and buggery. White later died in North Manchester General Hospital on 3 April after being admitted suffering from head wounds, a dislocated shoulder and chest pains.
At 11:43am rioting prisoners were seen approaching the remand prison, which was still secure. The prison governor, Brendan O'Friel, arrived at the prison at 11:55am and gave orders to defend the remand prison. He later recalled that:
> By 12 o'clock when I came in it looked as if we'd lost control of the whole thing. My first decision was to send a Governor 5 back up to the remand prison to see if we could hold it, but it was too late. That decision, had it been taken half an hour earlier, would have meant we could have held the remand prison, meaning we could have kept another 400 locked up. Assuming the doors would have held, that sort of thing. But we had about 200 staff on duty, and we must have lost nine or ten casualties of one sort or another and then you lose staff getting the casualties out. We didn't have a lot of the staff come pouring in until about 1 o'clock. I tell you what really bugged us was there an element of April Fool about it. We rang staff up about it, who said "You must be joking, is this an April Fool?" That's what happened when they rang up my home, my son thought it was an April Fool.
Rioting prisoners gained access to the remand prison at 12:20pm through the kitchens in G wing, and began freeing prisoners who were still locked in their cells using stolen keys or improvised tools such as iron bars and fire extinguishers. At this point the rioting prisoners were in control of all accommodation wings of the prison. A large number of prisoners were on the prison roof, and roof tiles and other missiles were thrown at prison officers on the ground. Rioting inside the prison continued with cells being damaged and fires being started, and at 3:40pm the Public Relations Department of the Home Office issued a statement:
> At 11am a disturbance started in the chapel at Strangeways Prison when some 300 prisoners attacked staff. Those prisoners then gained access to the chapel roof and then broke into the living accommodation in the main prison. Other prisoners, including those on remand, joined in the disturbance and staff had to be withdrawn. The perimeter is secure.
Between 2:00pm and 5:00pm approximately 800 prisoners had surrendered, and arrangements were made for them to be transferred to other prisons. At 8:00 pm Governor O'Friel agreed that prison officers should enter E wing, and at 8:05 pm approximately ten Control & Restraint (C&R) units each consisting of twelve prison officers entered the wing. By 8:10pm all four landings of E wing had been secured, and one C&R unit progressed to the Centre where they fought with rioting prisoners. This was reported to O'Friel, who instructed the officers not to move beyond E wing. Scaffolding poles and other missiles were thrown at the C&R teams from the roof area above the fourth landing in E wing, and when prisoners broke onto the wing the C&R teams withdrew at 0:22am on 2 April, leaving prisoners in control of the wing. Up to 1,100 of the 1,647 prisoners were involved in the rioting, and by the end of the first day 700 had surrendered and been transferred to other prisons along with 400 prisoners who were not involved in the rioting. Between 200 and 350 prisoners occupied the rooftop of the main prison during the night.
### Rooftop protest
At 7:00am on 2 April, an estimated total of 142 prisoners were still in control of all the accommodation wings of the prison. Some prisoners on the roof gave clenched fist salutes to the crowd watching below. Some prisoners were wearing prison officers' hats and uniforms, while others were wearing masks improvised from towels and blankets. A banner was unveiled that read "No dead", in response to claims in the press that between eleven and twenty prisoners had been killed in the rioting. At 10:00am, C&R units entered the remand prison and regained control, with six prisoners surrendering peacefully.
A Home Office statement was released at 11:45am stating that no bodies had been found in the remand prison, and twelve prison officers and thirty-seven prisoners had received treatment in hospital to date. Further prisoners surrendered the same day, and by 6:00pm 114 prisoners remained in the prison. On 3 April newspapers published pictures of the prisoners' "No dead" banner, while still insisting that twenty prisoners had been killed. The prisoners responded with a banner that read "Media contact now". The Manchester Evening News newspaper was contacted from inside the prison by telephone, and prisoners outlined their demands:
- Improved visiting facilities, including the right to physical contact with visitors and a children's play area.
- Category A prisoners would be allowed to wear their own clothes and be able to receive food parcels.
- Longer exercise periods.
- An end to 23-hour-a-day lock-up.
At 11:10 am Michael Unger from the Evening News was allowed into the prison as an "independent observer". Unger met prisoners who described their grievances to him, which included mental and physical abuse, poor food and conditions, and misuse of drugs in controlling prisoners. While Unger was inside the prison twelve C&R units attempted to regain control of E wing, in what became known as the "battle for E wing". Prisoners built barricades and threw scaffolding poles at the C&R units, and after approximately thirty minutes the C&R units withdrew without regaining control of the wing. By the end of the third day prisoners still controlled the upper levels of the prison, but prison officers had regained control of the lower level. A Home Office statement was issued:
> During the course of the evening prison staff have had access at ground level to all wings in the main prison. No bodies have been found. Earlier today prison staff gained access to the main prison building in order to remove barricades to allow the surrender of inmates who wished to do so. No inmates were injured during this process. Nine prison staff were taken to outside hospital for treatment. Two remain overnight for observation. Negotiations were carried out by prison staff ... 31 inmates surrendered. All of those who surrendered have been interviewed, medically examined and fed. They will be transferred to other accommodation as soon as practicable.
On 4 April, O'Friel spoke to the press for the first time, describing the riot as "an explosion of evil which was quite terrible to see". Also that day the Prison Officers' Association (POA) claimed that Rule 43(a) prisoners were being treated in North Manchester General Hospital for castration wounds, which was repeated by sections of the press despite being categorically denied by the hospital's public relations officer and consultant-in-charge. Twenty-nine prisoners surrendered during the day leaving twenty-six prisoners inside the prison, eleven of whom had been identified by the Prison Service. Also that day a prison officer died in hospital from pneumonia; he had not been injured during the riot and suffered from a long-standing medical condition.
Two more prisoners surrendered on 5 April, the same day as the Home Office announced a public inquiry into the riot headed by Lord Woolf. By this time plans to retake the entire prison by force had been scrapped due to the likelihood of fatalities among prisoners or prison officers. That evening authorities introduced new tactics designed to weaken the resolve of the prisoners and to prevent them from sleeping. Loud music was played, lights were shone at the roof, and prison officers banged on their riot shields and shouted at the prisoners, including calling them "beasts", a term commonly used among prisoners at that time to refer to sex offenders.
The rooftop protest was watched by a crowd of onlookers and supporters outside the prison. Various political groups also attended in support of the prisoners, including anarchist group Class War, the Revolutionary Communist Group, and the PLA. On 6 April Paul Taylor attempted to shout out the prisoners' demands to the crowd gathered below, but he was drowned out by police sirens. Taylor and other prisoners responded by unfurling a banner which read "We fight and stand firm on behalf of humanity". On 9 April, The Sun newspaper called for an end to the riot, saying, "Jail riot scum must be crushed". Former prisoner John McVicar called for the retaking of the prison by force at the earliest possible opportunity. By 10 April more prisoners had surrendered, leaving thirteen inside the prison. Three more prisoners surrendered the following day, one of whom, Barry Morton, had taken part in the rooftop protest on 26 March. On 16 April, another three prisoners surrendered when they became ill with food poisoning.
Local businesses were calling for an end to the riot due to the disruption caused, including the closure of roads around the prison. A leather-jacket retailer in the vicinity of the prison claimed to have lost £20,000 in revenue since the riot had begun. Greater Manchester Police asked for £2 million to cover the costs of policing the riot, which it described as the "most savage incident of its kind ever experienced within the British prison service". On 17 April the remaining seven prisoners began negotiations to attempt to bring the rooftop protest to an end. Negotiations took place inside the prison between two Home Office officials and prisoner Alan Lord, who was negotiating on behalf of the remaining prisoners. On 23 April, Lord was captured by a C&R unit while on his way to meet the negotiators. Mark Williams—one of the remaining prisoners—later described his reactions to the negotiations and Lord's capture:
> David Bell, the Home Office negotiator, kept contradicting himself, as if in a bid to prolong the negotiations. He would agree to our terms, then he would try and tell us it was out of his hands, and go back on his word. If it was out of the Home Officer's hands—then whose hands was it in? I think the final stages were messed around by the Home Office so that our protest could help to divert the public's attention from the Poll Tax revolt that was going on throughout the country. As Alan Lord was snatched after being asked to negotiate on behalf of us all, this made us all more defiant about ending the protest.
Following the capture of Lord, the remaining prisoners agreed that 25 April would be the final day of the protest. Prison officers entered the prison early in the morning and gradually began to occupy the upper landings. At 10:20am one of the remaining prisoners, a seventeen-year-old on remand for joyriding, was captured leaving five prisoners remaining on the roof. When prison officers reached the roof they put up a sign similar to the ones used by prisoners throughout the protest, which read "HMP in charge—no visits". At 6:20pm the remaining five prisoners were removed from the roof in a "cherry picker" hydraulic platform, giving clenched fist salutes to the press and public as they descended. During the course of the twenty-five day riot, the longest in British penal history, 147 prison officers and 47 prisoners had been injured.
## Disturbances at other prisons
The Strangeways riot caused a number of protests at prisons across England, Scotland and Wales, described as either solidarity actions or copycat riots. Approximately 100 remand prisoners at HM Prison Hull staged a sit-down protest in the exercise yard on 1 April after hearing about the riot on the radio. Disturbances occurred the same day at HM Prison Gartree, HM Prison Kirkham and HM Prison Rochester, although the Gartree protest had started three days earlier over conditions in the prison. There were minor disturbances at HM Prison Lindholme, HM Prison Low Newton and HM Prison Bedford on 2 April, HM Prison Durham, HM Prison Winchester and HM Prison Wandsworth on 4 April, and HM Young Offenders Institute Glen Parva on 6 April.
The weekend of 7 April and 8 April saw protests across the prison system. At HM Prison Leeds there was a sit-down protest after the arrival of over 100 prisoners who had been transferred from Strangeways. At HM Prison Dartmoor, between 100 and 120 prisoners wrecked D wing of the prison, and twelve prisoners also protested on the roof of C wing unfurling a banner that read "Strangeways, we are with you". Thirty-two prisoners from Dartmoor were transferred to HM Prison Bristol, where there was another major protest following their arrival. Up to 400 prisoners took over three wings of the prison, and held control of them for two days. 130 prisoners at HM Prison Cardiff destroyed cells, a twenty-hour rooftop protest took place at HM Prison Stoke Heath, and disturbances occurred at HM Prison Brixton, HM Prison Pentonville, HM Prison Stafford and HM Prison Shepton Mallet. A second protest took place at HM Prison Hull, where 110 prisoners staged a sit-down protest in the exercise yard.
Prisoners smashed windows at HM Prison Verne on 9 April, and forty prisoners held a prison officer hostage for twenty-four hours after taking over a hall at HM Prison Shotts on 10 April. On 12 April, two teenage remand prisoners at HM Prison Swansea barricaded themselves into their cell for seventeen hours, and on 22 April between 80 and 100 remand prisoners staged an eighteen-hour rooftop protest at HM Prison Pucklechurch.
## Media reaction
On 2 April newspapers reported a weekend of "anti-authority violence", as in addition to the Strangeways riot the poll tax riots had occurred in London on 31 March. Reports of the violence at Strangeways included kangaroo courts, hangings, castrations and that between eleven and twenty prisoners had been killed. On 3 April the front page of the Daily Mirror read "Prison Mob 'Hang Cop' ", and claimed a former policeman imprisoned at Strangeways for rape had been killed by prisoners. The newspaper was forced to publish a retraction admitting that "reliable police sources" had been mistaken, when it transpired that the man was actually alive and imprisoned in HM Prison Leeds. Following the end of the rooftop protest the newspapers condemned the prisoners, with The Daily Telegraph describing the riot as "a degrading public spectacle" and The Independent describing the rioters as "dangerous and unstable criminals enjoying an orgy of destruction". The Guardian urged the government to institute reforms, a view which was the prevalent one for a time, stating:
> Initially, the riot appeared to increase public support for radical reform of the present degrading prison system. Some of that goodwill will have been eroded by the antics of the rioters in the last two weeks, and may be further eroded once details emerge during the forthcoming criminal prosecutions. But this must not deflect Home Office ministers from the road down which they had belatedly begun to travel. A change in prison conditions is crucial if good order is to be restored to the system.
In its last act before disbanding in 1991 and being replaced by the Press Complaints Commission, the Press Council produced a comprehensive report into the press coverage during the Strangeways riot. The report stated that "many of the more gruesome events reported in the press had not occurred – nobody had been systematically mutilated, there had been no castrations, no bodies had been chopped up and flushed in the sewers. Though there was inter-prisoner violence in the first hours of the riot, torture on the scale suggested by many of the early reports did not take place." It further found that press coverage "fell into the serious ethical error of presenting speculation and unconfirmed reports as fact".
## The Woolf Report
A five-month public inquiry was held into the disturbances at Strangeways and other prisons, beginning in Manchester on 11 June 1990 and ending in London on 31 October. In addition to the public inquiry, Lord Woolf and Her Majesty's Chief Inspector of Prisons, Stephen Tumim, also sent letters to every prisoner and prison officer in the country. 1,300 prisoners and 430 prison officers responded, with many excerpts from the letters being appended to the finished report. The Woolf Report was published on 25 February 1991, and blamed the loss of control of the prison on the prison officers abandoning the gates outside the chapel, which "effectively handed the prison to the prisoners".
Woolf described the conditions inside Strangeways in the months leading up to the riot as "intolerable", and viewed a "combination of errors" by staff and management at the prison and Prison Service as a central contributing factor to the riot. He also blamed the failure of successive governments to "provide the resources to the Prison Service which were needed to enable the Service to provide for an increased prison population in a humane manner". Woolf recommended major reform of the Prison Service, and made twelve key recommendations with 204 accompanying proposals. The key recommendations were:
1. Closer cooperation between the different parts of the Criminal Justice System. For this purpose, a national forum and local committees should be established.
2. More visible leadership of the Prison Service by a Director General who is and is seen to be the operational head and in day-to-day charge of the Service. To achieve this there should be a published "compact" or "contract" given by Ministers to the Director General of the Prison Service, who should be responsible for the performance of that "contract" and publicly answerable for the day-to-day operations of the Prison Service.
3. Increased delegation of responsibility to Governors of establishments.
4. An enhanced role for prison officers.
5. A "compact" or "contract" for each prisoner setting out the prisoner's expectations and responsibilities in the prison in which he or she is held
6. A national system of Accredited Standards, with which, in time, each prison establishment would be required to comply.
7. A new Prison Rule that no establishment should hold more prisoners than is provided for in its certified normal level of accommodation, with provisions for Parliament to be informed if exceptionally there is to be a material departure from that rule.
8. A public commitment from Ministers setting a timetable to provide access to sanitation for all inmates at the earliest practical date, not later than February 1996.
9. Better prospects for prisoners to maintain their links with families and the community through more visits and home leaves and through being located in community prisons as near to their homes as possible.
10. A division of prison establishments into small and more manageable and secure units.
11. A separate statement of purpose, separate conditions and generally a lower security categorisation for remand prisoners.
12. Improved standards of justice within prisons involving the giving of reasons to a prisoner for any decision which materially and adversely affects him; a grievance procedure and disciplinary proceedings which ensure that the Governor deals with most matters under his present powers; relieving Boards of Visitors of their adjudicatory role; and providing for final access to an independent Complaints Adjudicator.
The Guardian described the report as a blueprint for the restoration of "decency and justice into jails where conditions had become intolerable". Home Secretary Kenneth Baker welcomed the Woolf Report and pledged to end "slopping out" by 1994, and also accepted Woolf's recommendations for more visits, home leave and telephone calls. In contrast to his proposed reforms, Baker also proposed the introduction of a new offence of "prison mutiny" carrying a maximum sentence of ten years imprisonment, stating, "The events of last April marked a watershed in the history of prison service. We cannot, and will not, tolerate the savagery and vandalism in our prisons that we saw then".
## Prosecutions
The first prosecutions in relation to the riot began at Manchester Crown Court on 14 January 1992. The trial was conducted amid tight security, including armed police patrolling the area around the court, body searches for spectators and a specially constructed dock with sides made from bulletproof glass. Nine men went on trial charged with riot under Section 1 of the Public Order Act 1986, with six of them, including Paul Taylor and Alan Lord, also being charged with the murder of Derek White. On the first day one prisoner pleaded guilty to charges of riot and conspiracy to riot, and was also acquitted of the murder charge. The other defendants were also acquitted of murder due to the unreliability of eyewitness testimony and the possibility that White had died from a pre-existing thrombotic condition. On 16 April, four defendants including Taylor were convicted of rioting, and the remaining four including Lord were acquitted. Taylor received a ten-year sentence, the maximum sentence the judge had the power to impose. The sentences received by the other defendants ranged from four years to nine-and-a-half years imprisonment. By the end of the trial the total cost of the Strangeways riot, including refurbishing the prison and the costs of the police inquiry and court case, had reached £112 million.
The second trial began at the same court on 5 October 1992, and dealt with charges relating to the "battle for E wing" on 3 April 1990. There were fourteen defendants, including Lord and another man who was acquitted in the first trial, both of whom were added to the list of defendants after their acquittals. Two defendants pleaded guilty to violent disorder and received four- and five-year sentences, which due to the two years they had spent on remand awaiting trial resulted in them being freed. The remaining twelve defendants pleaded not guilty to conspiracy to commit grievous bodily harm with intent and conspiracy to riot. On 7 December 1992 David Bowen and Mark Azzopardi escaped from the prison van transferring them from HM Prison Hull to the court. Azzopardi was recaptured, before escaping from the court on 17 February 1993 along with five of the other defendants. At the conclusion of the trial two defendants were acquitted and the remainder found guilty of conspiracy to commit grievous bodily harm with intent, the lesser charge of conspiracy to riot automatically being dropped when guilty verdicts were announced on the first charge. When passing sentence, the judge remarked, "You had your period of arrogance and violence in front of the world, but now the price must be paid and paid by you". The defendants received sentences ranging from four years to ten years imprisonment, although only five defendants were in court to hear the verdict as six defendants were still on the run after escaping and another was being treated at Ashworth Secure Hospital.
Following the second trial, a further twenty-six defendants were still due to be tried on charges relating to the riot. The Crown Prosecution Service accepted plea bargains where defendants pleaded guilty to violent disorder in exchange for the dropping of other charges, or in some cases all charges were dropped completely. On 20 September 1993 the last remaining defendant to maintain a plea of not guilty went on trial, and he was convicted of conspiracy to commit grievous bodily harm and sentenced to thirty months imprisonment. On 18 March 1994, six prisoners appeared in court on charges of escaping from custody during the second riot trial. Five of them pleaded guilty to escaping from custody on one occasion, and Azzopardi pleaded guilty to escaping on two occasions. Each was sentenced to eighteen months imprisonment for escaping from Manchester Crown Court, and Azzopardi received an additional two-year sentence for escaping from the van transporting him from HM Prison Hull to the court. In July 1994, David Bowen was convicted of attempting to pervert the course of justice by attempting to influence the jury in the first riot trial, and was sentenced to three years imprisonment. Taylor, who had already pleaded guilty to the same charge, also received a three-year sentence.
## Aftermath
Strangeways was rebuilt and refurbished at a cost of £55 million, and was officially re-opened as HM Prison Manchester on 27 May 1994. The press were invited to view the new prison and talk to the prisoners by new governor Derek Lewis. A prisoner told the visiting journalists:
> The better conditions in here are not down to the prison department. But for the riot, we would still be in the same old jail banged up all day and slopping out ... The rioters brought this about. These conditions ... should not have cost the lives of a prisoner, a prison officer and two huge court trials. They should have done it years ago but it took a riot to get them to do it.
"Slopping out" was abolished in England and Wales by 1996, and was scheduled to be abolished in Scotland by 1999. Due to budget restraints the abolition was delayed, and by 2004 prisoners in five of Scotland's sixteen prisons still had to "slop out". "Slopping out" ended at HM Young Offenders Institution Polmont in 2007, leaving HM Prison Peterhead as the last prison where inmates did not have access to proper sanitation, as 300 prisoners were forced to use chemical toilets due to the difficulty of installing modern plumbing in the prison's granite structure. Peterhead closed in December 2013.
In 2015, The Daily Telegraph reported that a prisoner serving a 27-year sentence was conducting a lone protest on the roof against conditions and was being cheered by other prisoners. The newspaper also referenced in its own report an interview with Lord Woolf from earlier in the year where he described prisoners being kept in intolerable conditions–as bad as at the time of the riots. Woolf recommended prisons were kept out of politics.
A December 2016 riot involving several hundred prisoners that occurred at HM Prison Birmingham was described by prison affairs academic Alex Cavendish as "probably the most serious riot in a B category prison since Strangeways went up". The incident began after a set of keys was stolen from a prison officer while he was trying to lock prisoners in their cells. Prisoners took over four of the jail's blocks and broke into the administrative area of the prison, where they smashed computer equipment and set personal records alight. Riot officers entered the jail and secured the blocks after twelve hours of disturbance. |
26,726,196 | Charles B. Gatewood | 1,150,602,630 | American army officer (1853–1896) | [
"1853 births",
"1896 deaths",
"American military personnel of the Indian Wars",
"Burials at Arlington National Cemetery",
"Deaths from cancer in Virginia",
"Deaths from stomach cancer",
"Geronimo",
"Military personnel from Virginia",
"People from Woodstock, Virginia",
"United States Military Academy alumni"
]
| First Lieutenant Charles Bare Gatewood (April 5, 1853 – May 20, 1896) was an American soldier born in Woodstock, Virginia. He served in the United States Army in the 6th Cavalry after graduating from West Point. Upon assignment to the American Southwest, Gatewood led platoons of Apache and Navajo scouts against renegades during the Apache Wars. In 1886, he played a key role in ending the Geronimo Campaign by persuading Geronimo to surrender to the army. Beset with health problems due to exposure in the Southwest and Dakotas, Gatewood was critically injured in the Johnson County War and retired from the Army in 1895, dying a year later from stomach cancer. Before his retirement he was nominated for the Medal of Honor, but was denied the award. He was portrayed by Jason Patric in the 1993 film Geronimo: An American Legend.
## Early life
Gatewood was born into a family in Woodstock, Virginia, on April 5, 1853. He became a cadet at the United States Military Academy at West Point in 1873 where he earned the nickname Scipio Africanus because of his resemblance to the Roman general of the same name. He graduated in 1877 and commissioned as Second Lieutenant. He received orders to the 6th US Cavalry in the Southwest at Fort Wingate, New Mexico.
## Apache Wars
Gatewood led companies of Apache and Navajo Scouts in Apache territory throughout the Southwestern United States. He was respected among the Apaches and earned the nickname Nanton Bse-che, meaning "Big-nosed Captain", sometimes rendered as Nantan Bay-chen-daysen. After one year of service at Fort Wingate, Gatewood was made the commander of Apache scouts from the White Mountain Apache Reservation, and later an aide-de-camp to General Nelson Miles. One of his sergeants was William Alchesay, a scout who was a former White Mountain Chief.
### Victorio's War
In 1879 Gatewood and his Apache scouts were brought from Arizona to the Black Range Mountains of New Mexico to capture the Apache Chief Victorio in the Victorio Campaign. He and his scouts were placed under the command of Major Albert P. Morrow of the Ninth Cavalry at Fort Bayard, New Mexico. Gatewood's scouts skirmished with Victorio's band, but ultimately failed to capture him.
In May 1881 he returned to Virginia on sick leave because he had developed rheumatism from exposure to the elements in his two years working with the Apache scouts in the harsh Southwest. He married Georgia McCulloh, the daughter of Thomas G. McCulloh and niece of Richard Sears McCulloh on June 23, 1881, in Cumberland, Maryland. His sick leave expired in July and having not returned to his post, he was declared Absent without leave (AWOL). Gatewood returned to the Southwest on September 17, 1881, under the command of Colonel Eugene Asa Carr in his campaign against the Cibecue and White Mountain Apaches.
### Geronimo's War
In 1882, the US Army sent Brigadier General George Crook to take command of Indian operations in Arizona Territory. Crook was an experienced Indian fighter who had long since learned that regular soldiers were almost useless against the Apaches and had based his entire strategy on employing "Indians to fight other Indians". The Apache, as a mark of respect, nicknamed Crook Nantan Lupan, which means "Grey Wolf". Despite having subjugated all the major tribes of Apaches in the Territory; the Apaches had once again taken up arms, this time under the leadership of Geronimo. Crook repeatedly saw Geronimo and his small band of warriors escape every time.
Knowing Gatewood's reputation as one of the army's "Best Apache Men", Crook made him Commandant of the White Mountain Indian Reservation at Fort Apache under Emmet Crawford. Gatewood and Crook disagreed on handling of the reservation and treatment of the Apaches. After a clash with local politicians over grazing rights on reservation land, Crook had Gatewood transferred in 1885 to command Navajo Scouts. That same year Crook resigned his command of the Department of Arizona and Philip Sheridan had him replaced by General Nelson Miles in the Geronimo Campaign.
Although Crook and Gatewood had a falling-out, Gatewood was regarded by Miles as a "Crook Man"; despite this and Gatewood's failing health, Miles knew that Gatewood was well known to Geronimo, spoke some Apache, and was familiar with their traditions and values; having spent nearly 10 years in the field with them and against them.
Gatewood was dispatched by General Miles to seek out Geronimo for a parley. On July 21, when he reached Carretas, Chihuahua, Gatewood encountered another Army officer, Lieutenant James Parker of the 4th Cavalry, who had orders to follow Geronimo's trail. Parker told Gatewood, "The trail is all a myth—I haven't seen any trail since three weeks ago when it was washed out by the rains."
Despite his rapidly deteriorating health, Gatewood refused to quit and Parker guided him to Captain Henry Lawton, who was leading a mission to find and kill Geronimo with the Fourth Cavalry. It took two weeks through 150 miles of desert mountain ranges to locate Lawton on the banks of the Aros River on August 3, 1886. Lawton reluctantly allowed Gatewood and his scouts to join his command. Gatewood's health continued to deteriorate. On August 8 he asked Lawton's Surgeon, Leonard Wood, to medically discharge him, but Wood refused. On August 23, 1886, Gatewood led 25 men and two Apache scouts into the Sierra Madre and found Geronimo's camp: his band reduced to 20 men and 14 women and children. On August 24 Gatewood approached Geronimo's camp with only 2 soldiers: George Medhurst Wratten, who was fluent in all Apache dialects and one other; 2 interpreters: Tom Horn and Jesús María Yestes; and two Chiricahua scouts: Kayitah, a Chokonen, and Martine, a Nedni, so as not to alarm the Apaches. Kayitah and Martine made the initial contact, being invited into the camp by the Bavispe River. Kayitah remained in the camp as a hostage while Martine left and returned with Gatewood and 15 pounds of tobacco. After Gatewood made gifts of tobacco, Geronimo teased Gatewood about his thinness and sickly look, Gatewood was then told by Geronimo, "you are always welcome in my camp, and it was always safe for you to come". Gatewood encouraged Geronimo to abandon his fight against the US Army. When asked by Geronimo what Gatewood would do in his situation and to "think like an Apache", Gatewood advised him to "put your trust in Miles".
Agreeing to meet with General Miles, Geronimo's band rode with Gatewood to Lawton's camp in Guadalupe Canyon, the entrance to the United States. Lawton received Geronimo and agreed to allow the Apaches to retain their weapons for defense against nearby Mexican troops. Lawton left for a heliograph station to send word to Miles, leaving Lieutenant Abiel Smith in command. Smith and Wood wanted to disarm the Apaches because they were prisoners-of-war. Smith told Gatewood that he wanted a meeting with Geronimo's men, but Gatewood refused because he knew Smith wanted to murder Geronimo, rather than bring him to Miles. Smith persisted and Gatewood threatened to "blow the head off the first soldier in line", who was Leonard Wood. Wood left to write a dispatch and Gatewood turned to the next man, Smith, who finally relented.
The troops and the Apaches arrived at Skeleton Canyon, Arizona, in the Peloncillo Mountains without incident on September 2, 1886. Miles arrived on September 3, 1886, and Geronimo formally surrendered for the fourth and final time on September 4. At the conclusion of the surrender, Geronimo turned to Gatewood and said to him, in Apache, "Good. You told the truth". The following day Naiche surrendered, he had been in a nearby canyon mourning his brother, who had been killed by Mexican soldiers, bringing the Apache wars to an official end in the Southwest.
Despite his success, Miles chastised Gatewood for "disobeying orders" as Gatewood made the final approach to Geronimo with only a party of 6 instead of 25. Gatewood reasoned that a larger party would have scared the Apache and made them flee. The city of Tucson, Arizona, held a Gala event to celebrate Geronimo's surrender and invited Gatewood to be the guest of honor, but Miles refused to let him attend. Miles appointed Gatewood as his "Aide-de-Camp", to keep the lieutenant under scrutiny, Miles downplayed Gatewood's role in Geronimo's surrender mostly because it would have given legitimacy to Crook's strategy.
## Ghost Dance War
In December 1890, Gatewood was reassigned to the Sixth Cavalry, H Troop. His regiment was ordered to South Dakota's Pine Ridge Agency in an operation against hostile Sioux Indians, but was not engaged in the final campaign that culminated in the tragedy at Wounded Knee that December. In January 1891 Gatewood developed rheumatism in both shoulders, again due to the cold weather. His condition progressed to the point where he was unable to move his arms, and had medical orders to leave in February 1891 for Hot Springs, South Dakota.
## Johnson County War
By September 1891 Gatewood had recovered and he rejoined the Sixth Cavalry, then stationed at Fort McKinney, Wyoming. Wyoming was undergoing a range war between ranchers and farmers that would be known as the Johnson County War and the Sixth Cavalry was dispatched at the request of Acting Governor Amos W. Barber. On May 18, 1892, cowboys from the Red Sash Ranch set fire to the Post exchange and planted a bomb in the form of gunpowder in a barracks stove. Gatewood was responding to the fire and was injured by a bomb blast in a barracks; his left arm was shattered, rendering him too disabled to serve in the Cavalry.
Soon after, The Ninth Cavalry of "Buffalo Soldiers" was ordered to Fort McKinney to replace the Sixth Cavalry.
## Death and legacy
On November 19, 1892, Gatewood received orders for Denver, Colorado to await his muster out of the Army. On June 4, 1894, he sought a position as the military advisor of El Paso County, Colorado, to aid in the Cripple Creek miners' strike of 1894 in Cripple Creek, Colorado, but was denied. In 1894 he took a leave of absence from the Army and moved to Fort Myer, Virginia. In 1895 he was recommended for the Medal of Honor by General Nelson A. Miles, "for gallantry in going alone at the risk of his life into the hostile Apache camp of Geronimo in Sonora, August 24, 1886," but was denied by the acting Secretary of War because Gatewood never distinguished himself in hostile action. In 1896 he suffered excruciating stomach pains and went to a Veteran's Hospital in Fort Monroe, Virginia, for treatment. Gatewood died on May 20, 1896, of stomach cancer and was buried at Arlington National Cemetery with full military honors.
On May 23, 1896, Colonel D. S. Gordon, commander of the 6th Cavalry, issued General Order 19, which stated:
> It is with extreme sorrow and regret that the Colonel commanding the regiment announced the death of First Lieutenant Charles B. Gatewood at Fort Monroe May 20. Too much cannot be said in honor of this brave officer and it is lamentable that he should have died with only the rank of a Lieutenant, after his brilliant services to the Government. That no material advantages reverted to him is regretted by every officer of his regiment, who extend to his bereaved family their most profound, earnest and sincere sympathy. As a mark of respect to his memory, the officers of the regiment will wear the usual badge of mourning for the period of 30 days.
His son, Charles B. Gatewood, Jr. (1883–1953), joined the Army and rose to the rank of colonel. He campaigned for recognition of his father's name and later compiled and published his father's memoirs.
The role of Gatewood was portrayed in 1954 by Brett King in the syndicated television series, Stories of the Century, starring and narrated by Jim Davis.
In 1993, Gatewood was portrayed by Jason Patric in the film Geronimo: An American Legend.
Robert Cummings played First Lieutenant Gatewood in the 1960 episode, "The Last Bugle," on Dick Powell's Zane Grey Theatre, the dramatization of the capture of Geronimo, a role filled by Michael Pate. Robert Warwick was cast as General Nelson Miles. |
611,345 | Drusus Caesar | 1,169,072,657 | Adopted grandson and heir of Roman emperor Tiberius | [
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| Drusus Caesar (c. AD 8 – 33) was the adopted grandson and heir of the Roman emperor Tiberius, alongside his brother Nero. Born into the prominent Julio-Claudian dynasty, Drusus was the son of Tiberius' general and heir, Germanicus. After the deaths of his father and of Tiberius' son, Drusus the Younger, Drusus and his brother Nero Caesar were adopted together by Tiberius in September AD 23. As a result of being heirs of the emperor, he and his brother enjoyed accelerated political careers.
Sejanus, the prefect of the Praetorian Guard, had become powerful in Rome and is believed by ancient writers such as Suetonius and Tacitus to have been responsible for the downfall of Drusus the Younger. As Sejanus' power grew, other members of the imperial family began to fall as well. In AD 29, Tiberius wrote a letter to the Senate attacking Nero and his mother, and the Senate had them both exiled. Two years later, Nero died in exile on the island of Ponza. Drusus was later imprisoned following similar charges as his brother, and remained in prison from AD 30 until his death three years later. Their deaths allowed for the adoption and ascension of their third brother, Gaius Caligula, following the death of Tiberius in AD 37.
## Background and family
Drusus was born in around AD 8 to Germanicus and Agrippina the Elder. Drusus' paternal grandparents were Nero Claudius Drusus (Drusus the Elder) and Antonia Minor, daughter of Mark Antony and Octavia Minor. His maternal grandparents were Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa, a close friend of Augustus, and Augustus' daughter Julia the Elder. Drusus had eight siblings: four brothers (Tiberius and Gaius, who died young; Nero Julius Caesar; and another Gaius, nicknamed "Caligula"), three sisters (Agrippina the Younger, Julia Drusilla, and Julia Livilla), and a brother or sister of unknown name (normally referenced as Ignotus).
As a member of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, he was a close relative of all five Julio-Claudian emperors: his great-grandfather Augustus was the first emperor of the dynasty, his great-uncle Tiberius was the second emperor, his brother Gaius (Caligula) was the third emperor, his uncle Claudius was the fourth emperor, and his nephew Lucius Domitius (more commonly known as "Nero") was the fifth and final emperor of the dynasty.
His father was the adopted son of Tiberius, who was himself the adoptive son of Augustus, whose adoptions were the result of the death of Gaius Caesar in February AD 4. Gaius, who was the heir of Augustus, had died of illness in Syria. Germanicus was for some time considered a potential heir by Augustus, but Augustus later decided in favor of his stepson Tiberius. As a result, in June AD 4, Augustus adopted Tiberius on the condition that Tiberius first adopt Germanicus. As a corollary to the adoption, Germanicus was wed to his second cousin Agrippina the Elder the following year.
In AD 13, his father was appointed commander of the forces on the Rhine, from where he led three campaigns into Germany against the forces of Arminius, which had made him popular as he avenged the humiliating Roman defeat at the Battle of Teutoburg Forest. In October AD 14, Germanicus received a delegation from the Senate giving its condolences for the death of Augustus. Augustus had died in August and Tiberius became emperor, making Germanicus heir to the empire.
At the direction of Tiberius, Germanicus was dispatched to Asia to reorganize the provinces and assert imperial authority there. The provinces were in such disarray that the attention of a member of the leading family was deemed necessary. However, after two years in the east, Germanicus came at odds with the governor of Syria, Gnaeus Calpurnius Piso. During their feud, Germanicus fell ill and died in October AD 19.
Drusus married Aemilia Lepida around AD 29. She was the daughter of Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, his second cousin. Tacitus reports that during their marriage "she had pursued her husband with ceaseless accusations". In 36, she was charged with adultery with a slave and committed suicide, "since there was no question about her guilt".
His mother Agrippina believed her husband was murdered to promote Drusus the Younger as heir, and feared that the birth of his twin sons would give him motive to displace her own sons. However, her fears were unfounded, with Nero being elevated by Tiberius in AD 20. Nero received the toga virilis (toga of manhood), was promised the office of quaestor five years in advance, and was wed to Drusus the Younger's daughter Julia.
Following the death of Germanicus, Drusus the Younger was Tiberius' new heir. He received a second consulship in AD 21 and tribunicia potestas (tribunician power) in AD 22. At the same time, Praetorian prefect Sejanus now came to exert considerable influence over the emperor, who referred to Sejanus as socius laborum ("my partner in my toils"). According to Tacitus and Cassius Dio, the Younger Drusus and Sejanus began bickering and entered a feud during which Drusus became ill and died of seemingly natural causes on 14 September 23. Ancient sources say the cause of death was poison, whereas modern authors, such as Barbara Levick, suggest that it may have been due to illness.
## Career
The death of the Younger Drusus left no immediate threat to Sejanus. Ultimately, his death elevated Drusus and Nero to the position of heirs. Drusus received the toga virilis and was promised the rank of quaestor five years before the legal age, just as his brother Nero had been given. In effect, this formed factions around them and their mother Agrippina on the one side and Sejanus on the other. It is impossible to know the full extent of Sejanus' power at this point, but it has been noted that Sejanus was not allowed to marry Livilla (Drusus the Younger's widow) and was thus denied entry into the imperial family. In the Senate, Sejanus encountered little opposition from the senators, but Tiberius expressed displeasure in the Senate, in AD 24, at the public prayers which had been offered for Nero and his brother Drusus' health.
In 28, the Senate voted that altars to Clementia (mercy) and Amicitia (friendship) be raised. At that time, Clementia was considered a virtue of the ruling class, for only the powerful could give clemency. The altar of Amicitia was flanked by statues of Sejanus and Tiberius. By this time his association with Tiberius was such that there were even those in Roman society who erected statues in his honor and gave prayers and sacrifices in his honor. Like members of the imperial family, Sejanus' birthday was to be honored. According to author and historian Alston, "Sejanus' association with Tiberius must have at least indicated to the people that he would be further elevated."
### Downfall
The very next year saw a direct attack on Agrippina and Nero: Tiberius sent a letter to the Senate in which he accused Agrippina and Nero of misconduct, but was unable to convict them of any attempt at rebellion; the attitude of the former and the sexual activity of the latter were the primary accusations against them. Agrippina was popular with the people, as was the family of Germanicus, and the people surrounded the senate-house carrying likenesses of the two in protest of the letter. The Senate refused to come to a resolution on the matter until it received plain direction from the emperor to do so. Tiberius found it necessary to repeat his charges, and when he did, the Senate no longer delayed; and the fate of Agrippina and Nero was sealed. Nero was declared an enemy of the state, removed to the island of Pontia, and was killed or encouraged to kill himself in 31.
After his wife Amelia betrayed him for Sejanus, Drusus was dismissed by Tiberius. It wasn't long before he was accused by Cassius Severus of plotting against Tiberius. He was imprisoned and confined to a dungeon on the Palatine in 30. He starved to death in prison in 33 after having been reduced to chewing the stuffing of his bed.
## Postmortem
Sejanus remained powerful until his sudden downfall and summary execution in October AD 31, just after the death of Nero, the exact reasons for this remain unclear. After realizing his error in trusting Sejanus, Tiberius considered releasing Drusus, but decided that he had been imprisoned for too long to be released. The Senate was shocked reading the account of his imprisonment from his diary.
The deaths of Germanicus' oldest sons elevated his third son, Gaius Caesar (Caligula), to successor and he became princeps when Tiberius died in AD 37. Drusus the Younger's son Tiberius Gemellus was summoned to Capri by his grandfather Tiberius, where he and Gaius Caligula were made joint-heirs. When Caligula assumed power, he made Gemellus his adopted son, but Caligula soon had Gemellus killed for plotting against him.
## Ancestry |
5,250,488 | Sarcófago | 1,171,897,226 | Brazilian extreme metal band | [
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| Sarcófago was a Brazilian extreme metal band formed in 1985. They were fronted by Sepultura's original singer, Wagner Lamounier, and Geraldo Minelli.
The front cover of the band's debut album, I.N.R.I., is regarded as a great influence on black metal's corpse paint style make-up. That record is also considered one of the "first wave" albums that helped shape the genre.
The band broke up in 2000, after releasing the Crust EP. Former members, minus Wagner, played throughout Brazil in 2006 under the moniker Tributo ao Sarcófago (Tribute to Sarcófago). In 2009, rumors surfaced that the original I.N.R.I. line-up were reuniting for a small, high-profile tour, but proved to be false. A reissue of their back catalogue is in the works, a joint effort between Cogumelo Records and American label Greyhaze.
## History
### Early days (1985–1988)
Sarcófago (Portuguese for 'sarcophagus') was formed in 1985 in Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil. Equally indebted to Finnish hardcore punk and early extreme metal groups such as Bathory, Celtic Frost, and Slayer, Sarcófago's goal was to create the most aggressive music ever. Wagner Lamounier, who parted acrimoniously from Sepultura in March of 1985, was invited to join the band. Although Sepultura never recorded anything with Lamounier, he contributed the lyrics to the song "Antichrist" on their Bestial Devastation EP. Sarcófago's vinyl debut was on the Cogumelo Produções split album Warfare Noise I, originally released in 1986. Sarcófago contributed the three tracks "Recrucify", "The Black Vomit" and "Satanas". Their music and lyrics were considered shocking at the time, something which brought them a considerable amount of attention. The band's line-up at that point consisted of "Butcher" (guitars), "Antichrist" (Lamounier; vocals), "Incubus" (Geraldo Minelli; bass) and "Leprous" (Armando Sampaio; drums).
With new drummer "D.D. Crazy" —hailed as a pioneer in the metal world for his extensive use of blast beats on this album— Sarcófago released I.N.R.I in July 1987. The band's attire on the album's cover —corpsepaint, leather jackets, and bullet belts— is considered the first definite statement of black metal's visual presentation and style. The music has been equally influential, a milestone in the development of the genre. Despite the record's now-legendary status, Lamounier was unsatisfied with the end results, voicing complaints over the quality of the recording sessions and the band being plagued by inner strife. After the release of I.N.R.I., Sarcófago briefly disbanded. Lamounier moved to Uberlândia to study economics at the Federal University of Uberlândia (UFU), while Butcher and his brother D.D. Crazy left the group. The latter would play drums on Sextrash's debut, 1990's Sexual Carnage.
### Rotting (1989–1990)
When Rotting first came out it stirred a huge amount of controversy due to its cover art — a traditional grim reaper figure licking what appears to be Jesus Christ's face. It was based upon a medieval painting. The cover artist himself, Kelson Frost, refused to paint a crown of thorns over the man's head, which would readily identify him as the Christian messiah.
Rotting musically differs from the raw, hyper-speed black metal of I.N.R.I. Session drummer "Joker" brought a different set of influences to the band (such as crossover thrash); Wagner also quickly learned to play guitar, and contributed many of the album's guitar riffs. Rotting also marked their first change of aliases: the group's core duo renamed themselves "Wagner Antichrist" and "Gerald Incubus". Their visual department went through changes as well — they dropped the arm and leg spikes because they made playing live difficult.
Rotting was Sarcófago's first release to have international distribution, handled in Europe by British label Music for Nations, and by Maze/Kraze in America. Maze Records released a censored version of Rotting, blacking out the original cover and adding a sticker which read "Featuring the Original Lead Singer of Sepultura" without consulting the band. Infuriated by the label's actions, Sarcófago sued them.
### The Laws of Scourge (1991–1993)
Next came The Laws of Scourge (1991), considered a "revolution" in the band's career. A combination of better musicianship, improved production values, and more sophisticated songwriting landed them into death metal territory. Sarcófago's new direction in music was partly influenced by new members Fábio "Jhasko" (guitar) and Lúcio Olliver (drums), and inspired by a newer crop of extreme metal bands such as Godflesh, Paradise Lost, Bolt Thrower, Deicide, and Morbid Angel.
The Laws of Scourge became Sarcófago's best selling record, and responsible for their most extensive touring schedule to this date. Their tour trek also included their first international dates: they visited South American countries such as Peru and Chile, and in Europe they played shows in Portugal and Spain. In Brazil, their most important gig was to open for Texas crossover thrash pioneers the Dirty Rotten Imbeciles in São Paulo.
### Hate (1994–1996)
Musically speaking, Hate is notable for its stripped-down, straightforward approach and the use of a drum machine, the latter sparking some controversy. Lamounier claimed to have no qualms about using this device, on the basis that most death metal drummers use trigger pads for recording purposes, which in the end produces the same homogenized sound as that of a drum machine.
The band cut their hair short, in protest of the masculine long hair style becoming popular due to the massive success of grunge in the early 1990s. Men sporting long hair has traditionally been associated with counterculture groups, and it is especially present in the metalhead subculture. Wagner declared:
> Every douchebag around is wearing long hair, Nirvana and Pearl Jam T-shirts, etc. We have nothing against these bands, but we have against jumping the bandwagon. It's not right when it becomes a trend, because massification dumbs people down.
In late 1995, Sarcófago released the Decade of Decay compilation which, amongst other things, featured demo versions of their early songs and rare backstage photographs. The band described the CD as a "gift" to their fans.
### The Worst (1996–2000)
Sarcófago's fourth and final album, The Worst (1996), sees the band slowing down in relation to the speed-oriented Hate, and having a better grasp of drum programming. Minelli and Lamounier saw this record as a "summation" of their career.
With the turn of the millennium came the Crust EP, Sarcófago's swansong release. It was meant to be a preview of an upcoming album, but the band's core duo parted ways before commencing its recording.
### Sarcófago Tribute tour (2006–2009)
In celebration of the 20th anniversary of the Warfare Noise split album, Cogumelo Records and Gerald Incubus organized a comeback show with Sarcófago in Belo Horizonte. Along with Minelli, the line-up for that event was Fábio Jhasko on guitars, Manu Joker and old-time friend Juarez "Tibanha" on vocals. That performance was recorded and there are plans to release it in DVD format. Lamounier opted not to join this "Sarcófago Tribute" band for the lack in desire to play professionally. However, Wagner still pursues his musical interests — he plays in the crust punk band Commando Kaos.
In October 2007, Sarcófago flew to Santiago, Chile to play in the Black Shadows Festival, alongside death metal pioneers Possessed.
In March 2009, Wagner supposedly announced that Sarcófago would reunite, and their tour itinerary would include appearances at the Wacken Open Air and Hole in the Sky festivals, as well as dates in London, New York, Los Angeles and Tokyo. He stated it would be the original I.N.R.I. line-up, but that this would be the only tour they would be doing and there would be no new material. A couple of days later, Lamounier himself wrote to the music press exposing this news report as a hoax.
## Lyrical approach
Inspired by Venom and Hellhammer, Sarcófago's early lyrics were openly Satanic. These lyrics frequently employed curse words and crude, obscene scenarios, such as in the case of "Desecration of (the) Virgin", a blasphemous take on Mother Mary's virgin birth.
Whilst still polemical, by 1989's Rotting the band's stance on Christianity was more agnostic than Satanic. The original vinyl release came with a lengthy manifesto written by Lamounier, in which he criticized the alienating effect that Catholicism had on Brazilian society. The band also questioned the divine nature of Christ, declaring he was just a regular man who died for his ideas. On a less serious note the album featured "Sex, Drinks and Metal", a hedonistic ode to the headbanger lifestyle.
Their next album, The Laws of Scourge, continued their new-found focus on more "reality-based" themes, with lyrics generally covering such death-related topics as suicide and homicide. The band had trouble again with American censors, with the lyrics of the re-recorded version of "The Black Vomit" being forcibly omitted from the CD booklet as well as the entire "Prelude to Suicide" track.
## Legacy
### Influence
The band left a widespread influence on black metal circles worldwide, particularly among the Scandinavian portion of the so-called "second wave" of the genre. "It is sobering", claimed Terrorizer magazine, "to think of what wouldn't have happened had 'I.N.R.I.' not been released".
Fenriz, drummer of Darkthrone, included a Sarcófago track ("Satanic Lust") in his The Best of Old-School Black Metal compilation, released by Peaceville Records. Of Sarcófago's I.N.R.I., he said it was an "album" that "you buy or die". Euronymous, the deceased guitarist of Mayhem and erstwhile leader of the so-called "Inner Circle", traded correspondence with Lamounier in the early days of Norway's scene. In the Lords of Chaos book, Metalion (Slayer fanzine, ex-Head Not Found) stated that Euronymous was "obsessed with them because wore lots of spikes and corpsepaint. He said he wanted every band to be like this [...]." Satyricon covered Sarcófago's "I.N.R.I." on their Intermezzo II EP, also featured on the Tribute to Sarcófago album, released by Cogumelo Records in 2001. Key Gorgoroth members Infernus and King were also influenced by Sarcófago.
Notable black metal groups from neighbouring Finland were also affected by Sarcófago's early output. Beherit founder Nuclear Holocausto said Sarcófago was one of "the greatest influences" for the band; Mika Luttinen from Impaled Nazarene said that "nothing tops Slayer's Reign in Blood or Sarcofago's I.N.R.I., you know". Their version of "The Black Vomit" was included in Tribute to Sarcófago.
Lamounier, however, has been critical of several of the bands influenced by Sarcófago, especially bands from the Norwegian black metal scene, wondering how one of the wealthiest countries in the world could have produced such a scene. Although he liked Immortal, Wagner dubbed Euronymous a "nutcase" and considered Burzum "shit". He also criticized black metal's purposely lo-fi recording aesthetic; Lamounier said that Burzum's guitar timbre "sounded like it was recorded through a transistor radio".
They are also considered highly influential on the development of war metal.
### Rivalry with Sepultura
An oft-cited aspect of Sarcófago's history is their long-lasting feud with Sepultura. Although former Sepultura drummer Igor Cavalera eventually dismissed the entire affair as "child's play", the music press fuelled their bitter rivalry for many years. Their conflict partially contributed to Sarcofágo's fame as the perennial "black sheep" of Brazilian heavy metal.
Tensions started after Lamounier parted ways with Sepultura, which led to a temporarily awkward situation. In Minelli's assessment, "everybody had forgotten it" until two years later, when D.D. Crazy smashed a bottle over Andreas Kisser's head, who had been recently recruited as Sepultura's new lead guitarist. Kisser was being "too much of a douchebag". Sílvio "Bibica" Gomes, Sepultura roadie and co-author of the band's Toda a História biography, was one of the prime instigators of that fight.
During an interview from The Worst era, Lamounier was asked to comment on Sepultura's well-publicized break-up, when Max Cavalera left the band in January 1997. Lamounier declared he was not surprised that things turned out the way they did as, in his words, "with what I knew of them, I think it's quite normal that one brother should betray another in that family, they don't measure the consequences to get what they want. So, a brother backstabbing the other, deceiving their mother, cheating a friend... For money, I'll bet they're capable of anything."
Annoyed by Lamounier meddling in "private family business", Max Cavalera's answer came through "Bumbklaatt", a song on Soulfly's debut album.
> Grow tha fuck up you waste / Can't you see what it takes / To be a real man / Talking shit all your life / No integrity or pride / Fucking mind full of lies / You fake / You waste / You bumbklaatt...
Max explained that, in Jamaican patois, "Bumbklatt" means "blood clot" and it is also "a big insult... It means motherfucker or a piece of shit in Jamaica".
The animosity between the two groups eventually reached another major Brazilian band, crossover thrash act Ratos de Porão. The band got involved in the affair after a 1987 Belo Horizonte gig, when a portion of the audience kept jeering at the band. One version of that story states that Lamounier and Ratos de Porão singer João Gordo were antagonizing each other during the show. Another one tells that when Gordo asked Sepultura frontman Max Cavalera who was "gobbing" at his band, Max accused Sarcófago.
Tensions flared up once again five years later when Sarcófago, instead of Ratos de Porão, were picked up to be the opening band of Dirty Rotten Imbeciles' first Brazilian shows. Ratos de Porão and friends from São Paulo thrash metal group Korzus invaded Sarcófago's backstage area; João Gordo then proceeded to sucker-punch Lamounier while he was lying drunk on the floor, and Gordo's friends attacked the rest with motorcycle chains. A massive brawl ensued, with a member of Dirty Rotten Imbeciles' road crew getting his arm broken.
## Discography
Studio albums
- I.N.R.I. (1987)
- The Laws of Scourge (1991)
- Hate (1994)
- The Worst (1997)
Compilation albums
- Decade of Decay (1996)
Demos
- Satanic Lust (1986)
- The Black Vomit (1986)
- Sepultado (1987)
- Christ's Death (1987)
- Die... Hard! (2015) (compilation)
EPs
- Rotting (1989)
- Crush, Kill, Destroy (1992)
- Crust (2000)
Split albums
- Warfare Noise I (1986); with Chakal, Holocausto and Mutilator
Compilation appearances
- The Lost Tapes of Cogumelo (1990)
- Masters of Brutality II (1992)
- Speed Kills 6: Violence of the Slams (1992)
- Roadkill, Vol. 2 (1999)
- Cogumelo Records Compilation (2001)
- Warzone XXVI (2001)
- Fenriz Presents... The Best of Old-School Black Metal (2004)
## Members
Last known line-up
- Wagner "Antichrist" Lamounier – vocals, guitar (1985–2000)
- Geraldo "Gerald Incubus" Minelli – bass guitar, backing vocals (1986–2000)
Session
- Manoel Henriques "Manu Joker" – drums, backing vocals (1989–1991)
- Vanir Jr. – keyboards (1991–1993)
- Eugênio "Dead Zone" – drum programming, keyboards (1994–2000)
Former
- Armando "Leprous" Sampaio – drums (1985–1986)
- Juninho "Pussy Fucker" – bass guitar (1985–1986)
- Zéder "Butcher" – guitar (1985–1987)
- Eduardo "D.D. Crazy" – drums (1986–1987)
- Fábio Jhasko "Jhasko" – guitar (1991–1993)
- Lucio Olliver – drums (1991–1993)
### Timeline |
36,233,326 | Made in America (Jay-Z and Kanye West song) | 1,166,127,145 | null | [
"2011 songs",
"Frank Ocean songs",
"Jay-Z songs",
"Kanye West songs",
"Song recordings produced by Kanye West",
"Songs written by Frank Ocean",
"Songs written by Jay-Z",
"Songs written by Kanye West"
]
| "Made in America" is a song by American hip hop recording artists Kanye West and Jay Z, from their collaborative album Watch the Throne (2011). It is the eleventh track on the album and features vocals from singer Frank Ocean. Lyrically, the song explores themes of family life and the American Dream. It expresses the hardships of youth and coming of age. The track received positive reviews from music critics who praised Ocean's vocal hook, and the subject matter of the verses. The song has been compared to "inspirational ballads of late-period Michael Jackson." The song charted on South Korea Gaon International Chart at number 178. Jay Z and West performed the song at their 2011 Watch the Throne Tour.
## Background
Jay Z and Kanye West are both American rappers who have collaborated on several tracks together. In 2010, they began production and recording on a collaborative record Watch the Throne. Frank Ocean is an R&B singer who released his debut mixtape Nostalgia, Ultra in early 2011 to critical acclaim. The release of the mixtape interested West, who was reported to be a big fan. West invited Ocean to write and sing on two of the songs from the record. Frank wrote and provided vocals on tracks "No Church in the Wild" and "Made in America" and the songs were recorded in New York.
## Composition
The song has been described as an "understated soft-pop" track with influence from Michael Jackson and his 1985 charity single "We Are the World". Ocean's hook "pays tribute to Martin Luther King Jr., Coretta Scott King, Malcolm X, Betty Shabazz and, of course, the sweet baby Jesus on the album's most serene track." Rob Harvilla of Spin stated that "PBR&B prince Frank Ocean" sings on the "subdued but triumphant "Made in America" (wherein Jay wistfully recalls his grandma's banana pudding and Kanye complains about South Park). The song "invokes heroes of the civil rights movement" and reflects on how West and Jay have "seized what might be an American Dream."
Jay Z muses on his drug-dealing past with lines like "our apple pie was supplied by Arm & Hammer", utilizing "his skill at baking double- and triple-meanings into a line". West's verse describes his "original hustle in terms of blogging and web traffic" and his conflict with fame, "tinged with a political or socio-economic hue." West offers a verse that "starts off humble, but by the end he's bragging about his power and slamming his critics" over a "weirdly magnetic synthetic beat and dots of pretty piano clusters crafted by producer Sak Pace of the Jugganauts." Popdust reported that "this is Jay at his most vulnerable, revealing things he may be thinking but not regularly willing to share with others. While the song's chorus seems to honor all of those "Made In America," the track is really a look at the history these two have shared and perhaps their differing futures."
## Reception
"Made in America" received mostly positive reviews from most music critics. Pitchfork's Tom Breihan commented that the track reminded him of "the inspirational ballads of late-period Michael Jackson", and said that while the song was "silly", it "succeeds on pure orchestral excess." Rolling Stone stated that "both rappers deliver sentimental verses, but Ocean carries most of the emotional weight here." Steve Jones of USA Today commented "on the equally potent Made in America, the two talk about their rises to fame, while acknowledging those who helped and inspired them." Sputnikmusic's Tyler Fisher noted that "Frank Ocean asks, "What's a god to a nonbeliever?" on "No Church in the Wild", but later invokes "sweet baby Jesus" on "Made in America", pandering to each track without a thought to the coherence of the album."
Los Angeles Times writer Randall Roberts stated "the album's highlight, and an instant classic, is "Made in America," a solid, slow-paced Frank Ocean-teamed jam about the American dream that reveals the main difference between West and Jay Z: humility." Popdust writer Emily Exton that while "Frank Ocean's "Sweet Baby Jesus" might be stuck in your head for the rest of the day", the highlist is "Kanye who manages to both appreciatively give thanks to his rise to fame as well as generate more than one eye roll with his bravado." Rolling Stone*'s Simon Vozick-Levinson mused "Frank Ocean's second appearance on the album is another keeper. Hip-hop heads will be singing his honey-voiced, religiously-themed hook all fall. Jay Z and Kanye keep the thoughtful mood going with verses that revisit their respective rises to fame." BBC Music's Marcus J. Moore perceived that "Made in America fails to resonate because of a contrived chorus that pays homage to West's Sweet Baby Jesus, among others." Andy Gill of The Independent* found it to be a stand-out track, "featuring assured vocal refrains from Frank Ocean, while the two rappers muse over familiar themes of loyalty, sexuality and maternal solidarity." The track briefly charted on the South Korea Gaon International Chart for one week at number 178.
## Promotion
The track was performed by West and Jay Z on their Watch the Throne Tour. Ocean performed his hook of the song at some of the performances during his 2011 concert series through the United States and Europe. The name was adopted for Jay Z's first annual "Budweiser Made in America" festival at Fairmount Park in Philadelphia in September 2012. Jay Z will be the curator and the headliner for the festival.
## Charts |
18,192,855 | NatWest | 1,173,356,227 | British retail and commercial bank | [
"Banks based in the City of London",
"Banks established in 1968",
"Banks of the United Kingdom",
"British brands",
"British companies established in 1968",
"Companies formerly listed on the London Stock Exchange",
"NatWest Group"
]
| National Westminster Bank, commonly known as NatWest, is a major retail and commercial bank in the United Kingdom based in London, England. It was established in 1968 by the merger of National Provincial Bank and Westminster Bank. In 2000, it became part of The Royal Bank of Scotland Group, which was re-named NatWest Group in 2020. Following ringfencing of the group's core domestic business, the bank became a direct subsidiary of NatWest Holdings; NatWest Markets comprises the non-ringfenced investment banking arm. The British government currently owns 39%, previously 54.7% of NatWest Group after spending £45 billion (\$61.87 billion) bailing out the lender in 2008. NatWest International is a trading name of RBS International, which also sits outside the ringfence.
NatWest is considered one of the Big Four clearing banks in the UK, and it has a large network of over 960 branches and 3,400 cash machines across Great Britain and offers 24-hour Actionline telephone and online banking services. Today, it has more than 7.5 million personal customers and 850,000 small business accounts. In Northern Ireland, it operates through its Ulster Bank brand.
## History
The bank's origins date back to 1658 with the foundation of Smith's Bank of Nottingham. Its oldest direct corporate ancestor, National Provincial Bank, was formed in 1833 as the National Provincial Bank of England. It merged with Union of London and Smith's Bank in 1918 to become National Provincial and Union Bank, shortening its name in 1924. District Bank (formed in 1829 as the Manchester and Liverpool District Banking Company) was acquired by National Provincial in 1962 and allowed to operate under its own name. Westminster Bank was formed in 1834 as London and Westminster Bank. It merged with London and County Bank in 1909 to become London County and Westminster Bank and with Parr's Bank in 1918 to become London County Westminster and Parrs Bank, shortening its name in 1923.
The creation of the modern bank was announced in 1968 and commenced trading on 1 January 1970 after the statutory process of integration had been completed in 1969. The three arrowheads device was adopted as the new bank's logo; it is said to symbolise either the circulation of money in the financial system or the bank's three constituents. The District, National Provincial and Westminster banks were fully integrated in the new firm's structure, but private bankers Coutts & Co (a 1920 National Provincial acquisition, established 1692), Ulster Bank in Northern Ireland (a 1917 Westminster acquisition, established 1836) and the Isle of Man Bank (a 1961 National Provincial acquisition, established 1865) continued as separate operations. Westminster Foreign Bank (established 1913) was restyled International Westminster Bank in 1973. Duncan Stirling, outgoing chairman of Westminster Bank, became first chairman of the fifth largest bank in the world. In 1969 David Robarts, former chairman of National Provincial, assumed Stirling's position. In 1975 it was one of the first London banks to open a representative office in Scotland. It was a founder member of the Joint Credit Card Company (with Lloyds Bank, Midland Bank and Williams & Glyn's Bank) which launched the Access credit card (now part of Mastercard) in 1972 and in 1976 it introduced the Servicetill cash machine. The same banks, excluding Lloyds, were later responsible for the introduction of the Switch debit card (later branded Maestro) in 1988.
### Expansion
Deregulation in the 1980s, culminating in the Big Bang in 1986, also encouraged the bank to enter the securities business. County Bank, its merchant banking subsidiary formed in 1965, acquired various stockbroking and jobbing firms to create the investment banking arm County NatWest. National Westminster Home Loans was established in 1980 and other initiatives included the launch of the Piggy Account for children in 1983, the Credit Zone, a flexible overdraft facility on which customers only pay interest (now commonplace, this so-called pink debt was innovative when launched) and the development of the Mondex electronic purse (later sold to MasterCard Worldwide) in 1990. The Action Bank advertising campaign spearheaded a new marketing-led approach to business development. Under the direction of Robin Leigh-Pemberton, who became chairman in 1977, the bank also expanded internationally, forming National Westminster Bancorp in the United States of America with a network of 340 branches across two states, National Westminster Bank of Canada and NatWest Australia Bank; and opening branches on the European continent and in the Far East. In 1982, the Frankfurt office of International Westminster Bank merged with Global Bank AG to form Deutsche Westminster Bank. In 1985, Banco NatWest España was formed and National Westminster Bank SA was incorporated in 1988, taking over the bank's six branches in France and Monaco. In 1989, International Westminster Bank was merged into National Westminster Bank by Act of Parliament.
Completed in 1980, the bank built the National Westminster Tower (now known as Tower 42) in London to serve as its international headquarters. At a height of 600 feet (183 m) it was the tallest building in the UK until the topping-out of Canary Wharf Tower 10 years later; its footprint loosely approximating the bank's logo when viewed from the air, although the architect claimed the similarity was coincidence. Also worthy of note is National Westminster House (since renamed as 103 Colmore Row) in Birmingham: the building was sold to British Land in 2007 and demolished in 2015.
### Controversy
The bank was hit by the stock market crash of 1987 and involvement in the collapse of Blue Arrow. The Department of Trade and Industry report on the affair was critical of the bank's management and resulted in the resignation of several members of the board, including then-chairman Lord Boardman. Later, the bank would divest its overseas subsidiaries. The North American operations were sold to Fleet Bank and Hong Kong Bank of Canada, and the Australian and New Zealand branches were sold to Salomon Smith Barney and the National Australia Bank. Thereafter the bank concentrated on its core domestic business as the restyled NatWest Group, reflecting its modern positioning as a portfolio of businesses. In the 1993 Bishopsgate bombing, the NatWest Tower was devastated by a Provisional IRA bomb and the bank vacated the building and later sold it. Then, in 1997, NatWest Markets, the corporate and investment banking arm formed in 1992, revealed that a £50m loss had been discovered, revised to £90.5m after further investigations. Investor and shareholder confidence was so badly shaken that the Bank of England had to instruct the board of directors to resist calls for the resignation of its most senior executives in an effort to draw a line under the affair. The bank's internal controls and risk management were severely criticised in 2000 and its aggressive push into investment banking questioned, after a lengthy investigation by the Securities and Futures Authority. The bank's move into complicated derivative products that it did not fully understand seemed to indicate poor management. By the end of 1997 parts of NatWest Markets had been sold, others becoming Greenwich NatWest in 1998. It had purchased Gleason Partners in 1996 for \$135 million only to resell it back to GP's founder for just \$4 million 3 years later in 1999, a whopping \$131 million loss.
### Takeover
In 1999, the chairman, Lord Alexander of Weedon, announced a merger with Legal & General in a friendly £10.7 billion deal, the first between a bank and an insurance company in UK history. The move was poorly received in the London financial markets and NatWest's share price fell substantially. Seen as a driver of the ill-advised investment banking expansion, Derek Wanless was forced to resign as chief executive following the appointment of Sir David Rowland (who became executive chairman). Also in 1999, in response to the much reduced NatWest market capitalisation, the much smaller Bank of Scotland made a hostile takeover bid for NatWest. The Bank of Scotland's aim was to break up the NatWest Group and dispose of its non-retail assets. NatWest was forced to abandon its merger, but refused to agree to a takeover by a rival bank. The Royal Bank of Scotland tabled another hostile offer and trumped the Bank of Scotland with a £21 billion bid. The takeover of NatWest in early 2000 was the biggest in UK history. Once Britain's most profitable bank, it was delisted from the London Stock Exchange and became, with its subsidiaries, component parts of the Royal Bank of Scotland Group. The outcome of this bitter struggle set the tone for a round of consolidation in the financial sector as it prepared for a new age of fierce global competition. The Royal Bank of Scotland Group became the second largest bank in the UK and Europe (after HSBC) and the fifth largest in the world by market capitalisation. According to Forbes Global 2000, it was then the 13th largest company in the world. NatWest was retained as a distinct brand with its own banking licence, but many back office functions were merged with those of the Royal Bank, leading to over 18,000 job losses.
### Attempted divestment
In 2008, it was announced that HM Government would take a stake of up to 58% in the Royal Bank of Scotland in a move aimed at recapitalising the group. HM Treasury subscribed for £5 billion in preference shares and underwrote the issuance of £15bn of new ordinary shares offered to RBS shareholders and new institutional shareholders at the fixed price of 65.5p. As a consequence of the mismanagement which necessitated this rescue, the chief executive, Fred Goodwin (who secured the takeover of NatWest), offered his resignation, which was duly accepted. Chairman Tom McKillop also confirmed he would stand down from that role when his contract expired in 2009. Goodwin was replaced by Stephen Hester, previously chief executive of British Land.
In 2009, the RBS Group announced that it would divest all 311 RBS branches in England and Wales (known as Williams & Glyn's until 1985) together with the seven NatWest branches in Scotland as a standalone business, to comply with European Commission state aid requirements. In August 2010, it was announced that the branches would be sold to Santander UK, along with the accounts of 1.8 million personal customers and 244,000 SME customers. Santander withdrew from the sale in October 2012. On 27 September 2013, the RBS Group confirmed it had agreed to sell 308 RBS branches in England and Wales and 6 NatWest branches in Scotland to the Corsair consortium. This figure was reduced to 307 by May 2015. The branches were to have been separated from the group in 2016 as a standalone business operating under the previously dormant Williams & Glyn's brand.
In August 2016, RBS cancelled its plan to spin off Williams & Glyn as a separate business, stating that the new bank could not survive independently. It revealed it would instead seek to sell the division to another bank. In February 2017, HM Treasury and the European Commission reached a provisional agreement in which RBS would be able to retain the Williams & Glyn assets in return for investing £750 million into a fund aimed at increasing SME lending by challenger banks and for RBS agreeing to allow SME customers of challenger banks to use its branch network for cash and cheque handling. The European Commission confirmed in April 2017 that it would scrutinise the proposal.
### Recent developments
On 3 May 2021, the business of Ulster Bank Limited in Northern Ireland was transferred to National Westminster Bank as part of a court-approved Banking Business Transfer Scheme.
## Structure
NatWest Group operates internationally through its four principal subsidiaries: NatWest Holdings which owns The Royal Bank of Scotland, National Westminster Bank and Ulster Bank Ireland DAC; NatWest Markets; NatWest Markets N.V.; and The Royal Bank of Scotland International. The NatWest sub-group of companies comprises National Westminster Bank and its subsidiary and associated undertakings. As of 2023, the principal subsidiary undertakings of NatWest are:
- Coutts & Co.
- RBS Invoice Finance
- Lombard North Central
Structurally, National Westminster Bank was a wholly owned subsidiary of The Royal Bank of Scotland Group until 2003, when ownership of the bank's entire issued ordinary share capital was transferred to The Royal Bank of Scotland as holding company, with RBS Group functioning as ultimate holding company. At the same time the entire issued share capital of Lombard North Central was transferred by the bank to the holding company, transferring back to NatWest in 2017. Ownership of National Westminster Home Loans was passed to the holding company in 2005; however, the mortgage portfolio and related funding were also transferred back to NatWest in 2012. In 2000, the bank transferred National Westminster Life Assurance to RBS Life Investments, effectively establishing the business as a joint venture between the Group and Norwich Union. In 2018, ownership of both NatWest and the Royal Bank transferred to NatWest Holdings and NatWest became the main provider of shared services and Treasury activities for the RBS Group. On 14 February 2020, it was announced that RBS Group would be renamed NatWest Group later that year, taking the brand under which the majority of its business was delivered. The change became effective on 22 July.
The following have served as chairmen of National Westminster Bank:
The office is currently held ex officio by the chair of NatWest Group.
## Services
NatWest provide a full range of banking and insurance services to personal, business and commercial customers, including the first dedicated bank account in Britain to be delivered and supported entirely in the Polish language. The bank has won Your Mortgage Magazine's Best Bank for Mortgages award 13 times in the last 17 years, more than any other lender.
Operating under the name Esme Loans, NatWest provides a digital lending platform for SMEs also available to customers not banking with NatWest or RBS. Esme Loans commenced trading on 17 February 2017, after being founded out of the bank's new product development programme NatWest Innovation Cell by Richard Kerton, Veronika Lovett, and Lucy Hasson.
The bank operates "mobile branches" using converted vans to serve rural areas around St Austell, Swansea, Carlisle, Devon and North Wales. The service allows to customers to carry out banking transactions in remote areas where there is no branch. NatWest reintroduced the mobile service in Cornwall in 2005, after HSBC ended its own version due to costs.
In 2006, the then RBS Group undertook the first trial of PayPass contactless debit and credit cards in Europe. In 2019, a NatWest pilot project was the first in the UK to trial debit cards containing fingerprint authentication technology developed by Dutch company, Gemalto.
The bank participates fully in the Faster Payments Service, an initiative to speed up certain payments, launched in 2008. The bank established credit and debit card payment handling company Streamline in 1989, which was merged into Worldpay Group in 2009. The NatWest Mobile Banking app is available to personal account holders over the age of 11 with online banking, a debit card and UK mobile telephone number (beginning 07). The Emergency Cash service gives access to cash without a debit card from NatWest, RBS and Ulster Bank cash machines.
NatWest is a member of the Cheque and Credit Clearing Company, Bankers' Automated Clearing Services, the Clearing House Automated Payment System and the LINK Interchange Network. The bank is authorised by the Prudential Regulation Authority and regulated by both the Financial Conduct Authority and the Prudential Regulation Authority. It is a member of the Financial Ombudsman Service, the Financial Services Compensation Scheme, UK Payments Administration and of the British Bankers' Association; and it subscribes to the Lending Code. Mortgages, available in England, Scotland and Wales only, are provided by National Westminster Home Loans, a member of the Council of Mortgage Lenders,
The NatWest One account is a secured personal account with the Royal Bank of Scotland.
NatWest Insurance Services acts as intermediary and broker for general insurance, policies are underwritten by UK Insurance Limited. Life Protector and Guaranteed Bond products are provided by National Westminster Life Assurance.
The Royal Bank of Scotland International trades as NatWest International in Jersey, Guernsey, the Isle of Man and Gibraltar. In 2010, RBS Intermediary Partners was renamed NatWest Intermediary Solutions.
National Westminster Bank use the following series of six digit sorting codes formatted into three pairs separated by hyphens:
International Bank Account Numbers take the form GBxx NWBK ssss ssaa aaaa aa, where x refers to two check digits, s to the branch sort code and a to the individual account number. The Bank Identifier Code, or SWIFT code, for NatWest (and Isle of Man Bank) is NWBKGB2L (8 digits) or NWBKGB2Lxxx (11 digits).
Bó, a standalone digital banking app with the aim of helping people save more money was launched in November 2019 and discontinued in May 2020.
Mettle is an e-money business account provided by Prepay Solutions, a trading name of Prepay Technologies Ltd.
NatWest also entered the merchant acquiring market by introducing Tyl in 2019. The proposition includes next business day settlement for card transactions.
## Controversy
### Litigation
The so-called NatWest Three—Giles Darby, David Bermingham and Gary Mulgrew—were extradited to the United States in 2006 on charges relating to a transaction with Enron Corporation in 2000 while they were working for Greenwich NatWest. It has been argued that the alleged crime was committed by British citizens living in the UK against a British company based in London and therefore, any resulting criminal case falls under the jurisdiction of the English courts. However, the Serious Fraud Office decided not to prosecute due to lack of evidence. There has been criticism that the Americans do not have to produce a prima facie case, or even a reasonable one, to extradite British citizens, whereas no such facility exists to extradite US citizens to the UK. On 28 November 2007 the three admitted one charge of wire fraud after a plea bargain. On 22 February 2008 they were each sentenced to 37 months in prison.
Following discussions between the Office of Fair Trading, the Financial Ombudsman Service, the Financial Services Authority and the major banks, proceedings were issued on 27 July 2007 in a test case against the banks to determine the legality and enforceability of certain charges relating to unauthorised overdrafts. It is argued that these are contrary to the Unfair Terms in Consumer Contracts Regulations 1999; Schedule 2(e) of which gives a non-exhaustive list of terms which may be regarded as unfair, such as a term requiring a consumer who fails in his obligation to pay a disproportionately high sum in compensation. Penalty charges are irrecoverable at common law. The precedent for this was Dunlop Pneumatic Tyre Co. Ltd. v New Garage and Motor Co. Ltd. [1915] AC 79 along with Murray v Leisure Play [2005] EWCA Civ 963, where it was held that a contractual party can only recover damages for an actual loss or liquidated losses. The RBS Group maintained that its charges were fair and enforceable and stated it intended to defend its position vigorously. On 24 April 2008, the High Court found that although these charges could not constitute penalties, they are challengeable under the Unfair Contract Terms Act 1977 and the Unfair Terms in Consumer Contracts Regulations 1999. On 26 February 2009, the Court of Appeal ruled that fees for unauthorised overdrafts and bounced cheques are subject to regulation by the OFT under these rules.
In September 2009, NatWest announced dramatic cuts in their overdraft fees. The unpaid item fee was reduced to £5 from £38 and the card misuse fee was reduced from £35 to £15. The cuts came at a time when the row over the legality of unauthorised borrowing, estimated to earn current account providers about £2.6bn a year, had reached the House of Lords.
### Computer failures
In late June 2012, the group suffered a major computer malfunction, resulting in some customers' account balances not updating correctly. Completions of some new home purchases were delayed, customers were stranded abroad, and one man was held in prison. As a result of the error, RBS and NatWest announced that over 1,200 of their busiest branches would extend their hours throughout the week, including the bank's first Sunday opening, to enable the customers affected to access cash. On 25 June, over 1,000 branches opened for extended hours, and the number of phone staff was doubled.
Some customers also reported problems with direct debits and standing orders being returned unpaid due to their account balances not updating correctly. However, RBS stated in an announcement that they would work directly with the receiving banks and companies to ensure that all payments were processed. As a result of the system outage, RBS also announced that they would work with credit rating agencies directly to ensure no customer's credit file was permanently impacted. They also announced that no customer would be permanently out of pocket because of the system outage, and launched a dedicated new freephone helpline for the incident, as well as an online help point to guide and advise customers with any queries they had during the outage.
In December 2013, a similar computer failure led to a number of customers being unable to use NatWest card services to pay for goods. This second major outage of services fell on what is known as Cyber Monday, when major retailers discount goods to boost Christmas shopping. The Group chief executive at the time conceded that the bank would have "to do better".
### "Global laundromat"
On 20 March 2017, the British paper The Guardian reported that hundreds of banks had helped launder KGB-related funds out of Russia, as uncovered by an investigation named Global Laundromat. NatWest was listed among the 17 banks in the UK that were “facing questions over what they knew about the international scheme and why they did not turn away suspicious money transfers,” as the bank processed \$1.1 million in Laundromat cash. Other banks facing scrutiny under the investigation included HSBC, the Royal Bank of Scotland, Lloyds Bank, Barclays and Coutts.
### Money laundering conviction
In December 2021, the bank was convicted at Westminster Magistrates' Court of three counts of failing to comply with anti-money laundering regulations, marking the first time that the Financial Conduct Authority had pursued criminal charges against a financial institution for money laundering failings. Natwest pled guilty to the three counts, which concerned a jewelers, Fowler Oldfield, depositing £365m between 2012 and 2016 of which £264m was in cash, despite predicted annual turnover of £15m. FCA lawyers stated that large volumes of cash were deposited in black bin bags, and that the quantity of notes failed to fit within the branch vaults.
In a statement, a spokesman for the Financial Conduct Authority said "'NatWest is responsible for a catalogue of failures in the way it monitored and scrutinised transactions that were self-evidently suspicious. Combined with serious systems failures, like the treatment of cash deposits as cheques, these failures created an open door for money laundering."
## Sponsorship
The name NatWest has been associated with cricket tournaments held in England. From 1981 until 2000, the bank was the title sponsor of English domestic cricket's main limited overs knockout tournament, which was known as the NatWest Trophy during that period. Between 2000 and 2013, the NatWest Series was an annual one-day international tournament involving England and two visiting international teams. NatWest were also a main sponsor of the 1999 Cricket World Cup, held in England. Since May 2017, it has been the shirt sponsor for the England men's and women's cricket teams. The bank also sponsored England's Test series against Pakistan in 2018.
NatWest is sponsor of the Southern Paintball League, the leading competitive paintball series in the south of England.
NatWest was the main sponsor of the Island Games (known at the time as the NatWest Island Games) from 1999 through to 2019.
NatWest CommunityForce is "a platform that empowers local projects and charities to raise awareness of their work and make their plans a reality with the support of NatWest and their local community."
## See also
- Nestle v National Westminster Bank plc
- Re Spectrum Plus Ltd
- Tournier v National Provincial and Union Bank of England
- Office of Fair Trading v Abbey National plc |
34,584,043 | Belenggu | 1,103,234,377 | Book by Armijn Pane | [
"1940 debut novels",
"1940 novels",
"Indonesian literature",
"Indonesian novels",
"Novels set in Indonesia",
"Psychological novels"
]
| Belenggoe (Perfected Spelling: Belenggu; translated to English as Shackles) is a novel by Indonesian author Armijn Pane. The novel follows the love triangle between a doctor, his wife, and his childhood friend, which eventually causes each of the three characters to lose the ones they love. Originally published by the literary magazine Poedjangga Baroe in three instalments from April to June 1940, it was the magazine's only published novel. It was also the first Indonesian psychological novel.
Belenggu was based on themes present in two of Pane's early short stories: "Barang Tiada Berharga" ("Worthless Thing"; 1935) and "Lupa" ("Forget"; 1936). The resulting novel, written to represent a stream of consciousness and using ellipses and monologues to show internal struggle, was very different from earlier Indonesian novels. Unlike said works, which kept to traditional themes such as good versus evil, Belenggu mainly focused on its characters' psychological conflict. It also showed modernity and traditionalism as a binary system, unable to reach a compromise.
After completion, Belenggu was offered to the Dutch colonial government's state publisher, Balai Pustaka, in 1938, but rejected as "immoral". It was then picked up by Poedjangga Baroe. Initial critical reception to the novel was mixed. Proponents argued that it served as an honest representation of the internal conflicts faced by Indonesian intellectuals, while opponents dismissed the novel as "pornographic" because of its inclusion of prostitution and adultery as normal facets of life. Later reviews have been more positive: in 1976, the writer Muhammad Balfas called Belenggu "in every respect the best novel of pre-war Indonesian literature". The novel has been translated into several languages, including into English in 1989.
## Background
The first modern Indonesian novels published by the state-owned publisher of the Dutch East Indies Balai Pustaka were often written to show intergenerational conflict and conflict between traditional (adat) and modern culture. These novels, published beginning in the 1920s, spearheaded the use of Indonesian as a national language. This national awakening, which was also realised through political actions, was followed in July 1933 with the establishment of the literary magazine Poedjangga Baroe (New Writer). The literary magazine, which Belenggu'''s author Armijn Pane helped establish, was the first written mainly in Indonesian and with exclusively Indonesian editors.
Of the staff and contributors to Poedjangga Baroe, Pane was one of the biggest proponents for Westernisation. While others, such as his elder brother Sanusi, stressed the need for "Asian" values, the younger Pane disregarded conventional Indonesian morality. The literary historian Heather Sutherland writes that this may have been a result of Pane's education at a school for Dutch children; the others received Dutch-language education for Indonesians.
## Plot
The novel begins as Sukartono (Tono), a Dutch-trained doctor, and his wife Sumartini (Tini), residents of Batavia (modern day Jakarta), are suffering a marital breakdown. Tono is busy treating his patients, leaving no time for him to be with Tini. In response, Tini has become active in numerous social organisations and women's groups, leaving her little time to deal with household work. This further distances Tono from her, as he expects her to behave like a traditional wife and be waiting for him at home, with dinner ready, when he returns from work.
One day, Tono receives a call from a Miss Eni, who asks him to treat her at a hotel. After Tono arrives at the hotel where Eni is staying, he discovers that she is actually his childhood friend Rohayah (Yah). Yah, who has had romantic feelings for Tono since childhood, begins seducing him, and after a while, he accepts her advances. The two begin furtively meeting, often taking long walks at the port Tanjung Priok. When Tini goes to Surakarta to attend a women's congress, Tono decides to stay at Yah's house for a week.
While at Yah's, Tono and Yah discuss their pasts. Tono reveals that after he graduated from elementary school in Bandung, where he studied with Yah, he attended medical school in Surabaya and married Tini for her beauty. Meanwhile, Yah was forced to marry an older man and move to Palembang. After deciding that life as a wife was not for her, she moved to Batavia and became a prostitute, before serving as a Dutchman's mistress for three years. Tono falls further in love with Yah, as he feels that she is more likely to be a proper wife for him; Yah, however, does not consider herself ready for marriage.
Tono, a fan of traditional kroncong music, is asked to judge a singing competition at Gambir Market. While there, he discovers that Yah is also his favourite singer, who sings under the pseudonym Siti Hayati. At Gambir, he also meets with his old friend Hartono, a political activist with the political party Partindo, who enquires about Tini. On a later date, Hartono visits Tono's home and meets Tini. It is revealed that Tini was romantically involved with Hartono while the two of them were in university, where Tini surrendered her virginity to him; this action, unacceptable in traditional culture, made her disgusted with herself and unable to love. Hartono had made the situation worse by breaking off their relationship through a letter. When Hartono asks her to take him back, Tini refuses.
Tini discovers that Tono has been having an affair, and is furious. She then goes to meet Yah. However, after a long talk she decides that Yah is better for Tono and tells the former prostitute to marry him; Tini then moves back to Surabaya, leaving Tono in Batavia. However, Yah feels that she would only ruin Tono's respected status as a doctor because of her history. She decides to move to New Caledonia, leaving a note for Tono as well as a record with a song recorded especially for him as a way of saying goodbye. On the way to New Caledonia, Yah pines for Tono and hears his voice calling from afar, giving a speech on the radio. Tono, now alone, dedicates himself to his work in an attempt to fill the void left in his heart.
## Characters
Sukartono
Sukartono (abbreviated as Tono) is a doctor, Tini's husband and Yah's lover. He treats poor patients for free and thus is well-liked by the general populace. He is also a big fan of traditional kroncong music: in medical school he preferred to sing rather than study, and as a doctor he keeps a radio in his treatment room. Suffering from loneliness in his loveless marriage with the modern-minded Tini, he becomes involved with Yah, whom he perceives as being more willing to play the traditional wife. However, when Tini and Yah leave him, he is left alone.
The Australian scholar of Indonesian literature A. Johns writes that Tono's inner turmoil is caused by his inability to understand Tini, Yah, or the bacteria which he must kill to cure his patients.
Sumartini
Sumartini (abbreviated as Tini) is Tono's ultra-modern wife. While in university, she was very popular and enjoyed partying. During this time she lost her virginity to Hartono, an act which is viewed as unacceptable in traditional Indonesian culture; when Hartono left her, Tini became increasingly aloof and distant from men. After marrying Tono, she felt increasingly lonely and became involved in social work as an effort to give her life meaning. After learning of Tono's infidelity and seeing that Yah could take better care of him, Tini leaves her husband and moves to Surabaya.
Yoseph Yapi Taum, a lecturer at Sanata Dharma University in Yogyakarta, views Tini's aloof nature as a major force driving Tono to Yah; her lifestyle, of which Tono is not a part, alienates him and drives him to find a more traditional woman. Tham Seong Chee, a political scientist from Singapore, views her as a weak-willed character, unwilling to act before meeting Hartono again and even then unable to solve her marital difficulties with Tono. He also sees her as being fettered by her own values, which are incompatible with those held by the general Indonesian populace. The Indonesian writer and literary critic Goenawan Mohamad views her as driven in part by the stress placed on her by her husband's expectations.
Rohayah
Rohayah (also known by the pseudonyms Nyonya Eni and Siti Hayati; abbreviated Yah) is Tono's childhood friend and later lover, as well as a popular kroncong singer. After Tono, who is three years her elder, graduated from elementary school, Yah was forcibly married to a man twenty years her senior and brought from Bandung to Palembang. After escaping him and returning to Bandung, where she found that her parents had died, she moved to Batavia and became a prostitute; she also became a popular kroncong singer under the pseudonym Siti Hayati. When she discovers that Tono has become a doctor in Batavia, she pretends to be a patient and seduces him. Although the two fall deeply in love, Yah decides to leave Tono and move to New Caledonia because she feels that society would view the doctor poorly if he married a former prostitute.
Tham sees Yah as being a good match for Tono in personality, as she shows a willingness to serve as the traditional wife. The American scholar of Indonesian literature Harry Aveling writes that Yah's employment as a prostitute was likely a capitulation by Pane to cultural constraints; Indonesian readers at the time would not have accepted Tono having an affair with someone of the same socio-economic status. Mohamad describes her as being fatalistic and notes that she downplays her past by saying that any of a thousand girls in Tanjung Priok could tell the same story; he found her touching without being melodramatic, and notes that Yah was the first prostitute featured portrayed sympathetically in an Indonesian work.
Hartono
Hartono is Tini's lover from university; he was also Tono's friend. After hearing that Tini enjoys partying, he approaches her and they begin dating. After they have sex, he breaks off their relationship through a letter. He then drops out of university and becomes involved with the nascent nationalist movement, following future-president Sukarno; these acts cause his family to disown him. He later comes to Batavia to search for Tono and is surprised to find that Tini has married the doctor. Hartono asks her to run away with him, but she refuses. He then goes to Surabaya.
Clive Christie, a lecturer on Southeast Asian Studies at the School of Oriental and African Studies in London, describes Hartono as the only overtly political character in the novel.
Women's group
The various members of Tini's women's group, including Mrs. Sutatmo, Mrs. Padma, Mrs. Rusdio, and Aminah, aid her in planning different social events. Mrs. Rusdio is Tini's friend from university. Aminah was one of Tini's competitors for Tono and enjoys interfering in the couple's lives. The other two disapprove of Tini's modernness and her lack of attention to Tono.
Servants
Tono and Tini are served by two men, Karno and Abdul. Karno, Tono's loyal manservant, dislikes Tini and considers her overly emotional. Abdul is their driver, who usually drives Tono to meet his patients.
## Influences
Bakri Siregar, an Indonesian literary critic associated with the socialist literary organisation Lekra, notes that Pane was influenced in part by Sigmund Freud's theories on psychoanalysis; he writes that it is most evident in the dialogue, especially that of Tini. Taum, while noting psychoanalysis' influence, notes that the novel follows the individual characters stream of consciousness, which gives the reader a greater understanding of the characters and their conflicts. The novel was written in the middle of the writer's career, and two of Pane's earlier short stories, "Barang Tiada Berharga" ("Worthless Thing"; 1935) and "Lupa" ("Forget"; 1936), contained plot points used in Belenggu. "Barang Tiada Berharga" also dealt with a doctor and his wife, named Pardi and Haereni, who were characterised in a similar manner as Sukartono and Sumartini, while "Lupa" introduced the main character Sukartono. As the reigning Dutch colonial government forbade the involvement of politics in literature, Pane minimised the explicit effects of colonialism in the novel. Taum writes that Belenggu's theme of contrasting modernity and traditionalism may have been influenced by, or even written as a response to, Sutan Takdir Alisjahbana's 1936 novel Layar Terkembang (With Sails Unfurled), which dealt with a similar theme but fully supported modernisation.
## Style
Belenggu uses ellipses and internal monologues heavily to represent the main characters' turmoil; the Dutch scholar of Indonesian literature A. Teeuw calls it a "three-pronged interior monologue", noting that the novel has minimal use of descriptive passages and dialogue. Unlike works published by Balai Pustaka, Belenggu does not provide full exposition; instead, it only explicitly states key points and leaves the rest for the reader to interpret, thus inviting more active participation. Siregar notes that the characters are introduced one at a time, almost as if the novel were a film; he writes that, as a result, at times the transition between characters is unclear.
Unlike authors of earlier works published by Balai Pustaka, Pane does not use old Malay proverbs; he instead uses similes. Another way in which he writes differently from earlier writers is by limiting his use of the Dutch language; earlier writers such as Abdul Muis and Sutan Takdir Alisjahbana had used Dutch words – representative of the dominant colonial power – to illustrate the intellectualism of the main characters. Instead, in Belenggu Pane relies on the Indonesianised loanwords, with a glossary of difficult or uncommon words provided with early editions of the novel. Siregar wrote that Pane's language reflected the actual use of Indonesian well.
## Symbolism
According to Taum, the title Belenggu reflects the inner conflicts the main characters face that limit their actions. Taum points to the climax of the novel – in which Rohayah refuses to marry Sukartono because if she were to marry him he would lose face because of her past – as a prime example of these limitations. Siregar notes that such a reading is supported by dialogue between Hartono and Sukartono, in which they note that humans are inherently held back by their reminiscences of the past.
Uncommonly for Indonesian literature during this time period, Belenggu's chapters were labelled with only a number – other works, such as Abdul Muis' 1928 novel Salah Asuhan (Wrong Upbringing), gave both a number and subtitle to the chapters. According to Taum, this change in style represents a stream of consciousness, as opposed to the earlier style which kept chapters separate.
## Themes
### General
Teeuw notes that, unlike most Indonesian novels at the time, Belenggu did not feature a good and pure protagonist in a struggle against an evil antagonist, or present conflict and differences between generations. It also eliminated the common themes of forced marriage and the youth's nonacceptance of adat (traditional culture). Instead, it showed a love triangle – common in Western literature but then unheard of in Indonesian literature – without an indication of whether any characters were good, evil, right, or wrong. Teeuw writes that the novel portrayed the interior struggle of a "new kind of human", one who is the result of a mixture of Eastern and Western cultures. According to Christie, earlier themes in Indonesian literature such as feudalism and forced marriage are not intrinsically significant to the character's lives in Belenggu.
### Living in the past
A main theme found in Belenggu, reflected in the title, is if one is "shackled" to the past, then one cannot flourish; Taum notes that this is reflected in Hartono's dialogue to Tini, as follows:
> "Mengapa tidak? Mengapa bergantung kepada zaman dahulu? ... Jangan dibesar-besarkan, jangan persusah perkara mudah, nanti pikiran sebagai dibelenggu. ... Lupakanlah, matikanlah angan-angan. Lepaskanlah belenggu ini. Buat apa tergantung pada zaman dulu?"
> "Why not? Why be hung up on the past? ... Don't blow it out of proportion, don't complicate simple things, your thoughts will be as if they are shackled. ... Forget it, kill those reveries. Release these shackles. Why be hung up on the past?
Several further instances have been expounded by critics. Taum notes that Yah's guilt over her past as a prostitute leads her to the (unfounded) fear that Tono would leave her if their relationship were known; her guilt ultimately causes their separation, while Tono feels nostalgic for the past, in which he felt happier. Balfas notes that a factor driving Tono from Tini is the latter's former relationship with Hartono; due to her guilt over the affair, she is unable to express her love for the doctor. Siregar writes that such a theme is reflected in dialogue between Tono and Hartono, from which he suggests the novel derives its title. Balfas writes that there is no solution to the human problems presented in the novel.
### Modernity and traditionalism
Taum indicates that Belenggu presents modernity and traditionalism as a binary system, contrasting the new with the old. For example, Sukartono, a doctor (a position considered a symbol of modernity), is obsessed with the past, including his schoolmate Rohayah, and prefers traditional kroncong music over modern genres. Through the contrast of Sukartono and his ultra-modern, emancipatory wife Sumartini, Pane emphasises that modernity does not necessarily bring happiness. Aveling agrees, writing that the conflict arises over Tini's refusal to "mother" her husband as expected from a traditional wife. According to Taum, Tono wishes for Tini to perform traditional duties, such as removing his shoes. However, Tini, refuses to do so and instead keeps herself busy with social activities. This need for a wife who behaves as he wishes ultimately becomes a factor in his falling for Yah, who does everything expected from a traditional wife. However, in the end neither modern nor traditional values alone are enough to guarantee happiness.
### Intellectuals in society
Christie notes that Belenggu contains a strong sense of alienation. He writes that the characters seem to be part of a "society suspended in a vacuum", without an explicit connection to colonialism but also unable to come to terms with traditional mores. Christie describes Sukartono's relationship with Rohayah as symbolic of attempts by intellectuals to engage with the masses through a shared popular culture, but ultimately failing; Taum notes such a thing occurring in a scene where Tini plays a sonata by Ludwig van Beethoven on her violin in front of a group of regular citizens who prefer local music. Teeuw agrees, writing that the novel shows a psychological burden borne by native intellectuals who found themselves physically fit for a modern existence, but mentally unprepared for the transition from a traditional lifestyle to a more modern one. He notes that the sceptical, modern intellectual, a category in which he includes Tono and Tini, was uncommon in local literature at the time. Tham sees the underlying message of Yah's refusal to marry Tono as that "morals and ethical standards are frequently beyond the ken of intellect, reason, or rationality", indicating that intellectuals may not be able to collaborate effectively with the masses. Johns notes that, although the Tono and Tini are thought to be decisive persons by society, they are actually confused and unsure.
## Release
Belenggu was submitted to Balai Pustaka for publication in 1938, but was accepted because of its perceived dissonance with public morality, particularly its portrayal of adultery and prostitution – key components of the plot – as acceptable. Eventually Belenggu was picked up by Poedjangga Baroe and published in a serial format in three editions between April and June 1940. Belenggu was the only novel published by the magazine and the first Indonesian psychological novel. In 1969, Belenggu received the first annual Literary Prize from the government of Indonesia, along with Marah Rusli's Sitti Nurbaya (1922), Salah Asuhan, and Achdiat Karta Mihardja's Atheis (Atheist; 1949).
Belenggu has been translated into multiple languages: in 1962, Mandarin as 桎梏 (Zhìgù); in 1964, Russian as Okovy; in 1965, Malay under the original title; in 1989, English as Shackles; and in 1993, German as In Fesseln. The Russian translation was done by A Pavlenko. The English translation, published by the Lontar Foundation, was done by John H. McGlynn. The German translation was done by Renate Lödel. As of 2008 the Indonesian-language edition has seen twenty-one printings.
## Reception
Belenggu received a mixed reception upon its release. Proponents of the novel stated that it was daring, as it dealt with themes based on societal realities. For example, journalist S. K. Trimurti wrote that the novel clearly reflected issues faced by highly educated Indonesians in dealing with traditional culture. However, opponents of the novel dismissed it as "pornographic", emphasising traditionally taboo acts like prostitution and adultery. The December 1940 issue of Poedjangga Baroe included comments from several other writers and literary critics, including Alisjahbana, HB Jassin, Karim Halim, and S. Djojopoespito. Alisjahbana wrote that the novel was fatalistic and defeatist, as he felt it did not portray the freedom of spirit necessary for people to choose their own destiny; he decried the plot as lacking causality. Jassin found the characters to resemble caricatures, as their emotions were overly melodramatic, but considered the novel representative of works yet to come. Halim wrote that Belenggu represented a new school in Indonesian literature, with new language and new stories. Djojopoespito decried the book's language, which he did not consider smooth, and plotlines, which he found uninteresting. According to Teeuw, the initial mixed reception was due in part to Indonesian readers – accustomed to idealised literature – being shocked by the realistic portrayals in Belenggu.
Later reviews have generally been more positive. In 1955 Johns wrote that Belenggu was a "great advance on any previous work", with which the Indonesian novel came to maturity; he praises the structure, plot, and presentation. Siregar, writing in 1964, praised the novel's diction, noting that Pane handled technical discussions especially well. Jassin wrote in 1967 that, although he found the characters still came across as caricatures, the novel was capable of making readers stop and think about modern conditions. In 1969, Indonesian writer and literary critic Ajip Rosidi wrote that the novel was more interesting than earlier works because of its multi-interpretable ending. The Indonesian writer and literary critic Muhammad Balfas wrote in 1976 that Belenggu was "in every respect the best novel of pre-war Indonesian literature". In his 1980 book on Indonesian literature, Teeuw wrote that despite several flaws in the psychological portrayal of the main characters, Belenggu'' was the only novel from before the Indonesian National Revolution in which a Western reader would feel truly involved; he also called the novel Pane's greatest contribution to Indonesia literature. Tham, writing in 1981, described the novel as the best reflection of the then-growing consciousness that Western values, such as individualism and intellectualism, contradicted traditional values. |
17,104,897 | Codex Boreelianus | 1,062,819,648 | Uncial bible manuscript | [
"9th-century biblical manuscripts",
"Greek New Testament uncials"
]
| Codex Boreelianus, Codex Boreelianus Rheno-Trajectinus (full name), designated by F<sup>e</sup> or 09 in the Gregory-Aland numbering and ε 86 in von Soden numbering, is a 9th (or 10th) century uncial manuscript of the four Gospels in Greek. The manuscript, written on parchment, is full of lacunae (or gaps), many of which arose between 1751 and 1830. The codex was named Boreelianus after Johannes Boreel (1577–1629), who brought it from the East.
The text of the codex represents the majority of the text (Byzantine text-type), but with numerous alien readings (non-Byzantine). Some of its readings do not occur in any other manuscript (so called singular readings). According to the present textual critics its text is not a very important manuscript, but it is quoted in all modern editions of the Greek New Testament.
The manuscript was brought from the East at the beginning of the 17th century. It was in private hands for over 100 years. Since 1830 it has been housed at the Utrecht University.
## Description
The codex contains the text of the four Gospels, on 204 parchment leaves of size 28.5 × 22 cm (11.2 × 8.7 in), with numerous lacunae (or gaps). The text of the existing codex begins with Matthew 9:1 and ends with John 13:34. Luke is even more incomplete. In 1751 Wettstein remarked that the codex started at Matthew 7:6 and that only the folia with Matthew 8:25 and Mark 11:6–16 were missing. It means that in his time the manuscript was far more complete than at present. At present, lacunae of the manuscript include:
Matthew 1:1–9:1; 12:1–44; 13:55–14:9; 15:20–31; 20:18–21:5;
Mark 1:43–2:8; 2:23–3:5; 11:6–26; 14:54–15:5; 15:39–16:19;
Luke – at least 24 gaps (according to Scrivener); Based on the CSNTM text tags 1:10-40; 2:14-3:1; 3:22-4:7; 5:13-29; 6:1-7:7; 7:27-36; 8:7-14, 33-50; 9:7-25, 31, 35-43; 9:55-10:12; 10:15-16, 18, 22-33; 11:23-12:5; 12:23; 12:28-13:13; 13:25-14:17; 14:29-15:4; 15:11-12; 15:15-16:2; 17:15-18:13; 18:29-40; 19:37-20:11; 20:22-21:27; 22:4-5, 9, 12, 16, 41; 22:43-23:10; 23:37-50; 24:4, 20-43.
John 3:5–14; 4:23–38; 5:18–38; 6:39–63; 7:28–8:10; 10:32–11:3; 12:14–25; 13:34-end.
The leaves are unbound and are kept in loose quires. The text is written in late uncial script, in two columns per page, with mostly 19 lines per column, in large uncial letters. Palaeographically the writing is close to the Codex Seidelianus I.
The letters Η, Μ, Ν, and Π, are square, the letters Ε, Θ, Ο, Σ, and Φ have a round shape. The letters Δ, Ε, Θ, Ο, and especially Ψ in cruciform, are of the form characteristic for the late uncial script. Φ is large and bevelled at both ends. The letters were written by an 'elegant and careful' hand.
The nomina sacra (or sacred names) are written in an abbreviated way: ΘΣ for θεος, ΙΣ for Ιησους, ΧΣ for χριστος, ΚΣ for κυριος, ΥΣ for υιος, ΣΗΡ for σωτηρ, ΣΡΑ for σωτηρια, ΣΡΙΟΣ for σωτηριος, ΟΥΝΟΣ for ουρανος, ΟΥΝΙΟΣ for ουρανιος, ΠΝΑ for πνευμα, ΠΗΡ for πατηρ, ΜΗΡ for μητηρ, ΑΝΟΣ for ανθρωπος, ΣΤΡΣ for σταυρος, ΔΑΔ for δαβιδ, ΙΗΛ for ισραηλ, ΙΛΗΜ for ιερουσαλημ, etc. The words at the end of lines are sometimes abbreviated too. It uses typographic ligatures.
The codex has a lot of grammar errors, like hiatus (e.g. νηστευουσιν in Matthew 9:14, ελεγεν in Matthew 9:21, ειπεν in Matthew 9:22, etc.) and N ephelkystikon. The error of iotacism occurs infrequently.
The breathings (rough and smooth breathing) and accents (see e.g. Greek diacritics) are given fully and usually correctly. The breathings are indicated by sigla ⊢ and ⊣, often used in codices from the 9th and 10th century. In some cases breathings are given incorrectly (e.g. Matthew 9,7.16).
The text is divided according to the Ammonian Sections, with the usual number of sections, are written on the left margin, but there are given without references to the Eusebian Canons. There is no division according to the κεφαλαια (chapters), but the τιτλοι (titles) are given at the top of the pages, sometimes also at the bottom. The capitals at the beginning of the sections stand out in the margin to indicate new sections (as in codices Alexandrinus, Ephraemi, and Basilensis. Although there is no division according to the κεφαλαια (chapters), the tables of the κεφαλαια (tables of contents) are placed before each Gospel (except Matthew – because of its defective character). It has some lectionary markings at the margin.
The headpieces are decorated, with headings written in gold and red; in some places nicely decorated initial letters can be found (in red or gold). The Ammonian sections are written in red. The pages are numbered; the Greek quire numbers are still found at the top right of some pages. At the top left of the first page of most quires in Gospel of Matthew, Arabic quire numbers are found.
There are several different correctors, among which the "first hand" worked on the codex, but the total number of corrections is not high.
## Text
The Greek text of this codex is a representative of the Byzantine text-type, but with a number of singular readings. According to Bruce M. Metzger it is typical Byzantine text. According to Kurt and Barbara Aland it agrees with the Byzantine standard text 156 times, and 78 times with the Byzantine when it has the same reading as the original text. It does not support the "original" text against the Byzantine. It has 11 independent or distinctive readings. Alands placed it in Category V of New Testament manuscripts. It is not a very important codex, but it is an important witness of the Byzantine text-type. Hermann von Soden classified it as K<sup>i</sup> (now it is known as textual family E). According to the Claremont Profile Method it has mixed Byzantine text in Luke 1; in Luke 10 and Luke the manuscript is defective.
### Textual variants (against Textus Receptus)
The words before the bracket are the readings of the Textus Receptus (received text used in the West from the 16th century until the end of the 19th century), the words after are the readings of the codex.
> Matthew 9:1 εμβας ] εμβας ο Ιησους (unique reading) Matthew 9:1 ιδιαν ] υδαιαν Matthew 9:5 αφεωνται σοι ] αφεωνται σου Matthew 9:5 εγειραι ] εγειρε Matthew 9:13 ηλθον ] εληλυθα Matthew 9:18 αρχων ελθων ] αρχων προσηλθεν τω Ιησου Matthew 9:18 αυτω λεγων ] αυτω λεγω Matthew 9:18 οτι η θυγατηρ ] τι η θυγατηρ Matthew 9:32 εξερχομενων ] διεξερχομενων Matthew 9:33 οτι ] absent (codices: B C D E G K L S) Matthew 9:36 εκλελυμενοι ] εσκυλμενοι (codices: B C D E F G K S) Matthew 10:4 κανανιτης ] κανατης Matthew 10:5 αποστειλας ] απεστειλεν Matthew 10:8 νεκρους εγειρετε ] absent (codices: E K L M S) Matthew 11:7 (also in Matthew 11:8; 11:9) εξελθετε ] εξεληλυθατε (Alexandrian manuscripts have εξελθατε) Matthew 13:43 ακουετω ] absent Matthew 13:54 εκπληττεσθαι ] εκπλησεσθαι Matthew 14:19 και λαβων ] λαβων (codices: B D E F K L M P S) Matthew 14:22 τους οχλους ] τον οχλον (later hand corrected into τους οχλους) Matthew 14:23 μονος ] absent Matthew 14:34 γεννησαρετ ] γενησαρεθ (codices: K L) Matthew 15:4 σου ] absent (codices: B D E F G S) Matthew 15:14 πεσουνται ] εμπεσουνται Matthew 15:36 μαθηταις ] ματαις (corrected by several later hands) Matthew 16:3 μεν ] absent Matthew 16:27 την πραξιν ] τα εργα Matthew 16:28 των ωδε εστηκοτων ] ωδε εστωτες Matthew 17:9 απο ] εκ (B C D E F H K L M S) Matthew 18:14 υμων ] μου (B H) Matthew 18:8 σκανδαλιζει ] σκανδαλιζη Matthew 19:5 προσκολληθησεται ] κοληθησεται (κολληθησεται B D F G H S) Matthew 19:18 Ιησους ] absent Matthew 21:30 δευτερω ] ετερω (D E F H K) Matthew 22:24 αναστησει ] εξαναστησει (F G) Matthew 22:37 ειπεν ] εφη (B D E F G K L M S) Matthew 23:25 ακρασιας ] αδικιας (C E F G H K S) Matthew 23:27 absent ] τοις ανθρωποις Matthew 23:33 πως φυγητε απο της κρισεως της γεεννης ] πως φυγητε της κρισεως της γεεννης Matthew 26:15 καγω ] και εγω Matthew 26:17 πασχα ] πασα Matthew 26:26 ευλογησας ] ευχαριστησας (A E F H K M S) Matthew 26:33 εγω ουδεποτε σκανδαλισθησομαι ] εγω ουδεποτε σκανδαλισθησομαι εν σοι Matthew 26:40 τω πετρω ] αυτοις (F K M) Matthew 27:17 πιλατος ] πηλατος Matthew 27:41 πρεσβυτερων ] πρεσβυτερων και φαρισαιων (E F K M S) Matthew 28:13 οι μαθηται αυτου νυκτος ελθοντες εκλεψαν αυτον, ημων κοιμωμενων ] ημων κοιμωμενων οι ματηται αυτου ελθοντες εκλεψαν αυτον Matthew 27:55 τω Ιησου ] αυτου Mark 1:9 ναζαρετ ] ναζαρεθ Mark 1:16 βαλλοντας ] αμφιβαλλοντας (A B D F G H L S) Mark 2:9 κραββατον ] κραβαττον Mark 4:3 σπειραι ] σπειραι τον σπορον αυτου (unique reading) Mark 5:6 προσεκυνεσεν ] προσεπεσεν Mark 6:23 ωμοσεν ] ωμολογησεν Mark 7:3 κρατουντες την παραδοσιν των πρεσβυτερων ] κρατουντες των πρεσβυτερων Mark 9:1 εως αν ιδωσι την βασιλειαν του θεου ] εως αν ιδωσι την βασιλειαν του θεου Mark 9:8 Ιησουν μονον μεθ' εαυτων ] Ιησουν μεθ' εαυτων Mark 9:43 (the same in Mark 9:45) εις την γεενναν, εις το πυρ το ασβεστον ] εις τεν γεενναν του πυρος Mark 9:47 εις την γεενναν, εις το πυρ το ασβεστον ] εις το πυρ το ασβεστον Mark 10:26 οι δε περισσως εξεπλησσοντο ] οι δε εξεπλησσοντο Mark 12:28 εις των γραμματεων ] εις γραμματεων Luke 1:64 ανεωχθη δε το στομα αυτου ] ανεωχθη δε και το στομα αυτου Luke 1:78 δια σπλαγχνα ελεους θεου ημων ] absent Luke 7:47 αφεωνται ] αφιονται Luke 8:2 δαιμονια επτα εξεληλυθει ] δαιμονια εξεληλυθει Luke 8:22 αυτος ανεβη ] αυτος ο Ιησους ανεβη Luke 8:30 επηρωτησε ] επερωτησε (lack of augmentum) Luke 9:45 περι του ρηματος τουτου ] περι τουτου Luke 9:46 εισηλθεν δε διαλογισμος ] εισηλθεν διαλογισμος Luke 10:13 και σποδω ] absent John 2:3 υστερησαντος ] οιστερησαντος John 9:1 ειδεν ] ο ις ειδεν (G H) John 10:8 προ εμου ] absent John 13:17 αποκρινεται ο ιξσους εκεινος εστιν ] absent
### Against K<sup>r</sup>
The words before the bracket are the readings of the K<sup>r</sup> (traditional text used in Constantinople and still used by Eastern Orthodox Church), the words after are the readings of the codex.
> John 5:44 ανθρωπων ] αλληλων John 5:46 εμου γαρ ] γαρ εμου John 6:2 ηκολουθει ] ηκολουθησεν John 6:5 αγορασομεν ] αγορασωμεν John 6:10 αναπεσον ] αναπεσαν John 10:8 ηλθον προ εμου ] ηλθον
## History
H. Deane, a paleographer, in 1876 dated the manuscript to the 8th century, Tischendorf and Gregory to the 9th century; Doedes and Tregelles to the 10th century. As of 1995, it is dated by the Institute for New Testament Textual Research (INTF) to the 9th century.
The Codex Boreelianus is named after Johann Boreel (1577–1629), Dutch Ambassador at the Court of James I of England. There is no record of Boreel's obtaining the codex, but it is generally believed that he brought it to the Netherlands from one of his travels to the Middle East. The connection to Boreel is indicated by Wettstein, who was given a partial collation of the codex in 1730. The collation was made by Izaak Verburg, rector of the Amsterdam gymnasium, and contained text from Matthew 7:2 to Luke 11. Wettstein adds that he was not aware of its current location. Wettstein cited the codex in his Novum Testamentum Graecum (1751), also in these parts, which do not survive to the present day (e.g. Matthew 7:9). Wettstein designated the codex by siglum F, Gregory designated it by 09 (because number of New Testament manuscripts increased), von Soden gave for it siglum ε 86.
After Johann Boreel's death in 1629, the codex itself was in private hands. Boreel's library was sold in 1632, but the manuscript may not have been among the items for sale. It could have remained in the possession of Boreel's family, for example, in the hands of his younger brother, the theologian Adam Boreel (1602–54). On folio 168 recto of the codex is written the monogram NLB with date "February 9, 1756". On pages 40 recto and 40 verso Dutch notes can found, but they are almost illegible.
The codex resurfaced almost two centuries later, in 1823, and was identified as the Boreelianus by the Utrecht professor Jodocus Heringa (1765–1840). Its leaves had become disordered, and some of them were lost. Scrivener even stated: "Few manuscripts have fallen into such unworthy hands". The manuscript was now in the private hands of Johannes Michaelis Roukens in Arnhem. In a letter of 11 March 1830 Roukens explained that the manuscript had been in the possession of his father, Arend Anton Roukens, who had inherited it from his father, Johannes Michaelis Roukens.
In 1841 Tischendorf wanted to see and examine the codex, but he was allowed to read only Heringa's papers on it because Heringa was preparing his collation. Heringa's papers were edited and published by Vinke in 1843 under the title Jodoci Heringa El. Fil. Disputatio de codice Boreeliano, nunc Rheno-Trajectino ab ipso in lucem protracto, which includes a full and exact collation of the text.
In 1850 Samuel Prideaux Tregelles, though with some difficulty, examined the codex.
Philipp Schaff in Introduction to the American Edition of Westcott-Hort (1881) wrote that it is not an important manuscript. The same opinion gave biblical scholar Frederic G. Kenyon, according to whom the text of the codex has "comparatively little authority". Despite these opinions, the codex continues to be cited in critical editions of Novum Testamentum Graece. Edition of Nestle-Aland cited the codex from its first verse – i.e. Matthew 9:1 – in critical apparatus.
Since 1830, the codex has been located in the library of the Utrecht University (Ms. 1). In March 2007 David Trobisch visited Utrecht and viewed the manuscript with a number of colleagues. In October 2007 the manuscript was digitized.
## See also
- List of New Testament uncials
- Textual criticism
- Biblical commentary |
113,328 | Sandra Schmirler | 1,159,909,454 | Canadian curler (1963–2000) | [
"1963 births",
"2000 deaths",
"Canadian women curlers",
"Canadian women's curling champions",
"Curlers at the 1998 Winter Olympics",
"Curlers from Regina, Saskatchewan",
"Curling broadcasters",
"Deaths from cancer in Saskatchewan",
"Medalists at the 1998 Winter Olympics",
"Members of the Saskatchewan Order of Merit",
"Olympic curlers for Canada",
"Olympic gold medalists for Canada",
"Olympic medalists in curling",
"People from Biggar, Saskatchewan",
"University of Saskatchewan alumni",
"World curling champions"
]
| Sandra Marie Schmirler SOM (June 11, 1963 – March 2, 2000) was a Canadian curler who captured three Canadian Curling Championships (Scott Tournament of Hearts) and three World Curling Championships. Schmirler also skipped (captained) her Canadian team to a gold medal at the 1998 Winter Olympics, the first year women's curling was a medal sport. At tournaments where she was not competing, Schmirler sometimes worked as a commentator for CBC Sports, which popularized her nickname "Schmirler the Curler" and claimed she was the only person who had a name that rhymed with the sport she played. She died in 2000 at 36 of cancer, leaving a legacy that extended outside of curling. Schmirler was honoured posthumously with an induction into the Canadian Sports Hall of Fame and was awarded the World Curling Freytag Award, which later led to her induction into the World Curling Federation Hall of Fame.
In 2019, Schmirler was named the second greatest Canadian female curler in history (after Jennifer Jones) in a TSN poll of broadcasters, reporters and top curlers. Schmirler's Olympic team which also included Jan Betker, Joan McCusker and Marcia Gudereit was named the greatest female Canadian curling team of all time as part of the same poll.
## Curling career
While attending Biggar Composite School in Biggar, Saskatchewan, Canada, Schmirler started curling in Grade 7 as part of the school's physical education program. She grew up an athlete, playing volleyball, badminton, and softball. She was also an avid speed swimmer. She continued to curl on the local scene, participating in the Biggar Curling Club ladies' league in Grade 9. Playing as third on her high school team, she won a provincial championship in Grade 12, when her team went undefeated throughout the season.
She continued to curl after graduating from high school, while attending the University of Saskatchewan, making her first appearance in Saskatchewan's provincial playdowns in 1983. Schmirler threw fourth stones for a team which consisted of 1979 Canadian Junior Champions Denise Wilson (skip), Dianne Choquette and Shannon Olafson. The team represented the University of Saskatchewan at the Saskatoon city playdowns where they were eliminated. After graduating university, Schmirler moved to Regina to take a job at the North West Leisure Centre. She continued to curl, and was given the nickname "Schmirler the Curler" by a supervisor at the facility. Schmirler joined the Saskatoon-based Carol Davis rink, playing third for the team. In their first season together, they made it to the 1984 provincial finals where they lost to Lori McGeary.
In 1987, as a member of Kathy Fahlman's rink, Schmirler won her first provincial championship, sending her to her first national championship, where she and her team finished in fourth place with a 7–5 win–loss record. The following season, the team lost in the A-B final of the 1988 provincials to Michelle Schneider (now Englot), eliminating them from a chance at a second straight trip to the Hearts. In the 1989 playdowns, Team Fahlman lost in the southern Saskatchewan playdowns, failing to even make it to the 1989 Saskatchewan Scott Tournament of Hearts.
Prior to the 1988–89 curling season, Schmirler and Jan Betker found themselves curling with different teammates, attempting to put together a stable squad. After a disappointing season, Schmirler decided to skip for the 1990–91 season, with Betker playing third. They recruited Joan Inglis (McCusker) to play second, and McCusker recommended Marcia Gudereit as a lead. This rink won the provincials in their first year together, defeating Kim Armbruster (Hodson) in the Saskatchewan final, 5–3. At the 1991 Scott Tournament of Hearts, the team finished in fourth place. In 1993, the Schmirler rink again won the provincial title, defeating Sherry Scheirich (Middaugh) in the final, 7–2. Representing Saskatchewan at the 1993 Scott Tournament of Hearts, her rink defeated Maureen Bonar in the finals, giving Saskatchewan its first national women's curling championship since Marj Mitchell's win in 1980. The rink moved on to the World Championship and defeated Janet Clews-Strayer from Germany in the final that year, winning Canada its sixth world women's title. The next season, she and her rink competed at the Tournament of Hearts as defending champions. The team finished first in the round robin, and defeated Connie Laliberte in the final to clinch a second consecutive Canadian championship. She and her team then represented Canada at the World Women's Curling Championship, where they finished first in the round robin. She then advanced to the playoffs, and won the semifinal against Josefine Einsle of Germany and the final against Christine Cannon of Scotland. With her win in the final, she and her team clinched their second world championships, equalling their run from the previous season. At the time, no other Canadian women's rink had won consecutive world championships. Schmirler returned to the Tournament of Hearts the next year as the defending champion. She and her team finished with an 8–3 win–loss record and advanced to the playoffs as the second seed. She lost her next two games, however, and failed to advance to the final, losing a chance to win a third consecutive title. The next season, Schmirler added Renelle Bryden to the lineup, as McCusker took the year off. For the 1996 Saskatchewan Tournament of Hearts, Gudereit who had been playing second was replaced for health reasons by Karen Daku. At the provincial Hearts, the team fell to Sherry Scheirich (now Middaugh) in the final.
In 1997, Schmirler and her rink returned to the Tournament of Hearts, where they finished with a 9–2 win–loss record in the round robin. They advanced to the playoffs, and defeated Alison Goring of Ontario twice en route to winning her third Canadian championship. They then went to the World Championships, where they again finished first in the round robin and advanced to the playoffs, defeating Helena Blach Lavrsen of Denmark in the semifinals and Andrea Schöpp of Germany in the final to win a third world title. After each of these three seasons, her rink was named "Team of the Year" by Sask Sport.
In the 1998 Winter Olympics, curling became a medal sport for the first time. Olympic trials were held in November 1997 to select Canada's representatives at the Olympics. The Schmirler rink finished first in the round robin, and defeated Shannon Kleibrink in the final with a score of 9–6, behind strong shot making from Schmirler and McCusker. Schmirler made a difficult in-off to win and clinch the berth to the Olympics. The 1998 Winter Olympics were held in Nagano, Japan. The Schmirler rink was among the favourites for gold, but there was a strong field in the event. After finishing the round robin in first place with six wins and one loss, Canada played their semifinal game against Great Britain's Kirsty Hay. The game was tied after regulation play and went to an extra end, where Schmirler barely made a draw with her last rock to win the game. In the final against Denmark's Helena Blach Lavrsen, Schmirler secured a win in nine ends, winning Canada the gold medal. After winning the gold medal, Sandra appeared on the front page of The New York Times. After the Olympics, the Schmirler rink was named 'Team of the Year' by the Canadian Press. The team were also inducted into the Canadian Curling Hall of Fame in 1999. After returning from the Olympics, Schmirler and her rink had to compete almost immediately in the Scott Tournament of Hearts as Team Canada. Schmirler and her team made the playoffs, and won the 3 vs. 4 playoff game before dropping the semifinal to Anne Merklinger. After losing in the semis, Schmirler joined CBC as a colour commentator for the final match.
### Teams
### Career statistics
## Personal life
### Family and education
Schmirler was born to parents Shirley and Art Schmirler on June 11, 1963. She was born with a club foot, which required her to wear a cast for two months. She had two older sisters, Carol and Beverley. She attended high school in Biggar, and moved to Saskatoon to attend university. She started out towards a degree in computer science, but transferred after her first year to work for a degree in physical education. She convocated with a Bachelor of Science in Physical Education in 1985.
In 1993, teammate Marcia Gudereit introduced Schmirler to Shannon England. On June 22, 1996, they were married. In 1997, Schmirler was pregnant with their first child. When this information was revealed to reporters at the Scott Tournament of Hearts, they jokingly dubbed her "Schmirler the Hurler". On September 15, 1997, their daughter Sara Marion was born. In April 1999, Sandra's father Art Schmirler died from esophageal cancer. On June 30, 1999, the couple's second daughter, Jenna Shirley, was born.
### Illness and death
After Jenna's birth, Schmirler experienced many health problems. She had suffered from back pain, which was thought to be pregnancy related, and following Jenna's birth, she began to suffer from stomach pains. Tests showed that a cancerous node the size of a fist had developed behind her heart. As her condition worsened, she underwent surgery on September 6, 1999. During surgery, a dead piece of the tumour broke off and released a blood clot into her lung. Her heart stopped beating, and only emergency heart massage kept her alive. Almost a month after being diagnosed with cancer, doctors finally provided a specific diagnosis – metastatic adenocarcinoma, with an unknown primary site. Because no one could pin down where the cancer came from, Sandra referred to it as "the cancer from Mars." In addition to chemotherapy and radiation, Schmirler explored orthomolecular medicine through the Canadian Cancer Research Group. This form of alternative medicine involves large doses of vitamins and nutrients.
In 2000, Schmirler worked as colour commentator for CBC during Canada's national junior curling championships. During her illness, Schmirler had been largely removed from the public eye. While in Moncton for the championships, Schmirler held a press conference to update her situation. In speaking publicly about her ordeal for the first time, Schmirler spared few details about what she had gone through, while also expressing her hope for the future: "There were three goals I had coming out of this thing, and the first one was to look after my family. And the second one...because I curl so much, I've never taken a hot vacation, so I'm going to put my feet in the sand in a warm place. And the last one was to actually be here today, and I thank CBC, I thank Lawrence (Kimber), and Joan Mead."
After returning from Moncton, Schmirler felt physically well, but suffered a setback when a CAT scan revealed spots around her lungs. The decision was made not to proceed with further chemotherapy, but she continued with the orthomolecular therapy. She had been scheduled to work the 2000 Scott Tournament of Hearts, but was unable to do so. She faxed a statement from the hospital, which was read by TSN's Vic Rauter. "I'm still fighting hard and I still hope to make it to the Brier, not playing but talking. For Saskatchewan, I was hoping to be in your green shoes (at the Scott). But keep things in perspective. There are other things in life besides curling, which I have found. But I hope to be on the curling trail again next year. And I'll see you all in Sudbury (the next Scott site) in 2001. Your curling friend, Sandra." However, the optimism in her statement belied the seriousness of her condition. She had been moved to palliative care. She died in her sleep at the Pasqua Hospital Palliative Care Unit on the morning of March 2, 2000, at age 36.
Her death caused reactions not just within Saskatchewan and the curling community, but also across the country. Canadian Prime Minister Jean Chrétien said in a statement:
> All Canadians have been touched by the untimely death of Sandra Schmirler. Most of us came to know her through her exploits as a champion curler and as an exemplary sports ambassador for Canada. But what really set her apart was her bright, engaging personality and her incredible zest for life, qualities that were so clearly in evidence as she fought so valiantly against her illness. She will be sorely missed.
In honour of Schmirler, flags at provincial office buildings in Saskatchewan were lowered to half-staff.
TSN offered to broadcast her funeral live and to make the signal available to any other stations at no charge. Her husband, Shannon England, agreed to the broadcast on the condition that the family would not be shown during the service. CBC also broadcast the service, marking the first time a Canadian athlete's funeral had been televised live on two networks. The Brier was just getting underway and games in the afternoon draw were delayed to allow curlers and fans to watch the funeral, which was broadcast on screens at the rink. Regina's Agridome and Schmirler's home Caledonian Curling Club also opened to show the funeral. Nine hundred people attended the service at the Regina Funeral Home, thousands watched at satellite locations around the province, and hundreds of thousands watched on television. The funeral was conducted by the Rev. Don Wells, and Sandra was eulogized by Brian McCusker, teammate Joan McCusker's husband.
## Awards and honours
In addition to the titles captured by her team on the ice, Schmirler has been recognized in several different ways off the ice as well. In 2000, Schmirler was awarded the Saskatchewan Order of Merit, becoming the first posthumous recipient. Along with the other members of her rink, she had been previously awarded an honorary Doctor of Laws degree from the University of Regina. In the fall of 2000, Schmirler was inducted into the Canadian Sports Hall of Fame. Schmirler and her team were inducted into the Saskatchewan Sports Hall of Fame on two separate occasions, once in 1997 for winning three World Curling Championships and once in 2001 for winning the gold medal at the Olympics. At the annual Scotties Tournament of Hearts, the top player in the playoff round is awarded the Sandra Schmirler Most Valuable Player Award.
After her death, the city of Regina honoured Schmirler in several ways. The South East Leisure Centre where she used to work was renamed the "Sandra Schmirler Leisure Centre," and the road leading up to the Callie Curling Club, where her team curled out of, was renamed "Sandra Schmirler Way." Schmirler's hometown of Biggar also honoured her memory with the construction of "The Sandra Schmirler Olympic Gold Park."
“The Sandra Schmirler Foundation was created in May 2001 by a group of Sandra’s friends and teammates. Their vision was to create a living legacy in honour of this amazing woman who touched the hearts of so many Canadians from coast to coast to coast. While she lost her biggest battle, her legacy lives on. The lives of countless babies born premature and critically ill have been, and continue to be saved, with life-saving equipment the Foundation has funded in her name. Millions of dollars have been given to hospital NICUs in every province, the Yukon and Northwest Territories to fund life-saving equipment for babies born too soon, too small or too sick. This list continues to grow every year with the generous support of our many donors. Sandra reached out to her country in sickness and in health and made us understand what really matters in life. While we mourn her passing, we celebrate the lasting legacy she left behind.” Robin Wilson
On January 7, 2009, Sandra was named the winner of the 2009 World Curling Freytag Award (later incorporated into the WCF Hall of Fame). The award, named after American Elmer Freytag, who founded the World Curling Federation, honours curlers for championship play, sportsmanship, character and extraordinary achievement. Her husband and daughters accepted the award on her behalf at the 2009 World Men's Curling Championship. |
65,332,561 | Tenzing Norgay National Adventure Award | 1,163,823,308 | Indian adventure sports award | [
"Awards established in 1993",
"Indian sports trophies and awards",
"Ministry of Youth Affairs and Sports",
"Recipients of the Tenzing Norgay National Adventure Award",
"Tenzing Norgay"
]
| The Tenzing Norgay National Adventure Award, formerly known as the National Adventure Awards is the highest adventure sports honour of the Republic of India. The award is named after Tenzing Norgay, one of the first two individuals to reach the summit of Mount Everest along with Edmund Hillary in 1953. It is awarded annually by the Ministry of Youth Affairs and Sports. The recipients are honoured for their "outstanding achievement in the field of adventure activities on land, sea and air" over the last three years. The lifetime achievement is awarded to individuals who have demonstrated excellence and have devoted themselves in the promotion of adventure sports. As of 2020, the award comprises "a bronze statuette of Tenzing Norgay along with a cash prize of ₹15 lakh (US\$19,000)."
Instituted in 1993–1994, the first awards were given for the year 1994. The status of this award is considered to be equivalent to the Arjuna Award conferred in the field of sport. Since the year 2004, this award along with all the other six National Sports Awards are conferred in the same presidential ceremony at the Rashtrapati Bhavan usually on 29 August each year. The nominations for a given year are accepted till 20 June. Typically one award in each of the four categories: Land adventure, Water (Sea) adventure, Air adventure and Lifetime achievement are given. The number may increase in a particular year for appropriate reasons and after approval. A five-member committee evaluates the achievements of a person in a particular category of adventure taking into consideration their last three years of performance for the first three categories. The committee later submits their recommendations to the Union Minister of Youth Affairs and Sports for further approval.
As of 2020, there have been one hundred and thirty-nine recipients. In the first year 1994, twenty-two awards were given, out of which nineteen were given to the Indian members of the 1993 Indo-Nepalese Women's Everest Expedition. In 2017, ten awards were given, out of which six were given to the members of Navika Sagar Parikrama, an all-woman sailing team for the circumnavigation of the globe. Chandraprabha Aitwal is the only double recipient of the award, once in 1994 for land adventure and second time in 2009 for lifetime achievement.
## History
Before the creation of this award, the Arjuna award was given for outstanding performance in the field of adventure. Ten individual and one team Arjuna awards were given in the years 1965 to 1986 in the field of either mountaineering or adventure sports. The first and only team Arjuna award to date was presented in 1965 to the twenty mountaineers of the successful Indian Everest expedition of 1965. Individually, four mountaineers in 1981, two mountaineers in 1984 including Bachendri Pal, India's first woman to scale Mount Everest, and three adventurers in 1986 were awarded the Arjuna award.
In 1993, the Union Minister of State for Youth Affairs and Sports, Mukul Wasnik announced the creation of a separate National Adventure Awards which was to be instituted as the "highest national recognition for outstanding achievement in the field of adventure activities on land, sea and air." Since its inception, it has been considered on par with Arjuna awards matching the same cash prize money. The award is given in four categories; land, water, air and lifetime achievement. They were first presented in 1995 for the awarding year of 1994. They are considered the highest honour in the field of adventure sports in India. The awards were presented simultaneously in 2001 for the awarding years of 1997 and 1998, in 2003 for the awarding years of 1999, 2000 and 2001, and in 2005 for the awarding years of 2003 and 2004. In 2003 the awards were renamed after Tenzing Norgay, a Nepali-Indian Sherpa mountaineer and one of the first two individuals to reach the summit of Mount Everest along with Edmund Hillary in 1953, commemorating the golden jubilee of his first scaling of Everest. Since the awarding year of 2002, the national adventure awards are presented along with all the other National Sports Awards in the same presidential ceremony at the Rashtrapati Bhavan. The cash prize started with ₹50,000 (US\$630) in 1994, was revised to ₹1.5 lakh (US\$1,900) in 1999, to ₹3 lakh (US\$3,800) in 2002, and to ₹5 lakh (US\$6,300) in 2008. The award statuette was redesigned in 2009, measuring 15 inches (38 cm) in height and weighing nearly 1.5 kilograms (3.3 lb). It is made of bronze and polished to highlight the age of Tenzing Norgay along with the ice axe he used when climbing Everest. As of 2020, the award comprises "a bronze statuette of Tenzing Norgay, certificate, blazer with silken tie/saree, and a cash prize of ₹5 lakh (US\$6,300)."
## Nominations
The nominations for the award are filled through an online application form. The provision for giving away award posthumously exists however no award can be given to the same person in the same category more than once. The application has to be either recommended by the Youth or Sports Department of the State Governments or by recognized adventure institutes representing the specific category in which application is made. The application can also be recommended by the Adventure Promotion Cell of various Indian Armed Forces, Indo-Tibetan Border Police or other paramilitary forces. All the serving personnel in the Armed Forces: Army, Navy and Air Force have to be recommended directly through their Directorate or adventure cells. The Ministry of Youth Affairs and Sports can also seek nominations from different organizations and nominate on its own. The nominations in a particular year are accepted till 20 June. The recognized institutes in the land adventure category are Indian Mountaineering Foundation, Himalayan Mountaineering Institute and Jawahar Institute of Mountaineering and Winter Sports, in the water (sea) adventure category is National Institute of Water Sports and in the air adventure category is Aero Club of India.
## Selection process
All the nominations are sent to the three umbrella bodies in their respective categories: Indian Mountaineering Foundation for land, National Institute of Water Sports for water, and Aero Club of India for air. These bodies verify the achievements of the applicants and confirm from their official records, within a month of the receipt of the nominations. The achievements of the last three calendar years are taken into account for all the categories except for lifetime achievement.
The valid nominations are vetted and scrutinized by the selection committee constituted by the Government. This five member committee consists of a chairperson, usually the Secretary of Youth Affairs, Joint Secretary of Youth Affairs and one representative from each of three categories: land, water (sea) and air. The recommendations of the selection committee are submitted to the Union Minister of Youth Affairs and Sports for further approval. The provision is usually just for one award in each category but the Ministry with the approval of the Minister may increase the awardees in a particular year.
The recipients are selected by a committee and are honoured for their "excellent performance, outstanding qualities of leadership, sense of adventure discipline and continuous achievement in one particular field of adventure viz. Land, Air or Water (Sea)" over the last three years. The lifetime achievement award is bestowed to recipients who "besides individual excellence have devoted themselves to the cause of promotion of adventure."
## Recipients
Broadly the awards in the land adventure category have been given to mountaineering, in the water adventure category to open water swimming and sailing, and in the air adventure category to skydiving. The exceptions include caving, cross-country skiing including Reena Kaushal Dharmshaktu, the first Indian woman to ski to the South Pole, hang gliding, microlight aviation including businessman Vijaypat Singhania, the pilot of world record-setting flight from the UK to India, and white water rafting.
Usually, the award is conferred upon three to six people in a year, a few exceptions have been made in the years 1994, 1995, 2017 and 2019, when more than six recipients were awarded in a year. In its initial year, twenty-two awards were presented, the highest so far for a single year. Nineteen of these awards were given to the 1993 Indo-Nepalese Women's Everest Expedition led by Bachendri Pal. The expedition created four world records at the time including the largest number of mountaineers (eighteen) from a single expedition and the largest number of women (seven) from a single country to scale Everest. In 2017, ten awards were presented, out of which six were given to the members of Navika Sagar Parikrama (circumnavigation of the globe). They were an all women Indian Navy officers sailing team for the circumnavigation of the globe, on board the Indian Navy Sailing Vessel Tarini (pictured), led by Lieutenant Commander Vartika Joshi. Chandraprabha Aitwal (pictured) is the only double recipient of the award, once in 1994 in the category of land adventure for being part of the 1993 Indo-Nepalese Women's Everest Expedition and the second time in 2009 in the category of lifetime achievement in the discipline of mountaineering. Before this award was introduced, the Arjuna award was also given for adventure sports and mountaineering; eight people have won both awards. Five expedition members of India's first successful bid to Mount Everest in 1965, Nawang Gombu, Gurdial Singh, Mohan Singh Kohli, H. P. S. Ahluwalia and Sonam Wangyal were awarded the lifetime achievement awards in 2005, 2006, 2007, 2008, and 2017 respectively. They were all awarded the team Arjuna award in 1965. Bula Choudhury was awarded the Arjuna award in 1990 in the field of swimming and was presented with the adventure award in 2002 for lifetime achievement in the disciple of open water swimming.
Over the years, a number of firsts and records in the adventure activities have been awarded. In the field of mountaineering, Love Raj Singh Dharmshaktu (awarded in 1999) has gone on to climb Everest seven times, the highest for an Indian. Arunima Sinha (awarded in 2014) became the world's first female amputee to scale Everest. Twins Tashi and Nungshi Malik (awarded in 2015) became the first twins in the world to complete Seven Summits and Explorers Grand Slam. Anshu Jamsenpa (awarded in 2017) is the fastest female double summiteer of Everest, doing so in five days. In the field of sailing, Dilip Donde (awarded in 2010) became the first Indian to circumnavigate the globe under sail solo and unassisted. Abhilash Tomy (awarded in 2012) bettered the record by being the first Indian to do it non-stop. In the field of skydiving, Rachel Thomas (awarded in 1994) became India's first female skydiver and Shital Mahajan (awarded in 2005) was the youngest woman to jump over both the poles.
## Controversies
The initial publication on 21 August 2020 of the 2019 awardees list had the name of mountaineer Narender Singh Yadav in the category of land adventure. His name in the list of awardees created controversy in the mountaineering circles in India and abroad. On 23 August, the Katmandu-based daily Kantipur published the photo that Singh had submitted to the authorities in Nepal as proof of reaching the Everest summit in 2016. The article explained how the photo in question was morphed. Several mountaineers pointed out the inaccuracies in the photo including the oxygen mask not having a pipe, no reflections on his sunglasses, flags he carried being still despite the high winds, no headlamps on his head and him wearing a helmet which is not worn by climbers on their summit day. His team leader Naba Kumar Phukon, rescue team member Lakhpa Sherpa and senior mountaineer Debashis Biswas attested to the fact that Singh never made it to the top of Everest and had to be helped down after getting stranded at the Balcony at 8,400 m (27,600 ft). Tenzing Norgay's son Jamling Norgay took up the matter and raised the issue with Indian Mountaineering Foundation. Soon after that, the Sports Ministry opened a probe into the claims, withholding the award on 28 August and in the list of awardees attending next day's ceremony, Singh's name was omitted. Jamling Norgay and Bachendri Pal expressed displeasure that such a person was even considered for the award in the first place. Jamling further noted that the awards should not be simply awarded to the Everest climbers, but to those who inspire other adventure seekers by scaling new peaks, exploring new routes and promoting adventure in general.
## Explanatory notes |
72,575,178 | Greece in the Eurovision Song Contest 2023 | 1,171,680,957 | null | [
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"Countries in the Eurovision Song Contest 2023",
"Greece in the Eurovision Song Contest"
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| Greece participated in the Eurovision Song Contest 2023 in Liverpool, United Kingdom. The Greek broadcaster Hellenic Broadcasting Corporation (ERT) internally selected Victor Vernicos to represent the country with the song "What They Say", which he composed himself. Vernicos was announced as the artist on 30 January 2023, while the song was presented to the public on 12 March. The entry selection process was subject to a legal challenge by second-place candidate Melissa Mantzoukis; however, Vernicos' participation was ultimately allowed to continue.
To promote "What They Say" as the Greek entry, a music video for the song was created as well as an acoustic version. Vernicos subsequently attended a meet-and-greet and gave interviews to foreign press. Greece was drawn to compete in the second semi-final of the Eurovision Song Contest which took place on 11 May 2023. Performing during the show in position eight, "What They Say" placed 13th in the semi-final with 14 points, failing to qualify for the contest's final. This marked Greece's third non-qualification and also its worst result to this point in terms of points received in a semi-final.
## Background
Prior to the 2023 contest, Greece had participated in the Eurovision Song Contest 42 times since its debut in . The nation has won the contest once to this point, in with the song "My Number One" performed by Helena Paparizou. Following the introduction of semi-finals for the , Greece managed to qualify for the final with each of their entries for several years. Between 2004 and 2013, the nation achieved nine top ten placements in the final. The first entry to not qualify for the final was Argo's song "Utopian Land" in . Its 16th place finish marked Greece's worst placing at the contest and led to its absence from the final for the first time since 2000, when they did not send an entry. In the , Greece failed to qualify for the second time with Yianna Terzi and the song "Oniro mou" finishing 14th in the semi-final. For the three contests prior to 2023, the nation once again returned to qualifying for the final, including in , when Amanda Tenfjord and her song "Die Together" went on to place eighth with 215 points.
The Greek national broadcaster, Hellenic Broadcasting Corporation (ERT), broadcasts the event within Greece and organises the selection process for the nation's entry. ERT had been in charge of Greece's participation in the contest since their debut in 1974 until 2013 when the broadcaster was shut down by a government directive and replaced firstly with the interim Dimosia Tileorasi (DT) and then later by the New Hellenic Radio, Internet and Television (NERIT) broadcaster. Following the victory of the Syriza party at the January 2015 Greek legislative election, the Hellenic Parliament renamed NERIT to ERT that June. ERT confirmed their intentions to participate in the Eurovision Song Contest 2023 on 26 August 2022 when the announced details of their upcoming selection process for their entry.
## Before Eurovision
### Internal selection
On 26 August 2022, ERT opened a submission period where artists and composers were able to submit their proposals for consideration by the broadcaster until 9 October 2022. Artists were required to be signed to record labels and their proposal had to contain up to three songs, indicate the accompanying artistic group, and include ideas or concepts for the song's promotion and presentation. There were 106 songs received by the submission deadline. Seven entries were then shortlisted by a seven-member artistic committee and were announced on 28 December 2022. The entries included: "Shout Out!" performed by Antonia Kaouri and Maria Maragkou, "Holy Water" by Klavdia, "We're Young" by Konstantina Iosifidou, "Somewhere to Go" by Leon of Athens, "Liar" by Melissa Mantzoukis, "Proud" by Monika, and "What They Say" by Victor Vernicos.
The seven acts were then evaluated by public and artistic committees. The public committee consisted of a total of 70 members randomly selected from 2,982 applications based on five age groups: 25 members in the 18 to 24 category, 20 members in the 25 to 34 category, 15 members in the 35 to 44 category and 10 members in the over 45 category. The artistic committee consisted of Petros Adam (music producer), Leonidas Antonopoulos (journalist and music producer), Fotis Apergis (ERT radio director), Konstantinos Bourounis (head of ERT's youth program), Maria Kozakou (director of the Second Programme of Hellenic Radio), Dimitris Papadimitriou (music composer) and Yannis Petridis, (music producer). On 19 January 2023, ERT shortlisted three final songs from the seven, which was the outcome of the public committee vote, followed by a respective evaluation by the artistic committee. The final three were announced through ERT1 show, Proian se eidon tin mesimvrian (Greek: Πρωίαν σε είδον την μεσημβρίαν; I saw you in the morning, at noon).
The combination of votes from the public committee (50.6%) and the artistic committee (49.4%) then selected the Greek entry. This marked the first time that ERT had opted for a format where the entry was selected by two panels. Greek-Danish singer Victor Vernicos was announced as the Greek representative for the 2023 contest through ERT1's newscast on 30 January 2023. At 16 years-old, he became the youngest entrant to be selected to represent the nation. Vernicos' entry, "What They Say", was released on 12 March 2023 through Panik Records alongside its music video.
### Reception and legal challenge
Following the announcement of Vernicos as the Greek entrant, Mantzoukis publicly protested the results of the process, threatening legal action. Mantzoukis and her legal team cited two concerns in their challenge of the results. Prior to the artistic committee's vote, it was reported that Kaouri and Maragkou had withdrawn themselves from consideration, leaving only two entrants as options. Despite this, all three acts were awarded points by the committee. Secondly, they alleged that even if all three acts were considered, the point values awarded do not sum to the quantity of points available, and if they had, Mantzoukis would have won. Artistic committee member Kozakou then explained in an interview on ERT's Proian se eidon tin mesimvrian that point values were not awarded based on awards of first, second and third place by the committee (12, 10 or 8 points, respectively, in Eurovision fashion), but from 12 through 4 points (first through seventh) to align the total point values with the quantity awarded by the public committee. Mantzoukis' lawyer Christos Zotiadis responded during an interview on Star Channel's show Breakfast @ Star that they were unsatisfied with ERT's response, and requested that the detailed committee votes for each member at each voting stage be released for transparency.
A temporary injunction halting the Greek participation was denied by Greek courts on 6 March, citing the short time period between then and the EBU's 13 March deadline for entry submissions. Mantzoukis' lawsuit to be declared the winner and awarded damages was anticipated to be heard in mid-May following the contest. Arguments in the lawsuit ended on 4 July, with the judge expected to make a decision within six to seven months of that date.
### Promotion
To promote the entry, a music video of the song, directed by Yiannis Georgioudakis, was filmed. The video was produced by PickCodes, with Kostas Kalimeris, Steve Sovolos, and Vangelis Gialamas taking part in its production. It was scheduled to be released on 6 March alongside the song itself, but was delayed due to the Tempi train crash. The song and video were eventually released on 12 March through ERT's over-the-top media service ERTFlix. To further promote the entry, Vernicos took part in a meet-and-greet event on 6 April organised by ERT. The event was attended by the Greek Eurovision delegation, local British embassy representatives, as well as mainstream print, television and radio media. He sang his entry "What They Say" live with a guitar and covered a number of past Eurovision entries. Further promotion involved an acoustic version of the song being released on the official Eurovision YouTube channel as part of its A Little Bit More series. Vernicos was largely absent from the Eurovision touring circuit and did not attend pre-parties, although he made several appearances and performed at The Cavern Club and the EuroClub in Camp and Furnace upon his arrival in Liverpool.
## At Eurovision
The Eurovision Song Contest 2023 took place at the Liverpool Arena in Liverpool, United Kingdom, and consisted of two semi-finals held on the respective dates of 9 and 11 May and the final on 13 May 2023. According to Eurovision rules, all nations with the exceptions of the host country and the "Big Five" (France, Germany, Italy, Spain and the United Kingdom) are required to qualify from one of two semi-finals in order to compete for the final; the top 10 countries from each semi-final progress to the final. The European Broadcasting Union (EBU) split up the competing countries into six different pots based on voting patterns from previous contests, with countries with favourable voting histories put into the same pot. On 31 January 2023, an allocation draw was held, which placed each country into one of the two semi-finals, and determined which half of the show they would perform in. Greece was placed into the second semi-final, to be held on 11 May 2023, and was scheduled to perform in the first half of the show. Once all the competing entries for the 2023 contest had been released, the running order for the semi-finals was decided by the producers of the contest to prevent similar songs from being placed next to each other. Greece was set to perform in position eight, following the entry from the and before the entry from .
In Greece, all shows were televised on ERT1 with commentary by Maria Kozakou and Jenny Melita. A radio broadcast on Deftero Programma included the commentary by Kozakou and Melita, with Dimitris Meidanis covering the commercial breaks with interviews and contest history.
### Performances
Prior to leaving for the contest, Vernicos took part in rehearsals daily at ERT's studios in Athens in late April. This was followed by technical rehearsals in Liverpool on 2 and 5 May, and dress rehearsals on 10 May. The latter included the jury show where the professional back-up juries of each country watched and voted in a result used if any issues with public televoting occurred.
The stage presence for "What They Say" was organised by Konstantinos Rigos who served as artistic director for the entry. Rigos had previously directed the Greek entries in and . The performance consisted of Vernicos being alone on stage with no backing dancers or vocalists. He wore a beige-coloured shorts-suit by costume designer George Segredakis, and was surrounded by a video wall showing rainfall, a large-scale video of himself, as well as lyrics of the song in English and the Greek alphabet. Rigos described the inspiration for the stage presence as "Greek summer".
At the end of the second semi-final, Greece was not among the ten countries announced as qualifiers for the final. It was later revealed that Greece placed 13th in the semi-final, receiving a total of 14 points. This marked Greece's third non-qualification to the final and also its worst result to this point in terms of points received in a semi-final.
### Voting
Below is a breakdown of points awarded to Greece in the second semi-final as well as by Greece in the second semi-final and final of the contest. Also included is the breakdown of the jury voting and televoting conducted during the two shows. Voting during the shows involved each country awarding sets of points from 1-8, 10 and 12: one from their professional jury and the other from televoting in the final vote, while the semi-final vote was based entirely on the vote of the public. Each nation's jury consisted of five music industry professionals who are citizens of the country they represent. This jury judged each entry based on: vocal capacity; the stage performance; the song's composition and originality; and the overall impression by the act. The exact composition of the professional jury, and the results of each country's jury and televoting were released after the final; the individual results from each jury member were released in an anonymised form. The Greek jury consisted of Christos Giakoumopoulos, Fotios Giannoutsos, Nikolaos Nikolakopoulos, Claudia Matola, and Evanthia Theotokatou.
In the second semi-final, Greece finished in 13th place out of 16 entries and received 14 points total from two countries: the top 12 points from and two points from . Over the course of the contest, Greece awarded its 12 points to in the second semi-final and to (jury) and (televote) in the final. The Greek spokesperson, who announced the top 12-point score awarded by the Greek jury during the final, was Fotis Sergoulopoulos [el].
#### Points awarded to Greece
#### Points awarded by Greece
#### Detailed voting results
The following members comprised the Greek jury:
- Christos Giakoumopoulos
- Fotios Giannoutsos
- Nikolaos Nikolakopoulos
- Claudia Matola
- Evanthia Theotokatou
## After Eurovision
### Reception
Greece's failure to qualify to the final led to media outlets once again citing Mantzoukis' lack of selection as a problem. As reported in TVNea, foreign press preferred Mantzoukis' entry "Liar" over Vernicos' from the beginning, and saw it as a contender for high placement at the contest. Giorgos Liagas, presenter of the show To Proino on ANT1, expressed that ERT had mocked the Greek people by including them in the selection process, but not sending their preferred candidate to represent them at the contest. Appearing on the Alpha TV show Super Katerina on 12 May, the day after the second semi-final, lyricist Evi Droutsa opined that the song lacked a melody, that Vernicos was too young to compete at this level, and that his selection centered too much on his last name and family. ERT released a statement following the non-qualification, reinforcing the integrity of the selection process and explaining that Vernicos met the demands of the contest and deserved applause. The artist himself posted on social media shortly after saying "I love you guys. Many more to come soon. Thank you to all Eurovision fans for the amazing experience". |
2,048,670 | Anže Kopitar | 1,173,757,147 | Slovene ice hockey player (b. 1987) | [
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| Anže Kopitar (, born 24 August 1987) is a Slovenian professional ice hockey centre and captain of the Los Angeles Kings of the National Hockey League (NHL). The 11th overall pick in the 2005 NHL Entry Draft, Kopitar became the first Slovene to play in the NHL upon making his debut in 2006. Kopitar has spent his entire NHL career with the Kings, has led the team in scoring in all but two seasons and is fourth in franchise history in points, goals, and assists, scoring his 1,000th career point in 2021. Following the 2015–16 season, he was named the Kings' captain. Noted for both his offensive and defensive play, Kopitar was awarded the Frank J. Selke Trophy as the best defensive forward in the NHL in 2016, as well as the Lady Byng Memorial Trophy for gentlemanly play the same year. He won the Selke Trophy a second time in 2018 and the Lady Byng Trophy in 2023.
Kopitar played junior hockey for his hometown team HK Acroni Jesenice before moving to Sweden at age 16 to play in a more competitive league. He spent one season with the junior teams of the Södertälje SK organization, and then with the senior team of the top-level Elitserien. He moved to North America to join the Kings in 2006, one year after he was drafted, and finished fourth in the Calder Memorial Trophy voting for the league's top rookie. Kopitar's offensive talent was immediately apparent when he joined the Kings, while his defensive style developed in later seasons and he has become recognized for his two-way play, being a finalist for the Selke Trophy three times and winning twice. In 2018, he was a finalist for the Hart Memorial Trophy. Praised as one of the best players in the NHL, Kopitar won the Stanley Cup with the Kings in 2012 and 2014, leading the playoffs in points on both occasions (tied with teammate Dustin Brown in 2012). Internationally, Kopitar has represented the Slovenian national team in several junior and senior tournaments, as well as at the 2014 Winter Olympics in Sochi. He also played for Team Europe at the 2016 World Cup of Hockey.
## Playing career
### European career (2002–2006)
In 2002, Kopitar began playing for the youth team of his hometown, HK Acroni Jesenice. He split the year between the team's under-18 and junior clubs, and also appeared in 11 games for the senior team HK Kranjska Gora of the Slovenian Ice Hockey League. Kopitar had four goals and four assists in the senior league, and recorded 76 points in 14 games for the Jesenice under-18 team and 27 points in 20 games for the junior club. He led the Slovenian Ice Hockey League in scoring at the age of 16, and Swedish scout Lars Söder recruited Kopitar for the Elitserien in 2004 (Söder had originally discovered Kopitar when he was 13 at the 2001 European Youth Olympic Winter Festival in Vuokatti, Finland).
The Slovenian Ice Hockey League did not have a high enough skill level, so Kopitar decided that if he wanted to improve his career prospects, he would have to leave the country. He was offered a chance to play in Sweden for Södertälje SK, eventually joining their junior team where he led the League in scoring, with 49 points (28 goals, 21 assists) in 30 games. At 17, prior to the 2005 NHL Entry Draft, Kopitar was ranked the top European skater by the NHL Central Scouting Bureau. After his first season in Sweden, he was chosen 11th overall by the Los Angeles Kings in the 2005 Draft. Unlike most top-ranked prospects, Kopitar was not at the draft, but in Sweden playing in preseason games. Some members of the team had a party for the draft, including Niclas Bergfors, who was selected 23rd overall by the New Jersey Devils. Prior to the NHL Draft, Kopitar was also selected in the CHL Import Draft by the Regina Pats of the Western Hockey League (WHL). At 18 years of age, he declined to move to North America, however, hoping to further his development by continuing to play against professionals in the Elitserien, rather than against major junior players in the WHL.
### Los Angeles Kings (2006–present)
Kopitar signed an entry-level contract with the Kings on 7 September 2005, but returned to play in Sweden for another season. The next year, 2006, he accepted an invitation to Los Angeles' rookie camp.
#### Early career and establishment (2006–2010)
He made his NHL debut on 6 October 2006, against the Anaheim Ducks and scored two goals in the game. In January 2007, he was named to the NHL YoungStars Game, an event included at the All-Star Game festivities; Kopitar recorded two goals and three assists. Kopitar completed his first NHL season third among rookies in scoring, behind Evgeni Malkin and Paul Šťastný, with 20 goals and 41 assists for 61 points. It marked the fifth-highest point total by a Kings rookie, and the highest since Luc Robitaille in 1986–87. He finished fourth in voting for the Calder Memorial Trophy as rookie of the year. Kopitar was awarded the Mark Bavis Memorial Award as the best first-year member of the Kings and was also named the Kings' Most Popular Player.
The following season, 2007–08, Kopitar was selected to represent the Western Conference at the 56th NHL All-Star Game in Atlanta, his first all-star game appearance. He was the youngest player in the game, nearly two years younger than the second-youngest player, Paul Stastny (Sidney Crosby was younger, but had to withdraw prior to the game due to injury). Kopitar finished the regular season with 32 goals and 45 assists for 77 points; he led the Kings in assists and points and was second in goals. Kopitar won the Bill Libby Memorial Award as the most valuable player on the Kings.
Early in the 2008–09 season, on 11 October 2008, Kopitar signed a seven-year contract extension with the Kings worth \$47.6 million. The contract would keep Kopitar with the team until the conclusion of the 2015–16 season. He finished the season with 66 points in 82 games, leading the Kings in both assists and points, while again finishing second in goals scored. The following season, Kopitar scored his first career NHL hat-trick (three goals in one game) on 22 October 2009 against the Dallas Stars. He finished the 2009–10 season with a career-high 34 goals and 81 points. For the second time in his career, Kopitar won the Bill Libby Memorial Award as the Kings' most valuable player, and led the team in scoring for the third-straight year. Kopitar made his Stanley Cup playoff debut that season, as the Kings qualified for the postseason for the first time since 2002. The Kings lost in the Western Conference Quarterfinals to the Vancouver Canucks, and Kopitar finished tied for third on the team with five points in six games.
#### Stanley Cup wins (2010–2015)
The 2010–11 season saw Kopitar play in his 325th consecutive NHL game, which set a new Kings team record, passing Marcel Dionne on 15 March 2011. However eleven days later, Kopitar's season and ironman streak came to an abrupt end at 330 games after he suffered a broken ankle. Despite the injury setback, Kopitar led the team in scoring for the fourth straight season with 73 points, and was named the team's most valuable player for the second time.
In the 2011–12 season, Kopitar led the Kings in scoring with 76 points, including a career-best 51 assists. The Kings won the Stanley Cup as playoff champions, their first title in team history. Kopitar finished tied with Kings captain Dustin Brown to lead the team in playoff scoring, with each having 20 points from 20 games played. Kopitar became the first Slovenian-born player to win the Stanley Cup. In recognition of this, Kopitar was named as the 2012 Slovenian male Athlete of the Year.
The 2012–13 NHL season was delayed due to the NHL lockout, so Kopitar joined his younger brother Gašper on Mora IK of the Swedish second-tier league HockeyAllsvenskan, signing a contract with the team for the 2012–13 season. He played 31 games for Mora, scoring 34 points, before the NHL lockout ended in January 2013. A shortened, 48-game NHL season commenced, Kopitar recorded 42 points in 47 games to once again lead the Kings in scoring, and was named the team's best defensive player.
The 2013–14 season saw Kopitar lead the team in scoring for the seventh consecutive season, with 70 points, and was named both the team's most valuable player and best defensive player. He also was a finalist for the Frank J. Selke Trophy as best defensive forward in the NHL for the first time. In the playoffs, Kopitar led the entire league in scoring, recording 26 points in 26 games, as the Kings won their second Stanley Cup championship.
The next season saw Kopitar tie Marcel Dionne as the only player in Kings history to lead the team in scoring eight times, having scored 16 goals and 48 assists for 64 points. Kopitar was a finalist for the Selke Trophy again, and also for the Lady Byng Memorial Trophy, awarded for sportsmanship.
#### Later career (2015–present)
During the 2015–16 season Kopitar signed an eight-year contract extension with the Kings. It would pay him an average of \$10 million per season until the end of the 2023–24 season. He finished the season with 74 points, setting a team record by leading the Kings in scoring for a ninth consecutive season. Kopitar also was awarded both the Lady Byng and Frank J. Selke Trophies, the first player from the Kings to win either award. He also won the Bill Libby Memorial Award as the most valuable player on the Kings for the fifth time.
On 16 June 2016, Kopitar was named the captain of the Kings, replacing Dustin Brown. In his first season as captain of the Kings, Kopitar saw his production drop, and he finished with 52 points, second on the team behind Jeff Carter, and ending his nine-year streak of leading the team in scoring.
Kopitar returned to form in the 2017–18 season scoring a career-high 35 goals and 57 assists for 92 points, helping the Kings get back to the playoffs. He scored his fourth career hat-trick with four goals on 22 March 2018, against the Colorado Avalanche. After the season, Kopitar was a finalist for the Hart Memorial Trophy and was awarded the Frank J. Selke Trophy for the second time in his career.
Towards the end of the following season, on 1 April 2019, in a game against the Calgary Flames, Kopitar played his 1,000th NHL game.
On 5 May 2021, towards the end of the COVID-19 pandemic-shortened 2020–21 season, Kopitar recorded his 1,000th career point, becoming the 91st player to reach the mark.
On 14 October 2021, Kopitar scored three goals and two assists against the Vegas Golden Knights, setting a franchise record for most points in a home opening game since Jari Kurri did it back in 1991–92. However, Kopitar missed the 20-goal mark for the first time since the 2016–17 season (excluding the shortened 2020–21 season). He recorded his 700th career assist in the Kings' final home game of the season on 23 April 2022, a 4–2 win against the Anaheim Ducks. He was awarded the Mark Messier Leadership Award at season's end, becoming the second Kings player to win it after teammate Dustin Brown.
Kopitar recorded his sixth career hat-trick on 28 February 2023, scoring four goals in a 6–5 shootout victory against the Winnipeg Jets. At season's end, he would win his second Lady Byng Trophy, becoming the first King since Wayne Gretzky to win the award multiple times. The Kings re-signed Kopitar to a two-year contract extension on 6 July 2023.
## International play
Kopitar first played in an international tournament when he participated in the Division I (second level) tournament of the 2003 IIHF World U18 Championships for the Slovenian national junior team. He appeared in five games and recorded three points. The following year he appeared in the 2004 U18 tournament and the 2004 World Junior Championships. Slovenia competed in Division I at both tournaments, one level below the top division. Kopitar scored six goals and eight points in five games during the under-18 tournament and finished second overall for goals scored and third for points, leading Slovenia in both categories; at the World Juniors he had one goal and one assist in five games.
In 2005, Kopitar appeared in three international tournaments for Slovenia; he took part in the U18 Championship, World Juniors, and the senior World Championship, his first tournament with the Slovenian national team. Slovenia competed at the Division I level for both junior tournaments, but at the top level for the senior championship. He would play his last junior tournament in 2006 at the Division I level, with six points in five games. At the 2006 World Championship he played for Slovenia at the top level and recorded three goals and nine points in six games, tying for fifth among scoring leaders. Slovenia was relegated to Division I for 2007, where Kopitar had 13 assists and 14 points, leading the tournament in both categories. Back in the top division for the 2008 IIHF World Championship, Kopitar appeared in five games and had four points to lead his team, though Slovenia was once again relegated.
Slovenia qualified for the 2014 Winter Olympics in Sochi; as the qualifying games were held during the NHL season Kopitar was unable to participate, though his father Matjaž coached the team and Gašper played in the matches. Though Gašper was part of the team that secured qualification for Slovenia, he was not named to the Olympic roster. Kopitar helped Slovenia reach the quarterfinals of the tournament by scoring two goals and one assist.
Kopitar was also named to play in the 2016 World Cup of Hockey for Team Europe, which includes players from most of Europe (the Czech Republic, Finland, Russia, and Sweden have their own teams). Prior to the announcement Kopitar had expressed excitement towards the concept, which was to be introduced during the tournament, noting that as a Slovenian he had few opportunities to play in tournaments like this.
## Playing style
Kopitar is known in the NHL as one of the most effective two-way forwards, excelling in both offence and defence, for which he has won the Frank J. Selke Trophy in 2016 and 2018, after being a finalist for the award in both 2014 and 2015. Kopitar has one of the highest career averages for winning faceoffs, and has led the Kings in team scoring 14 times in his career.
## Personal life
Kopitar was born in Jesenice, Slovenia (then part of Yugoslavia) to Matjaž and Mateja Kopitar. Matjaž played hockey for HK Acroni Jesenice, winning the league title three times, and was a member of the Yugoslav and Slovenian national teams. He also coached HK Acroni Jesenice of the Austrian Hockey League during the 2006–07 season and the Slovenian national team from 2010 until 2015. Mateja worked at the family restaurant in Hrušica, a village about five kilometres from Jesenice.
When Kopitar was four, his father first taught him how to skate; Matjaž built an ice rink in their backyard in Hrušica, and Kopitar would play there whenever he could. Kopitar has a brother, Gašper, who is five years younger. Gašper also plays hockey; when the Kopitar family moved to Los Angeles, Gašper joined a junior team sponsored by the Kings. He then played for the Portland Winterhawks of the major junior Western Hockey League (WHL) and the Des Moines Buccaneers of the United States Hockey League (USHL), before turning professional with Mora IK in Sweden. Kopitar's grandmother taught English at a local high school, and both Kopitar and his brother learned to speak English from her. Kopitar speaks five languages: Slovene, Serbian, German, Swedish, and English. He enjoys playing soccer and is a declared supporter of Slovenian soccer club NK Maribor.
Kopitar is renowned in Slovenia due to his hockey exploits, with a government-sponsored website declaring that after he won the Stanley Cup in 2012 he was "the most recognised Slovenian sportsman." As a youth, he played in the 2000 and 2001 Quebec International Pee-Wee Hockey Tournaments with a team from Slovenia. He also hosts an annual charity golf tournament that benefits various groups, mainly youths.
Kopitar lived with his parents until moving to Sweden, where he lived alone in an apartment. After his first season in the NHL, the rest of Kopitar's family joined him in Los Angeles; Kopitar bought a home in Manhattan Beach in 2014. Kopitar met Ines Dominc in Slovenia in 2005; they married in July 2013. Their first child, a daughter named Neža, was born on 14 March 2015. Their second child, son Jakob, was born 5 October 2016.
## Career statistics
### Regular season and playoffs
Bold indicates led league
### International
### YoungStar Games
### All-Star Games
- All statistics are taken from NHL.com.
## Awards and honours |
61,091,817 | Infest the Rats' Nest | 1,168,705,802 | null | [
"2019 albums",
"ATO Records albums",
"Albums about climate change",
"Environmental mass media",
"Flightless (record label) albums",
"Hell in popular culture",
"King Gizzard & the Lizard Wizard albums",
"Science fiction concept albums",
"Stoner rock albums",
"Thrash metal albums by Australian artists"
]
| Infest the Rats' Nest is the fifteenth studio album by Australian psychedelic rock band King Gizzard & the Lizard Wizard. It was released on 16 August 2019 by the band's record label, Flightless, and ATO Records. The album sees the band using a heavy metal and thrash metal style, which they had only briefly touched upon on previous albums. Its lyrics address environmental themes such as climate change and ecological disaster through a cli-fi narrative involving space colonisation.
The album received generally positive reviews, with critics highlighting the performances and themes, and was nominated for the 2019 ARIA Award for Best Hard Rock or Heavy Metal Album. The album charted in several countries, including peaking at number 2 on the ARIA Charts and number 3 on US Independent Albums.
## Background and release
Australian rock band King Gizzard & the Lizard Wizard released five albums in 2017, concluding with Gumboot Soup in December. Following a brief hiatus, on 21 January 2019 the band teased their fourteenth studio album, which would later be announced as Fishing for Fishies. Prior to its full release on 26 April 2019, the band surprise-released single "Planet B" on 8 April alongside a music video. The song's exclusion from the album's track listing and distinct sound led to speculation that the band might release a second album in 2019.
During a question-and-answer on 30 April with fans on Reddit, the band confirmed the next album was at an early stage of production and would include "Planet B", but they had not decided if it would be released in 2019. The album was speculated to be titled Auto-Cremate, the band's username on their Reddit Q&A.
On 29 May, the band released the album's second single "Self-Immolate" with another accompanying music video a week after a teaser on social media. On 18 June, the band posted another teaser on social media which confirmed the album's title. The album was officially announced three days later with a release date of 16 August. On 25 June, the band released a third single, "Organ Farmer", along with a music video that included fans as extras. The album was released on August 17 on Flightless and ATO Records.
## Composition
### Music
Infest the Rats' Nest was composed and recorded primarily with only three of the band's usual seven-man lineup. Stu Mackenzie and Joey Walker recorded all guitar and bass parts, with Michael Cavanagh playing the drums. The album showcases influences derived from heavy metal, mixing the band's signature garage rock guitar tones and psychedelic rock sounds with thrash metal and doom metal. The group had experimented with heavy music in previous releases such as Nonagon Infinity, but Infest the Rats' Nest marked a deeper exploration of the style. Beyond thrash metal, it has also been described as a stoner rock album.
Mackenzie cited groups such as Motörhead, Metallica, Slayer, Exodus, Overkill, Sodom, Rammstein and Kreator as influences. On creating Infest the Rats' Nest, he said the band intended to "be more extreme and more intense – just to see how it would take shape". Mackenzie's acquisition of a Gibson Explorer was also said to have inspired the heavier sound, and was used on every song on the album. Heavy metal guitar techniques are used throughout, such as shredding and chugging, in addition to the wah-wah and delay effects more typical of the band's style. As with other releases, unusual time signatures are present. The album makes consistent use of double kick drumming and harsh vocal delivery. "Superbug" has been described as a more downtempo stoner rock or sludge metal song than the rest of the track listing, and has been compared to the work of Sleep or Melvins. "Mars for the Rich" was compared by some reviewers to Black Sabbath, and "Perihelion" has been likened to power metal.
### Lyrics
On the album's lyrical themes, frontman Stu Mackenzie explained that the A-side is about contemporary issues such as ecological disaster and climate change and is set in the near future, and the B-side follows a group of rebels attempting to colonise Venus after being forced to leave Earth. In this "cli-fi" narrative, the group eventually die and enter Hell. Mackenzie said on the lyrics: "We've got a lot of things to fear... I spend a lot of time thinking about the future of humanity and the future of Planet Earth".
"Planet B" opens the album, featuring the refrain "there is no Planet B". "Mars for the Rich" criticises inequality in the context of climate change, with the wealthy exploiting Mars, while the poor survive on a degraded Earth. "Organ Farmer" addresses intensive farming and beef production. "Superbug" discusses a disease outbreak that causes a mass extinction. "Perihelion", "Venusian 1" and "Venusian 2" begins the science fiction narrative, addressing ozone depletion. "Self-Immolate" uses self-immolation as a metaphor for the self-destruction of the human race, with "Hell" closing the album and its narrative.
## Critical reception
Infest the Rats' Nest was well-received by music critics upon its release. On the review aggregator website Metacritic, the album has a score of 77 out of 100 based on 14 reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews". In his review for AllMusic, writer Tim Sendra concluded that "King Gizzard aren't sugarcoating anything, either musically or thematically, and that makes for their most timely and political album yet. It's also one of their most musically compelling and impressive, too, and that's saying a lot." Stuart Berman in Pitchfork commended the album as the band's "most succinct and single-minded statement to date" and its themes and heavy metal performances, but also said that it was "lacking both the unpredictable detours of their biggest rock-outs and the insidious melodies of their more pop-focused work." A three out of five star NME review by Danii Leivers highlighted "Planet B" as a standout and compared it to Master of Puppets-era Metallica, but noted "as the album reaches its mid-section, the material does start to wear thin" and that not all of the tracks were memorable or cohesive.
In PopMatters, Callum Bains described Infest the Rats' Nest as "a brutal, fear-inducing harbinger of our impending existential doom as the band steps on the soapbox to paint the apocalyptic horror of the climate emergency". In Consequence, William Ruben Helms praised the musical performances and dark lyrical themes, and concluded that "while it feels like a minor misstep in comparison to much of their catalog, it finds the band crafting forceful and ferocious, mosh pit-friendly rippers that are politically and socially relevant."
### Accolades
At the ARIA Music Awards of 2019, the album was nominated for ARIA Award for Best Hard Rock or Heavy Metal Album, losing to Northlane for Alien. AllMusic also listed Infest the Rats' Nest as one of the "favorite metal albums" of 2019.
## Track listing
Vinyl releases have tracks 1–4 on Side A, and tracks 5–9 on Side B.
## Personnel
- Stu Mackenzie – lead vocals, guitar (all tracks); bass (tracks 6, 8, 9), recording, mixing
- Cook Craig – guitar (tracks 2, 4, 5, 6, 9), backing vocals (tracks 5–9)
- Joey Walker – bass (tracks 1–5, 7, 8), backing vocals (tracks 3, 5–9), guitar (tracks 6, 9)
- Michael Cavanagh – drums (all tracks); backing vocals (tracks 7–9)
- Ambrose Kenny-Smith – backing vocals (tracks 4–9), harmonica (tracks 2, 6, 9)
- Eric Moore – backing vocals (tracks 8, 9)
Additional personnel
- Michael Badger – recording
- Joe Carra – mastering
## Charts
## See also
- Climate change in popular culture
- Environmentalism in music
- Australian thrash metal |
51,465,470 | 2008 Macau Grand Prix | 1,172,136,058 | 55th running of the Macau Grand Prix | [
"2008 in Chinese motorsport",
"2008 in Formula Three",
"2008 in Macau sport",
"Macau Grand Prix"
]
| The 2008 Macau Grand Prix (formally the 55th Windsor Arch Macau Grand Prix) was a Formula Three (F3) car race held on the streets of Macau on 16 November 2008. Unlike other races, such as the Masters of Formula 3, the 2008 Macau Grand Prix was not part of any F3 championship, but was open to entries from any F3 championship. The event consisted of two races: a ten-lap qualifying race that set the starting grid for the fifteen-lap main race. The 2008 race was the 55th Macau Grand Prix and the 26th for F3 cars.
TOM'S driver Keisuke Kunimoto won the Grand Prix on his debut in Macau, after finishing second in the previous day's Qualification Race won by Signature-Plus driver Edoardo Mortara. Kunimoto led from the start and held on to become the first Japanese driver to win in Macau since Takuma Sato in 2001, and it was TOM'S second consecutive victory in the Grand Prix. Mortara finished second, with Carlin driver Brendon Hartley in third.
## Background and entry list
The Macau Grand Prix is a Formula Three (F3) race considered to be a stepping stone to higher motor racing categories such as Formula One and has been termed the territory's most prestigious international sporting event. The 2008 Macau Grand Prix was the event's 55th running and the 26th time it was held to F3 rules. It took place on the 6.2 km (3.9 mi) 22-turn Guia Circuit on 16 November 2008 with three preceding days of practice and qualifying.
Drivers had to race in a Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile (FIA)-regulated championship meeting in 2008, either in the FIA Formula 3 International Trophy or one of the domestic championships, with the highest-placed drivers earning priority in being invited to the race. Two of the four major F3 series were represented on the 30-car grid by their respective champions. Nico Hülkenberg, the Formula 3 Euro Series champion, miss the race because he was entered in a GP2 Series test session at the Circuit Paul Ricard. Thus, Edoardo Mortara was the highest placed Formula 3 Euro Series competitor in Macau, joined by British champion Jaime Alguersuari and Japanese series winner Carlo van Dam. Laurens Vanthoor was the top performing driver in the German championship, and the Australian Drivers' Championship winner James Winslow accepted an invitation to race in Macau from race organisers. The race featured three drivers from outside of F3: Eurocup Formula Renault 2.0 racer Roberto Merhi, Roberto Streit of Formula Nippon and Formula V6 Asia driver Michael Ho.
## Practice and qualifying
The Sunday race was preceded by two half-hour practice sessions: one on Thursday morning and one on Friday morning. Despite making a minor error on the lap, Mortara was fastest for Signature-Plus at 2 minutes, 14.333 seconds late in the session, seven-tenths of a second faster than anyone else on the circuit. He was followed by Renger van der Zande, Streit, Van Dam, James Jakes, Stefano Coletti, Alguersuari, Merhi and the British duo of Jon Lancaster and Sam Bird. During the session, where the top of the time sheets was shared by multiple drivers, Brendon Hartley missed the second half due to a gearbox problem. Mika Mäki crashed heavily at Fisherman's Bend, requiring red flags before the session's halfway point. Kazuya Oshima and Walter Grubmüller went into the wall separately at Maternity Bend. Mäki was transported to the circuit's medical centre for precautionary checks after complaining of abdominal pains and was advised to rest. Qualifying was split into two 45-minute sessions, one on Thursday afternoon and one on Friday afternoon. Each driver's fastest time from either session counted toward their final starting place in the qualification race. Mortara was fastest in the first qualifying session, held in warm and sunny weather, with a time of 2 minutes, 12.416 seconds, and led throughout. Van Dam in second was three-tenths of a second slower. Streit was second twice but finished third. Hartley recovered from gearbox problems earlier in the day to run strongly for provisional fourth place. Van Der Zande was consistent and took fifth. He was followed by the highest-placed rookie Alguersuari in sixth. Bird was seventh. Jules Bianchi and his teammate Jakes were eighth and tenth, separated by Oliver Turvey. Marcus Ericsson, eleventh, was high as sixth in the session's opening minutes. Following him were Keisuke Kunimoto, Kei Cozzolino, Coletti, the Hitech Racing duo of Max Chilton and Merhi, Winslow, Grubmüller, Oshima and Daniel Campos-Hull, Laurens Vanthoor, Atte Mustonen, Basil Shaaban, Cheng Congfu, Lancaster, Masaki Matsushita, Ho and Nicola de Marco. The only driver to go under the minimum qualification time was Koki Saga. The session was stopped three times. Jakes' car got unsettled on the tarmac entering Fisherman's Bend on a faster lap and hit the outside barriers, littering the track with debris. De Marco struck the Fisherman's Bend barriers and angled across the circuit. Matsushita spun towards the track's centre after hitting the barriers at Police corner with one minute left. Mortara and Vanthoor could not avoid his stranded car and piled into it. For ignoring the red light signal which mandated he enter the weighbridge, the stewards order Matsushita to start last for the qualification race.
Mäki returned to the circuit on the morning of the second 30-minute practice session and was declared fit to compete. He revealed that he had food poisoning which worsened while driving and combated this by sleeping heavily the previous day. The start was delayed by 50 minutes due to multiple crashes in practice for the touring car support races. Mortara concentrated on race setup and set a benchmark time of 2 minutes, 13.054 seconds by slipstreaming another car into Mandarin Bend. Van Dam was 0.117 seconds slower in second and a full second faster than Cozzolino in third. Alguersuari, Turvey, Merhi, Hartley, Ericsson, Van Der Zande ninth and Streit were in positions four to ten. De Marco spun at Fisherman's Bend, stopping practice as he was adjudged to be in a dangerous place. Alguersuari damaged his car's left side and removed his rear wing in an crash against the San Francisco End barriers which halted the session for a second time. The two other incidents during the session were Mäki suffered a puncture and spent most of the session in the pit lane, while Van Dam braked late for Lisboa corner and stopped on the escape road.
Van Dam improved on Mortara's lap from the first qualifying session until Mustonen went off the track at Police corner and the yellow flags flew. Drivers with new tyres had them fitted and adjusted their cars halfway through the second qualifying session. Matsushita then crashed near Police turn, and his car was removed from the track. Mortara then regained provisional pole, until the session was stopped when Bianchi ran wide exiting the Reservoir Bend and hit the tyre barriers at the end of the turn. His left rear wheel flew onto the track's centre. Bird was the first driver all weekend to go under 2 minutes, 11 seconds, before red flags were needed for Cozzolino whose heavy crash at Fisherman's Bend left debris on the track. Van Dam slightly deranged his steering arm at the restart, but used a clear track to beat Bird and take pole position with a 2 minute, 11.846 second lap. This demoted Bird to second having been delayed by a slow-moving Grubmüller. Kunimoto used the slipstream of another car to take third, while the previous day's provisional pole sitter Mortara was fourth. Streit dropped two spots to fifth, while Merhi climbed nine spots to sixth. Van Der Zande in seventh did not slipstream other cars to avoid being delayed in the track's tight section. Turvey was as high as third but was eighth with Alguersuari ninth and Jakes tenth. The rest of the field lined up as Hartley, Coletti (who crashed at Police turn and blocked the track), Chilton, Mäki, Ericsson, Oshimi, Bianchi, Cozzolino, Grubmüller, Cheng, Campos-Hull, Winslow, Lancaster, Shabban, Saga, Mustonen, Vanthoor (who set no lap time as he crashed on his out-lap), Matsushita, Ho and De Marco. Bird was demoted three positions on the grid after qualifying for failing to signal to enter the weighbridge during second practice.
### Qualifying classification
Each of the driver's fastest lap times from the two qualifying sessions are denoted in bold.
Notes:
- – Sam Bird was penalised three places on the grid for failing to obey a signal to enter the weighbridge during the second practice session.
- – Masaki Matsushita was relegated to the back of the grid after ignoring a signal to enter the weighbridge during the first qualifying session.
## Qualifying race
The qualifying race to set the starting order for the main race began on 15 November at Macau Standard Time (UTC+08:00). The weather was dry and sunny at the start of the qualifying race with an air temperature of 23 °C (73 °F) and a track temperature at 37 °C (99 °F). Van Dam made a slow start and Kunimoto passed him for the lead. Van Dam attempted to reclaim the lead from Kunimoto, but ran wide and punctured his left rear tyre due to contact with the barriers through Mandarin corner. Mortara then attempted, but failed, to overtake Kunimoto; the two narrowly avoided a collision. Four more cars overtook Van Dam into Lisboa turn, and he collided with fellow countryman Van Der Zande at San Francisco Bend. Both drivers retired because of the contact. Merhi stalled on the grid and lost several positions. On the second lap, Jakes and Hartley brushed up against each other as they drove towards the Reservoir Bend. Jakes went across Hartley's front and into the wall. Hartley entered the pit lane with suspension damage while Jakes retired.
When Bianchi spun entering the Lisboa turn, a multi-car collision occurred. He set off a chain reaction involving Grubmüller, Chilton, and Merhi's Hitech cars. Bianchi's spin triggered a secondary accident, which began when Shaaban ran into the rear of his teammate Campos-Hull and was spun into Cheng. Mustonen was pushed into the track barriers by both drivers. While Merhi and Grubmüller rejoined, Chilton, Bianchi, Cheng and Mustonen retired. Because several cars were in the opposite direction and beached on the kerbs, the safety car was deployed so that marshals could clear the wreckage. Merhi made a pit stop and Oshima retired. The safety car remained on track for three laps and Kunimoto led at the restart with Mortara in second. Shaaban set the fastest lap earlier in the race but retired after crashing at Reservoir turn. Mortara began to attack Kunimoto in an attempt to take the lead, but Kunimoto resisted. Streit was close behind the two drivers, defending against Turvey, who was distracted by Bird, who was battling Alguersuari.
At the race's halfway point, Ho lost control of his car at Police corner, but this did not cause a traffic jam because only Matsushita was behind him and easily passed him. Mortara slipstreamed Kunimoto's, steered left onto the outside line, and brake later than him for the lead at the start of lap seven. Mortara began to pull away from Kunimoto, while Streit gained on the latter while observing Turvey behind him. Mäki's car was damaged at the Reservoir Bend on the ninth lap, and debris littered the track. Despite a rear puncture and a detached rear wing, he continued driving and went off the track twice. Mortara kept the lead for the rest of the race to win pole position for the Grand Prix itself. He was joined on the grid's front row by Kunimoto and Streit completed the podium. Turvey, Bird, Alguersuari, Coletti, Ericsson, Campos-Hull and Cozzolino, Winslow, Vanthoor, Lancaster, Saga, Grubmüller, Mäki, Merhi, Matushita, De Marco and Hartley were the last of the 20 classified finishers.
### Qualification Race classification
## Warm-up
A 20-minute warm-up session was held on the morning of the main race. Hartley ran faster than in any previous session, topping the time sheets with a new fastest lap of the weekend of 2 minutes, 11.071 seconds. He was six-tenths of a second faster than Van Dam in second. The two were followed by Coletti, Ericsson, Bird, Mortara, Cozzolino, Streit, Alguersuari and Campos-Hull in positions four through ten.
## Main race
The race began on 16 November at 15:30 local time. The weather at the start was dry and sunny with an air temperature of 26 °C (79 °F) and a track temperature of 33 °C (91 °F). When the Grand Prix started, Kunimoto accelerated faster than Mortara off the line and passed him driving towards Lisboa corner. Turvey stalled, causing confusion as drivers swerved to avoid hitting him. Vanthoor yielded six places as his clutch slipped but avoided stalling his engine. Streit defended against Bird and they collided in Mandarin Bend. Streit's car crossed over Bird's and slid into the right-band barriers. Entering the corner, he severely damaged his car before rebounding off the wall and veering left. Soon after, Ericsson went off the track into Lisboa corner and several cars piled up behind him or had to negotiate their way past his stricken vehicle. The safety car was immediately deployed to control the race by picking up Kunimoto. The wreckage was cleared in two laps, and Kunimoto led at the restart, followed by Mortara.. Saga became the race's fourth retirement when he hit the wall at Lisboa corner. Campos-Hull slipstreamed past Alguersuari for third place into Lisboa corner just as Mortara locked his brakes on the bumpy track.
Mortara's brake locking dropped him to fourth behind Campos-Hull and Alguersuari. Meanwhile, Kunimoto began to pull away from every driver. Alguersuari re-passed Campos-Hull for second on the fifth lap, and Mortara passed the latter for third the following lap. As he began gaining on Kunimoto, Alguersuari's chances of winning were diminished when he was deemed to have jumped the start and was told he would incur a drive-through penalty. At the end of lap five, Alguersuari took his penalty, and Mortara began reducing Kunimoto's 2.5-second lead. As the race appeared to be settling down, Matsushita crashed into the wall after leaving the Mandarin Bend, temporarily blocking the track. Winslow drifted off the track at Police turn and hit the wall. Lancaster relinquished sixth place to Hartley, while Mäki moved into the top ten. On lap eight, Merhi spun at Reservoir Bend and severely damaged his car, prompting the safety car's deployment. The incident caught the recovering Van Dam off guard who clipped debris and crashed. Kunimoto's lead had faded, and he was followed by Mortara, Campos-Hull, Cozzolino, and Hartley.
The race restarted on the tenth lap, with Kunimoto leading. Mortara could not keep up with Kunimoto because the latter had more straightline speed. In trying to keep up with Kunimoto, Mortara ran wide at Matsuya corner, bending his right-front suspension from contact with the wall, and Campos-Hull challenged him. Further back, Mäki in sixth was holding off Van Der Zande. Shabban was another retiree after crashing off the track and into the barriers at Lisboa corner. Turvey recovered to move into the top ten, while teammate Hartley remained in fifth to observe any of Mortara's, Campos-Hull, and Cozzolino's mistakes. Despite drifting off the track and returning, Coletti crashed into the barriers at Hospital corner and was the race's final retirement. On the 13th lap, Cozzolino tried to overtake Campos-Hull but struck the rear of the latter's car braking for Lisboa corner and dropped out of the top ten. The crash promoted Hartley to third. Hartley and Turvey traded the fastest lap until Hartley claimed it on the final lap by completing a circuit in 2 minutes, 12.565 seconds.
Turvey passed Grubmüller for seventh on the final lap. Kunimoto won on his debut in Macau, achieving the first win for a Japanese driver in Macau since Takuma Sato won the 2001 race, and it was TOM'S second consecutive Macau Grand Prix victory. Mortara finished second, 1.710 seconds later, and Hartley finished third, climbing 17 places from his starting position. Mäki finished fourth, followed by Van Der Zande in fifth, both having been separated from the lead group throughout the race. Vanthoor finished sixth after starting thirteenth, just ahead of seventh-placed Turvey. The top ten was completed by Grubmüller, Bianchi and Alguersuari. Lancaster finished eleventh, two places ahead of his starting position. Jakes Cheng, Chilton. Cozzolino, Oshima, Campos-Hull, Mustonen, De Marco and Ho were the final classified finishers.
### Main Race classification |
1,952,561 | 181st Street station (IRT Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line) | 1,172,887,120 | New York City Subway station in Manhattan | [
"1906 establishments in New York City",
"IRT Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line stations",
"New York City Subway stations in Manhattan",
"Railway and subway stations on the National Register of Historic Places in Manhattan",
"Railway stations in the United States opened in 1906",
"Washington Heights, Manhattan"
]
| The 181st Street station is a station on the IRT Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line of the New York City Subway. Located at the intersection of St. Nicholas Avenue and 181st Street in Washington Heights, Manhattan, it is served by the 1 train at all times.
Built by the Interborough Rapid Transit Company (IRT), the station opened on May 30, 1906, as part of the first subway, although the line had opened two months earlier and trains were skipping the station. It is one of three stations in the Fort George Mine Tunnel, which carries the Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line under Washington Heights, and is 120 feet (37 m) below ground level. Due to the station's depth, the tunnel was blasted through the hillside; during the station's construction, a 300-ton boulder had killed 10 miners. The station's platforms were lengthened in 1948. The station was closed from December 2020 to November 2021 for elevator replacement.
The 181st Street station contains two side platforms and two tracks. The station was built with tile and mosaic decorations as well as a ceiling vault. The platforms contain exits to 181st Street and Broadway. 181st Street is one of three New York City Subway stations that can be accessed only by elevators; however, the station's four elevators are not compliant with the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 (ADA). The station is listed on the National Register of Historic Places.
## History
### Construction and opening
#### Construction
Planning for a subway line in New York City dates to 1864. However, development of what would become the city's first subway line did not start until 1894, when the New York State Legislature passed the Rapid Transit Act. The subway plans were drawn up by a team of engineers led by William Barclay Parsons, the Rapid Transit Commission's chief engineer. It called for a subway line from New York City Hall in lower Manhattan to the Upper West Side, where two branches would lead north into the Bronx. A plan was formally adopted in 1897, and all legal conflicts concerning the route alignment were resolved near the end of 1899.
The Rapid Transit Construction Company, organized by John B. McDonald and funded by August Belmont Jr., signed the initial Contract 1 with the Rapid Transit Commission in February 1900, under which it would construct the subway and maintain a 50-year operating lease from the opening of the line. In 1901, the firm of Heins & LaFarge was hired to design the underground stations. Belmont incorporated the Interborough Rapid Transit Company (IRT) in April 1902 to operate the subway.
The 181st Street station was constructed as part of the IRT's West Side Line (now the Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line) from 133rd Street to a point 100 feet (30 m) north of 182nd Street. Work on this section was conducted by L. B. McCabe & Brother, who started building the tunnel segment on May 14, 1900. The 168th Street, 181st Street, and 191st Street stations were built as part of the Washington Heights Mine Tunnel (also known as the Fort George Tunnel), which stretches for over 2 miles (3.2 km). The tunnel was dug through the hard rock under Washington Heights, with work proceeding from either end as well as from construction shafts. Construction shafts were excavated at 168th and 181st Streets, and elevators were installed inside these construction shafts after the tunnel was completed. The tunnel was mined in the early morning to minimize disruption. Much of the rock was crushed for concrete, including the concrete floor. The rails and arched roof were laid using travelers that proceeded the length of the tunnel. During construction, on October 24, 1903, a 300-ton boulder weakened by an explosive gave way, killing 10 miners (six instantly) and injuring eight more. The dead miners consisted of nine Italian immigrants (including the foreman) as well as an electrician from Germany.
#### Opening
The original New York City Subway line from City Hall to 145th Street on the West Side Branch opened in 1904, with the line being extended to 157th Street that year. The West Side Branch was extended northward from 157th Street to a temporary terminus at 221st Street, near the Harlem River Ship Canal, on March 12, 1906, with the station at 181st Street not yet open. The 181st Street station opened on May 30, 1906, when express trains began running through to 221st Street. On the following day, new feeder streetcar lines operated by the Interborough Railway Company began running from the Bronx, over the Washington Bridge, and along 181st Street, to the station to provide transfers with the subway at the new station. These routes ran along Aqueduct Avenue, Fordham Road, 189th Street, Southern Boulevard, and 180th Street in the Bronx, connecting the West Bronx with the new subway line.
The opening of the first subway line, and particularly the 181st Street station, in conjunction with the streetcar routes over the Washington Bridge, helped contribute to a development boom in the direct vicinity of the station and the development of Washington Heights. Within five years, five- and six-story apartment buildings occupied most of the area around the station. The opening of the subway transformed the sparsely populated area into a growing neighborhood with apartment buildings and thriving business district along 181st Street.
After the first subway line was completed in 1908, the station was served by West Side local and express trains. Express trains began at South Ferry in Manhattan or Atlantic Avenue in Brooklyn, and ended at 242nd Street in the Bronx. Local trains ran from City Hall to 242nd Street during rush hours, continuing south from City Hall to South Ferry at other times.
Due to the draftiness of the 181st Street and 168th Street stations, many women's petticoats would fly about. In February 1908, engineers at the New York Public Service Commission (PSC) were almost done devising a solution to the problem.
### Service changes and station renovations
#### 1910s to 1930s
The station was originally built with two elevators on the southern end of the uptown platform. In fiscal year 1909, work was done to increase the carrying load of the elevators. On June 25, 1909, the New York City Board of Estimate approved an appropriation of \$160,000 for the installation of four additional elevators on the northern end of the uptown platform. These elevators measured 8.75 by 11.5 feet (2.67 by 3.51 m) each and could carry up to 8,000 pounds (3,628.7 kg). In June 1910, work on the additional elevators was about 50 percent complete and was on track to be completed by March 1, 1911, although some of the elevators were to be placed in service before then. Work to install the elevators was nearly complete in 1911, and the final finishes were installed by January and February 1912. On February 3, 1913, the PSC was informed that the IRT had let a contract to construct an additional elevator at the station, which would be completed in April. The elevator would supplement the four elevators already in service at the station and would make use of the space provided in the elevator shaft for two additional elevators. The PSC had ordered that the IRT install two additional elevators in the station a few months prior. On May 19, 1915, residents of Washington Heights requested that the PSC install additional elevators at the 181st Street and 168th Street stations.
To address overcrowding, in 1909, the PSC proposed lengthening the platforms at stations along the original IRT subway. As part of a modification to the IRT's construction contracts made on January 18, 1910, the company was to lengthen station platforms to accommodate ten-car express and six-car local trains. In addition to \$1.5 million (equivalent to \$ million in ) spent on platform lengthening, \$500,000 (equivalent to \$ million in ) was spent on building additional entrances and exits. It was anticipated that these improvements would increase capacity by 25 percent. The northbound platform at the 181st Street station was extended 176 feet (54 m) to the north; timbering was used to support the arched ceiling during the extension work, thereby allowing it to retain structural integrity. The southbound platform was not lengthened. Six-car local trains began operating in October 1910, and ten-car express trains began running on the West Side Line on January 24, 1911. Subsequently, the station could accommodate six-car local trains, but ten-car trains could not open some of their doors.
In 1918, the Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line opened south of Times Square–42nd Street, and the original line was divided into an "H"-shaped system. The original West Side Line thus became part of the Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line. Local trains were sent to South Ferry, while express trains used the new Clark Street Tunnel to Brooklyn.
On March 10, 1925, members of a committee of the Cheskchamay Democratic Club of the 23rd Assembly District requested that the New York City Board of Transportation (NYCBOT) construct additional elevators at 180th Street and 182nd Street on the west side of St. Nicholas Avenue to reduce congestion at the station's six elevators. Transit Commissioner John O'Ryan said he would look into the issue and said that having the four north elevators run to the northbound platform instead of running only to the mezzanine level as a short-term measure could help address some of the congestion.
#### 1940s to 1990s
The city government took over the IRT's operations on June 12, 1940. Platforms at IRT Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line stations between 103rd Street and 238th Street, including those at 181st Street, were lengthened to 514 feet (157 m) between 1946 and 1948, allowing full ten-car express trains to stop at these stations. A contract for the platform extensions at 181st Street and eight other stations on the line was awarded to Spencer, White & Prentis Inc. in October 1946, with an estimated cost of \$3.891 million. The platform extensions at these stations were opened in stages. On April 6, 1948, the platform extension at 181st Street opened. Simultaneously, the IRT routes were given numbered designations with the introduction of "R-type" rolling stock, which contained rollsigns with numbered designations for each service. The route to 242nd Street became known as the 1. In 1959, all 1 trains became local.
On December 28, 1950, the NYCBOT issued a report concerning the construction of bomb shelters in the subway system. Five deep stations in Washington Heights, including the 181st Street station, were considered to be ideal for being used as bomb-proof shelters. The program was expected to cost \$104 million (equivalent to \$ million in ). These shelters were expected to provide limited protection against conventional bombs while protecting against shock waves and air blast, as well as from the heat and radiation from an atomic bomb. To become suitable as shelters, the stations would require water-supply facilities, first-aid rooms, and additional bathrooms. However, the program, which required federal funding, was never completed.
On July 28, 1959, the New York City Transit Authority (NYCTA) released an invitation to contractors to bid on a project to remove an entrance kiosk at street level and replace it with an underpass under 181st Street to the street's northern building line. Work on the project was to be completed within eight months of the letting of the contract. The old entrance kiosk was demolished with a ceremony in April 1960. City officials claimed it was the highest subway kiosk in Manhattan, at 188 feet (57 m) above sea level. Additionally, in Fiscal Year 1959, two elevators in the station were replaced with automatic ones that could travel at higher speeds. In Fiscal Year 1961, the installation of fluorescent lighting at the station was completed. In 1963, one of the elevators at the station was replaced, while work replacing two more was underway. In June 1964, it was expected that the replacement of another elevator would be completed in September.
The mezzanine to the southern elevators was closed in 1981. The station was closed for the installation of new elevators in the late 1990s and reopened on November 22, 1999, upon the completion of the installation. The entrance at the southeast corner of 181st Street and St. Nicholas Avenue was to remain closed until early 2000.
In April 1988, the NYCTA unveiled plans to speed up service on the Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line through the implementation of a skip-stop service: the 9 train. When skip-stop service started in 1989, it was only implemented north of 137th Street–City College on weekdays, and 181st Street was served by both the 1 and the 9. Skip-stop service ended on May 27, 2005, as a result of a decrease in the number of riders who benefited.
#### 21st century
Several of the elevators in the station are staffed by elevator attendants, who are also employed at four other deep-level stations in Washington Heights. The elevator attendants are intended to reassure passengers, as the elevators are the only entrance to the platforms, and passengers often wait for the elevators with an attendant. The attendants at the five stations are primarily maintenance and cleaning workers who suffered injuries that made it hard for them to continue doing their original jobs. In July 2003, to reduce costs, the Metropolitan Transportation Authority (MTA) announced that as part of its 2004 budget it would eliminate 22 elevator operator positions at the 181st Street station and four others in Washington Heights, leaving one full-time operator per station. The agency had intended to remove all the attendants at these stops, but kept one in each station after many riders protested. In addition, the MTA began operating all elevators at all times; prior to the change, each elevator only operated if it was staffed by an elevator operator. The change took effect on January 20, 2004, and was expected to save \$1.15 million a year.
In November 2007, the MTA proposed savings cuts to help reduce the agency's deficit. As part of the plan, all elevator operators at 181st Street, along with those in four other stations in Washington Heights, would have been cut. MTA employees had joined riders in worrying about an increase in crime as a result of the cuts after an elevator operator at 181st Street on the Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line helped save a stabbed passenger. The move was intended to save \$1.7 million a year. However, on December 7, 2007, the MTA announced that it would not remove the remaining elevator operators at these stations, due to pushback from elected officials and residents from the area. In October 2018, the MTA once again proposed removing the elevator operators at the five stations, but this was reversed after dissent from the Transport Workers' Union. The MTA again suggested reassigning elevator operators to station-cleaner positions in June 2023, prompting local politicians to sue to prevent the operators' reassignments.
The station was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 2005. There was a partial ceiling collapse at the station in 2007. After that collapse, protective scaffolding was erected, and officials devised a master plan for ceiling repairs. However, funds for the ceiling repairs were not approved by the New York State Legislature until August 14, 2009. Two days later, on August 16 at around 10:30 pm, a 25-foot section of the bricks collapsed onto both tracks and platforms. Nobody was injured in the incident. This caused suspension of 1 service between 168th Street and Dyckman Street stations in both directions for eight days with free shuttle buses providing replacement. End-to-end service on the 1 was restored on August 24, and the 181st Street station reopened one week later. An internal MTA audit found that the ceiling had been allowed to decay for a decade prior to the collapse. A \$30 million repair of the 168th and 181st Street stations was to start in early 2012, but was delayed by several months due to scheduling conflicts. The renovation, which started in late 2012, was scheduled to take two and a half years. The project received the 2018 Design Award of Excellence from the Society of American Registered Architects' New York chapter.
This station was closed from December 5, 2020, to November 30, 2021, for elevator repair; this was accelerated from an original date range of March 2021 to February 2022. As part of the reconstruction, the elevators were extended to directly serve the northbound platform. During construction, the frequency of M3 bus service between 191st Street and 168th Street was increased.
## Station layout
The 181st Street station, which has two tracks and two side platforms, is served by the 1 train at all times. The station is between 191st Street to the north and 168th Street to the south. The station is a deep-level station 120 feet (37 m) below the surface. It is one of three in the Fort George Mine Tunnel, along with the 168th Street station to the south and the 191st Street station to the north; the tunnel allows the Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line to travel under the high terrain of Washington Heights. The 181st Street station is one of three stations in the New York City Subway system that can be accessed solely by elevators. The other two, also located on the Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line, are 168th Street, as well as Clark Street on the in Brooklyn. However, this station is not ADA-accessible.
Near the northern end of the station, there are four elevators adjacent to the northbound platform, which lead from the fare control level to one level above the platforms and the northbound platform itself. On the second level, a footbridge connects the side platforms. There is a second footbridge near the center of the station. It leads to a shaft next to the northbound platform, which formerly contained two elevators leading to the fare control area. The footbridge and southern elevator bank were closed in 1981; the shaft is used for ventilation and contains a staircase. There was also a third footbridge in the station.
### Design
Much of the station is contained within a vault that measures 50 feet (15 m) wide. The lowest 6 feet (1.8 m) of the vault walls are wainscoted with rust-colored brick. Atop the brick wainscoting are a belt course made of marble and a multicolored mosaic frieze measuring about 16 inches (410 mm) thick. The tops of the walls contain tan brick. Tile name tablets are placed above the frieze at regular intervals, with white letters on a dark background surrounded by floral designs. Some of these plaques consist of a single mosaic tablet with the words "181st StreetGeorge Washington Bridge" on two lines of text, in reference to the nearby George Washington Bridge. Others contain a primary plaque with the words "181st Street", a secondary plaque with the words "George Washington Bridge" beneath it, and a mosaic flower atop the primary plaque.
The top of the vault ceiling is approximately three stories above the platform level. The center of the vault ceiling has six multicolored terracotta medallions at regular intervals; these formerly held lighting fixtures. The medallions contain foliate rings surrounded by egg-and-dart moldings, followed by guilloche moldings. Similar, smaller rosettes are on the side walls of the vault. The modern lighting fixtures are fluorescent tubes on the vault walls.
The station's platform extensions have ceilings that are 10 to 12 feet (3.0 to 3.7 m) above the platform level. At the portals between the original vault and the much lower ceilings of the platform extensions, there is a wide arch over the tracks flanked by narrow arches over each platform. These transitions are clad with tan brick. The arch over the tracks has a volute with a laurel wreath. The walls of the platform extensions have white ceramic tiles with mosaic friezes as well as plaques with the words "181st StreetGeorge Washington Bridge". The walls are divided every 15 feet (4.6 m) by multicolored tile pilasters that are 16 inches (410 mm) wide. Columns near the platform edge, clad with white tile, support the jack-arched concrete station roof.
The northern elevator mezzanine is the only one that is open to the public, as the southern mezzanine was shuttered in 1981 when that elevator bank closed. The walls of the mezzanine and connecting passageways are clad with white ceramic tiles, while the tops of the walls contain multicolored friezes similar to at platform level. The mezzanine and passageway ceilings are made of concrete. The fare control area contains two retail spaces and is clad with ceramic and glazed tile.
### Exits
There are two exits to this station, one at either eastern corner of St. Nicholas Avenue and 181st Street. The northeast-corner entrance is inside a building and the southeast-corner entrance is on the street. The station serves Yeshiva University and the George Washington Bridge Bus Terminal. |
512,449 | Maroon 5 | 1,173,517,534 | American pop rock band | [
"1994 establishments in California",
"222 Records artists",
"A&M Records artists",
"Adam Levine",
"American pop rock music groups",
"American soul musical groups",
"Funk rock musical groups",
"Grammy Award winners",
"Interscope Records artists",
"MTV Europe Music Award winners",
"Maroon 5",
"Musical groups disestablished in 1999",
"Musical groups established in 1994",
"Musical groups reestablished in 2001",
"Polydor Records artists",
"World Music Awards winners"
]
| Maroon 5 is an American pop rock band from Los Angeles, California. It consists of lead vocalist Adam Levine, rhythm guitarist and keyboardist Jesse Carmichael, lead guitarist James Valentine, drummer Matt Flynn, keyboardist PJ Morton and multi-instrumentalist and bassist Sam Farrar. Original members Levine, Carmichael, bassist Mickey Madden, and drummer Ryan Dusick first came together as Kara's Flowers in 1994, while they were in high school.
After self-releasing their independent album We Like Digging?, the band signed to Reprise Records and released the album The Fourth World in 1997. The album garnered a tepid response, after which the record label dropped the band and the members focused on college. In 2001, the band re-emerged as Maroon 5, pursuing a different direction and adding guitarist Valentine. The band signed with Octone Records, an independent record label with a separate joint venture relationship with J Records and released their debut album Songs About Jane in June 2002. Aided by the hit singles "Harder to Breathe", "This Love" and "She Will Be Loved", the album peaked at number six on the Billboard 200 chart and went quadruple platinum in 2005. In the same year, the band won the Grammy Award for Best New Artist. In 2006, Dusick left the band after suffering from serious wrist and shoulder injuries and was replaced by Matt Flynn.
The band's second album It Won't Be Soon Before Long was released in May 2007. It debuted at number one on the US Billboard 200 chart and the lead single "Makes Me Wonder", became the band's first number-one single on the Billboard Hot 100. In 2010, the band released the third album Hands All Over, to favorable reviews, re-releasing a year later to include the single "Moves like Jagger", which topped the Billboard Hot 100. In 2012, Carmichael left the group and was replaced by musician PJ Morton, as the band released the fourth album Overexposed, with the song "One More Night", topping the Billboard Hot 100 chart for nine consecutive weeks.
In 2014, Carmichael rejoined the band alongside Morton to record the fifth album V (roman numeral pronounced "five"), with the band signed to Interscope Records and Levine's own label 222 Records. Following the release of V, it reached number one on the Billboard 200. In 2016, Maroon 5 recruited their long-time collaborator Sam Farrar, as the band continued for the sixth studio album Red Pill Blues, which was released in November 2017. With the addition of Morton and Farrar, the band's lineup increased to seven members. The successful singles of both albums "Sugar" and "Girls Like You" peaked at numbers two and one on the Hot 100 chart respectively. The band's seventh album Jordi, was released in June 2021. Maroon 5 has sold more than 135 million records, making them one of the world's best-selling music artists. In January 2023, it was announced "Moves like Jagger" is the second most downloaded song of all time.
## History
### 1994–2001: Kara's Flowers and the formation of Maroon 5
Adam Levine was introduced to Ryan Dusick by a mutual friend and guitarist, Adam Salzman. Levine was 15 years old, and Dusick was 16. Three of the five members of the band started playing together at age 12. The four original members of the band met while attending Brentwood School in Los Angeles. While attending Brentwood School, Levine and Jesse Carmichael joined with Mickey Madden and Dusick to form Kara's Flowers, a rock band. The name was taken from a girl that went to their high school that the band had a "collective crush" on. The band independently released an album, We Like Digging?, in September 1995, after a year they formed. The band would play many shows through the next few years, and would also record the followup to their debut. While they were playing a beach party in Malibu, independent producer Tommy Allen heard them play and offered to manage them and record a complete record with his partner, songwriter John DeNicola, who is known for his work on Dirty Dancing (1987) – including "(I've Had) The Time of My Life". Producer Rob Cavallo's management team heard the record Allen and DeNicola produced, which eventually led Cavallo to offer them a deal with Reprise Records, re-recording the album. However, after the release of The Fourth World, during Levine and Madden's senior year of high school in 1997, it had morphed into a band with a style reminiscent of 1960s Britpop. Despite high expectations from the band and record company, the album failed to catch on and their lead single, "Soap Disco", was a failure. According to Levine, the failure of the album was "a huge disappointment" that nearly led them to break up. The album sold around 5,000 copies and the band was dropped after six months.
Between 2000 and 2001, the band would play very few shows, due to the members going to college. Dusick and Madden attended college locally at University of California, Los Angeles, while Levine and Carmichael relocated to the East coast to attend Five Towns College, in Dix Hills, Long Island, New York. While Levine and Carmichael were in New York, they began to take notice of the urban music surrounding them and later let the style influence the songs they wrote.
When the band returned in 2001, they brought those influences with them. Sam Farrar (bassist of the band Phantom Planet) explained that the Aaliyah song "Are You That Somebody?" affected the band and influenced the song "Not Coming Home". Producer Tim Sommer signed them to a demo deal with MCA Records and produced three tracks with them in Los Angeles in the middle of 2001, with Mark Dearnley engineering. Against Sommer's advice, MCA declined to pick up the band, and these tracks were never released. The band put together a demo that was rejected by several labels, before acquired by Octone Records executives James Diener, Ben Berkman and David Boxenbaum. While looking for talent for the Octone label, Berkman was given a bunch of demos by the brother of a former colleague at Columbia Records and the song that caught his attention was "'Sunday Morning'" which he referred to as a "genius song". Berkman was surprised the song was credited to Kara's Flowers, because the band sounded completely different from the one he had heard while at Warner Bros. Records.
Berkman encouraged Diener and Boxenbaum to fly out to Los Angeles to watch a showcase gig at The Viper Room for the four-piece Kara's Flowers. After watching Levine onstage, they were convinced. Berkman believed what the band needed was a "fifth member to play the guitar and free up the singer, so he could be the star I perceived him to be". Octone insisted that the band change its name to break with its pop past. The label began looking for a full-time guitarist to enable Levine to focus on performing as the frontman. James Valentine (from the L.A. band Square) was recruited. On his joining the band, Valentine commented: "I became friends with them and we sort of started jamming together, it was very much like I was cheating on my band, we were having sort of an affair and I eventually quit my other band to join up with them." After hearing Levine play, Valentine noticed his affinity for Phish and the two musicians bonded over the band. After briefly being known as simply "Maroon", the band changed their name to "Maroon 5".
### 2002–2006: Songs About Jane and Dusick's departure
James Valentine attended Berklee College of Music with John Mayer in 1996, where they developed a rapport. In 2002, the two reconnected at a Mayer radio broadcast. After Mayer heard their album, he was so impressed (particularly by "This Love", which became the most successful release off the album) that he invited them to open for him during his early 2003 tour. The first single, "Harder to Breathe", slowly started to pick up airplay which helped sales of the album. By March 2004, the album had reached the Top 20 of the Billboard 200 and "Harder to Breathe" had made the Top 20 on the Billboard Hot 100 singles charts. The album peaked at number six on the Billboard 200 in September 2004, 26 months after its release; this was the longest period between an album's release and its initial Top 10 appearance since SoundScan results were included in the Billboard 200 in 1991. The album went on to sell over 10 million copies worldwide. Mayer invited the band to open for him again in 2004. Over the next three years, the band toured, including visits to seventeen countries. During this time, the band toured with Michelle Branch, Graham Colton, and the Rolling Stones. Other acts the band toured alongside included Gavin DeGraw, Matchbox Twenty, Sugar Ray, Counting Crows, Phantom Planet, the Hives, Dashboard Confessional, Simon Dawes, the Thrills, Thirsty Merc, Marc Broussard, the Donnas, the RedWest, Michael Tolcher, and Guster.
Songs About Jane reached No. 1 on the Australian albums (ARIA), while "Harder to Breathe" made the Top 20 singles charts in the US and UK, and Top 40 in Australia and New Zealand. The album climbed to No. 1 in the UK. The second single, "This Love", reached number five in the US, number three in the UK, and number eight in Australia. The third single, "She Will Be Loved", reached the number five in both the US and the UK, and number-one in Australia. The fourth single, "Sunday Morning", reached the Top 40 in the US, UK, and Australia. Maroon 5 played Live 8, in Philadelphia in 2005. Their set included a cover of Neil Young's "Rockin' in the Free World" and frontman Levine performed with Stevie Wonder. On May 13, 2005, in the band wrapped up the 2005 Honda Civic Tour, which it headlined. On June 9, 2005, the band performed at the American Film Institute's tribute to filmmaker George Lucas. Lucas himself had selected Maroon 5 for the event, as it was his children's favorite band at the time. Over the years of touring with the band their drummer, percussionist and backing vocalist Ryan Dusick had been suffering from the touring life. The strains of non-stop touring aggravated an old sports injury. After several absences from the tour with Ryland Steen and Josh Day taking his place, Dusick left the band in September 2006. Matt Flynn, the former drummer of Gavin DeGraw and The B-52's, joined the band as Dusick's replacement.
### 2007–2008: It Won't Be Soon Before Long
After recording for eight months, Maroon 5's second album It Won't Be Soon Before Long, was released worldwide in May 2007 by A&M Octone Records. Levine described the follow-up to Songs About Jane is "sexier and stronger", gaining inspiration from iconic 80s artists such as Prince, Shabba Ranks, Michael Jackson and Talking Heads. Ann Powers writing for Los Angeles Times said It Won't Be Soon Before Long is "An icy-hot blend of electro-funk and blue-eyed soul that works its cruel streak with the confidence of Daniel Craig's James Bond". Before its release, "Makes Me Wonder" was the No. 1 selling single and video on iTunes. It was also the No. 1 selling album, with more than 50,000 digital pre-sales. After its release, the album broke iTunes sales records its week of release, selling over 101,000 copies. The first single "Makes Me Wonder", was released to radio March 27, 2007. The song debuted at number 84 on the Billboard Hot 100. In the first week of May, the single skyrocketed from a lowly position of No. 64 to No. 1, the biggest jump in Billboard history at the time. "Makes Me Wonder" has also achieved No. 1 on Billboard's Hot Digital Songs, Pop 100, and Hot Dance Club Play charts.
To support the album, the band performed on a ten-date club tour in which visited small venues in Europe and the United States from April to June 2007. The band followed with a concert that streamed live via MSN Music in mid-June. On July 10, it opened for The Police in Miami, and followed with an acoustic performance at the Miami club, Studio A, the next day. The band headlined the It Won't Be Soon Before Long Tour took place in late 2007, where they toured 28 cities in North America. The tour began September 29 touring in 28 cities in North America and concluded November 10, 2007. The Hives, as the tour's special guest, performed on all of the dates while Sara Bareilles, Kevin Michael and Phantom Planet each performed in a portion of the tour. It toured with Dashboard Confessional in their world tour and on March 28, 2008, it began touring with OneRepublic, Brandi Carlile, and Ry Cuming. The band has performed "Makes Me Wonder" on season 6 and "If I Never See Your Face Again" in season 7 of American Idol, which they also appeared on the show's special edition entitled "Idol Gives Back" in the latter season. In May 2008, Maroon 5 released a new duet version of "If I Never See Your Face Again", with Rihanna. It appeared on both the band's re-released second album and Rihanna's re-release of her album Good Girl Gone Bad. The band's song "Goodnight Goodnight", was appeared on The CW's fall 2008 advertisement. Maroon 5 also performed with the song in CSI: NY, where they guest star in the fifth season episode "Page Turner" in October 2008.
### 2009–2012: Hands All Over
Levine stated that he believed the band was reaching its peak and may make one more album before disbanding. He explained, "Eventually I want to focus on being a completely different person because I don't know if I want to do this into my 40s and 50s and beyond, like the Rolling Stones". Levine later dispelled any rumors of the band breaking up, saying: "I love what I do and think that, yes, it might be tiring and complicated at times [but] we don't have any plans on disbanding any time soon".
In January 2009, Maroon 5 performed at the Renaissance Hotel in Washington, D.C. for the "Declare Yourself" event in honor of the inauguration of President Barack Obama. The band recorded a cover version of "The Way You Look Tonight", which appeared on the Frank Sinatra tribute album His Way, Our Way. It was also included on the soundtrack to the 2010 film Valentine's Day.
Maroon 5's third studio album was recorded in mid 2009 in Switzerland, where the band was joined by record producer Robert John "Mutt" Lange. During the band's time on touring along with artists and groups are served as opening acts for the Back to School Tour in November, with Kate Earl and Fitz and the Tantrums and the Palm Trees & Power Lines Tour in 2010, with OneRepublic, Bruno Mars, Kris Allen, Ry Cuming, VV Brown, Owl City and actor Jason Segel, respectively. The band's third album titled Hands All Over, was released on September 21, 2010. It debuted at number two on the Billboard 200. Despite the high placement on the Billboard 200 only 142,000 copies were sold, which was relatively weak compared to their previous album It Won't Be Soon Before Long, which debuted at number one with 429,000 copies. The album received mixed reviews from music critics, though many of them praised it for its production. The first single of the album "Misery", was released on June 22, 2010, and peaking at number 14 on the Billboard Hot 100. In February 2011, Maroon 5 headlined the Super Bowl XLV pre-show with special guest Keith Urban, where the band performing their songs including "Misery" and "Never Gonna Leave This Bed". During a promotion by Coca-Cola in March 2011, the band participated in a special studio session during which, with the help of musician PJ Morton, they only had 24 hours to write a completely original song. After their time was up, the song "Is Anybody Out There" was released on the Coca-Cola website for free download.
On July 12, 2011, the band re-released the album Hands All Over, just to include their summer hit "Moves like Jagger" featuring Christina Aguilera. The song premiered live on The Voice on June 21 and reached the number one position on the Billboard Hot 100 chart in September 2011. Frontman Levine was also featured in the Gym Class Heroes' song "Stereo Hearts" from their album The Papercut Chronicles II, which peaked at number four on the Billboard Hot 100. The band toured with Train for the 2011 Summer Tour from July to September 2011. On September 8, 2011, Jesse Carmichael stated the band was likely to begin recording its next album within the year. On October 1, 2011, the band performed live at the Rock in Rio concert in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Maroon 5 was a last hour addition, chosen to fill the vacant spot left by Jay-Z, after he cancelled his appearance for personal reasons. The band launched a Snapple flavor named "Tea Will Be Loved" in support of Feeding America in September 2011.
In November 2011, Maroon 5 performed "Moves Like Jagger" and "Stereo Hearts" with Travie McCoy on Saturday Night Live on November 5. On November 20, 2011, the band also performed the same songs along with Aguilera and Gym Class Heroes at the 2011 American Music Awards, where the band won their first AMA for Favorite Pop Band/Duo/Group. Later, the band played "Moves Like Jagger" at the 2011 Victoria's Secret Fashion Show. The next year, the band also won the 2012 People's Choice Award for Favorite Band, beating Linkin Park and Coldplay. On February 12, 2012, the group performed at the 54th Grammy Awards, alongside Foster the People and the Beach Boys in a medley of the Beach Boys songs to celebrate their 50th anniversary. Later, Maroon 5 contributed with a song written by Glen Hansard called "Come Away to the Water", featuring Rozzi Crane for The Hunger Games soundtrack album.
### 2012: Carmichael's hiatus and Overexposed
On March 9, 2012, Maroon 5 announced that Jesse Carmichael would take a break from performing with the group for an undetermined amount of time to focus more on his studies of "music and the healing arts" and was replaced by a new keyboardist and background vocalist PJ Morton, who had been touring with them since 2010 and who became a full-time band member, as Morton gained little success as an R&B artist.
As Maroon 5 continued to work on their fourth studio album Overexposed, which was released on June 26, 2012. Levine stated that Overexposed is their "most diverse and poppiest album yet". On April 16, Maroon 5 premiered the first single from the album "Payphone", featuring Wiz Khalifa, on the reality competition show The Voice, in which Levine is one of the coaches. "Payphone" debuted at number three on the Billboard Hot 100 chart, eventually peaking at number two. The album's second single "One More Night" was released on June 19, 2012. The song reached number one on the Hot 100, blocking Psy's monster hit "Gangnam Style" from the top spot on the chart for nine consecutive weeks and tied with Carly Rae Jepsen's hit single "Call Me Maybe" for most weeks in the number one spot on the Billboard Hot 100 chart in 2012.
At the start of their Overexposed Tour in South America, Maroon 5 introduced the newest addition in the band to the audience: their old and close friend Sam Farrar on guitars, occasionally on the bass guitar, percussion, additional keyboards, backing vocals and providing samples and other special effects (using the MPC). Farrar co-wrote and co-produced a few of the band's songs on almost all of their studio albums and also remixed their song "Woman" on Call and Response: The Remix Album, released in 2008 (from the Spider-Man 2 soundtrack). On August 31, 2012 – during a show in Argentina – Farrar filled-in for Mickey Madden on the bass guitar for the very first time – he subsequently filled-in for Madden on the next few shows of the tour. In July 2012, Maroon 5 began to work on the upcoming fifth studio album, after the commercial success of Overexposed and on October 10, 2012, Jesse Carmichael confirmed that he would be returning to the band after they complete their Overexposed Tour and will rejoin in time to record their fifth studio album.
### 2013–2016: V, return of Carmichael and lineup changes
In April 2013, James Valentine said the band was in the studio recording songs for the fifth album: "The stuff we're working on now, it definitely has gone maybe a little darker in its sound, maybe back a little bit more to what we kind of did on Songs About Jane, but at this point, we do have all kinds of different songs and it is early".
The band announced it would headline the 2013 Honda Civic Tour, with special guest Kelly Clarkson. The tour began on August 1, and concluded on October 6, 2013, comprising 33 dates.
In February 2014, Maroon 5 appeared to perform "All My Loving" and "Ticket to Ride" on the CBS show The Night That Changed America: A Grammy Salute to the Beatles, to commemorate the 50th anniversary of The Beatles' arrival in the United States in 1964.
On April 15, 2014, Jesse Carmichael confirmed that his hiatus from the band was complete and he reunited with the band in time to record for the album. With Carmichael's return along with PJ Morton, the band's lineup grew to six members.
In May 2014, Maroon 5 transferred from A&M Octone Records, when they signed with Interscope Records (in partnership with Adam Levine's label 222 Records) and announced their fifth studio album V (pronounced: "five"), which was released on September 2, 2014. The album was also released on a limited-edition ZinePak. The album's first single "Maps", was released on June 16, 2014, and peaked number 6 on the Hot 100 chart. On August 10, the band headlined the Hyundai Card City Break, a rock festival in South Korea. At the 2014 MTV Video Music Awards on August 24, 2014, Maroon 5 appeared to perform for the first time with "Maps" and "One More Night". The second single, "Animals" was released on August 25 and peaked at number 3 on the Hot 100 chart. It was featured on the 2015 Kia Soul EV commercial.
The album reached number one on the US Billboard 200 chart on September 10, 2014. V received mixed reviews from critics. Brad Wete, writing for Billboard, said: "Levine's hummingbird vocals and passionate delivery are as earnest as they were on their 2002 debut Songs About Jane." On September 11, 2014, Maroon 5 performed during the 2014 iTunes Festival at the Roundhouse in London, England. Later, the band performed at the Grammy Awards' Christmas special, entitled A Very Grammy Christmas on December 5, 2014, and at the iHeartRadio Jingle Ball Tour 2014 on December 12, 2014.
"Sugar" was released as the third single from the album on January 13, 2015. A music video was released on January 14, 2015, where the band traveling around Los Angeles and performing at random weddings. The single reached at number 2 on the Billboard Hot 100. Like "Animals", the single was featured on commercials with two 2015 vehicles namely, the Nissan GT-R and the Toyota Corolla Altis. On February 22, 2015, Maroon 5 performed "Lost Stars" at the 87th Academy Awards. The song appeared on the soundtrack of the 2013 film Begin Again (which also stars Levine) and the deluxe edition of the band's album V.
Maroon 5 headlined a worldwide tour entitled Maroon V Tour, in support of the album. Throughout the tour, artists Magic!, Rozzi Crane, Matt McAndrew, Tove Lo, R. City and Phases served as the tour's opening acts. On May 11, 2015, the band announced that they were to release their single "This Summer", on May 15, and also appeared on the re-released deluxe edition of the fifth album. Four days later, Maroon 5 performed the song on the eighth season finale of The Voice.
The band released their first greatest hits album Singles, on September 25, 2015, through 222 and Interscope. It contains 12 singles taken from the first five albums. In 2016, the band also released The Studio Albums, an album collection box set featuring all five albums was available on September 30, 2016.
The same year, Sam Farrar who had been touring and collaborated with Maroon 5, appears in the band's promotional photo, where he became a new official member.
### 2017–2018: Red Pill Blues
In January 2017, Adam Levine revealed that the band was working on their sixth studio album. According to Levine, the album would be R&B-influenced. At the 2017 Teen Choice Awards on August 13, where the band received the Decade Award, Levine announced that the album would be released in November. In October 2017, Maroon 5 revealed their sixth studio album Red Pill Blues, the name inspired by the 1999 science fiction film The Matrix. The album was released on November 3, 2017, and peaked at number two on the Billboard 200.
This album includes four singles: "Don't Wanna Know", "Cold", "What Lovers Do" and "Wait". The re-release of the album to include a remix version of "Girls Like You" featuring Cardi B, which was released in May 2018 and served as the fifth and final single. It peaked at number one at the Billboard Hot 100 spending seven weeks, which became their fourth number one on the chart. It spent 33 weeks in the top 10, tying both with Ed Sheeran's "Shape of You" and Post Malone and Swae Lee's "Sunflower" for the longest top 10 run in the chart's archives at the time.
To support the album, Maroon 5 embarked on the Red Pill Blues Tour, began on May 30, 2018, and concluded on December 31, 2019, along with special guests Julia Michaels, Cxloe and Sigrid. In June 2018, the band collaborated with Hyundai, to record a cover version of Bob Marley and the Wailers' "Three Little Birds", was released as a single on iTunes and featured with three vehicles are appeared on the advertisements for Hyundai Santa Fe and Kona in the 2018 FIFA World Cup and Nexo in the song's official music video both were directed by Joseph Kahn. In August 2018, the group made a guest appearance in the first episode of the YouTube Premium television web series Sugar.
### 2019–present: Madden's leave of absence, Jordi and residency
On February 3, 2019, Maroon 5 headlined the Super Bowl LIII halftime show in Atlanta, Georgia, at Mercedes-Benz Stadium, with American rappers Big Boi and Travis Scott. The band's decision to participate, despite the U.S. national anthem protests by Colin Kaepernick and others, was controversial. The performance drew criticism from audiences and critics.
On September 20, 2019, Maroon 5 released the song "Memories", which peaked at number two on the Billboard Hot 100. The following month, guitarist James Valentine revealed the details about the band working on their new album, stating: "It does foreshadow a new album, which we’re currently in the studio working on. But, yeah, we are working on a new record." In June 2020, it was announced that David Dobkin was directing a documentary film about the band. As of 2021, no word when the film will be released.
On June 27, 2020, bassist Mickey Madden was arrested in Los Angeles due to an allegation of domestic violence. He took a leave of absence from Maroon 5 after his arrest. The Los Angeles District Attorney ultimately declined prosecution; the case was dropped, and no charges were filed. He was replaced by Sam Farrar following his departure from the band.
In July 2020, Maroon 5 announced the single "Nobody's Love", which was released on July 24. On December 16, 2020, Levine revealed their seventh studio album was set for release in 2021. They released their next single, "Beautiful Mistakes" featuring American rapper Megan Thee Stallion, on March 3, 2021. On April 29, 2021, the band announced their seventh studio album, Jordi, would be released on June 11, 2021. The singles "Memories", "Nobody's Love", and "Beautiful Mistakes" all appear on the album. It also received mixed reviews from critics. In September 2021, Maroon 5 headlined on a television tribute special titled Shine a Light: A Tribute to the Families of 9/11, aired on CNN to commemorate the 20th anniversary of the September 11 attacks. In May 2022, Maroon 5 conducted a concert at the pyramids of Giza in Cairo. There, PJ Morton stated that the band's performance in Egypt was better than their 2019 Super Bowl performance. Later, the band headlined their first Las Vegas residency titled, Maroon 5: The Las Vegas Residency at Dolby Live at the Park MGM. The show began from March to August 2023.
In January 2023, it was announced that the band will perform at the first edition of The Town Festival in Brazil, on September 7, 2023. On May 19, Maroon 5 released a single "Middle Ground".
## Musical style and influences
Maroon 5's musical style has generally been regarded as pop, pop rock, funk rock, dance-pop, blue-eyed soul, neo soul, soft rock, and indie rock. Adam Levine has stated: "Everything that's written and performed and put together pretty much comes from us. I just think people would be surprised to know that we're a self-contained unit. We're a band that does their own thing. There's no puppet master." However, in an article about the songwriter and producer Benny Blanco, it is revealed that at least some of the band's songs, such as "Moves like Jagger," are the product of efforts by or collaborations with, professional songwriters and producers. In the same article, Levine says, "It's almost as if [Benny Blanco] has the Midas touch in putting the right people together at the right time to create a musical moment. He's about collaboration. And he's so good at nailing down who does everything best."
Adam Levine cited Britpop band Oasis as "one of the best bands ever" and said "We love Oasis". The band has cited Michael Jackson, The Beatles, The Police, Justin Timberlake, Stevie Wonder, the Bee Gees, Tonic, Prince, Tupac Shakur and Marvin Gaye as influences. Levine has also cited Billy Joel as an influence. Furthermore, guitarist James Valentine said he was influenced by guitarists like Pat Metheny, Bill Frisell and John Scofield, as well as the rock band Queens of the Stone Age. The band's songs tend to be very guitar-heavy, often accompanied by piano or synthesizer. The theme in most of their songs is love, frequently lost love; songs like "This Love", "Makes Me Wonder" and "Misery" have a very cynical tone, often expressing dissatisfaction with a relationship, while their more heartfelt and emotional songs such as "She Will Be Loved" and "Never Gonna Leave This Bed" express a longing for a romantic relationship. "Makes Me Wonder" has a secondary theme, in which Levine expresses his disillusionment and frustration with the state of American politics and the Iraq War.
The band's style changes from album to album. Songs About Jane consists of songs about Levine's ex-girlfriend Jane Herman. On It Won't Be Soon Before Long the songs are less personal and are more electric with more use of synthesizers, creating a retro feel. Hands All Over continues the band's lost love theme, along with songs about infatuation and was re-released in 2011, with the hit single "Moves like Jagger", an electropop song which represents a drastic change in the band's sound, with more of a dance feel to it. "It was one of those songs that was definitely a risk", Levine said. "It's a bold statement. We've never really released a song like that. But it's exciting to do something different, do something new. I'm just glad that everyone likes it." James Valentine called Overexposed "our most 'pop' record ever and we weren't shy about really going for it". They also have experimented with new wave and disco sounds on several albums.
## Controversies
In an interview with Variety in November 2018, the frontman of the band, Adam Levine, when asked if the band is pop, rock or urban, said, "Something unique to this band is that we have always looked to hip-hop, R&B, all rhythmic forms of music, from back when we were writing our first album to now. Rock music is nowhere, really. I don't know where it is. If it's around, no one's invited me to the party. All of the innovation and the incredible things happening in music are in hip-hop". This statement prompted widespread criticism from rock fans and some rock stars. Despite this backlash, the band saw a continued increase in popularity and commercial success in 2018, leading them to become one of the world's best-selling pop bands. The band mostly collaborates with hip hop artists and creates primarily pop music.
On February 27, 2020, the band performed at the Viña del Mar International Song Festival in Chile. The performance, which began 29 minutes late, was listed as "mediocre" by part of the press. Mark Savage of the BBC said that Levine performed the songs with a "lack of energy" and was "out of tune", adding that the disappointment of some fans increased when videos were leaked. The videos showed Levine when he was leaving the stage, angry and saying that "they were deceived", "that was a TV show! ... that was not a concert", and that Viña del Mar is a "shitty city," sparking criticism. Levine later posted on Instagram to apologize for the incident, and the band said they had experienced technical difficulties with the audio feed to Levine's in-ear monitors.
## Band members
Current members
- Adam Levine – lead vocals, rhythm and lead guitar (1994–present)
- Jesse Carmichael – rhythm guitar (1994–2001, 2006–2012, 2014–present), lead guitar (1994–2001), keyboards (2001–2012, 2014–present), backing vocals (1994–2012, 2014–present)
- James Valentine – lead and rhythm guitar (2001–present), backing vocals (2006–present)
- Matt Flynn – drums, percussion (2006–present; touring member 2004–2006)
- PJ Morton – keyboards, backing vocals (2012–present; touring member 2010–2012)
- Sam Farrar – bass (2020–present), programming, samples, percussion, keyboards, guitar, backing vocals (2016–present; touring member 2012–2016)
Former members
- Ryan Dusick – drums, percussion (1994–2006), backing vocals (2001–2006)
- Mickey Madden – bass (1994–2020)
## Discography
Studio albums
- Songs About Jane (2002)
- It Won't Be Soon Before Long (2007)
- Hands All Over (2010)
- Overexposed (2012)
- V (2014)
- Red Pill Blues (2017)
- Jordi (2021)
As Kara's Flowers
- We Like Digging? (1995)
- The Fourth World (1997)
## Awards and nominations
Maroon 5 have been the recipients of three Grammy Awards, three American Music Awards, and three People's Choice Awards, with five Teen Choice Awards, and eight Billboard Music Awards. In 2004 World Music Awards, it won the award for "World's Best New Group".
Hands All Over, the band's third studio album, which was released in September 2010, peaked at number two on the Billboard 200 charts. In 2011, the album was re-released and supported by the single "Moves like Jagger", a song featuring American singer Christina Aguilera. The song became the band's second single to reach number one on the Hot 100 chart; it has sold over 14.4 million copies worldwide, making it one of the best-selling singles worldwide. The band released their fourth studio album, Overexposed, in June 2012. The album peaked at number two on the Billboard 200 chart. The first two singles from the album "Payphone" and "One More Night", were both international hits and peaked at two and one on the Hot 100 chart respectively. "One More Night", managed to beat Psy's "Gangnam Style" by reaching number one on Billboard Hot 100 and stayed tied with Carly Rae Jepsen's hit single "Call Me Maybe" for most weeks at in 2012.
Maroon 5 ranked 15 on Recording Industry Association of America's (RIAA) "Top Artists – Digital Singles" list, with certified sales of 15 million in the United States. In 2013, Maroon 5 became the third most-played artist on Top 40 Mainstream radio, based on Clear Channel owned Mediabase, becoming one of the most successful acts of Interscope Records. On September 10, 2014, their fifth studio album, V, debuted at top of the weekly Billboard 200 chart with 164,000 copies sold within the first week.
In 2013, Maroon 5 ranked as the 94th best artist of all time based on Top 100 Artists of All Time at Billboard Hot 100 55th Anniversary.
In August 2018, the band was ranked 37th and 11th on Billboard's Hot 100 60th Anniversary Greatest of All Time and on Billboard's "The Top 60 Duos/Groups of All Time" respectively.
In January 2020, the band was listed number nine on the Billboard Top Artists of the 2010s chart.
## Tours
Headlining
- Songs About Jane Tour (2003–2005)
- 2005 Honda Civic Tour (2005)
- It Won't Be Soon Before Long Tour (2007–2008)
- Palm Trees & Power Lines Tour (2010)
- Hands All Over Tour (2011–2012)
- Overexposed Tour (2012–2014)
- Maroon V Tour (2015–2018)
- Red Pill Blues Tour (2018–2019)
- 2020 Tour (2020)
- MMXXI Tour (2021)
- World Tour 2022 (2022)
- UK + Europe 2023 (2023)
Co-headlining
- 2008 Summer Tour (2008) (with Counting Crows)
- 2011 Summer Tour (2011) (with Train)
- 2013 Honda Civic Tour (2013) (with Kelly Clarkson)
Promotional
- The Club Tour (2007)
- Back to School Tour (2009)
Residency
- Maroon 5: The Las Vegas Residency (2023)
Opening act
- Jeep World Outside Festival (2002) (with various artists)
- Any Time Now Tour (O.A.R.) (2002)
- More Than You Think You Are Tour
(Matchbox Twenty) (2003)
- John Mayer and the Counting Crows Summer Tour (John Mayer and Counting Crows) (2003)
- Heavier Things Tour (John Mayer) (2004)
- The Baptism Tour (Lenny Kravitz) (2004)
- John Mayer 2004 Summer Tour (2004) (with John Mayer)
- A Bigger Bang Tour (The Rolling Stones) (2005)
- The Police Reunion Tour (The Police) (2007)
- iHeartRadio Jingle Ball Tour 2014 (2014) (with various artists)
## Philanthropy
- Since 2008, Maroon 5 has partnered with environmental non-profit REVERB to green their tours and engage fans to take action for the environment.
- Maroon 5 has been a longtime supporter of Aid Still Required (ASR). After contributing the live version of "She Will Be Loved" to ASR's All Star CD in support of the survivors of the 2004 Southeast Asian tsunami Maroon 5 went on to record a public service announcement for ASR about work that still needed to be done in Haiti. Maroon 5 has participated in various ASR social media campaigns and Levine has donated a meet and greet on the set of The Voice to raise funds for various ASR programs.
- Maroon 5 supports the Bonnie J. Addario Lung Cancer Foundation.
- In 2006, Maroon 5 were awarded an Environmental Media Award, due to donating their 2005 North American tour income to a global environment organization, called "Global Cool".
- In 2011, Maroon 5 (along with PJ Morton, who was the band's touring member at the time) took part in a project named "24 Hour Session" with Coca-Cola. The band wrote and recorded the song "Is Anybody Out There?" in 24 hours. After the project ended, the track was made available on the Coca-Cola website. It was also announced that if the song would be downloaded more than 100,000 times, Coca-Cola would donate to Africa for clean water.
- Following the earthquake and tsunami in Japan in March 2011, Maroon 5 donated proceeds from their concerts in Japan to Japanese Red Cross in May 2011.
- Adam Levine, whose brother is openly gay, is an outspoken supporter of same sex marriage and LGBT rights. In 2011, he made a video on Maroon 5's official YouTube account in support of the It Gets Better Project. In January 2012, he announced that Maroon 5 had changed the location of their post-Grammy Awards show because of the "unnamed Los Angeles restaurant's backing of Proposition 8".
- In August 2013, Maroon 5 teamup with the rum brand Malibu, to host a collaborative competition titled Marooned on Malibu Island, where encouraged fans participate to nominate their city by creating their own virtual Malibu Island. After the contest was closed, the event later took place in a concert at the Roseland Ballroom in Manhattan, New York, on November 16, 2013.
- In 2015, the band had a partnership with Vita Coco, as part for the North American leg of the Maroon V Tour, with every stop through on-site allowing fans to drink coconut water and meet-and-greet with the band.
- On June 25, 2016, Maroon 5 partnered with UNICEF to launch \#Maroon5Day to mark the 14th anniversary of the release of their first album Songs About Jane. Fans were encouraged to donate to the U.S. Fund for UNICEF. It was announced that Maroon 5 will match up to \$25,000 in donations to help children in need. The campaign was nominated at the 2016 Shorty Social Good Awards for Best Influencer & Celebrity Partnership.
- On March 25, 2017, Maroon 5 participated during the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) "Earth Hour" campaign.
- Maroon 5 partnered with Interscope Records and gave a donation for the charities are the Malala Fund in 2018, Big Brothers Big Sisters of America, with the NFL for the Super Bowl LIII halftime show in 2019, and the ACLU in 2020, respectively.
- In October 2020, Maroon 5 featured in the virtual music festival 'Save Our Stages Fest' presented by National Independent Venue Association in partnership with YouTube Music to support indie venues.
## Publications
- Maroon 5 – Midnight Miles: On the Road Through 5 Continents & 17 Countries, MTV Books (July 18, 2006)
- Chloë Govan – Maroon 5: Shooting for the Stars, Omnibus Press (October 14, 2013)
- Ryan Dusick – Harder to Breathe: A Memoir of Making Maroon 5, Losing It All, and Finding Recovery, BenBella Books (November 15, 2022)
## See also
- Maroon 5 videography
- List of artists featured on MTV Unplugged
- List of artists who reached number one on the Australian singles chart
- List of artists who reached number one in Ireland
- List of artists who reached number one on the UK Singles Chart
- List of artists who reached number one in the United States
- List of artists who reached number one on the U.S. Adult Contemporary chart
- List of artists who reached number one on the U.S. Dance Club Songs chart
- List of bands from Los Angeles
- List of blue-eyed soul artists
- List of dance-pop artists
- List of funk rock bands |
196,839 | Blues for the Red Sun | 1,162,293,912 | null | [
"1992 albums",
"Albums produced by Chris Goss",
"Albums recorded at Sound City Studios",
"Kyuss albums"
]
| Blues for the Red Sun is the second studio album by American rock band Kyuss, released in 1992. While the album received mainly favorable reviews, it fared poorly commercially, selling only 39,000 units. It has since become a very influential album within the stoner rock genre. It was the last Kyuss album to feature bassist Nick Oliveri, who was replaced by Scott Reeder shortly after recording had been completed.
## Touring, promotion, and release
In support of the album, Kyuss went on tour with such established groups as Faith No More, White Zombie, and Danzig. In early 1993, the band was chosen by Metallica to be an opening act for nine shows in Australia. After their first show with Metallica, the group was only allowed to use half the P.A. system for the other eight concerts.
The music videos for the songs "Green Machine" and "Thong Song" received moderate rotation on MTV's Headbangers Ball and on MuchMusic in Canada. The album also received airplay on album-oriented radio stations such as KNAC, KISW, WYSP, and KIOZ. The album was released by the independent record label Dali, which was later bought out by Elektra Records. It ended up selling only 39,000 copies.
## Musical style and influence
Blues for the Red Sun incorporates stoner rock and desert rock, and has been compared to such acts as Black Sabbath, Hawkwind, Blue Cheer, and Alice in Chains. Daniel Bukszpan, the author of The Encyclopedia of Heavy Metal, has written that the album has influenced "countless" bands. Many consider Blues for the Red Sun "the template for 21st-century bands that have followed in the pioneering wake of Kyuss". Martin Popoff similarly credits the band with the creation of a "certain core sample" of stoner rock, in part due to an "uncompromising bassquake" that was composed of more than "tar-pitted Sabbath riffs". Exclaim! credited the album for opening "the way for bands like Monster Magnet and a whole host of other desert grunge practitioners". Melissa Auf der Maur has said that she attempted to "knock-off" Blues for the Red Sun for her single "Followed the Waves", to the point that she recruited the band's rhythm section to play on the track and Chris Goss to produce. Other fans of the album include Dave Grohl and Metallica.
Steve Taylor, the author of A to X of Alternative Music, wrote that, in comparison to the music, "lyrics can't really compete", and went on to call the album's lyrics "stoned immaculate phrases". Rolling Stone described the lyrics of "Thong Song" — a song about flip-flops — as "deathless".
Guitarist Josh Homme plugged down-tuned guitars into Marshall amplifiers with Ampeg cabinets for the distortion featured on the album. Wah-wah pedals were also used by Homme on Blues for the Red Sun. Wayne Robins of Newsday described Homme's riffs as "post-Hendrix guitar flurries". Several of the songs on Blues for the Red Sun have slow tempos and groove-laden rhythms. "Green Machine" features a bass guitar solo, and the album features several instrumental tracks. A number of songs on the album also credit lyrics to John Garcia, but have no discernible lyrics or even vocals. It is possible that the only word written by Garcia is the uttered "yeah" at the very end of the album.
## Reception
The album received acclaim from both fans and critics. Steve Taylor considers it the best album Kyuss ever made. AllMusic's Eduardo Rivadavia gave the album four and a half out of five stars and called the album "a major milestone in heavy music". In particular, he praised producer Chris Goss for its "unique heavy/light formula". Debaroh Frost of Entertainment Weekly gave the album a B+. Rolling Stone considered "Green Machine" and "Thong Song" to be the album's highlights and also thought that the production had greatly improved from the band's previous album, Wretch. Kerrang! also gave the album a favorable review. College Music Journal claimed that the album was "raw and unorthodox" and, like Rivadavia, complimented Chris Goss for the production. Q called it "one of the landmark metal albums of the '90s", and rewarded it a perfect five out of five stars. Guitar Player magazine added the song "Green Machine" in their 1995 article titled "50 Heaviest Riffs of All Time".
Spin ranked Blues for the Red Sun 10th on their list of the "10 Best Albums You Didn't Hear in '92". In 2002, Spin put the album in 36th place on their list of the "40 Greatest Metal Albums of All Time". IGN listed the album as an honorable mention on their list of the "Top 25 Metal Albums". Chad Bowar of About.com named the album the 8th best heavy metal album of 1992 and went on to write that Blues for the Red Sun "was a landmark album that influenced a lot of bands". MusicRadar included the album on "The 50 Greatest Heavy Metal Albums of All Time" and ranked it in 48th place. In 2017, Rolling Stone ranked Blues for the Red Sun 41st on their list of "The 100 Greatest Metal Albums of All Time".
## Track listing
Writing credits adapted from the album's liner notes.
## Personnel
Credits adapted from the album's liner notes.
Kyuss
- John Garcia – lead vocals on all tracks except "Mondo Generator", producer
- Josh Homme – guitar, producer
- Nick Oliveri – bass, lead vocals on "Mondo Generator", producer
- Brant Bjork – drums, album concept, producer
Production
- Chris Goss – producer
- Joe Barresi – recording engineer, mixing engineer
- Brian Jenkins – drum tracking engineer
- Jeff Sheehan – assistant engineer
- Mike Bosely – additional mixing
- Howie Weinberg – mastering engineer
Artwork
- Skiles – art director
- Art Industria – design
- Marc Rude – cover illustration
- Big Bear Solar Observatory – cover photography
- Michael Anderson – additional photography |
37,181,193 | Russian monitor Veschun | 1,092,640,796 | Russian Uragan-class monitor | [
"1864 ships",
"Ships built in Belgium",
"Uragan-class monitors"
]
| Veshchun (Russian: Вещун) was an Uragan-class monitor built for the Imperial Russian Navy in Belgium in the mid-1860s. The design was based on the American Passaic-class monitor, but was modified to suit Russian engines, guns and construction techniques. She was one of two ships of the class to be built in Belgium and assembled in Russia. Spending her entire career with the Baltic Fleet, the ship was only active when the Gulf of Finland was not frozen, but very little is known about her service. She was stricken in 1900 from the Navy List, converted into a coal barge in 1903 and renamed Barzha No. 44 then Barzha No. 327. Abandoned by the Soviets in Finland in 1918, the ship was later scrapped by the Finns.
## Description
Veshchun was 201 feet (61.3 m) long overall, with a beam of 46 feet (14.0 m) and a draft of 10.16–10.84 feet (3.1–3.3 m). She displaced 1,500–1,600 long tons (1,500–1,600 t), and her crew numbered eight officers and 88 enlisted men in 1865. They numbered 10 officers and 100 crewmen in 1877.
The ship was fitted with a two-cylinder, horizontal direct-acting steam engine built by the Belgian Cockerill Company. It drove a single propeller using steam that was provided by two rectangular boilers. Specific information on the output of the ship's engine has not survived, but it ranged between 340–500 indicated horsepower (254–373 kW) for all the ships of this class. During Veshchun's sea trials on 21 July 1864, she reached a maximum speed of 6.75 knots (12.50 km/h; 7.77 mph). The ship carried a maximum of 190 long tons (190 t) of coal, which gave her a theoretical endurance of 1,440 nmi (2,670 km; 1,660 mi) at 6 knots (11 km/h; 6.9 mph).
Veshchun was designed to be armed with a pair of 9-inch (229 mm) smoothbore muzzle-loading guns purchased from Krupp of Germany and rifled in Russia, but the rifling project was seriously delayed and the ship was completed with nine-inch smoothbores. These lacked the penetration power necessary to deal with ironclads and they were replaced by license-built 15-inch (380 mm) smoothbore muzzle-loading Rodman guns in 1867–68. The Rodman guns were replaced around 1876 with the originally intended nine-inch rifled guns.
All of the wrought-iron armor that was used in the Uragan-class monitors was in 1-inch (25 mm) plates, just as in the Passaic-class ships. The side of the ship was entirely covered with three to five layers of armor plates, of which the three innermost plates extended 42 inches (1.1 m) below the waterline. This armor was backed by a wooden beam that had a maximum thickness of 36 inches (914 mm). The gun turret and the pilothouse above it was protected by eleven layers of armor. Curved plates six layers thick protected the base of the funnel up to a height of 7 feet (2.1 m) above the deck. Unlike their predecessors, the Uragans were built without deck armor to save weight, but Veshchun's deck was later prepared for the addition of 0.5-inch (12.7 mm) armor plates, although they were never installed.
## Construction and career
Construction of Veshchun began on 9 November 1863 by the Belgian firm of Cockerill for assembly in Saint Petersburg. The ship was laid down on 9 December 1863 and she was launched on 8 May 1864. She entered service on 1865 and cost a total of 1,237,000 rubles, almost double her contract cost of 600,000 rubles. The ship was assigned to the Baltic Fleet upon completion and she, and all of her sister ships except Latnik, made a port visit to Stockholm, Sweden in July–August 1865 while under the command of General Admiral Grand Duke Konstantin Nikolayevich.
Sometime after Veshchun was completed, an armored ring, 5 inches (127 mm) thick and 15 inches (381 mm) tall, was fitted around the base of the turret to prevent splinters from jamming it. Later, an armored, outward-curving bulwark was fitted around the top of the turret to protect any crewmen there. Three sponsons were later added, probably during the 1870s, to the upper portion of the turret. Each sponson, one above the gun ports and one on each side of the turret, mounted a light gun, probably a 1.75-inch (44 mm) Engstrem gun, for defense against torpedo boats. A fourth gun was mounted on a platform aft of the funnel when a hurricane deck was built between the funnel and the turret, also probably during the 1870s.
Little is known about the ship's career other than that she was laid up each winter when the Gulf of Finland froze. Veshchun was reclassified as a coast-defense ironclad on 13 February 1892 and turned over to the Port of Kronstadt for disposal on 6 July 1900, although she was not stricken until 17 August. During 1903, the ship was converted into a coal barge by the removal of her turret, her side armor, and its wooden backing, and by the division of her hull into three holds. She was redesignated as Barzha No. 44 and, in 1914, Barzha No. 327. The ship was abandoned by the Soviets when they were forced to withdraw from Finland in April 1918 according to the terms of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk and was later scrapped by the Finns. |
18,612,552 | Union City High School (New Jersey) | 1,173,152,573 | High School in Hudson County, New Jersey, US | [
"2008 establishments in New Jersey",
"Educational institutions established in 2008",
"Public high schools in Hudson County, New Jersey",
"School buildings completed in 2009",
"Union City, New Jersey"
]
| Union City High School is a four-year comprehensive public high school serving students in ninth through twelfth grades from Union City, in Hudson County, in the U.S. state of New Jersey, operating as part of the Union City Board of Education. The four-story school is located between Kennedy Boulevard and Summit Avenue, from 24th to 26th Street, with additional facilities a block south on Kerrigan Avenue. The school has been accredited by the Middle States Association of Colleges and Schools Commission on Elementary and Secondary Schools through July 2023.
As of the 2021–22 school year, the school had an enrollment of 2,958 students and 181.0 classroom teachers (on an FTE basis), for a student–teacher ratio of 16.3:1. There were 2,108 students (71.3% of enrollment) eligible for free lunch and 281 (9.5% of students) eligible for reduced-cost lunch. Based on 2021-22 data from the New Jersey Department of Education, it was the second-largest high school in the state (behind Passaic County Technical Institute) and one of 29 schools with more than 2,000 students.
The school administratively formed in 2008, with athletic teams combined, but for the first year the students were still at their former buildings. Its current building opened in September 2009, at that time merging the student bodies of the city's prior two high schools, Union Hill High School and Emerson High School, and marking the first high school opened in the city in 90 years. The school, which was built on the site of the former Roosevelt Stadium, cost \$180 million, covers 4.5 acres (1.8 ha) and includes a rooftop football field. The school's colors are navy blue and silver.
## Grade structure
Union City High School holds Freshman through Senior students. The Academy for Enrichment and Advancement (AEA), which is housed one block south on Kerrigan Avenue between 22nd and 23rd Streets, is a special interest academy that is part of the high school. The AEA provides classes for students of grades 9 - 12 who show interest in the fields of science and engineering, and served as an alternative to José Martí Freshman Academy, which most ninth graders attended at the time.
Since its inaugural school year, Union City High School has offered college-level courses to students, and through its partnerships with nearby colleges and universities, increased the number of such courses for the 2010–2011 school year, enabling students to accumulate up to 12 - 15 college credits by graduation that can be transferred to New Jersey public colleges. In addition to Liberal Arts courses, students can take advanced placement biology, chemistry, physics, anatomy & physiology, forensic science, robotics, geometry, algebra 2, and calculus at the AEA. Students preparing for civil engineering and architecture careers can take pre-engineering, computer networking and computer aided design (CAD) at the AEA. The AEA offers a course in Mandarin Chinese added in 2016, making it one of the few high schools in New Jersey to do so. As of 2021, the Advanced Placement participation rate in the school was 13%. The Academy was so successful that the student body outgrew the building. To meet their needs, the city converted José Martí Freshman Academy into José Martí STEM Academy, beginning with the September 2019 semester, which saw 700 students in grades 9 - 12 enter the school the first time. So great was demand that 500 students applied for the 130 spaces available for the following year's freshman class.
## History
The site on which Union City High School sits was acquired by the city in the 1930s, having originally been the location of the Hudson County Consumers Brewery Company, which opened in 1901 and closed in 1928. Through the efforts of Director of Public Affairs Harry J. Thorout and the Federal Works Progress Administration, which awarded the project \$172,472, as part of Franklin D. Roosevelt's New Deal, it was turned into the art deco Roosevelt Stadium, which opened in 1937. Though primarily a football stadium that served as a home to future National Football League greats Lou Cordileone and Frank Winters and College Football Hall of Famer Ed Franco, the stadium also housed events in semi-pro baseball, soccer, track, boxing, as well as numerous special events, such as an exhibition baseball game featuring Babe Ruth and Lou Gehrig. Roosevelt Stadium was also the home to the annual Thanksgiving Turkey Game between rivals Emerson High School and Union Hill High School, the two high schools that previously served the city. The last Turkey Game was hosted by the stadium in 2004. Three subsequent Turkey Games were held at the Midtown Athletic Complex until 2007, after which the two high schools would be converted into middle schools. José Martí Middle School, which is located on Summit Avenue at 18th Street, was converted into José Martí Freshman Academy.
On July 11, 2005, acting New Jersey Governor Richard Codey and Union City Mayor Brian P. Stack, along with other officials, broke ground in preparation for the new complex, budgeted at \$180 million. \$172 million of the funds were provided by the state, with Union City providing the remaining \$8 million, making it one of the most expensive schools in New Jersey. Cliffside Park-based RSC Architects, in partnership with architecture firm HOK New York, designed the 360,000-square-foot (33,000 m<sup>2</sup>) school, which includes 66 classrooms. Piscataway-based Epic Management served as the construction manager for the project. In early March 2006, a large piece of the Hudson Brewery's original brick foundation was found intact, along with the base of a manhole still connected to an original sewer that opened underneath the brewery. The artifacts were removed for historic preservation.
The merger of the two high schools into Union City High took place in July 2008, but due to a delay in the building process, for the subsequent school year classes remained at the predecessor school buildings, now Union City South (Emerson) and Union City North (Union Hill); students retained the same teachers at their respective campuses. The athletic teams however combined in 2008. The Union City High School building opened for students on September 3, 2009, marking the first high school built in Union City in 90 years. The school's inaugural principal was David Wilcomes. A ribbon-cutting ceremony was held on September 25, and attended by Union City Mayor Brian P. Stack, New Jersey Governor Jon Corzine and Senator Bob Menendez. A subsequent opening gala was held September 26, and featured appearances from celebrities such as Harry Carson of the New York Giants and actor and Union Hill High School graduate Bobby Cannavale, and a performance by musician Tito Puente Jr. A performance by Cuban singer Cucu Diamantes was cancelled by the city's Board of Education, causing controversy. The Board cancelled the performance in response to threats of protest by anti-Castro activists over Diamantes' performance in a concert in Havana, Cuba days earlier.
The commencement ceremony for the school's first graduating class was held on June 23, 2010. Delivering the keynote speech to the 600-plus graduates was New Jersey State Associate Supreme Court Justice Roberto A. Rivera-Soto. Subsequent commencement keynotes have been delivered by Judge Esther Salas, and former New Jersey Governor Jim McGreevey.
On October 28, 2011, the city broke ground on the school's \$930,000, state-funded Student Sanctuary, a 16,900-square-foot (1,570 m<sup>2</sup>), triangular landscaped pedestrian plaza in front of the school at the corner of Kennedy Boulevard at 24th Street. On December 18, 2012, the school's 50-year time capsule was filled with items representing the school and then buried on the Sanctuary grounds, with a scheduled opening in 2061. The Sanctuary, which was designed by Becica Associates L.L.C., Borst Landscape and Design, and Environmental Resolutions Inc., was opened with a ribbon-cutting ceremony on May 22, 2013, marking the completion of the school. It features a small amphitheater, a rain garden, a functioning waterfall, a fountain, decorative brick paved walkways, patios, and over 100 different species of all-season shrubs and grasses. The Sanctuary provides e a point of relaxation to students and residents, and has been referred to by students and the press alike as a "tranquil oasis stylishly [that] contrasts with the urban surrounding." In addition to its rural features, which provides research opportunities for the school's environmental sciences classes and its horticultural and environment clubs, the Sanctuary also features technological conveniences such as free Wi-Fi to enable students and staff to use their equipment outside, and in-ground speakers that allow the amphitheater to host performances and other events.
## Faculty and staff
Former athlete Otis Davis, who won two gold medals in track and field events at the 1960 Summer Olympics, works at Union City High School as coach, mentor and verification officer. He is also co-founder and current president of the Tri-States Olympic Alumni Association, mentors student athletes at the school.
In July 2012, English as a Second Language (ESL) teacher Kristine Nazzal was named Hudson County's 2012-13 Teacher of the Year by the New Jersey Department of Education. Nazzal was among 300 teachers who appeared on the September 23, 2012, episode of NBC Nightly News with Brian Williams to discuss issues pertaining to education.
In October 2015, Kimberly Moreno, who teaches anatomy, physiology and other health science courses at the school as part of a partnership with Rutgers University, was one of 40 educators in the United States awarded the prestigious Milken Educator Award. The award, which cannot be applied for, and is given only if the recipient's work has attracted the attention of the Milken Family Foundation's committee, provides public recognition and a \$25,000 USD to early- to mid-career educators who demonstrate excellence in education, and potential for future accomplishments.
## Academic achievements
The school was the 301st-ranked public high school in New Jersey out of 339 schools statewide in New Jersey Monthly magazine's September 2014 cover story on the state's "Top Public High Schools", using a new ranking methodology. The school had been ranked 323rd in the state of 328 schools in 2012. The magazine ranked the two predecessor schools 271st (Emerson) and 285th (Union Hill) out of 322 public high schools statewide, in the magazine's September 2010 cover story on the state's "Top Public High Schools", after being ranked 288th (Emerson) and 233rd (Union Hill) in 2008 out of 316 public high schools statewide.
University of California, Berkeley Professor David L. Kirp, in his 2011 book, Kids First, and his 2013 book, Improbable Scholars, praised Union City's education system for bringing poor, mostly immigrant children (three quarters of whom live in homes where only Spanish is spoken and a quarter of whom are thought to be undocumented and fearful of deportation) into the educational mainstream. Kirp, who spent a year in Union City examining its schools, notes that while in the late 1970s, Union City schools faced the threat of state takeover, as of 2013 they boast achievement scores that approximate the statewide average. Kirp also observes that in 2011, Union City boasted a high school graduation rate of 89.5 percent — roughly 10 percentage points higher than the national average, and that in 2012, 75 percent of Union City graduates enrolled in college, with top students winning scholarships to the Ivy League. Kirp attributes Union City's success to among other things, the positive educational atmosphere of Union City High School generated by educators such as principal John Bennetti. Deborah Short of the Center for Applied Linguistics in Washington DC singled out the school's initiatives, saying that the Union City High School "has created a culture that respects differences and promotes learning. The school expects its students to do well and it gives them lots of support."
A number of Union City High School graduates have gone on to attend Ivy League universities including Harvard, Columbia, Brown, and Princeton.
## Facilities
The 360,000-square-foot (33,000 m<sup>2</sup>) school houses 66 classrooms equipped with Mac computers, automatic lights, SMART Boards and Wi-Fi to enable students to use Laptop computers in their studies.
The arts are served by two art class rooms devoted to painting, sculpture and pottery, sewing machine-equipped rooms for fashion classes, television production facilities, and three music classrooms, each of which is equipped with grand pianos. Dancers have two separate rooms with floor to ceiling mirrors and ballet bars. The school's cafeteria is located on the second floor and is equipped with several walk-in freezers and a half-dozen pizza ovens. The school's restrooms utilize automated no-touch sinks.
The school's "world-class" gym includes bleachers that seat 1,800 people, and a weight room accessible directly from the gym. Elsewhere on the first floor is an aerobics room that houses cardio exercise machines.
A centrally located Media Center is located on the first floor and includes dozens of Mac computers. Although it was initially suggested to name the room after Pulitzer Prize-winning poet and United States Poet Laureate W. S. Merwin, who grew up in Union City, it was eventually named for former New Jersey Governor Jim McGreevey. It is located next to the outdoor Senior Courtyard. An American flag that stands in that courtyard, when raised, overlooks the athletic field. The Media Center is also used for community functions, such as an April 2011 book signing by Professor David L. Kirp.
The school's centerpiece is its 3-acre (1.2 ha) athletic field, called the Eagle's Nest, located on the second-floor roof, an idea that inspired from a field that lies on top of a parking garage on the campus of Georgetown University. The field features skyline views of the Empire State Building and Midtown Manhattan. The architecture of the athletic complex, which cost \$15 million, was designed to resemble the former Roosevelt Stadium, which previously occupied the site. A number of classrooms on the third and fourth floors overlook the field, which rests on two floors of steel and reinforced concrete. The field's bleachers seat 2,100 spectators. The field's on-campus location eliminates not only the students' prior need to walk or be bussed from school to a separate location to play, but the need for the two prior schools to share the field. Although the merger of the former Union Hill Hillers and Emerson Bulldogs had experienced some difficulties a year prior when the students were still housed at separate high schools (called Union City High School's North and South campuses, respectively), the merge had been ameliorated by the move of the unified student body to the single new school. The athletic facility has been singled out as one of the most unusual in the United States. It was included in MaxPreps' 2012 list of "10 more high school football stadiums to see before you die". Due to the athletic field's unique location, it deals with unusual logistical challenges, such as balls that land on the streets surrounding the school; space limitations that place the band close to the visitors' sideline, thus making it sometimes difficult to hear; and games that are interrupted by school fire drills.
The school's 910-seat auditorium also serves as the Union City Performing Arts Center. The Center opened on October 16, 2009 with a celebration that featured an art gallery of over 160 paintings, as well as performances by a number of musicians, poets and dancers. Included in the performances were a guitar solo by Francisco "Pancho" Navarro, who appeared in 2002 Salma Hayek film Frida, a dance performance by Tap Ole Dance Company that was choreographed by Megan Fernandez, who had appeared on the reality television program America's Got Talent, and a poetry reading by Graciela Barreto, who had been named poet laureate of Union City in September. Drama classes are aided with a separate black box theater for small productions, which doubles as a community conference center. Public events used by the auditorium including the 2010 swearing-in ceremony for Union City Mayor Brian P. Stack, and the Union City International Film Festival, the first one of which was held in December 2010. The school's athletic field and auditorium are made available to local residents in order to utilize the school as a community center for the city.
The federally funded, social services nonprofit group, North Hudson Community Action Corporation's (NHCAC) pediatric health center, which is housed in the building, opened in early July 2010, in order to allow the corporation's facilities on 31st Street to expand its women's health and internal medicine capacity. The center was opened in July so that the patient flow could be monitored when students were not in school, in order to determine how to integrate the center's operations with the school's, educate students on managing their health, and allow them to utilize its services in order to decrease health-related absenteeism, once the school session resumed. Union City Superintendent of Schools Stanley Sanger indicated that eventually, health screenings would be provided to all Union City students. NHCAC runs a health screening facility six days a week by two doctors. The facility has a separate entrance/exit from the street, and is closed off to the rest of the school. The 2,286-square-foot (212.4 m<sup>2</sup>) full pediatric facility includes four private examination rooms and an on-site laboratory. It is open to low-income Hudson County families and sees approximately 20-25 patients 18 and under daily, charging sliding scale fees for its services, though NHCAC President and city commissioner Christopher Irizarry expressed hopes to eventually increase that capacity to 50 patients a day. It is the third of NHCAC's ten such facilities in North Hudson, New Jersey to implement electronic health record-keeping, which allows patients to schedule appointments online, see doctors more quickly and facilitate quicker lab results and filling of prescriptions at pharmacies.
The staff's parking garage, built a block south of the school, also serves nearby residents and business.
## Athletics
The Union City High School Soaring Eagles compete in the Hudson County Interscholastic League, which is comprised of public and private high schools in Hudson County and was established following a reorganization of sports leagues in North Jersey by the New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association (NJSIAA). Prior to the 2010 realignment, the school had been assigned to the North Jersey Tri-County Conference for the 2009-10 season. With 2,713 students in grades 10-12, the school was classified by the NJSIAA for the 2019–20 school year as Group IV for most athletic competition purposes, which included schools with an enrollment of 1,060 to 5,049 students in that grade range. The football team competes in the Liberty Red division of the North Jersey Super Football Conference, which includes 112 schools competing in 20 divisions, making it the nation's biggest football-only high school sports league. The school was classified by the NJSIAA as Group V North for football for 2022–2024, which included schools with 1,313 to 5,304 students.
Union City High school fields interscholastic teams in football, wrestling, basketball, soccer, volleyball, bowling, baseball, cross county, swimming, softball, bowling, tennis and track and field.
Union City High School's first head football coach was Joe Rotondi, previously the coach at Union Hill High School, who was appointed to the position when that school merged with Emerson High School for the 2008-09 season. Due to a less successful than anticipated record (5-5 in 2008 and 3-7 in 2009), he was replaced by former James J. Ferris High School coach Wilbur Valdez in early 2010. Since opening, the school developed a rivalry with North Bergen High School, with Union City leading 6-4 through 2017. NJ.com listed the rivalry at number 30 on its 2017 list "Ranking the 31 fiercest rivalries in N.J. HS football". The Eagles went on to play the North I Group V sectional state finals against Montclair High School losing 35-14 in 2017 and losing to Piscataway High School 28-7 in 2018 in the North II Group V finals.
The boys basketball team won the North I Group IV sectional final Group IV vs. Hackensack High School in a 58-54 victory in 2019, coming back from an 18-point deficit to win the program's first title. The Soaring Eagles also won the 2019 Hudson County Tournament vs. Marist High School winning 64-55.
The boys soccer team won the Hudson County Tournament final against Harrison High School winning 4-1 in 2018 as the 13th-seed team in the tourney.
## Notable alumni
- Christopher Bermudez (born 1999), professional soccer player who plays as a midfielder for New Amsterdam FC. |
69,639,137 | Helena Braun | 1,133,845,673 | German soprano (1903–1990) | [
"1903 births",
"1990 deaths",
"20th-century German women opera singers",
"German operatic sopranos",
"Musicians from Düsseldorf"
]
| Helena Braun (20 March 1903 – 2 September 1990) was a German dramatic soprano. She made her stage debut in Mozart's Le nozze di Figaro in 1928 and joined the Vienna State Opera and the Bavarian State Opera in 1939 and 1940, respectively. She became known for Wagnerian roles such as Brünnhilde in Der Ring des Nibelungen and Ortrud in Lohengrin.
Braun performed at the Metropolitan Opera for a brief period in 1949–1950 with her husband, Ferdinand Frantz, as a temporary replacement for Helen Traubel who had laryngitis. She continued singing in Munich in the 1950s with several international guest performances, and retired from opera after Frantz's death in 1959.
## Early life
Helena Braun was born in Düsseldorf on 20 March 1903. She was initially trained as a mezzo-soprano and studied with Heinrich van Helden, a local baritone in Düsseldorf. Her early studies included roles such as the title character of Bizet's Carmen and Azucena from Verdi's Il trovatore. She also trained in Cologne and in Vienna with Hermann Gallos and Hans Duhan.
## Career
Braun's stage debut was in Mozart's Le nozze di Figaro at the Theater Koblenz in 1928. She performed at several smaller theatres over the next decade, joining the Bielefeld Opera in 1930, the Opernhaus Wuppertal in 1932, and the Wiesbaden Opera in 1933. During this time she switched to dramatic soprano roles. In 1939, she performed at the Zoppot Festspiele as Brünnhilde in Wagner's Der Ring des Nibelungen. She was a member of the Vienna State Opera from 1939 to 1949, and of the Bavarian State Opera from 1940 until her retirement in 1959.
She created the title role of Rudolf Wagner-Régeny's Johanna Balk in Vienna on 4 April 1941. The opera was met with a hostile public response for its perceived anti-fascist themes and apparent influence of the German-Jewish composer Kurt Weill, as well as its unconventional musical elements. However, the German musicologist Dieter Härtwig later praised the expressiveness of Braun's performances. That same year she returned to the Zoppot Festspiele as Ortrud in Wagner's Lohengrin. She sang at the 1941 and 1942 Salzburg Festivals as Donna Anna in Mozart's Don Giovanni and as the Countess in Figaro, respectively. In reviews of the 1942 recording, critics later characterized Braun as a "better-than-average" Countess but ranked her performance below those of Elisabeth Schwarzkopf, Lisa Della Casa, and Kiri Te Kanawa.
Braun was married to the German bass-baritone Ferdinand Frantz and accompanied him to New York City "just for the trip" when he sang with the Metropolitan Opera. On 21 December 1949, a week after Frantz's debut at the Met, Braun made her own Met debut when she assumed the role of Brünnhilde in Die Walküre on four hours' notice after Helen Traubel became ill with laryngitis. Astrid Varnay, who was usually Traubel's replacement, was also unavailable. Howard Taubman of The New York Times reported that the audience members, who were initially disappointed by Traubel's absence, were heartened by Braun's performance opposite Frantz, who sang as Wotan. Taubman applauded Braun's confident performance and concluded: "Here was a Brünnhilde who acted and sang as if she belonged in a performance of a great music-drama in a great opera house." The success of her performance earned her a two-month contract with the Met to continue singing as Brünnhilde and other Wagnerian roles.
She continued performing with the Bavarian State Opera in the 1950s. Her guest performances included the Palais Garnier in 1950, the Teatro dell'Opera di Roma in 1952 as Brünnhilde, and the Opéra de Monte-Carlo in 1953 as Ortrud. Other Wagnerian roles in her repertoire were Kundry in Parsifal, Isolde in Tristan und Isolde, and Venus in Tannhäuser. Braun's roles dwindled after 1956 when she was replaced as Brünnhilde by Birgit Nilsson in Munich; Frantz protested the replacement by refusing to sing as Wotan.
## Retirement
Braun retired from the opera after Frantz's death in 1959. She gave a farewell performance as Ortrud in Munich that year. In her later life, she moved several times and lived in Hohenpeißenberg, Wiesbaden, Sulzberg (in Oberallgäu), and Sonthofen. Braun died at her home in Sonthofen on 2 September 1990, at the age of 87.
## Recordings
The Opera Quarterly named Braun among a group of "major singers heard on disc only sporadically". In addition to the full-length opera recordings in the following list, she also recorded selections from Wagner's Götterdämmerung, Der fliegende Holländer, and Parsifal, Gluck's Iphigénie en Aulide, and Borodin's Prince Igor. |
32,528,025 | The Girl Who Waited | 1,139,556,430 | null | [
"2011 British television episodes",
"Eleventh Doctor episodes",
"Television episodes set in hospitals"
]
| "The Girl Who Waited" is the tenth episode of the sixth series of the British science fiction television series Doctor Who, and was first broadcast on BBC One and BBC America on 10 September 2011. It was written by Tom MacRae and was directed by Nick Hurran.
In the episode, the alien time traveller the Doctor (Matt Smith) takes his companions Amy Pond (Karen Gillan) and her husband Rory (Arthur Darvill) to the planet Apalapucia for a holiday, but they find that the planet is on quarantine as the two-hearted natives are susceptible to a deadly plague. Amy accidentally gets separated from the Doctor and Rory but, when they try to rescue her, they arrive 36 years later in her timeline. The older Amy does not trust the Doctor, who is forced to remain on the TARDIS as he also has two hearts, and will not allow the Doctor and Rory to leave and rescue her at the correct point in her timeline.
Gillan played the older version of herself and prosthetics were applied to make her appear older. The episode was filmed on a lower budget, and MacRae decided to make the main sets all white in colour. "The Girl Who Waited" was seen by 7.6 million viewers in the UK and received positive reviews from critics.
## Plot
The Eleventh Doctor takes Amy and Rory on a holiday to the planet Apalapucia, unaware that the planet is suffering from a fatal plague called “Chen 7” that affects beings with two hearts, including the Doctor, and can kill them within a day (in the Doctor's case, it prevents him from regenerating). The population has created "kindness facilities", where those infected by the plague are placed in one of several thousand accelerated time streams, allowing them to live out their lives whilst in communication with their loved ones through a large glass lens in the waiting room. On their arrival, Amy is separated from the Doctor and Rory, and becomes stuck in an accelerated time stream. As the Doctor and Rory discover Amy's location, they are approached by one of the facility's "Handbot" robots. The Handbot explains the plague and, failing to recognise the Doctor or Rory as alien, attempts to administer medicine that is fatal to them. The Doctor uses the glass lens to warn Amy of this, and tells her to wait for him in the facility, promising to rescue her. The Doctor locks onto Amy's time stream.
The Doctor, unable to leave the TARDIS due to the plague, gives Rory the lens, his sonic screwdriver, and a pair of glasses through which the Doctor can see and communicate with Rory. Rory explores the complex, and finds an older and bitter Amy, who has been waiting to be rescued for 36 years while hiding from the Handbots. The Doctor realises they have mistakenly latched onto the wrong time stream, and urges the older Amy to help find her younger self. She refuses, knowing that if the younger Amy is rescued, she will cease to exist. The Doctor warns Rory that, by taking the older Amy aboard the TARDIS, they will forgo any chance of rescuing the younger Amy. The younger Amy convinces the older Amy to change her mind by asking her to consider Rory. The older Amy agrees to help, if the Doctor would take her, too.
The Doctor temporarily brings the two Amys into the same time stream. Rory takes the younger Amy into the TARDIS. Once they are inside, the Doctor slams the door before the older Amy can enter and admits that it is impossible for both Amys to exist in the same time stream. Rory and the older Amy say goodbye at the TARDIS door before the older Amy tells him to move on without her.
### Continuity
The episode title "The Girl Who Waited" is a reference to Amy having waited 12 years (and later 2 more years) for the Doctor to return to her in "The Eleventh Hour". When describing the facilities in the Two Streams Facility, the interface says they have a replica of the amusement park at Disneyland on Clom. The planet Clom was first mentioned in "Love & Monsters" as the home planet of the Abzorbaloff and the twin planet of Raxacoricofallapatorius.
## Production
Tom MacRae, the writer of the episode, had previously written the two-parter "Rise of the Cybermen"/"The Age of Steel" for the second series, which featured the return of the Cybermen. As bringing back the Cybermen had limited plot opportunities and put MacRae in the "second seat" as a writer, he was pleased that he had the opportunity to do whatever he wanted. MacRae was proud of the finished script, calling it his "most accomplished piece of plotting ever". The original title of the episode was "The Visitors' Room". This was changed to "Visiting Hour" and then "Kindness". The episode, contrary to some reports, was never at any point titled "The Green Anchor". "The Girl Who Waited" is a title that has been used to refer to Amy after she waited 12 years for the Doctor to return in "The Eleventh Hour". Executive producer Beth Willis insisted that Amy's speech about how Rory was the most beautiful man she had ever met make it into the final version.
"The Girl Who Waited" is designed as an episode in which the actor playing the Doctor is not required for much of the shooting — these have become known as "Doctor Lite" episodes. Established with the second series episode "Love & Monsters" because of the production schedule, it has become a tradition that continued with episodes such as "Blink" and "Turn Left". MacRae enjoyed exploring Amy and Rory's characters and their past, as the Doctor was "always to a certain extent mythic" which limited what could be explored with his character. In one draft of the script, the scene near the end in which Rory and the two Amys race to the TARDIS did not include Rory in person; he was watching the scene from the lens. It also included a sequence that featured a Handbot's hand being cut and continuing to walk by itself. With "The Girl Who Waited" being a lower-budget episode, MacRae wrote for the sets to be entirely white, and described the sets as "big white boxes". He was pleased with the way it turned out, feeling that the all-white added a "really interesting visual sense to it".
The original idea was to have an older actress play the older Amy, but Karen Gillan volunteered to play the older version of her character with the aid of prosthetics. It was also decided that having Gillan play both characters would be more believable. Gillan developed different body-language, vocal range and attitude for the new individual, whose character has changed after being left behind and in danger. To achieve this, Gillan studied with a voice coach and movement coach. Gillan also wore padding which affected her movement, and stated she spent "hours in make-up".
## Broadcast and reception
"The Girl Who Waited" was first broadcast in the United Kingdom on BBC One on 10 September 2011 and on the same date in the United States on BBC America. Overnight viewing figures showed that it was watched by six million viewers on BBC One, which was an improvement of 0.5 million from the previous episode. The episode was also at the number one spot on BBC's iPlayer, as reported the day after it aired. The episode later topped the iPlayer chart for September. Final consolidated ratings showed a time-shift increase of 1.6 million, bringing the total up to 7.6 million viewers, up 530,000 viewers on the previous episode, "Night Terrors". The episode received an Appreciation Index of 85, placing it in the "excellent" category.
### Critical reception
The episode has received critical acclaim. Dan Martin of The Guardian said that it contained "the series' most tearjerking suckerpunch so far" and the "psychedelic premise [gave] the characters the chance to shine". He praised Karen Gillan's difference in performance as the old Amy and her improvement in performance since the previous series. Martin later called it a "damn near perfect episode", rating it the best episode of the series, though the finale was not included in the list. Gavin Fuller of The Daily Telegraph gave the episode four out of five stars, praising MacRae's ability to overcome budget issues and deliver "quite a powerful and moving drama, with an ending that although inevitable still delivered a well of sadness". He thought the older Amy's "technical wizardry seemed a tad unlikely" (she manages to scrounge up a sonic screwdriver while waiting for the Doctor) but "the power of Gillan's performance skated over any minor quibbles".
In a review for The Independent, Neela Debnath said that "critics of the constant tampering with time will not like this episode" but "it is a cracker in terms of time paradoxes and the hypothetical moral dilemmas caused by said paradoxes". She praised the character development of Rory and the dynamic between the trio that had not been seen with previous characters in the show, as well as "some great moments of comedy". She also called it a "sumptuous visual delight" in the sets of the garden and the centre. IGN's Matt Risley rated the episode 8.5 out of 10, praising MacRae for straying away from a complicated time travel narrative and instead give "a simple yet refreshingly new examination of Amy Pond". He also praised Karen Gillan's climactic performance and director Nick Hurran. However, he criticised the "iffy time travel rules" and "talkiness" that ensured a slower pace. SFX magazine reviewer Nick Setchfield awarded "The Girl Who Waited" five out of five stars, praising Hurran as well as the performance of the three leads. Patrick Mulkern of Radio Times praised MacRae's dialogue because "it works so beautifully and is delivered to perfection by Karen Gillan and Arthur Darvill". He also commented on Gillan's make-up job for the older Amy, which "is brilliant in its subtlety" but wished her hair could have been "chopped or grey".
Christopher Bahn of The A.V. Club was less positive about the episode, grading it as a B−. He praised the early scene where Amy was abandoned for the "zingy dialogue" but found himself "enjoying the cleverness of the explanation without really buying into it". He expressed confusion at how the time-shift worked and thought the problem was too thin to carry out the whole episode, and that Amy's abandonment and love for Rory which was left "[didn't] pull it off". He thought that the two Amys seen in the mini episodes "Space" and "Time" were more fun to watch and the episode did not reveal anything new about Amy and Rory. However, he praised how the decision the Doctor had to make was portrayed.
The episode was nominated for the 2012 Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation (Short Form), though it lost to Neil Gaiman's episode "The Doctor's Wife". |
427,158 | Pilotwings (video game) | 1,140,742,153 | 1990 video game | [
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| is an amateur flight simulator video game developed and published by Nintendo for the Super Nintendo Entertainment System. The game was originally released in Japan in December 1990, shortly after the launch of the Super Famicom in the country. It was also released as a launch title for the SNES in August 1991 in North America, with a European release following in 1992.
In Pilotwings, the player attempts to earn pilot licenses through lessons in light plane flight, hang gliding, skydiving, and the use of a rocket belt. Bonus stages and levels involving an attack helicopter are also available. Each event offers unique controls and gameplay mechanics. To increase the realism of the game's flight simulation, the developers extensively utilized the SNES's Mode 7 capability, which mimics 3D graphics by rotating and scaling flat objects.
The game was well-received upon its release, largely thanks to its graphical presentation. The game has since been re-released for the Wii and Wii U Virtual Console and Nintendo Switch Online in PAL regions, North America, and Japan, as well as New Nintendo 3DS in North America. A sequel, Pilotwings 64, was released for the Nintendo 64 in 1996. After many years of announcements and cancellations, Nintendo released a second sequel, Pilotwings Resort, in 2011 for the Nintendo 3DS.
## Gameplay
Pilotwings takes place in a series of training areas called the "Flight Club". The player's objective is to pass each training area and earn licenses based on the difficulty of the courses. Each area features events, which may be played in any order. In these events, the player controls one of four aerial vehicles and must complete a task (usually flying through floating markers) within a time limit. Upon completing or failing an objective, the player earns points and receives comments from the instructors. Points are awarded based on criteria such as the time taken to complete the event, the accuracy of the landing, and the completion of certain tasks, such as flying through colored rings or orbs. To pass a training area, the combined scores from each event must exceed a certain threshold. Each training area can be replayed if necessary, and passwords allow players to save their progress.
The first event, the light plane, requires the player to follow a guide path of orbs, or to fly through rings of orbs, and then land on the runway. In the second event, skydiving, the player jumps from a helicopter at a high altitude and maneuvers by leaning forward and back, and by rotating on a horizontal axis. The player must fall through rings of orbs in the sky before deploying the parachute, and must then attempt to land in a target area made up of concentric circles, with marks indicating the points awarded. The third event sees the player taking control of a rocket belt, which can be controlled with left and right yaw rotation, leaning forward and back to control speed. High and low levels of thrust allow high speed and finer control, respectively. The player must take off and fly through a series of rings, bars, or other objects before landing in a target area. The objective of the fourth event, hang gliding, is to catch thermal currents (represented by ascending white dots), reach a specified altitude, and then land as close as possible to the center of a gray square target.
Some events have bonus stages that add to a player's score, even if it has already reached the maximum number. In the skydiving, rocket belt, and hang glider modes, landing on moving platforms rewards players with a perfect score, and a bonus stage for extra points may be earned by falling into the water of a target area. These stages include maneuvering a diving penguin into a pool, bouncing a winged man across a series of trampolines, and flying another winged man as far as possible.
After completing the certification courses of all four instructors, the player is informed that an agent has infiltrated an enemy base ("EVIL Syndicate") on the fictional Izanu Island and has freed the player's kidnapped instructors, who are waiting to be rescued. The player's mission is to fly an attack helicopter from an offshore aircraft carrier and retrieve the captives by landing on a helipad on the island. This rescue mission stands out from the normal courses in that the player does more than maneuver a craft. As the player flies over the island, they must successfully dodge anti-aircraft fire from ground-based turrets, and, although the helicopter is able to fire missiles to destroy the artillery, a single hit to the craft causes the game to end. The helicopter has forward, backward, left, and right pitch controls, rotor throttle controls for altitude, and left and right missile firing controls. Completing the mission earns the player the "Pilot's Wings" certificate and opens more difficult training areas (consisting of several weather conditions and higher score requirements) and another helicopter mission. Clearing the second helicopter mission awards the player with the golden "Pilot's Wings," and the credits roll.
## Development
Pilotwings was developed by Nintendo Entertainment Analysis and Development (EAD), a team consisting of members of the company's Research & Development divisions, under the leadership of producer Shigeru Miyamoto. Nintendo EAD completed Pilotwings and two other games (Super Mario World and F-Zero) within 15 months of the debut of the Super Nintendo Entertainment System. Pilotwings was released in Japan on December 21, 1990, one month after the system's launch, and was later released in North America in August 1991 as a launch title. The game's musical score was composed by Soyo Oka, while her superior Koji Kondo was responsible for the sound programming and the helicopter theme. Six tracks from the game, including a rearranged version of the skydiving theme, appeared on the Nintendo Super Famicom Game Music album, released in Japan on March 4, 1992. Six piano-arranged versions of songs from the game were included on the Nintendo Super Famicom Game Music: Fun Together with Beyer CD, which was released in Japan on November 30, 1993.
A flight simulator game resembling Pilotwings called Dragonfly was shown during the official unveiling of the SNES to the Japanese press on November 21, 1988. The game was used to demonstrate the system's Mode 7 graphics system, which allows rotation, scaling, and other effects to be used on flat images to create a 3D effect. Because the game does not use the coprocessor chip Super FX, the true Super NES 3D technology, the buildings, runway, trees, and so on are all "painted" flat on the ground plane, and they appear to stick out of the ground when the player's viewpoint is far above.
## Reception and legacy
Pilotwings was positively received during both its initial release and in retrospective reviews. The game drew praise for its presentation, with publications describing the game's use of Mode 7 graphics as "stunning" and "jaw-dropping". Pilotwings was generally seen as a showpiece title for the Super NES, demonstrating its Mode 7 features, built-in sprite scaling, and high-end sound chip in a conspicuous manner. Its level of challenge was also positively noted; Mean Machines found that practicing the flight tests and reaching the end of the game was very rewarding. Official Nintendo Magazine remarked in 2009, "This early SNES title is still enjoyable enough to be considered a true classic."
In February 2006, Pilotwings was listed as the 153rd best game on a Nintendo console by Nintendo Power. They also listed it as the 20th best game on the Super NES. IGN listed it in their "Top 100 Games of All Time" at number 74 in 2003, and at number 91 in 2007. They later placed it as the 80th best Super NES game. It was named the 16th best game on the Super NES by GameDaily in 2008, while Game Informer listed it at number 131 in its "Top 200 Games of All Time" in 2009. Official Nintendo Magazine ranked the game number 61 on its February 2009 "100 Best Nintendo Games" list. In April 1996, Super Play listed it as the tenth greatest game for the Super NES. In 2018, Complex rated the game 77th on their "The Best Super Nintendo Games of All Time". In 1995, Total! placed the game 20th on their Top 100 SNES Games. In 1996, GamesMaster listed Pilotwings 30th in its "Top 100 Games of All Time."
Pilotwings sold over two million copies worldwide by 1996. A sequel, Pilotwings 64, was released for the Nintendo 64 in 1996 as a launch title for its respective system. A second sequel for the Nintendo 64, which showed off the console's capabilities, was cancelled. In 2003, it was announced that Factor 5 was working on a GameCube incarnation of the Pilotwings series. Development was moved to Nintendo's Wii console shortly thereafter. However, an anonymous blogger claimed in late 2009 that Factor 5 had indeed finished working on it, but that Nintendo was not confident in publishing it. Nintendo finally announced a new title in the series, the Nintendo 3DS title Pilotwings Resort, at E3 2010. The new title was released as a launch title for the 3DS in North America on March 27, 2011.
The game has been featured in the Game On historical exhibition organized by the Barbican Centre, including a display at the Science Museum in London in 2007. Nintendo re-released Pilotwings on the Wii Virtual Console service in PAL regions and North America in 2009 and in Japan in 2010, and then on the Wii U Virtual Console in 2013. On September 5, 2019, the game became available on the Nintendo Switch Online service for the Nintendo Switch.
A stage based on Pilotwings makes an appearance in Super Smash Bros. for Wii U and Super Smash Bros. Ultimate. The stage combines elements from the original Super NES game and Pilotwings Resort. |
8,964,814 | Tupungatito | 1,170,439,340 | Volcano in Chile | [
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| Volcán Tupungatito is the northernmost historically active stratovolcano of the southern Andes. Part of the Chilean Andes' volcanic segment, it is the northernmost member of the Southern Volcanic Zone (SVZ), which is one of several distinct volcanic belts in the Andes. Over 70 Pleistocene or Holocene age volcanoes make up this volcanic belt, which on average has one eruption per year.
Tupungatito lies in proximity to the border between Argentina and Chile, 50 miles east of the Chilean capital Santiago. It is a group of volcanic craters and a pyroclastic cone associated with a 5 kilometres (3.1 mi) wide caldera, and lies just southwest of the Tupungato volcano. The caldera is filled with ice, and glaciers on the volcano are important sources of water for the Rio Maipo river and Santiago.
Volcanism is caused by the subduction of the Nazca Plate underneath the South America Plate. Tupungatito formed less than 100,000 years ago and has had a number of historical eruptions, the latest in 1987, which were mostly small explosive eruptions. Presently, the volcano features an acidic crater lake and numerous fumaroles. Renewed eruptions could induce volcanic ash falls in Argentina and dangerous mudflows in Chile.
## Name and history
The name Tupungatito was assigned to the volcano by Luis Risopatrón [es], the chair of the Chilean boundary commission, in 1897. It refers to the neighbouring Tupungato volcano; Luis Risopatrón also reported that Tupungatito was an active volcano. The volcano is also known as Volcan Bravard, a name proposed by Argentina but which fell into disuse; it references the French paleontologist Auguste Bravard.
There was speculation about the existence of a volcano in the Andes near Santiago already during the Colonial Era, but only by 1890 was there a clear identification and even then it was frequently assumed that Tupungato instead was the only active edifice. The first ascent of the volcano probably took place in 1907, by K. Griebel, H. Gwinner, L. Hanisch, K. Heitmann and J. Philippi.
## Geography and geomorphology
Tupungatito is located in the Chilean Andes, 80 kilometres (50 mi) east from Santiago de Chile. Politically, it is part of the San Jose de Maipo municipality in the Metropolitan Region where about 40% of all Chileans live. 6,550 metres (21,490 ft) high, Tupungato volcano rises 7 kilometres (4.3 mi) northeast of Tupungatito. Tourism, mountaineering and hiking are the principal economic activities in the area; in addition, there are mines and hydropower plants in the valleys.
The volcano features a 5 kilometres (3.1 mi) wide caldera with an erupted volume of 5 cubic kilometres (1.2 cu mi) and one or two openings to the western flank, and a group of ten craters north of the caldera. Four of these craters overlap and one is located on top of a 4 kilometres (2.5 mi) wide pyroclastic cone northwest of the remaining craters. Three crater lakes are hosted within these craters; one has a turquoise colour and highly acidic water. The total volume of the volcano is estimated to be 30 cubic kilometres (7.2 cu mi), and its flows are fresh and uneroded.
`The caldera may either be of volcanic origin or the product of a giant landslide. In the past, lava flows have exited the caldera through the northwestern opening.`
### Glaciers and hydrology
Above 5,400 metres (17,700 ft) elevation, the volcano is covered with ice. On Tupungatito ice covers an area of about 7.3 square kilometres (2.8 sq mi), which is part of a larger ice cover on regional volcanoes. The caldera contains the Tupungatito glacier, with a volume of about 1 cubic kilometre (0.24 cu mi) it is the most important glacier of the Metropolitana Region. The cold ice lacks internal water pockets and reaches a maximum thickness of 309 metres (1,014 ft). Outlet glaciers of glaciers in the region are typically covered with debris. In 2012, an ice core was drawn from the Tupungatito glacier.
The ice and snow cover on Tupungatito is an important source of water for the rivers in the region and Santiago. Meltwater is discharged westwards into the Colorado-Maipo river system that eventually flows through Santiago; the Quebrada Seca, Estero de Tupungatito and Estero de Tupungato originate close to the volcano and are tributaries to the Colorado. Some glaciers drain instead eastward into the Rio Tupungato river, which as a tributary of the Rio Mendoza is an important water source for the inhabitants of Mendoza in Argentina and the surrounding agricultural areas. Arsenic pollution in the Maipo river system may originate from springs associated the volcanoes Tupungatito and San Jose.
## Geology
### Regional
Off the coast of South America, the Nazca Plate subducts beneath the South America Plate at a rate of 7–9 centimetres per year (2.8–3.5 in/year). Volcanism in the Andes occurs in four separate volcanic belts, the Northern Volcanic Zone, the Central Volcanic Zone, the Southern Volcanic Zone (SVZ) and the Austral Volcanic Zone.
The SVZ is a 1,400 kilometres (870 mi) long and, depending on latitude, up to 200 kilometres (120 mi) wide chain of Quaternary volcanoes, subdivided according to two schemes in two or three sectors. It features over 70 Pleistocene or Holocene stratovolcanoes, as well as calderas, maars and scoria cones. About 30-40 were active postglacially and 18-20 in historical times; the SVZ is the most active volcanic zone in Chile with about one eruption per year. Tupungatito is part of the northernmost SVZ, a narrow and short chain which includes Diamante caldera/ Volcan Maipo and San Jose volcano, and is the northernmost active volcano of the SVZ. Tupungato-Tupungatito, San Jose-Marmolejo and Maipo are the highest volcanoes of the SVZ.
### Local
The volcano lies on a c. 50 kilometres (31 mi) thick crust, which together with the tectonic regime has influenced the composition of ascending magma. The basement underneath Tupungatito consists of evaporites and marine limestones of Cretaceous age. Cretaceous conglomerates, sandstones and volcaniclastic rocks, as well as Miocene sediments. The Mesozoic rocks have been deformed during regional tectonic activity and there are numerous reverse faults in the area. Southwest-northeast and north-south trending faults and fractures influence volcanic activity at Tupungatito; the SW-NE trending lineament also includes Tupungato.
The volcano forms a volcanic group with Tupungato and another peak, 6,000 metres (20,000 ft) high Nevado Sin Nombre. Tupungato and Nevado Sin Nombre formed during the late and early Pleistocene, respectively, and are presently inactive. The caldera is to a large degree formed by rocks from Nevado Sin Nombre. 6,019 metres (19,747 ft) high Nevado de los Piuquenes is a fourth volcano in this group and overlaps with Nevado Sin Nombre. Below 4,700 metres (15,400 ft) elevation, Tupungatito is underlaid by an eroded volcano whose rocks resemble Tupungato.
### Composition
Tupungatito has erupted rocks ranging from basaltic andesite to dacite, which define a potassium-rich calc-alkaline suite. There has been little compositional variation during its history. Phenocrysts include clinopyroxene and plagioclase and less commonly olivine and orthopyroxene. Amphibole and biotite occur as xenocrysts. Magma genesis at Tupungatito and other volcanoes in the region appears to involve a small amount of fluids but large amounts of sediments carried down by the slab, with a moderate interaction with the crust. Processes involved are fractional crystallization, low degrees of partial melting and short periods of storage in magma chambers.
## Climate
The mean annual temperature on Tupungatito is about −15.5 °C (4.1 °F) and annual snow accumulation is about 0.5 metres (1 ft 8 in) snow water equivalent. During the winter, the area above 2,500–2,700 metres (8,200–8,900 ft) elevation is covered with up to 4 metres (13 ft) of snow. Most precipitation occurs between May and September, when the north-south movement of the South Pacific High and the Westerlies lets frontal systems reach the area.
Glaciers have alternatively advanced and retreated during the 20th century. There is some uncertainty as sometimes snow cover is confused for glacial ice. As of 2016 ice covers an area of 112.84 ± 3.66 square kilometres (43.57 ± 1.41 sq mi), down from 119.89 ± 8.36 square kilometres (46.29 ± 3.23 sq mi) in 1986; this encompasses the ice cover of Tupungatito and other volcanoes in the area. Volcanic eruptions have not significantly altered the ice extent.
## Eruption history
Tupungatito is about 55,000 or less than 80,000 years old. Early activity was effusive, producing lava flows up to 18 kilometres (11 mi) long as well as debris flows, lahars, and pyroclastic flows which invaded the Rio Colorado valley. Two sequences of volcanic rocks crop out in the valley and its tributaries, both with thicknesses of about 30 metres (98 ft). They have been dated to 52,000±23,000 and 31,000±10,000 years ago, respectively. About 30,000 years ago, a change to a more effusive style of volcanic activity took place with shorter lava flows, although with shorter lava flows. Numerous debris avalanches took place on Tupungatito and left deposits in the western valleys. Tupungatito may be the source of late Pleistocene rhyolite deposits around the city of Mendoza and Pleistocene tephra overlying glacial deposits in the Rio Mendoza valley.
Holocene activity added an explosive component with Vulcanian and phreatomagmatic eruptions, which deposited pyroclastic materials around the volcano. Short lava flows with lengths of on average 7 kilometres (4.3 mi) were also produced and display flow structures such as levees and lobes. Some of the flows are covered with sediments. The decline of the ice cover during the Holocene and an increased distance between glaciers and volcanic vents may have been responsible for this change in eruption style.
### Historical activity
Records of activity at Tupungatito go back to 1646 but its eruption record is poorly known, owing to its inaccessible location. Sometimes, eruptions at Tupungatito were incorrectly attributed to Tupungato. With over 19 eruptions between 1829 and 1987, Tupungatito is one of the SVZ's most active volcanoes. The historical eruptions took place in the craters north of the caldera, and involved in total eight craters. The intensity of the eruptions did not exceed a Volcanic Explosivity Index of 2. Many eruptions appear to be linked to tectonic events in Central Chile.
In 1835, Charles Darwin in his diary mentioned a muleteer telling him that he had seen smoke coming from close to Tupungato although he crossed the Andes close to Portillo de los Piuquenes rather than the Alto Colorado; this is almost certainly a reference to Tupungatito. In 1962 the volcano was reportedly smoking.
Eruptions at Tupungatito frequently deposited volcanic ash in Mendoza. In 1958-1961 the volcano produced a 2 kilometres (1.2 mi) long lava flow in Chile and ash fall in San Martin, Argentina, 130 kilometres (81 mi) away. There is also evidence of ionospheric impacts from this eruption. The 1961 and 1964 eruptions formed one crater each, with the 1964 crater located directly south of the 1961 one. A third crater was the site of the three last eruptions in 1980, 1986 and 1987. The 1986 eruption deposited a thin ash layer over glaciers in the area. The last activity took place in 1987.
### Present-day status and threats
The volcano is fumarolically active in four craters, the fumaroles mainly emit steam at temperatures of 81–84 °C (178–183 °F). Gas bubbling has been observed in the crater lakes. The crater lakes and/or fumaroles are visible in satellite images, where they appear as temperature anomalies. The gases come from the magma, ultimately from the downgoing slab, and as they ascend they interact and mix with an overlying aquifer and a hydrothermal system. There is also shallow seismicity around the volcano.
Since 2012, the volcano is monitored by the Southern Volcanological Observatory of the Andes. Intense eruptions could melt the ice on the volcano through the emission of incandescent rocks and pyroclastic flows, producing medium-sized or long lahars in the Quebrada de Tupungatito and Estero del Azufre valleys. Pyroclastic fallout from high eruption columns would most likely occur in Argentina. Future eruptions will most likely be small or medium-sized Strombolian eruptions. The nearest towns in Chile are El Alfalfal, El Manzano and Los Maitenes and in Argentina La Consulta, San Carlos, Tunuyan and Tupungato. For Argentina, it is the 4th most dangerous volcano, and for Chile, the 22nd most dangerous volcano. Due to a combination between its relative proximity to population centres, high volume of ice and frequency of eruptions, a 2020 study ranked it the 4th most dangerous volcano on Earth in terms of lava-ice interactions. Eruptions may also endanger tourists.
## See also
- List of volcanoes in Argentina
- List of volcanoes in Chile |
214,138 | St. Anger | 1,172,365,982 | null | [
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| St. Anger is the eighth studio album by American heavy metal band Metallica, released on June 5, 2003. It was the last Metallica album released through Elektra Records and the final collaboration between Metallica and longtime producer Bob Rock, with whom the band had worked since 1990. This is also Metallica's only album as an official trio, as bassist Jason Newsted left the band prior to the recording sessions. Rock played bass in Newsted's place, and Robert Trujillo joined the band following its completion.
Recording began in April 2001 but was postponed after rhythm guitarist and vocalist James Hetfield entered rehabilitation for alcoholism and various other addictions, and did not resume until May 2002. The recording is the subject of the 2004 documentary film Metallica: Some Kind of Monster. St. Anger departed from Metallica's signature style with an alternative metal style, raw production, metallic drum sound, and no guitar solos. The artwork was created by frequent Metallica collaborator Pushead.
St. Anger was intended for release on June 10, 2003, but was released five days earlier due to concerns over unlicensed distribution via peer-to-peer file sharing networks. Despite mixed reviews, it debuted at the top of sales charts in 14 countries, including the US Billboard 200. After release, Metallica spent two years touring to promote the album. In 2004, the lead single, "St. Anger", won a Grammy Award for Best Metal Performance. St. Anger was certified double platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) for shipping two million copies in the US; it has sold nearly six million copies worldwide.
## Recording
Metallica rented an old United States Army barracks on the Presidio of San Francisco, and converted it into a makeshift studio in January 2001.
As plans were being made to enter the studio to write and record its first album in nearly five years, the band postponed the recording because of the departure of bassist Jason Newsted on January 17, 2001, with Newsted stating his departure was due to "private and personal reasons and the physical damage I have done to myself over the years while playing the music that I love". Due to the difficulty in immediately finding or auditioning for a replacement for Newsted to write and record with so close to the rescheduled sessions, Metallica accepted an offer from Bob Rock to play bass on the album in Newsted's place, and stated they would find an official bass player upon the album's completion. In February 2003, as St. Anger was nearing completion, Metallica hired Robert Trujillo as their new bassist. He appeared on the footage of studio rehearsals of St. Anger in its entirety, which was included on DVD in the album package.
In July 2001, recording came to a halt when James Hetfield entered rehab for alcoholism and other undisclosed addictions. Hetfield returned to the band in December, but was only allowed to work on the album from noon to 4:00 PM. Due to his personal problems, as well as Metallica's internal struggles, the band hired a personal enhancement coach, Phil Towle. This, and the recording of the album, was documented by filmmakers Joe Berlinger and Bruce Sinofsky and released in 2004 as the film Metallica: Some Kind of Monster. From May 2002 until April 2003, the album was recorded at a new studio in San Rafael, California, known as "HQ".
Hetfield stated that the album was written with "a lot of passion". He said, "There's two years of condensed emotion in this. We've gone through a lot of personal changes, struggles, epiphanies, it's deep. It's so deep lyrically and musically. [St. Anger] is just the best that it can be from us right now." The band purposely wanted a raw sound on the album, so that Rock did not polish the sound while mixing. The band desired the raw sound because of the depth of the emotion they felt and did not want to "mess with it". Rock commented, "I wanted to do something to shake up radio and the way everything else sounds. To me, this album sounds like four guys in a garage getting together and writing rock songs. There was really no time to get amazing performances out of James. We liked the raw performances. And we didn't do what everyone does and what I've been guilty of for a long time, which is tuning vocals. We just did it, boom, and that was it." St. Anger is seen as a departure from the band's previous work, described as alternative metal and nu metal. The album also uses strong elements of groove metal and speed metal.
Guitarist Kirk Hammett commented on the lack of guitar solos on St. Anger, a departure for Metallica: "We wanted to preserve the sound of all four of us in a room just jamming. We tried to put guitar solos on, but we kept on running into this problem. It really sounded like an afterthought." Hammett said that he was happy with the final product. Rock stated, "We made a promise to ourselves that we'd only keep stuff that had integrity. We didn't want to make a theatrical statement by adding overdubs." Lars Ulrich recorded his drums without using the snares on his snare drum, resulting in a drum tone with far more "ring" than is usual in rock. Ulrich said, "One day I forgot to turn the snare on because I wasn't thinking about this stuff. At the playbacks, I decided I was really liking what I was hearing—it had a different ambience. It sang back to me in a beautiful way." Rock said the group spent only "15 minutes" on the drum sound, with fewer microphones than usual.
## Artwork
Brian Schroeder designed the album cover and interior artwork for St. Anger. Schroeder has designed a number of items for Metallica in the past, including liner artwork of ...And Justice for All, several single covers, and many T-shirts; however, the album marks his first studio album cover art for the band. Originally, according to Metallica's official website, four different limited color variations of the cover were planned, but the idea was eventually scrapped.
## Release and promotion
St. Anger was released on June 5, 2003. It was originally scheduled for June 10, but due to Metallica's previous battle with Napster and fear that it would be released illegally onto peer-to-peer file sharing networks, the band pushed the release date ahead by five days. A special edition of the album was released with a bonus DVD, featuring live, in-the-studio rehearsals of all of the St. Anger tracks. First week sales of the album were 417,000 copies, and it debuted at number 1 on the U.S. Billboard 200, as well as in 30 other countries around the world. In 2004, Metallica won the award for Best Metal Performance, for the title track.
After St. Anger's release, Metallica embarked on a tour that lasted nearly two years. The first leg was the U.S. 2003 Summer Sanitarium tour with support from: Limp Bizkit, Deftones, Linkin Park, and Mudvayne. After Summer Sanitarium, the band began the Madly in Anger with the World Tour with support from Godsmack, Lostprophets, and Slipknot (both on certain European dates), which lasted until late 2004. The St. Anger songs "Frantic", "St. Anger", "Dirty Window" and "The Unnamed Feeling" were performed frequently during the tour. "Some Kind of Monster" was also played live, but not as often as other songs on the album, and “Sweet Amber” was played only once. The album tracks were altered when played live; sometimes they were shortened, or in some cases a guitar solo was added. Sometimes, only one song from the album was played live.
By 2009, the songs from St. Anger were completely absent from Metallica's set lists. After "Frantic" was performed on October 21, 2008, songs from the album would entirely disappear from set lists on major tours, although it and "Dirty Window" were performed again on December 10, 2011, during the last concert of Metallica's special and private 30th Anniversary Tour, in San Francisco, California. "St. Anger" was also played again during the "Metallica by Request" tour in 2014 when it was voted by the fans, and also occasionally during concerts in 2014 and 2015. In October 2007, "All Within My Hands" was performed live for the first time, albeit rearranged and acoustically, at both nights of the Bridge School Benefit concerts; it would be performed similarly in November 2018 at the AWMH Foundation's Helping Hands concert in San Francisco, and again in September 2019 during the S&M 2 concert, also in San Francisco. On May 1, 2019, "Frantic" was performed on the WorldWired Tour in Lisbon, Portugal after many years of absence. It and the title track would be performed regularly on this leg of the tour. “Frantic” and “Dirty Window” were played during the 40th Anniversary shows in San Francisco in December 2021.
Metallica also released four singles from St. Anger. The order of the releases was: "St. Anger", "Frantic", "The Unnamed Feeling" and "Some Kind of Monster". On the U.S. Mainstream Rock chart, these singles charted at number 2, number 21, number 28 and number 18, respectively. Promotional music videos were also made for all four of the songs. These videos can be found on Metallica's DVD video collection, titled The Videos 1989-2004, and the video for "Some Kind of Monster" can also be found on the film Some Kind of Monster.
## Critical reception
St. Anger received polarized reviews from critics; the album holds a score of 65 out of 100, based on 20 reviews, on review-aggregating website Metacritic. Adrien Begrand of PopMatters noted positive and negative aspects of the album, saying, "While it's an ungodly mess at times, what you hear on this album is a band playing with passion for the first time in years." Talking about the album, Greg Kot of Blender said, "It may be too late to rehabilitate Metallica's image, but once again, their music is all about bringing the carnage." Writing for NME, Ian Watson said that, "the songs are a stripped back, heroically brutal reflection of this fury. You get the sense that, as with their emotional selves, they've taken metal apart and started again from scratch. There's no space wasted here, no time for petty guitar solos or downtuned bass trickery, just a focused, relentless attack." Johnny Loftus of AllMusic praised the album and described it as a "punishing, unflinching document of internal struggle—taking listeners inside the bruised yet vital body of Metallica, but ultimately revealing the alternately torturous and defiant demons that wrestle inside Hetfield's brain. St. Anger is an immediate record." Barry Walter of Rolling Stone magazine also had a positive reaction to the direction taken on St. Anger, stating: "No wonder there's an authenticity to St. Anger's fury that none of the band's rap-metal followers can touch." He also went further to note the lack of commercial influence and modern rock aspects of previous albums, continuing: "There's no radio-size, four-minute rock here, no pop-friendly choruses, no ballads, no solos, no wayward experimentation."
Although some reviews of St. Anger were positive, other reviewers had a strong distaste for the album. Brent DiCrescenzo of Pitchfork criticized Ulrich and Hammett, saying that Ulrich was "playing a drum set consisting of steel drums, aluminum toms, programmed double kicks, and a broken church bell. The kit's high-end clamor ignored the basic principles of drumming: timekeeping," he added, "Hetfield and Hammett's guitars underwent more processing than cat food. When they both speedstrummed through St. Anger, and most other movements, [Hetfield and Hammett] seemed to overwhelm each other with different, terrible noise. Also the duration of most songs made it boring to hear them." Phil Freeman of Houston Press characterized the album as having, "stolen Helmet riffs and lyrics that sound co-written by Hetfield's AA sponsor." Playlouder reviewer William Luff cited the album's 75-minute length and sound ("a monolithic slab of noise") as reasoning that St. Anger was "just too dense and daunting to be truly enjoyable." PopMatters reporter Michael Christopher said "St. Anger dispenses with the recent spate of radio friendly pleasantries in favor of pedal to the floor thrash, staggered and extended song structures, quick changes and a muddled production that tries to harken back to the Kill 'Em All days. All attempts fail miserably."
The album's snare drum sound was widely criticized. Ulrich dismissed the criticism as "closed-minded", and in July 2020 he said, "I stand behind it 100% because, at that moment, that was the truth". In 2017, Hetfield said, "There are things I would like to change on some of the records, but it gives them so much character that you can’t change them ... St. Anger could use a little less tin snare drum, but those things are what make those records part of our history."
## Track listing
## Personnel
Metallica
- James Hetfield – lead vocals, guitar, production
- Kirk Hammett – guitar, backing vocals (1-2, 6, 9), production
- Lars Ulrich – drums, production
Additional personnel
- Bob Rock – bass, production, engineering, mixing
Production
- Mike Gillies – assistant engineering, mixing, digital engineering
- Eric Helmkamp – assistant engineering, mixing
- Vlado Meller – mastering
- Pushead – cover design
- Anton Corbijn – photography
- Brad Klausen – production design
- Matt Mahurin, Forhelvede Productions, Pascal Brun, Comenius Röthlisberger – illustration and images
## Charts
### Weekly charts
### Year-end charts
## Certifications |
6,302,631 | Bill Stein | 1,133,927,180 | American baseball player (born 1947) | [
"1947 births",
"All-American college baseball players",
"Arkansas Travelers players",
"Baseball players from Michigan",
"Chicago White Sox players",
"Eastern Florida State College people",
"Iowa Oaks players",
"Living people",
"Major League Baseball third basemen",
"Minor league baseball managers",
"Orlando Juice players",
"Seattle Mariners players",
"Southern Illinois Salukis baseball players",
"Sportspeople from Battle Creek, Michigan",
"St. Louis Cardinals players",
"Texas Rangers players",
"Tulsa Oilers (baseball) players"
]
| William Allen Stein (born January 21, 1947) is an American retired professional baseball player and manager. His playing career spanned 17 seasons, 14 of which were spent in Major League Baseball (MLB) with the St. Louis Cardinals (1972–1973), the Chicago White Sox (1974–1976), the Seattle Mariners (1977–1980), and the Texas Rangers (1981–1985). Over his career in the majors Stein batted .267 with 122 doubles, 18 triples, 44 home runs, and 311 runs batted in (RBIs) in 959 games played. Stein played numerous fielding positions over his major league career, including third base, second base, first base, left field, right field, and shortstop. He also spent significant time as a pinch hitter.
## Early life
Stein was born on January 21, 1947, in Battle Creek, Michigan. Stein attended Brevard Community College when he was drafted by the Baltimore Orioles during the 33<sup>rd</sup> round of the 1968 Major League Baseball draft. Stein did not sign with the Orioles. He began attending Southern Illinois University in 1969. As a member of the school's baseball team, he batted .396 and was named an All-American by the American Baseball Coaches Association. Stein was drafted by the St. Louis Cardinals during the fourth round of the 1969 Major League Baseball draft.
## Playing career
### St. Louis Cardinals
In 1969, Stein began his professional baseball career in the St. Louis Cardinals minor league organization. The Cardinals assigned him to the Tulsa Oilers, who were their Triple-A affiliates at the time. With the Oilers, Stein batted .295 with 24 runs scored, 54 hits, 11 doubles, five triples, one home run, and 20 runs batted in (RBIs) in 62 games played. Defensively, Stein played 31 games at second base, 14 games at third base, and five games at shortstop. During the 1970 season, the Cardinals assigned Stein to the Double-A level to play with the Arkansas Travelers of the Texas League. In 114 games played that year, he batted .289 with 124 hits, 21 doubles, two triples, and eight home runs. In the field, Stein played second base and outfield. In 1971, Stein was promoted to the Triple-A level. He spent the entire season with the Tulsa Oilers, where he batted .272 with 50 runs scored, 106 hits, 106 hits, 22 doubles, four triples, eight home runs, and 67 RBIs in 103 games played. Stein pitched a game that season, after Tulsa's starting pitcher was ejected from the game after throwing the ball at the umpire. In six innings, he gave-up eight hits, and three runs (all earned). He played the majority of the season in the outfield, but also spent limited time at third base, first base, and shortstop.
To start the 1972 season, Stein was a member of the Triple-A Tulsa Oilers. With Tulsa that year, he batted .278 with 100 hits, 26 doubles, four triples, five home runs, and 36 RBIs in 103 games played. Stein was a September call-up for the St. Louis cardinals that year. He made his debut in Major League Baseball (MLB) on September 6, 1972, against the Philadelphia Phillies. He got his first hit in that game, which was a home run in the ninth inning. He played 14 games in the majors that year, batting .314 with two runs scored, 11 hits, one triple, two home runs, and three RBIs. Defensively in the majors, he was positioned at third base, left field, and right field.
During spring training in 1973, the Sarasota Herald-Tribune labeled Stein as the Cardinals candidate for pinch hitting off the bench. He made the Cardinals Opening Day roster that year. He made his season debut on April 6 as a pinch hitter, going hitless in one at-bat against the Pittsburgh Pirates. His first hit of the season came on April 17, against the Pirates. In August, Stein was sent down to the minor leagues and was replaced on the Cardinals major league roster by outfielder Héctor Cruz. In the minors, he played with the Triple-A Tulsa Oilers, where he batted .289 with 23 hits, two doubles, and one triple in 21 games played. While in the majors that season, Stein compiled a .218 batting average with four runs scored, 12 hits, two doubles, and two RBIs in 32 games played. On defense with the Cardinals, he played right field, left field, third base, and first base.
### Chicago White Sox
On September 25, Stein was traded by the St. Louis Cardinals to the California Angels in exchange for Jerry DaVanon. California then traded Stein to the Chicago White Sox on April 3, 1974, before he made an appearance in the Angels organization. In return, the White Sox sent Steve Blateric to California. Stein started the 1974 season in the White Sox minor league system with the Triple-A Iowa Oaks. In 135 games with Iowa, he batted .326 with 107 runs scored, 178 hits, 32 doubles, eight triples, 16 home runs, and 76 RBIs. Stein led the American Association in hits; was second in runs scored, plate appearances (594), at-bats (554), and doubles; and was tied for second in triples. He was called up by Chicago in September. Stein made his season debut on September 13, against the California Angels, getting no hits in four at-bats. His first hit of the season came the day after, against California. In the majors that year, Stein batted .276 with five runs scored, 12 hits, one double, and five RBIs in 13 games played.
Stein spent his first full season in the majors during the 1975 season. His season debut came on April 16, against the Texas Rangers, where in one at-bat he went hitless. In June, Stein was named the starting third baseman after Bill Melton, who was Chicago's regular third baseman, was benched for poor hitting. Stein also played back-up for second baseman Jorge Orta over the season. On July 20, in the second game of a doubleheader against the Milwaukee Brewers, Stein hit his first career grand slam. On the season, Stein batted .270 with 23 runs scored, 61 hits, seven doubles, one triple, three home runs, and 21 RBIs in 76 games played. In the field, he played 28 games at second base, 24 games at third base, and one game in left field. Stein also played 18 games that year at the designated hitter spot in the lineup.
Stein played his final season with the Chicago White Sox in 1976. On August 17, in the first game of a doubleheader against the Boston Red Sox, he hit a game-winning single in the ninth inning to score Pat Kelly. In August, United Press International noted that it was the first time in his major league career that Stein was getting a chance to start regularly. During the season, he compiled a .268 batting average with 32 runs scored, 105 hits, 15 doubles, two triples, four home runs, and 36 RBIs in 117 games played. Stein played 58 games at second base, 58 games at third base, one game at first base, one game in right field, and one game at shortstop. He was also the designated hitter in one game during that season.
### Seattle Mariners
During the 1976 Major League Baseball expansion draft, Stein was selected by the Seattle Mariners, who took him with their third pick in the draft. Stein stated he was "glad" that the Mariners drafted him, because he did not like playing at Comiskey Park, the home of his previous team, the Chicago White Sox. He was profiled by the Associated Press during spring training in 1977, and was interviewed about his new team and his unique versatility in the field. Stein mentioned to the reporter that although he had played a wide variety of positions in the past, he hoped he would get a chance to be the Mariners starting third baseman. In a win against the Boston Red Sox on May 3, Stein hit two home runs in the same game. In June, Stein commented on how he liked starting every day at third base for the Mariners. The Mariners manager, Darrell Johnson, Praised Stein for playing "good ball" with Seattle. On July 8, in a game against the Minnesota Twins, Stein had another two-home run performance, his second of the season. In early-September, Stein got hit in the shoulder by a baseball, which was later revealed to have caused a hairline fracture. With the Mariners that year, he batted .259 with 53 runs scored, 144 hits, 26 doubles, five triples, 13 home runs, and 67 RBIs in 151 games played. Defensively, the vast majority of his games (147) were played at third base, but he also played limited time at shortstop. He led the American League in putouts by a third baseman with 146. Stein was also fifth in the league in defensive games at third base.
Before the start of the 1978 season, Stein re-signed with the Seattle Mariners. His contract meant he was now signed through the 1980 season. In May 1978, he bruised his left hand, which caused him to miss some playing time. On August 25, he broke up Dennis Martínez's potential no-hitter in the seventh inning of a game against the Baltimore Orioles. On August 28, in a game against the Boston Red Sox, Stein had a season-high four hits. On the season, he batted .261 with 41 runs scored, 105 hits, 24 doubles, four triples, four home runs, and 37 RBIs in 114 games played. In the field, Stein played 67 games at third base, 17 games at second base, and three games at shortstop. His 24 errors at third base was second in the American League.
Early into the 1979 season, Stein was placed on the disabled list after suffering a rib injury. Charlie Beamon, Jr. was called up from the minor leagues to replace Stein during his injury. In late June, the Mariners activated Stein from the disabled list. By the time he had returned, the Mariners had already positioned Dan Meyer at his position, so Stein filled in at second base during his first game back. That year, Stein batted .248 with 28 runs scored, 62 hits, nine doubles, two triples, seven home runs, and 27 RBIs in 88 games played. As a fielder, he played 67 games at third base, 17 games at second base, and three games at shortstop.
Stein's final season with the Seattle Mariners would come in 1980. On April 29, against the Minnesota Twins, Stein had a season high four hit game. He matched that high on July 26, against the Toronto Blue Jays. On July 28, Stein broke up a no-hit bid by Cleveland Indians pitcher Len Barker. In his final season with the Mariners, Stein batted .268 with 16 runs scored, 53 hits, five doubles, one triple, five home runs, and 27 RBIs in 67 games played. Defensively, he played 34 games at third base, 14 games at second base, and eight games at first base. He also played five games that season as Seattle's designated hitter.
### Texas Rangers
In December 1980, Stein was signed as a free agent by the Texas Rangers. Stein made his Rangers debut on April 14, 1981, against the Cleveland Indians. In that game, he got one hit in two at-bats. In May, Stein set an American League record by recording seven consecutive pinch hits. Through June, Stein had a .441 batting average. On the season, Stein batted .330 with 21 runs scored, 38 hits, six doubles, two home runs, and 22 RBIs in 53 games played. In the field, he played 20 games at first base, seven games at third base, seven games in left field, three games at second base, one game in right field, and one game at shortstop.
On April 16, 1982, in a game against the Milwaukee Brewers, Stein hit a game-winning double in the top of the ninth inning. In June, while playing against his former team, the Seattle Mariners, Stein praised their pitching staff. In 85 games that year, Stein batted .239, the lowest average of his career since the 1972 season where he played with the St. Louis Cardinals. He also compiled 14 runs scored, 44 hits, eight doubles, one home run, and 16 RBIs. In the field, he played 34 games at second base, 28 games at third base, six games at shortstop, two games at first base, and one game in left field. Stein also was the designated hitter during three games.
In March 1983, Stein praised the Texas Rangers new manager, Doug Rader, for working on the game in a "serious" way. On May 18, in a game against the Cleveland Indians, Stein was brought in as a pinch hitter during the 14<sup>th</sup> inning, and proceeded to get the game-winning hit for the Rangers. With Texas that year, he batted .310 with 21 runs scored, 72 hits, 15 doubles, one triple, two home runs, and 33 RBIs in 78 games played. Stein played the majority of his games at second base, but also played first base and third base. He was used as the Rangers designated hitter in six contests that year. After the season, Stein spoke out against a transaction that the Rangers made, trading Jim Sundberg to the Milwaukee Brewers, calling him a "mainstay of the organization".
In 1984, the Associated Press stated that Stein was one of the American League's best pinch hitters. Early into the season, he injured his wrist, which caused him to miss some playing time. In mid-June, the Rangers activated him from the disabled list. On the season, Stein batted .279 with three runs scored, 12 hits, one double and three RBIs in 27 games played. Stein played 11 games at second base, three games at first base, and three games at third base. He also spent four games as the Rangers designated hitter.
Before the 1985 season, it was announced that the Texas Rangers had traded Stein to the Pittsburgh Pirates in exchange for a player to be named later, pending a physical. The Pirates later canceled the trade after team doctors discovered a "probable disc problem" in his back. Rumors then circulated that it was possible that Steins' career would be ended by the injury. However, Stein did play 44 games with the Rangers that season, batting .253 with five runs scored, 20 hits, three doubles, one triple, one home run, and 12 RBIs. He played 11 games at third base, eight games at first base, three games at second base, and three games in right field. Stein was the team's designated hitter in six games that year. In his final season in the majors, he earned a salary of \$250,000 (\$ inflation adjusted). At the end of the season, Texas announced that it would not re-sign Stein. Through an agent, Stein commented that if he could not play for Texas in the upcoming season, he would retire.
## Coaching career
In 1987, Stein coached the Rockledge High School baseball team, leading them a district title with a 17–11 record. Stein was hired as the manager of the Class A-Short Season Little Falls Mets of the New York–Penn League in 1988. Little Falls were minor league affiliates of the New York Mets. In his first professional season as a manager, Stein led Little Falls to a 39–36 record. Stein commented that when he became a manager it was difficult to learn pitching after all the years of being a position player. In 1989, the New York Mets fired Butch Hobson, the manager of the Class-A Columbia Mets, and promoted Stein to that position. At the helm of Colombia that year, Stein led them to a 73–67 record. He also served as a player-coach with the Orlando Juice of the Senior Professional Baseball Association in 1989.
Stein continued to manage the Columbia Mets in 1990, leading them to an 83–60 record. The Mets had the best record in the South Atlantic League that season. In 1991, Stein was hired to be the manager of the Bend Bucks of the Northwest League. The non-affiliated Bucks had a record of 30–46 with Stein as the manager. He was hired to be the manager of the Clinton Giants in 1992. Clinton was the Class-A affiliate of the San Francisco Giants at the time. Stein led Clinton to a 59–79 record that year. After considering taking a year off of baseball in 1994, Stein eventually accepted the managerial position with the independent league Tyler WildCatters.
He recently relocated and lives in Palm Coast Florida, where he has been an infielder in the Flagler (County) Senior Softball League. |
31,667 | Fifteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution | 1,173,847,598 | 1870 amendment prohibiting denial of voting rights on the basis of race | [
"1870 in American law",
"1870 in American politics",
"Aftermath of the American Civil War",
"Amendments to the United States Constitution",
"History of voting rights in the United States",
"Presidency of Ulysses S. Grant",
"Reconstruction Era"
]
| The Fifteenth Amendment (Amendment XV) to the United States Constitution prohibits the federal government and each state from denying or abridging a citizen's right to vote "on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude." It was ratified on February 3, 1870, as the third and last of the Reconstruction Amendments.
In the final years of the American Civil War and the Reconstruction Era that followed, Congress repeatedly debated the rights of the millions of black freedmen. By 1869, amendments had been passed to abolish slavery and provide citizenship and equal protection under the laws, but the election of Ulysses S. Grant to the presidency in 1868 convinced a majority of Republicans that protecting the franchise of black male voters was important for the party's future. On February 26, 1869, after rejecting more sweeping versions of a suffrage amendment, Republicans proposed a compromise amendment which would ban franchise restrictions on the basis of race, color, or previous servitude. After surviving a difficult ratification fight and opposition from Democrats, the amendment was certified as duly ratified and part of the Constitution on March 30, 1870. According to the Library of Congress, in the House of Representatives 144 Republicans voted to approve the 15th Amendment, with zero Democrats in favor, 39 no votes, and seven abstentions. In the Senate, 33 Republicans voted to approve, again with zero Democrats in favor.
United States Supreme Court decisions in the late nineteenth century interpreted the amendment narrowly. From 1890 to 1910, the Democratic Party in the Southern United States adopted new state constitutions and enacted "Jim Crow" laws that raised barriers to voter registration. This resulted in most black voters and many Poor Whites being disenfranchised by poll taxes and discriminatory literacy tests, among other barriers to voting, from which white male voters were exempted by grandfather clauses. A system of white primaries and violent intimidation by Democrats through the Ku Klux Klan (KKK) also suppressed black participation.
In the twentieth century, the Court began to interpret the amendment more broadly, striking down grandfather clauses in Guinn v. United States (1915) and dismantling the white primary system created by the Democratic party in the "Texas primary cases" (1927–1953). Voting rights were further incorporated into the Constitution in the Nineteenth Amendment (voting rights for women, effective 1920), the Twenty-fourth Amendment (prohibiting poll taxes in federal elections, effective 1964) and the Twenty-sixth Amendment (lowering the voting age from 21 to 18, effective 1971). The Voting Rights Act of 1965 provided federal oversight of elections in discriminatory jurisdictions, banned literacy tests and similar discriminatory devices, and created legal remedies for people affected by voting discrimination. The Court also found poll taxes in state election unconstitutional under the Fourteenth Amendment in Harper v. Virginia State Board of Elections (1966).
## Text
> Section 1. The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude.
>
> Section 2. The Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation.
## Background
In the final years of the American Civil War and the Reconstruction Era that followed, Congress repeatedly debated the rights of black former slaves freed by the 1863 Emancipation Proclamation and the 1865 Thirteenth Amendment, the latter of which had formally abolished slavery. Following the passage of the Thirteenth Amendment by Congress, however, Republicans grew concerned over the increase it would create in the congressional representation of the Democratic-dominated Southern states. Because the full population of freed slaves would be now counted rather than the three-fifths mandated by the previous Three-Fifths Compromise, the Southern states would dramatically increase their power in the population-based House of Representatives. Republicans hoped to offset this advantage by attracting and protecting votes of the newly enfranchised black population.
In 1865, Congress passed what would become the Civil Rights Act of 1866, guaranteeing citizenship without regard to race, color, or previous condition of slavery or involuntary servitude. The bill also guaranteed equal benefits and access to the law, a direct assault on the Black Codes passed by many post-war Southern states. The Black Codes attempted to return ex-slaves to something like their former condition by, among other things, restricting their movement, forcing them to enter into year-long labor contracts, prohibiting them from owning firearms, and by preventing them from suing or testifying in court. Although strongly urged by moderates in Congress to sign the bill, President Johnson vetoed it on March 27, 1866. In his veto message, he objected to the measure because it conferred citizenship on the freedmen at a time when 11 out of 36 states were unrepresented in the Congress, and that it discriminated in favor of African Americans and against whites. Three weeks later, Johnson's veto was overridden and the measure became law. Despite this victory, even some Republicans who had supported the goals of the Civil Rights Act began to doubt that Congress possessed the constitutional power to turn those goals into laws. The experience encouraged both radical and moderate Republicans to seek Constitutional guarantees for black rights, rather than relying on temporary political majorities.
On June 18, 1866, Congress adopted the Fourteenth Amendment, which guaranteed citizenship and equal protection under the laws regardless of race, and sent it to the states for ratification. After a bitter struggle that included attempted rescissions of ratification by two states, the Fourteenth Amendment was adopted on July 28, 1868.
Section 2 of the Fourteenth Amendment punished, by reduced representation in the House of Representatives, any state that disenfranchised any male citizens over 21 years of age. By failing to adopt a harsher penalty, this signaled to the states that they still possessed the right to deny ballot access based on race. Northern states were generally as averse to granting voting rights to blacks as Southern states. In the year of its ratification, only eight Northern states allowed blacks to vote. In the South, blacks were able to vote in many areas, but only through the intervention of the occupying Union Army. Before Congress had granted suffrage to blacks in the territories by passing the Territorial Suffrage Act on January 10, 1867 (Source: Congressional Globe, 39th Congress, 2nd Session, pp. 381-82), blacks were granted the right to vote in the District of Columbia on January 8, 1867.
## Proposal and ratification
### Proposal
Anticipating an increase in Democratic membership in the following Congress, Republicans used the lame-duck session of the 40th United States Congress to pass an amendment protecting black suffrage. Representative John Bingham, the primary author of the Fourteenth Amendment, pushed for a wide-ranging ban on suffrage limitations, but a broader proposal banning voter restriction on the basis of "race, color, nativity, property, education, or religious beliefs" was rejected. A proposal to specifically ban literacy tests was also rejected. Some Representatives from the North, where nativism was a major force, wished to preserve restrictions denying the franchise to foreign-born citizens, as did Representatives from the West, where ethnic Chinese people were banned from voting. Both Southern and Northern Republicans also wanted to continue to deny the vote temporarily to Southerners disenfranchised for support of the Confederacy, and they were concerned that a sweeping endorsement of suffrage would enfranchise this group.
A House and Senate conference committee proposed the amendment's final text, which banned voter restriction only on the basis of "race, color, or previous condition of servitude." To attract the broadest possible base of support, the amendment made no mention of poll taxes or other measures to block voting, and did not guarantee the right of blacks to hold office. Preliminary drafts did include officeholding language, but scholars disagree as to the reason for this change. This compromised proposal was approved by the House on February 25, 1869, and the Senate the following day.
The vote in the House was 144 to 44, with 35 not voting. The House vote was almost entirely along party lines, with no Democrats supporting the bill and only 3 Republicans voting against it, some because they thought the amendment did not go far enough in its protections. The House of Representatives passed the amendment, with 143 Republicans and one Conservative Republican voting "Yea" and 39 Democrats, three Republicans, one Independent Republican and one Conservative voting "No"; 26 Republicans, eight Democrats, and one Independent Republican did not vote. The final vote in the Senate was 39 to 13, with 14 not voting. The Senate passed the amendment, with 39 Republicans voting "Yea" and eight Democrats and five Republicans voting "Nay"; 13 Republicans and one Democrat did not vote. Some Radical Republicans, such as Massachusetts Senator Charles Sumner, abstained from voting because the amendment did not prohibit literacy tests and poll taxes. Following congressional approval, the proposed amendment was then sent by Secretary of State William Henry Seward to the states for ratification or rejection.
### Ratification
Though many of the original proposals for the amendment had been moderated by negotiations in committee, the final draft nonetheless faced significant hurdles in being ratified by three-fourths of the states. Historian William Gillette wrote of the process, "it was hard going and the outcome was uncertain until the very end."
One source of opposition to the proposed amendment was the women's suffrage movement, which before and during the Civil War had made common cause with the abolitionist movement. State constitutions often connected race and sex by limiting suffrage to "white male citizens." However, with the passage of the Fourteenth Amendment, which had explicitly protected only male citizens in its second section, activists found the civil rights of women divorced from those of blacks. Matters came to a head with the proposal of the Fifteenth Amendment, which barred race discrimination but not sex discrimination in voter laws. One of Congress's most explicit discussions regarding the link between suffrage and officeholding occurred during discussions about the Fifteenth Amendment. Initially, both houses passed a version of the amendment that included language referring to officeholding but ultimately the language was omitted.
During this time, women continued to advocate for their own rights, holding conventions and passing resolutions demanding the right to vote and hold office. Some preliminary versions of the amendment even included women. However, the final version omitted references to sex, further splintering the women's suffrage movement. After an acrimonious debate, the American Equal Rights Association, the nation's leading suffragist group, split into two rival organizations: the National Woman Suffrage Association of Susan B. Anthony and Elizabeth Cady Stanton, who opposed the amendment, and the American Woman Suffrage Association of Lucy Stone and Henry Browne Blackwell, who supported it. The two groups remained divided until the 1890s.
Nevada was the first state to ratify the amendment, on March 1, 1869. The New England states and most Midwest states also ratified the amendment soon after its proposal. Southern states still controlled by Radical reconstruction governments, such as North Carolina, also swiftly ratified. Newly elected President Ulysses S. Grant strongly endorsed the amendment, calling it "a measure of grander importance than any other one act of the kind from the foundation of our free government to the present day." He privately asked Nebraska's governor to call a special legislative session to speed the process, securing the state's ratification. In April and December 1869, Congress passed Reconstruction bills mandating that Virginia, Mississippi, Texas and Georgia ratify the amendment as a precondition to regaining congressional representation; all four states did so. The struggle for ratification was particularly close in Indiana and Ohio, which voted to ratify in May 1869 and January 1870, respectively. New York, which had ratified on April 14, 1869, tried to revoke its ratification on January 5, 1870. However, in February 1870, Georgia, Iowa, Nebraska, and Texas ratified the amendment, bringing the total ratifying states to twenty-nine—one more than the required twenty-eight ratifications from the thirty-seven states, and forestalling any court challenge to New York's resolution to withdraw its consent.
The first twenty-eight states to ratify the Fifteenth Amendment were:
1. Nevada: March 1, 1869
2. West Virginia: March 3, 1869
3. North Carolina: March 5, 1869
4. Illinois: March 5, 1869
5. Louisiana: March 5, 1869
6. Michigan: March 8, 1869
7. Wisconsin: March 9, 1869
8. Maine: March 11, 1869
9. Massachusetts: March 12, 1869
10. Arkansas: March 15, 1869
11. South Carolina: March 15, 1869
12. Pennsylvania: March 25, 1869
13. New York: April 14, 1869 (Rescinded ratification: January 5, 1870; re-ratified: March 30, 1870)
14. Indiana: May 14, 1869
15. Connecticut: May 19, 1869
16. Florida: June 14, 1869
17. New Hampshire: July 1, 1869
18. Virginia: October 8, 1869
19. Vermont: October 20, 1869
20. Alabama: November 16, 1869
21. Missouri: January 10, 1870
22. Minnesota: January 13, 1870
23. Mississippi: January 17, 1870
24. Rhode Island: January 18, 1870
25. Kansas: January 19, 1870
26. Ohio: January 27, 1870 (After rejection: April 1/30, 1869)
27. Georgia: February 2, 1870
28. Iowa: February 3, 1870
Secretary of State Hamilton Fish certified the amendment on March 30, 1870, also including the ratifications of:
The remaining seven states all subsequently ratified the amendment:
The amendment's adoption was met with widespread celebrations in black communities and abolitionist societies; many of the latter disbanded, feeling that black rights had been secured and their work was complete. President Grant said of the amendment that it "completes the greatest civil change and constitutes the most important event that has occurred since the nation came to life." Many Republicans felt that with the amendment's passage, black Americans no longer needed federal protection; congressman and future president James A. Garfield stated that the amendment's passage "confers upon the African race the care of its own destiny. It places their fortunes in their own hands." Congressman John R. Lynch later wrote that ratification of those two amendments made Reconstruction a success.
## Application
In the year of the 150th anniversary of the Fifteenth Amendment Columbia University history professor and historian Eric Foner said about the Fifteenth Amendment as well as its history during the Reconstruction era and Post-Reconstruction era:
> It's a remarkable accomplishment given that slavery was such a dominant institution before the Civil War. But the history of the 15th Amendment also shows rights can never be taken for granted: Things can be achieved and things can be taken away.
### Reconstruction
African Americans called the amendment the nation's "second birth" and a "greater revolution than that of 1776" according to historian Eric Foner in his book The Second Founding: How the Civil War and Reconstruction Remade the Constitution. The first black person known to vote after the amendment's adoption was Thomas Mundy Peterson, who cast his ballot on March 31, 1870, in a Perth Amboy, New Jersey referendum election adopting a revised city charter. African Americans—many of them newly freed slaves—put their newfound freedom to use, voting in scores of black candidates. During Reconstruction, 16 black men served in Congress and 2,000 black men served in elected local, state and federal positions.
In United States v. Reese (1876), the first U.S. Supreme Court decision interpreting the Fifteenth Amendment, the Court interpreted the amendment narrowly, upholding ostensibly race-neutral limitations on suffrage including poll taxes, literacy tests, and a grandfather clause that exempted citizens from other voting requirements if their grandfathers had been registered voters. The Court also stated that the amendment does not confer the right of suffrage, but it invests citizens of the United States with the right of exemption from discrimination in the exercise of the elective franchise on account of their race, color, or previous condition of servitude, and empowers Congress to enforce that right by "appropriate legislation".[^1] The Court wrote:
> The Fifteenth Amendment does not confer the right of suffrage upon anyone. It prevents the States, or the United States, however, from giving preference, in this particular, to one citizen of the United States over another on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude. Before its adoption, this could be done. It was as much within the power of a State to exclude citizens of the United States from voting on account of race, &c., as it was on account of age, property, or education. Now it is not. If citizens of one race having certain qualifications are permitted by law to vote, those of another having the same qualifications must be. Previous to this amendment, there was no constitutional guaranty against this discrimination: now there is. It follows that the amendment has invested the citizens of the United States with a new constitutional right which is within the protecting power of Congress. That right is an exemption from discrimination in the exercise of the elective franchise on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude. This, under the express provisions of the second section of the amendment, Congress may enforce by "appropriate legislation".
White supremacists, such as the Ku Klux Klan (KKK), used paramilitary violence to prevent blacks from voting. A number of blacks were killed at the Colfax massacre of 1873 while attempting to defend their right to vote. The Enforcement Acts were passed by Congress in 1870–1871 to authorize federal prosecution of the KKK and others who violated the amendment. However, as Reconstruction neared its end and federal troops withdrew, prosecutions under the Enforcement Acts dropped significantly. In United States v. Cruikshank (1876), the Supreme Court ruled that the federal government did not have the authority to prosecute the perpetrators of the Colfax massacre because they were not state actors.
Congress further weakened the acts in 1894 by removing a provision against conspiracy. In 1877, Republican Rutherford B. Hayes was elected president after a highly contested election, receiving support from three Southern states in exchange for a pledge to allow white Democratic governments to rule without federal interference. As president, he refused to enforce federal civil rights protections, allowing states to begin to implement racially discriminatory Jim Crow laws. A Federal Elections Bill (the Lodge Bill of 1890) was successfully filibustered in the Senate.
### Post-Reconstruction
From 1890 to 1910, poll taxes and literacy tests were instituted across the South, effectively disenfranchising the great majority of black men. White male-only primary elections also served to reduce the influence of black men in the political system. Along with increasing legal obstacles, blacks were excluded from the political system by threats of violent reprisals by whites in the form of lynch mobs and terrorist attacks by the Ku Klux Klan. Some Democrats even advocated a repeal of the amendment, such as William Bourke Cockran of New York.
In the 20th century, the Court began to read the Fifteenth Amendment more broadly. In Guinn v. United States (1915), a unanimous Court struck down an Oklahoma grandfather clause that effectively exempted white voters from a literacy test, finding it to be discriminatory. The Court ruled in the related case Myers v. Anderson (1915), that the officials who enforced such a clause were liable for civil damages.
The Court addressed the white primary system in a series of decisions later known as the "Texas primary cases". In Nixon v. Herndon (1927), Dr. Lawrence A. Nixon sued for damages under federal civil rights laws after being denied a ballot in a Democratic party primary election on the basis of race. The Court found in his favor on the basis of the Fourteenth Amendment, which guarantees equal protection under the law, while not discussing his Fifteenth Amendment claim. After Texas amended its statute to allow the political party's state executive committee to set voting qualifications, Nixon sued again; in Nixon v. Condon (1932), the Court again found in his favor on the basis of the Fourteenth Amendment.
Following Nixon, the Democratic Party's state convention instituted a rule that only whites could vote in its primary elections; the Court unanimously upheld this rule as constitutional in Grovey v. Townsend (1935), distinguishing the discrimination by a private organization from that of the state in the previous primary cases. However, in United States v. Classic (1941), the Court ruled that primary elections were an essential part of the electoral process, undermining the reasoning in Grovey. Based on Classic, the Court in Smith v. Allwright (1944), overruled Grovey, ruling that denying non-white voters a ballot in primary elections was a violation of the Fifteenth Amendment. In the last of the Texas primary cases, Terry v. Adams (1953), the Court ruled that black plaintiffs were entitled to damages from a group that organized whites-only pre-primary elections with the assistance of Democratic party officials.
The Court also used the amendment to strike down a gerrymander in Gomillion v. Lightfoot (1960). The decision found that the redrawing of city limits by Tuskegee, Alabama officials to exclude the mostly black area around the Tuskegee Institute discriminated on the basis of race. The Court later relied on this decision in Rice v. Cayetano (2000), which struck down ancestry-based voting in elections for the Office of Hawaiian Affairs; the ruling held that the elections violated the Fifteenth Amendment by using "ancestry as a racial definition and for a racial purpose".
After judicial enforcement of the Fifteenth Amendment ended grandfather clauses, white primaries, and other discriminatory tactics, Southern black voter registration gradually increased, rising from five percent in 1940 to twenty-eight percent in 1960. Although the Fifteenth Amendment was never interpreted to prohibit poll taxes, in 1962 the Twenty-fourth Amendment was adopted banning poll taxes in federal elections, and in 1966 the Supreme Court ruled in Harper v. Virginia State Board of Elections (1966) that state poll taxes violate the Fourteenth Amendment's Equal Protection Clause.
Congress used its authority pursuant to Section 2 of the Fifteenth Amendment to pass the Voting Rights Act of 1965, achieving further racial equality in voting. Sections 4 and 5 of the Voting Rights Act required states and local governments with histories of racial discrimination in voting to submit all changes to their voting laws or practices to the federal government for approval before they could take effect, a process called "preclearance". By 1976, sixty-three percent of Southern blacks were registered to vote, a figure only five percent less than that for Southern whites.
The Supreme Court upheld the constitutionality of Sections 4 and 5 in South Carolina v. Katzenbach (1966). However, in Shelby County v. Holder'' (2013), the Supreme Court ruled that Section 4(b) of the Voting Rights Act, which established the coverage formula that determined which jurisdictions were subject to preclearance, was no longer constitutional and exceeded Congress's enforcement authority under Section 2 of the Fifteenth Amendment. The Court declared that the Fifteenth Amendment "commands that the right to vote shall not be denied or abridged on account of race or color, and it gives Congress the power to enforce that command. The Amendment is not designed to punish for the past; its purpose is to ensure a better future." According to the Court, "Regardless of how to look at the record no one can fairly say that it shows anything approaching the 'pervasive', 'flagrant', 'widespread', and 'rampant' discrimination that faced Congress in 1965, and that clearly distinguished the covered jurisdictions from the rest of the nation." In dissent, Justice Ruth Bader Ginsburg wrote, "Throwing out preclearance when it has worked and is continuing to work to stop discriminatory changes is like throwing away your umbrella in a rainstorm because you are not getting wet." While the preclearance provision itself was not struck down, it will continue to be inoperable unless Congress passes a new coverage formula.
## See also
- Ballot access
- Black suffrage
- Forty acres and a mule
- Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution (1920, women's right to vote)
- Twenty-sixth Amendment to the United States Constitution (1971, minimum voting age must be 18 or younger)
- Voting rights in the United States
[^1]: See '' |
38,759,642 | Catilinarian conspiracy | 1,168,979,459 | Attempted coup in the Roman republic in 63 BC | [
"1st century BC in Italy",
"1st century BC in the Roman Republic",
"63 BC",
"Catiline",
"Conspiracies",
"Roman Republic"
]
| The Catilinarian conspiracy (sometimes Second Catilinarian conspiracy) was an attempted coup d'état by Lucius Sergius Catilina (Catiline) to overthrow the Roman consuls of 63 BC – Marcus Tullius Cicero and Gaius Antonius Hybrida – and forcibly assume control of the state in their stead.
The conspiracy was formed after Catiline's defeat in the consular elections for 62 (held in early autumn 63). He assembled a coalition of malcontents – aristocrats who had been denied political advancement by the voters, dispossessed farmers, and indebted veterans of Sulla – and planned to seize the consulship from Cicero and Antonius by force. In November 63, Cicero exposed the conspiracy, causing Catiline to flee from Rome and eventually to his army in Etruria. The next month, Cicero uncovered nine more conspirators organising for Catiline in the city and, on advice of the senate, had them executed without trial. In early January 62 BC, Antonius defeated Catiline in battle, putting an end to the plot.
Modern views on the conspiracy vary. Uncovering the truth of the conspiracy is difficult; it is well accepted that the ancient sources were heavily biased against Catiline and demonised him in the aftermath of his defeat. The extent of the exaggeration is unclear and still debated; most classicists agree that the conspiracy occurred as broadly described – rather than being a manipulative invention of Cicero's – but concede that its actual threat to the republic was exaggerated for Cicero's benefit and to heighten later dramatic narratives.
## History
Catiline's conspiracy was the only major armed insurrection against Rome between Sulla's civil war and Caesar's civil war. The main sources on it are both hostile: Sallust's monograph Bellum Catilinae and Cicero's Catilinarian orations. Catiline, before the conspiracy, had been complicit in the Sullan regime; while his family had not reached the consulship since the fifth century BC, he had strong connections to the aristocracy and was both a nobilis and a patrician.
He had been prosecuted in 65 and 64 BC, but he was acquitted after several former consuls spoke in his defence. His influence even during his prosecutions was considerable; for example, Cicero had considered a joint candidacy with him in 65 BC. While some of the ancient sources claim Catiline was involved in a First Catilinarian conspiracy to overthrow the consuls of that year, modern scholars believe this first conspiracy is fictitious.
### Causes and formation
Catiline had stood for the consulship three times by 63 BC and was rejected every time by the voters. Only after his defeat at the consular comitia in 63 – for consular terms starting in 62 BC – did Catiline start planning a coup to seize by force the consulship which had been denied to him.
He enlisted into his circle a number of disreputable senators: Publius Cornelius Lentulus Sura, a former consul ejected from the senate for immorality in 70 BC; Gaius Cornelius Cethegus, a Sertorian sympathiser with few prospects for promotion; Publius Autronius Paetus, a winning consular candidate in the elections of 66 BC who had his victory annulled and senate seat stripped after conviction on bribery charges; and two other senators expelled for immorality and corruption. Other malcontents who had expected but had been denied advancement also joined the conspiracy, such as Lucius Cassius Longinus, who had been praetor in 66 and defeated in consular elections in 63 BC; Lucius Calpurnius Bestia; and two Sullae.
Non-senatorial men also filled the ranks. The classicist Erich Gruen describes these men as "mixed", adding, "single-minded purpose cannot readily be ascribed" to them. Some were frustrated candidates for municipal elections; some may have been motivated by debts; others sought profit in the chaos; yet others were members of declining aristocratic families like Catiline. What allowed them to raise a meaningful threat to the state was their mobilisation of men displaced by Sulla's civil war. Joining those dispossessed in the Sullan proscriptions were landed Sullan veterans who expected monetary rewards and had fallen into debt after poor harvests.
The ancient sources generally credit their involvement in the conspiracy with large debts that Catiline's putsch were supposedly to erase. But scholars reject this as a sole cause and consider the shame of unmet political ambitions indispensable. None of the ancient sources, save Dio, mention any connection between Catiline and land reform; it is likely Dio is wrong, if Catiline had advocated for land reform, Cicero should have alluded to it. Three of the conspirators had been repulsed at the consular elections; another three had been ejected from the senate; others found themselves unable to attain the same offices as their ancestors.
The conspiracy, however, was for Roman citizens only. It was not one for slaves. Although Cicero and others stoked fears of another servile rebellion – the last servile rebellion had been suppressed in 71 BC – the evidence leans against their involvement. Catiline planned not a social revolution, but rather, a coup to place himself and his allies in charge of the republic.
The defeat of the Rullan land reform bill early in 63 BC also must have stoked resentment: the bill would have confirmed Sullan settlers on their land and allowed them to sell it to the state; it would have distributed new lands to poor dispossessed citizens. The failure of the relief bill at Rome contributed to the uprising's support among the poor. This was coupled with a general financial and economic crisis stretching back at least to the First Mithridatic War a quarter-century earlier. With renewed demand for capital in the aftermath of stability secured by Pompey's victory in the Third Mithridatic War, moneylenders would have called in debts and increased interest rates, driving men into bankruptcy.
### Discovery
The consul Cicero heard rumours of a plot from a woman named Fulvia in the autumn in 63 BC. The first concrete evidence was provided by Marcus Licinius Crassus, who handed over letters on 18 or 19 October describing plans to massacre prominent citizens. Crassus' letters were corroborated by reports of armed men gathering in support of the conspiracy. In response, the senate passed a decree declaring a tumultus (a state of emergency) and, after receipt of the reports of armed men gathering in Etruria, carried the senatus consultum ultimum instructing the consuls to do whatever it took to respond to the crisis. By 27 October, the senate had received reports that Gaius Manlius, a former centurion and leader of an army there, had taken up arms near Faesulae. Some modern scholars have argued that Manlius' revolt was initially independent of Catiline's plans; , however, rejects this. In response, Cicero dispatched two nearby proconsuls and two praetors to respond to the possibility of armed insurrection with permission to levy troops and orders to maintain night watches.
Catiline remained in the city. While named in the anonymous letters sent to Crassus, this was insufficient evidence for incrimination. But after messages from Etruria connected him directly to the uprising, he was indicted under the lex Plautia de vi (public violence) in early November. The conspirators met, probably on 6 November, and found two volunteers to make an attempt on Cicero's life. Cicero also alleged that the conspirators plotted to engulf Rome in flames and destroy the city; Sallust reports this allegation allowed Cicero to turn the urban plebs against Catiline, but modern scholars do not believe Catiline credibly wanted to destroy the city. After the attempts on Cicero's life failed on 7 November 63 BC, he assembled the senate and delivered his first oration against Catiline, publicly denouncing the conspiracy; Catiline attempted to speak in his defence – attacking Cicero's ancestry – but was shouted down and promptly left the city to join Manlius' men in Etruria. Writing a letter, likely preserved in Sallust, he committed his wife to the protection of a friend and left the city, justifying his actions in terms of honours unjustly denied to him and denying any alleged indebtedness.
### Manoeuvres
When Catiline arrived in Manlius' camp, he assumed consular regalia. The senate responded immediately by declaring both Catiline and Manlius hostes (public enemies). Cassius Dio's history adds that Catiline was promptly convicted on the pending charges of vis (public violence). The senate also dispatched Cicero's co-consul, Gaius Antonius Hybrida, to lead troops against Catiline and put Cicero in charge of defending the city.
#### Execution of the conspirators
At this time, Cicero then discovered a plot led by Publius Cornelius Lentulus Sura, one of the sitting praetors, to bring in the Allobroges, a Gallic tribe, to support the Catilinarians but the Allobroges revealed Lentulus' plans. Cicero, using the Allobroges' envoys as double agents, sought their cooperation in identifying as many members of the conspiracy in the city as possible. With evidence provided by their help, on 2 or 3 December, five men were arrested: Lentulus, Cethegus, Statilius, Gabinius, and Caeparius. After the Gallic envoys divulged all they knew with promises of immunity before the senate, the prisoners confessed their guilt; Lentulus was forced to resign his magistracy and the others were committed to house arrest.
An informer on 4 December attempted to incriminate Crassus in the Catilinarian plot but the informer was not believed and imprisoned. The same day, an attempt was also made to free the prisoners; the senate responded by scheduling a debate on their fate – along with the fates of four other conspirators who had escaped – for the following day.
The debate on the fate of the prisoners occurred in the Temple of Concord. Cicero, as consul, had been empowered by the previously passed senatus consultum ultimum to take whatever steps he thought necessary to safeguard the state, but such decrees, while lending moral support for consular action, did not grant any kind of formal immunity. Cicero's goal in requesting senatorial advice was probably to transfer responsibility for any executions to the senate as a whole. When later charged with killing citizens without trial, he justified his actions in terms of following the senate's non-binding advice.
Calling the senate in order of seniority, the consuls-elect and ex-consuls all spoke in favour of the death penalty. But when Julius Caesar, who then was praetor-elect, was called, he proposed either life imprisonment or custody pending trial. Caesar's lenient position won many senators over to his side, although it too was illegal – life sentences not being permitted without trial – and impractical. Cicero purports he then interrupted proceedings to deliver a speech urging immediate action but the tide did not turn towards execution until Cato the Younger spoke. Plutarch's summary indicates that Cato gave a passionate and forceful speech inveighing against Caesar personally and implying that Caesar was in league with the conspirators. Sallust's version has Cato rail against moral decline in the state and has him criticising the senators for failing to be strict and harsh like their ancestors. With the appeal that swift execution would cause defections among the Catilinarians and exaggerated claims that Catiline was to be upon them imminently, Cato's speech carried the day.
With the senate ratifying Cicero's proposal to execute the conspirators without trial, Cicero had the sentences carried out, proclaiming at their conclusion, vixerunt (lit. 'they have lived'). He was then hailed by his fellow senators as pater patriae ("father of the fatherland").
#### Final defeat
After the five prisoners were killed, support fell away from Catiline and his army. Some in Rome, such as the then-tribune Metellus Nepos, proposed transferring command from Antonius to Pompey, calling upon the latter to save the state. Early the next year, near Pistoria, Catiline's remaining men, numbering at least three thousand, were engaged in battle by Antonius's forces – the now-proconsul, however, claimed illness and Marcus Petreius was in actual command – and defeated, ending the crisis. Catiline was killed in the battle; Antonius was hailed as imperator.
### Conclusion
While Cicero was initially hailed for his role in saving the state, he did not accrue all the credit, to his dismay. Cato was also hailed as having roused the senate to act against the conspirators. But there were some turns against Cicero's actions in the immediate aftermath of the summary executions. At the close of the consular year, Cicero's valedictory speech was vetoed by two tribunes of the plebs. One of the tribunes, Quintus Caecilius Metellus Nepos, also sought to bring Cicero up on charges for executing citizens without trial, though the senate prevented him from doing so by threatening to declare anyone who brought a prosecution a public enemy.
In the coming years, Cicero's enemies reorganised; Publius Clodius Pulcher, tribune in 58 BC, enacted a law banishing anyone who had executed a citizen without trial. Cicero promptly fled the city for Greece. His exile was eventually lifted and he was recalled to Rome the next year at Pompey's bequest. Views on Cicero's success in defending the republic are mixed: while Cicero argued that he had saved the commonwealth and many scholars have accepted his defence of necessary exigency, Harriet Flower, a classicist, writes he did so "by circumventing due process and the civil rights of citizens" while also revealing "the consul's complete lack of confidence in the court system on which the New Republic of Sulla was supposed to be based".
## Historiography
### Bias in ancient accounts
The main sources for us on the conspiracy are Sallust's Bellum Catilinae, a monograph on the conspiracy, and Cicero's Catilinarian orations. As a whole, the sources – in ancient times – almost always took anti-Catilinarian perspectives. The negative view of Catiline in the sources also found its way into Roman imperial culture.
Cicero's narrative is obviously one-sided and it is well established that he exaggerated the danger of Catiline's threat in his orations for political advantage. He also recounted his side of the story – also an act of self-promotion – in a memoir and a three-book poem De consulatu suo. Cicero's narrative casts Catiline in terms of immorality while eliding the economic hardships of the time. The narratives also extend beyond attacks on Catiline but also into exaggerating and justifying Cicero's role and actions during the conspiracy; the orations were themselves published, c. 60 BC, to defend Cicero from political backlash for his executions without trial.
Sallust, who was active politically before and after the conspiracy, was not present in Rome in 63 BC, likely abroad on military service. His history lies somewhat parallel to Cicero's Catilinarians (relying on extra-Ciceronean evidence, especially contemporary oral sources) but Cicero's orations and a now-lost memoir are core sources for Sallust's monograph.
Sallust's overarching focus on moral decline as a cause of the republic's collapse has him paint an ahistorical portrait of Catiline that elides details in favour of his larger narrative. J.T. Ramsey, in a commentary on the monograph, writes:
> S. [Sallust] fails to allow for a gradual shift in Catiline's strategy and aims as his hopes of reaching the consulship faded, because S. prefers to present Catiline as a through-going villain, the product of the corrupt age, who was bent on the destruction of the state from the very beginning...
And more problematically, Sallust's reliance on Cicero's one-sided narrative leads him to accept Cicero's invective uncritcally, exacerbating the portrait's hostility.
### Overemphasis
Both ancient and modern accounts have focused on the ways that Cicero turned the affair to his political advantage. The Pseudo-Sallustian Invective against Cicero, for example, alleges Cicero cynically transformed civil strife for his own political benefit. Many scholars also dismiss the conspiracy and its clean-up as being a minor affair that did not present a serious threat to the republic. For example, Louis E. Lord in the introduction to the 1937 Loeb Classical Library translation of Cicero's Catilinarian orations calls it "one of the best known and least significant episodes in Roman history".
Scholars have also criticised over-estimation of the importance of Catiline's insurrection, but others also stress that the affairs was not meaningless and that it jolted the republic into action. Erich Gruen, in Last generation of the Roman republic, writes:
> It is evident, in retrospect, that the event did not shake the foundations of the state. The government was in no real danger of toppling; the conspiracy, in fact, strengthened awareness of a common interest in order and stability. It is not, however, to be dismissed as a minor and meaningless episode. Motives of the leader may have been personal and less than admirable. But the movement itself called to notice a number of authentic social ills which had previously lacked effective expression...
>
> The shape of the social structure remained basically unaffected... but the grievances had been brought to public attention... prominent leaders recognised the utility of responding to needs exposed in the Catilinarian affair. The grain bill sponsored by Cato in 62 obviously belongs in this context... Two major bills in 59 and another in 55 went a long way toward relief.
### Underlying causes
Some older historiography has viewed the conspiracy in terms of a party-political conflict between the so-called optimates and populares. This view is criticised as uncritically accepting confusing and empty ancient political slogans while ignoring Catiline's Sullan bona fides. While sources sometimes put popularis speeches into the mouths of Catiline and others, the dyadic nature of the Roman constitution forced justification of anti-senatorial policies by appeal to popular sovereignty. Neither popular or senatorial advocates questioned the legitimacy of the other. Scholars also dispute whether Catiline had a following among the urban plebs at all and question whether later Ciceronean speeches connecting Clodius with Catiline are merely political invective.
While scholars accept that Catiline may have received some support from Crassus and Caesar, at least during his campaigns for the consulships of 63 and 62 BC, their support did not extend to the conspiracy. Some older scholarship conceived of Catiline as being a Crasso-Caesarian puppet; this position "has long been discredited".
### Critical perspectives
The most critical historians have alleged that the entire conspiracy was invented or incited by Cicero for his own advantage. Reevaluations and defences of Catiline started with Edward Spencer Beesly's 1878 book Catiline, Clodius, and Tiberius, though this initial defence was poorly received and lacked evidence. The most often-cited modern defences are and .
In 1970, Kenneth Waters argued that the descriptions of the conspiracy were motivated mostly by Cicero's need to present himself as having achieved something during his consulship. After detailing Catiline's purported plan, Waters argues that the description given of it is prima facie unbelievable and that, if true, the conspirators would have been implausibly incompetent. He argues that Catiline was forced to depart Rome under a cloud of false allegations to Etruria, where he made common cause with a pre-existing group of rebels to fight against Cicero's political dominance. Waters dismisses the Gallic evidence as setups by the consul meant to provide the senate with evidence of a plot and views the execution in Rome of the conspirators and Sallust's reports that no prisoners were taken at Pistoria as Cicero cutting loose ends.
Robin Seager argued in 1973 that Catiline's involvement in a plot against the state postdates Cicero's First Catilinarian and that when he left Rome in November, he had not yet fully committed to any rebellion. He also argues that Manlius, who Cicero cast as Catiline's military attaché, acted independently of Catiline for separate reasons. Only in Etruria, on Catiline's way to Massilia, did he join with Manlius after concluding that rebellion would protect his dignitas more than exile. Seager also rejects a joint plan between Catiline and Lentulus, arguing Lentulus probably joined late in the conspiracy to capitalise on the disruption, and pictures Cicero as attempting to purge Italy from unreliable elements in advance of Pompey's return to prevent him from taking over the state like Sulla.
Most scholars, however, reject Waters' and Seager's reconstructions and accept the broader historicity of Catiline's plot in 63 BC. |
1,040,724 | Abu Bakar of Johor | 1,166,231,861 | null | [
"1833 births",
"1895 deaths",
"Deaths from nephritis",
"First Classes of the Royal Family Order of Johor",
"Founding monarchs",
"Grand Crosses of the Order of Franz Joseph",
"Honorary Knights Grand Cross of the Order of St Michael and St George",
"House of Temenggong of Johor",
"Knights Commander of the Order of the Star of India",
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"Sultans of Johor"
]
| Sultan Sir Abu Bakar Al-Khalil Ibrahim Shah ibni Almarhum Temenggong Seri Maharaja Tun Daeng Ibrahim GCMG KCSI (Jawi: المرحوم سلطان سر ابو بكر الخليل إبراهيم شاه ابن المرحوم تمڠڬوڠ تون داءيڠ إبراهيم سري مهاراج جوهر; 3 February 1833 – 4 June 1895) was the Temenggong of Johor. He was the 1st Sultan of Modern Johor, the 21st Sultan of Johor and the first Maharaja of Johor from the House of Temenggong. He was also informally known as "The Father of Modern Johor", as many historians accredited Johor's development in the 19th century to Abu Bakar's leadership. He initiated policies and provided aids to ethnic Chinese entrepreneurs to stimulate the development of the state's agricultural economy which was founded by Chinese migrants from Southern China in the 1840s. He also took charge of the development of Johor's infrastructure, administrative system, military and civil service, all of which were modelled closely along Western lines.
Abu Bakar was noted for his diplomatic skills, and both the British and Malay rulers had approached him for advice in making important decisions. He was also an avid traveller, and became the first Malay ruler to travel to Europe during his first visit to England in 1866. In particular, Abu Bakar became a lifetime friend of Queen Victoria in his later years. Abu Bakar's friendship with Queen Victoria played an important role in shaping Johor's relationships with Britain, and was the only state by the end of the 19th century in the Peninsular Malaya to maintain autonomy in its internal affairs as the British Colonial Government pushed for greater control over the Malay states by placing a British Resident in the states. He was also an Anglophile, and many of his personal habits and decisions were aligned to European ideas and tastes.
Abu Bakar became the sovereign ruler of Johor when his father, Temenggong Daeng Ibrahim died in 1862. Six years later, Abu Bakar changed his legal state title of "Temenggong" to "Maharaja". In 1885, Abu Bakar sought legal recognition from Britain for another change in his legal state title of "Maharaja" to a regal title of "Sultan", and was proclaimed the following year. In all, Abu Bakar's reign lasted for 32 years until his death in 1895.
## Early years
Wan Abu Bakar was born on 3 February 1833 in Istana Lama at Teluk Belanga, Singapore. He was the eldest son of Temenggong Daeng Ibrahim, he is a patrilineal descendant of Temenggong Abdul Rahman who in turn was a matrilineal descendant of Sultan Abdul Jalil Shah IV, the first Sultan of Johor's Bendahara dynasty. Abu Bakar spent his childhood years in his father's kampung in Teluk Blanga; at a young age he was tutored by local teachers on Islam and Adat (traditional Malay law), before he was sent to the Teluk Blanga Malay school, a mission school run by Reverend Benjamin Peach Keasberry. Under the guidance of the missionary teachers, Abu Bakar was observed to develop the manners of an English gentleman, and the ability to speak fluent English in addition to his native Malay.
In 1851, the Temenggong delegated Abu Bakar, then an eighteen-year-old youth, to assist him in negotiation efforts against Sultan Ali, who was making frivolous attempts to claim sovereignty rights over Johor. As the Temenggong aged, he gradually delegated his state administrative duties to Abu Bakar. During this period, several British officers praised of Abu Bakar's excellent diplomatic skills, as mentioned in William Napier's diaries, who was the senior law agent of Singapore. Napier had accompanied Abu Bakar to fetch Tengku Teh, the mother of the deposed Sultan of Lingga, Mahmud Muzaffar Shah, to Johor shortly after her son began to exert sovereignty claims over Pahang.
The outbreak of the Pahang Civil War the following year saw Abu Bakar befriending Tun Mutahir, whom he provided support for his war efforts. Abu Bakar married Mutahir's daughter in 1860 during a visit in Pahang, and the following year he signed a treaty of friendship, alliance and a guarantee of mutual support with Mutahir in 1861. Meanwhile, Temenggong Ibrahim was already suffering from a prolonged period of ill health, and a bout of high fever resulted in his death on 31 January 1862.
## Administration of Johor
### Years as Temenggong (1862–1868)
Abu Bakar assumed office as the Temenggong of Johor within three days of his father's demise and moved his residence to Tyersall. At the time of his succession, Johor was facing a political threat from the deposed Sultan, Mahmud Muzaffar Shah. The Sultan was pursuing his sovereignty claims over Johor and Pahang and aimed to overthrow the Sultan of Terengganu with the backing of Siam. Mahmud Muzaffar Shah established an alliance with Tun Ahmad, half-brother and rival of the Bendahara Tun Koris. The alliance caused Abu Bakar concern that the fall of Tun Koris in Pahang would threaten his own political position in Johor. Abu Bakar signed a treaty of friendship with Tun Koris in June 1862, and sent a small expeditionary force to Pahang to support Tun Koris when war broke out in August 1862.
During the first two years of his reign, Abu Bakar expanded the kangchu system pioneered by Daeng Ibrahim. He issued Western-style contracts (termed as Surat Sungai in Malay, literally "River Documents") to the Kapitan Cina (Chinese leaders) who had established riverside plantations along in Johor. Letters of authority (Surat Kuasa) were issued when the first Chinese leaders began settling in Johor during the 1850s. Abu Bakar quickly established goodwill relations with the Kapitan Cina; a Malay administrator who could speak the Teochew dialect (the language spoken by most Kapitan Cina) and read Chinese was employed for these purposes. He also employed the service of a Chinese contractor from Toisan, Wong Ah Fook, to oversee the construction of Istana Besar.
Various Chinese dialect groups began to compete for commercial interests in the 1850s and 1860s. This led to communal violence. Abu Bakar and the Kapitan Cina in Johor (who were mainly migrants from Chaozhou) tried to assimilate Chinese entrepreneurs of non-Teochew origin. Abu Bakar gave official recognition and support for the Johor branch of the Ngee Ann Kongsi, which was seen as a secret society in Singapore at that time. As Johor prospered from the large revenues generated from the gambier and pepper plantations managed by the Kapitan Cina, Abu Bakar gave generous provisions to the Kapitan Cina in recognition for their contributions to the state; among his beneficiaries was a long-time family friend, Tan Hiok Nee, who was given a seat in the state council. The plantations operated relatively independently of the state government, and Abu Bakar was worried by the possible danger to the plantations in the event of an economic crisis. Shortly after a financial crisis broke out in Singapore in 1864, Abu Bakar imposed new regulations on these plantations, as many of them were owned by Chinese businessmen from Singapore. The Kapitan Cina and the Singapore Chamber of Commerce were particularly disturbed by the new regulations, and accused Abu Bakar of attempting to impose a trade monopoly over Johor. The British government pressured Abu Bakar to retract the regulations, which he did in January 1866. In addition, the Kapitan Cina also faced considerable difficulties in securing new agreements with Abu Bakar. The crisis was only resolved in 1866 after Abu Bakar designated five new ports for the registration of cargo, and the British softened their animosity against Abu Bakar.
Abu Bakar's relationship with the ruler of Muar, Sultan Ali was strained. Soon after Abu Bakar succeeded his father, he sent a letter to Sultan Ali asserting Johor's sovereignty over Segamat, which Sultan Ali had hoped to exert political influence over. In addition, Sultan Ali, who had borrowed a large sum from an Indian moneylender in 1860, became a source of irritation for Abu Bakar. Facing difficulties in repaying his debt, Sultan Ali asked Abu Bakar to pay Ali's monthly pension to the moneylender; but he alternated asking for payment to himself and to the moneylender. In 1866, when the moneylender lodged a complaint with the British government, Sultan Ali tried to borrow from Abu Bakar to repay his outstanding debts. As a result of these constant irritations, Abu Bakar persuaded the Straits Governor to sign an agreement to terminate Sultan Ali's pension at the agreement of Abu Bakar and Governor.
Abu Bakar made revisions to Johor's Islamic code in 1863, after the Sultan of Terengganu revised his state's Islamic judicial system to be more closely aligned with Sharia law. In a letter to the Straits Governor, Abu Bakar expressed hope that his revisions would suit more comfortably with European ideas. He founded an English school in Tanjung Puteri in 1864. Two years later, Abu Bakar moved the administrative headquarters to Tanjung Puteri, and officially renamed it as Johor Bahru. A new administration was set up, which was modelled after European styles and certain elements of a traditional Malay government. He recruited some of his close relatives and his classmates from the Teluk Blanga Malay school into the bureaucracy, and also set up an advisory council which included two Chinese leaders. In the early 1870s, Straits Governor Sir Harry Ord said of Abu Bakar (who became a Maharaja in 1868) that he was the "only Raja in the whole peninsula or adjoining states who rules in accordance with the practice of civilized nations."
### Years as Maharaja (1868–1885)
During a state visit to England in 1866, Abu Bakar was commonly addressed as the "Maharaja" of Johor and led him to realise that the Malay title of Temenggong was hardly known to the Western World. He contemplated a change of another title, which led him to send his cousin, Ungku Haji Muhammad and the Dato Bentara, Dato Jaafar to meet the Bugis historian, Raja Ali Haji who was residing in Riau. Raja Ali supported Abu Bakar's cause, after they did a cross examination and concluded that the past office holders had wielded actual control over the affairs of Johor, rather than the Sultans of the Bendahara dynasty. In addition, questions pertaining to Abu Bakar's pursuits to clamour for recognition were also sidelined as he was able to trace his ancestry to the first Sultan of the Bendahara dynasty, Sultan Abdul Jalil Shah IV by his patrilineal ancestors. The Sultan of Lingga, gave his approval for a formal recognition of Abu Bakar as the Maharaja of Johor, after Ungku Haji and Dato Jaafar travelled to Lingga and presented their claims. Abu Bakar also secured approval from the Governor of the Straits Settlements for his change in title, and was officially proclaimed as the Maharaja of Johor on 30 June 1868.
Shortly after his proclamation as Maharaja, Abu Bakar laid plans for the construction of a wooden railway between Johor Bahru and Gunung Pulai after some Europeans had raised proposals to set up a retreat and sanatorium. Construction of the railway started in July 1869 and construction of the first phase was completed in 1874, which ran between Skudai and Johor Bahru. The construction project was later halted after an accident which saw a locomotive falling off the tracks as a result of termite attacks on the wooden tracks within the Skudai portion and a shortage of funds.
In the mid-1870s, the Straits Governor, William Jervois contemplated on placing Maharaja Abu Bakar as the overlord of the chiefs in Negeri Sembilan after the British failed to quell the sectarian violence in Sungai Ujong. Abu Bakar's client, Tunku Antah was placed as the Yam Tuan of the Sri Menanti confederacy (comprising several small states within the region), and Abu Bakar was made the adviser of Negeri Sembilan (except Sungai Ujong) in 1878. Abu Bakar was believed to have nursed expansionist ambitions, which was suggested by his involvement in the Pahang Civil War between 1857 and 1864. A later governor, Frederick Weld, aspired for stronger British control over the Malay states and was weary of Abu Bakar's influence. The chiefs were lukewarm to the prospect of Johor's sphere of influence over Negeri Sembilan, and in 1881 Weld convinced the chiefs within the Sri Menanti confederacy to deal directly with Singapore rather than with Abu Bakar. British officers were also appointed to oversee the affairs in 1883 and 1887, and were gradually given the powers similar to that of a British resident.
After Sultan Ali's death in 1877, the Raja Temenggong of Muar and its village chieftains voted in favour of a merger of Muar with Johor following a succession dispute between two of Sultan Ali's sons. Sultan Ali's oldest son, Tengku Alam, disputed the legitimacy of the chieftains' wishes and staked his hereditary claims over Muar. Tengku Alam instigated the 1879 Jementah Civil War in a bid to reclaim Muar, but was quickly crushed by the Maharaja's forces. During the 1880s, Abu Bakar actively encouraged the Chinese leaders to set up new gambier and pepper plantations in Muar.
Meanwhile, Weld's continued efforts to keep Abu Bakar's political influence in check and relations between Johor and Singapore became increasingly strained. Abu Bakar was reportedly said to be increasingly reluctant to accept advice from the British-appointed state lawyers, and increasingly turned to his private lawyers which he had employed. Weld voiced his intent to place a Resident in Johor, which prompted Abu Bakar to make a trip to England in August 1884 to negotiate new terms with the British Colonial Office. The Assistant Under-Secretary of the Colonial Office, Robert Meade, conceded to Abu Bakar's request for an absence of a British Resident in Johor, although Abu Bakar gave an in-principle acceptance for a British adviser in Johor (though none was appointed until 1914). An agreement was drawn up, and Abu Bakar was promised control over internal affairs in exchange for British control over foreign affairs pertaining to the state.
### Years as Sultan (1885–1895)
The Bendahara of Pahang, Wan Ahmad, was proclaimed Sultan in 1881. Abu Bakar, who was weary of the increasingly hostile political environment imposed by Weld, considered the importance of the superior moral authority that was accorded to a "Sultan" than to a "Maharaja". In 1885, Abu Bakar instituted the creation of a state postal and judiciary system modelled along British lines, as well as a military force, the Johor Military Forces (JMF, Malay: Askar Timbalan Setia) upon his return to Johor.
During his stay in London in late 1885, Abu Bakar expressed his desire to Meade for a formal recognition as the Sultan of Johor. He also met up with Queen Victoria, who had become a personal friend of Abu Bakar, within the same course of his visit. Queen Victoria consented to his wishes, and a treaty was signed on 11 December 1885 which formalised relations between Great Britain and Johor, was concluded between Abu Bakar and the Colonial Office. Abu Bakar also founded the state advisory board in London, which was intended to oversee state interests in London. Several retired officers from the Colonial Office, including William Fielding and Cecil Smith were personally appointed by Abu Bakar to oversee the board's administration.
The formal recognition of Abu Bakar by the British as the Sultan of Johor quickly drew criticisms among the Malays in Johor. A pantun circulated among the Malays in Johor, which poked jibes at Abu Bakar's background, became very popular. Many Malays were coy on accepting Abu Bakar as their paramount ruler, as they were sceptical of Abu Bakar's Temenggong political origins and Buginese heritage. Furthermore, his affinity with Western culture did not go down well with the culturally-conservative Malays. A proclamation ceremony was held on 13 February 1886, whereby Abu Bakar made an official announcement on his adoption of the title "Sultan" in place of "Maharaja". In the same year on 31 July, Abu Bakar instituted the first state decorations, Darjah Kerabat Yang Amat Dihormati (also translated into English as "The Most Esteemed Family Order of Johor") and the Seri Paduka Mahkota Johor (Order of the Crown of Johor).
Abu Bakar employed the service of a Chinese contractor and long-time acquaintance, Wong Ah Fook, to oversee the development of Johor Bahru. The Johor Archives showed that Wong was the largest building contractor at that time and had been involved in at least twenty public works projects between 1887 and 1895. In addition, Wong was contracted to oversee the construction of the state mosque and several palaces including Istana Tyersall under the direction of Abu Bakar. As a gratitude to Wong's contributions to the state, Abu Bakar granted him a plot of land in the heart of Johor Bahru in 1892. Wong then oversaw the construction of a village, Kampong Ah Fook, as well as a road, Jalan Wong Ah Fook on the land that he was granted.
Abu Bakar promulgated the Johor State Establishment Constitution (Malay: Undang-undang Tubuh Negeri Johor), drafted by Abdul Rahman Andak, on 14 April 1895. The state's constitution was seen as a turning point by many as a step in laying the groundwork for the administration of Johor. It was suggested that Abu Bakar, who was fearful of his possible imminent death in light of his failing health, promogulated the state constitution with the intent of preserving the state's independence in the light of growing British political influence in the Malay states.
## Foreign relations
### Great Britain
Abu Bakar made his inaugural state visit while he was still a Temenggong. He toured England in 1866 with Dato' Jaafar, and met with members of the English royalty, notably Queen Victoria and the Prince of Wales, Prince Edward. The Queen conferred Abu Bakar with the Knight Commander of the Order of the Star of India (KCSI), which he valued highly. The trip reportedly gave both Abu Bakar and Dato' Jaafar lasting memories of England, and inspired Abu Bakar to develop Johor along British lines. Nine years later, Abu Bakar travelled to Calcutta to meet up with Prince Edward who was then spending his time in the city. The following year, Prince Edward conferred Abu Bakar the Prince of Wales's Gold medal. He made another trip to London in 1878, where he was invited to attend the State Ball at Buckingham Palace. Abu Bakar's palaces were modelled closely along British lines; when Prince George and Prince Albert Victor visited Johor in the 1880s, they had commented that the huge drawing room of Abu Bakar's palace closely resembled the state-rooms found at Windsor Castle. He was also an avid polo player, and had raced with the princes during their state visits to Johor. The Duke of Sutherland also praised Abu Bakar's hospitality during his state visit after he became Sultan, and had reportedly enjoyed the Malay cuisine which the Abu Bakar had served to him.
In particular, Queen Victoria became a close friend of Abu Bakar especially during his later years. During a visit to England in February 1891, Abu Bakar was personally received by the Queen, and was invited to dine and stay with the Queen at Windsor Castle. Queen Victoria held Abu Bakar in very high esteem, which she had signed herself off as an "affectionate friend" in a letter to Abu Bakar in March 1891. Reportedly, Queen Victoria was quoted to have highly valued the silver model Albert Memorial which Abu Bakar sent to her during her Golden Jubilee in 1887. Shortly before his death in May 1895, Queen Victoria sent her personal physician to attend to Abu Bakar's medical needs, who was by then very ill when he arrived in London.
### Other countries
Abu Bakar visited Ottoman Turkey during his European tour in 1866, where he met Sultan Abdülaziz. The Sultan presented Ruggyyah Hanum, a Circassian princess to Abu Bakar as a gift. Ruggyyah Hanum married Ungku Abdul Majid, Abu Bakar's brother after she arrived in Johor. After Ungku Majid's untimely death, Ruggyyah Hanum was later remarried to Dato Jaafar (who had accompanied Abu Bakar during his 1866 trip). During his second visit to England in August 1878, Abu Bakar wrote to Colonel Anson from South Kensington of his wishes to visit European royalties in Paris, Vienna and Italy. He managed to visit Paris and Vienna, and was even given a warm reception by Prince Henry of Liechtenstein before returning to Johor. Three years later, he visited Prussia, where he was conferred the Royal Prussian Order of the Crown. He made two separate European tours in 1891 and 1893 with a personal physician by his side, during which he met Emperor Francis Joseph, King Umberto, Pope Leo XIII and Sultan Abdul Hamid II, and was conferred the awards of Commander of the Cross of Italy, Imperial Order of the Osmans (Turkey) and the Commander of the Cross of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha.
In 1881, Abu Bakar also visited Java, which was under Dutch rule. In the same year, he received the visiting King Kalākaua during his tour around the world and was conferred the Grand Cross of the Order of Kalakaua I of Hawaii. and State Secretary, Muhammad Salleh. In 10 December 1892 at Istana Tyersall, Tyersall, Singapore, the Emperor of China, Guangxu, conveyed by the Consul General in Singapore, bestowed upon him the First Class of the First Grade Order of the Double Dragon for his just treatment of the Chinese in Johor, witnessed by a gathering of Chinese towkays (businesspeople).
## Family
Abu Bakar married his first wife, Engku Chik during his stay in Pahang in 1857. Abu Bakar was related to Engku Chik by family ties; Engku Chik was the sister of Tun Koris, who was also a brother-in-law to Abu Bakar. Abu Bakar had a daughter with Engku Chik, Tunku Besar Putri. He also had a son, Tunku Ibrahim, and a daughter, Tunku Mariam with his second wife Cecilia Catherina Lange, who was the daughter of a Danish trader, Mads Johansen Lange and his Chinese wife Nonna Sangnio. Lange met Abu Bakar while she was in Singapore, and adopted the Muslim name of "Zubaidah" after her marriage to Abu Bakar in 1870. In 1885, Abu Bakar married a Chinese woman of Cantonese heritage, Wong Ah Gew, with whom he had a daughter, Tunku Azizah. Wong took on the Muslim name of "Fatimah" at her marriage to Abu Bakar, and was crowned the Sultanah in July 1886. Abu Bakar held Wong in very high esteem, who became Abu Bakar's confidant pertaining to his involvement in state affairs. Wong became a close friend of Abu Bakar's building contractor, Wong Ah Fook as they shared a common surname and dialect group. Wong died in 1891. During his state visit to the Ottoman Empire in September 1893, Abu Bakar married his fourth wife, Khadijah Khanum, who was of Circassian heritage. (Khadijah's sister, Rugayah, became the wife of Abu Bakar's brother and later the wife of the first Menteri Besar of Johor, Dato' Jaafar). He had a daughter, Tunku Fatimah with Khadijah the following February, who was later crowned as the Sultanah of Johor.
## Death
In early May 1895, Abu Bakar travelled to London together with his son and successor, Tunku Ibrahim (later Sultan Ibrahim) with the hope to mustering support and recognition of his rule. He was by then already very ill and was already suffering from an inflammation of the kidneys for sometime and diagnosed with Bright's disease (a type of kidney disease). At the onstart of the voyage in early May, he became very weak, and had to be carried aboard a ship in a wheelchair. He reached London on 10 May, and checked into Bailey's Hotel but was bedridden throughout his remaining days. He was not allowed to receive many visitors, though the Duke of Connaught and Strathearn, Prince Arthur paid two visits. Queen Victoria sent her personal physician, Douglas Powell to attend to his medical needs upon receiving news of his illness.
Abu Bakar contracted pneumonia during his stay in the hotel, which led to his demise on the evening of 4 June 1895. His body was then brought back to Johor by an English man-of-war from Penang. A state funeral was given to Abu Bakar, and he was laid to rest at the royal mausoleum at Makam Mahmoodiah on 7 September 1895. His son, Tunku Ibrahim was later installed as the Sultan of Johor in November 1895.
## Legacy
Abu Bakar was often accredited as the "Founder of Modern Johor" (Malay: Bapa Pemodenan Johor). He established a Western-styled bureaucratic system and civil service, and consolidated the state's agricultural economy, which consisted of gambier and pepper plantations headed by Chinese leaders, known as "Kangchu" in the Teochew dialect of the southern min Chinese language. The gambier and pepper plantations were first introduced during the 1840s by Chinese immigrants. Often, Abu Bakar was called in by Malay rulers from neighbouring states to provide advice in the event when the rulers had to make important decisions. In particular, he became a close confidante of the Sultan of Pahang, Wan Ahmad in 1887, with whom Abu Bakar had persuaded Sultan Ahmad to accept a British consultant instead of a Resident. The Colonial Government at that time was seeking for greater control over the Malay States and was making vociferous attempts to impose British Residents into the Malay states. The Colonial Government also made a failed attempt to impose a British Resident in Johor in 1885; the state maintained its independence in its internal affairs until 1914.
Abu Bakar was also the first Malay ruler to visit Europe in 1866. He was an Anglophile, and mingled comfortably with the Europeans. The British governor, Sir Harry Ord had once written to the Secretary of State of Great Britain and described Abu Bakar as an "English gentleman" in his tastes and habits. Abu Bakar had gained his share of critics, especially among the more conservative Malay scholars who were critical of his Western tastes. Abu Bakar's penchant for an extravagant lifestyle and foreign travel resulted in a depleted state treasury at the time of his death in 1895. At least one scholar, Nesalmar Nadarajah, had suggested that Johor's loss of independence in the early 20th century was attributed to this depleted state treasury. In addition, Nadarajah also believed that the loss of Johor's independence was also attributed to Abu Bakar's failure of giving attention to his young son, Tunku Ibrahim, who lacked proper education and training in the art of state administration and diplomacy when he succeeded his father as the Sultan of Johor in his early twenties.
Many state's buildings which were constructed during Abu Bakar's reign were modelled after British Victorian and Moorish architectural styles. Abu Bakar placed the construction of these state buildings under close supervision, and was often called in to lay the foundation stones of these buildings personally. A few of these buildings were named after Abu Bakar himself, notably the Sultan Abu Bakar State Mosque (Malay: Masjid Negeri Sultan Abu Bakar), which was built between 1892 and 1900.
## Honours of Johor
- Founding Grand Master (1886) of the Royal Family Order of Johor
- Founding Grand Master (1886) of the Order of the Crown of Johor
## Foreign honours
- Austria-Hungary :
- Grand Cross of the Order of Franz Joseph (1893)
- Qing Dynasty :
- Imperial Order of the Double Dragon, 1st Class, 1st Grade of the Chinese Empire (1892)
- Kingdom of Hawaii :
- Grand Cross of the Royal Order of Kalākaua (1881)
- British Raj :
- Knight Commander of the Order of the Star of India (KCSI) (17 September 1866)
- Italy :
- Commander of the Order of the Crown of Italy (1891)
- Ottoman Empire :
- 1st Class of the Imperial Order of Osminieh (Nishan-e-Osmanieh) (1893)
- Prussia :
- 1st Class of the Order of the Crown (23 June 1880)
- Saxony Ernestine Duchies of Saxe :
- Grand Cross of the Ducal Saxe-Ernestine House Order – 1893
- United Kingdom :
- Prince of Wales's Gold Medal – 1876
- Knight Grand Cross of the Order of St Michael and St George (GCMG) - Sir (20 March 1876) |
11,269,450 | Göttingen Seven | 1,153,884,719 | Group of professors exiled for political protest | [
"1837 in Germany",
"1837 in the Kingdom of Hanover",
"Kingdom of Hanover",
"University of Göttingen"
]
| The Göttingen Seven (German: Göttinger Sieben) were a group of seven liberal professors at University of Göttingen. In 1837, they protested against the annullment of the constitution of the Kingdom of Hanover by its new ruler, King Ernest Augustus, and refused to swear an oath to the king. The company of seven was led by historian Friedrich Christoph Dahlmann, who himself was one of the key advocates of the previous constitution. The other six were the Germanist brothers Wilhelm and Jacob Grimm (famed fairy tale and folk tale writers and storytellers, known together as the Brothers Grimm), jurist Wilhelm Eduard Albrecht, historian Georg Gottfried Gervinus, physicist Wilhelm Eduard Weber, and theologian and orientalist Heinrich Georg August Ewald.
## Background
The constitution that Ernest Augustus opposed came into effect in 1833, while he was still heir presumptive to the Hanoverian throne. Historian and politician Friedrich Christoph Dahlmann contested Ernest's plans to change the constitution to his liking, as Dahlmann himself had contributed to the constitution's framing. Additionally, Dahlmann served as the representative of the University of Göttingen, in the second chamber of the noble court.
The death of King William IV on 20 June 1837 had a great impact on Hanover's political positioning, relations, and union with the group of constitutional states in the German Confederation. With William's death, the personal union ended between Hanover and the United Kingdom, and William's brother (Ernest Augustus) took over as ruler of the kingdom of Hanover. Their niece Victoria acceded to the throne of the United Kingdom, but could not inherit Hanover due to the provision of Salic Law in force in Hanover, which barred females from ruling.
About one month after he succeeded to the throne, King Ernest addressed the matter of the Constitution. He stated that he was not bound by it, as his consent had not been asked to it. He also indicated that it would have been different, or perhaps even non-existent, had he been in power at the time of its composition. He declared that it was his aim and ambition to make the necessary changes to the constitution and rewrite it to reflect his values.
Hearing this, Dahlmann made an attempt to persuade his colleagues at the University of Göttingen senate to disapprove of the king's intent to change the constitution, and take some form of action. None of his over 40 different colleagues were willing to support Dahlmann's view and possibly cause public conflict or unrest during ongoing festivities of the 100th anniversary of the University of Göttingen.
## Protest and aftermath
On 1 November the same year, Ernest Augustus annulled the constitution. This move was met with political criticism from some German states. The move also provoked Dahlmann to again appeal to the university and to compose a protestation opposing Ernest's decision. This time, he received a better response: six other professors were now willing to sign in opposition. These six plus Dahlmann became known as the Göttingen Seven. Dahlmann's document was published on 18 November and it met with an explosive influence—the students at the university produced many hundreds or even thousands of copies and disseminated them across Germany.
The protest's impact forced the king to take action, and the seven defiant professors were questioned before the university court on 4 December. Ten days later, the seven were relieved of their posts at the university, and three of them (Dahlmann, Jacob Grimm, and Gervinus) were given three days to leave the country. The university viewed the dismissal as a great loss to the university, confirmed in writings about the event during the time.
The direct effects of the protest were limited, but public sensation and media interest was high in Germany and much of Europe, and the seven were popular among the general public. Each of the seven had his own personal reasons for defying the king, but the fact that they had done so was the central catalyst for the media and public attention. The efforts of the Göttingen Seven outlived each of them, and the creation of a liberal republic in Germany can in part be traced back to their protest.
## See also
- History of Germany#German Confederation, 1815–1867 |
24,341,999 | Saw 3D | 1,173,858,565 | 2010 film by Kevin Greutert | [
"2010 3D films",
"2010 films",
"2010 horror films",
"2010s American films",
"2010s English-language films",
"2010s serial killer films",
"Advertising and marketing controversies in film",
"American 3D films",
"American sequel films",
"American serial killer films",
"Censored films",
"Crime horror films",
"Film controversies in Germany",
"Film controversies in the United States",
"Films directed by Kevin Greutert",
"Films scored by Charlie Clouser",
"Films shot in Toronto",
"Lionsgate films",
"Obscenity controversies in film",
"Rating controversies in film",
"Saw (franchise) films",
"Torture in films"
]
| Saw 3D (also released as Saw: The Final Chapter) is a 2010 American 3D horror film directed by Kevin Greutert and written by Patrick Melton and Marcus Dunstan. It is the sequel to 2009's Saw VI and seventh installment in the Saw film series. The film stars Tobin Bell, Costas Mandylor, Betsy Russell, Sean Patrick Flanery, and Cary Elwes.
The plot follows a man who, after falsely claiming to be a survivor of one of the Jigsaw Killer's games in order to become a local celebrity, finds himself part of a real game where he must save his wife. Meanwhile, John Kramer's ex-wife Jill Tuck informs the Internal Affairs that rogue detective Mark Hoffman is the man responsible for the recent Jigsaw games.
A sequel to Saw VI was originally planned, but due to the decline in box office success for the previous film, Saw 3D was instead made as the final installment in the series. The plot for the originally planned Saw VIII was instead included in Saw 3D. David Hackl, the director of Saw V, was originally set to direct Saw 3D, but two weeks before filming, Greutert, the director of Saw VI, took over. The film was shot in Toronto, Ontario from February to April 2010 and was filmed in RealD 3D.
The film opened on October 29, 2010 in the United States and Canada. It received mostly negative reviews, but was a box office success. It was followed by an eighth film, Jigsaw, in 2017.
## Plot
Dr. Lawrence Gordon has survived a test after sawing off his foot to escape from an underground bathroom, using a steam pipe to cauterize his ankle nub. Some time later, another game takes place in a home improvement storefront at a shopping center. Brad and Ryan are chained to opposite sides of a worktable secured to a sliding carriage with power saws while their mutual lover Dina is suspended above a third saw. The men have 60 seconds to shove the saws into their opponent to save Dina, who had manipulated both of them into fulfilling her needs by committing crimes. Realizing her betrayal, Ryan and Brad reach a truce and allow Dina to be bisected. Meanwhile, Jill Tuck witnesses Mark Hoffman's escape from his trap and seeks help from Internal Affairs detective Matt Gibson; she offers to incriminate Hoffman in exchange for protection and immunity.
Meanwhile, Hoffman abducts a gang of white supremacists and places them in a trap at an abandoned junkyard that kills all of them. He also abducts Bobby Dagen, a self-help guru who achieved fame and fortune by fabricating a story of his own survival of a Jigsaw trap. Bobby awakens in an abandoned psychiatric hospital and is informed that he has one hour to save his wife, Joyce, who is chained to a steel platform that gradually pulls her down as she watches Bobby's progress. After escaping from a cage hanging over a floor of spikes, Bobby navigates his way through the asylum, attempting to complete his other tests and to rescue Nina, his publicist; Suzanne, his lawyer; and Cale, his best friend, all of whom knew about Bobby's lies and aided him in fabricating his story. Despite his efforts, all of them are killed in their respective traps. Bobby reunites with Joyce after pulling out two of his own teeth to obtain the combination for the lock on the door to her room. Gibson discovers the location of Bobby's game and sends a SWAT team, who are sealed in another room and killed by toxic gas.
Finding Hoffman's command center, Gibson realizes that he gained access to the police station during the games, having been brought into the morgue in a body bag with the intention of finding Jill. Before Gibson can warn the station, he and the officers accompanying him are killed by an automatic turret gun. Hoffman infiltrates the police station, killing everyone in his path.
For his final test, Bobby must re-enact the test he claimed to have survived, by driving two hooks through his pectoral muscles and hoisting himself above the ceiling to deactivate Joyce's trap, but the hooks tear through his flesh and he falls to the floor. The timer then goes off, causing a capsule resembling a brazen bull to close around Joyce and incinerate her.
After reaching Jill and executing her with the original reverse bear trap, Hoffman destroys his workshop and begins to leave town but is subdued by three pig-masked figures. The leader reveals himself to be Dr. Gordon, who became Jigsaw's apprentice after surviving his test. Fulfilling a request from John to take immediate action if Jill were to be harmed, Gordon shackles Hoffman in the same bathroom where he was tested before throwing away the hacksaw he had used to escape and sealing the door.
## Cast
## Production
### Development
Variety reported in July 2009 that Lionsgate greenlit Saw VII and announced David Hackl would return to direct, his last film being Saw V. Producers Mark Burg and Oren Koules, and writers Patrick Melton and Marcus Dunstan also returned. Brian Gedge replaced series' cinematographer David A. Armstrong. Pre-production began on September 14, 2009. According to Melton, there were plans to title the film Saw: Endgame. Originally two sequels were planned after the sixth, but in December 2009 Melton stated in a podcast interview with the UK radio station Demon FM that Saw VII was the final installment and would address unanswered questions from previous Saw films, such as the fate of the first film's protagonist Dr. Lawrence Gordon and other Jigsaw survivors from previous films, while bringing a final resolution to the series. The storyline for a Saw VIII was combined into Saw VII; this decision was primarily due to Saw VI's below average box office performance. On July 22, 2010, in an interview with USA Today the producers confirmed that Saw VII would officially end the film series. Burg told Reuters that, "In every Saw movie, we left questions open and in Saw VII we answer every question the audience has ever had". He added that, "even new viewers will be able to follow and get caught up to speed". Saw 3D was originally intended to be two separate films. According to Melton and Dunstan, "It was our original intention to make the final Saw in two parts, but when [Saw] VI didn't do so well, the studio got nervous and we were only allowed to make one more."
In January 2010, Kevin Greutert, who made his directorial debut with the sixth film, was about to begin work on Paramount's Paranormal Activity 2 when Twisted Pictures suddenly dismissed Hackl and forced Greutert on the project by exercising a "contractual clause" in his contract, much to Greutert's dismay. When Greutert arrived on set two weeks before filming began, he performed a "compressive re-write" of the script. Melton explained that, "He has a lot of ideas, but it's a bit hard and extreme to implement all of these ideas because sets have been built, people have been cast, props have been bought or created, and with the Saw films they are so specific in set design because of the traps. It becomes very problematic and difficult to change things a whole bunch right in the middle of it".
### Casting
Casting began in mid-December 2009. Cary Elwes reprised of the role of Dr. Lawrence Gordon, last seen in the first film. The filmmakers wanted to bring Elwes back earlier, but Elwes wanted to wait until the last film. His character was planned to return by Greutert in Saw VI, but Elwes was unavailable. Elwes described his character as having Stockholm syndrome. Tobin Bell returned once more to reprise his role as Jigsaw/John Kramer, even though he had originally signed on to appear in five Saw sequels as he previously stated prior to the release of Saw III. Chad Donella appeared in the film as Internal Affairs detective Gibson, who was also detective Hoffman's former partner.
Gabby West, who won the role as Kara after winning the show Scream Queens. Tanedra Howard, the previous winner of Scream Queens, who appeared as Simone in Saw VI, reprised her role in the film. Chester Bennington, the lead vocalist of the alternative rock band Linkin Park, has a role in the film playing Evan, a white power skinhead. Bennington met with an acting coach to prepare for his role. He said, "It was actually a little more difficult than I expected because it took a lot for me to figure out how to portray this guy and what exactly his motives were going to be throughout. I thought maybe I was overthinking it, and I met with this really great acting coach who helped me walk through and make sense of the, 'Motivation' ". Devon Bostick was offered to reprise his role as Brent Abbott from Saw VI, but turned the offer down due to scheduling conflicts with Diary of a Wimpy Kid.
### Filming in 3D
Saw 3D was shot entirely in RealD 3D, using the SI-3D digital camera system, rather than filming on set traditionally and later transferring the footage to 3D. Before choosing 3D, Burg and others viewed a minute of the original Saw film rendered in 3D and were pleased, which led to them choosing 3D for the seventh film. The sets and traps were designed to take advantage of 3D. To continue the fast pace of the previous films, the SI-3D cameras' light weight allowed three-quarters of film to be shot handheld. Saw 3D was Greutert's first time directing a 3D film. He said in an interview with Popular Mechanics that composing a shot in 3D was tricky compared to 2D; he explained, "If you've got both cameras looking at a subject and there's a very bright sheen on the side of the person's arm that only one camera can see, there's a good chance that when you look at a composite of the two images that sheen will not register in 3D space. It looks like a mistake. These things aren't an issue at all in 2D but in 3D are obsessively problematic". Given the cost of filming in 3D, Greutert said the budget was \$17 million, the most expensive of the series up to that point. Principal photography began on February 8, 2010, in Toronto, Ontario, and wrapped on April 12, 2010. Filming took place mostly at Toronto's Cinespace Film Studios.
When determining the style of 3D shooting they wanted to use, Burg felt that the audience would want several moments where objects move into the audience, comparing this to My Bloody Valentine 3D. He acknowledged that this method would be used, but expressed an interest in shooting from the victim's perspective, similar to that of first-person shooter video games being rendered in 3D. Dunstan added that "It adds a whole new layer of discipline and criteria to creating these moments. We've had a very flat surface to try to get a reaction out of you. Now, we get to push out a bit and envelop the viewer, still maintaining the patterns that have worked and been successful, but also to raise it up a notch." Commenting on the change to filming in 3D, Bell stated it would not affect his performance or methods of acting, noting that it would be an "interesting experience". Mandylor called the 3D shoot "more tedious and longer". Flannery described (inaccurately, as the final production includes many to-viewer shock shots) the 3D aspect as being "[not] shot in 3D so that you can, per se, see blood coming directly at you. It's in 3D for the texture and the depth, for the architecture, to get a sense that you're in the scene but there's no 'we want to see blood coming at the lens' it's nothing like that. But I think we made a good movie." Post-production services were provided by Deluxe Media.
### Traps design
Filming of the trap scenes, which was done last, began in March. The film's opening trap scene was filmed at Metro Hall in Toronto, Ontario, just outside Roy Thomson Hall, and included 400 extras. In the trap, the circular saw blades were actually real and functional, but safety precautions were taken for the actors. One actor that was in the trap, Jon Cor, told Demon FM that he had scars on his hands from the shackles, and said the other actors, Sebastian Pigott chipped his tooth and Anne Lee Greene lost the feeling in her feet and had to receive medical attention.
Producer Oren Koules told horror news website ShockTilYouDrop.com that there are eleven traps in the film, the most ever in the franchise at that point. There is one "trap" scene in the film that producers would not allow in previous Saw films that they described as "too violent", "too disgusting", and "just wrong". Melton later confirmed that was the "Garage Trap", which involved a car and sets off a "chain reaction" with other characters. Gabby West was part of the trap. She told VH1, "They molded my entire face, and basically my entire upper body after my belly button. They put layers and layers of different materials on you and you have two straws in your nose so you can breathe. It was so scary! They put so much of it on, you can't see and they put it in your ears so you can barely hear anything. That was part of the prep for the film, which was really cool, to have a dummy made of yourself. But scary." Over 25 gallons of fake blood was used in the film, which was two and half times more than Saw II.
## Release
Originally scheduled to be released on October 22, 2010, Saw 3D was pushed back a week to October 29 to prevent competition with Paramount's Paranormal Activity 2 opening. The film was distributed theatrically by Lionsgate Films in the United States and through Maple Pictures in Canada.
Saw 3D was initially rated NC-17 (no children 17 and under admitted) by the Motion Picture Association of America (MPAA) and had to be edited and re-submitted six times to secure an R rating. In Germany, its showing as a whole was banned from April 2012 until January 2013 because the Tiergarten District Court of Berlin noted that several scenes in the film violate the violence act §131 StGB. Private copies were still legal to own and personal use was not punishable; however any public screening was a highly prohibited and punishable act. In January 2013, the Berlin appeal court revoked the original court order after StudioCanal, who owns the distribution rights for Germany, had appealed against it.
In Massachusetts, a branch of Showcase Cinemas showed Saw 3D instead of the animated film Megamind, which was being watched by a seven-year-old celebrating a birthday. It took several minutes before the cinema employees fixed the mistake.
### Marketing
On July 8, 2010, in some press materials for San Diego Comic-Con, the film was referred to as Saw 3D: The Traps Come Alive, which led to the media assuming it was the final name. The following day, Burg and Koules said that "The Traps Come Alive" was simply a tagline that had been misinterpreted as part of the title. Koules said that if they included the seventh Roman numeral followed by "3D" (Saw VII 3D), it would have been "cumbersome" and not made the impact they wanted. He explained, "It was such a process in 3D, so much hard work was put in. Saw VII 3D is too much. This is like a new movie. [...]" In the same interview, the producers addressed Saw's presence at Comic-Con 2010 in San Diego. The producers said that the footage that was going to be used for the convention could not get approved for the audience; Koules explained, "It's going to be different than what we've done before, we're going to be at Comic-Con but we're not in Comic-Con"."
In the United Kingdom, a trailer shown during a broadcast of The Gadget Show led a 10-year-old viewer to register a complaint, saying it was "distressing" and "inappropriately scheduled". Clearcast had approved the trailer to be shown after 19:30 GMT, but did not actually air until 20:29. In one scene of the trailer, people in a cinema become trapped to the seats by metal restraints with a hand coming through the screen pulling a person in. The Advertising Standards Authority ruled it was "likely to cause distress to young children", and banned subsequent broadcasts from occurring before 21:00.
### Soundtrack
The film's score was composed by Charlie Clouser and released on iTunes through Evolution Music Partners on November 2, 2010. The Saw 3D soundtrack is "inspired by the film" and features music from rock bands including Dir En Grey, Boom Boom Satellites, Saliva, Krokus, Hinder, Karnivool, My Darkest Days, and Chester Bennington's Dead by Sunrise. It was released through SonyMusic Independent Network (SIN) and Artists' Addiction Records on October 26, 2010. The song "Life Won't Wait" by Ozzy Osbourne is played during the film's end credits.
### Home media
Lionsgate Home Entertainment released the film to home media, under the title Saw: The Final Chapter, on January 25, 2011, in three versions. The first is a standard DVD release consisting of the theatrical version of the film, a selection of bonus features and a second disc with a digital copy; a second edition is a 2D combo pack that includes an unrated Blu-ray, DVD and digital copy of the film. The last edition of the release is a 3D combo pack consisting of an unrated Blu-ray 3D, Blu-ray, DVD, and digital copy version of the film. According to the Nielsen VideoScan chart, the DVD and Blu-ray formats placed number three in its first week.
## Reception
### Box office
Saw 3D had advance screenings on October 28, 2010, in 2,000 locations and grossed \$1.7 million. It opened in wide release the following day in 2,808 locations playing on 3,500 screens, the second smallest release behind the first Saw. The film earned \$8.9 million on its opening day, taking the number one spot from Paranormal Activity 2. It grossed \$22.5 million its opening Halloween weekend, with 92% of tickets coming from more than 2,100 3D-equipped locations and 57% of the audience being under the age of 25. It had the fifth best opening weekend in the Saw series. After only four days of wide release, Saw 3D had out-grossed Saw VI's \$27.7 million final domestic gross. On its second weekend, the film dropped 66% in ticket sales and made \$7.7 million, moving to the number five spot with Megamind taking its number one spot. Saw 3D closed on December 2, 2010, after 35 days of release in the United States and Canada.
Saw 3D opened in 25 territories with \$14.4 million (including preview screenings) placing first place in the United Kingdom with \$5.8 million, beating Saw III's \$4.7 million UK opening. It opened in second place in Russia with \$2.2 million; Australia and Japan grossed \$909,000 and \$864,800, respectively. Saw 3D grossed \$12.8 million in the United Kingdom, Ireland, and Malta; \$10.9 million in Germany; \$7 million in Italy; \$5.3 million in Russia; and \$2.4 million in Australia. The film has grossed \$45.7 million in the United States and Canada, with \$90.4 million in other markets, for a worldwide total of \$136.1 million.
### Critical response
As with the previous four Saw films, Saw 3D was not screened in advance for critics. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B−" on an A+ to F scale.
Luke Thompson of E! Online gave the film a "B". He called the film's gore "over-the-top" and "in your face" while admitting the film had an "unusual amount of self-parody". He said the central storyline of the films was beginning to feel "played out". Rob Nelson of Variety gave the film a negative review. He called the film "relentlessly repugnant" that would please fans, but offer no surprise. He went on to say, "Apart from these limb-pulling setpieces, tech credits appear fairly shoddy, as do any 3D effects that don't include flying viscera. The editing relies on lazy flashbacks, while the dialogue remains as horrific as the killings." Kim Newman of Empire gave the film two out of five stars, calling it "a step down from last year's much more pointed Saw VI". He criticized the repetition of the plot but thought bringing back Jigsaw survivors was a "nice idea". He closed his review with, "There are a scattering of infallibly cringe-making horrors, but on the whole Saw 3D could do with more depth".
Eric Goldman of IGN gave the film two out of five stars. He was unhappy with the little screen time Bell and Elwes had been given, saying that the time the film did spend with them didn't have much impact. He said the traps were a step down from Saw VI, but did point out his favorite and highlight of the film as the "garage trap". About the film's 3D effects, Goldman said "The 3D is used as you might expect it to be – which is to say, this is no James Cameron immersive experience. Instead, blades jut out of the screen, and there is some fun had with blood and guts literally shooting forward at several points". Frank Scheck of The Hollywood Reporter gave the film a mixed review. He said Saw 3D is "consistent both stylistically and thematically with previous editions", but said most of the film's traps lack the "Rube Goldberg-style cleverness that marked the series". Scheck went on to say that it was "unfortunate" the creators killed Bell's character so early in the series and called Mandylor's character (Hoffman) an "exceedingly bland stand-in". He called the visual impact of the 3D "negligible".
Roger Moore of the Orlando Sentinel gave the film one out of five stars saying, "It's all bunk and has been for years. These are all no-win scenarios. Whatever moral lessons were presented in the earliest Saw films seem to have been dispensed with as the movies grow more and more gruesome, with filmmakers caught up in 'What would it look like if somebody's jaw was ripped out, or their skin was glued to a car seat?' Pandering to the 'Cool, let's see that again' crowd has made Lionsgate rich but done nothing for this unendurable endurance contest of this long-enduring film franchise". Mike Hale of The New York Times called the film the most "straightforward" of the series and the "most consistently (though not inventively) violent". He ended his review saying, "If you see the film in a theater equipped with RealD 3D and Dolby sound, you'll come away with a pretty good idea of what it would feel like to have flying body parts hit you in the face".
Elizabeth Weitzman of the New York Daily News gave the film one out of five stars. She criticized the lack of Bell's screentime saying, "What the filmmakers of the last four Saw movies have somehow overlooked is that Tobin Bell's Jigsaw is the linchpin of these films. It's right there in the title, so you'd think they'd realize what they lost when they killed him off in Saw III. But it's been downhill ever since, and we hit bottom today". She admitted that the performances have become "painfully stilted" and called the script "a jumble of nothing punctuated by barely-trying death traps". She went on to say, "It's also disappointing to watch a once-original franchise morph into a generic slasher series, in which random people are killed in banal ways just to up the body count" and closed her review with, "No matter how much money The Final Chapter makes over Halloween weekend, it's time to acknowledge that this game is over".
Wesley Morris of The Boston Globe called the film the "most gruesome and least coherent of the seven movies". He felt that some of the film's "games" were just randomly forced into the film, saying that kind of "episodic approach" and 3D works for a "far more innovative series like Jackass 3D". Morris closed his review by saying "This alleged final edition trashes the perverse morality of [Jigsaw's] legacy to make him the Jerry Springer of gore". Jason Anderson of the Toronto Star gave the film two out of four stars. He praised Saw 3D's plot for not being as confusing as previous films, for which he described as having to "generally require an encyclopedic knowledge of the series' many plot strands" in order to understand them. He thought Greutert gave the film a "pulpy energy" and described the film's traps and gore as having an "unpretentious sensibility" to films by Herschell Gordon Lewis.
Alan Jones of the Radio Times gave the film four out of five stars saying, "though the film initially borders on parody, once the ever-ingenious trapping begins – using fishhooks, superglue, ovens and dental equipment – the chills run on turbo drive right through to the greatest hits flashback finale". He implied that the "shock scenarios" were borrowed from sources such as, A Man Called Horse and the work of Lucio Fulci. Jones said the 3D did not add to the experience saying "the CGI blood splatter something of a distraction to the almost Shakespearean crescendo of anguish and carnage". The film was nominated for a Golden Raspberry Award for "Worst Eye-Gouging Misuse of 3D", but it lost to The Last Airbender.
## Sequel
While Saw 3D was intended to be the final film of the film series, in August 2012, it was reported that Lionsgate was considering rebooting the film series. By November 2013, an eighth Saw film was in active development. By February 2016, Josh Stolberg and Pete Goldfinger were hired to pen the script. Directed by The Spierig Brothers, Jigsaw was released on October 27, 2017, with Bell being the only returning cast member.
## See also
- List of 3D films |
23,941,708 | 2001: A Space Odyssey | 1,173,717,866 | 1968 film directed by Stanley Kubrick | [
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]
| 2001: A Space Odyssey is a 1968 epic science fiction film produced and directed by Stanley Kubrick. The screenplay was written by Kubrick and science fiction author Arthur C. Clarke, and was inspired by Clarke's 1951 short story "The Sentinel" and other short stories by Clarke. Clarke also published a novelisation of the film, in part written concurrently with the screenplay, after the film's release. The film stars Keir Dullea, Gary Lockwood, William Sylvester, and Douglas Rain, and follows a voyage by astronauts, scientists and the sentient supercomputer HAL to Jupiter to investigate an alien monolith.
The film is noted for its scientifically accurate depiction of space flight, pioneering special effects, and ambiguous imagery. Kubrick avoided conventional cinematic and narrative techniques; dialogue is used sparingly, and there are long sequences accompanied only by music. The soundtrack incorporates numerous works of classical music, including pieces by composers such as Richard Strauss, Johann Strauss II, Aram Khachaturian, and György Ligeti.
The film received diverse critical responses, ranging from those who saw it as darkly apocalyptic to those who saw it as an optimistic reappraisal of the hopes of humanity. Critics noted its exploration of themes such as human evolution, technology, artificial intelligence, and the possibility of extraterrestrial life. It was nominated for four Academy Awards, winning Kubrick the award for his direction of the visual effects. The film is now widely regarded as one of the greatest and most influential films ever made. In 1991, it was selected by the United States Library of Congress for preservation in the National Film Registry. In 2022, 2001: A Space Odyssey placed in the top ten of Sight & Sound'''s decennial critics' poll, and topped their directors' poll.
## Plot
In prehistoric Africa, a tribe of hominins in a veldt is driven away from its water hole by a rival tribe. The next day, they find an alien monolith has appeared in their midst. They then learn how to use a bone as a weapon and, after their first hunt, return to drive their rivals away with it.
Millions of years later, Dr. Heywood Floyd, Chairman of the United States National Council of Astronautics, travels to Clavius Base, an American lunar outpost. During a stopover at Space Station 5, he meets Russian scientists who are concerned that Clavius seems to be unresponsive. He refuses to discuss rumours of an epidemic at the base. At Clavius, Heywood addresses a meeting of personnel to whom he stresses the need for secrecy regarding their newest discovery. His mission is to investigate a recently found artefact, a monolith buried four million years earlier near the lunar crater Tycho. As he and others examine the object and are taking photographs, it emits a high-powered radio signal.
Eighteen months later, the American spacecraft Discovery One is bound for Jupiter, with mission pilots and scientists Dr. Dave Bowman and Dr. Frank Poole on board, along with three other scientists in suspended animation. Most of Discovery's operations are controlled by HAL, a HAL 9000 computer with a human-like personality. When HAL reports the imminent failure of an antenna control device, Dave retrieves it in an extravehicular activity (EVA) pod, but finds nothing wrong. HAL suggests reinstalling the device and letting it fail so the problem can be verified. Mission Control advises the astronauts that results from their backup 9000 computer indicate that HAL has made an error, but HAL blames it on human error. Concerned about HAL's behaviour, Dave and Frank enter an EVA pod so they can talk in private without HAL overhearing. They agree to disconnect HAL if he is proven wrong. HAL follows their conversation by lip reading.
While Frank is outside the ship to replace the antenna unit, HAL takes control of his pod, setting him adrift. Dave takes another pod to rescue Frank. While he is outside, HAL turns off the life support functions of the crewmen in suspended animation, killing them. When Dave returns to the ship with Frank's corpse, HAL refuses to let him back in, stating that their plan to deactivate him jeopardises the mission. Dave releases Frank's body, then opens one of the ship's airlocks with his remote manipulators. He positions his pod carefully so that when he opens the pod's airlock, he is propelled by the escaping air across the vacuum into Discovery's airlock, despite not having a spacesuit helmet. He goes to HAL's processor core and begins disconnecting most of HAL's circuits, despite HAL's pleas not to. When he is finished, a prerecorded video by Heywood plays, revealing that the mission's actual objective is to investigate the radio signal sent from the monolith to Jupiter.
At Jupiter, Dave finds a third, much larger monolith orbiting the planet. He leaves Discovery in an EVA pod to investigate. He is pulled into a vortex of coloured light and observes bizarre astronomical phenomena and strange landscapes of unusual colours as he passes by. Finally he finds himself in a large neoclassical bedroom where he sees, and then becomes, older versions of himself: first standing in the bedroom, middle-aged and still in his spacesuit, then dressed in leisure attire and eating dinner, and finally as an old man lying in bed. A monolith appears at the foot of the bed, and as Dave reaches for it, he is transformed into a foetus enclosed in a transparent orb of light floating in space above the Earth.
## Cast
## Production
### Development
After completing Dr. Strangelove (1964), director Stanley Kubrick told a publicist from Columbia Pictures that his next project would be about extraterrestrial life, and resolved to make "the proverbial good science fiction movie". How Kubrick became interested in creating a science fiction film is far from clear. Biographer John Baxter notes possible inspirations in the late 1950s, including British productions featuring dramas on satellites and aliens modifying early humans, Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer's big budget CinemaScope production Forbidden Planet, and the slick widescreen cinematography and set design of Japanese kaiju (monster movie) productions (such as Ishirō Honda and Eiji Tsuburaya's Godzilla films and Koji Shima's Warning from Space).
Kubrick obtained financing and distribution from the American studio Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer with the selling point that the film could be marketed in their ultra-widescreen Cinerama format, recently debuted with their How the West Was Won. It would be filmed and edited almost entirely in southern England, where Kubrick lived, using the facilities of MGM-British Studios and Shepperton Studios. MGM had subcontracted the production of the film to Kubrick's production company to qualify for the Eady Levy, a UK tax on box-office receipts used at the time to fund the production of films in Britain.
### Pre-production
Kubrick's decision to avoid the fanciful portrayals of space found in standard popular science fiction films of the time led him to seek more realistic and accurate depictions of space travel. Illustrators such as Chesley Bonestell, Roy Carnon, and Richard McKenna were hired to produce concept drawings, sketches, and paintings of the space technology seen in the film. Two educational films, the National Film Board of Canada's 1960 animated short documentary Universe and the 1964 New York World's Fair movie To the Moon and Beyond, were major influences.
According to biographer Vincent LoBrutto, Universe was a visual inspiration to Kubrick. The 29-minute film, which had also proved popular at NASA for its realistic portrayal of outer space, met "the standard of dynamic visionary realism that he was looking for". Wally Gentleman, one of the special-effects artists on Universe, worked briefly on 2001. Kubrick also asked Universe co-director Colin Low about animation camerawork, with Low recommending British mathematician Brian Salt, with whom Low and Roman Kroitor had previously worked on the 1957 still-animation documentary City of Gold. Universe's narrator, actor Douglas Rain, was cast as the voice of HAL. For the role of Heywood Floyd, MGM suggested casting a well-known actor such as Henry Fonda or George C. Scott.
After pre-production had begun, Kubrick saw To the Moon and Beyond, a film shown in the Transportation and Travel building at the 1964 World's Fair. It was filmed in Cinerama 360 and shown in the "Moon Dome". Kubrick hired the company that produced it, Graphic Films Corporation—which had been making films for NASA, the US Air Force, and various aerospace clients—as a design consultant. Graphic Films' Con Pederson, Lester Novros, and background artist Douglas Trumbull airmailed research-based concept sketches and notes covering the mechanics and physics of space travel, and created storyboards for the space flight sequences in 2001. Trumbull became a special effects supervisor on 2001.
### Writing
Searching for a collaborator in the science fiction community for the writing of the script, Kubrick was advised by a mutual acquaintance, Columbia Pictures staff member Roger Caras, to talk to writer Arthur C. Clarke, who lived in Ceylon. Although convinced that Clarke was "a recluse, a nut who lives in a tree," Kubrick allowed Caras to cable the film proposal to Clarke. Clarke's cabled response stated that he was "frightfully interested in working with [that] enfant terrible", and added "what makes Kubrick think I'm a recluse?" Meeting for the first time at Trader Vic's in New York on 22 April 1964, the two began discussing the project that would take up the next four years of their lives. Clarke kept a diary throughout his involvement with 2001, excerpts of which were published in 1972 as The Lost Worlds of 2001.
Kubrick told Clarke he wanted to make a film about "Man's relationship to the universe", and was, in Clarke's words, "determined to create a work of art which would arouse the emotions of wonder, awe ... even, if appropriate, terror". Clarke offered Kubrick six of his short stories, and by May 1964, Kubrick had chosen "The Sentinel" as the source material for the film. In search of more material to expand the film's plot, the two spent the rest of 1964 reading books on science and anthropology, screening science fiction films, and brainstorming ideas. They created the plot for 2001 by integrating several different short story plots written by Clarke, along with new plot segments requested by Kubrick for the film development, and then combined them all into a single script for 2001. Clarke said that his 1953 story "Encounter in the Dawn" inspired the film's "Dawn of Man" sequence.
Kubrick and Clarke privately referred to the project as How the Solar System Was Won, a reference to how it was a follow-on to MGM's Cinerama epic How the West Was Won. On 23 February 1965, Kubrick issued a press release announcing the title as Journey Beyond The Stars. Other titles considered included Universe, Tunnel to the Stars, and Planetfall. Expressing his high expectations for the thematic importance which he associated with the film, in April 1965, eleven months after they began working on the project, Kubrick selected 2001: A Space Odyssey; Clarke said the title was "entirely" Kubrick's idea. Intending to set the film apart from the "monsters-and-sex" type of science-fiction films of the time, Kubrick used Homer's The Odyssey as both a model of literary merit and a source of inspiration for the title. Kubrick said, "It occurred to us that for the Greeks the vast stretches of the sea must have had the same sort of mystery and remoteness that space has for our generation."
Originally, Kubrick and Clarke had planned to develop a 2001 novel first, free of the constraints of film, and then write the screenplay. They planned the writing credits to be "Screenplay by Stanley Kubrick and Arthur C. Clarke, based on a novel by Arthur C. Clarke and Stanley Kubrick" to reflect their preeminence in their respective fields. In practice, the screenplay developed in parallel with the novel, with only some elements being common to both. In a 1970 interview, Kubrick said:
> There are a number of differences between the book and the movie. The novel, for example, attempts to explain things much more explicitly than the film does, which is inevitable in a verbal medium. The novel came about after we did a 130-page prose treatment of the film at the very outset. ... Arthur took all the existing material, plus an impression of some of the rushes, and wrote the novel. As a result, there's a difference between the novel and the film ... I think that the divergences between the two works are interesting.
In the end, Clarke and Kubrick wrote parts of the novel and screenplay simultaneously, with the film version being released before the book version was published. Clarke opted for clearer explanations of the mysterious monolith and Star Gate in the novel; Kubrick made the film more cryptic by minimising dialogue and explanation. Kubrick said the film is "basically a visual, nonverbal experience" that "hits the viewer at an inner level of consciousness, just as music does, or painting".
The screenplay credits were shared whereas the 2001 novel, released shortly after the film, was attributed to Clarke alone. Clarke wrote later that "the nearest approximation to the complicated truth" is that the screenplay should be credited to "Kubrick and Clarke" and the novel to "Clarke and Kubrick". Early reports about tensions involved in the writing of the film script appeared to reach a point where Kubrick was allegedly so dissatisfied with the collaboration that he approached other writers who could replace Clarke, including Michael Moorcock and J. G. Ballard. But they felt it would be disloyal to accept Kubrick's offer. In Michael Benson's 2018 book Space Odyssey: Stanley Kubrick, Arthur C. Clarke, and the Making of a Masterpiece, the actual relation between Clarke and Kubrick was more complex, involving an extended interaction of Kubrick's multiple requests for Clarke to write new plot lines for various segments of the film, which Clarke was expected to withhold from publication until after the release of the film while receiving advances on his salary from Kubrick during film production. Clarke agreed to this, though apparently he did make several requests for Kubrick to allow him to develop his new plot lines into separate publishable stories while film production continued, which Kubrick consistently denied on the basis of Clarke's contractual obligation to withhold publication until release of the film.
Astronomer Carl Sagan wrote in his 1973 book The Cosmic Connection that Clarke and Kubrick had asked him how to best depict extraterrestrial intelligence. While acknowledging Kubrick's desire to use actors to portray humanoid aliens for convenience's sake, Sagan argued that alien life forms were unlikely to bear any resemblance to terrestrial life, and that to do so would introduce "at least an element of falseness" to the film. Sagan proposed that the film should simply suggest extraterrestrial superintelligence, rather than depict it. He attended the premiere and was "pleased to see that I had been of some help". Sagan had met with Clarke and Kubrick only once, in 1964; and Kubrick subsequently directed several attempts to portray credible aliens, only to abandon the idea near the end of post-production. Benson asserts it is unlikely that Sagan's advice had any direct influence. Kubrick hinted at the nature of the mysterious unseen alien race in 2001 by suggesting that given millions of years of evolution, they progressed from biological beings to "immortal machine entities" and then into "beings of pure energy and spirit" with "limitless capabilities and ungraspable intelligence".
In a 1980 interview (not released during Kubrick's lifetime), Kubrick explains one of the film's closing scenes, where Bowman is depicted in old age after his journey through the Star Gate:
> The idea was supposed to be that he is taken in by godlike entities, creatures of pure energy and intelligence with no shape or form. They put him in what I suppose you could describe as a human zoo to study him, and his whole life passes from that point on in that room. And he has no sense of time. ... [W]hen they get finished with him, as happens in so many myths of all cultures in the world, he is transformed into some kind of super being and sent back to Earth, transformed and made some kind of superman. We have to only guess what happens when he goes back. It is the pattern of a great deal of mythology, and that is what we were trying to suggest.
The script went through many stages. In early 1965, when backing was secured for the film, Clarke and Kubrick still had no firm idea of what would happen to Bowman after the Star Gate sequence. Initially all of Discovery's astronauts were to survive the journey; by 3 October, Clarke and Kubrick had decided to make Bowman the sole survivor and have him regress to infancy. By 17 October, Kubrick had come up with what Clarke called a "wild idea of slightly fag robots who create a Victorian environment to put our heroes at their ease". HAL 9000 was originally named Athena after the Greek goddess of wisdom and had a feminine voice and persona.
Early drafts included a prologue containing interviews with scientists about extraterrestrial life, voice-over narration (a feature in all of Kubrick's previous films), a stronger emphasis on the prevailing Cold War balance of terror, and a different and more explicitly explained breakdown for HAL. Other changes include a different monolith for the "Dawn of Man" sequence, discarded when early prototypes did not photograph well; the use of Saturn as the final destination of the Discovery mission rather than Jupiter, discarded when the special effects team could not develop a convincing rendition of Saturn's rings; and the finale of the Star Child exploding nuclear weapons carried by Earth-orbiting satellites, which Kubrick discarded for its similarity to his previous film, Dr. Strangelove. The finale and many of the other discarded screenplay ideas survived in Clarke's novel.
Kubrick made further changes to make the film more nonverbal, to communicate on a visual and visceral level rather than through conventional narrative. By the time shooting began, Kubrick had removed much of the dialogue and narration. Long periods without dialogue permeate the film: the film has no dialogue for roughly the first and last twenty minutes, as well as for the 10 minutes from Floyd's Moonbus landing near the monolith until Poole watches a BBC newscast on Discovery. What dialogue remains is notable for its banality (making the computer HAL seem to have more emotion than the humans) when juxtaposed with the epic space scenes. Vincent LoBrutto wrote that Clarke's novel has its own "strong narrative structure" and precision, while the narrative of the film remains symbolic, in accord with Kubrick's final intentions.
### Filming
Principal photography began on 29 December 1965, in Stage H at Shepperton Studios, Shepperton, England. The studio was chosen because it could house the 60-by-120-by-60-foot (18 m × 37 m × 18 m) pit for the Tycho crater excavation scene, the first to be shot. In January 1966, the production moved to the smaller MGM-British Studios in Borehamwood, where the live-action and special-effects filming was done, starting with the scenes involving Floyd on the Orion spaceplane; it was described as a "huge throbbing nerve center ... with much the same frenetic atmosphere as a Cape Kennedy blockhouse during the final stages of Countdown." The only scene not filmed in a studio—and the last live-action scene shot for the film—was the skull-smashing sequence, in which Moonwatcher (Richter) wields his newfound bone "weapon-tool" against a pile of nearby animal bones. A small elevated platform was built in a field near the studio so that the camera could shoot upward with the sky as background, avoiding cars and trucks passing by in the distance. The Dawn of Man sequence that opens the film was shot at Borehamwood with John Alcott as cinematographer after Geoffrey Unsworth left to work on other projects. The still photographs used as backgrounds for the Dawn of Man sequence were taken at the Spitzkoppe mountains in what was then South West Africa.
Filming of actors was completed in September 1967, and from June 1966 until March 1968, Kubrick spent most of his time working on the 205 special-effects shots in the film. He ordered the special-effects technicians to use the painstaking process of creating all visual effects seen in the film "in camera", avoiding degraded picture quality from the use of blue screen and travelling matte techniques. Although this technique, known as "held takes", resulted in a much better image, it meant exposed film would be stored for long periods of time between shots, sometimes as long as a year. In March 1968, Kubrick finished the "pre-premiere" editing of the film, making his final cuts just days before the film's general release in April 1968.
The film was announced in 1965 as a "Cinerama" film and was photographed in Super Panavision 70 (which uses a 65 mm negative combined with spherical lenses to create an aspect ratio of 2.20:1). It would eventually be released in a limited "roadshow" Cinerama version, then in 70 mm and 35 mm versions. Colour processing and 35 mm release prints were done using Technicolor's dye transfer process. The 70 mm prints were made by MGM Laboratories, Inc. on Metrocolor. The production was \$4.5 million over the initial \$6 million budget and 16 months behind schedule.
For the opening sequence involving tribes of apes, professional mime Daniel Richter played the lead ape and choreographed the movements of the other man-apes, who were mostly portrayed by his mime troupe.
Kubrick and Clarke consulted IBM on plans for HAL, though plans to use the company's logo never materialised.
### Post-production
The film was edited before it was publicly screened, cutting out, among other things, a painting class on the lunar base that included Kubrick's daughters, additional scenes of life on the base, and Floyd buying a bush baby for his daughter from a department store via videophone. A ten-minute black-and-white opening sequence featuring interviews with scientists, including Freeman Dyson discussing off-Earth life, was removed after an early screening for MGM executives.
### Music
From early in production, Kubrick decided that he wanted the film to be a primarily nonverbal experience that did not rely on the traditional techniques of narrative cinema, and in which music would play a vital role in evoking particular moods. About half the music in the film appears either before the first line of dialogue or after the final line. Almost no music is heard during scenes with dialogue.
The film is notable for its innovative use of classical music taken from existing commercial recordings. Most feature films, then and now, are typically accompanied by elaborate film scores or songs written specially for them by professional composers. In the early stages of production, Kubrick commissioned a score for 2001 from Hollywood composer Alex North, who had written the score for Spartacus and also had worked on Dr. Strangelove. During post-production, Kubrick chose to abandon North's music in favour of the classical pieces which he had earlier chosen to guide North's score. North did not learn his score had been abandoned in favour of the temporary music pieces until he saw the film at its premiere.
## Design and special effects
### Costumes and set design
Kubrick involved himself in every aspect of production, even choosing the fabric for his actors' costumes, and selecting notable pieces of contemporary furniture for use in the film. When Floyd exits the Space Station 5 elevator, he is greeted by an attendant seated behind a slightly modified George Nelson Action Office desk from Herman Miller's 1964 "Action Office" series. Danish designer Arne Jacobsen designed the cutlery used by the Discovery astronauts in the film.
Other examples of modern furniture in the film are the bright red Djinn chairs seen prominently throughout the space station and Eero Saarinen's 1956 pedestal tables. Olivier Mourgue, designer of the Djinn chair, has used the connection to 2001 in his advertising; a frame from the film's space station sequence and three production stills appear on the homepage of Mourgue's website. Shortly before Kubrick's death, film critic Alexander Walker informed Kubrick of Mourgue's use of the film, joking to him "You're keeping the price up". Commenting on their use in the film, Walker writes:
> Everyone recalls one early sequence in the film, the space hotel, primarily because the custom-made Olivier Mourgue furnishings, those foam-filled sofas, undulant and serpentine, are covered in scarlet fabric and are the first stabs of colour one sees. They resemble Rorschach "blots" against the pristine purity of the rest of the lobby.
Detailed instructions in relatively small print for various technological devices appear at several points in the film, the most visible of which are the lengthy instructions for the zero-gravity toilet on the Aries Moon shuttle. Similar detailed instructions for replacing the explosive bolts also appear on the hatches of the EVA pods, most visibly in closeup just before Bowman's pod leaves the ship to rescue Frank Poole.
The film features an extensive use of Eurostile Bold Extended, Futura and other sans serif typefaces as design elements of the 2001 world. Computer displays show high-resolution fonts, colour, and graphics that were far in advance of what most computers were capable of in the 1960s, when the film was made.
### Design of the monolith
Kubrick was personally involved in the design of the monolith and its form for the film. The first design for the monolith for the 2001 film was a transparent tetrahedral pyramid. This was taken from the short story "The Sentinel" that the first story was based on.
A London firm was approached by Kubrick to provide a 12-foot (3.7 m) transparent plexiglass pyramid, and due to construction constraints they recommended a flat slab shape. Kubrick approved, but was disappointed with the glassy appearance of the transparent prop on set, leading art director Anthony Masters to suggest making the monolith's surface matte black.
### Models
To heighten the reality of the film, very intricate models of the various spacecraft and locations were built. Their sizes ranged from about two-foot-long models of satellites and the Aries translunar shuttle up to the 55-foot (17 m)-long model of the Discovery One spacecraft. "In-camera" techniques were again used as much as possible to combine models and background shots together to prevent degradation of the image through duplication.
In shots where there was no perspective change, still shots of the models were photographed and positive paper prints were made. The image of the model was cut out of the photographic print and mounted on glass and filmed on an animation stand. The undeveloped film was re-wound to film the star background with the silhouette of the model photograph acting as a matte to block out where the spaceship image was.
Shots where the spacecraft had parts in motion or the perspective changed were shot by directly filming the model. For most shots the model was stationary and camera was driven along a track on a special mount, the motor of which was mechanically linked to the camera motor—making it possible to repeat camera moves and match speeds exactly. Elements of the scene were recorded on the same piece of film in separate passes to combine the lit model, stars, planets, or other spacecraft in the same shot. In moving shots of the long Discovery One spacecraft, in order to keep the entire model in focus (and preserve its sense of scale), the camera's aperture was stopped down for maximum depth-of-field, and each frame was exposed for several seconds. Many matting techniques were tried to block out the stars behind the models, with filmmakers sometimes resorting to hand-tracing frame by frame around the image of the spacecraft (rotoscoping) to create the matte.
Some shots required exposing the film again to record previously filmed live-action shots of the people appearing in the windows of the spacecraft or structures. This was achieved by projecting the window action onto the models in a separate camera pass or, when two-dimensional photographs were used, projecting from the backside through a hole cut in the photograph.
All of the shots required multiple takes so that some film could be developed and printed to check exposure, density, alignment of elements, and to supply footage used for other photographic effects, such as for matting.
### Rotating sets
For spacecraft interior shots, ostensibly containing a giant centrifuge that produces artificial gravity, Kubrick had a 30-short-ton (27 t) rotating "ferris wheel" built by Vickers-Armstrong Engineering Group at a cost of \$750,000 (). The set was 38 feet (12 m) in diameter and 10 feet (3.0 m) wide. Various scenes in the Discovery centrifuge were shot by securing set pieces within the wheel, then rotating it while the actor walked or ran in sync with its motion, keeping him at the bottom of the wheel as it turned. The camera could be fixed to the inside of the rotating wheel to show the actor walking completely "around" the set, or mounted in such a way that the wheel rotated independently of the stationary camera, as in the jogging scene where the camera appears to alternately precede and follow the running actor.
The shots where the actors appear on opposite sides of the wheel required one of the actors to be strapped securely into place at the "top" of the wheel as it moved to allow the other actor to walk to the "bottom" of the wheel to join him. The most notable case is when Bowman enters the centrifuge from the central hub on a ladder, and joins Poole, who is eating on the other side of the centrifuge. This required Gary Lockwood to be strapped into a seat while Keir Dullea walked toward him from the opposite side of the wheel as it turned with him.
Another rotating set appeared in an earlier sequence on board the Aries trans-lunar shuttle. A stewardess is shown preparing in-flight meals, then carrying them into a circular walkway. Attached to the set as it rotates 180 degrees, the camera's point of view remains constant, and she appears to walk up the "side" of the circular walkway, and steps, now in an "upside-down" orientation, into a connecting hallway.
### Zero-gravity effects
The realistic-looking effects of the astronauts floating weightless in space and inside the spacecraft were accomplished by suspending the actors from wires attached to the top of the set and placing the camera beneath them. The actors' bodies blocked the camera's view of the wires and appeared to float. For the shot of Poole floating into the pod's arms during Bowman's recovery of him, a stuntman on a wire portrayed the movements of an unconscious man and was shot in slow motion to enhance the illusion of drifting through space. The scene showing Bowman entering the emergency airlock from the EVA pod was done similarly: an off-camera stagehand, standing on a platform, held the wire suspending Dullea above the camera positioned at the bottom of the vertically oriented airlock. At the proper moment, the stage-hand first loosened his grip on the wire, causing Dullea to fall toward the camera, then, while holding the wire firmly, jumped off the platform, causing Dullea to ascend back toward the hatch.
The methods used were alleged to have placed stuntman Bill Weston's life in danger. Weston recalled that he filmed one sequence without air-holes in his suit, risking asphyxiation. "Even when the tank was feeding air into the suit, there was no place for the carbon dioxide Weston exhaled to go. So it simply built up inside, incrementally causing a heightened heart rate, rapid breathing, fatigue, clumsiness, and eventually, unconsciousness." Weston said Kubrick was warned "we've got to get him back" but reportedly replied, "Damn it, we just started. Leave him up there! Leave him up there!" When Weston lost consciousness, filming ceased, and he was brought down. "They brought the tower in, and I went looking for Stanley, ... I was going to shove MGM right up his ... And the thing is, Stanley had left the studio and sent Victor [Lyndon, the associate producer] to talk to me." Weston claimed Kubrick fled the studio for "two or three days. ... I know he didn't come in the next day, and I'm sure it wasn't the day after. Because I was going to do him."
### "Star Gate" sequence
The coloured lights in the Star Gate sequence were accomplished by slit-scan photography of thousands of high-contrast images on film, including Op art paintings, architectural drawings, Moiré patterns, printed circuits, and electron-microscope photographs of molecular and crystal structures. Known to staff as "Manhattan Project", the shots of various nebula-like phenomena, including the expanding star field, were coloured paints and chemicals swirling in a pool-like device known as a cloud tank, shot in slow motion in a dark room. The live-action landscape shots were filmed in the Hebridean islands, the mountains of northern Scotland, and Monument Valley. The colouring and negative-image effects were achieved with different colour filters in the process of making duplicate negatives in an optical printer.
### Visual effects
> "Not one foot of this film was made with computer-generated special effects. Everything you see in this film or saw in this film was done physically or chemically, one way or the other."
2001 contains a famous example of a match cut, a type of cut in which two shots are matched by action or subject matter. After Moonwatcher uses a bone to kill another ape at the watering hole, he throws it triumphantly into the air; as the bone spins in the air, the film cuts to an orbiting satellite, marking the end of the prologue. The match cut draws a connection between the two objects as exemplars of primitive and advanced tools respectively, and demonstrates humanity's technological progress since the time of early hominids.
2001 pioneered the use of front projection with retroreflective matting. Kubrick used the technique to produce the backdrops in the Africa scenes and the scene when astronauts walk on the Moon.
The technique consisted of a separate scenery projector set at a right angle to the camera and a half-silvered mirror placed at an angle in front that reflected the projected image forward in line with the camera lens onto a backdrop of retroreflective material. The reflective directional screen behind the actors could reflect light from the projected image 100 times more efficiently than the foreground subject did. The lighting of the foreground subject had to be balanced with the image from the screen, so that the part of the scenery image that fell on the foreground subject was too faint to show on the finished film. The exception was the eyes of the leopard in the "Dawn of Man" sequence, which glowed due to the projector illumination. Kubrick described this as "a happy accident".
Front projection had been used in smaller settings before 2001, mostly for still photography or television production, using small still images and projectors. The expansive backdrops for the African scenes required a screen 40 feet (12 m) tall and 110 feet (34 m) wide, far larger than had been used before. When the reflective material was applied to the backdrop in 100-foot (30 m) strips, variations at the seams of the strips led to visual artefacts; to solve this, the crew tore the material into smaller chunks and applied them in a random "camouflage" pattern on the backdrop. The existing projectors using 4-×-5-inch (10 × 13 cm) transparencies resulted in grainy images when projected that large, so the crew worked with MGM's special-effects supervisor Tom Howard to build a custom projector using 8-×-10-inch (20 × 25 cm) transparencies, which required the largest water-cooled arc lamp available. The technique was used widely in the film industry thereafter until it was replaced by blue/green screen systems in the 1990s.
## Soundtrack
The initial MGM soundtrack album release contained none of the material from the altered and uncredited rendition of Ligeti's Aventures used in the film, used a different recording of Also sprach Zarathustra (performed by the Berlin Philharmonic conducted by Karl Böhm) from that heard in the film, and a longer excerpt of Lux Aeterna than that in the film.
In 1996, Turner Entertainment/Rhino Records released a new soundtrack on CD that included the film's rendition of "Aventures", the version of "Zarathustra" used in the film, and the shorter version of Lux Aeterna from the film. As additional "bonus tracks" at the end, the CD includes the versions of "Zarathustra" and Lux Aeterna on the old MGM soundtrack album, an unaltered performance of "Aventures", and a nine-minute compilation of all of HAL's dialogue.
Alex North's unused music was first released in Telarc's issue of the main theme on Hollywood's Greatest Hits, Vol. 2, a compilation album by Erich Kunzel and the Cincinnati Pops Orchestra. All of the music North originally wrote was recorded commercially by his friend and colleague Jerry Goldsmith with the National Philharmonic Orchestra and released on Varèse Sarabande CDs shortly after Telarc's first theme release and before North's death. Eventually, a mono mix-down of North's original recordings was released as a limited-edition CD by Intrada Records.
## Theatrical run and post-premiere cuts
The film's world premiere was on 2 April 1968, at the Uptown Theater in Washington, D.C., with a 160-minute cut. It opened the next day at the Loew's Capitol in New York and the following day at the Warner Hollywood Theatre in Los Angeles. The original version was also shown in Boston.
Kubrick and editor Ray Lovejoy edited the film between 5 April and 9, 1968. Kubrick's rationale for trimming the film was to tighten the narrative. Reviews suggested the film suffered from its departure from traditional cinematic storytelling. Kubrick said, "I didn't believe that the trims made a critical difference. ... The people who like it like it no matter what its length, and the same holds true for the people who hate it." The cut footage is reported as being 19 or 17 minutes long. It includes scenes revealing details about life on Discovery: additional space walks, Bowman retrieving a spare part from an octagonal corridor, elements from the Poole murder sequence—including space-walk preparation and HAL turning off radio contact with Poole—and a close-up of Bowman picking up a slipper during his walk in the alien room. Jerome Agel describes the cut scenes as comprising "Dawn of Man, Orion, Poole exercising in the centrifuge, and Poole's pod exiting from Discovery." The new cut was approximately 139 minutes long.
According to his brother-in-law, Jan Harlan, Kubrick was adamant that the trims were never to be seen and had the negatives, which he had kept in his garage, burned shortly before his death. This was confirmed by former Kubrick assistant Leon Vitali: "I'll tell you right now, okay, on Clockwork Orange, The Shining, Barry Lyndon, some little parts of 2001, we had thousands of cans of negative outtakes and print, which we had stored in an area at his house where we worked out of, which he personally supervised the loading of it to a truck and then I went down to a big industrial waste lot and burned it. That's what he wanted." However, in December 2010, Douglas Trumbull, the film's visual effects supervisor, announced that Warner Bros. had found 17 minutes of lost footage from the post-premiere cuts, "perfectly preserved", in a Kansas salt mine vault used by Warners for storage. No plans have been announced for the rediscovered footage.
The revised version was ready for the expansion of the roadshow release to four other U.S. cities (Chicago, Denver, Detroit and Houston), on 10 April 1968, and internationally in five cities the following day, where the shortened version was shown in 70mm format in the 2.21:1 aspect ratio and used a six-track stereo magnetic soundtrack.
By the end of May, the film had opened in 22 cities in the United States and Canada and in another 36 in June. The general release of the film in its 35 mm anamorphic format took place in autumn 1968 and used either a four-track magnetic stereo soundtrack or an optical monaural one.
The original 70-millimetre release, like many Super Panavision 70 films of the era such as Grand Prix, was advertised as being in "Cinerama" in cinemas equipped with special projection optics and a deeply curved screen. In standard cinemas, the film was identified as a 70-millimetre production. The original release of 2001: A Space Odyssey in 70-millimetre Cinerama with six-track sound played continually for more than a year in several venues, and for 103 weeks in Los Angeles.
As was typical of most films of the era released both as a "roadshow" (in Cinerama format in the case of 2001) and general release (in 70-millimetre in the case of 2001), the entrance music, intermission music (and intermission altogether), and postcredit exit music were cut from most prints of the latter version, although these have been restored to most DVD releases.
## Reception
### Box office
In its first nine weeks from 22 locations, it grossed \$2 million in the United States and Canada. The film earned \$8.5 million in theatrical gross rentals from roadshow engagements throughout 1968, contributing to North American rentals of \$16.4 million and worldwide rentals of \$21.9 million during its original release. The film's high costs, of approximately \$10.5 million, meant that the initial returns from the 1968 release left it \$800,000 in the red; but the successful re-release in 1971 made it profitable. By June 1974, the film had rentals from the United States and Canada of \$20.3 million (gross of \$58 million) and international rentals of \$7.5 million. The film had a reissue on a test basis on 24 July 1974 at the Cinerama Dome in Los Angeles and grossed \$53,000 in its first week, which led to an expanded reissue. Further re-releases followed, giving a cumulative gross of over \$60 million in the United States and Canada. Taking its re-releases into account, it is the highest-grossing film of 1968 in the United States and Canada. Worldwide, it has grossed \$146 million across all releases, although some estimates place the gross higher, at over \$190 million.
### Critical response
Upon release, 2001 polarised critical opinion, receiving both praise and derision, with many New York-based critics being especially harsh. Kubrick called them "dogmatically atheistic and materialistic and earthbound". Some critics viewed the original 161-minute cut shown at premieres in Washington D.C., New York, and Los Angeles. Keir Dullea says that during the New York premiere, 250 people walked out; in L.A., Rock Hudson not only left early but "was heard to mutter, 'What is this bullshit?'" "Will someone tell me what the hell this is about?" "But a few months into the release, they realised a lot of people were watching it while smoking funny cigarettes. Someone in San Francisco even ran right through the screen screaming: 'It's God!' So they came up with a new poster that said: '2001 – the ultimate trip!'"
In The New Yorker, Penelope Gilliatt said it was "some kind of great film, and an unforgettable endeavor ... The film is hypnotically entertaining, and it is funny without once being gaggy, but it is also rather harrowing." Charles Champlin of the Los Angeles Times wrote that it was "the picture that science fiction fans of every age and in every corner of the world have prayed (sometimes forlornly) that the industry might some day give them. It is an ultimate statement of the science fiction film, an awesome realization of the spatial future ... it is a milestone, a landmark for a spacemark, in the art of film." Louise Sweeney of The Christian Science Monitor felt that 2001 was "a brilliant intergalactic satire on modern technology. It's also a dazzling 160-minute tour on the Kubrick filmship through the universe out there beyond our earth." Philip French wrote that the film was "perhaps the first multi-million-dollar supercolossal movie since D.W. Griffith's Intolerance fifty years ago which can be regarded as the work of one man ... Space Odyssey is important as the high-water mark of science-fiction movie making, or at least of the genre's futuristic branch." The Boston Globe's review called it "the world's most extraordinary film. Nothing like it has ever been shown in Boston before or, for that matter, anywhere ... The film is as exciting as the discovery of a new dimension in life." Roger Ebert gave the film four stars in his original review, saying the film "succeeds magnificently on a cosmic scale". He later put it on his Top 10 list for Sight & Sound. Time provided at least seven different mini-reviews of the film in various issues in 1968, each one slightly more positive than the preceding one; in the final review dated 27 December 1968, the magazine called 2001 "an epic film about the history and future of mankind, brilliantly directed by Stanley Kubrick. The special effects are mindblowing."
Others were unimpressed. Pauline Kael called it "a monumentally unimaginative movie". Stanley Kauffmann of The New Republic described it as "a film that is so dull, it even dulls our interest in the technical ingenuity for the sake of which Kubrick has allowed it to become dull". The Soviet film director Andrei Tarkovsky found the film to be an inadequate addition to the science fiction genre of filmmaking. Renata Adler of The New York Times wrote that it was "somewhere between hypnotic and immensely boring". Variety's Robert B. Frederick ('Robe') believed the film was a "[b]ig, beautiful, but plodding sci-fi epic ... A major achievement in cinematography and special effects, 2001 lacks dramatic appeal to a large degree and only conveys suspense after the halfway mark." Andrew Sarris called it "one of the grimmest films I have ever seen in my life ... 2001 is a disaster because it is much too abstract to make its abstract points." (Sarris reversed his opinion upon a second viewing, and declared, "2001 is indeed a major work by a major artist".) John Simon felt it was "a regrettable failure, although not a total one. This film is fascinating when it concentrates on apes or machines ... and dreadful when it deals with the in-betweens: humans ... 2001, for all its lively visual and mechanical spectacle, is a kind of space-Spartacus and, more pretentious still, a shaggy God story." Historian Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr. deemed the film "morally pretentious, intellectually obscure and inordinately long ... a film out of control". In a 2001 review, the BBC said that its slow pacing often alienates modern audiences more than it did upon its initial release.
On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film has a "Certified Fresh" rating of 92% based on 118 reviews, with an average rating of 9.2/10. The website's critical consensus reads: "One of the most influential of all sci-fi films – and one of the most controversial – Stanley Kubrick's 2001 is a delicate, poetic meditation on the ingenuity – and folly – of mankind." Review aggregator Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, has assigned the film a score of 84 out of 100, based on 25 critic reviews, indicating "universal acclaim". 2001 was the only science fiction film to make Sight & Sound's 2012 list of the ten best films, and tops the Online Film Critics Society list of greatest science fiction films of all time. In 2012, the Motion Picture Editors Guild listed the film as the 19th best-edited film of all time based on a survey of its membership. Other lists that include the film are 50 Films to See Before You Die (#6), The Village Voice 100 Best Films of the 20th century (#11), and Roger Ebert's Top Ten (1968) (#2). In 1995, the Vatican named it one of the 45 best films ever made (and included it in a sub-list of the "Top Ten Art Movies" of all time.) In 1998, Time Out conducted a reader's poll and 2001: A Space Odyssey was voted as \#9 on the list of "greatest films of all time". Entertainment Weekly voted it no. 26 on their list of 100 Greatest Movies of All Time. In 2017, Empire magazine's readers' poll ranked the film 21st on its list of "The 100 Greatest Movies". In the Sight & Sound poll of 480 directors published in December 2022, 2001: A Space Odyssey was voted as the Greatest Film of All Time, ahead of Citizen Kane and The Godfather.
### Science fiction writers
The film won the Hugo Award for best dramatic presentation, as voted by science fiction fans and published science-fiction writers. Ray Bradbury praised the film's photography, but disliked the banality of most of the dialogue, and believed that the audience does not care when Poole dies. Both he and Lester del Rey disliked the film's feeling of sterility and blandness in the human encounters amidst the technological wonders, while both praised the pictorial element of the film. Reporting that "half the audience had left by intermission", Del Rey described the film as dull, confusing, and boring ("the first of the New Wave-Thing movies, with the usual empty symbols"), predicting "[i]t will probably be a box-office disaster, too, and thus set major science-fiction movie making back another ten years". Samuel R. Delany was impressed by how the film undercuts the audience's normal sense of space and orientation in several ways. Like Bradbury, Delany noticed the banality of the dialogue (he stated that characters say nothing meaningful), but regarded this as a dramatic strength, a prelude to the rebirth at the conclusion of the film. Without analysing the film in detail, Isaac Asimov spoke well of it in his autobiography and other essays. James P. Hogan liked the film but complained that the ending did not make any sense to him, leading to a bet about whether he could write something better: "I stole Arthur's plot idea shamelessly and produced Inherit the Stars."
### Awards and honours
In 1969, a United States Department of State committee chose 2001 as the American entry at the 6th Moscow International Film Festival.
2001 was ranked 15th on the American Film Institute's 2007 100 Years ... 100 Movies (22 in 1998), was no. 40 on its 100 Years, 100 Thrills, was included on its 100 Years, 100 Quotes (no. 78 "Open the pod bay doors, HAL."), and HAL 9000 was the no. 13 villain in 100 Years ... 100 Heroes and Villains. The film was also no. 47 on AFI's 100 Years ... 100 Cheers and the no. 1 science fiction film on AFI's 10 Top 10.
## Interpretations
Since its premiere, 2001: A Space Odyssey has been analysed and interpreted by professional critics and theorists, amateur writers, and science fiction fans. In his monograph for BFI analysing the film, Peter Krämer summarised the diverse interpretations as ranging from those who saw it as darkly apocalyptic in tone to those who saw it as an optimistic reappraisal of the hopes of mankind and humanity. Questions about 2001 range from uncertainty about its implications for humanity's origins and destiny in the universe to interpreting elements of the film's more enigmatic scenes, such as the meaning of the monolith, or the fate of astronaut David Bowman. There are also simpler and more mundane questions about the plot, in particular the causes of HAL's breakdown (explained in earlier drafts but kept mysterious in the film).
### Audiences vs. critics
A spectrum of diverse interpretative opinions would form after the film's release, appearing to divide theatre audiences from the opinions of critics. Krämer writes: "Many people sent letters to Kubrick to tell him about their responses to 2001, most of them regarding the film—in particular the ending—as an optimistic statement about humanity, which is seen to be born and reborn. The film's reviewers and academic critics, by contrast, have tended to understand the film as a pessimistic account of human nature and humanity's future. The most extreme of these interpretations state that the foetus floating above the Earth will destroy it."
Some of the critics' cataclysmic interpretations were informed by Kubrick's prior direction of the Cold War film Dr. Strangelove, immediately before 2001, which resulted in dark speculation about the nuclear weapons orbiting the Earth in 2001. These interpretations were challenged by Clarke, who said: "Many readers have interpreted the last paragraph of the book to mean that he (the foetus) destroyed Earth, perhaps for the purpose of creating a new Heaven. This idea never occurred to me; it seems clear that he triggered the orbiting nuclear bombs harmlessly ...". In response to Jeremy Bernstein's dark interpretation of the film's ending, Kubrick said: "The book does not end with the destruction of the Earth."
Regarding the film as a whole, Kubrick encouraged people to make their own interpretations and refused to offer an explanation of "what really happened". In a 1968 interview with Playboy magazine, he said:
> You're free to speculate as you wish about the philosophical and allegorical meaning of the film—and such speculation is one indication that it has succeeded in gripping the audience at a deep level—but I don't want to spell out a verbal road map for 2001 that every viewer will feel obligated to pursue or else fear he's missed the point.
In a subsequent discussion of the film with Joseph Gelmis, Kubrick said his main aim was to avoid "intellectual verbalization" and reach "the viewer's subconscious". But he said he did not strive for ambiguity—it was simply an inevitable outcome of making the film nonverbal. Still, he acknowledged this ambiguity was an invaluable asset to the film. He was willing then to give a fairly straightforward explanation of the plot on what he called the "simplest level", but unwilling to discuss the film's metaphysical interpretation, which he felt should be left up to viewers.
### Meaning of the monolith
For some readers, Clarke's more straightforward novel based on the script is key to interpreting the film. The novel explicitly identifies the monolith as a tool created by an alien race who have been through many stages of evolution, moving from organic form to biomechanical, and finally achieving a state of pure energy. These aliens travel the cosmos assisting lesser species to take evolutionary steps. Conversely, film critic Penelope Houston wrote in 1971 that because the novel differs in many key aspects from the film, it perhaps should not be regarded as the skeleton key to unlock it.
Carolyn Geduld writes that what "structurally unites all four episodes of the film" is the monolith, the film's largest and most unresolvable enigma. Vincent LoBrutto's biography of Kubrick says that for many, Clarke's novel supplements the understanding of the monolith which is more ambiguously depicted in the film. Similarly, Geduld observes that "the monolith ... has a very simple explanation in Clarke's novel", though she later asserts that even the novel does not fully explain the ending.
Bob McClay's Rolling Stone review describes a parallel between the monolith's first appearance in which tool usage is imparted to the apes (thus 'beginning' mankind) and the completion of "another evolution" in the fourth and final encounter with the monolith. In a similar vein, Tim Dirks ends his synopsis saying "[t]he cyclical evolution from ape to man to spaceman to angel-starchild-superman is complete."
Humanity's first and second encounters with the monolith have visual elements in common; both the apes, and later the astronauts, touch it gingerly with their hands, and both sequences conclude with near-identical images of the Sun appearing directly over it (the first with a crescent moon adjacent to it in the sky, the second with a near-identical crescent Earth in the same position), echoing the Sun–Earth–Moon alignment seen at the very beginning of the film. The second encounter also suggests the triggering of the monolith's radio signal to Jupiter by the presence of humans, echoing the premise of Clarke's source story "The Sentinel".
The monolith is the subject of the film's final line of dialogue (spoken at the end of the "Jupiter Mission" segment): "Its origin and purpose still a total mystery." Reviewers McClay and Roger Ebert wrote that the monolith is the main element of mystery in the film; Ebert described "the shock of the monolith's straight edges and square corners among the weathered rocks," and the apes warily circling it as prefiguring man reaching "for the stars". Patrick Webster suggests the final line relates to how the film should be approached as a whole: "The line appends not merely to the discovery of the monolith on the Moon, but to our understanding of the film in the light of the ultimate questions it raises about the mystery of the universe."
According to other scholars, "the monolith is a representation of the actual wideframe cinema screen, rotated 90 degrees ... a symbolic cinema screen". "It is at once a screen and the opposite of a screen, since its black surface only absorbs, and sends nothing out. ... and leads us ... to project ourselves, our emotions".
### "A new heaven"
Clarke indicated his preferred reading of the ending of 2001 as oriented toward the creation of "a new heaven" provided by the Star Child. His view was corroborated in a posthumously released interview with Kubrick. Kubrick says that Bowman is elevated to a higher level of being that represents the next stage of human evolution. The film also conveys what some viewers have described as a sense of the sublime and numinous. Ebert writes in his essay on 2001 in The Great Movies:
> North's [rejected] score, which is available on a recording, is a good job of film composition, but would have been wrong for 2001 because, like all scores, it attempts to underline the action—to give us emotional cues. The classical music chosen by Kubrick exists outside the action. It uplifts. It wants to be sublime; it brings a seriousness and transcendence to the visuals.
In a book on architecture, Gregory Caicco writes that Space Odyssey illustrates how our quest for space is motivated by two contradictory desires, a "desire for the sublime" characterised by a need to encounter something totally other than ourselves—"something numinous"—and the conflicting desire for a beauty that makes us feel no longer "lost in space," but at home. Similarly, an article in The Greenwood Encyclopedia of Science Fiction and Fantasy, titled "Sense of Wonder," describes how 2001 creates a "numinous sense of wonder" by portraying a universe that inspires a sense of awe but that at the same time we feel we can understand. Christopher Palmer wrote that "the sublime and the banal" coexist in the film, as it implies that to get into space, people had to suspend the "sense of wonder" that motivated them to explore it.
### HAL's breakdown
The reasons for HAL's malfunction and subsequent malignant behaviour have elicited much discussion. He has been compared to Frankenstein's monster. In Clarke's novel, HAL malfunctions because of being ordered to lie to the crew of Discovery and withhold confidential information from them, namely the confidentially programmed mission priority over expendable human life, despite being constructed for "the accurate processing of information without distortion or concealment". This would not be addressed on film until the 1984 follow-up, 2010: The Year We Make Contact. Film critic Roger Ebert wrote that HAL, as the supposedly perfect computer, is actually the most human of the characters. In an interview with Joseph Gelmis in 1969, Kubrick said that HAL "had an acute emotional crisis because he could not accept evidence of his own fallibility".
### "Star Child" symbolism
Multiple allegorical interpretations of 2001 have been proposed. The symbolism of life and death can be seen through the final moments of the film, which are defined by the image of the "Star Child," an in utero foetus that draws on the work of Lennart Nilsson. The Star Child signifies a "great new beginning," and is depicted naked and ungirded but with its eyes wide open. Leonard F. Wheat sees 2001 as a multi-layered allegory, commenting simultaneously on Nietzsche, Homer, and the relationship of man to machine. Rolling Stone reviewer Bob McClay sees the film as like a four-movement symphony, its story told with "deliberate realism".
### Military satellites
Kubrick originally planned a voice-over to reveal that the satellites seen after the prologue are nuclear weapons, and that the Star Child would detonate the weapons at the end of the film but felt this would create associations with Dr. Strangelove and decided not to make it obvious that they were "war machines". A few weeks before the film's release, the U.S. and Soviet governments had agreed not to put any nuclear weapons into outer space.
In a book he wrote with Kubrick's assistance, Alexander Walker states that Kubrick eventually decided that nuclear weapons had "no place at all in the film's thematic development", being an "orbiting red herring" that would "merely have raised irrelevant questions to suggest this as a reality of the twenty-first century".
Kubrick scholar Michel Ciment, discussing Kubrick's attitude toward human aggression and instinct, observes: "The bone cast into the air by the ape (now become a man) is transformed at the other extreme of civilization, by one of those abrupt ellipses characteristic of the director, into a spacecraft on its way to the moon." In contrast to Ciment's reading of a cut to a serene "other extreme of civilization", science fiction novelist Robert Sawyer, in the Canadian documentary 2001 and Beyond, says he sees it as a cut from a bone to a nuclear weapons platform, explaining that "what we see is not how far we've leaped ahead, what we see is that today, '2001', and four million years ago on the African veldt, it's exactly the same—the power of mankind is the power of its weapons. It's a continuation, not a discontinuity in that jump."
## Legacy and influence
2001: A Space Odyssey is widely regarded as among the greatest and most influential films ever made. It is considered one of the major artistic works of the 20th century, with many critics and filmmakers considering it Kubrick's masterpiece. In the 1980s, critic David Denby compared Kubrick to the monolith from 2001: A Space Odyssey, calling him "a force of supernatural intelligence, appearing at great intervals amid high-pitched shrieks, who gives the world a violent kick up the next rung of the evolutionary ladder". By the start of the 21st century, 2001: A Space Odyssey had become recognised as among the best films ever made by such sources as the British Film Institute (BFI). The Village Voice ranked the film at number 11 in its Top 250 "Best Films of the Century" list in 1999, based on a poll of critics. In January 2002, the film was included on the list of the "Top 100 Essential Films of All Time" by the National Society of Film Critics. Sight & Sound magazine ranked the film 12th in its greatest films of all-time list in 1982, tenth in 1992 critics' poll of greatest films, sixth in the top ten films of all time in its 2002, 2012 and 2022 critics' polls editions; it also tied for second and first place in the magazine's 2012 and 2022 directors' poll. The film was voted no. 43 on the list of "100 Greatest Films" by the prominent French magazine Cahiers du cinéma in 2008. In 2010, The Guardian named it "the best sci-fi and fantasy film of all time". The film ranked 4th in BBC's 2015 list of the 100 greatest American films. In 1991, it was deemed "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant" by the United States Library of Congress and selected for preservation in the National Film Registry. In 2010, it was named the greatest film of all time by The Moving Arts Film Journal.
The influence of 2001 on subsequent filmmakers is considerable. Steven Spielberg, George Lucas, and others—including many special effects technicians—discuss the impact the film has had on them in a featurette titled Standing on the Shoulders of Kubrick: The Legacy of 2001, included in the 2007 DVD release of the film. Spielberg calls it his film generation's "big bang", while Lucas says it was "hugely inspirational", calling Kubrick "the filmmaker's filmmaker". Director Martin Scorsese has listed it as one of his favourite films of all time. Sydney Pollack calls it "groundbreaking", and William Friedkin says 2001 is "the grandfather of all such films". At the 2007 Venice film festival, director Ridley Scott said he believed 2001 was the unbeatable film that in a sense killed the science fiction genre. Similarly, film critic Michel Ciment in his essay "Odyssey of Stanley Kubrick" wrote, "Kubrick has conceived a film which in one stroke has made the whole science fiction cinema obsolete."
Others credit 2001 with opening up a market for films such as Close Encounters of the Third Kind, Alien, Blade Runner, Contact, and Interstellar, proving that big-budget "serious" science-fiction films can be commercially successful, and establishing the "sci-fi blockbuster" as a Hollywood staple. Science magazine Discover's blogger Stephen Cass, discussing the film's considerable impact on subsequent science fiction, writes that "the balletic spacecraft scenes set to sweeping classical music, the tarantula-soft tones of HAL 9000, and the ultimate alien artifact, the monolith, have all become enduring cultural icons in their own right". Trumbull said that when working on Star Trek: The Motion Picture he made a scene without dialogue because of "something I really learned with Kubrick and 2001: Stop talking for a while, and let it all flow".
Kubrick did not envision a sequel to 2001. Fearing the later exploitation and recycling of his material in other productions (as was done with the props from MGM's Forbidden Planet), he ordered all sets, props, miniatures, production blueprints, and prints of unused scenes destroyed. Most of these materials were lost, with some exceptions: a 2001 spacesuit backpack appeared in the "Close Up" episode of the Gerry Anderson series UFO, and one of HAL's eyepieces is in the possession of the author of Hal's Legacy, David G. Stork. In 2012, Lockheed engineer Adam Johnson, working with Frederick I. Ordway III, science adviser to Kubrick, wrote the book 2001: The Lost Science, which for the first time featured many of the blueprints of the spacecraft and film sets that previously had been thought destroyed. Clarke wrote three sequel novels: 2010: Odyssey Two (1982), 2061: Odyssey Three (1987), and 3001: The Final Odyssey (1997). The only filmed sequel, 2010: The Year We Make Contact, released in 1984, was based on Clarke's 1982 novel. Kubrick was not involved; it was directed as a spin-off by Peter Hyams in a more conventional style. The other two novels have not been adapted for the screen, although actor Tom Hanks in June 1999 expressed a passing interest in possible adaptations.
To commemorate the 50th anniversary of the film's release, an exhibit called "The Barmecide Feast" opened on 8 April 2018, in the Smithsonian Institution's National Air and Space Museum. The exhibit features a fully realised, full-scale reflection of the neo-classical hotel room from the film's penultimate scene. Director Christopher Nolan presented a mastered 70 mm print of 2001 for the film's 50th anniversary at the 2018 Cannes Film Festival on 12 May. The new 70 mm print is a photochemical recreation made from the original camera negative, for the first time since the film's original theatrical run. Further, an exhibit entitled "Envisioning 2001: Stanley Kubrick's Space Odyssey" presented at the Museum of the Moving Image in Astoria, Queens, New York City opened in January 2020.
In July 2020, a silver space suit was sold at auction in Los Angeles for \$370,000, exceeding its estimate of \$200,000–300,000. Four layers of paint indicate it was used in multiple scenes, including the Clavius Moon base sequence. The helmet had been painted green at one stage, leading to a belief that it may have been worn during the scene where Dave Bowman disconnects HAL 9000.
Stanley Kubrick introduced Arthur C. Clarke to Joseph Campbell's 1949 book The Hero with a Thousand Faces during the writing of 2001: A Space Odyssey. There are allegorical archetypal patterns of the "hero's journey" in this film. Clarke called Campbell's book "very stimulating" in a diary entry.
## Home media
The film has been released in several forms:
- In 1980, MGM/CBS Home Video released the film on VHS and Betamax.
- In 1989, The Criterion Collection released a two-disc special LaserDisc edition with the transfer monitored by Kubrick himself.
- In 2008, Warner Bros. released the film on Blu-ray.
- In 2018, Warner Bros. re-released it on Blu-ray and 4K HDR on Ultra HD Blu-ray, based on a 8K scan of the original camera negative and audio remixed and remastered in DTS-HD MA 5.1.
## Re-releases
The film was re-released in 1974, 1977, 1980 and 1993. In 2001, a restoration of the 70 mm version was screened at the Ebert's Overlooked Film Festival, and the production was also reissued to selected film houses in North America, Europe and Asia.
For the film's 50th anniversary, Warner Bros. struck new 70mm prints from printing elements made directly from the original film negative. This was done under the supervision of film director Christopher Nolan, who has spoken of 2001's influence on his career. Following a showing at the 2018 Cannes Film Festival introduced by Nolan, the film had a limited worldwide release at select 70mm-equipped theatres in the summer of 2018, followed by a one-week run in North American IMAX theatres (including five locations equipped with 70 mm IMAX projectors).
On 3 December 2018, an 8K Ultra-high definition television version of the film was reported to have been broadcast in select theatres and shopping-mall demonstration stations in Japan.
## See also
- List of films considered the best
- List of films featuring eclipses
- List of films featuring extraterrestrials
- List of films featuring space stations
- List of artificial intelligence films
- List of incomplete or partially lost films
- Voyage to the End of the Universe'' |
2,873,612 | The Ghost Ship | 1,169,021,278 | 1943 film by Mark Robson | [
"1940s American films",
"1940s English-language films",
"1940s psychological thriller films",
"1943 drama films",
"1943 films",
"1943 mystery films",
"American black-and-white films",
"American drama films",
"American mystery films",
"Films directed by Mark Robson",
"Films involved in plagiarism controversies",
"Films produced by Val Lewton",
"Films scored by Roy Webb",
"Films set in the Caribbean",
"Films set on ships",
"RKO Pictures films",
"Seafaring films"
]
| The Ghost Ship is a 1943 American black-and-white psychological thriller film starring Richard Dix and directed by Mark Robson. It was produced by Val Lewton for RKO Radio Pictures as part of a series of low-budget horror films. The film can be seen as a "low-key psychological thriller", a "suspense drama", and a "waterlogged melodrama"., Russell Wade, Edith Barrett, Ben Bard and Edmund Glover in support.
The film is about a young merchant marine officer who begins to suspect that his ship's captain is mentally unbalanced and endangering the lives of the ship's crew. The ship's crew, however, believes the vessel to be haunted and cursed and several mysterious deaths occur.
Upon its theatrical release on Christmas Eve, 1943, the film was a box office success but received a mixed critical reception. In February 1944, Lewton was sued for plagiarism by playwrights Samuel R. Golding and Norbert Faulkner, who claimed that the script was based on a play that was submitted to Lewton for a possible film. Because of the suit, The Ghost Ship was withdrawn from theatrical release and not shown for nearly 50 years. It was not until the film's copyright was not renewed and it entered the public domain in the 1990s, that it began to be available again, and was released as part of the Val Lewton Horror Collection DVD set in 2005.
## Plot
Tom Merriam (Russell Wade), a young merchant marine officer, joins the crew of the ship Altair. At first, all seems well and Merriam bonds with the captain, Will Stone (Richard Dix). The ship, already shorthanded due to the death of a crew member before it left port, almost loses another ("the Greek") when he develops appendicitis. Taking direction over the ship's radio, the captain is to perform the appendectomy, but he is unable to make the incision. Instead, Merriam successfully removes the sailor's appendix, but – feeling he should be loyal to the captain and spare him embarrassment – swears the radio operator to secrecy. Afterward, the captain has a self-serving explanation for his failure.
One of the crew, Louie, tells the captain he should pull into port and take on new crew. Shortly after the captain closes the hatch to the chain locker. Louie is inside, and crushed to death by the chain. Merriam believes that Captain Stone, who is obsessed with authority, did it intentionally. When they dock at the fictional Caribbean island of "San Sebastian" Merriam attempts to expose the Captain's madness at a board of inquiry. The crew all speak favorably of the captain, including the Greek, who credits the captain with saving his life. Merriam states his intention to leave the Altair.
After the inquiry, the captain admits to a female friend (Edith Barrett) that he fears he is losing his mind. Soon after, Merriam is involved in a fight in port and knocked unconscious. One of his former shipmates – unaware that he has left the Altair – brings the unconscious man back aboard ship before the vessel departs. Merriam wakes up on the ship and fears that the pathologically insane Captain Stone may now attempt to kill him.
Merriam, scorned by the crew, finds that he can no longer lock the door to his cabin. Fearing for his life, he tries to steal a gun from the ship's weapons locker, but is confronted by Captain Stone. Stone dares Merriam to try to get the support of the crew, but Merriam is rebuffed by them. This changes when Radioman Winslow (Edmund Glover) receives a radiogram asking if Merriam is on board, and Captain Stone orders Winslow to lie, replying that Merriam is not. The radioman shows Merriam the captain's reply radiogram and says that he now mistrusts the captain and will send a message to the company expressing his concerns about Stone's mental health. However, as he leaves Merriam's cabin, Winslow encounters the captain. As the two walk side-by-side, Winslow drops the captain's radiogram to the deck, and it is picked up by an illiterate crewman, Finn the Mute (Skelton Knaggs), whose internal monologues serve as a sort of one-man Greek chorus throughout the film.
Captain Stone now orders Merriam to send a radio message to the corporate office advising them that Winslow has been washed overboard. Merriam accuses the captain of murdering Winslow, and the two fight. Crew members intervene, and the captain has the crew tie up Merriam and put him in his bunk. The captain then has First Officer Bowns (Ben Bard) administer a sedative to Merriam. Finn finally delivers the captain's radiogram to Bowns. After reading it, Bowns becomes deeply alarmed. The first officer talks to several other crew members, all of whom now begin questioning the captain's sanity.
Captain Stone overhears Bowns' conversation with the crew, and goes insane. He takes a knife and enters Merriam's cabin to kill the young officer, but Finn arrives to try to stop him. While the crew is up on deck singing, Finn and the captain engage in a desperate struggle in the dark, during which Finn kills the captain. After the captain's death, Merriam is reinstated and the ship returns to its home port of San Pedro.
## Cast
- Richard Dix as Captain Will Stone, the possibly insane captain of the Altair
- Russell Wade as Tom Merriam, Third Officer on the Altair
- Edith Barrett as Ellen Roberts,
- Ben Bard as First Officer Bowns
- Edmund Glover as Jacob "Sparks" Winslow, radioman
- Paul Marion as Pete a.k.a. "the Greek"
## Production
RKO had scored a major financial success with Cat People (1942). The film cost only \$141,659, yet brought in almost \$4 million in its first two years and saved the studio from financial disaster. RKO wanted to move quickly on a sequel to build on the success of Cat People, but producer Val Lewton wished to make the fantasy-comedy story "The Amorous Ghost" instead. As Lewton and studio wrangled, Lewton commenced production on The Seventh Victim, a horror-murder mystery film, and on May 12, 1943, RKO announced it was delaying production on the sequel The Curse of the Cat People due to the unavailability of key performers. RKO production chief Charles Koerner did not want Lewton to be idle once filming on The Seventh Victim ended nor did he favor the idea of Lewton working on comedy, so Koerner suggested that Lewton direct a horror film set at sea, utilizing the studio's existing ship set, built for Pacific Liner (1939). According to Robert Wise, a longtime collaborator with Lewton, it was this set that gave Lewton the idea for the film. "He would find what we call a 'standing set,' and then tailor his script to the set, whatever it was. That's how he made The Ghost Ship. He walked onto a set and saw a tanker, then cooked up the idea for this ship with a murderous captain." One scholar has suggested that Lewton accepted the assignment in part because, as an amateur sailor himself, the ship captain's behavior mirrored Lewton's own views on how to manage a ship, but also because Lewton saw the plot as a way of criticizing his micro-managing superiors at RKO. The budget, as with all of Lewton's films, was set at \$150,000.
At the time screenwriting began, Lewton claimed that the idea for the film was an original one attributable to himself. Leo Mittler did the treatment and Donald Henderson Clarke wrote the script, although Lewton significantly revised the screenplay and wrote many lines of dialogue himself.
Mark Robson was assigned to direct in June 1943. Robson was the RKO director "most in tune with [Lewton's] idea of psychological terror". Robson had just finished editing Orson Welles' Journey Into Fear, and there are distinct stylistic similarities between the two films. Robson and Lewton chose to use single-source lighting throughout the film in order to make the sets and performances more interesting, and sets were designed to utilize this type of lighting. The two men also agreed to continue Lewton's emphasis on unseen and implied terror. Cinematographer Nicholas Musuraca, art directors Albert S. D'Agostino and Walter E. Keller, and composer Roy Webb all regularly worked with Lewton, and did so on The Ghost Ship as well. Richard Dix was cast because he was already on contract with RKO to do several "quickie" pictures at a set fee per film, and doing The Ghost Ship would help fulfill his contract without much effort. Russell Wade had provided a disembodied voice in The Leopard Man, and this was his first starring role in a Lewton production. His performance here led him to be cast in Lewton's later The Body Snatcher (1945). Edith Barrett, Ben Bard, Dewey Robinson, and Charles Lung all had worked with Lewton before. Future film noir star Lawrence Tierney, whom Lewton had seen modeling clothing in a Sears, Roebuck catalog, made his motion picture debut in the movie. Sir Lancelot, a well-known calypso singer, who later influenced the career of Harry Belafonte, had already appeared in singing roles in three prior films (including I Walked with a Zombie). Atmosphere is created in the film by the contrast between murder and the joviality of the calypso songs sung on board.
Production began on 3 August 1943. Many details about the performances, lighting, camera angles, action, and effects were worked out ahead of time in order to not only keep the film under budget but also help achieve suspense on such a low budget. Dr. Jared Criswell, former pastor of the Fifth Avenue Spiritualist Church of New York City, served as a technical consultant on the film regarding psychic phenomena. The picture's final fight scene between the Finn, Pollo, and the mad Captain was shot on a dimly lit set to heighten the suspense and keep the audience from guessing who the victor might be, similar to the way Jacques Tourneur and Lewton had shot a similar scene in Cat People.
## Release and lawsuit
The film was released in theaters on Christmas Eve, 1943. The poster art was most likely painted by William Rose. The film did well at the box office until Lewton was sued for plagiarism in February 1944 by playwrights Samuel R. Golding and Norbert Faulkner, who claimed that the script was based on a play that was submitted to Lewton for a possible film. Because of the suit, The Ghost Ship was withdrawn from theatrical release. Lewton disputed the claim, but the court ruled against him. RKO paid the authors \$25,000 in damages and attorney fees of \$5,000, and lost all future booking residuals and the right to sell the film for airing on television. Elliot Lavine, a film historian, says that losing the lawsuit deeply disturbed Lewton, leaving him depressed for a significant period of time.
The film did not see release for nearly another 50 years due to the suit. The Ghost Ship did make it into a package of RKO films sold by "C & C Television Films" to local TV stations, but it was quickly withdrawn. It was not until the film's copyright was not renewed and it entered the public domain in the 1990s, that it began to be available again. The film was released as part of the Val Lewton Horror Collection DVD set in 2005.
## Reception
At the time of its initial release, the film had a mixed reception, with both positive and negative reviews. Bosley Crowther of The New York Times enjoyed the film, calling it "... a nice little package of morbidity, all wrapped around in gloom." Paul Meehan calls it "a tepid potboiler of malfeasance and murder on the high seas." John Brosnan described The Ghost Ship as "a more conventional mystery-thriller involving a number of deaths on board a ship, but was produced with Lewton's customary attention to atmosphere." The script has come in for significant praise, with Captain Stone being compared to Captain Queeg in The Caine Mutiny, Captain Ahab in Moby-Dick, and Captain Wolf Larsen in The Sea-Wolf. Other critics have pointed out that Stone and Merriam seem to have a father-son relationship, but that the perverseness of the script is that the father-figure becomes so enraged at his "son's" failings that he seeks to murder him.
Modern film critics have also praised the picture's acting, cinematography, and lighting, as well as its ability to scare. Actor Richard Dix is almost uniformly praised for bringing a depth of character, moodiness, and pathos to the role of Captain Stone. The film's direction, cinematography and lighting, too, display a depth of artistry not usually seen in cinema. Cinematographer Nicholas Musuraca won high praise for his chiaroscuro lighting design. Film historian Edmund Bansak has written one scene in particular which is highly effective:
> An excellent set-piece early in the film showcases Robson's underrated directorial skill. Robson creates a dynamic sense of menace from a physical object: a massive giant hook hanging from upon an enormous chain, pendulumlike, inches above the deck. ... [The] hook remains unattended and unsecured. ... In a tightly directed, genuinely exciting scene, the monstrous hook sways back and forth in a direct path toward the camera, making one wonder how cinematographer, Nicholas Musuraca, kept his camera (and head) intact during the shooting. ... The lighting is also used to great advantage, the shadows and fog accenting the terror. Half the time the swinging hook is so hidden in the darkness that aside from the creak of its sway, there is no telling which direction it will take.
The set design, too, has been praised for being "suitably claustrophobic." Robson's direction has earned kudos for heightening the suspense by leaving certain actions and motives vague. In the scene in which Seaman Parker (Lawrence Tierney) dies, crushed by the anchor chain, Robson left it unclear whether Captain Stone committed murder by trapping Parker in the anchor chain locker or whether he merely shut the door. The vagueness leaves the audience unsure whether to believe Merriam's accusations against the Captain, and builds an atmosphere of paranoia and doubt which is critical to the picture's success. Contemporary critic Gary Giddins has pointed out that the film incorporates classic Lewton scare tactics but in new ways. "His trademark scare tactic, a high point in practically all of his films, is a long, dark, nightmarish walk, where every sound is magnified and every object threatening. In The Ghost Ship, that "walk" is transferred to the cabin of the victimized third officer ..." Others have pointed out another Lewton device, the gradual stalking of a main character by a murderer, as another deft touch in the film.
Modern critics have also pointed out that the film, unlike so many motion pictures of the 1940s, has an almost exclusively male cast and avoids the trope of a man "redeemed by the love of a good woman." The picture is "entirely concerned with male conflict", one critic noted, and at the end of the film a woman appears only in shadow and fog "as the possibility of salvation" rather than bringing emotional closure. Other film critics have made sustained arguments that the film is a lengthy if coded study of repressed homosexuality, similar to that in Herman Melville's novel, Billy Budd. Indeed, the focus on men and men's problems has led one modern critic to declare the film "one of the most homoerotic films Hollywood ever made."
Contemporary film programmers seem to have a high opinion of the film as well. A 1993 Film Forum series, "Val Lewton: Horror Most Noir", screened The Ghost Ship 42 times, while I Walked With A Zombie screened only 10 times and Cat People a mere eight. Film director Alison Maclean chose The Ghost Ship for a retrospective of classic RKO films, arguing that the film was "genuinely eccentric" and a cinematic revelation. When The Ghost Ship was shown on French cable television in the late 1990s, it was introduced as a prime example of Val Lewton's genius at presenting "unseen horror." |
24,518,746 | Megalomys audreyae | 1,152,687,862 | Extinct species of rodent | [
"Animals of Barbuda",
"Extinct rodents",
"Fossil taxa described in 1926",
"Mammals of Antigua and Barbuda",
"Megalomys"
]
| Megalomys audreyae, known as the Barbudan (?) muskrat or the Barbuda giant rice rat, is an extinct oryzomyine rodent from Barbuda in the Lesser Antilles. Described on the basis of a single mandible (lower jaw) with the first molar missing and an isolated upper incisor, both of uncertain but Quaternary age, it is one of the smaller members of the genus Megalomys. Little is known about the animal, and its provenance and distinction from "Ekbletomys hypenemus", an even larger extinct oryzomyine that also occurred on Barbuda, have been called into question. The toothrow in the lower jaw has a length of 8.7 mm at the alveoli. The third molar is relatively narrow and both the second and third molars have a wide valley between their outer cusps.
## History
Remains of Megalomys audreyae were found by John Walter Gregory among cave breccia on Barbuda around 1900. The exact locality is unknown. In his 1901 description of Oryzomys luciae, Charles Immanuel Forsyth Major mentioned the Barbuda animal as another member of the Megalomys group, but he never published a description of the latter. Édouard Louis Trouessart gave the name Oryzomys (Megalomys) majori to it in his Catalogus Mammalium, but he did not describe it and therefore the name is a nomen nudum. In 1926, Arthur Hopwood finally described it and named it Megalomys audreyae after Gregory's wife Audrey, following Major's intention.
The oryzomyines of the Caribbean were revised in 1962 by Clayton Ray, who examined the specimens Gregory had found and redescribed them. He suggested that M. audreyae may in fact have come from Barbados instead of similarly named Barbuda, citing the occurrence of a different oryzomyine ("Ekbletomys hypenemus") in other cave deposits on Barbuda, circumstantial evidence for the occurrence of a native rodent on Barbados, uncertainty whether Gregory ever visited Barbuda, and biogeographical considerations.
In the subsequent literature, M. audreyae has seldom been mentioned and never been further described. In a 1999 review of recent extinctions in mammals, Ross MacPhee and C. Flemming reported that M. audreyae had been recovered from a locality on Barbuda known as Darby Sink, which had been radiocarbon dated to around 1200 BCE. They also stated that M. audreyae and "Ekbletomys" may in fact be identical. However, in 2009 Samuel Turvey suggested that two different rice rats were in fact present in material from Barbuda, which would imply that M. audreyae is a valid species.
## Description
The only remains of Megalomys audreyae that have been described in the literature are the original two specimens Gregory found, a left upper incisor and a left mandible (lower jaw). The upper incisor is not grooved and its diameter has a length of 2.6 mm and width of 1.5 mm, but exhibits no other significant characters.
The mandible, which is severely damaged and lacks the condyloid, coronoid, and angular processes at the back of the bone, contains the second and third molar and part of the lower incisor, but the first molar is missing. The capsular process of the lower incisor, a slight raising of the mandibular bone at the back end of the incisor, is small. The preserved alveoli, the impressions left by the roots, show that the first molar was supported by large roots at the front and back and a smaller root in between these. The second molar is about square and shows the four main cusps commonly present in rodents: the protoconid, metaconid, hypoconid, and entoconid. A strongly developed mesolophid (a crest) is also present, as in most oryzomyines. The main valley between the cusps, the hypoflexid, is broad and V-shaped. The third molar is as long as the second, but it is narrower and the entoconid is poorly developed. Again, the hypoflexid is broad and V-shaped. The length of the toothrow at the alveoli is 8.7 mm. The length of the second molar is 2.5 mm and the width is 2.2 mm. The third molar has a length of 2.5 mm and width of 1.8 mm.
When Clayton Ray described "Ekbletomys hypenemus" on the basis of abundant skeletal remains from both Barbuda and Antigua, he carefully distinguished it from M. audreyae, the only other native rodent recorded from those islands. M. audreyae is much smaller than "Ekbletomys"; for example, 72 specimens of the latter had the alveolar length of the lower molars ranging from 10.3 to 12.6 mm (mean 11.6 mm, standard deviation 0.49 mm; compare 8.7 mm for M. audreyae). In addition, the V-shaped hypoflexids and narrow third molar of M. audreyae contrast with the narrow, parallel-sided hypoflexids and broad third molar of "Ekbletomys". These characters, and others observable in species of Megalomys represented by more complete material, convinced Ray that M. audreyae and "Ekbletomys" are not only distinct species, but indeed share no close relationship. Instead, he proposed that the combination of large size, occurrence in the Lesser Antilles, and similarity in molar morphology indicated a relationship between M. audreyae and other species of Megalomys, and he suggested that the similarly sized M. curazensis from Curaçao, off Venezuela, may be most closely related to M. audreyae. |
45,227,667 | 1754 Taunton by-election | 1,093,210,220 | UK Parliamentary by-election | [
"1754 in England",
"1754 in politics",
"18th century in Somerset",
"By-elections to the Parliament of Great Britain",
"By-elections to the Parliament of the United Kingdom in Somerset constituencies",
"History of Taunton"
]
| The 1754 Taunton by-election to the Parliament of Great Britain was held across thirteen days, from 10–24 December 1754 in Taunton, the county town of the southwestern English county of Somerset. It took place following the death of the incumbent Whig Member of Parliament, John Halliday. The by-election was contested by Robert Maxwell on behalf of the Whigs, and Sir John Pole, 5th Baronet for the Tories. Maxwell was elected with a majority of 56. The election had over 700 rejected votes, and the result caused rioting in Taunton, during which two people were killed.
The election was fiercely contested, and both sides incurred great expenses during the campaign. There was not another contested election in Taunton for almost twenty years, and during that time the Taunton Market House Society was set up with the aim of preventing the bad blood of a contested election, and to spend money that would have otherwise been spent on campaigning on improving the town. Maxwell remained as one of Taunton's members of parliament until 1768.
## Background
### Vacancy and nominations
In the mid-18th century, the parliamentary constituency of Taunton, which had an electorate of around 500, returned predominantly Whig members of parliament, partly due to an agreement between Charles Wyndham, 2nd Earl of Egremont and the local Dissenters; Lord Egremont, the chief landowner in the borough, would nominate a candidate for one of the two seats, while the Dissenters would name the second. Nationally, parliament had been controlled by the Whigs since 1715, in what was dubbed the "Whig Supremacy" by Basil Williams. At the 1754 general election, Lord Egremont put forward his brother-in-law, George Carpenter, 3rd Baron Carpenter, while the Dissenters nominated one of their own, John Halliday. The pair were elected unopposed. Two months after the election, on 8 June 1754, Halliday died, resulting in a by-election being called to fill the vacant seat.
The Dissenters proposed Robert Webb, who had previously served as the member for Taunton from 1747 until the general election in 1754, to fill the vacancy. The recent history of the elections in Taunton suggested that no opposition would be offered: the last contested election had been in 1741. That however proved not to be the case, and a group of Tories put forward their own candidate, Sir John Pole, 5th Baronet of Shute in Devon. Webb did not want the expense of a contested election, and withdrew, leaving the Dissenters without a candidate. Unable to find a suitable candidate, the Dissenters appealed to Lord Egremont to locate someone to stand for the Whiggish interest. The Mayor, Henry Manly, was sent to London to meet with the Whig Prime Minister, Thomas Pelham-Holles, 1st Duke of Newcastle, to try and secure a candidate. Manly reported that the Duke of Newcastle did not want the seat to go to a Tory, and was willing to fund the election from the secret service account (more accurately the King's private money, a fund which was not accountable to Parliament). Eventually, through communication with both Lord Egremont and the Duke of Newcastle, Robert Maxwell came forward as the Whig candidate. Maxwell offered to spend up to £3,000 on the election, in addition to the money promised from the secret service fund.
### Candidates
John Pole was the only son of Sir William Pole, 4th Baronet. The family owned the Shute House estate in east Devon, and had returned six generations of members of parliament, including John Pole's father. He had inherited the estate, and the baronetcy upon his father's death in 1741. Robert Maxwell was the oldest son of John Maxwell, 1st Baron Farnham, an Irish politician and peer. Robert had been a member of the Parliament of Ireland since 1743 for the constituency of Lisburn. He had not stood for the British parliament during the 1754 general election, though he was by that time almost certainly resident in England.
## Result
When Halliday died in June, parliament was in recess. As a result of this, a writ could not be issued until parliament reconvened in the winter. This extended the election campaign to run for six months, causing major disruption to the wool trade in the town. In his History of Taunton, Joshua Toulmin reported that the length of the campaigning allowed "the display of every manoeuvre, and the exertion of every power, by which the parties could counteract each other's views." A lot of money was spent on both sides of the election; in addition to the £3,000 which Maxwell said he was willing to spend, the government put forward £3,675 of secret service money for his campaign. Both men had plates and mugs made which were given free to the voters, generally full of food and drink. A number of delft plates bearing the inscription "Sir John Pole for ever" still exist, and one such plate sold for over £2,000 in 2011. A drinking glass with a similar inscription is housed at the British Museum in London. The public houses became aligned to one of the two candidates, and much of the campaign money was placed into these to gain their support. Toulmin lamented that "the houses of entertainment were kept open during all this time; [...] habits of idleness and licentiousness were formed." In a letter to Lord Sackville, Maxwell wrote that the election campaign involved "a great deal of smoking, some drinking, and kissing some hundreds of women."
Maxwell travelled down to Taunton in August to contest the seat, and the vacancy was nationally advertised in October. Despite this, the voting did not commence until 10 December 1754. The voting ran for thirteen days, and closed on 24 December; Maxwell received 198 votes to Pole's 142, giving Maxwell a majority of 56. During the course of the voting, over 700 votes were discounted, and it has been referred to as being "notoriously corrupt".
When the result was announced, the public showed "their displeasure by assaulting the friends of Mr Maxwell." Maxwell himself had to be escorted back to where he was staying, but during the rioting that ensued, the houses of those known to support Maxwell were attacked. The Derby Mercury reported that Robert Pearsall, a Dissenter minister who had been prominent in Maxwell's campaign, was threatened with having his house pulled down and being sacrificed. Two people, a man and a woman, were killed during the rioting, which prompted two troops of dragoons to be sent to the town, placed at the command of the Mayor, in case of emergency. One of the murderers was caught and sent to the County Jail in Ilchester, but the other escaped.
## Aftermath
Maxwell, who became the 2nd Baron Farnham upon his father's death in 1759, and then Viscount Farnham in 1760, was returned unopposed at the 1761 general election. He pressed for a position in parliament, suggesting "being in the Admiralty or being paymaster of the pensions." However, this desire was only because he thought that such a position would provide a stepping stone to a higher peerage, and he was made the Earl of Farnham, in the Irish peerage in 1763. He initially stood at the general election in 1768, but withdrew from the election in the face of strong opposition.
The Market House Society was formed in Taunton in 1763 by a group who wished to avoid a repeat of the expensive and violent election in 1754. They made it their aim to "prevent the evils and drunkenness of a contested election", and vowed to spend the money that would have otherwise been spent on campaigning on improving Taunton. They put forward two candidates in 1768, who after the withdrawal of Maxwell and another, were returned unopposed for Taunton. |
44,366,694 | Kumari 21F | 1,171,525,693 | 2015 film by Palnati Surya Pratap | [
"2010s Telugu-language films",
"2010s coming-of-age drama films",
"2015 directorial debut films",
"2015 films",
"2015 romantic drama films",
"Films about virginity",
"Films scored by Devi Sri Prasad",
"Indian coming-of-age drama films",
"Indian romantic drama films",
"Telugu films remade in other languages"
]
| Kumari 21F is a 2015 Indian Telugu-language romantic drama film written by Sukumar and directed by Palnati Surya Pratap. Produced by Sukumar Writings and P. A. Motion Pictures, the film stars Raj Tarun and Hebah Patel. Kumari 21F focuses on a romantic relationship between Siddhu, a chef and Kumari, a struggling model.
The film marks the debut of Sukumar, an established director and screenwriter in Telugu cinema, and also a producer. The film was produced on a budget of ₹6–15 crore. Sukumar took inspiration from his youthful college days in Razole where a young woman went to a picnic with some young men; a major undertaking for a woman at that time, which earned her the undeserved label of a "loose" character.
Devi Sri Prasad composed the film's background score and music and R. Rathnavelu was the director of photography. Neither Prasad nor Rathnavelu charged any remuneration for the film. Principal photography commenced in December 2014 and was finished in 70 working days; according to Rathnavelu, lighting played a key role during the filming process and digital low lighting photography techniques were used.
Kumari 21F was released worldwide in theatres on 19 November 2015 in about 500 screens. It received mostly positive critical response; praise was directed towards the film's climax, performances (especially Hebah Patel), screenplay, cinematography and music. The film grossed ₹38 crore and earned a distributor share of ₹18 crore at the end of its run. It was declared a commercial success based on the return on distributor's investment of ₹10 crore and became the twelfth highest grossing Telugu film of the year. The film was remade in Kannada language with the same title and released in 2018.
## Plot
Siddhu is a chef leading a middle class life with his mother in K.G.B. colony. His father Ravikanth is accused of having an extra-marital affair that leads to the separation of his parents. Siddhu aims to be a chef on a cruise liner in Singapore and his financial status does not support him. His friends Shankar, Srinu and Suresh steal money from people who use the local ATM; they hide in some local ruins for three days and Siddhu cooks for them and provides liquor, receiving a share of the money in return.
Siddhu meets Kumari, a struggling model from Mumbai who has recently moved to the colony. They fall in love; Siddhu is often confused by Kumari's bold and daring attitude. His friends tell Siddhu is not Kumari's first boyfriend and she may have had past relationships. Siddhu grows suspicious about her virginity and Kumari realises this. She rejects his marriage proposal, saying he does not have the maturity to love her.
Siddhu tries to make Kumari jealous by romancing his neighbour Madhu, but his ploy fails. Kumari continues to love him unconditionally; her attitude confuses Siddhu. Siddhu's friends discover Kumari is actually Meena, a Mumbai-based model who was caught in a police raid at a brothel. She rejects their sexual advances, which angers them. Siddhu refuses to leave her, further angering the trio.
After an ATM robbery, the trio escapes and Srinu loses his cellphone; Kumari finds it and hands it to the police. The trio shelter in the ruins; when Siddhu meets them, Shankar reveals that Kumari is actually Meena and shares a video of a press meet issued by the Mumbai police that features her and others linked to a prostitution case. Kumari rejects Siddhu's advances that night; the following day, he discovers his father never had an extra-marital relationship and his mother misunderstood. To make sure Siddhu is happy, Kumari asks him to visit her that night to fulfill his desire.
The trio reach Kumari's house before Siddhu, sedate her with narcotics mixed with juice, and sexually assault her. Siddu arrives and finds the trio there. After chasing them away, he reads Kumari's letter that makes him recognise his immaturity. He starts rearranging everything to make sure Kumari is not aware of the assault. He sees blood stains on her saree and assumes she is a virgin. He removes the saree, washes away the stains, and puts it back. When Kumari gains consciousness, Siddhu tells her she fell asleep after the trio left and he was waiting for her. She is suspicious but Siddhu persuades her and proposes marriage her, to which she agrees.
The police arrests Siddhu and interrogates him to find the whereabouts of his friends, which he refuses to reveal. He is released from jail and marries Kumari. Three years later, Siddhu is running a kitchen in Hyderabad and the inspector plans to close the case because he could not find the trio. It is revealed that Siddhu has chained them in the ruins and has been feeding and torturing them for the past three years; they beg him to kill them, but Siddhu beats the trio after feeding them by saying that he is not mature enough to forgive them.
## Cast
- Raj Tarun as Siddhu
- Hebah Patel as Meena Kumari
- Noel Sean as Shankar
- Naveen Neni as Photola Suresh
- Sudharshan as Sollu Srinu
- Bhanu Sri as Madhu
- Hema as Siddhu's mother
- Kamal as Ravi Kanth
- Thagubothu Ramesh as Yadagiri
- Giridhar as Narsing
- Aravind as Pawan Suresh
- Jogi Brothers as consultancy officers
- Satya Krishnan as a doctor
- Irfan as Satish
- Chanikya as Rakesh
- Sudha Reddy as Mala
- K. S. Raju as Stephen Paul
## Production
### Development
In October 2014, Sukumar announced he would co-produce a film along with Vijay Bandreddi and Thomas Reddy under the banner P.A. Motion pictures. Palnati Surya Pratap, who made his directorial debut with Current (2009), was chosen to direct this film. Sukumar titled the film Kumari 21F because it is about a 21-year-old woman named Kumari. He said it is not a female-centric film and both the lead roles, for which Raj Tarun and Sheena Bajaj were chosen, would be equally important. Tarun charged a remuneration of ₹25 lakh.
Sukumar wrote the film's story and screenplay, taking inspiration from his college days in Razole where a young woman went to a picnic with some young men; a major undertaking for a woman at the time. Rumours were spread and the woman was labelled as a "loose" character, which stayed in Sukumar's mind. He defined Kumari as an "honest and genuine human being who isn't afraid of expressing herself" and the "sort of girl most people would know", despite going overboard at times with her characterisation during the scripting stage. The climax of the film was said to have been inspired from the 2009 Argentinian thriller film The Secret in Their Eyes.
Sukumar's technicians Devi Sri Prasad and R. Rathnavelu were signed as the film's music composer and director of photography respectively. In an interview with Behindwoods in December 2014, Rathnavelu said the necessity of rejuvenating himself after Lingaa (2014), the film's script and his friendship with Sukumar were the reasons for choosing to work for this film. Neither Rathnavelu nor Prasad charged any remuneration for the film. Hebah Patel replaced Bajaj after the makers were impressed with her performance in Ala Ela (2014). Patel went through many workshops for her role that occupied 80% of the screen space; her voice was dubbed by Lipsika. Tarun did little preparation for his role because he felt it was "brilliantly conceived" and an extension of the roles he played in Uyyala Jampala (2013) and Cinema Choopistha Mava (2015).
### Filming
Kumari 21F was produced on a budget of ₹6—₹15 crore. The film's principal photography commenced in December 2014, and was finished in two-and-half month period. Initially, Krishna Nagar, Hyderabad, was chosen as the film's backdrop. Rathnavelu felt they would create a noisy, crowded environment if shot there and chose to shoot in an isolated colony and in confined spaces. 60% of the film was shot at the R&B colony in Malakpet, Hyderabad. The song "Bang Bang Bangkok" was filmed in picturesque locales in Bangkok, and was choreographed by Prasad. Prasad said he composed a few signature steps during the composition of the song, which Sukumar and Rathnavelu liked. They wanted him to choreograph the song.
According to Rathnavelu, lighting played a key role in Kumari 21F. He shot the film with limited equipment and mostly used natural light. The experience he gained working on Haridas (2013) helped him with this film; he used Digital low lighting photography techniques, thereby using 80% of the generally required lighting. He found the climax sequences challenging to film because the emphasis was more on visuals rather than dialogue. Patel said of her experience during the filming of some intimate sequences, "There were so many people on the sets, so it was obviously uncomfortable. But then, I got myself mentally prepared for this kind of thing in a workshop I had undergone before the shoot. It also helped that I became good friends with Raj Tarun and that made things way less awkward". Tarun said he and Patel "put in a part of us into the characters to make the romance more believable".
## Soundtrack
The official soundtrack was composed by Devi Sri Prasad and consists of five songs. Lyrics were written by Ramanjaneyulu, Krishna Kanth and Chandrabose for one song each. Prasad wrote the lyrics for "Bang Bang Bangkok", which he sang with Ranina Reddy and Rita. A lyric from the song, "Good boy goes to heaven, Bad boy goes to Bangkok", was well received. For "Meghaalu Lekunna", which was sung by Yazin Nisar, Sri Mani wrote the pallavi and Anantha Sreeram wrote the charanams. "Meghaalu Lekunna" was recorded using a live orchestra, which Nisar found "rare these days". The soundtrack album was released on 6 November 2015 at Shilpakala Vedika, Hyderabad, with actor Allu Arjun attending the event as the guest of honour. Aditya Music marketed the soundtrack album.
Karthik Srinivasan of The Hindu said the song "Meghaalu Lekunna", "sounds at best like the Telugu version of a song by the Hindi pop band Euphoria", that the tune is "similarly lush and folkish", and that Prasad does "some interesting things in the interludes—the use of violins and solo-violin in the first and second interludes, to be specific". Madhavi Tata of Outlook India called Prasad's music, particularly "Love Cheyyala Vadda" ("To love or not to"), a "winner". The Times of India gave the soundtrack 2 stars out of 5 and said the album "falls desperately short" of the standards expected from Prasad. The reviewer called "Meghaalu Lekunna" a "beautiful and melodious track, courtesy the tantalising acoustic guitar, violin and flute sounds", and praised Nisar's rendition of it.
## Release
Kumari 21F was released worldwide in theatres on 20 November 2015; its release clashed with those of Cheekati Raajyam (the Telugu version of the Tamil film Thoongaa Vanam) and the 24th James Bond Hollywood film Spectre. Kumari 21F was released in 350 screens in Andhra Pradesh and Telangana, 50 screens in other parts of India, and 90 screens in international markets. Abhishek Pictures acquired the theatrical distribution rights for the Guntur, Krishna, East, West and Nellore areas. Dil Raju acquired the theatrical rights for the Nizam region. New York City-based company Creative Cinemas acquired the film's United States theatrical distribution rights, making it their debut in film distribution in the international market.
The film was screened in 22 screens across Tamil Nadu, including 12 in Chennai. It received an "A" (Adults only) certificate from the Central Board of Film Certification, which asked the makers to trim a lip-kissing sequence and mute several objectionable lines of dialogue, and suggested a few cuts. Regarding the Board's decision against unrestricted viewing, Sukumar said, "Even a father was once a young boy. I think this story gives him the space to both identify with his feelings as a young man and to understand what his son or daughter might be going through".
### Marketing
One of the first-look posters released in October 2015 was alleged to have been plagiarised from the Russian magazine Chai-llot. After the film's first-look teaser was released by N. T. Rama Rao Jr., the makers announced a dubsmash challenge. Interested female participants were asked to search for an audio clip uploaded by the film's team and upload it on their Facebook pages. They were asked to e-mail the link or send a message on Facebook. The first 500 participants won invitations to the soundtrack launch event and 21 participants with most likes on their videos shared the stage with the film's cast and crew at the event. One winner was crowned "Kumari 21F" and received a special gift.
## Reception
### Critical reception
Karthik Keramalu of CNN-IBN gave Kumari 21F 3.5 stars out of 5 and called it a "surprisingly good" film, adding, "The emotions of the leads are true and it rightly says that at the end of the day trust is all that matters and nothing else comes into the picture". Sify gave the film 3 stars out of 5 and called it a "coming-of-age story told in bold manner with an unusual climax", and praised the film's music and cinematography. Siddharth Rao of The Times of India also gave the film 3 stars out of 5 and stated, "In an industry where a damsel-in-distress-wooed-and-saved-by-an-angry-young-man is the norm, this is a refreshing film which provokes some thought". Rao also said, "The best part is the way that the film's climax is presented; the director Palnati Surya Pratap has definitely done a very mature job".
The Hans India also gave the film 3 stars out of 5 and stated, "Sukumar popularly known as a creative director in the industry, has once again come out with an unusual story. The film may disappoint normal audience but it will surely entertain the youth audience". Suresh Kavirayani of Deccan Chronicle gave the film 3 stars out of 5, called it a "[b]old and beautiful" one and praised the performances and the film's climax. Giving 2.75 stars out of 5, Behindwoods also called the film "[b]old and beautiful" and stated, "Kumari 21F starts off as a feel good romantic film, shifts gears slowly and gets very intense towards the end ... Sukumar must be credited for having given us a memorable character that would be talked about for years. You don’t find such bold female characters in Telugu cinema often."
Y. Sunita Chowdary of The Hindu called the film "regressive and cliched", and stated, "It's not enough if a canvas boasts of the biggest names in the industry, the content should be simple and progressive". She called the performances "strong and authentic". A. Harini Prasad of The New Indian Express called Kumari 21F a "Lacklustre Love Story" and stated, "Though the basic theme is enticing, the story-telling fails to impress. Raj Tharun’s performance and the climax, which is gripping, are probably the only things that could drive you to the theaters".
### Box office
Kumari 21F debuted with an average occupancy of 80% globally; it grossed more than ₹3 crore with a distributor share of more than ₹2 crore, out of which approximately ₹56,69,014 was collected from Guntur, Krishna, East, West and Nellore areas. It collected US\$27,153 from 80 screens in the US on the first day. In its first weekend, Kumari 21F grossed ₹8.5 crore with a distributor share of ₹5.5 crore at the AP/Nizam box office. According to trade analyst Taran Adarsh, it grossed US\$149,752 (₹99 lakh) in its first weekend at the North American box office. The first weekend global gross and share figures stood at ₹10.58 crore and ₹6.34 crore respectively. It collected US\$188,457 (₹1.25 crore) at the US box office in its first weekend, becoming one of the highest grossing Telugu films of the year there.
In ten days, Kumari 21F grossed ₹17.4 crore and collected a distributor share of ₹10.66 crore at the AP/Nizam box office. It grossed ₹2.3 crore with a distributor share of ₹85 lakh at the Karnataka box office. The ten-day global gross figure stood at ₹21 crore and Kumari 21F was declared a profitable venture. After losing screens to Size Zero and Shankaraabharanam, Kumari 21F collected US\$3,190 from eight screens in the US and its 17-day total stood at US\$252,151 (₹1.68 crore). Its US screen count was reduced to four in its fourth week and the 24-day US revenue was US\$253,961 (₹1.7 crore). With this, Kumari 21F secured the tenth position in the list of the ten highest-grossing Telugu films of the year at the US box office.
In its lifetime, Kumari 21F grossed ₹38 crore and earned a distributor share of ₹18 crore worldwide. It was declared a commercial success based on the return on distributor's investment of ₹10 crore and became the 12th highest grossing Telugu film of the year.
## Remake
Kumari 21F was remade in Kannada with the same title by debutant director Sriram Vemula, with Pranaam Devaraj and Nidhi Kushalappa. Sukumar co-produced the Kannada version. The remake film in Kannada language was released in August 2018. |
74,341 | DuPont Manual High School | 1,168,159,902 | null | [
"1892 establishments in Kentucky",
"Educational institutions established in 1892",
"High schools in Louisville, Kentucky",
"Jefferson County Public Schools (Kentucky)",
"Louisville Cardinals women's basketball venues",
"Magnet schools in Kentucky",
"Public high schools in Kentucky"
]
| duPont Manual High School is a public magnet high school located in the Old Louisville neighborhood of Louisville, Kentucky, United States. It serves students in grades 9–12. It is a part of the Jefferson County Public School District. DuPont Manual is recognized by the United States Department of Education as a Blue Ribbon School.
Manual opened in 1892 as an all-male manual training school. It was the second public high school in Louisville. Manual merged with its rival, Male High School, into a consolidated school from 1915 to 1919. Manual permanently merged with the Louisville Girls High School in 1950 and moved into their Gothic-style three-story building, built in 1934. In 2004, after conducting a poll, Louisville's Courier-Journal newspaper listed Manual as one of Louisville residents' ten favorite buildings. Manual experienced a decline in discipline and test scores in the 1970s. In 1984, Manual became a magnet school, allowing students from throughout the district to apply to five specialized programs of study, or magnets.
Manual and Male High School have the oldest football rivalry in the state, dating back to 1893. Manual's football team has won five state titles and claims two national championships. In the 1980s and 1990s Manual became a prominent academic school and has been included several times in lists of America's top high schools in Redbook and Newsweek magazines. The high school has been recognized as a Perennial Top Academic School in Kentucky and holds the most national merit semi-finalists among all JCPS High Schools.
## History
### duPont Manual Training High School
In 1892, Louisville factory owner Alfred Victor du Pont donated \$150,000 to the board of Louisville Public Schools to establish a training school to teach young men industrial arts ("manual") skills that would fit them for their duties in life. The Victorian building was built on the corner of Brook and Oak Streets by the firm of Clark and Loomis, which also designed the Speed Art Museum and Waverly Hills Sanatorium. After Manual moved out of the building it was used as a Middle School until 1974 when it was converted to apartments. Manual's first principal, Henry Kleinschmid, was a favorite of du Pont but was unpopular with the school board, which conspired to replace him in 1895. Despite a summer of controversy and protest from the du Pont family, Manual's first two graduating classes and the four major local newspapers, the board replaced him with Harry Brownell on July 2.
Manual was initially a three-year school with some general academic classes and an emphasis on mechanical and industrial training. Although graduates recall the school being viewed as blue-collar and academically inferior to Male High School in its early days, numerous early graduates went on to become medical doctors, and students published a literary magazine called The Crimson from 1899 to 1955. In order to accommodate newly added French and Latin classes, Manual was expanded to a four-year school in 1901. In 1911, Manual became the first school in Kentucky to serve lunches to students.
In 1913, Louisville Public Schools announced a plan to merge Manual and its rival Male High School into Louisville Boys High so that the two schools could share a new \$300,000 facility. The plan took effect in 1915. Industrial training classes continued at the old Manual building. Parents objected to their children having to travel between the two buildings and the consolidation did not save the school board any money, so they voted to end the experiment in 1919. The new building became Male's home for the next 70 years and Manual returned to its old building at Brook and Oak. In 1923 an expansion added new laboratories, a cafeteria, and the largest gym ever built in Louisville at the time. The addition eventually burned and had to be destroyed in 1991.
Manual's enrollment numbers, which had hovered around 400 since the 1890s, soared from 429 in 1919 to 1,039 in 1925. The Manual Crimsons football team, which had also been consolidated with Male's from 1915 to 1918, had great success in the 1920s, beating Male two years in a row for the first time in its history. Manual shared athletic facilities with Male for many years, but in the early 1920s alumni raised funds to construct Manual Stadium. The stadium opened in 1924 with 14,021 permanent seats. It was one of the largest high school stadiums in America at the time. The original structure was condemned and closed in 1952 after years of heavy use and minimal upkeep, and was reopened after being rebuilt in 1954. Its modern capacity is 11,463.
### Louisville Girls High School
The Louisville Girls High School opened as Female High School in 1856 at what became the intersection of Armory Place and Muhammad Ali Boulevard. It was the female counterpart to Male High School, also opened in 1856, and they were the first two public high schools in Louisville. Female High School moved to a location on First Street north of Chestnut in 1864 and remained there until 1899 when it moved to a location at Fifth and Hill Streets. It changed its name to Louisville Girls High School in 1911.
In 1934, the school moved into Reuben Post Halleck Hall, which had just been completed. The building was initially home to the Girls High School on the second and third floors, and Louisville Junior High School on the first. Over 12,000 women graduated from the school in its 94 years of operation.
### Merger
By the 1940s, budget concerns and national trends made it clear that Louisville Girls High School and duPont Manual would merge into one coeducational school. They finally did so in September 1950 and remained in the old Louisville Girls High School building. This fusion of institutions resulted in the birth of the modern duPont Manual High School – dropping 'Training' from its previous name. The same school building remains in use today, although two major additions have since been made. The middle school located on the building's first floor became Manly Junior High and moved to Manual's old building at Brook and Oak.
The merged school began developing traditions such as Homecoming in 1951, and Red and White Day in 1953. Red and White Day eventually became a full week of school spirit related activities preceding the annual Male-Manual football game. Two traditions of the sexually segregated past, sororities and the all-male Mitre Club, persisted into the 1950s as unofficial organizations but gradually faded away. Students began publishing a newspaper, The Crimson Record, in 1955.
Following the Brown v. Board of Education Supreme Court decision, Manual became racially integrated without controversy in 1956 and graduated its first two black students in 1958. Starting in the 1960s, Manual began to face problems associated with inner city schools in the United States as economically advantaged families moved towards Louisville's suburbs. Manual was exempt from court-ordered busing in the 1970s because its racial makeup already met federal guidelines.
On November 11, 1976, what school board members referred to as a race-related riot occurred on campus, injuring 16 and leading to six arrests and 60 suspensions. Students and school administrators agreed that there was an atmosphere of racial tension brewing at Manual in the 1970s that led to the riot. In his 2005 book on the history of Manual, Mike McDaniel wrote that November 11, 1976 was "quite probably the worst day in the history of Manual."
The late 1960s and 1970s were a time of major change at Manual. A new wing featuring a gym with a seating capacity of 2,566 opened in 1971. The school had as many as 3,360 students in the 1971–72 school year, necessitating 17 portable classrooms in the front and rear courtyards. Manual still had grades seven through twelve at this time, and overcrowding gradually began to improve after Manual dropped the seventh and eight grades when Noe Middle School opened in 1974. Throughout the decade the administration gradually dropped the last vestiges of its manual training emphasis as the number of shop classes dwindled from 16 in 1971 to three in 1979. The Youth Performing Arts School, actually a magnet school within Manual, opened in 1978 and, along with the changing curriculum, presaged Manual's transition to an academically intensive magnet school in the 1980s.
### Magnet school
Manual became a magnet school in 1984, creating specialty programs and allowing students from around the district to apply to attend. The change initially met with a mixed reaction, especially as most freshmen and sophomores were to be transferred to other schools. One critic in the black community called the plan "one-way busing". A few days after the proposal was announced, about 300 students walked out of class at Manual and marched to Central High School, where most of them were being transferred, in protest. The protest succeeded in persuading the school board to modify the proposal to exclude sophomores from being transferred.
The magnet programs succeeded in attracting applicants and by the mid-1990s only about a third of students who applied were accepted. In the midst of the transition to magnet school, Manual underwent a \$1.9 million building improvement plan which added computer and science labs. Also in 1991, the United States Department of Education recognized Manual as a Blue Ribbon School, the highest honor the department can bestow on a school. The school earned a Blue Ribbon award again in 2020.
Many interior shots of the 1999 film The Insider were filmed at Manual. Dr. Jeffrey Wigand, the subject of the film, taught science and Japanese at Manual after he was fired by tobacco company Brown & Williamson in 1993.
## Building and campus
Manual classrooms and offices are located in three buildings spread over two city blocks. The main building was originally called Reuben Post Halleck Hall and was home to the Louisville Girls High School before it merged with Manual. The Gothic-style building was completed in 1934 at a cost of \$1.1 million. The 9-acre (36,000 m<sup>2</sup>) tract it was built on had previously been the site of the old Masonic Widows and Orphans Home.
In 1967 an urban renewal program demolished a residential block east of the main building to create a running track and various athletic fields. The project doubled Manual's campus to its modern size of 17 acres (69,000 m<sup>2</sup>). This was a part of a larger city-funded effort which created Noe Middle School north of Manual and increased the size of the University of Louisville campus, which was originally touted as a plan to create a continuous chain of schools over many blocks. Manual even became a home for two of the university's women's athletic teams. In the 1980s, the U of L women's basketball team used Manual's gym as a part-time home, playing a total of 40 games in eight seasons there. The U of L volleyball team used the Manual gym as its primary home from 1977 through 1990, after which the team moved into the newly built Cardinal Arena on its own campus. In 1992, Manual began a \$3.5 million renovation of the main building which included a new roof and a glass-enclosed cafeteria for juniors and seniors.
The Youth Performing Arts School has its own building a half-block from Manual's main building. It was completed in 1978 at a cost of \$1.5 million as the final stage of the same plan that expanded Manual's campus and built Noe. Noe had been built without an auditorium in anticipation of a theater-oriented school being built on site. The YPAS building includes production facilities, a costume shop and an 886-seat proscenium-style theater. The YPAS building did not contain extensive classroom space, however, and for many years teachers conducted YPAS classes in hallways and on loading docks if other space wasn't available. Since 1993, YPAS has used an adjacent facility, built in 1899 and formerly home to Cochran Elementary, as an annex.
## Academics
Manual focused on industrial training early in its history, but by the late 1970s it had a standard curriculum. In 1980, Iowa Test of Basic Skills scores ranked Manual 23rd out of the 24 high schools in the county. Under principal Joe Liedtke, academics improved, especially after Manual became a magnet school in 1984 and could attract students from throughout the county.
All students enroll in one of five magnet programs. The High School University (HSU) magnet offers a traditional college preparatory curriculum with electives. The Math/Science/Technology (MST) magnet specifically prepares students for college programs in engineering, science and math. Minimal requirements for MST students include courses in algebra, trigonometry, calculus (including mandatory AP Calculus), biology, chemistry and computer programming. The Journalism & Communication (J&C) magnet focuses on journalism, publishing, and media production. To earn class credit, J&C students can participate in the creation of the school's national award-winning publications and productions: yearbook (The Crimson), a city-wide youth newsmagazine (On the Record), literary magazine (One Blue Wall), a school news website (RedEye) and a daily morning television show called CSPN-TV, which is streamed online and broadcast to classrooms. The J&C program was formerly known as CMA (Communications and Media Arts), but the name was changed so that the Manual program's specific emphasis on journalism would be reflected in the name, distinguishing the magnet from others in the district with similar names.
Admission to the HSU, MST and J&C magnets are decided by a committee of Manual teachers based on academic performance as measured by prior school grades and the Commonwealth Accountability Testing System, although extracurricular involvement is also considered. J&C applicants also participate in an on-demand writing assessment. The acceptance rate to each magnet varies with the number of applicants in any given year; in the mid-1990s about a third of applicants to these three magnets were selected each year. Admission the other two magnets, Visual Arts and the Youth Performing Arts School, are decided based primarily on auditions.
The Visual Arts magnet is located in a wing of art classrooms and features an art show each year for graduating seniors. The Visual Arts magnet provides students with the opportunity to work with a variety of media, including clay/sculpture, fibers, printmaking, painting, drawing and graphic design. The Math/Science/Technology program and the Youth Performing Arts School have achieved national recognition on multiple occasions.
In 1994, Manual began offering Advanced Placement (AP) courses. In 2001 it offered 45 AP courses, more than any other school in the state. Qualifying students may take college courses free of charge at the University of Louisville, which is located directly south of Manual. In 2000, Manual implemented block scheduling, which allowed students to take eight classes per year, which are scheduled four per day on alternating days.
Since 2000, Manual has held Kentucky's state record of 52 National Merit Semifinalists, ranking third in the United States for that year. Manual's academic team won state titles at Governor's Cup, Kentucky's top high school academic competition, in 1993, 1994, 2005, and 2013. Matt Morris, a Manual graduate who was on the 1993 and 1994 teams, was the 1994 Teen Champion on Jeopardy!. Three other Manual students have competed on Jeopardy!. Manual's academic teams have also won both National Science Bowl and National Academic League championships, and achieved 7th place at the NAQT's High School National Championships. Manual has a history of one of the top policy debate programs in the state. In the 1990s Manual students won the Jefferson County championships most years and qualified teams for the National Forensic League tournament and the TOC Tournament of Champions. Manual has been mentioned several times in lists of America's top high schools in Redbook and Newsweek magazines. In 2002, Manual was separated from the rest of the schools in its district and made to hold its own regional science fair.
In 2015, duPont Manual had the distinction of being the high school that sent the most students to the INTEL International Science and Engineering Fair (ISEF).
In 2022, duPont Manual was ranked \#47 in the National Rankings, \#1 in Kentucky High Schools, \#1 in Louisville, KY Metro Area High Schools, and \#1 in Jefferson County Public Schools High Schools.
### Youth Performing Arts School
The Youth Performing Arts School (YPAS) is one of only two programs in Kentucky allowing high school students to major in performing arts. Between 1995 and 2005, 90% of YPAS students received college scholarships totaling an average of over one million dollars per year. YPAS has its own building a half-block from Manual's main building, which includes classrooms, production facilities, a costume shop and an 886-seat proscenium-style theater. Since 1993, YPAS has used an adjacent facility, built in 1899 and formerly home to Cochran Elementary, as an annex.
YPAS is one of Manual's magnet programs and YPAS students take their academic classes at Manual and must complete the same academic requirements as any public school student in Kentucky. Unlike the other magnets, YPAS is semi-autonomous; it has its own assistant principals, counselor, administrative staff, and parents' organization. Many Manual students take classes at YPAS, even if it is not their academic major.
Students at YPAS major in vocal music, instrumental music (band, orchestra, piano, or guitar), dance, theater, design and production, or musical theatre. YPAS instructors are school teachers recruited from around the district for their backgrounds in the arts. The YPAS choir was the only chorus to perform at the January 2001 inauguration of President George W. Bush.
## Athletics
### Football
### Other sports
John Reccius, an early Major League Baseball player, organized Manual's first baseball team in 1900. An early baseball star was Ferdie Schupp, who would go on to pitch in the 1917 World Series, but left Manual two months before graduating. Manual claims seven "mythical" state baseball championships and has won six official ones, most recently in 1962. A total of ten Manual players have played in Major League Baseball, most notably Pee Wee Reese.
The varsity cheerleaders have won several NCA National Championship titles. In 1997, 1998, 2004, and 2005, they won the Large Varsity Division, and in 2003 and 2006 they won the Medium Varsity Division title. Varsity boys' soccer was second at states in 2005 and third in 2004.
In 2006, the Manual girls' cross country team won the school's first team title after placing second in 2004 and 2005. The 2006 win was the first championship for a Jefferson County, Kentucky Class AAA Public School since 1980. In 2007, the Manual boys' cross country team also won a Class AAA state championship.
The swim team maintained state titles from 2003 to 2008. From 2004 through 2008, Manual won the Combined Girls' and Boys' State Championship, and the girls maintained their own state championship from 2005 through 2008.
The boys' tennis team achieved their best finish at the KHSAA State Tennis Tournament in 2008 by winning the team title. Previously, their best result had come in 2006 when they tied rival St. Xavier High School for second place. The boys' team also won the state doubles title in 2006, which was the first state title in Ram tennis history on the boys' side. The team had five consecutive runner up positions from the 2001—2002 year until the 2005—2006 year. In 2008, the Manual boys' tennis team went on to win the first ever regional tournament in Manual history. The state team won the state title in 2008, making Manual the second public school to ever win the title.
The boys' bowling team won the state title in 2010. The school also offers basketball, dance (called the Dazzlers), field hockey, golf, lacrosse, and volleyball, among other sports teams.
The varsity field hockey team won the state title in 2011 for the first time in the history of the program.
DuPont Manual girls' lacrosse has won many state titles and tournament trophies since 2001, when the program was developed.
## Notable alumni
- James Gilbert Baker, astronomer and optician
- Michelle Banzer, 2007 Miss Kentucky USA
- Chad Broskey, actor, most often on the Disney Channel
- Bud Bruner, boxing trainer and manager
- Keenan Burton, NFL football player
- Nathaniel Cartmell, Olympic gold medalist
- James S. Coleman, sociologist
- Paige Davis (1987), theater performer, host of Trading Spaces on TLC from 2001 to 2005.
- Bremer Ehrler, Jefferson County Judge-Executive and sheriff
- Sara Gettelfinger (1995), Broadway performer
- Ray Grenald (1945), architectural lighting designer
- Stratton Hammon, architect
- Bruce Hoblitzell, former Mayor of Louisville
- Sherman Lewis, Heisman Trophy runner-up
- Victor M. Longstreet, U.S. Assistant Secretary of the Navy (Financial Management), 1962–65
- Mitch McConnell, United States Senator from Kentucky, Senate minority leader
- Morgan McGarvey, U.S. Representative from Kentucky
- John Jacob Niles, "Dean of American Balladeers"
- Travis Prentice, college and professional football player
- Pee Wee Reese (1937), baseball player
- Nicole Scherzinger (1996), lead singer of the Pussycat Dolls
- Joseph D. Scholtz, former Mayor of Louisville
- Gene Snyder, U.S. Representative from Kentucky
- Josh Whelchel, award-winning video game composer and entrepreneur
- Anjali Chadha, Biological Engineer
## Notable staff
- Jeffrey Wigand, American biochemist and former vice president of research and development at Brown & Williamson, blew the whistle on tobacco tampering at the company in 1996, inspiration for the 1999 film The Insider, former Teacher of the Year in the state of Kentucky
## See also
- Public schools in Louisville, Kentucky |
64,299,313 | 1997 New Mexico's 3rd congressional district special election | 1,168,602,608 | None | [
"1997 New Mexico elections",
"1997 United States House of Representatives elections",
"New Mexico special elections",
"Special elections to the 104th United States Congress",
"United States House of Representatives elections in New Mexico",
"United States House of Representatives special elections"
]
| A special election to determine the member of the United States House of Representatives for New Mexico's 3rd congressional district was held on May 13, 1997. Republican Bill Redmond defeated Democrat Eric Serna in a result which flipped this heavily Democratic seat to the Republican column. Redmond replaced Bill Richardson, who resigned from his seat in the House after he was appointed by Bill Clinton to be the United States Ambassador to the United Nations.
New Mexico's state law required the Governor of New Mexico to call for a special election within 10 days of a vacancy in the Congressional delegation to be held 84 to 91 days after the resignation. Governor Gary Johnson set the date of the special election as May 13. The election was held in the backdrop of the 1994 New Mexico gubernatorial election, where a Green Party candidate had taken over 10 percent of the vote and the party as a whole was continuing to grow in strength. All three parties (Democratic, Republican, and Green) held conventions to select their candidates for the special election, and the Democratic Central Committee's selection of Eric Serna proved to be especially controversial due to the "smoke-filled room" selection process it employed. Serna was repeatedly attacked during the campaign by Republicans for ethics complaints against him from his time at the State Corporation Commission, and the campaign was marred by negative campaigning from all sides.
Redmond's victory (by just 3,017 votes) was considered to be a huge upset in the strongly Democratic-leaning district. His win was attributed to the Green Party spoiler effect, the low turnout in the election, and the negative perception of Eric Serna. Redmond would be ousted in the 1998 midterms by future United States Senator Tom Udall who won by a sizeable margin.
## Background
### District and campaigns
Democratic Congressman Bill Richardson had held New Mexico's 3rd congressional district since it was first created in redistricting after the 1980 census. After serving 8 terms, Richardson was appointed by President Bill Clinton to be the United States Ambassador to the United Nations. The heavily Democratic 3rd district held a large Democratic voter registration advantage, and was widely seen as a safe Democratic seat. The district breakdown was 59 percent Democratic, 29 percent Republican, 2 percent Green, and 9 percent Independent, giving Democrats a wide support base.
The Green Party of New Mexico had run a strong third party campaign in the 1994 New Mexico gubernatorial election, where former Lieutenant Governor Roberto Mondragón claimed 10 percent of the vote statewide, and was growing in strength in New Mexico at the time of the special election.
### Nomination process
New Mexico's state law required the Governor of New Mexico to call for a special election within 10 days of a vacancy in the Congressional delegation. The law remarks that "... each qualified political party may nominate in the manner provided by the rules of that party." This meant that recognized parties in New Mexico, the Republican Party of New Mexico (GOP), Democratic Party of New Mexico, and the Green Party of New Mexico could nominate candidates through their own independent procedures. Independents were required to collect 4,786 valid petition signatures in order to appear on the ballot.
Pushback against the current nominating rules came from some Democrats in the New Mexico Senate, who worked to get a bill passed that would allow for a primary. Sponsors including Senators Gloria Howes, Dede Feldman, and Pauline Eisenstadt felt that a party primary would "open up" the process. The bill was initially delayed by the Senate Rules Committee because of technical issues with its language. Although it was able to pass this hurdle in committee, Governor Gary Johnson, a Republican, announced that he would veto the legislation, and the bill died before coming to a vote on the floor, leaving the party nomination process unchanged. Johnson cited the potential cost of the a primary (\$214,000 to the state and \$600,000 to the counties where the special election would be held) as his reason for supporting a veto. When the bill came up for a vote in the State Senate, its defeat was perceived as assured and Senator Ben Altamirano was even quoted as saying, "Is this the dead candidates bill?" The bill to change to a primary system for New Mexico was tabled in the Senate Finance Committee, meaning that even if it were to eventually pass, it would be too late for the May special election.
Richardson did not resign immediately, and waited until just before being confirmed as U.S. Ambassador to the United Nations to leave his Congressional seat. This delayed Johnson's ability to set a special election date, per state law. Richardson was confirmed to his new position on February 13, and resigned as a Congressman on the same day. Governor Gary Johnson set the date of the special election to May 13. Both the Republican and Democratic parties scheduled their nominating conventions for February 22. Earl Potter, chairman of the State Democratic Party, said "It's ours to lose" and noted the registration advantage Democrats had in the 3rd, while Earl Potter, New Mexico GOP chairman, noted that if the Green Party posted a candidate, it would siphon Democratic vote share. The Santa Fe New Mexican's Editorial Board heavily criticized both the Democrats and Republicans for a nominee selection process that put power in the hands of so few people.
## Candidate selection process
### Democratic Party nomination process
Because of the lack of a party primary for the special election, selecting a delegation was up to the Democratic Party of New Mexico's Central Committee. The group consisted of 89 members who would decide the nominee in a small convention together. Initially, there was confusion over the party's rules, where it could be interpreted that the 500 to 600 county central committee members could be the nominating body, but the Democratic Party's Judicial Committee ruled that the party's Central Committee members would nominate a candidate instead.
State Corporation Commissioner Eric Serna became an early favorite in the Democratic Central Committee, as he announced that he had enough support locked in from the 89 Democratic Central Committee members who chose the nominee. Serna met with Democratic leadership to earn their support in Washington, D.C. and to campaign among the delegation there. An early victory for Serna was seen in former Lieutenant Governor Roberto Mondragón's decision not to run for the seat on the Green Party's ticket, and he endorsed Serna. A number of Democrats who considered running for the seat chastised Serna and the Democratic Party for its "back room politics" approach to the nomination, while Serna announced the names of 56 of the 83 member central committee that publicly supported him.
Criticism of the nominating process came from most of the other candidates. A Democratic Party forum was held in Farmington, New Mexico. Gallup Mayor George Galanis vocally called for a primary at the forum but most other candidates focused on different issues instead. Galanis quickly dropped out from the primary, citing a need to focus instead on his own mayoral re-election effort. Galanis noted on dropping out that going through the central committee means "you are dealing with old politicos who are Neanderthals in politics." A group of liberal Democrats, called the "Concerned Democrats of Northern New Mexico", created a 21.5 page questionnaire and announced that they were uncomfortable with the speed at which the nomination was coming forward. Senator Roman Maes, one of the candidates for the Democratic nomination, criticized the process, stating, "Why do you need to raise money for 89 delegates when you don't have to put up any signs or buy any television or radio ads?" Santa Fe County Commissioner Javier Gonzales dropped out, while Dan Sosa Jr., a former New Mexico Supreme Court Justice, considered jumping into the race (he originally came to a forum to ask people about how to get his name on the ballot, but then joined the other candidates on stage). Maes announced that he was considering a general election write-in campaign due to disgust with the selection process, and then decided to drop out altogether instead.
Democratic leaders scheduled their committee meeting to choose a nominee on February 22, the same day as the Republican meeting. The Democrats held their meeting at the Sagebrush Inn in Taos, New Mexico. Sosa gave a speech to committee members before the vote, criticizing members for rushing to endorse Serna in January when other candidates were still considering runs.
#### Candidates
- Eric Serna, State Corporation Commissioner
- Ernie Lovato, former Governor of Santo Domingo Pueblo
- Dan Sosa Jr., former New Mexico Supreme Court justice
- Santa Fe Mayor Debbie Jaramillo
- State Senator Roman Maes (dropped out)
- Santa Fe County Commissioner Javier Gonzales (dropped out)
- Gallup Mayor George Galanis (dropped out before convention)
- Santa Fe lawyer Francesca Lobato
#### Results
Serna successfully won the Democratic nomination at the meeting, with 67 out of the 81 votes cast. 23 of the votes out of the total of 81 were cast by proxy, meaning that the central committee member did not attend in person. Justice Sosa Jr. received 8, Mayor Jaramillo received 2, former Governor Lovato received 2, and Lobato received 0. At 10AM, three hours before the meeting even started, a large sign announcing Serna as the Democratic nominee appeared outside the hotel the vote was taking place in. Upon receiving the nomination, Serna called for unity between Greens and Democrats at a press conference, reminding voters of the 1994 New Mexico gubernatorial election where the Green Party played spoiler to Democratic gubernatorial ambitions.
### Republican Party nomination
The Republican Party decided to hold a convention with their central committee membership deciding the nominee-- Bill Redmond, a pastor for the Santa Fe Christian Church, and State Senator Joe Carraro of Albuquerque both immediately announced their interest as candidates. Another GOP candidate, Rick Lopez, the chief administrative officer for the New Mexico State Engineer Office, in February announced that he was seeking the GOP nomination as well. Thomas Clayton, a Santa Fe lawyer, also sought the GOP nomination. The Republicans held their convention in Santa Fe, New Mexico.
#### Candidates
- Bill Redmond, pastor
- State Senator Joe Carraro
- Rick Lopez, chief administrative officer for the state Engineer Office
- Thomas Clayton, lawyer
#### Results
Bill Redmond received 70 of 134 votes cast in the GOP central committee meeting, and Redmond received the nomination. Redmond had previously been defeated by Richardson in 1996. Senator Carrarro received 33 votes to finish in second place. Governor Johnson briefly appeared at the Republican convention and called for everyone to rally around Redmond. In a speech after receiving the GOP nomination, Redmond called for it as being the time "to discard the liberal agenda."
### Green Party nomination
The Green Party was initially unsure of whether it would hold a convention, waiting to see if the Democratic-controlled legislature acted on their priorities, noting that if they did not, they would nominate a candidate in mid-March. Independent Patricia Wolff, the Green Party nominee for state land commissioner in 1994, announced her intention to run for the seat in the upcoming special in January, but then changed her mind. The Green Party decided in February to hold a convention—Santa Fe city councilman Cris Moore immediately expressed interest in the nomination. The Green Party announced plans to hold a convention on March 9 (later changed to March 16) at Northern New Mexico Community College, with Santa Fe City Councilor Cris Moore and Carol Miller of Rio Arriba County announcing runs for the nomination.
At the start of the nominating convention in March, Abraham Gutmann, who ran unsuccessfully as the Green Party candidate against Republican U.S. Senator Pete Domenici, and former Lieutenant Governor Roberto Mondragón, the former Green Party gubernatorial candidate in 1994, belated whether the party should put forward their own candidate (which Gutmann supported), or endorse the Democratic nominee, Serna (which Mondragón supported). Mondragón said, "There's a time to put together a platform of monumental ideas, and there is a time to run for office and lose," he said. Mondragón said Serna's position on "90 percent of the issues closely mirrors our own." Political commentator and author Roger Morris spoke at the convention and criticized Serna for alleged ethical issues during his 16 years on the Corporation Commission, which the Albuquerque Journal noted that "some delegates' sentiments seemed better expressed by Morris".
Some Greens criticized Serna at their convention, claiming that his nomination represented a rightward shift of the Democratic Party to support businesses. Santa Fe councilor Cris Moore said in a speech that Greens would have more support in the general because, "If a Green enters the race, we will have a very strong turnout, because a lot of people are very upset with how Eric Serna was selected."
Carol Miller was elected by the Greens at their convention—of the 63 total delegates, 55 supported Miller, despite Mondragón's urgings to endorse Serna.
### Other nominees and independents
Daniel Pearlman initially announced his intention to run as an independent, but eventually accepted the Reform Party nomination instead. Pearlman stated that he "didn't follow Perot necessarily" but respected him for creating a third party. He received the nomination from the Reform Party because four party officials met and chose Pearlman—one other candidate was scheduled for an interview but didn't show up. The Libertarians selected Ed Nagel, a perennial candidate who had previously run against Richardson as the Libertarian candidate in 1992, 1994, and 1996.
## General election
### Early fighting and campaigning
Before Serna had even secured the Democratic nomination, GOP Chairman John Dendahl attacked Serna on ethics-related grounds and for the Democratic nomination process, which was attracting controversy. The ethics complaint dealt with allegations that Serna had pressured Corporation Commission employees to buy from his family's jewelry store and that he accepted an illegal campaign car from businessmen. Carol Miller, the Green Party candidate, challenged candidates to limit their spending to \$100,000 and called on television stations to hold televised debates, while U.S. House Minority Leader Dick Gephardt was slated to headline a fundraiser for Serna in Albuquerque. Serna rejected Miller's spending pledge, with a spokesman for his campaign saying, "This special election is so short and our district is so large, that would limit our ability to get out all the important information we have for the voters." Redmond announced that he would limit his spending to \$100,000 if Serna would limit his spending to the same level, and if Serna (who was State Corporation commissioner) promised not to solicit campaign funds from industries regulated by the commission.
Personal attacks abounded as the campaign moved closer to the special election. Democratic Party chairman Earl Potter called Redmond a "Christian Coalition fundamentalist preacher" and said that Redmond "represents the values of Pat Robertson and Jerry Falwell not the values of Northern New Mexico." Redmond claimed that his pro-life position was in line with Catholic communities of Northern New Mexico and compared his stances to that of Pope John Paul II and Mother Teresa. Nancy Ellefson, the Executive Director of NARAL New Mexico, announced her endorsement of Serna at a press conference. When asked about Miller's support of abortion rights, Ellefson said that a vote for Miller would only give Redmond a better chance of winning. Miller said she was "shocked" by Ellefson's statement and said she was a longtime advocate for stripping restrictions on abortion. A member of the Santa Fe Democratic Committee endorsed Redmond because of his pro-life stance, and the Redmond campaign highlighted his endorsement and other endorsements of anti-abortion Democrats. Serna's support of abortion rights caused Archbishop Michael Sheehan of the Santa Fe Archdiocese call Serna personally and criticize his stance.
In mid-April, New Mexico Democrats ramped up attacks on Redmond, holding two press conferences within the span of a week. Democratic State Chairman Earl Potter criticized Redmond for attending GOPAC and for its links to Speaker Newt Gingrich. Redmond criticized Democratic radio ads and said that "Newt Gingrich is not my hero." Redmond held a press conference, calling on Democrats to cease their negative attacks, and said that Democrats were desperate because the race was tightening.
### Forums and more attacks
At a forum in Taos that was aired on cable television, Miller, Serna, Redmond, and Pearlman participated, along with write-in candidate Michael Guss. There were 60 people present in the audience. Serna cast himself as supporting businesses that are environmentally sound, and announced support for decent pay for teachers. Miller cast herself as the "hopeful" candidate and announced support for health care for everyone when they needed it. Pearlman announced that the only issue of his Reform Party was the Constitution and allowing people to speak directly to politicians, while Redmond felt that social ills were created by federal taxation from the federal government. The Santa Fe New Mexican's Andrew Stiny called the questions from the moderators "sometimes convoluted", a sentiment which most of the candidates had expressed during the forum.
Attacks between Serna and Redmond continued through April. The Republicans alleged that Serna missed a candidates' forum that he should have attended, releasing a press release saying that a source told the GOP that they had seen Serna eating at a sushi bar and drinking beer, instead of attending a candidates' forum in Paradise Hills, New Mexico. Serna angrily responded that "I don't even like sushi and I wouldn't be drinking a beer in a bar like that. I like American beer, Corona, really," he said, and noted that he was at Democratic county conventions. Radio attack ads included Republican ads against Serna, saying: "Washington is engulfed in money scandals and corruption. Eric Serna would fit right in" and an ad that said, "a corrupt politician with a record of demanding money and favors from the people and companies he regulates." Democratic hits against Redmond included: a radio ad hitting Redmond for being a "radical right-wing preacher who wants to impose his extreme values and social agenda on all of us" and a news release criticizing Redmond for holding a fundraiser with former Vice President Dan Quayle.
Miller criticized Serna for ignoring her campaign, and for buying cardboard signs which were blowing in the wind and creating garbage. The Rio Grande chapter of the Sierra Club endorsed Serna instead of Miller, saying that Serna's environmental policies were the same or better than Miller's, and accused Miller of being a vote splitter to help elect Redmond. Serna also received the endorsement of the Conservation Vote Alliance, a 5,000 member group.
Taxes and personal disclosures became a major issue as well. Serna and Miller both released their full tax returns, but Redmond refused to release his. Serna's campaign manager claimed that Redmond was "the only candidate I've ever heard of who's considered disclosure of information to the public to be a trap that he needs to avoid." At a League of Women Voters forum, all four candidates (Pearlman, Serna, Redmond, and Miller all participated while Attila Csanyi, past state Libertarian Party chair, spoke on behalf of their candidate) supported balancing the federal budget within five years, but only Redmond supported a Constitutional Amendment to codify it. Redmond attacked Serna for criticizing him for refusing to disclose his finances, calling it a "smokescreen" and saying he had followed Federal regulations. Serna said that "we should have nothing to hide from the people we hope to represent". Pearlman got laughs at the forum for admitting that he wasn't taking any fundraising money and that he threw away the FEC (Federal Election Commission) disclosure in the trash because he was going to raise and spend less than \$5,000.
The National Federation of Independent Business (NFIB) endorsed Redmond, and criticized Serna for his support from unions. They rolled out two ads attacking Serna, which said that Serna was getting "thousands from union bosses" to support his candidacy. In Roll Call, the National Republican Congressional Committee (NRCC) admitted that it "wasn't doing much" for Redmond. To support Miller, Ralph Nader planned a 20-hour whirlwind tour of the 3rd district. Nader, at one of the campaign appearances, called both Serna and Redmond, "two of the most undistinguished candidates that you and I have ever seen."
### Home stretch
On May 1, fundraising reports came out, and Serna raised the most money of any candidate by over \$300,000. Experts in the runup to the election considered the race to be much closer than anyone expected between Serna and Miller. GOP leaders began to contend that Redmond could be in place for an upset victory, while a New Mexico political scientist said, "I become less confident every day" about a Serna victory. A poll a week out from the election from the Santa Fe New Mexican found Serna with an 8-point lead over Redmond, but with 15 percent of the electorate undecided. Specifically, the poll found that Serna was at 39 percent, Redmond at 31 percent, Miller at 12 percent, and 15 percent were undecided. F. Chris Garcia, a political scientist at the University of New Mexico, noted that if turnout was low and voters considered the corruption allegations against Serna heavily, there would be a chance for an upset in the heavily Democratic 3rd district.
Miller publicly accused Serna of running an "unfair campaign" and planned to file a complaint with New Mexico's Secretary of State about Serna's "election irregularities". Serna's campaign said that it was Miller's "last gasp" because she was desperately behind Serna in the polls. In the run-up to the election, an analysis of the campaigns' websites found that Serna had the highest quality and most polished site, that Miller's page had dedicated information on the Green platform, but that Redmond hosted his website on a free GeoCities page which was criticized for containing little material. Redmond promised that if he were elected to Congress, he would buy a modem for himself.
Negative campaigning continued to be widespread from all sides. Due to the acrimonious nature of the election, Redmond and Miller announced their intentions to send observers to make sure election laws were being followed at polling places, while supporters of Serna announced that they were requesting the U.S. Department of Justice to monitor Republican observers. A spokesperson for Miller's campaign said they were sending observers to anywhere ballots were being counted by hand, citing "real concerns about voter fraud." Serna received late endorsements from President Bill Clinton, Vice President Al Gore, and New Mexico Senator Jeff Bingaman. The GOP attacked Serna, calling him the "poster child for corrupt politicians." Bingaman released a statement, saying that Redmond was "one of the very few 3rd District residents who 'strongly opposes' what Bill Richardson stands for." The Republican Chairman Dendahl filed an FEC complaint against the state Democratic Party over \$40,000 they had spent. Dendahl also complained that a PAC-affiliated commercial that was airing later in the week was against FEC guidelines. Both Republicans and Democrats blanketed mailboxes with applications to request an absentee ballot to try and drive up turnout from their voters, while Serna was the subject of a negative mailer from New Mexico Republicans, which had black and white headlines from newspapers about Serna's alleged conflicts of interest and stories about the national Democratic Party's campaign contribution scandals. Democrats lodged an FEC complaint regarding Redmond's missing identification requirements that they alleged he failed to file.
The state's two largest newspapers, The Albuquerque Tribune and the Albuquerque Journal, both endorsed Green Party candidate Carol Miller instead of Serna in a surprise. Miller was widely considered to have run the most visible Green Party campaign since the governor's race in 1994. A Corporation Commission employee (where Serna worked) was seen taking flyers off of cars supporting Redmond in the parking lot near their office, adding to allegations of Serna misusing his government office staff.
A last debate, hosted by KNME-TV, took place a day before the primary. During the debate, Redmond stated that he never wanted to get rid of the United States Department of Education, which ran counter to speeches he repeatedly gave on the campaign trail. All of the candidates agreed that the Los Alamos National Laboratory (located in the district) should stop work on developing nuclear weapons. Serna fought back hard against the allegations he faced, while Redmond said that while the allegations may not be illegal, they were unethical. On Election Day itself, polling clerks reported generally light crowds of voters in the morning. Early and absentee voting was "generally good". The clerk for Santa Fe County noted that some voters who had requested absentee ballots were still arriving at polling places, causing some confusion.
### Results
In an upset, Redmond won by a margin of 3,017 votes. On Election Night, Redmond said, "This was a race that people said was unwinnable. We did it today." Redmond's election night watch party was at an "out of the way" Holiday Inn, while a stunned Serna was at the Eldorado Hotel, a "swanky" location according to The Albuquerque Tribune. Serna initially refused to concede on election night, saying the numbers could still change enough for him to win, but he conceded the following morning.
For the first time since its creation in 1982, New Mexico's 3rd district was controlled by Republicans. All of New Mexico's U.S. House seats were also controlled by Republicans. Political scientists who studied New Mexico politics were stunned by the victory of Redmond, while The Santa Fe New Mexican called the results, "one of the biggest upsets in New Mexico political history." Serna had outspent Redmond by over two to one, and Redmond had just lost less than a year previously to Richardson by 67 percent to 30 percent. Redmond proclaimed, "They called it mission impossible, I call it mission accomplished."
Political scientist F. Chris Garcia of the University of New Mexico felt that Democrats were "just caught by surprise" at the result and the strength of Redmond, considering Redmond's previous loss. Attorney General Tom Udall said "this is a very sad day for the Democratic Party." Ray Sena, the new Democratic Party chairman who was elected two weeks before the special, blamed the loss on the race's negative tone, low turnout, and vote-splitting because of the Green Party. The Albuquerque Tribune noted that Richardson was prohibited from campaigning in the district due to his new role as a Diplomat, stopping the popular incumbent from stumping for Serna. Thomas Mann from the Brookings Institution contended that Carol Miller and the Green Party vote share were entirely responsible for Serna's loss, while Gilbert St. Clair, a University of New Mexico political scientist, attributed that low voter turnout (35 percent) was the reason for the stunning defeat. Republican U.S. Senator Pete Domenici attributed Serna's loss for going negative too early. Colorado Governor Roy Romer, who became the head of the DNC (Democratic National Committee), noted a month after the election that "people are talking about how they cost us that seat in New Mexico. I'll tell you something: they got a lot of Democrats angry." Dr. David Magleby found in his book that Redmond won for three reasons: a weak Democratic candidate in Eric Serna (who was thought to have manipulated the nomination procedures for his gain), low voter turnout, and the spoiler effect of Carol Miller. Democratic activists after this election began to clamor for Democratic-Green fusion tickets to be allowed to avoid splitting the vote like this in the future.
Redmond would be defeated in his bid for re-election in 1998 by future United States Senator Tom Udall, who won by a sizeable margin. |
33,031,201 | Amanda Carter | 1,157,409,263 | Australian wheelchair basketball player (born 1964) | [
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"La Trobe University alumni",
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"Medalists at the 2012 Summer Paralympics",
"Paralympic medalists in wheelchair basketball",
"Paralympic silver medalists for Australia",
"Paralympic wheelchair basketball players for Australia",
"People from Heidelberg, Victoria",
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"Wheelchair basketball players at the 1996 Summer Paralympics",
"Wheelchair basketball players at the 2000 Summer Paralympics",
"Wheelchair basketball players at the 2012 Summer Paralympics"
]
| Amanda Carter (born 16 July 1964) is an Australian Paralympic wheelchair basketball player. Diagnosed with transverse myelitis at the age of 24, she began playing wheelchair basketball in 1991 and participated in the Australia women's national wheelchair basketball team, the Gliders, at three Paralympics from 1992 to 2000. An injury in 2000 forced her to withdraw from the sport, but she came back to the national team in 2009, and was a member of the team that represented Australia and won silver at the 2012 London Paralympics.
Due to her 2000 injury, Carter lost considerable mobility in her right arm, and required an elbow reconstruction. She spent 11 weeks on a continuous passive motion machine, and nine operations were required to treat the elbow. After her comeback in 2008, she played for the Dandenong Rangers in the Australian Women's National Wheelchair Basketball League (WNWBL), the team she had played for before her injury. That year she received a player award from the Dandenong Rangers and was named the Most Valuable Player (MVP) in her 1-point disability classification in the WNWBL and was named to the league's All Star Five. The Rangers won back-to-back WNWBL titles in 2011 and 2012, and she was again named the WNWBL MVP 1 Pointer and to the league's All Star Five in 2012.
## Personal life
Carter was born on 16 July 1964 in Heidelberg, Victoria. She spent her childhood living in the Melbourne suburb of Heidelberg West. She went to Olympic Village Primary School, attended years 7 to 10 at Latrobe High School and years 11 and 12 at Thornbury High School. She then entered La Trobe University, where she obtained Bachelor of Applied Science and Master of Occupational Therapy degrees. As a youngster, she played netball. In 1989, at the age of 24, she was diagnosed with transverse myelitis after a bout of chicken pox. She works as an occupational therapist and has a son, Alex. As of 2012, she still lives in Heidelberg West.
## Wheelchair basketball
Carter began playing wheelchair basketball in 1991 as part of her rehabilitation. She is a guard, and 1 point player. Before her 2000 accident, she was a 2 point player.
She has been supported by the Australian Sports Commission's Direct Athlete Support (DAS) program with \$5,571 in 2009/2010, \$17,000 in both 2010/2011 and 2011/2012, and \$10,000 in 2012/2013. In 2012, she trained at Aqualink-Box Hill, Royal Talbot Rehab Centre, Kew, and YMCA, Kew.
### National team
Carter first participated in the Australia women's national wheelchair basketball team, known as the Gliders, in 1992 in a precursor tournament before the 1992 Barcelona Paralympics, in which she also participated. She was a member of the team that won a bronze medal at the 1994 World Championships. At the 1996 Atlanta Paralympics, her team finished fourth, losing to the United States 41–30 in the bronze medal game at the Omni in front of a crowd of 5,033. Carter led Australia in scoring with 12 points in that game.
In 1998, she won a bronze medal with the team at the World Championships. She participated at the 1998 Gold Cup in Sydney, where she was Australia's second-leading scorer with 30 points. In the year and a half before the start of the 2000 Summer Paralympics, she played in a number of test series with the team, including a five series in July 2000 in Sydney where Australia had 2 wins and 3 losses. The two Australian wins were the first time Canada had lost in ten years. She also participated in five game test series against the Netherlands, the United States and Japan where her team won all games in those series. In the team's 52–50 win over Canada in one of those games, she scored a layup with 16 seconds left in the match that brought the score to 51–50.
She won a silver medal as part of her team at the 2000 Sydney Paralympics. She missed a warm up game against the New South Wales State team before the start of the 2000 Games. Carter missed a practice game that her team played against Germany's women's wheelchair basketball team because of an illness she picked up during a team training camp at the Australian Institute of Sport that took place a week before the start of the Games. Half of her team had respiratory infections before the start of the Paralympics. She did not attend the opening ceremonies. During group play at the games, she scored 12 points in a 38–26 victory against the Netherlands, which was the most points she had ever scored in an international match. At one point, she made four baskets in a row. Her team made the gold medal game after beating Japan by a score of 45–33. Going into the gold medal game, Carter had missed the previous day's training session, and had an elbow injury. Her team lost the match to Canada before a crowd of 16,389 spectators, with Carter scoring only four points in the first half.
During the match, she was knocked onto her right side, and her right arm became trapped underneath her wheelchair, causing a tendon in her elbow to rupture. Tracey Ferguson, the Canadian player who knocked her down tried to block the way for Australian officials to help her up. Carter lost considerable mobility in her right arm, and required an elbow reconstruction. She spent 11 weeks on a continuous passive motion machine getting treatment. Nine operations were required to treat the elbow. Because she had a pre-existing condition, the insurance company refused to pay for her treatment, although it paid her \$7,500 in return for agreeing not to take legal action. Carter carried a lot of anger towards the Canadian in the first year following her accident. By 2004, she still could not fully flex her hand. Following her accident, she occasionally required the use of an electric wheelchair because of the severity of her injury, and needed the assistance of the council's Home Care to clean her home. Before 2000, she had mostly been coached by national team coach Peter Corr.
She was selected to play in a four-game test series in Canberra against Japan's wheelchair basketball team held in March 2002, the first Australian hosted international for the team since the 2000 Summer Paralympics, and at the 2002 World Cup event in Japan, but did not do so. She quit the sport after being told that neither insurance nor the Australian Paralympic Committee would cover her against injury during a tour in the United States, as her tendonitis was considered an uninsured pre-condition there, and she would have to pay the costs for injury treatment herself. She quit wheelchair basketball. She had a child, which caused a recurrence of her original illness.
She took up wheelchair basketball again after watching the national team compete at the 2008 Beijing Paralympics. This re-ignited her interest in playing the sport competitively. She returned to the Gliders in 2009. That year, she competed in the Four Nations competition in Canada, one of six players who played for the Dandenong Rangers in the WNWBL. She also participated in the Japan Friendly Series. She was selected to participate in a national team training camp in 2010. In 2010, she was part of the gold medal-winning team at the Osaka Cup, one of six Victorians to be selected. In a 2012 friendly series against Japan, she played in three games, where she averaged 0.7 points per game, 1.0 assists per game and 1.0 rebounds per game. She played in four games during the 2012 Gliders World Challenge, where she averaged 1.5 points per game, 0.5 assists per game, and 1.3 rebounds per game. She was coached by John Triscari in 2012 when with the national team.
She was part of the silver medal team for the 2012 Summer Paralympics in London. She was the oldest member of the team, and the only member of the Gliders who had participated in the 1992, 1996 or 2000 Paralympics. She played in the first match against Brazil, in which the Australian team won 52–50, but sat out the second and third matches, returning to the field for her team's quarterfinal 62–37 victory over Mexico, in which she played 18:38 minutes and scored 5 points. She did not play in either the semifinal match against the United States, which Australia won, nor in the gold medal match against the Germany, which her team lost.
### Club
In 2000, she played for the Whittlesea City Pacers in the National Wheelchair Basketball League. She played for Victoria in the inaugural Women's National Wheelchair Basketball League (WNWBL) completion in 2000 when they finished first in the final after they defeated the Hills Hornets 51–50. At the half, her team was winning by 10 points, with Carter being a major reason why.
From 2008 to 2012, she played for the Dandenong Rangers in the WNWBL, the team she had played for before her injury. That year she received a player award from the Dandenong Rangers and was named the Most Valuable Player (MVP) in her 1-point disability classification in the WNWBL and was named to the league's All Star Five. In 2009, she played 17 games for the Rangers where she averaged 5.1 points per game. She averaged 2.4 assists and 3.5 rebounds per game that year. In 2010, she played 4 games, and averaged 3.0 points per game. She averaged 0.3 assists and 3.0 rebounds per game that year. In 2011, she played in 18 games where she averaged 4.7 points per game. She averaged 1.3 assists and 2.1 rebounds per game that year. The Rangers won back-to-back WNWBL titles in 2011 and 2012. In 2012, and was again named the WNWBL MVP 1 Pointer and to the league's All Star Five. She played 13 games that season, when she averaged 4.5 points, 1.5 assists and 2.8 rebounds per game.
## Gallery
## Statistics |
4,763,087 | Petite messe solennelle | 1,171,023,890 | 1863 missa solemnis by Gioachino Rossini | [
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| Gioachino Rossini's Petite messe solennelle (Little solemn mass) was written in 1863, possibly at the request of Count Alexis Pillet-Will for his wife Louise to whom it is dedicated. The composer, who had retired from composing operas more than 30 years before, described it as "the last of my péchés de vieillesse" (sins of old age).
The extended work is a missa solemnis, but Rossini ironically labeled it petite (little). He scored it originally for twelve singers, four of them soloists, two pianos and harmonium. The mass was first performed on 14 March 1864 at the couple's new home in Paris. Rossini later produced an orchestral version, including an additional movement, a setting of the hymn "O salutaris hostia" as a soprano aria. This version of the mass was not performed during his lifetime because he could not obtain permission to perform it with female singers in a church. It was first performed three months after his death, at the Salle Ventadour in Paris by the company of the Théâtre-Italien on 24 February 1869.
While publications began that year, the first critical edition appeared only in 1980, followed by more editions in 1992, the bicentenary of the composer's birth.
## History
Rossini composed the Petite messe solennelle in 1863, 34 years after writing his last opera, in Passy, where he spent the last decades of his life. Rossini and his wife entertained a circle of friends, holding samedi soirs for which he composed several pieces of chamber music, often vocal, which the composer called his péchés de vieillesse (sins of old age). The mass was possibly commissioned by Count Alexis Pillet-Will for his wife Louise to whom it is dedicated, but the musicologist Nancy P. Fleming points out that Rossini may have had reasons of his own to compose it, and dedicated it in response to staging the first performance.
The mass is structured in several extended movements in the tradition of the missa solemnis, but the composer labeled it petite with a grain of irony. He wrote on the last page of the autograph manuscript (now preserved in the Fondazione Rossini, Pesaro):
> Dear Lord, here it is finished, this poor little mass. Have I just written sacred music, or rather, sacrilegious music? I was born for opera buffa, as you well know. Not much technique, a little bit of heart, that's all. Blessings to you and grant me Paradise.
The unusual scoring for voices, two pianos and harmonium is in the Neapolitan harpsichord tradition of the 18th century. Rossini specified, on the second page of his manuscript, twelve singers in all, noting on the title page: "Twelve singers of three sexes, men, women and castrati will suffice for its execution: that is, eight for the choir, four soloists, in all twelve cherubim".
### Performances
The mass was first performed on 14 March 1864 at the couple's new residence in Paris, the hôtel of Louise, comtesse de Pillet-Will. The countess is the dedicatee of this refined and elegant piece, . Albert Lavignac, aged eighteen, conducted from the harmonium. The soloists were the sisters Carlotta and Barbara Marchisio, Italo Gardoni and Luigi Agnesi. The sisters Marchisio had performed together in Rossini's works before, such as the leading parts of the lovers in his opera Semiramide. Rossini, who had helped prepare for the performance, turned pages for the first pianist, Georges Mathias, and marked tempos by nodding his head. Among the first listeners were Giacomo Meyerbeer, Daniel Auber and Ambroise Thomas. The performance was repeated the following day, for a larger audience which included members of the press.
In 1867, three years after the first performance, Rossini discreetly orchestrated the Petite messe solennelle, partly for fear that others would do it anyway after his death. As he disliked the sound of cathedral boys' choirs, he requested permission from the pope to perform the work with female voices at a church. When his request was rejected, he demanded that the orchestral version would only be performed after his death. The composer preferred the chamber music version anyway.
The first performance of the orchestral version, which was also the first public performance of the work, took place on 24 February 1869, close to what would have been Rossini's seventy-seventh birthday. It was performed at the Salle Ventadour in Paris by the company of the Théâtre-Italien, with soloists Gabrielle Krauss, Marietta Alboni, Ernest Nicolas and Luigi Agnesi.
### Publication
In 1869, both the piano version and the orchestral version were published. The first edition was a piano version by the Brandis & Dufour who made it available on the day of the premiere, based on Rossini's piano version but reduced to only one piano, also cutting passages. It was soon followed by editions from Chappell in London, Ricordi in Milan, and Oliver Ditson in Boston, somewhat later by B. Schotts Söhne. These four prints have in common that they were settings for harmonium and only one piano. Ricordi published a piano reduction of the orchestral score rather than following Rossini's original piano version. Some versions failed to mention that Rossini intended the work to be accompanied by two pianos.
A critical edition did not appear until 1980, when the Edizioni musicali Otos in Florence published a version faithful to the composer's intentions, edited by Angelo Coan. Three new editions of the piano version were prepared celebrating Rossini's 200th anniversary in 1992: two critical editions by Oxford and Carus-Verlag, and one by Novello, with only one piano part.
### Reception
The reception of the work was divided. Music critic Filippo Filippi in La Perseveranza noted: "This time, Rossini has outdone himself, because no one can say what prevails, science and inspiration. The fugue is worthy of Bach for erudition." A reviewer for L'Illustration wrote:
> One could sense, from the first measures, the powerful spirit which animated this artist thirty years ago at the time when he chose to put a stop at his glorious career at its culminating point. The composer of William Tell stands proudly before you in his eminence, and you realize with astonishment that neither time nor inactivity have caused any loss of the intelligence with which he is so marvelously endowed. The same facility of invention, the same melodic abundance, the same nobility of style and the same elegance, the same novel twists, the same richness of harmony, the same audacity and happy choice of modulation, the same vigor of conception and of expression, the same ease of part-writing and disposition of the voices, the same masterful and authoritative skill in the overall scheme of the work, as well as in the structure of each movement ...
However, Giuseppe Verdi was much less enthusiastic, as he wrote to Count Opprandino Arrivabene on 3 April 1864: "Lately Rossini has made progress and studied! Studied what? Personally, I would advise him to unlearn the music and write another Barber".
## Scoring
In its original version, the performance of the mass required four soloists (soprano, contralto, tenor and bass), a mixed choir of ideally twelve singers including the soloists, two pianos and harmonium, which sometimes could be replaced by an accordion, according to the first idea of Rossini, but was considered too "popular" for a religious framework at the time of the creation. This low number of performers contrasts with the dimension of ensembles used at that time to interpret the great works of sacred music. This is what has earned this mass the adjective petite.
In 1867 Rossini orchestrated his mass for instrumental forces much larger: three flutes, two oboes, two clarinets, three bassoons, four horns, four trumpets, three trombones, ophicleide, two cornets, timpani, two harps, organ and strings.
Judgements about the two versions diverge. Some musicologists argue that the orchestrated version is preferred today to the original while others explain that the piano gives back its "bite" to the original version, which the composer preferred.
## Structure
The mass is structured following the five parts of the liturgical text, with a ternary Kyrie, a Gloria in six movements, a Credo divided in four sections, Sanctus (including Hosanna and Benedictus) and Agnus Dei. Rossini added two earlier compositions, using an instrumental piece in the form of prelude and fugue for an offertory, and inserting in the orchestral version a soprano aria, a setting of "O salutaris hostia". As Fleming points out, insertion of an instrumental offertory and/or a motet such as "O salutaris hostia" was mentioned in La France musicale [fr] in reviews of contemporary mass settings. The Kyrie and Gloria form Part I, the other movements are combined as Part II.
In the following table of the movements, the markings, keys and time signatures are taken from the Ricordi choral score, using the symbol for common time (4/4). The table reflects the original scoring but includes the added movement "O Salutaris". In movements without notes, both piano(s) and harmonium accompany the voices.
## Music
Fleming compares the mass to Rossini's operas and early mass settings and finds restrained vocal lines, even in the melismas of the Agnus Dei, but observes his "predilection for spicy harmonic twists". She summarizes his "optimistic and deeply felt faith. Robert King, the conductor of The King's Consort, notes: "It certainly is solennelle, for it is a heartfelt religious work which shows the extraordinary compositional capabilities of this astonishing man of the theatre: it is full of drama, pathos, colour and intensity."
### Kyrie
The structure of the Kyrie, following the liturgical three appellations, "Kyrie eleison. Christe eleison. Kyrie eleison" (Lord, have mercy. Christ, ...), is ternary, in the form A–B–A'.
- "Kyrie eleison" Andante maestoso ( = 108) A minor (measures 1–35)
- "Christe eleison" Andantino moderato ( = 66) in C minor (measures 36–57)
- "Kyrie eleison" as a reprise of the first part, but in other keys (measures 58–90)
The work opens in A minor, with two chords marked pppp, extremely soft. The piano then begins an ostinato motif which remains present throughout the movement. A continuous flow of sixteenth appears in a pattern of the first, third and fourth played in octaves by the left hand, while the second appears as a syncopated chord in the right hand. The harmonium introduces motifs repeated by the chorus. The voices pick up a slowly rising line on the word "Kyrie", marked sotto voce, in imitation: first tenor and bass, a measure later alto, a measure later soprano. The word "eleison" appears in contrasting homophonic chords marked forte, but smorzando to piano for the repeats of the word. A second appellation begins in measure 18 in C major, marked pppp for "Kyrie" but with another sudden forte and decrescendo for "eleison".
The middle section, "Christe eleison", is a double canon in an archaizing style. Marked "tutto sotto voce e legato" it stays on one dynamic level, different from the dynamic contrasts of the first part. This music was composed by Rossini's friend Louis Niedermeyer as the "Et incarnatus" of a solemn mass, and included by Rossini "possibly as an affectionate personal tribute", as the musicologist David Hurwitz points out.
The second "Kyrie" returns to the first tempo and themes, but through a tonally inverted path: C minor instead of A minor, then A major instead of C major. After the second exposition, the finale runs through a chain of surprising harmonies (measures 75 to 80) leading to the final cadence.
### Gloria
The Gloria is subdivided into six movements (seven sections), similar to Baroque masses such as Bach's short masses.
#### Gloria in excelsis Deo
Marked Allegro maestoso ( = 120), the first line is introduced by two sequences of three chordal motifs, separated by a measure of silence. According to Claire Delamarche, these represent the trois coups announcing the rise of the curtain in the French theater tradition. The sopranos alone sing the first line, "Glory to God in the Highest", repeated by a four-part harmonization.
#### Et in terra pax
After six measures of piano interlude, the bass soloist begins softly the text "And peace on earth", joined later by the other soloists. Finally the four parts of the chorus all repeat one after the other gently "adoramus te" (we pray to you) and conclude the section singing in homophony "glorificamus te" (we glorify you), marked again sotto voce.
#### Gratias
The second movement of the Gloria is a trio for alto, tenor, and bass. It sets the "Gratias agimus tibi propter magnam gloriam tuam" (We give you thanks for your great glory). Marked Andante grazioso ( = 76) in 2/4, it is made up of:
- an introduction for piano
- theme A, used in different voices (measures 24–51)
- presentation of a new theme, B (measures 51–58)
- a chromatic digression for piano (measures 59–65)
- a brief return to theme A (measures 67–76)
- development of theme B (measures 76–94)
- a long plagal cadence (measures 96–114)
The setting for three voices illustrates "We give you thanks".
#### Domine Deus
The third movement of the Gloria is a tenor aria, setting "Domine Deus rex celestis" (Lord God, King of Heaven). Marked Allegro giusto and fortissimo ( = 120) in common time, it is introduced by a march-like theme with a pattern of a syncopated long accented note on beat 2 of most measures, which the tenor picks up. The second thought, "Domine Deus Agnus Dei" (Lord God, Lamb of God) is presented in contrasting triple-piano and even rhythm. A third aspect, "Domine Deus Filius Patris" (Lord God, Son of the Father), appear forte and with an even accompaniment in triplets. The aria is, by its music of energetic syncopes, dotted rhythms and leaps, an image of a majestic heavenly king.
#### Qui tollis
The fourth movement of the Gloria is a duet for the two female soloists, expressing "Qui tollis peccati mundi, miserere nobis" (You who carries the sins of the world, have mercy). Marked Andantino mosso ( = 76) in common time, it has the two voices often in parallels of thirds and sixths.
#### Quoniam
The fifth movement of the Gloria is a bass aria on the text "Quoniam tu solus sanctus" (For You alone are Holy). A short introduction, marked Adagio, leads to an extended piano section, marked Allegro moderato ( = 76) with contrasts in dynamics.
#### Cum Sancto Spiritu
The final movement of the Gloria is a chorus on the words "Cum Sancto Spiritu in Gloria Dei Patris." (With the Holy Spirit in the Glory of God.) Amen". They are presented first as in the beginning of the Gloria, returning to the initial key. Then, marked Allegro a capella, they are expanded to long fugue with a display of counterpoint. Shortly before the end, the opening of the Gloria is repeated on the first words, unifying the movement further.
### Credo
Different from the Gloria, the text of the Creed is mostly in the same character, interrupted only for a short soprano solo "Crucifixus" (Crucified) and an episode "Et resurrexit" (And risen), concluded by another fugue. The word "Credo" (I believe) is first sung by the tenors, then by the sopranos, again by the choir. This statement of belief is repeated several times throughout the movement, structuring and unifying it, in a way that Niccolò Jommelli, Mozart and Beethoven used before, among others.
Marked Allegro Cristiano ( = 120), a strong beginning is contrasted by softly expressing "in unum Deum" (in one God), beginning on the same tone, reminiscent of liturgical reciting tone. Then the soloists, with alto and tenor beginning, sing the passage "Et incarnatus est" (And was born) in the same mood. The female voices of the chorus announce in unison: "Et homo factus est" (and was made man), repeated by the male voices, then the piano plays a sequence of short motifs, interrupted by many rests.
#### Crucifixus
The crucifixion is illustrated by the solo soprano, marked Andantino sostenuto ( = 80), on a soft ostinato accompaniment.
#### Et resurrexit
The resurrection is announced by the sopranos, first alone, then by a strong chord in the instruments which changes the E-flat they sing to D-sharp of a B major chord, in which the other voices join. After this surprise, the new text is sung to themes from the first section, concluded by "Credo". Another fugue expands the text "Et vitam venturi saeculi. (And the life of a world to come.) Amen". It ends operatic, with a stretta, a slow retarding line by all soloists, finally a last "Credo".
### Preludio religioso
For the liturgical offertory, Rossini inserted an instrumental piece he had composed before, a combination of prelude and fugue. The prelude, sixteen measures of 4/4 Andante maestoso ( = 92), is written for piano and asks for dynamics ranging from double forte to double piano una corda. It announces at the same time the F tonality, and the modulating character of the movement, by chords borrowed from distant keys. The solemn rhythmic style ( .. ) will not recur until the four-measure postlude of the fugue.
Rossini indicates that the fugue (without the postlude explicitly written for piano) may be played equally on piano or harmonium. In 3/4, Andantino mosso ( = 76) with a regular rhythm of eighth notes, the fugue has a theme in the form of a turn like the BACH motif, which has the same chromatic opening as the famous subject of the Fantasy and Fugue on the Theme B-A-C-H by Franz Liszt. Rossini proves both his inventiveness (particularly at the level of management of the tonality, which frequently evolves into distant keys) and his impressive capacity for mastering the contradictions.
The structure begins classically with a fugue with the exposition of the subject successively in the three voices at a piano dynamic. The turn motif in F minor is repeated four times at the interval of a rising third (C , E , G , and B), followed by a development by a sequence of arpeggios in descending thirds. The melodic line proceeds to the dominant to accompany the exposition of the subject in the second voice, with a series of eighth notes arranged in a constant interval of a third or a sixth with the subject. This arrangement repeats itself during the exposition of the subject in the third voice in F minor.
A long episode of 29 measures follows, where the modulations are legion. For example, a sequence based on the three first notes of the turn theme is repeated eight times in a row starting in measure 47. Numerous dynamics are marked in the score: piano, forte, crescendo and decrescendo. This episode ends with the dynamic double forte decrescendo on a perfect cadence of G (D dominant seventh → G major), repeated twice identically. The G major chord becomes the dominant of the key of the second exposition.
The second exposition of the subject begins at measure 70 in the left hand, in C minor, then in the right hand in G minor at measure 78. The same 29 episodic measures as before are heard, but transposed, then extended by 26 measures of new development, always using numerous sequences.
A full measure of rest (measure 140) precedes a cadence in F minor, then F major, of which the A transforms into the tonic of the key B minor for the postlude, then the dominant of the cadence in E minor, followed by an E major chord, and concluding without transition on an F major chord.
### Ritornello
Rossini wrote a brief instrumental passage, probably to establish the key of C major and the mood for the following Sanctus. The "Ritornello" and the "Sanctus" which follows are in effect in the same key of C major (both in 6/8).
### Sanctus
The acclamation "Sanctus" (Holy) appears three times, sung by the choir, each time more intense than before. "Pleni sunt coeli et terra" (Full are heaven and earth) begins as a canon of the choir voices, beginning forte and ending softly. "Hosanna in excelsis" (Hosanna in the Highest) is sung by pairs of soloists in unison. For "Benedictus qui venit in nomine Domine" (Blessed who comes in the name of the Lord), the choir presents a soft melody in triplets. The sequence is repeated in different harmonic development and with the soloists taking over the "Benedictus" section. The movement culminates in a strong eight-part affirmation of "in excelsis".
### O Salutaris
This movement was not part of Rossini's original version for two pianos and harmonium, but he inserted it in his version for orchestra. He transposed an earlier composition, which was originally in E major for alto, however as the alto soloist had to subsequently sing the Agnus Dei, it was reallocated to the soprano. It became customary to include it even in performances and editions with piano(s).
Thomas Aquinas's hymn "O salutaris hostia" has been used in mass settings close to the Agnus Dei from the Renaissance. It was set to music in the 18th century by Guillaume-Gabriel Nivers, Henry Madin, and Jean-Paul-Égide Martini, and by Franz Liszt in the 19th century. Rossini uses the first four lines (out of eight). The melodic line of the soprano soloist begins with an upward broken seventh chord.
This movement in 3/4, with tempo Andantino sostenuto ( = 88), is structured as:
- an introduction for piano of twenty measures
- an A–B–A section (measures 21 to 91)
- a reprise of the introduction, shared between the piano and the soloist (measures 92 to 103)
- an A'–B'–A' section (measures 104 to 154)
- a finale with piano in a noble style, as similarly throughout the work
The theme and its broken seventh chord (G-B-D-F) which characterize this movement is stated first as a major seventh in the two first passages of the first section A with a discreet accompaniment. To finish this section, the theme arpeggiates a dominant seventh. In the second A section, the theme first repeats the major seventh before developing into a minor seventh with a minor third in the second passage (G-B-D-F).
The melodic line of part B is contrasting in both its static character and the vehemence of the piano accompaniment, and by the double forte dynamics, as much by the double forte dynamics which give a brutal character, as by the use of sequences (E major to begin with, then B major, G major, E major, etc.). This section ends with a chromatic descent in the accompaniment at quadruple piano dynamic, up to a dominant seventh of G major, to prepare the return of the second section A in the original key.
A reprise of the first measures of the introduction uses only the text "Bella premunt" ("The armies pursue us"). While the piano repeats the introduction identically, the soprano doubles it several times for one or two measures interspersed with silences.
The rest (section A') is largely in the form of sequences. Section B' uses the most static part of theme B in another sequence. The return to the key of section A', repeated identically, operates on an enharmonic equivalence (G→F) as elsewhere in the work.
### Agnus Dei
The final movement of the mass begins with an introduction that is similar to that to the "Crucifixus". The piano then begins another ostinato pattern as the base for expressive melodies by the contralto soloist, repeating many times "Agnus Dei, qui tollis peccata mundi, miserere nobis" (Lamb of God, you take away the sins of the world, have mercy). After an extended cadence the choir sings a capella, twice and very simply: "Dona nobis pacem" (Give us peace). This process is repeated in different harmony, and once more in a major mode, leading to an intense request for peace of the soloist and the choir together. Then the movement returns to the introduction, with its soft chords interrupted by rests, and ends with a few strong hammered chords. |
1,440,880 | James Tissot | 1,169,298,359 | French painter and illustrator (1836–1902) | [
"1836 births",
"1902 deaths",
"19th-century French male artists",
"19th-century French painters",
"Artists from Nantes",
"French expatriates in the United Kingdom",
"French male painters",
"French military personnel of the Franco-Prussian War",
"Orientalist painters",
"Recipients of the Legion of Honour",
"Vanity Fair (British magazine) artists"
]
| Jacques Joseph Tissot (; 15 October 1836 – 8 August 1902), better known as James Tissot (/ˈtɪsoʊ/), was a French painter, illustrator, and caricaturist. He was born to a drapery merchant and a milliner and decided to pursue a career in art at a young age, coming to incorporate elements of realism, early Impressionism, and academic art into his work. He is best known for a variety of genre paintings of contemporary European high society produced during the peak of his career, which focused on the people and women's fashion of the Belle Époque and Victorian England, but he would also explore many medieval, biblical, and Japoniste subjects throughout his life. His career included work as a caricaturist for Vanity Fair under the pseudonym of Coïdé.
Tissot served in the Franco-Prussian War on the side of France and later the Paris Commune before moving to London in 1871, where he would find further success as an artist as well as meet Irishwoman Kathleen Newton, who came to live with him as a close companion and muse until her death in 1882. Tissot maintained close relations with the Impressionist movement for much of his life, including James Abbott Whistler and friend and mentee Edgar Degas. He was awarded the French Legion of Honor in 1894.
## Early life
Jacques Tissot was born in the city of Nantes in France and spent his early childhood there. His father, Marcel Théodore Tissot, was a successful drapery merchant. His mother, Marie Durand, assisted her husband in the family business and designed hats. A devout Catholic, Tissot's mother instilled pious devotion in the future artist from a very young age. Tissot's youth spent in Nantes likely contributed to his frequent depiction of shipping vessels and boats in his later works. The involvement of his parents in the fashion industry is believed to have been an influence on his painting style, as he depicted women's clothing in fine detail. By the time Tissot was 17, he knew he wanted to pursue painting as a career. His father opposed this, preferring his son to follow a business profession, but the young Tissot gained his mother's support for his chosen vocation. Around this time, he began using the given name of James as an Anglicisation, becoming commonly known as James Tissot by 1854; he may have adopted it because of his increasing interest in everything English.
## Artistic debut
In 1856 or 1857, Tissot travelled to Paris to pursue an education in art. While staying with a friend of his mother, painter Jules-Élie Delaunay, Tissot enrolled at the Ecole des Beaux-Arts to study in the studios of Hippolyte Flandrin and Louis Lamothe; Both were successful Lyonnaise painters who moved to Paris to study under Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres. Around this time, Tissot also made the acquaintance of the American James McNeill Whistler, and French painters Edgar Degas (who had also been a student of Lamothe and a friend of Delaunay), and Édouard Manet.
In 1859, Tissot exhibited in the Paris Salon for the first time. He showed five paintings of scenes from the Middle Ages, many depicting scenes from Goethe's Faust. These works show the influence in his work of the Belgian painter Henri Leys, whom Tissot had met in Antwerp earlier that same year. Other influences include the works of the German painters Peter von Cornelius and Moritz Retzsch. After Tissot had first exhibited at the Salon and before he had been awarded a medal, the French government paid 5,000 francs for his depiction of The Meeting of Faust and Marguerite in 1860. The painting went on to be exhibited at the Salon the following year, together with a portrait and several other paintings.
Émile Péreire supplied Tissot's painting Walk in the Snow for the 1862 international exhibition in London; the next year three paintings by Tissot were displayed at the gallery of art dealer Ernest Gambart in London.
## Mature life and career
Sometime after 1862, Tissot began to shift focus from his early medievalist styles to instead match English tastes for narrative paintings of Victorian life and society. He quickly gained success among British audiences and was lauded for his photorealistic, narrative style of art that combined meticulous training with an impressionistic use of color and value. Tissot came to maintain a wide social sphere in light of his success and lifestyle, including Oscar Wilde, James Abbott Whistler, and Edgar Degas. Degas shared many of his cultural interests as Tissot's mentee, notably producing a portrait of Tissot in which he is sitting below a Japanese screen hanging on the wall.
Tissot led a tumultuous life outside of painting, fighting in the Franco-Prussian War as part of the improvised defence of Paris; First by joining two companies of the Garde Nationale and later as part of the Paris Commune, though he is believed to have only joined the latter to protect his own belongings rather than for shared ideology. Either because of the radical political associations of serving as a Communard or because of better opportunities, he left Paris for London in 1871. Seymour Haden helped him to learn etching techniques during this period.
Having already worked as a caricaturist for Thomas Gibson Bowles, the owner of the magazine Vanity Fair, as well as exhibited at the Royal Academy, Tissot arrived with established social and artistic connections in London. Tissot used the name Coïdé in the magazine from 1869 to 1873. Tissot's pre-war caricaturist work with Vanity Fair included contributions to Sovereigns, a series lampooning various heads of state such as Napoleon III of France, Alexander II of Russia, or Wilhelm I of Germany, depicting the latter two in particular as bloodthirsty conquerors.
### Post-war career
Tissot would further explore political themes of turmoil in Europe during the onset and aftermath of the war: The 1870 painting La Partie Carrée evoked nostalgia for the period of the French Revolution while hinting at the hedonism of the contemporary French aristocracy in portraying a pair of young women picnicking with two men, one in revolutionary military garb, while the c. 1873 work Still on Top depicted the ascension of the Austrian Habsburg and North German war flags over Europe - The title is thought to be an ironic jab at the British ensign barely visible at the top of the canvas. Tissot produced Ball on Shipboard in 1874 with a similar subject, depicting a diverse range of contemporary national flags sewn together in a large awning.
Once established in London, Tissot quickly developed his reputation as a painter of elegantly dressed women shown in scenes of fashionable life. By 1872 Tissot had bought a house in St John's Wood, an area of London very popular with artists at the time. Writer and critic Edmond de Goncourt sarcastically described "a studio with a waiting room where, at all times, there is iced champagne at the disposal of visitors" by 1874. Tissot gained membership of The Arts Club in 1873, and his paintings appealed greatly to wealthy British industrialists throughout the second half of the 19th century. During 1872 he earned 94,515 francs, an income normally only enjoyed by those in the echelons of the upper classes.
Tissot is considered a core figure of Japonisme alongside contemporaries such as Alfred Stevens and Claude Monet, a widespread artistic movement formed in response to the sudden influx of Japanese art, textiles, and curiosities into the European market as a result of the forced opening of trade relations with Japan in 1853 and subsequent Meiji Restoration in 1868. Printed Japanese art emphasized clarity, spaciousness, and boldness appealing to the Ukiyo urban culture and Tissot came to regularly include popular Japanese artifacts and costumes in his pictures after being introduced to the subject by Whistler, additionally expressing stylistic influences in his use of composition and perspective.
In 1874, Degas asked him to join them in the first exhibition organized by the artists who became known as the Impressionists, a then-nascent artistic movement that would inspire much of Tissot's own style. Tissot ultimately refused but would remain a close acquaintance of the group. Berthe Morisot visited him in London in 1874, and he travelled to Venice with Édouard Manet at about the same time. He regularly saw Whistler, who influenced Tissot's Thames river scenes.
A strong recurring theme throughout Tissot's middle career was the exploration of social and sexual tension between men and women in the context of strictly gender-segregated Victorian society. Many of his depictions of contemporary life include hints or narratives of desire, vulgarity, and the complexity of sexual relationships, while his idiosyncratic focus on women's fashion and society made an idealized female beauty a widespread commonality of his portraiture. Gallery of HMS 'Calcutta' (1876) was particularly noted for its use of body language and subtext in depicting a scandalous moment of flirtation between a married officer and a young woman, the perspective heavily accentuating the latter's figure and sexuality, and received criticism as "hard, vulgar, and banal" upon release. Some scholars have even suggested Tissot's selection of the Calcutta as the painting's setting to be a deliberate play on the phrase "Quel cul tu as" ("What an arse you have" in French). Portsmouth Dockyard, an 1877 variation on a painting titled On The Thames (How Happy I Could Be with Either?), received similar accusations of immorality for its ambiguous depiction of what its predecessor's alternative title reveals to be a military man openly deciding between two potential suitresses.
### Family life and bereavement
In 1875 or 1876, Tissot met Kathleen Newton, an Irish divorcee who became the painter's companion and frequent sitter. She quickly began an intimate relationship with Tissot, moving in as a housemate in 1877. The couple's marital status was uncertain, as Tissot's Catholic faith did not recognize her divorce and meant they could not opt for annulment without delegitimizing her previous children, however they chose to live openly as husband and wife and their servants addressed Newton as "Madame Tissot". Newton is said to have called Tissot "Jimmie", whilst his pet names for her included "Kitty", "Petit Femme", and "Mavourneen" (an Irish term after "Kathleen Mavourneen", a popular love song from the time). Newton gave birth to a son named Cecil George Newton in 1876, who is believed to be Tissot's, and the couple would frequently entertain her previous children at Tissot's property even while they continued to live with her relatives. Later, Tissot often referred to these years with Newton as the happiest of his life, a time when he was able to live out his dream of being a family man.
Newton's work as a sitter for Tissot encompassed dozens of paintings and studies, most notably including a well-known 1876 etching entitled Portrait of Mrs N., more commonly titled La Frileuse, which was later the basis for the 1877 painting Mavourneen, also known as A Portrait or as Winter. Tissot's paintings and prints of 1877–1881 included images of travel along the Thames or south coast and to Paris, but many focused on Newton relaxing and reading in the garden, or surrounded by visiting children. Around 1880–1881 she contracted consumption and Tissot portrayed her sitting well-wrapped outdoors, as fresh air was thought to have a curing effect. Newton succumbed to her illness in Tissot's arms on 9 November 1882, "with the ardent faith of a neophyte and the silent resignation of a saint."
After Kathleen Newton's death, Tissot returned to Paris. The last major exhibition of this era in Tissot's life took place in 1885, with a 15-painting series titled Quinze Tableau sur la Femme à Paris (Fifteen Paintings on the Woman of Paris), displayed at the Galerie Sedelmeyer. Unlike the genre scenes of fashionable women he painted in London, these paintings sought to represent different archetypes of women across many different classes and occupations, shown in professional and social scenes. The Shop Girl in particular seemed to return to Tissot's exploration of sexuality and gender, with one writer identifying depictions of desire and baseness in the composition, while the series's wider inclusion of working class women outside of the household as subjects could have been seen as morally dubious at the time. La Femme à Paris also solidified the influence of Japanese prints in Tissot's work, as he used unexpected angles and framing from that tradition to create a monumental context in the size of the canvases.
## Late career
After completing the Woman of Paris in 1885 Tissot experienced a religious vision at the Church of St. Sulpice, leading him to revive his Catholic faith and spend the remainder of his life making paintings about biblical events. Moving away from the Impressionists' and Post-Impressionists' intent to create art that reflected a changing, modern world, Tissot returned to traditional, representational styles and narratives in his watercolors. As part of this artistic effort Tissot traveled to the Middle East in 1886, 1889, and 1896 to make studies of its landscapes and cultures, which would come to distinguish his series from contemporary Biblical art through its "considerable archaeological exactitude" in striving for accuracy rather than religious emotion. His series of 365 gouache illustrations showing the life of Christ were shown to critical acclaim and enthusiastic audiences in Paris (1894–1895), London (1896) and New York (1898–1899), before being bought by the Brooklyn Museum in 1900. They were published in a French edition in 1896–1897 and in an English one in 1897–1898, bringing Tissot vast wealth and fame. During July 1894, Tissot was awarded the Legion of Honour, France's most prestigious medal.
Tissot spent the last years of his life working on paintings of subjects from the Old Testament. Although he never completed the series, he exhibited 80 of these paintings in Paris in 1901 and engravings after them were published in 1904.
## Death and legacy
Tissot died suddenly in Doubs, France, on 8 August 1902, while living in the Château de Buillon, a former abbey which he had inherited from his father in 1888. His grave is in the chapel sited within the grounds of the chateau.
Widespread use of his illustrations in literature and slides continued after his death with The Life of Christ and The Old Testament becoming the "definitive Bible images". In 1906, filmmaker Alice Guy-Blaché used the Tissot Bible as the basis for The Birth, the Life and the Death of Christ, her largest production at Gaumont to date featuring approximately three hundred extras over twenty-five total episodes. Though the financial success of his contemporary subjects originally did little to dissuade derision of his mundane, photorealistic style, with Oscar Wilde criticizing his "hard unscrupulousness in painting uninteresting objects in an uninteresting way," the first half of the 20th century saw a re-kindling of interest in his portraits of fashionable ladies and some fifty years later, these were achieving high prices. La Frileuse and his other etchings would also be brought back out of obscurity by reinvigorated critical interest from the 1920s onward. His images provided a foundation for contemporary films such as the twin-angel prop design for the Ark of the Covenant in Raiders of the Lost Ark (1981) and lifestyle themes in The Age of Innocence (1993). In 2000 English Victorian art writer Christopher Wood described Tissot as "the greatest painter of social life in Victorian times".
## See also
- List of Orientalist artists
- Orientalism |
40,488,961 | NextWorth | 1,166,176,210 | Electronics trade-in and recycling service | [
"2005 establishments in Massachusetts",
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| NextWorth Solutions, Inc., was an electronics trade-in and recycling service. Users of the service exchange used electronics for cash or discounts on newer models. NextWorth was founded by business students at Babson College in 2005. It started as a commission-based service to help businesses setup online auctions for their used items, then changed its business model to focus on electronics trade-ins in 2006. As of late 2012, NextWorth was one of the best-known and largest electronics trade-in and recycling services in the United States, although it handles only a small percentage of total trade-in traffic.
The Massachusetts Secretary of the Commonwealth signed the company's certificate of dissolution in June 2019. Although the company seemed to operate in some capacity for the next two years, NextWorth's website went dark in August 2021.
## History
NextWorth was founded by David Chen, Andrew Walsh and Scott Richardson while they were students at Babson College. The company was selected for Babson College's 2005 Business Hatcheries program, which provides free resources to student-led startups. NextWorth Inc. began operations the following year. It was originally a service that helped businesses and non-profits prepare luxury items for online auctions in exchange for a 20-33 percent commission. In the spring of 2006, NextWorth changed its business model and services to focus on electronics trade-ins. In January 2007, NextWorth raised \$1.5 million in its first round of funding.
## Services
NextWorth purchases used electronics and resells about 80-85 percent of them, while the remainder are sent to a network of partners for recycling. Many used iPhones are resold in countries where new ones are more expensive. Sellers can fill out an online form to describe the used products they want to sell, then get a quote through the website. After receiving the quote, sellers have thirty days to ship the product using a pre-paid shipping label provided by NextWorth. The company wipes the device's memory and inspects the item before sending the seller reimbursement in 3–15 days depending on the payment method. If NextWorth appraises a product at a lower condition than the seller expected, they can get an explanation from NextWorth, challenge the quote, or reject it and get the product back.
Sellers can also do trade-ins in-person and get reimbursed immediately at partnered retailers like Target. The Target trade-in program began as a pilot project in 2009, and expanded to 190 locations by 2010 and almost 1,500 stores by 2011. Their partnership with Target ended in late 2016 when Target selected CExchange as their new partner. A similar partnership was in place with Circuit City before it went out of business in 2009. A company spokesperson stated in 2009 that the company was also partnered with 15 smaller retailers for in-person trade-ins.
## Pricing
NextWorth sets its prices through an algorithm developed by MBA students and a professor at Babson College. Sellers can obtain better prices by reselling their electronics directly through services like eBay or Craigslist, but services like NextWorth are more convenient and have predictable pricing. A CNET editor found most of the trade-in prices at NextWorth to be "pretty fair", though he was expecting higher prices for some items. Variations in price between trade-in services and products depend on timing (release of new models and market fluctuations), the model being sold, and the product's condition.
According to About.com, how fair the seller is in describing the condition of the product "will determine whether your experience with NextWorth is satisfying or not." Some sellers get higher or lower prices than they were originally quoted, depending on how NextWorth's assessment of the product's condition compares to the seller's description.
NextWorth has experienced spikes in trade-in activity from sellers when newer models are announced, such as when the iPad 2 was announced in March 2011, and when the iPhone 5 was announced in September 2012 These announcements also caused the trade-in price of older models to decrease, due to over-supply. as well as after the holiday season. |
25,365,816 | Transformers: War for Cybertron | 1,164,766,388 | 2010 video game | [
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| Transformers: War for Cybertron is a third-person shooter video game based on the Transformers franchise, developed by High Moon Studios and published by Activision. It was released for Xbox 360, PlayStation 3, Nintendo DS and Microsoft Windows in June 2010. Two portable versions were released for the Nintendo DS, one featuring an Autobot campaign, the other a Decepticon campaign. A game for the Wii, Transformers: Cybertron Adventures, was developed by Next Level Games and utilizes the same characters and setting as War for Cybertron.
Set on the Transformers' home planet of Cybertron, prior to their arrival on Earth, the game depicts the deadly civil war between Autobots and Decepticons. Players may pick either faction to play as, as each has its own separate campaign (though the Decepticon campaign chronologically takes place first). The game's plot revolves around Dark Energon, a more dangerous and destructive version of Energon, the substance which powers all Transformers. While the Decepticon leader Megatron seeks this substance for himself, believing it will allow him to return the planet to its "golden age", the Autobots, led by Optimus Prime, attempt to stop him, knowing it would instead doom their homeworld.
War for Cybertron received generally favorable reviews, with many viewing it as an improvement over past Transformers games. It was praised for its multiplayer, character designs, and voice acting, with criticism reserved for the visual design of the game's setting. A sequel, Transformers: Fall of Cybertron, was released in August 2012, and a third game, Transformers: Rise of the Dark Spark, was released in June 2014.
## Gameplay
War for Cybertron is played from a third-person perspective. Transformers are classified into four main categories: Leader, Soldier, Scientist, and Scout. Each character in the campaign is classified as one of these types, and their weaponry, abilities and vehicle form are largely influenced by their character class. Players can change between forms at will, and each form has unique abilities. While in robot form characters can also collect different weapons, reminiscent of those found in first-person shooters. While in vehicle form each character can boost their speed.
Each campaign level gives the player a choice of three Transformers. The campaign can be played in single-player or cooperatively via online multiplayer, and players can enter or leave the game at any time. If fewer than three players are present, the game's AI controls the remaining playable characters. Cooperative and competitive modes of the game are limited to online play, with no split screen features available. The game levels are designed to allow characters to comfortably navigate and play the game in either mode.
### Multiplayer
Competitive multiplayer games do not allow players to control official, named characters, and instead must design their own Transformer. Similar to the campaign, generic multiplayer characters are split into four character classes. Contrary to the campaign, however, each created character features some amount of customization. Players can select a base model and vehicle form, then alter major colors for their character and modify weapon loadouts and abilities based on that character class. The multiplayer aspect also features an experience and leveling system, including perks, and upgrades reminiscent of Call of Duty: Modern Warfare 2, another Activision game.
War for Cybertron has several multiplayer modes to choose from. Deathmatch is a free-for-all game type where the player with the most kills at the end of the game is the winner. In Team Deathmatch players are divided into Autobot and Decepticon teams. The winning team is the one who earns the most kills. Conquest is a capture-and-hold style game, similar to the conquest mode found in the Star Wars: Battlefront series. Multiple control points are spread across the level. The object is for players to capture enemy control points by standing near them for a set amount of time while defending their own control points. In Countdown to Extinction players must take an active bomb and place it at an enemy base, similar to the Assault mode in the Halo series. Power Struggle is the game's equivalent to the common King of the Hill game type. Finally Code of Power is a mode consisting of two and a half minute rounds where teams vie for a giant melee weapon. Also available is the Escalation game mode, the only multiplayer mode where players can control characters from the campaign or downloadable content. Players choose a faction and then work cooperatively to defeat continuous waves of enemy robots until all players are defeated, similar to the Horde mode found in Gears of War and the Halo series Firefight game modes. Players earn credits by defeating enemies which can be used to unlock ammunition, weaponry, health and new areas in each map.
## Synopsis
### Setting
War for Cybertron is set on the planet Cybertron, prior to the Transformers' contact with the planet Earth. Robotic in nature, each Transformer has the ability to transform from their robot mode to an alternate form, usually a vehicle, such as a tank or jet. The Transformers are engaged in total civil war with one another, with two factions emerging: the Decepticons, a splinter group led by the powerful and ruthless Megatron, who seeks to conquer Cybertron to force a regime change, perceiving the current leadership as weak and corrupt; and the Autobots, who follow the command of Zeta Prime and seek to put an end to Megatron's revolution and restore peace and order to Cybertron. However, after Zeta Prime is killed in battle, an inexperienced leader named Optimus must take his place and lead the Autobots to victory before Megatron can corrupt the planet, itself a Transformer, with Dark Energon.
Both factions have their own campaign, each containing five chapters, and players may choose either to play through first. Chronologically, the Decepticon campaign takes place first, with the Autobot story directly following it.
### Characters
Originally a pre-order bonus
Downloadable content for multiplayer
Not playable in campaign
Not playable in multiplayer
Unlocked as a multiplayer character
### Decepticon campaign
The Decepticon leader Megatron seeks to return Cybertron to its "Golden Age" using the legendary Dark Energon, an unstable, corrupting substance of immense power which is rumored to be kept in an orbital research station guarded by the Autobot Sky Commander Starscream. Megatron leads the Decepticons, including Barricade and Brawl, in an assault on the station, fighting their way through Starscream's troops and seizing control of the Dark Energon manufacturing plant. After Megatron successfully immerses himself in it, Starscream offers his fealty to Megatron in exchange for teaching him how to control Dark Energon. Megatron accepts when Starscream reveals he knows how to manufacture more Dark Energon. Shocked by Starscream's betrayal, his partner Jetfire escapes to warn the Autobot leader Zeta Prime.
Now Decepticons, Starscream and his fellow Seekers, Thundercracker and Skywarp, are ordered by Megatron to reactivate an Energon Bridge beneath Cybertron's surface, which will feed the station with raw Energon and allow more Dark Energon to be manufactured. Once they succeed, Megatron develops a plan to infect Cybertron's core with Dark Energon and launches a full-scale assault on Iacon City, the Autobot capital, to obtain the Omega Key, which will grant him access to the core. As the Decepticons lay siege on the city, Megatron, Soundwave, and Breakdown confront Zeta Prime, defeating him and obtaining the Key. However, Zeta reveals that the Key is not the actual means to unlocking the core, but rather a device that summons the real key: a colossal Autobot called Omega Supreme.
With Omega pursuing them and destroying everything in his path, Megatron, Soundwave, and Breakdown devise a plan to lure him into an ambush using commandeered Autobot turrets. They succeed, and Omega is shot down, plummeting into Cybertron's lower levels. Omega makes a last stand against the Decepticons but is soon corrupted with Dark Energon and taken prisoner. After forcing Omega to unlock Cybertron's core, Megatron infects it with Dark Energon, which quickly begins to spread over the entire planet, revealed to be a living Transformer.
### Autobot campaign
While defending Iacon from the invading Decepticons, Autobot soldier Optimus is informed by scout Bumblebee about Zeta Prime's presumed death. Temporarily assuming leadership of the Autobots, Optimus recruits Bumblebee and Ratchet to reactivate Iacon's defenses and communication grid. The trio then travels to the Decagon Plaza and defeats Starscream, thwarting the Decepticon attack. Soon after, the Autobots receive a distress call from Zeta, who is still alive and being held prisoner in the Decepticon capital city of Kaon. Optimus, Bumblebee, and Sideswipe allow themselves to be captured in order to infiltrate the prison complex, whereupon they break free with the help of Air Raid and rescue the other Autobot prisoners. As the prisoners escape using Decepticon transports, the trio fights their way to Zeta's cell, guarded by Soundwave and his minions Frenzy, Rumble, and Laserbeak. The Autobots fight them off, but Zeta succumbs to his injuries. Optimus brings Zeta's body before the Autobot High Council, who name him the new Prime and inform him of Megatron's activities.
Tasked with purging Cybertron's core of Dark Energon, Optimus, his friend Ironhide, and rookie Autobot soldier Warpath travel to the core's entrance, discovering it has been converted into a Decepticon stronghold. The trio frees Omega Supreme, who has been tortured with Dark Energon, and defend Ratchet while he heals him, whereupon Omega grants the Autobots access to the core. Fighting their way past Deception soldiers and a Cybertronian worm corrupted by Dark Energon, the Autobots eventually reach the core, which speaks to Optimus. It reveals that the only way to fix the damages done by the Dark Energon is to reboot itself, which will leave Cybertron a cold, barren and lifeless planet for millions of years. However, the core can stay partially alive during this time if Optimus carries a small piece of it with him. Optimus accepts the burden and the core bestows the Autobot Matrix of Leadership into Optimus' chest.
With Cybertron beginning to shut down, Optimus orders the evacuation of all Autobot cities. As the evacuation transports reach orbit, many are destroyed by Starscream's orbital space station, which Megatron has converted into a superweapon. The Aerialbots—Silverbolt, Jetfire, and Air Raid—lead a secret mission to infiltrate the station and destroy it from within. However, they soon discover that the station is actually a massive Decepticon known as Trypticon, who transforms into his robot form. The Aerialbots battle Trypticon, who is knocked out of orbit and crash-lands in Iacon. Optimus confronts him there and defeats him with Bumblebee and Ironhide's help. Later, Optimus commissions a massive vessel known as the Ark to transport the remaining Autobots into space, with only a small group led by Optimus staying behind on Cybertron to fight off Megatron's forces for as long as possible.
## Development and marketing
War for Cybertron was announced December 16, 2009, and was released in North America on June 22, 2010 with the PAL region release following on June 25, 2010. It is powered by Unreal Engine 3. Physics for the game are handled using the Havok physics library. A demo was released on June 10, 2010 which allowed for players to play various multiplayer matches using two of the game's character classes. Developer High Moon Studios designed the friendly AI so that as a player progresses through the story any accompanying characters will help the player, but still require the player to advance through the game. "The buddies don't advance the story for you. They get to the point to kinda show you where to go, but then they'll take up defensive positions and wait for you to progress the story" said Game Director Matt Tieger. "They're not finishing objectives for you, but they like to stay near you, they'll heal you if you get too wounded, they're pretty smart."
### Setting and plot
War for Cybertron developer High Moon Studios and publisher Activision worked closely with Hasbro to create the design and story for the game. "I want to make the game I've been waiting 25 years to play" said Tieger. The studio brought the concept and idea to Hasbro for approval. It began with a sketch of Bumblebee. "That was that first sketch that we slid across the table to Hasbro and said 'What do you guys think?' And that's where it all started" said Tieger. High Moon presented the idea of setting the game on Cybertron during the Transformers' civil war between the Autobots and Decepticons. Aaron Archer, Senior Design Director for Hasbro, stated of the Cybertron-based setting "that's a really cool place [...] and the early days of that civil war between the Autobots and Decepticons was a story that hadn't really been fleshed out in any format."
Each of the characters was totally redesigned for the game, taking cues from previous iterations from the Transformers lore. "What they've allowed us to do is take a licensed property and treat it like a brand new IP" stated Tieger. The vehicle modes for car-based characters initially consisted of wheels, however, the developers found that it crippled gameplay by removing the player's ability to strafe while in vehicle mode. Taking the dilemma to Hasbro, the two companies agreed that characters would turn their wheels down and hover while in vehicle mode, allowing for more movement. The vehicles would then revert to the traditional wheeled mode while using a character's boost, maintaining what the Transformers license had established with previous canon.
The world of Cybertron was designed in such a way that the Transformers would have a proper scale on their homeworld. "It doesn't make sense that things would be smaller than them in their world," Tieger said, adding "the key character in scale was making their world gigantic and huge." Matt Krystek, Lead Designer at High Moon stated that since the game is not tied to a movie they were able to tell their own story. He cited the G1 universe as the inspiration for the game. Jim Daly, Lead Concept Artist at High Moon also cited the G1 universe as the main inspiration for the design of Cybertron itself, also stating that there were elements from Disney's TRON, Blade Runner, and the Aliens franchise.
Hasbro's Aaron Archer stated the game would be only part of a bigger group of media. "This won't be the only touch point. It's a big place that we're going to build off of." At a BotCon 2010 panel, War for Cybertron Creative Director Matt Tieger stated Activision is currently in talks with Hasbro on creating additional titles. He also added that Hasbro is "considering" expanding the brand further into the realm of video games. Joe Moscone, Senior Account Manager for Hasbro's public relations team, further clarified that War for Cybertron is in the same continuity as the Transformers: Prime animated series and Transformers: Exodus novel, and that this would be the primary continuity going forward. Hasbro has released a toy line based on the War for Cybertron setting. Transforming figures of Optimus Prime, Bumblebee, Megatron and Soundwave from the game have been released by Hasbro under the Transformers: Generations banner.
### Audio
The soundtrack for the console versions was composed by Tyler Bates. The ending theme is "Till All Are One" by Stan Bush, from his 2007 album In This Life. Peter Cullen returns to voice Optimus, having voiced the character several times in the Transformers franchise. Other voice actors include Kari Wahlgren as Arcee, Liam O'Brien as Air Raid, Johnny Yong Bosch as Bumblebee, Fred Tatasciore as Megatron, Ratchet, Omega Supreme, and Trypticon, Keith Szarabajka as Ironhide, Steven Blum as Barricade and Shockwave, Nolan North as Brawl, and Sam Riegel as Starscream.
### Downloadable content
Two downloadable content packs were produced for console versions of the game. The first, entitled simply Character and Map Pack 01, was announced on July 2, 2010. Character and Map Pack 01 contains the three previously pre-order exclusive characters, Demolishor, Jazz and Shockwave, as well as two new characters, Onslaught and Scattershot. Four new multiplayer maps are also included. Two maps are exclusive to the game's Escalation mode, while the other two are used in all other game modes. It was released July 27, 2010. The second pack, known as Character and Map Pack 02, adds the characters Dead End and Zeta Prime and five new maps. It was released September 7, 2010.
### Discontinued support
As of 2020, Activision has discontinued support for War for Cybertron, and the game's multiplayer servers have been shut down.
## Reception
Critical reaction has been generally positive, with many reviews citing that War for Cybertron is an improvement over past Transformers games. Aggregate scores across all three platforms were fairly uniform. The PC version holds a score of 76.25% at GameRankings and 76/100 at Metacritic. The PlayStation 3 version has a 78.47% and 77/100 at the two aggregate sites, while the Xbox 360 version reports scores of 79.45% and 76/100. Individual review scores ranged from a 50% approval by Edge magazine to a 94% approval by Gaming Trend.
Reviewers praised the in-game voice acting. G4TV's Matt Kell noted that Peter Cullen's voice work as Optimus was "commanding and familiar", adding that the other actors "even do their best to replicate the voices of the original cartoon." Mike Nelson of Game Informer agreed and noted the game's excellent dialogue, stating "the script has all the overwrought melodrama you’d expect from giant talking robots." Several critics also gave high marks for War for Cybertron's multiplayer. IGN's Arthur Gies noted the influences from Unreal Championship, Tribes, Team Fortress 2, and Battlefield: Bad Company 2 adding that "War for Cybertron leverages its transformation mechanic to create something that feels shockingly new." Tom McShea of GameSpot noted that the game's Escalation mode provided a Transformers twist on Gears of War's Horde mode. GamePro's Kat Bailey noted that the multiplayer was "probably the most appealing part of the package", adding it had a "strong suite [of] options." 1UP.com's Matt Miller lauded the ability to play through the game's campaign with up to three players online, as did G4TV's Matt Kell. Both reviewers also praised the new character designs, with Kell calling them "inventive." Wired.com's John Mix Meyer gave praise to the game's campaign length, stating "The game’s 10-hour single-player campaign means there’s plenty of time for the crazy transformations to strut their stuff." John Hamblin of Eurogamer praised the transformation animations. He stated players will "occasionally wish there was a Max Payne slow-mo option so you could appreciate the nuance of these feats a little more."
The repetitive visual design of Cybertron drew criticism from critics. Tom McShea of GameSpot stated that "the majority of the game entails walking through similar-looking corridors." Giant Bomb's Jeff Gerstmann also cited repetitive visuals, but conceded that "the metallic world of Cybertron doesn't lend itself particularly well to a lot of environmental variety." 1UP.com's Matt Miller also raised issue with the repetitive visuals, but provided a counterpoint in saying "there are a host of features in place to save the game from spiraling into mediocrity." John Hamblin of Eurogamer and Tom McShea of GameSpot also pointed out the game's vast lack of ammunition. "Watching Lord Megatron repeatedly suffering the indignity of being shot at by drones while he desperately scours the debris looking for an elusive ammo box [...] is just sad" stated Hamblin. He was further critical of the game's checkpoint system, which often leaves players in difficult situations upon respawning.
The first downloadable content pack received mixed reception from IGN's Arthur Gies. While he praised the design of the multiplayer maps, he noted that the lack of online players for War for Cybertron hurt the ability to play the new content online. Gies stated that he attempted to host the two Escalation maps, adding that he waited for several minutes for players to join, but had no success. "That's the problem", he stated. "War for Cybertron's multiplayer is all-but-abandoned." Gies went on to cite a peak population of approximately 4,600 players on Xbox Live, 800 on PlayStation Network, and only 158 players on the PC version at the time of his writing. Despite the lack of online players he felt the content may fit a player's needs, stating "If you've got nine other friends who bought War for Cybertron and can set up your own private matches, then Character and Map Pack 01 might be worth checking out."
The game sold 219,000 units in the United States.
## Sequel
A sequel to War for Cybertron was announced in November 2010. "This is the most highly-rated, critical success of any game that's had the Hasbro brand yet and we're looking forward to a sequel in 2012," stated Hasbro representative Mark Belcher. The game was slated for a 2012 release, and its official title, Transformers: Fall of Cybertron, was revealed on October 6, 2011. It is a direct continuation of War for Cybertron, completing the story of the planet Cybertron's demise and the exodus of the Transformers. One new Autobot character, Grimlock, was confirmed in the title announcement. |
266,743 | U.S. Route 46 | 1,163,542,070 | Highway in New Jersey | [
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"U.S. Highways in New Jersey",
"U.S. Highways in Pennsylvania",
"U.S. Route 46",
"United States Numbered Highway System"
]
| U.S. Route 46 (US 46) is an east–west U.S. Highway completely within the state of New Jersey, running for 75.34 mi (121.25 km), making it the shortest signed, non-spur U.S. Highway. The west end is at an interchange with Interstate 80 (I-80) and Route 94 in Columbia, Warren County, on the Delaware River. The east end is in the middle of the George Washington Bridge over the Hudson River in Fort Lee, Bergen County, while the route is concurrent with I-95 and US 1-9. Throughout much of its length, US 46 is closely paralleled by I-80. US 46 is a major local and suburban route, with some sections built to or near freeway standards and many other sections arterials with jughandles. The route runs through several communities in the northern part of New Jersey, including Hackettstown, Netcong, Dover, Parsippany-Troy Hills, Wayne, Clifton, Ridgefield Park, Palisades Park, and Fort Lee. It crosses over the Upper Passaic River at several points. The road has been ceremonially named the United Spanish–American War Veterans Memorial Highway.
What is now US 46 was originally designated as three separate routes. Pre-1927 Route 5 was created in 1916 to follow the road from Delaware to Denville, pre-1927 Route 12 in 1917 to follow the route between Hackettstown and Paterson, and pre-1927 Route 10 in 1917 to run between Paterson and Edgewater. In 1927, Route 6 was legislated to run from Delaware east to the George Washington Bridge, replacing portions of Routes 5 and 12 and paralleling the former Route 10, which itself became Route 5 and Route 10N, the latter being shortly removed from the state highway system. In 1936, US 46 was designated to run from US 611 in Portland, Pennsylvania, east to the George Washington Bridge. The route replaced Pennsylvania Route 987 (PA 987) to the Delaware Bridge over the Delaware River, and from there followed Route 6 across New Jersey. In 1953, the Route 6 designation was removed from US 46 in New Jersey, and later that year, the route was realigned to end at US 611 in Columbia, New Jersey, replacing a part of Route 94. US 611 had been brought into New Jersey by two new bridges over the Delaware River, following a freeway between them that became a part of I-80. In 1965, US 611 was aligned back into its original Pennsylvania route (which from 1953 until 1965 was US 611 Alternate), and US 46's western terminus remained as an interchange ramp with I-80 and Route 94.
## Route description
### Warren County
US 46 begins at a complex interchange with I-80 and Route 94 near the Portland–Columbia Toll Bridge leading to PA 611 in the community of Columbia in Knowlton Township, Warren County. From this interchange, the route heads southeast along the east bank of the Delaware River as a four-lane divided highway briefly before narrowing into a two-lane undivided road. The road passes through wooded mountainous areas before reaching the community of Delaware. In Delaware, US 46 intersects Route 163, the approach to the former Delaware Bridge, before passing a few commercial establishments. From here, the route continues alongside the river, passing more rural areas of woods and farms with occasional development as it enters White Township. US 46 makes a sharp turn to the east away from the Delaware River, widening into a four-lane divided highway again as it bypasses the town of Belvidere and has a few businesses on it. The road turns back into a two-lane undivided road and comes to a crossroads with CR 519. Past this intersection, US 46 continues through rural sectors with some business before coming to the northern terminus of Route 31.
From this point, the route continues east through dense woods prior to turning northeast into Liberty Township. The road passes through the community of Townsbury before crossing into Independence Township. Here, US 46 enters more agricultural areas and turns east again, with development increasing along the road as it passes through Great Meadows-Vienna. It continues southeast before entering Hackettstown, where the road becomes Main Street. In Hackettstown, the route crosses NJ Transit's Morristown Line and Montclair-Boonton Line before coming to an intersection with CR 517. Here, CR 517 forms a concurrency with US 46, and the two routes continue southeast through the downtown area. At the intersection with the northern terminus of Route 182, CR 517 splits from US 46 by heading south on that route while US 46 continues to the east.
### Morris and Essex counties
Shortly after the Route 182 intersection, the route crosses the Musconetcong River into Washington Township, Morris County, where it heads back into rural surroundings. About a mile into Morris County, US 46 divides and becomes a four-lane highway with a wide median. The road passes a median park and ride lot as it turns north and crosses over a mountain. It continues into Mount Olive Township, taking a sharp turn to the east before the road becomes undivided while remaining four lanes. The road passes rural areas and development as it goes through Budd Lake. In this community, the route passes to the south of the namesake lake as it begins to turn northeast and then north. The road heads northeast again before it enters Netcong and becomes a divided highway as it comes to an interchange with I-80/US 206. Within this interchange, the lanes of US 46 split. From this point, the route narrows back into a two-lane undivided road and runs through developed areas of Netcong a short distance to the south of NJ Transit's Morristown Line/Montclair-Boonton Line. US 46 meets Route 183 at an intersection (formerly Netcong Circle) before widening into a four-lane undivided road and leaving Netcong for Roxbury Township. Here, the road passes through wooded areas, meeting I-80 at another interchange and briefly becoming a divided highway at the crossing under I-80 and again at the actual interchange. US 46 remains a divided highway with jughandles past this point, continuing southeast into the Ledgewood area.
At a three-way intersection which was formerly Ledgewood Circle, Route 10 begins straight while US 46 turns left to continue east as a two-lane undivided road through more development, crossing the Dover and Rockaway River Railroad's High Bridge Branch. Upon crossing the Dover and Rockaway River Railroad's Chester Branch and passing through Kenvil, the road enters Mine Hill Township, where the road becomes three lanes with two westbound lanes and one eastbound lane. The route passes through Wharton at its southern tip before continuing into Dover. US 46 narrows back into two lanes, becoming Blackwell Street as it passes St. Clare's Dover General Hospital. The road widens to four lanes as Blackwell Street splits from it at an eastbound exit and westbound entrance prior to a bridge over the Rockaway River and NJ Transit's Morristown Line/Montclair-Boonton Line. A short distance later, US 46 intersects the southern terminus of Route 15 and passes over the Dover and Rockaway River Railroad's Dover and Rockaway Branch. From here, the route continues on McFarland Street. US 46 continues east, entering Rockaway Township, where there is an intersection with CR 513. Past CR 513, the road narrows to two lanes as it heads northeast through Rockaway Borough before turning east and crossing the Rockaway River and the Dover and Rockaway River Railroad's Dover and Rockaway Branch. The route continues northeast, entering wooded residential areas as it heads into Denville and has a limited interchange with I-80, where it can only be entered to and from the westbound lane and where US 46 east can only be entered from the eastbound lane and to the eastbound lane. As it crosses under I-80, US 46 becomes a six-lane divided highway.
The road is lined with a moderate number of businesses, most with right-in/right-out (RIRO) access, as it continues southeast through Denville, narrowing to four lanes before coming to an interchange with Route 53. From this interchange, the route continues east before curving southeast and entering Mountain Lakes. In Mountain Lakes, US 46 crosses under the Montclair-Boonton Line before continuing into Parsippany-Troy Hills. Here, the road comes to US 202/CR 511 before passing under I-287. At this point, the westbound direction of US 46 has a ramp to northbound I-287, with access to and from southbound I-287 provided by US 202. Past the I-287 crossing, the road comes to another partial interchange with I-80 near the western terminus of I-280. Past this interchange, US 46 widens to six lanes and enters Montville. In Montville, the route narrows back to four lanes, and has traffic light-controlled intersections with New Road and Hook Mountain Road/Chapin Road. It then has an interchange with Route 159 and makes a turn to the northeast. Upon crossing the Passaic River at Pine Brook, US 46 enters Essex County into Fairfield Township. A short distance into Essex County, US 46 has another interchange with Route 159 (Clinton Road), providing access to that route and to its continuation as CR 627 (Plymouth Street). Shortly farther along US 46, Route 159 and CR 627 meet it at a traffic light-controlled intersection, providing cross-traffic and turns onto US 46. Past this point, US 46 remains a surface road with RIRO-accessed driveways, but has several intersections controlled by interchanges. Within Fairfield, US 46 has interchanges with Hollywood Avenue and Passaic Avenue as well as two trumpet interchanges providing access to Fairfield Road, which runs a short distance to the south of US 46.
### Passaic County
The route crosses the Passaic River again into Wayne in Passaic County. The median splits as the road passes to the north of the Willowbrook Mall, with an exit serving the shopping mall, before reaching the Spaghetti Bowl interchange with partial access to I-80 and full access to Route 23. Within this interchange, US 46 passes under the Montclair-Boonton Line again. From here, it passes businesses and many shopping centers with RIRO access as a six-lane highway, heading into Totowa. In this area, the route has interchanges with CR 640 and Route 62/CR 646. The road turns southeast, crossing the Passaic River a third time into Little Falls. At this point, US 46 runs along the Little Falls/Woodland Park border, interchanging with CR 639 and Browertown Road. After the exit for Lower Notch Road, the route enters more wooded surroundings, interchanging with Notch Road/Rifle Camp Road before entering Clifton. Upon reaching Clifton, US 46 has an interchange with the western terminus of Route 3 and Valley Road (CR 621), with the Valley Road exit stitched into the Route 3 side of the highway fork. Prior to reconstruction of the interchanges, the Valley Road ramp exited before Route 3 began, and Route 3 branched off immediately after Valley Road.
Past Route 3, the highway narrows to four lanes, continuing east-northeast as a limited-access divided highway with some RIRO-accessed businesses still on it, though many roads are accessed through over and underpasses. US 46 has an exit for Van Houten Avenue/Grove Street before coming to a large interchange with the southern terminus of the Route 19 freeway, CR 509, and the Garden State Parkway. After this, the road passes over Norfolk Southern's Newark Industrial Track line and NJ Transit's Main Line and has an exit for Hazel Street/Paulison Avenue. US 46 then begins a brief concurrency with Piaget Avenue in Clifton with a series of connector streets and three intersections controlled by stoplights. After the third, at Day Street near Christopher Columbus Middle School, the two roads split at a fork, marked as an exit, with US 46 continuing eastbound to the left and Piaget Avenue continuing to the right. Vehicles traveling west on Piaget Avenue have access to US 46 westbound through use of a one way underpass that carries US 46 eastbound over it, and also have access to US 46 eastbound by a right-turn only lane near the intersection of Piaget Avenue and Fourth Street.
After the split, US 46 turns into a limited-access road again and passes under Main Avenue/CR 601 and Norfolk Southern's Passaic Spur line before coming to an interchange with the northern terminus of the Route 21 freeway. From this interchange, the route turns north along the west bank of the Passaic River, crossing the Garden State Parkway again before widening to six lanes and meeting the southern terminus of Route 20 at an interchange near the border of Paterson.
### Bergen County
US 46 turns east and crosses the Passaic River a fourth and final time, entering Bergen County in Elmwood Park. Immediately after the river, the route has an interchange for CR 507. Passing through more RIRO-accessed business areas, the road narrows to four lanes and has a partial interchange with the Garden State Parkway. Past the parkway, US 46 continues as a road with some jughandles and other traffic light-controlled intersections (but still largely maintaining RIRO access to driveways and side streets), crossing New York, Susquehanna and Western Railway's Dundee Branch line and passing through a small corner of Garfield before crossing into Saddle Brook. Within Saddle Brook, the road turns more to the southeast and crosses over NJ Transit's Bergen County Line. Continuing east, US 46 has an exit for with Outwater Lane and crosses into Lodi. Through this area, there is no access across the median of US 46, as it interchanges with Main Street. The route continues into Hasbrouck Heights, where it turns more south-southeast, interchanging with Boulevard. A short distance later, US 46 reaches an interchange with Route 17 and crosses NJ Transit's Pascack Valley Line near the Teterboro station.
From here, US 46 enters Teterboro and interchanges with Green Street before continuing southeast as a six-lane highway through industrial areas, passing to the north of Teterboro Airport. The road continues into Little Ferry, where it passes suburban residential and commercial areas and narrows into a four-lane undivided road called Sylvan Avenue, turning to the east and crossing CR 503. After intersecting the Bergen Turnpike at the modified Little Ferry Circle, which US 46 runs through, the route crosses the Hackensack River into Ridgefield Park on the Route 46 Hackensack River Bridge, passing over New York, Susquehanna and Western Railway's New Jersey Subdivision line and CSX's River Subdivision railroad line before the bridge ends. In Ridgefield Park, the route is called Winant Avenue and becomes a four-lane divided highway before briefly becoming undivided again. Upon turning back into a divided highway, US 46 comes to a large interchange with I-95/New Jersey Turnpike. Past this interchange, the route widens to six lanes and crosses the Overpeck Creek into Ridgefield, where it passes over CSX's Northern Running Track railroad line into the Morsemere neighborhood. Upon entering Palisades Park, the road has an interchange with Route 93 before reaching a diamond interchange with US 1-9.
US 46 continues southeast as a four-lane freeway, with the US 1-9 ramps following the route a short distance before merging into the route. At this point, US 1-9 become concurrent with US 46 and the freeway makes a sharp turn to the north-northeast. The road has an interchange to the 5th Street and 6th Street frontage roads, which parallel the freeway through residential areas and provide access to CR 501. US 1-9 / US 46 continue into Fort Lee, where it has access to a couple commercial areas via RIRO before encountering the northern terminus of Route 63 at a westbound exit and eastbound entrance. From here, the highway becomes a surface road that continues past more businesses and homes with RIRO access, angling northeast as it comes to an exit for Main Street. Immediately past this point, the road turns east and encounters a complex interchange with I-95, the eastern terminus of Route 4, and the southern terminus of US 9W. Here, US 1-9 / US 46 all join I-95 (although US 46 is unsigned east of this interchange) and continue to the southeast along a multilane freeway with local-express lane configuration consisting of four local lanes and four express lanes in each direction, passing numerous high-rise buildings. The road has an interchange with Route 67 at GWB Plaza before coming to the eastbound toll plaza for the George Washington Bridge. Past the toll plaza, there is an interchange for the Palisades Interstate Parkway. After the Palisades Interstate Parkway, the road crosses the Hudson River on the George Washington Bridge, which has eight lanes total on the upper deck (formed from the express lanes) and six lanes total on the lower deck (formed from the local lanes). At the New Jersey/New York border on the bridge, US 46 ends while I-95 and US 1-9 continue into the borough of Manhattan in New York City on the Trans-Manhattan Expressway.
## History
### Before 1916
What is now US 46 west of Netcong was part of the Manunkachunk Trail, an old Lenape trail running from the Great Minisink Trail in Netcong west to Manunkachunk Village, now Belvidere. Another Lenape trail extended from Netcong to what is now Parsippany and Springfield Township. In 1809, the Parsippany and Rockaway Turnpike was chartered to extend from the Newark-Pompton Turnpike to the Union Turnpike; the section east from Denville was later named Bloomfield Avenue. A branch of the Union Turnpike was chartered in 1813 to run west from Dover to the Morris Turnpike; it was locally known as the Dover Turnpike. By 1920, the portion of the modern route west of Hackettstown was signed as an easterly extension of the Lackawanna Trail, running through Pennsylvania to Binghamton, New York. This designation was removed by 1924, when the state of Pennsylvania rerouted the highway south to Philadelphia.
### Routes 5, 10 and 12: 1916–1927
Prior to 1927, what is today US 46 was followed by three different routes. The first route was pre-1927 Route 5, which was first legislated in 1916. It began by crossing the Delaware River from Pennsylvania at the community of Delaware. Several undercrossings of the Delaware, Lackawanna and Western Railroad near Delaware were bypassed with a short new road on the southwest side of the railroad. From there, Route 5 used the existing Delaware Road to north of Belvidere, then the Buttzville-Belvidere Road to Buttzville, the Buttzville Road to Great Meadows, and the Danville Mountain Road to Hackettstown.
From Hackettstown to Denville, Route 5 ran concurrently with pre-1927 Route 12, which was first legislated in 1917. A mostly-new road (now eastbound US 46) was built from Hackettstown east to Netcong to avoid steep grades on the existing roads. Portions of the existing Budd's Lake Road were used between Budd Lake and Netcong. From Netcong the route used the old Morris Turnpike to Ledgewood and the Dover Turnpike to Dover, running into Dover on Blackwell Street. Blackwell Street led to Rockaway Road, becoming Main Street in Rockaway, from which it used the old Parsippany and Rockaway Turnpike to Denville.
At Denville, Route 5 turned south, while Route 12 continued east along the Parsippany and Rockaway Turnpike to Pine Brook. The route left the old turnpike there to head northeast towards Paterson, starting with the Pine Brook Road (now Fairfield Road and Little Falls Road) to Little Falls. A bypass was planned around the south side of Little Falls, taking it under the Erie Railroad at Union Boulevard. From there Route 12 would use Union Boulevard, Totowa Road and McBride Avenue into Paterson. Pre-1927 Route 10, which was legislated in 1917, continued east on Market Street on the other side of Paterson to Edgewater, where it connected to the Fort Lee Ferry across the Hudson River. The new alignments were generally built as planned, except at Little Falls, where a bypass was to be built for Route 12.
### Route 6: 1927–1953
The expansion of the highway system followed the opening of the George Washington Bridge.
In the 1927 renumbering, Route 6 was assigned to the route across northern New Jersey, using the old Route 5 from Delaware to Netcong, Route 12 from Hackettstown to Paterson, and a generally new alignment parallel to Route 10 from Paterson to the proposed George Washington Bridge; the old Route 10 alignment between Paterson and Edgewater was to become Route 5. In Paterson, Route 6 was marked along McBride Avenue, Spruce Street and Market Street.
Route 6 was redefined in 1929 to use none of the old road east of Paterson (it had formerly been planned to use Market Street west of roughly where Route 17 now crosses it), and Route 5 was cut back to run only east from Ridgefield. The portion of pre-1927 Route 10 that was bypassed by Route 6 was designated Route 10N, but was eventually removed from the state highway system. In addition, Route 6 was redefined to bypass Paterson to the south. The new route would enter Paterson just south of Market Street, but then turn south and southwest before heading back west to rejoin the old route at the east end of the Little Falls bypass at the Union Boulevard crossing. The old road along Union Boulevard towards Paterson was assigned Route S6, as a spur of Route 6. Route S6 became Route 62 in the 1953 renumbering, and has since been truncated to a short piece between US 46 and I-80 in Totowa.
In December 1937, a section of highway was opened from the Passaic River at Clifton to Hasbrouck Heights, marking the completion of Route 6 with the exception of the Paterson bypass. In 1938, a spur of Route 6 called Route 6A was legislated to run from Route 6 in Dover north to US 206/Route S31 in Lafayette Township; this became Route 15 in 1953. A realignment at the Passaic River crossing near Pine Brook was built in the 1940s, along with a new road for a short distance west from Pine Brook. Also in the 1940s, the road was widened west into Denville, and a bypass of downtown Denville, including an interchange at Route 5N (now Route 53) was built. The Route 6 designation was dropped in favor of US 46 in the 1953 renumbering.
By Joint Resolution No. 1, approved April 14, 1941, the New Jersey Legislature designated the highway as the United Spanish War Veterans Memorial Highway in honor of the United Spanish War Veterans.
### U.S. Route 46: 1936–present
In 1925, the US 46 designation was first proposed for a route in Colorado connecting Grand Junction to Limon, but it instead became US 40S. The current US 46 was marked in 1936 between Portland, Pennsylvania, and the George Washington Bridge. At the time, the new Route 6 had not been completed from Route 2 (now Route 17) west to Route S6 (now Route 62), and so US 46 was marked through Paterson until this portion was completed by the 1940s. At the west end of Route 6, US 46 continued over the Delaware River on the Delaware Bridge into Pennsylvania, replacing PA 987 north to Portland, where it ended at US 611. The Delaware Water Gap Toll Bridge and its associated freeway to Columbia (now I-80) opened in December 1953, as did the new Portland-Columbia Toll Bridge.
Following this, US 611 was rerouted to cross the river twice in order to use the freeway through the Delaware Water Gap, and US 46 was moved to former Route 94 (pre-1953 Route 8) to end at the Columbia, New Jersey side of the Portland-Columbia Toll Bridge. The former approaches to the Darlington's Bridge, which itself was dismantled by the Delaware River Joint Toll Bridge Commission in 1954, became Route 163 in New Jersey and State Route 1039 in Pennsylvania. The US 611 freeway was designated I-80 by 1960, and US 611 was moved back to its old all-Pennsylvania alignment in 1965, leaving US 46 to end at I-80 and Route 94.
In 1964, the approach to the George Washington Bridge, shared with US 1-9, was rebuilt into a freeway that became a part of I-95. Since then, many changes have occurred to US 46. A traffic circle served the intersection with Route 23 until the construction of I-80, and a spaghetti interchange was constructed to replace it. The Little Ferry Circle, initially constructed in 1933, was modified in 1985 to allow US 46 to run straight through the circle. In 1998, the Ledgewood Circle at the western terminus of Route 10 was replaced with a signalized T-intersection. In 2007, the NJDOT announced that they would eliminate the Little Ferry Circle by turning it into a straight intersection; work ran through 2014. The Netcong Circle at Route 183 was replaced with a signalized intersection a cost of \$13.3 million in 2013. A temporary junction opened in January of that year with the permanent configuration completed the following August. In addition, the interchange between US 46 and the western terminus of Route 3 is planned to be reconstructed. This project will reconfigure ramps, bring bridges up to standard, and will provide for three-lane connections between Route 3 and US 46. It was announced in 2003 and is projected to cost over \$250 million. Construction on the first contract began in December 2015 with completion by October 2019. Construction on the second contract began in February 2020.
In 1988 the Legislature resolved that "The Commissioner of Transportation shall designate that portion of United States Highway Route 46 located between Hope Road and Barkers Mill Road in the township of Independence, Warren County as 'Clifford Jones Avenue'," honoring United States Army Specialist Clifford Jones, Jr., a resident of Independence Township who had been killed in action in 1968 during the Vietnam War.
## Major intersections
## See also
- New Jersey Route 6M |
21,241,699 | Cargolink | 1,095,005,203 | Norwegian railway company | [
"Companies based in Drammen",
"Railway companies established in 2008",
"Railway companies of Norway"
]
| Cargolink AS is a Norwegian railway company. Owned by the automotive distribution company Autolink, Cargolink has operated both autorack and container trains since November 2008. Cargolink has a fleet of ten diesel locomotives, five shunters, 100 autoracks and 60 container cars. Combined autorack and container trains are operated up to five times per week along the Sørland-, Bergen-, Rauma-, Røros- and Nordland Lines, as well as services through Sweden.
Autolink, the largest distributor of automobiles in Norway, has traditionally bought train services from CargoNet. In 2007, they signed a contract with Ofotbanen, and at the same time bought 40% of the company. However, Ofotbanen was in financial difficulties, causing a dispute between the two owners. The result was that Autolink formally established Cargolink in March 2008, without the knowledge of Ofotbanen, and terminated the contract with Ofotbanen in July. Cargolink received an operating licence in September and service started in November.
## Operation
Cargolink has a fleet of five shunters at their port in Drammen, in addition to three Di 6 diesel locomotives and three TRAXX electric locomotives for main haulage. While the shunters are owned by Cargolink, the diesel locomotives are leased from Dispolok of Germany and the electric locomotives are leased from Hector Rail. It also has more than 100 closed autoracks for automobile transport, and 60 container cars. 70 new autoracks are under delivery from Sweden.
On contract from Autolink, Cargolink operates autorack trains throughout large portions of the Norwegian railway network, from the seaports in Drammen and Oslo. Services are provided along the Sørland Line to Stavanger, along the Bergen Line to Bergen, along the Dovre Line to Trondheim, along the Rauma Line to Åndalsnes, and along the Nordland Line to Mosjøen, Mo i Rana and Bodø. It also operates through Sweden to reach Narvik and Malmö Each route has up to five weekly departures in both directions with combined autorack and container trains. The company transports 55,000 cars annually on 600 trains, giving a revenue of . Autolink is responsible for about three-quarters of all new-car distribution in the country. On the weekly return trips from Northern Norway, Cargolink uses the empty cars to transport aluminum from Elkem Mosjøen.
## History
### Autolink and Ofotbanen
Autolink has traditionally owned a large pool of autoracks. These have been operated by the Norwegian State Railways, and subsequently their subsidiary CargoNet. On 31 January 2007, Autolink bought 40% of the private railway company Ofotbanen, and at the same time signed a haulage contract with them. This made Autolink Ofotbanen's largest customer, and second largest owner. In March, Autolink ordered additional 70 new autoracks for NOK 175 million.
Ofotbanen have since their establishment had financial difficulties. The contract with Autolink had helped, but in July 2008, Autolink canceled their contract with Ofotbanen. Two weeks later, Autolink announced that they would establish their own railway company, which they had been working with since March. They stated that the deal with Ofotbanen was discontinued because the majority owner—Rail Management, in turn owned by Mons Bolin—would not allow additional private placements of capital, nor sell their shares to Autolink. From 29 July, all automotive trains stopped running, and no cars were transported for ten days. The same day, all board members in Ofotbanen representing Autolink withdrew from their positions.
The matter ended in court, with a case to determine whether Autolink should be allowed to take control of four train radios that were located in locomotives owned by Autolink, but operated by Ofotbanen. In a shareholder agreement between Autolink and Rail Management, the ownership of the train radios had been transferred to Autolink, but the agreement has clauses that specified that Autolink could not start a competing railway company. Stating that Autolink had been disloyal in regard to the contract, Ofoten District Court ruled on 17 July 2008 against Autolink's demand for an interim order to transfer the ownership of the radios to Autolink. The court ruled that an interim decision could not be made due to the complexity of the contracts, and that a normal lawsuit would have to be carried out to determine the matter. There was agreement that Autolink, on 13 February 2008, had bought five shunters from Ofotbanen for NOK 12 million, of which NOK 9.5 million was paid by Autolink deleting debt.
Ofotbanen lost their license from the Norwegian Railway Inspectorate on 7 October 2008. This was because Ofotbanen had not documented necessary accounts for 2007, nor provided evidence of necessary liquidity. On 24 October, the company was declared bankrupt. Rail Management subsequently established the new company Ofotbanen Drift, and stated that the cause of the bankruptcy was that Autolink had not let them make a private placement of NOK 10 million.
### Establishment
Work on establishing the new company was initiated by Autolink in March 2008, with the company formally established on 27 March. It received an operating license from the Norwegian Railway Inspectorate on 18 September 2008. Five shunters that were operated by Ofotbanen, but owned by Autolink, were transferred to Cargolink. In addition, ten Di 6 diesel locomotives have been leased from Vossloh, with options for later purchase. Operations started on 2 November, with 22 engineers based in Drammen. Since the company has an all-diesel fleet, management is working to reroute trains to Trondheim and Northern Norway along the Røros Line instead of the Dovre Line. CargoNet and Ofotbanen had been using the Dovre Line because it is electrified, giving lower operating costs despite its elevation, 350 m (1,150 ft) higher than the Røros Line. After initial trial runs with only three locomotives, full service was introduced later in November. |
41,614,304 | Leslie Goonewardene | 1,170,180,936 | Sri Lankan politician | [
"1909 births",
"1983 deaths",
"Alumni of S. Thomas' College, Mount Lavinia",
"Alumni of St. John's College, Panadura",
"Alumni of the London School of Economics",
"Indian independence activists",
"Lanka Sama Samaja Party politicians",
"Members of Gray's Inn",
"Members of the 3rd Parliament of Ceylon",
"Members of the 4th Parliament of Ceylon",
"Members of the 5th Parliament of Ceylon",
"Members of the 6th Parliament of Ceylon",
"Members of the 7th Parliament of Ceylon",
"People from British Ceylon",
"People from Panadura",
"Prisoners and detainees of British Ceylon",
"Quit India Movement",
"Sinhalese writers",
"Sri Lankan Christians",
"Sri Lankan prisoners and detainees",
"Transport ministers of Sri Lanka"
]
| Leslie Simon Goonewardene (Sinhala: ලෙස්ලි සයිමන් ගුනවර්ධන, Tamil: லெஸ்லி சைமன் குணவர்தன; 31 October 1909 – 11 April 1983) was a prominent Sri Lankan statesman. He founded Sri Lanka's first political party, the Lanka Sama Samaja Party, in 1935, and served as its General-Secretary from 1935 to 1977. Goonewardene was a key figure in both the Indian independence movement and the Sri Lankan independence movement. He was designated as a National Hero of Sri Lanka for his leadership in the independence movement, and his efforts are celebrated each year on the Sri Lankan Independence Day.
Born into an aristocratic Panaduran family, Goonewardene was brought up Methodist, educated in English-medium schools, and spoke Sinhala as well as English. Goonewardene was shaped by the widespread Marxist teachings of the time, notably conflicting with his own privilege, resulting in him pursuing the study of government from the London School of Economics. There, he was deeply influenced by the teachings of his professor, Harold Laski. Upon his return to Ceylon from London, Goonewardene founded the Lanka Sama Samaja Party in 1935. He rose to prominence leading the party through World War II, when it was key to the anti-war movement, culminating in its proscription and his escape from Ceylon to India.
In India, he founded the Bolshevik–Leninist Party of India, which was a revolutionary Trotskyist party, campaigning for independence and socialism in South Asia. He was a significant figure in the Quit India Movement alongside Mahatma Gandhi, leading to India's independence from Britain in 1947. In 1948, Ceylon followed. From the 1940s to 1960s, the Lanka Sama Samaja Party was Sri Lanka's main opposition party. Through this, Goonewardene attempted to reform the former British colony of Ceylon into a socialist republic by nationalising organisations in the banking, education, industry, media, and trade sectors. In the 1960s, the party led the United Front coalition, and through their election landslide brought the first female head of state to power. Whilst initially declining a cabinet position, by 1970 Goonewardene believed he could implement his views best through a coalition government and brought about the United Front government. Goonewardene's government was elected that year with an overwhelming majority, leading to his taking up senior cabinet roles. During this time, he was an active critic of the nationalist Sinhala Only Act.
Goonewardene remained a key figure in the Non-Aligned Movement and the Fourth International, past his retirement in 1977 and until his death in 1983. Despite being one of the largest landowners in Sri Lanka through inheritance, by his death he had pledged all of his wealth to charitable organisations. In the 1950s, he had also led the re-introduction of inheritance tax to Sri Lanka, despite the opposition of wealthy established parliamentarians.
## Early life and family
Goonewardene was born on 31 October 1909 in Panadura, south-western Ceylon, to the wealthy Goonewardene family, which was active in local colonial-era politics. He was the son of Andrew Simon Goonewardene, a reputed doctor who served as President of the Panadura Maha Jana Sabha and chairman of the Urban Council. The Goonewardene family were major proprietors of coconut property. Goonewardene's mother died when he was a toddler. She was from the well-known Fernando family of 'Whitehall' Katana, one of the wealthiest families in Ceylon, privately owning very significant amounts of land. Leslie inherited all the wealth from his mother and, as his eldest son, a major share from his father. This wealth allowed Leslie to serve as a major party (LSSP) financier in his later life. His grand-aunt Selestina Rodrigo and another relative Jeramias Dias were the chief sponsors of the Panadura Ronkoth Viharaya and the reputed Panadura Vivadaya debate. Their ancestor Thome Rodrigo was a prince who was a signatory to the Malvana Convention in 1597. As traditional chiefs of the area their ancestors had played a role in defeating Arya Chakrawarti's fleet at Panadura.
### Religious beliefs and the Methodist Church
Though in adulthood Goonewardene did not have any religious beliefs, as a boy he was influenced by the ideas of John Wesley. The Methodists were reputed for their contribution in the campaigns to abolish slavery and to make education more accessible, and in the Temperance Movement. Goonewardene's family were prominent figures of the Methodist Church of Ceylon, and his father was a lay preacher and treasurer of the Home Mission Fund.
### The Panadura debate
The "Panadura debate" (පානදුරාවාදය) was the final debate defending Buddhism against the arguments of the Christian missionaries. The cause for the debate arose when Rev. David de Silva, at the request of Goonewardene's grandfather, Mathes Swaris Rodrigo Goonewardene, delivered a sermon on the soul at the Wesleyan Chapel in Panadura on 12 June 1873. Mathes had funded and helped build the chapel. The Buddhist orator Gunananda Thera delivered a sermon a week later criticizing the points raised by de Silva. Following Thera's sermon, Mathes Swaris invited the respective parties for a debate, one that served as a pivotal moment in Sinhalese history. Both parties signed an agreement on 24 July 1873 to hold another debate at Panadura. The debate was held on 24 and 26 August 1873 with a wide array of philosophical topics. The impact of the debate was phenomenal, both locally and internationally. Locally, it was the principal factor behind reviving the identity and pride of Sinhala Buddhists. Internationally, it was instrumental in raising awareness of Buddhism in the West.
## Education and raising a family
As a young child, Goonewardene was educated at St. John's College, Panadura and S. Thomas' College, Mount Lavinia; S. Thomas' is considered to be the most prestigious school in Ceylon, with notable alumni including four former prime ministers of Sri Lanka. Goonewardene's father, Andrew Simon Goonewardene, later sent him to a public (in the British sense of the term) boarding school, Rydal School, in north Wales with the aim of making him a Methodist priest. Instead, Goonewardene became influenced by the widespread Marxist teachings of the time, notably conflicting with his own privilege. This was a major factor leading him to pursue a BSc degree in economics from the London School of Economics, where he was shaped by the teachings of his professor, Harold Laski. He was admitted to the bar at Gray's Inn, one of the four Inns of Court in London, in 1933 but never practised law.
### Vivienne Goonewardene
Goonewardene met Vivienne Goonatilleka, who was the niece of two of the leading leftist politicians in Ceylon, at a political meeting. Her uncle Philip Gunawardena was the "Father of Socialism" in Ceylon, and another uncle, Robert Gunawardena, was a prominent Sri Lankan politician and diplomat. Vivienne's father, Don Alanson Goonatilleka, was a pro-monarchy conservative who believed in the continuous British governing of Ceylon. Vivienne was educated at Musaeus College in Ceylon and was initially drawn to politics through the Suriya-Mal Movement in 1933, when nationalist anti-imperialists initiated the sale of the native Suriya (Portia tree) flowers as an alternative to the British colonial-symbolizing poppies. The movement had the bold slogan of "against slavery and poverty and for freedom and prosperity". As head girl she recruited her entire school to this cause.
The two intended to wed, but Vivienne's father was against the relationship because Goonewardene was a Christian, from the minority Karava caste and a revolutionary under surveillance. She was kept a virtual prisoner at home, and Goonewardene was forced to file a habeas corpus writ, a recourse in law through which a person can report an unlawful detention or imprisonment to a court, to get her released.
During the legal battle, they were notably represented by their attorney, the future President and Prime Minister of Sri Lanka J. R. Jayewardene. The couple were married on 30 January 1939.
## Early political career
### Foundation of the LSSP
Goonewardene returned to Ceylon from Britain in 1933 and helped found the Lanka Sama Samaja Party (LSSP) on 18 December 1935. It was created with the broad aims of independence from British rule and socialism by a group of young people who had gathered together for that purpose. The group at the commencement numbered six, composed principally of students who had, like Goonewardene, returned from abroad, influenced deeply by the ideas of Karl Marx and Lenin. Goonewardene founded the LSSP alongside N.M. Perera and Colvin R. de Silva, as well as Philip Gunawardena and Robert Gunawardena. Goonewardene was the LSSP's first General-Secretary and served in that role from 1935 to 1977. The party, with the aid of the South Colombo Youth League, initiated various strikes with the aim to disrupt. One such took place at the Wellawatte Spinning and Weaving Mills. Goonewardene also published a Sinhala-language journal, Kamkaruwa (The Worker), allowing the party to become involved in the 1933 Suriya-Mal Movement, whose aim was to generate financial support for indigenous (Ceylonese) veterans through the sale of native Suriya flowers. The Suriya-Mal Movement gained international coverage, propelled by the fact that Poppy Day-raised funds went solely to British ex-servicemen, despite the funds being raised abroad. The Suriya-Mal Movement also helped contribute to the poor and needy during the 1934–1935 Ceylonese malaria epidemic, which took a toll on poorer communities.
With the outbreak of the Second World War, the party was re-established underground, a necessity due to its vocal anti-war stance, opposing that of the British war effort. Members of the party, including two State Council members, as well as others in its leadership—including N.M. Perera, Philip Gunawardena and Colvin R. de Silva—were arrested and jailed, but Goonewardene evaded arrest and went underground.
### The Bolshevik–Leninist Party of India, Ceylon and Burma
Though Philip Gunawardena, N.M. Perera, Edmund Samarakkody, and Colvin R. de Silva were detained in Ceylon, Goonewardene and his wife Vivienne were able to escape to India, but Goonewardene's properties were seized. They settled in Calcutta and established networks with the local Trotskyist organisations, including that of the Uttar Pradesh Trotskyist group, as well as groups in Bombay and Madras. Through discussion, the Indian and Ceylonese Trotskyists led by Goonewardene established a preliminary committee for the formation of the Bolshevik–Leninist Party of India, Ceylon and Burma (BLPI for short).
The discussions for this took place through underground meetings in Kandy in December 1940 and March 1941 and set the stage for a sole Trotskyist party for India. An underground conference was held on 20 April 1941, attended by 42 delegates. Goonewardene, whilst evading the colonial authorities, led the conference at which the Lanka Sama Samaja Party conceived a new constitution and manifesto, both of which were accepted by the delegates. The meetings in 1940 and 1941 were also attended by the other detained LSSP leaders, who had been aided by their imprisoner; the imprisoner later helped them escape their prison on 7 April 1942. The BLPI was formed in May 1942 and was approved by the Fourth International. Through this, the now-public BLPI, fronted by Goonewardene, S.C.C. Anthonipillai, Robert Gunawardena, William de Silva, and V. Karalasingham, focused on continuing strike waves that had begun in May 1941. These continued through 1942 and 1944.
Initially, during World War II, the Goonewardene-led BLPI remained relatively small—a large contrast to the high expectations of a subcontinent-wide political revolutionary party. Whilst the BLPI's full name, the Bolshevik–Leninist Party of India, Ceylon and Burma, suggests that it also represented Burma, there was arguably no party representation there. The BLPI, however, found later success, launching Spark, its party publication issued in the party's base of Calcutta. Due to political suppression, the publication was moved to Bombay and its name was changed to New Spark. They published Trotsky's open letter to the Indian workers and other pieces. Leslie Goonewardene was a key contributor to the party publications, writing under the pseudonym, K. Tilak. During the remainder of World War II, the BLPI was able to influence the trade union and student movements in several cities. Significant membership was recorded among tramway workers, as well as workers of the Buckingham and Carnatic Mills.
### Quit India Movement
From April 1942, Goonewardene primarily focused his efforts on the Quit India Movement, a movement with the demand to end the British Rule of India. He remained uncaptured throughout the war years both in Ceylon and India. In 1953, Goonewardene also sheltered Jeanne Hoban from the authorities when she was threatened with deportation for organising plantation workers unions. Following the Quit India Movement, hope was rife among the South-Asian socialist leaders. Goonewardene, under the pseudonym K. Tilak, wrote that the "young Bolshevik-Leninist Party ... now faces its first real chance for expansion ... The situation is changing and without doubt, of all of the parties and political groups in India, the BLPI is the one which is going to gain the most in this change."
#### Initial party split
Towards the end of World War II the LSSP split into two: a LSSP faction led by N.M. Perera and Philip Gunawardena; and the Bolshevik Samasamaja Party (BSP), the Ceylonese arm of the BLPI, led by Goonewardene, Colvin R. de Silva, Edmund Samarakkody, and Bernard Soysa. The BSP and LSSP merged in 1950.
## Return to Sri Lanka
### Independence
Following the end of the war, the LSSP's proscription ended, and Leslie was able to return to Ceylon to work further on the independence movement. The Lanka Sama Samaja Party led Sri Lankan independence movement succeeded when, on 4 February 1948, Ceylon was granted independence as the Dominion of Ceylon. Dominion status within the British Commonwealth was retained for the next 24 years until 22 May 1972, when it became a republic and was renamed the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka.
### Electoral beginnings
Goonewardene stood as the LSSP's candidate for Colombo North at the 1952 parliamentary election but was defeated by the United National Party candidate Cyril E. S. Perera. He stood as the LSSP's candidate for Panadura at the 1956 parliamentary election. He won the election and entered Parliament. He was re-elected at the March 1960, July 1960, 1965 and 1970 parliamentary elections.
## Growth of the Lanka Sama Samaja Party
From the late 1940s to 1960s, the Lanka Sama Samaja Party served as the opposition Party in Sri Lanka, whilst being recognised as the Sri Lankan wing of the Fourth International, an organisation characterised by Trotskyism and Anti-Stalinism. Through this, Goonewardene attempted to reform the former British Colony of Ceylon into a socialist republic by nationalising organisations in the banking, education, industry, media, and trade sectors. In 1959, despite being one of the largest landowners in Sri Lanka through inheritance, Goonewardene re-introduced inheritance tax to the country, despite the opposition of wealthy established parliamentarians.
With its increased popularity, the LSSP was looking to grow. In 1964, the party held a conference in which the majority of delegates nominated the classification of the Sri Lanka Freedom Party (SLFP), a petty bourgeois party, leaving the prospects of a coalition with it. Goonewardene and Colvin R. de Silva were opposed to this decision, but they remained with the LSSP. Another group, led by Edmund Samarakkody and Bala Tampoe, split from Goonewardene's party to form the Revolutionary Lanka Sama Samaja Party. Later in 1964, the LSSP formed a coalition with Sirimavo Bandaranaike, the first female prime minister in the world, who had until then formally governed with a minority, missing one seat for majority. This principal change led to the LSSP being expelled from the Fourth International, with the Revolutionary Lanka Sama Samaja Party taking its place. Following the election, Goonewardene alongside Colvin R. de Silva declined to accept cabinet office.
The coalition government fell in 1965 due to the desertion of several members. However, the number of votes won by the LSSP increased at the general election held that year. After the election, supporters of the party were subjected to a period of co-ordinated victimisation by the new seven-party coalition led by the UNP. In 1968, Goonewardene orchestrated the LSSP joining the SLFP and the Communist Party of Sri Lanka (CPSL) in a United Front. That year's joint May Day rally was said to be the biggest ever to take place in Sri Lanka.
## Lanka Sama Samaja Government (1970–1975)
By 1970, Goonewardene believed he could implement his views best through the SLFP coalition and joined the SLFP-led United Front government. That year, the United Front, made up of the SLFP, LSSP and its rival, the Communist Party of Sri Lanka, was elected to power in landslide. The LSSP had 18 MPs in the House of Representatives. Goonewardene became Minister of Communications and Minister of Transport. By July, he had worked to convene a Constitutional Assembly to replace the British-drafted constitution with one drafted by the Ceylonese. Policies requiring that permanent secretaries in the government ministries have expertise in their division were introduced. For example, those serving in the Ministry of Housing had to be trained engineers, and those serving in the Ministry of Health, medical practitioners. All government employees were allowed to join Workers Councils and at the local level, People's Committees were established to allow input from the population at large on government administration; this was brought from the LSSP management structure. The changes were intended to remove elements of British colonisation and foreign influence from the country's institutions.
Facing budget deficits of \$195 million—caused by rising energy and food-importation costs and declining revenue from coconut, rubber, and tea exports—the government attempted to centralise the economy and implement price controls. Goonewardene and other party members pressed Sirimavo Bandaranaike to nationalise the foreign banks of British, Indian, and Pakistani origin, an act that would impact the need for credit. During this period, the United Front government officially granted recognition to other socialist nations, notably including East Germany, North Korea, North Vietnam, and the National Liberation Front of South Vietnam.
Goonewardene supported the government stance opposing the development of an Anglo-US communications centre in the Indian Ocean, maintaining that the area should be a "neutral, nuclear-free zone". In December, the Business Undertaking Acquisition Act was passed, allowing the state to nationalise any business with more than 100 employees. Ostensibly, the move aimed to reduce foreign control of key tea and rubber production, but it stunted both domestic and foreign investment in industry and development.
Despite the efforts of Goonewardene and other leftist elements of the government to address the country's economic problems, unemployment and inflation remained unchecked. After 16 months in power, the United Front government was almost toppled by the 1971 Janatha Vimukthi Peramuna Insurrection of militant left-wing youths. Contrary to the LSSP, the JVP believed that socialism would be best implemented militarily. Though aware of the militant stance of the Janatha Vimukthi Peramuna (People's Liberation Front), the administration initially failed to recognise them as an imminent threat, dismissing them as idealists. On 6 March, militants attacked the U.S. Embassy in Colombo, leading to the declaration of a state of emergency on 17 March. In early April, attacks on police stations evidenced a well-planned insurgency that Ceylon's small army was ill-equipped to handle. Calling on its allies for assistance, the government was saved largely because of the LSSP's neutral foreign policy and Goonewardene's long-term stance as a member of the "Non-Aligned Movement". The Soviet Union sent aircraft to support the Ceylonese government; arms and equipment came from Britain, the United Arab Republic, the United States, and Yugoslavia; medical supplies were provided by East and West Germany, Norway, and Poland; patrol boats were sent from India; and both India and Pakistan sent troops. On 1 May, the government suspended their offensives and offered an amnesty, which resulted in thousands of surrenders. The following month a second amnesty was offered. One of the nation's first actions after the conflict was to expel North Korean diplomats, as it was suspected they had fomented the radical discontent.
In May 1972, Ceylon was replaced by the Republic of Sri Lanka after a new constitution was ratified. Though the country remained within the Commonwealth of Nations, Queen Elizabeth II was no longer recognised as its sovereign. Under its terms, the senate, suspended since 1971, was officially abolished, and the new unicameral National State Assembly was created, combining the powers of the executive, judicial, and legislative branches in one authority. The constitution recognised the supremacy of Buddhism, though it guaranteed equal protection to Buddhism, Christianity, Hinduism, and Islam. Despite the efforts of Goonewardene, it failed to provide a charter of inalienable rights, recognised Sinhala as the only official language, and contained no "elements of federalism". The Sinhala Only Act was vocally opposed to by Goonewardene in parliament. During this period, the government enacted land redistribution programmes to establish farming cooperatives and limit the size of privately held lands.
The 1973 oil crisis had a traumatic effect on the Sri Lankan economy. Still dependent on foreign assistance, goods, and monetary aid from Australia, Canada, China, Denmark, Hungary, and the World Bank, the government eased the austerity programmes that limited importation of consumer goods. The United States terminated aid grants, which required no repayment, and changed to a policy of providing foreign loans. Devaluation of the Sri Lankan rupee, coupled with inflation and high taxes, slowed economic growth, consequently creating cyclical pressure to address deficits with even higher taxes and austerity measures. Uncontrolled inflation between 1973 and 1974 led to economic uncertainty and public dissatisfaction. In 1974, Bandaranaike forced the shutdown of the last independent newspaper group, The Sun, believing their criticism was fuelling unrest. This, along with other factors, led to fissures appearing in the United Front coalition, largely resulting from the Lanka Sama Samaja Party's continued influence on trade unions and threats of strike actions throughout 1974 and 1975. When newly confiscated estates were placed under the Ministry of Agriculture and Lands, controlled by the Lanka Sama Samaja Party, fears that they would unionise plantation workers led Bandaranaike to oust them from the government coalition.
Despite later fissures, Goonewardene was able to advance parts of the party programme considerably: foreign-owned plantations were nationalised, local ownership was restricted, democratically elected workers' councils were established in state corporations and government departments under the purview of its ministries (and of that of a sympathiser, T.B. Subasinghe), and measures were taken that narrowed the gap between the rich and poor. The Congress of Samasamaja Youth Leagues and other bodies affiliated to the party (membership of the party proper was still restricted to a small cadre, on a Leninist model) saw unprecedented growth at this time. The leadership looked to Salvador Allende's Chile as a model of revolution through parliamentary means. During this period, Goonewardene established contact with the captains of the Movement of the Armed Forces (Movimento das Forças Armadas or MFA) of Portugal, after the Carnation Revolution of April 1974; he also became a theoretician of Eurocommunism and its application to Sri Lanka, writing a pamphlet titled "Can we get to socialism this way?".
### Minister of Transport (1970–75)
After the 1970 election, at which the United Front (UF) won a landslide victory, the workers at the Ceylon Transport Board spontaneously established workers' committees and took over the running of the institution. This period began the most successful years of the CTB as an institution. For the last two of the five years that Goonewardene was there, the CTB ran at a profit, whilst providing a service that was never previously or subsequently matched. In addition to his role in the management of the Employees' Councils, a council of which the workers' committees were transformed into after being properly constituted, commuter organisations were included in an advisory role. The services were expanded and measures were taken to improve efficiency, including rationalising bus types. The CTB started buying buses from Isuzu to offset any cartelisation by Tata and Ashok Leyland, the main suppliers, and also purchased Ikarus buses from Hungary. Several new bus stands and bus depots were established. A modern, multi-storied bus station was planned at the Central Bus Station, complete with hotel and cinema, but was never completed. Goonewardene also took measures to build up local industry, and the CTB became well equipped with foundries and workshops: the central workshop at Werahera became the largest in South Asia. The local modification of ticket machines was started after employees pointed out many unsuitable features and other employees were found tampering with the machines; a new workshop was acquired for this scheme of modification. In 1974 he started the assembly of bus chassis, and prototypes of a locally manufactured bus and a car rolled out of Werahera. In the 1971 Janatha Vimukthi Peramuna (JVP) insurrection, members of the CTB formed a 2,000-strong paramilitary body, the Hansa Regiment, from the employees of the CTB to guard bus depots, bus stops, and workshops. They also formed CANTAB, a secret intelligence organisation, the agents of whom were employees of the CTB, which provided accurate reports of the strength and distribution of JVP units.
#### The rail network
At the time of Goonewardene's entry into office, most of the railways were developed during the British colonial period, with the first line (from Colombo to Kandy) opened on 26 April 1867. The railway had been introduced as an economical means of transporting goods produced on the tea, rubber, and coconut plantations to the main port in Colombo. After the 1950s the Sri Lankan economy became focused on industry rather than plantation agriculture. During Goonewardene's time in office, the road network grew exponentially to ensure easy transition to an industrialising nation; with the introduction of lorries, a faster means of transporting goods, the amount of goods transported by rail declined.
The rail served as a major challenge for Goonewardene. Its network was more focused on plantation areas than on population and service centres, and the move to industrialisation meant that the railways generated large losses. To counteract this, Goonewardene extended the coastal line from Puttalam to Aruvakalu in 1974 to serve the cement factory there.
### Minister of Communication (1970–77)
In February 1971, India withdrew landing and overflying rights of Pakistani planes after the hijacking and later blowing up of an Indian plane at Lahore. Sri Lanka, under Goonewardene, granted Pakistan International Airlines (PIA) the aforementioned rights at the request of the Pakistani government. During the months of March and April, PIA planes made over 140 refuelling landings in Katunaye International Airport. In March 1971, the Pakistani Air Force had 16 eastbound and 15 westbound military aircraft touch down. These were of major significance as there were serious strains in relationship between East and West Pakistan at the time. Goonewardene insisted that the flights only took place when the Awmi League leader, Mujibur Rahman, was involved in negotiations with the government of Pakistan, emphasising that there were "practically no flights other than scheduled flights" from March through September, and denied that the Government of Sri Lanka was complicit in helping the transport of troops from West Pakistan to East Pakistan.
### End of United Front Alliance
Fissures appeared in the United Front coalition, largely resulting from the LSSP's continued influence on trade unions and threats of strike actions throughout 1974 and 1975. When newly confiscated estates were placed under the Ministry of Agriculture and Lands, controlled by the LSSP, fears that they would unionise plantation workers led Prime Minister Bandaranaike to oust them from the government coalition. On 2 September 1975 all LSSP ministers in the government, including Goonewardene, were dismissed, and the United Front was dismantled. He was finally defeated in the 1977 parliamentary election by United National Party candidate Dr Neville Fernando in the Panadura electorate.
## Other political acts
In the 1940s and 1950s, the LSSP and other leftist parties had led the opposition to the communal politics of successive governments. Goonewardene strongly opposed the Sinhala Only Act introduced by the SLFP government in 1956 and was chief among the Sinhalese and Marxist politicians to do so. During the parliamentary debate on the act, Goonewardene prophetically observed that:
> "There is a grave danger, if those people the Tamils, feel that a grave and irreparable injustice is done to them. There is a possibility of their deciding even to break away from the rest of the country."
The Sinhala Only Act, opposed by Goonewardene, helped lead to the Sri Lankan Civil War. Goonewardene stood for re-election at the 1977 parliamentary election but was defeated by UNP candidate Neville Fernando.
## Legacy
Goonewardene died on 11 April 1983. A vast procession was held around the city, followed by thousands of mourners. Goonewardene was designated as a National Hero of Sri Lanka for his leadership in the independence movement, and his efforts are celebrated each year on the Sri Lankan Independence Day. The Sri Lanka Postal Service commemorated him, and he was featured on a 5-rupee commemorative stamp. His cousin Cholomondeley Goonewardene was also a prominent LSSPer. Despite being one of the largest landowners in Sri Lanka through inheritance, by his death he had pledged all of his wealth to charitable organisations.
## Electoral history
## Authored books
Goonewardene wrote a number of books, sometimes using the pseudonyms K. Tilak and V.S. Parthasarathi:
- From the First to the Fourth International (1944)
- The Rise and Fall of the Comintern (1947) - inspired by World Revolution by C.L.R. James.
- Open Letter to Socialist Party Members: The Coming Crisis in the Socialist Party (1947)
- The Differences Between Trotskyism and Stalinism (1954)
- What We Stand For (1959)
- Short History of the Lanka Sama Samaja Party (1960) |
26,577,390 | The Rage Against God | 1,169,829,018 | Book by Peter Hitchens | [
"2010 in Christianity",
"2010 non-fiction books",
"Books about atheism",
"Books by Peter Hitchens",
"Christian apologetic works",
"Continuum International Publishing Group books",
"Criticism of New Atheism",
"Zondervan books"
]
| The Rage Against God (subtitle in US editions: How Atheism Led Me to Faith) is the fifth book by Peter Hitchens, first published in 2010. The book describes Hitchens's journey from atheism, far-left politics, and bohemianism to Christianity and conservatism, detailing the influences on him that led to his conversion. The book is partly intended as a response to God Is Not Great, a book written by his brother Christopher Hitchens in 2007.
Peter Hitchens, with particular reference to events which occurred in the Soviet Union, argues that his brother's verdict on religion is misguided, and that faith in God is both a safeguard against the collapse of civilisation into moral chaos and the best antidote to what he views as the dangerous idea of earthly perfection through utopianism. The Rage Against God received a mostly favourable reception in the media.
## Background
In May 2009 The Rage Against God was anticipated by Michael Gove, who wrote in The Times:
> I long to see [Peter Hitchens] take the next stage in his writer's journey and examine, with his unsparing honesty, the rich human reality of the division he believes is now more important than the split between Left and Right—the deeper gulf between the restless progressive and the Christian pessimist. This division, the difference between Prometheus and St Paul, the chasm that divides Shelley from T. S. Eliot, Lloyd George from Lord Salisbury, is nowhere better encapsulated than in the contrast between Hitchens major and minor.
Hitchens first referred to The Rage Against God in August 2009, in one of his weekly columns: "Above all, I seek to counter the assertion, central to my brother's case ... that the Soviet regime was in fact religious in character. This profound misunderstanding of the nature of the USSR is the key to finding another significant flaw in what is in general his circular argument". Then, a week before the book's publication, Hitchens wrote: "...it is obvious much of what I say [in The Rage Against God] arises out of my attempt to debate religion with him [Christopher Hitchens], it would be absurd to pretend that much of what I say here is not intended to counter or undermine arguments he presented in his book, God Is Not Great...".
## Synopsis
### Part One: A Personal Journey Through Atheism
In Chapter 1, Hitchens describes abandoning religion in his youth, and promoting "cruel revolutionary rubbish" as a Trotskyist activist. He claims his generation had become intellectually aloof from religion, rebellious and disillusioned and in Chapter 2 explores further reasons for this disillusion, including the Suez Crisis and the Profumo affair. In Chapter 3, Hitchens recounts how he embraced scientific inquiry and adopted liberal positions on issues such as marriage, abortion, homosexuality, and patriotism. Chapter 4 is a lament for the "noble austerity" of his childhood in Britain. Chapter 5 explores what Hitchens views as the pseudo-religion surrounding Churchill and World War II heroes – a "great cult of noble, patriotic death" whose only equivalent, he claims, was in the Soviet Union. Hitchens then asserts that, "The Christian Church has been powerfully damaged by letting itself be confused with love of country and the making of great wars".
In Chapter 6, Hitchens recalls being a foreign correspondent in the Soviet Union and a trip to Mogadishu, and how these experiences convinced him that, "his own civilisation was infinitely precious and utterly vulnerable". In Chapter 7, Hitchens charts his return to Christianity, and makes particular reference to the experience of seeing the Rogier van der Weyden painting The Last Judgement: "I gaped, my mouth actually hanging open. These people did not appear remote or from the ancient past; they were my own generation ... I had absolutely no doubt I was among the damned". In Chapter 8, Hitchens examines the diminishing of Christianity in Britain and its potential causes.
### Part Two: Addressing Atheism: Three Failed Arguments
In Chapter 9, Hitchens contends that the claim that religion is a source of conflict is a "cruel factual misunderstanding", and that a number of conflicts, including The Troubles and the Arab–Israeli conflict, were not motivated by religion but tribal in nature and disputes over territory. Chapter 10 discusses whether morality can be determined without the concept of God. Hitchens asserts that atheists "have a fundamental inability to concede that to be effectively absolute, a moral code needs to be beyond human power to alter". He also describes as flawed his brother's assertion in God is Not Great that "the order to love thy neighbour 'as thyself' is too extreme and too strenuous to be obeyed". Hitchens ends the chapter by stating, "in all my experience in life, I have seldom seen a more powerful argument for the fallen nature of man, and his inability to achieve perfection, than those countries in which man sets himself up to replace God with the State".
Hitchens begins Chapter 11 by asserting, "those who reject God's absolute authority, preferring their own, are far more ready to persecute than Christians have been ... Each revolutionary generation reliably repeats the savagery". He cites as examples the French revolutionary terror; the Bolshevik revolution; the Holodomor and the Soviet famine of 1932–33; the barbarity surrounding Joseph Stalin's five-year plans, repeated in the Great Leap Forward in China; atrocities committed by the Khmer Rouge; and human rights abuses in Cuba under Fidel Castro. Hitchens then quotes a number of prominent communist thinkers' pronouncements on morality, including George Lukacs stating, "Communist ethics make it the highest duty to accept the necessity of acting wickedly. This is the greatest sacrifice the revolution asks from us", and Leon Trotsky's claiming that "morality, more than any other form of ideology, has a class character".
### Part Three: The League of the Militant Godless
`Hitchens writes "the biggest fake miracle staged in human history was the claim that the Soviet Union was a new civilisation of equality, peace, love, truth, science and progress. Everyone knows that it was a prison, a slum, a return to primitive barbarism, a kingdom of lies where scientists and doctors feared offending the secret police, and that its elite were corrupt and lived in secret luxury". He then cites Walter Duranty's denying the existence of the great Ukrainian famine, and Sidney and Beatrice Webb's acceptance that the 1937 Moscow show trials were "genuine criminal prosecutions". Hitchens then examines Lenin's suppression of religion in the Soviet Union, which included making the teaching of religion to children punishable by the death penalty and the creation of an antireligious organisation of Soviet workers. Hitchens begins Chapter 13 by quoting William Henry Chamberlin: "In Russia, the world is witnessing the first effort to destroy completely any belief in supernatural interpretation of life", and then examines some consequences of this, including intolerance of religion, terror, and the persecution of priests and bishops at the Solovetsky concentration camp. Hitchens asserts that in the Soviet Union "the regime's institutional loathing for the teaching of religion, and its desire to eradicate it, survived every doctrinal detour and swerve".`
In the final chapter, Hitchens analyses a number of his brother's arguments, and contends that "the coincidence in instinct, taste, and thought between my brother and the Bolsheviks and their sympathisers is striking and undeniable". He then records how his brother nominated the "apostle of revolutionary terror" Leon Trotsky for an edition of the BBC radio series Great Lives; praised Trotsky for his "moral courage"; and declared that one of Lenin's great achievements was "to create a secular Russia". Hitchens speculates that his brother remained sympathetic towards Bolshevism and is still hostile towards the things it extirpated, including monarchy, tradition, and faith. He ends the chapter by claiming a form of militant secularism is becoming established in Britain, and that "The Rage Against God is loose".
### Epilogue
In the epilogue, Hitchens describes how after a 2008 debate with his brother Christopher that "the longest quarrel of my life seemed to be unexpectedly over" and that he held no hope of converting his brother, who had "bricked himself up high in his atheist tower, with slits instead of windows from which to shoot arrows at the faithful".
## Critical reception
After its UK publication in March 2010 the book received a number of mostly favourable reviews in British newspapers.
In The Daily Telegraph Christopher Howse concentrated on the moral arguments in the book, and agreed with Hitchens that "to determine what is right and what is wrong without God, is difficult". Also in The Daily Telegraph, Charles Moore wrote that the book "tries to do two things at once. One is to bash up modern militant atheism with all the author's polemical skill. The other is to give an autobiographical account of how, in our time, an intelligent man's faith may recover". In a positive review in Standpoint magazine, Michael Nazir Ali wrote, "One of the abiding canards nailed by Peter Hitchens is that religion causes conflict. He does this by showing that so-called "religious" wars had many other elements to them, such as greed for territory, political ambition and nationalism. His repeated references to Soviet brutality reveal that secular ideologies have caused more suffering in recent times than any conflict associated with religion." In a more critical review in the New Statesman Sholto Byrnes wrote, "Hitchens makes his case forcefully, passionately and intelligently", but "makes too much connection between the ill deeds of atheists and their atheism". Byrnes also reviewed the book in The Independent, where he questioned the validity of a number of Hitchens's conclusions, including that "atheists 'actively wish for disorder and meaninglessness'".
In a sympathetic review in The Guardian, Rupert Shortt wrote, "Hitchens does not seek to mount a comprehensive defence of Christianity. He is wise to avoid deeper philosophical and theological waters, because his strengths lie elsewhere. His more manageable aim is to expose what he holds to be three major fallacies underlying God Is Not Great: that conflict fought in the name of religion is really always about faith; that "it is ultimately possible to know with confidence what is right and what is wrong without acknowledging the existence of God"; and that "atheist states are not actually atheist". In The Spectator, Quentin Letts reviewed the book very positively, describing it as "a magnificent, sustained cry against the aggressive secularism taking control of our weakened culture".
Reviews of the book in North American publications subsequent to its stateside release were more mixed.
In The New York Times, Mark Oppenheimer commented, "American readers will notice a lack of enthusiasm in Peter's Christian apologetics. He proceeds largely from historical, rather than personal, evidence: here are the fruits of Christianity, and here is what one finds in its absence". In a negative review in the Winnipeg Free Press, Ted St. Godard wrote, "What Hitchens can't seem to appreciate is that, even if 'Soviet Communism is organically linked to atheism, something his brother and others argue against (if somewhat feebly), and even if one accepts that Soviet tyranny was horrible, this says little about the existence of God". In a Washington Times review entitled "Cain and Abel: The sequel?", Jeremy Lott wrote, "Hitchens refuses to make a full-throated case for faith. He explains that 'those who choose to argue in prose... are unlikely to be receptive to a case that is most effectively couched in poetry' ... Peter does hope that Christopher might one day arrive at some sort of acceptance that belief in God is not necessarily a character fault—and that religion does not poison everything".
One mix of the two audiences is the British writer, Theodore Dalrymple, reviewing The Rage Against God and Christopher Hitchens' Hitch-22 for the American journal First Things. Dalrymple writes, Peter Hitchens "has discovered that it is he, and not just the world, that was and is imperfect and that therefore humility is a virtue, even if one does not always live up to it. The first sentence of his first chapter reads, "I set fire to my Bible on the playing fields of my Cambridge boarding school one bright, windy spring afternoon in 1967". One senses the deep—and, in my view, healthy—feeling of self-disgust with which he wrote this, for indeed it describes an act of wickedness. Peter's memoir...is more personally searching."
## Release details
The book was first published in the UK on 15 March 2010 by Continuum Publishing Corporation, and was released in the US in June 2010 by Zondervan, with the additional subtitle How Atheism Led Me to Faith.
## See also
- Christian apologetics
- Criticism of atheism
- Human rights in the Soviet Union |
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