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22,003	Neil Peart	1,170,868,911	Canadian and American drummer (1952–2020)	[ "1952 births", "2020 deaths", "20th-century American drummers", "20th-century Canadian drummers", "20th-century Canadian male writers", "20th-century Canadian memoirists", "20th-century Canadian multi-instrumentalists", "21st-century American drummers", "21st-century American memoirists", "21st-century Canadian drummers", "21st-century Canadian memoirists", "American agnostics", "American heavy metal drummers", "American libertarians", "American lyricists", "American male drummers", "American male non-fiction writers", "American people of Canadian descent", "American rock drummers", "American rock songwriters", "American travel writers", "Anthem Records", "Canadian agnostics", "Canadian expatriate musicians in the United States", "Canadian expatriates in England", "Canadian heavy metal drummers", "Canadian jazz drummers", "Canadian libertarians", "Canadian male drummers", "Canadian male jazz musicians", "Canadian male songwriters", "Canadian percussionists", "Canadian rock drummers", "Canadian travel writers", "Deaths from brain cancer in the United States", "Deaths from glioblastoma", "Former Objectivists", "Left-libertarians", "Long-distance motorcycle riders", "Motorcycle touring writers", "Musicians from Hamilton, Ontario", "Musicians from Los Angeles", "Musicians from St. Catharines", "Officers of the Order of Canada", "People with acquired American citizenship", "Progressive rock drummers", "Rush (band) members", "Writers from Hamilton, Ontario", "Writers from Los Angeles" ]	Neil Ellwood Peart OC (/pɪərt/; September 12, 1952 – January 7, 2020) was a Canadian and American musician, best known as the drummer and primary lyricist of the rock band Rush. Peart earned numerous awards for his musical performances, including an induction into the Modern Drummer Readers Poll Hall of Fame in 1983 at the age of thirty, making him the youngest person ever so honoured. Known to fans by the nickname 'The Professor', his drumming was renowned for its technical proficiency and his live performances for their exacting nature and stamina. Peart was born in Hamilton, Ontario, and grew up in Port Dalhousie (now part of St. Catharines). During adolescence, he floated between regional bands in pursuit of a career as a full-time drummer. After a discouraging stint in England, Peart returned home to concentrate on music where he joined Rush, a Toronto band, in mid-1974, six years after its formation. Together they released nineteen studio albums, with ten exceeding a million copies sold in the United States. Billboard lists the band third in "most consecutive gold or platinum albums by a rock band". Early in his career, Peart's performance style was deeply rooted in hard rock. He drew most of his inspiration from drummers such as Keith Moon, Ginger Baker, and John Bonham, players who at the time were at the forefront of the British hard rock scene. As time passed, he began to emulate jazz and big band musicians Gene Krupa and Buddy Rich. In 1994, Peart became a friend and pupil of jazz instructor Freddie Gruber. It was during this time that Peart revamped his playing style by incorporating jazz and swing components. In addition to serving as Rush's primary lyricist, Peart published several memoirs about his travels. His lyrics for Rush addressed universal themes and diverse subjects including science fiction, fantasy, and philosophy, as well as secular, humanitarian, and libertarian themes. Peart wrote a total of seven nonfiction books focused on his travels and personal stories. He also coauthored with Kevin J. Anderson three steampunk fantasy novels based on Rush's final album, Clockwork Angels. The two also wrote a dark fantasy novella, Drumbeats, inspired by Peart's travels in Africa. Peart announced his retirement from touring in an interview with Drumhead Magazine in December 2015. In January 2018, bandmate Alex Lifeson confirmed that Rush had disbanded also due to Peart's health issues. During his last years Peart lived in Santa Monica, California, with his wife, Carrie Nuttall, and daughter. After a three and a half year illness, Peart died of glioblastoma on January 7, 2020, at age 67. ## Biography ### Early childhood Peart was born on September 12, 1952, to Glen and Betty Peart and lived his early years on his family's farm in Hagersville, Ontario, on the outskirts of Hamilton. The first child of four, his brother Danny and sisters Judy and Nancy were born after the family moved to St. Catharines when Peart was two years old. At this time his father became parts manager for Dalziel Equipment, an International Harvester farm machinery dealer. In 1956 the family moved to the Port Dalhousie area of the town. Peart attended Gracefield School and later Lakeport Secondary School, and described his childhood as happy; he stated he experienced a warm family life. By early adolescence he became interested in music and acquired a transistor radio, which he would use to tune into popular music stations broadcasting from Toronto, Hamilton, Welland, and Buffalo. His first exposure to musical training came in the form of piano lessons, which he later said in his instructional video A Work in Progress did not have much impact on him. He had a penchant for drumming on various objects around the house with a pair of chopsticks, so for his thirteenth birthday his parents bought him a pair of drum sticks, a practice drum, and some lessons, with the promise that if he stuck with it for a year they would buy him a kit. His parents bought him a drum kit for his fourteenth birthday and he began taking lessons from Don George at the Peninsula Conservatory of Music. His stage debut took place that year at the school's Christmas pageant in St. Johns Anglican Church Hall in Port Dalhousie. His next appearance was at Lakeport High School with his first group, The Eternal Triangle. This performance contained an original number titled "LSD Forever". At this show he performed his first solo. Peart got a job in Lakeside Park, in Port Dalhousie on the shores of Lake Ontario, which later inspired a song of the same name on the Rush album Caress of Steel. He worked on the Bubble Game and Ball Toss, but his tendency to take it easy when business was slack resulted in his termination. By his late teens, Peart had played in local bands such as Mumblin' Sumpthin', and the Majority. These bands practiced in basement recreation rooms and garages and played church halls, high schools, and skating rinks in towns across Southern Ontario such as Mitchell, Seaforth, and Elmira. They also played in the Northern Ontario city of Timmins. Tuesday nights were filled with jam sessions at the Niagara Theatre Centre. ### Early career At eighteen years old after struggling to achieve success as a drummer in Canada, Peart travelled to London, England, hoping to further his career as a professional musician. Despite playing in several bands and picking up occasional session work, he was forced to support himself by selling jewelry at a shop called The Great Frog on Carnaby Street. While in London, he came across the writings of novelist and philosopher Ayn Rand. Rand's writings became a significant early philosophical influence on Peart, as he found many of her writings on individualism and Objectivism inspiring. References to Rand's philosophy can be found in his early lyrics, most notably "Anthem" from 1975's Fly by Night and "2112" from 1976's 2112. After eighteen months Peart became disillusioned by his lack of progress in the music business; he placed his aspiration of becoming a professional musician on hold and returned to Canada. Upon returning to St. Catharines, he worked for his father selling tractor parts at Dalziel Equipment. ### Joining Rush After returning to Canada, Peart was recruited to play drums for a St. Catharines band known as Hush, who played on the Southern Ontario bar circuit. Soon after, a mutual acquaintance convinced Peart to audition for the Toronto-based band Rush, which needed a replacement for its original drummer John Rutsey. Geddy Lee and Alex Lifeson oversaw the audition. His future bandmates describe his arrival that day as somewhat humorous, as he arrived in shorts, driving a battered old Ford Pinto with his drums stored in trashcans. Peart felt the entire audition was a complete disaster. While Lee and Peart hit it off on a personal level (both sharing similar tastes in books and music), Lifeson had a less favourable impression of Peart. After some discussion between Lee and Lifeson, Peart officially joined the band on July 29, 1974, two weeks before the group's first US tour. Peart procured a silver Slingerland kit which he played at his first gig with the band, opening for Uriah Heep and Manfred Mann's Earth Band in front of over 11,000 people at the Civic Arena in Pittsburgh on August 14, 1974. Peart soon settled into his new position, also becoming the band's primary lyricist. Before joining Rush he had written a few songs, but, with the other members largely uninterested in writing lyrics, Peart's previously underutilized writing became as noticed as his musicianship. The band were working hard to establish themselves as a recording act, and Peart, along with the rest of the band, began to undertake extensive touring. His first recording with the band, 1975's Fly by Night, was fairly successful, winning the Juno Award for most promising new act, but the follow-up, Caress of Steel, for which the band had high hopes, was greeted with hostility by both fans and critics. In response to this negative reception, most of which was aimed at the B-side-spanning epic "The Fountain of Lamneth", Peart responded by penning "2112" on their next album of the same name in 1976. The album, despite record company indifference, became their breakthrough and gained a following in the United States. The supporting tour culminated in a three-night stand at Massey Hall in Toronto, a venue Peart had dreamed of playing in his days on the Southern Ontario bar circuit and where he was introduced as "The Professor on the drum kit" by Lee. Peart returned to England for Rush's Northern European Tour and the band stayed in the United Kingdom to record the next album, 1977's A Farewell to Kings, in Rockfield Studios in Wales. They returned to Rockfield to record the follow-up, Hemispheres, in 1978, which they wrote entirely in the studio. The recording of five studio albums in four years, coupled with as many as 300 gigs a year, convinced the band to take a different approach thereafter. Peart has described his time in the band up to this point as "a dark tunnel". ### Playing style reinvention In 1991, Peart was invited by Buddy Rich's daughter, Cathy Rich, to play at the Buddy Rich Memorial Scholarship Concert in New York City. Peart accepted and performed for the first time with the Buddy Rich Big Band. Peart remarked that he had little time to rehearse, and noted that he was embarrassed to find the band played a different arrangement of the song than the one he had learned. Feeling that his performance left much to be desired, Peart produced and played on two Buddy Rich tribute albums titled Burning for Buddy: A Tribute to the Music of Buddy Rich in 1994 and 1997 in order to regain his aplomb. While producing the first Buddy Rich tribute album, Peart was struck by the tremendous improvement in ex-Journey drummer Steve Smith's playing, and asked him his "secret". Smith responded he had been studying with drum teacher Freddie Gruber. In early 2007, Peart and Cathy Rich discussed another Buddy tribute concert. At the recommendation of bassist Jeff Berlin, Peart once again augmented his swing style with formal drum lessons, this time under the tutelage of another pupil of Freddie Gruber, Peter Erskine, himself an instructor of Steve Smith. On October 18, 2008, Peart once again performed at the Buddy Rich Memorial Concert at New York's Hammerstein Ballroom. The concert has since been released on DVD. ### Family deaths and recovery On August 10, 1997, soon after Rush's Test for Echo Tour, Peart's 19-year-old daughter (and then, his only child) Selena Taylor was killed in a single-car crash on Highway 401 near the town of Brighton, Ontario. His common-law wife of 23 years, Jacqueline Taylor, subsequently died of cancer on June 20, 1998. Peart attributed her death to the result of a "broken heart" and called it "a slow suicide by apathy. She just didn't care." In his book Ghost Rider: Travels on the Healing Road, Peart wrote that he told his bandmates at Jacqueline's funeral, "consider me retired". Peart took a long sabbatical to mourn and reflect, and travelled extensively throughout North and Central America on his motorcycle, covering 88,000 km (55,000 mi). After his journey, Peart returned to the band. Peart wrote the book as a chronicle of his geographical and emotional journey. Peart was introduced to photographer Carrie Nuttall in Los Angeles by longtime Rush photographer Andrew MacNaughtan. They married on September 9, 2000. In early 2001, Peart announced to his bandmates that he was ready to return to recording and performing. The product of the band's return was the 2002 album Vapor Trails. At the start of the ensuing tour in support of the album, the band members decided that Peart would not take part in the daily grind of press interviews and "meet and greet" sessions upon their arrival in a new city that typically monopolize a touring band's daily schedule. Peart always shied away from these types of in-person encounters, and it was decided that exposing him to a lengthy stream of questions about the tragic events of his life was not necessary. After the release of Vapor Trails and his reunion with bandmates, Peart returned to work as a full-time musician. In the June 2009 edition of Peart's website's News, Weather, and Sports, titled "Under the Marine Layer", he announced that he and Nuttall were expecting their first child. Olivia Louise Peart was born later that year. In the mid-2010s, Peart acquired U.S. citizenship. ### Retirement from touring Peart described himself as a "retired drummer" in an interview in December 2015: > Lately Olivia has been introducing me to new friends at school as 'My dad—He's a retired drummer.' True to say—funny to hear. And it does not pain me to realize that, like all athletes, there comes a time to ... take yourself out of the game. I would rather set it aside than face the predicament described in our song "Losing It" ... However, Geddy Lee clarified his bandmate was quoted out of context, and suggested Peart was simply taking a break, "explaining his reasons for not wanting to tour, with the toll that it's taking on his body." Peart had been suffering from chronic tendinitis and shoulder problems. In January 2018, Alex Lifeson confirmed that Rush is "basically done". Peart remained friends with his former bandmates. ### Death Peart died from glioblastoma, an aggressive form of brain cancer, on January 7, 2020, in Santa Monica, California. He had been diagnosed three and a half years earlier, and the illness was a closely guarded secret in Peart's inner circle until his death. His family made the announcement on January 10. From the official Rush website: > It is with broken hearts and the deepest sadness that we must share the terrible news that on Tuesday our friend, soul brother and band mate of over 45 years, Neil, has lost his incredibly brave three and a half year battle with brain cancer (Glioblastoma). We ask that friends, fans and media alike understandably respect the family's need for privacy and peace at this extremely painful and difficult time. Those wishing to express their condolences can choose a cancer research group or charity of their choice and make a donation in Neil's name. Peart's death was widely lamented by fans and fellow musicians alike, who considered it a substantial loss for popular music. Neil's father, Glen, also died of cancer on June 12, 2021. ## Musicianship ### Style and influences Peart's drumming skill and technique are well-regarded by fans, fellow musicians, and music journalists. His influences were eclectic, ranging from Pete Thomas, John Bonham, Carl Palmer, Michael Giles, Ginger Baker, Phil Collins, Chris Sharrock, Steve Gadd, Stewart Copeland, Michael Shrieve and Keith Moon, to fusion and jazz drummers Billy Cobham, Buddy Rich, Bill Bruford and Gene Krupa. The Who was the first group that inspired him to write songs and play the drums. Peart had long played matched grip but shifted to traditional as part of his style reinvention in the mid-1990s under the tutelage of jazz coach Freddie Gruber. He played traditional grip throughout his first instructional DVD A Work in Progress and on Rush's Test for Echo studio album. Peart went back to using primarily matched, though he continued to switch to traditional at times when playing songs from Test for Echo and during moments when traditional grip felt more appropriate, such as during the rudimental snare drum section of his drum solo. He discussed the details of these switches in the DVD Anatomy of a Drum Solo. Variety wrote: "Widely considered one of the most innovative drummers in rock history, Peart was famous for his state-of-the-art drum kits—more than 40 different drums were not out of the norm—precise playing style and on stage showmanship." USA Today's writers compared him favorably with other top-shelf rock drummers. He was "considered one of the best rock drummers of all time, alongside John Bonham of Led Zeppelin; Ringo Starr of The Beatles; Keith Moon of The Who; Ginger Baker of Cream and Stewart Copeland of The Police." Being "known for his technical proficiency", the Modern Drummer Hall of Fame inducted him in 1983. Music critic Amanda Petrusich in The New Yorker wrote: "Watching Peart play the drums gave the impression that he might possess several phantom limbs. The sound was merciless." ### Equipment With Rush, Peart played Slingerland, Tama, Ludwig, and Drum Workshop drums, in that order. Fly By Night and Caress of Steel were recorded with a 5×14 Rogers Dynasonic; chrome over brass with 10 lugs. From 2112 to Counterparts, he used a 5 1/2 × 14 inch Slingerland "Artist" snare model (3-ply shell with 8 lugs). For the recording of Presto, he used a Ludwig and Solid Percussion piccolo snare drum. Peart played Zildjian A-series cymbals and Wuhan china cymbals until the early 2000s, when he switched to Paragon, a line created for him by Sabian. In concert starting in 1984 on the Grace Under Pressure Tour, Peart used an elaborate 360-degree drum kit that would rotate as he played different sections of the kit. During the late 1970s, Peart augmented his acoustic setup with diverse percussion instruments, including orchestra bells, tubular bells, wind chimes, crotales, timbales, timpani, gong, temple blocks, bell tree, triangle, and melodic cowbells. From the mid-1980s, Peart replaced several of these pieces with MIDI trigger pads. This was done in order to trigger sounds sampled from various pieces of acoustic percussion that would otherwise consume far too much stage area. Some purely electronic non-instrumental sounds were also used. One classic MIDI pad used is the MalletKAT Express, which is a two-octave electronic MIDI device that resembles a xylophone or piano. The MalletKAT Express is composed of rubber pads for the "keys" so that any stick can be used. Beginning with 1984's Grace Under Pressure, he used Simmons electronic drums in conjunction with Akai digital samplers. Peart performed several songs primarily using the electronic portion of his drum kit. (e.g. "Red Sector A", "Closer to the Heart" on A Show of Hands and "Mystic Rhythms" on R30.) Shortly after making the choice to include electronic drums and triggers, Peart added what became another trademark of his kit: a rotating drum riser. During live Rush shows, the riser allowed Peart to swap the prominent portions of the kit (traditional acoustic in front, electronic in back). A staple of Peart's live drum solos was the in-performance rotation-and-swap of the front and back kits as part of the solo, a special effect that provided a symbolic transition of drum styles within the solo. In the early 2000s, Peart began taking full advantage of the advances in electronic drum technology, primarily incorporating Roland V-Drums and continued use of samplers with his existing set of acoustic percussion. His digitally sampled library of both traditional and exotic sounds expanded over the years with his music. In April 2006, Peart took delivery of his third Drum Workshop set, configured similarly to the R30 set, in a Tobacco Sunburst finish over curly maple exterior ply, with chrome hardware. He referred to this set, which he used primarily in Los Angeles, as the "West Coast kit". Besides using it on recordings with Vertical Horizon, he played it while composing parts for Rush's album Snakes & Arrows. It featured a custom 23-inch bass drum; all other sizes remained the same as the R30 kit. On March 20, 2007, Peart revealed that Drum Workshop prepared a new set of red-painted maple shells with black hardware and gold "Snakes & Arrows" logos for him to play on the Snakes & Arrows Tour. Peart also designed his own signature series drumstick with Pro-Mark, the Promark PW747W, Neil Peart Signature drumsticks, made of Japanese Shira Kashi white oak. During the 2010–11 Time Machine Tour Peart used a new Drum Workshop kit which was outfitted with copper-plated hardware and time machine designs to match the tour's steampunk themes. Matching Paragon cymbals with clock imagery were also used. ### Solos Peart was noted for his distinctive in-concert drum solos, characterized by exotic percussion instruments and long, intricate passages in odd time signatures. His complex arrangements sometimes result in complete separation of upper- and lower-limb patterns; an ostinato dubbed "The Waltz" is a typical example. His solos were featured on every live album released by the band. On the early live albums (All the World's a Stage and Exit... Stage Left), the drum solo was included as part of a song. On all subsequent live albums through Time Machine 2011: Live in Cleveland, the drum solo has been included as a separate track. The Clockwork Angels Tour album includes three short solos instead of a single long one: two interludes played during other songs and one standalone. Similarly, the R40 Live album includes two short solos performed as interludes. A studio recording of Peart's solo "Pieces of Eight" was released as a flexi disc exclusive in the May 1987 issue of Modern Drummer magazine. Peart's instructional DVD Anatomy of a Drum Solo (2005) is an in-depth examination of how he constructs a solo that is musical rather than indulgent, using his solo from the 2004 R30 30th anniversary tour as an example. ## Lyricism Peart was the main lyricist for Rush. Literature heavily influenced his writings. In his early days with Rush, much of his lyrical output was influenced by fantasy, science fiction, mythology, and philosophy. The 1980 album Permanent Waves saw Peart cease to use fantasy and mythological themes. 1981's Moving Pictures showed that Peart was still interested in heroic, mythological figures, but now placed firmly in a modern, realistic context. The song "Limelight" from the same album is an autobiographical account of Peart's reservations regarding his own popularity and the pressures associated with fame. From Permanent Waves onward, most of Peart's lyrics revolved around social, emotional, and humanitarian issues, usually from an objective standpoint and employing the use of metaphors and symbolic representation. 1984's Grace Under Pressure strung together such despondent topics as the Holocaust ("Red Sector A") and the death of close friends ("Afterimage"). Starting with 1987's Hold Your Fire and including 1989's Presto, 1991's Roll the Bones, and 1993's Counterparts, Peart continued to explore diverse lyrical motifs, even addressing the topic of love and relationships ("Open Secrets", "Ghost of a Chance", "Speed of Love", "Cold Fire", "Alien Shore"), a subject which he purposefully avoided in the past, out of fear of using clichés. 2002's Vapor Trails was heavily devoted to Peart's personal issues, along with other humanitarian topics such as the 9/11 terrorist attacks ("Peaceable Kingdom"). The album Snakes & Arrows dealt primarily and vociferously with Peart's opinions regarding faith and religion. The song "2112" focuses on the struggle of an individual against the collectivist forces of a totalitarian state. This became the band's breakthrough release, but also brought unexpected criticism, mainly because of the credit of inspiration Peart gave to Ayn Rand in the liner notes. "There was a remarkable backlash, especially from the English press, this being the late seventies, when collectivism was still in style, especially among journalists", Peart said. "They were calling us 'Junior fascists' and 'Hitler lovers'. It was a total shock to me". Regarding his seeming ideological fealty to Rand's philosophy of Objectivism, Peart said, "For a start, the extent of my influence by the writings of Ayn Rand should not be overstated. I am no one's disciple." The lyrics of "Faithless" exhibit a life stance which has been closely identified with secular humanism. Peart explicitly discussed his religious views in The Masked Rider: Cycling in West Africa, in which he wrote: "I'm a linear thinking agnostic, but not an atheist, folks." In 2007, Peart was ranked No. 2 (after Sting) on the now defunct magazine Blender'''s list of "worst lyricists in rock". In contrast, Allmusic called him "one of rock's most accomplished lyricists". ## Political views For most of his career, Peart had never publicly identified with any political party or organization in Canada or the United States. Even so, his political and philosophical views have often been analyzed through his work with Rush and through other sources. In October 1993, shortly before that year's Canadian federal election, Peart appeared with then-Liberal Party leader Jean Chrétien in an interview broadcast in Canada on MuchMusic, but stated in that interview that he was an undecided voter. Peart has often been categorized as an Objectivist and an admirer of Ayn Rand. This is largely based on his work with Rush in the 1970s, particularly the song "Anthem" and the album 2112; the latter specifically credited Rand's work. However, in his 1994 Rush Backstage Club Newsletter, while contending the "individual is paramount in matters of justice and liberty," Peart specifically distanced himself from a strictly Objectivist line. In a June 2012 Rolling Stone interview, when asked if Rand's words still speak to him, Peart replied, "Oh, no. That was forty years ago. But it was important to me at the time in a transition of finding myself and having faith that what I believed was worthwhile." Although Peart was sometimes assumed to be a "Conservative" or "Republican" rock star, he criticized the US Republican Party by stating that the philosophy of the party is "absolutely opposed to Christ's teachings." In 2005, he described himself as a "left-leaning libertarian", and is often cited as a libertarian celebrity. In a 2015 interview with Rolling Stone, Peart stated that he saw the US Democratic Party as the lesser evil: "For a person of my sensibility, you're only left with the Democratic party." Peart was a member of the Canadian charity Artists Against Racism and worked with them on a radio public service announcement. ## Side projects - Jeff Berlin's 1985 album Champion, played drums on two songs, the title track "Champion", and "Marabi". - Vertical Horizon's 2009 album Burning the Days – drums on 3 songs including "Save Me from Myself", "Welcome to the Bottom", and "Even Now", and co-wrote "Even Now" with Matt Scannell - Vertical Horizon's 2013 album Echoes from the Underground – drums on 2 songs including "Instamatic" and "South for the Winter" - Burning for Buddy: A Tribute to the Music of Buddy Rich - Burning for Buddy: A Tribute to the Music of Buddy Rich, Vol. 2 Peart had a brief cameo in the 2007 film Aqua Teen Hunger Force Colon Movie Film for Theaters, in which samples of his drumming were played. Peart also had a brief cameo in the 2008 film Adventures of Power and in the DVD extra does a drum-off competition. Peart appeared in concert with Rush in the 2009 film I Love You, Man, as well as a Funny or Die web short in which the film's main characters sneak into the band's dressing room. ## DVDs Apart from Rush's video releases as a band, Peart has released the following DVDs (the first originally in VHS tape format) as an individual: - A Work in Progress - Anatomy of a Drum Solo, Hudson Music, distributed by Hal Leonard (2005), - The Making of Burning for Buddy (A Tribute to the Music of Buddy Rich), - Taking Center Stage: A Lifetime of Live Performance, distributed by Hudson Music (2011), - Fire on Ice: The Making of the Hockey Theme, distributed by Drum Channel (2011), ## Awards and honours Peart received the following awards in the Modern Drummer magazine reader's poll: - Hall of Fame: 1983 - Best Rock Drummer\: 1980, 1981, 1982, 1983, 1984, 1985, 1986, 2006, 2008 - Best Multi-Percussionist\: 1983, 1984, 1985, 1986 - Best Percussion Instrumentalist: 1982 - Most Promising New Drummer: 1980 - Best All Around: 1986 - 1986 Honor Roll: Rock Drummer, Multi-Percussion (\* – As a member of the Honor Roll in these categories, he is no longer eligible for votes in the above categories.) - Best Instructional Video: 2006, for Anatomy of a Drum Solo - Best Drum Recording of the 1980s, 2007, for "YYZ" from Exit... Stage Left - Best Recorded Performance: - 1980: Permanent Waves - 1981: Moving Pictures - 1982: Exit... Stage Left - 1983: Signals - 1985: Grace Under Pressure - 1986: Power Windows - 1988: Hold Your Fire - 1989: A Show of Hands - 1990: Presto - 1992: Roll the Bones - 1993: Counterparts - 1997: Test for Echo - 1999: Different Stages - 2002: Vapor Trails - 2004: R30 - 2007: Snakes & Arrows - 2011: Time Machine - 2012: Clockwork Angels Peart received the following awards from DRUM! magazine: - 2007: Drummer of the Year, Best Progressive Rock Drummer, Best Live Performer, Best DVD (Anatomy Of A Drum Solo), Best Drumming Album (Snakes & Arrows) - 2008: Drummer of the Year, Best Live Drumming Performer, Best Progressive Rock Drummer (Runner-Up), Best Mainstream Pop Drummer (Runner-Up) - 2009: Drummer Of The Year, Best Progressive Rock Drummer - 2010: Drummer of the Year, Best Live Performer (Runner-Up), Best Progressive Rock Drummer (Runner-Up) Other honors and awards - Peart was made an Officer of the Order of Canada on May 9, 1996, together with Lee and Lifeson. The trio was the first rock band to be so honoured, as a group. - Peart was inducted into the Canadian Songwriters Hall of Fame along with Lifeson and Lee in 2010. - On April 18, 2013, Rush was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame. - In 2020, the St. Catharines city council named the pavilion in Lakeside Park (in Port Dalhousie, Ontario) after Peart. - Peart was inducted into the Percussive Arts Society Hall of Fame in 2020. ## Additional reading - Rhythm & Light, Peart photographed by Carrie Nuttall (2004, Rounder Books, ) - Taking Center Stage: A Lifetime of Live Performance'' by Joe Bergamini (2013, Hudson Music, )
16,983,309	Slammiversary (2008)	1,160,318,924	2008 Total Nonstop Action Wrestling pay-per-view event	[ "2008 Total Nonstop Action Wrestling pay-per-view events", "2008 in Mississippi", "Events in Southaven, Mississippi", "June 2008 events in the United States", "Professional wrestling in Mississippi", "Slammiversary" ]	The 2008 Slammiversary was a professional wrestling pay-per-view (PPV) event produced by the Total Nonstop Action Wrestling (TNA) promotion that took place on June 8, 2008 at the DeSoto Civic Center in Southaven, Mississippi. It was the fourth event under the Slammiversary name and the sixth event in the 2008 TNA PPV schedule. Seven professional wrestling matches and one dark match were featured on the event's card, three of which were for championships. The event commemorated TNA's six year anniversary. The main event was a King of the Mountain match for the TNA World Heavyweight Championship, in which then-champion Samoa Joe defended against Booker T, Christian Cage, Rhino, and Robert Roode. Joe won the match to retain the title. The card also featured a bout pitting A.J. Styles against Kurt Angle, which Styles won. The TNA World Tag Team Championship was defended by The Latin American Xchange (Hernandez and Homicide; LAX) against Team 3D (Brother Devon and Brother Ray) at the event. LAX was the victors in the contest to retain the championship. A Six Woman Tag Team match was won by the team of Gail Kim, ODB, and Roxxi over The Beautiful People (Angelina Love and Velvet Sky) and Moose on the undercard. Slammiversary is remembered for Joe being the first to retain a championship in a King of the Mountain match. 20,000 was the reported figure of purchasers for the event by The Wrestling Observer Newsletter. Slammiversary had an attendance of 2,000 people. Jon Waldman of the professional wrestling section of the Canadian Online Explorer rated the show a 7 out of 10, which was lower than the 8 out of 10 given to the 2007 edition by Jason Clevett. After the event, an accident occurred which resulted in the death of one man and the injury of another. ## Production ### Background The fourth installment in the Slammiversary name was announced in January 2008 to take place on June 8. In March 2008, it was reported that Slammiversary would be held outside the TNA Impact! Zone in Orlando, Florida. In late-March 2008, Slammiversary was expected to be held in Tennessee. TNA issued a press release in April 2008 advertising Slammiversary on June 8 at the DeSoto Civic Center in Southaven, Mississippi, although TNA promoted the event as being held in the Memphis . It also announced that the annual King of the Mountain match would be held at the event. Tickets for Slammiverary went on sale on April 25. Slammiversary celebrates TNA's six year anniversary, after it formed on June 19, 2002. TNA created a section covering the event on their website. TNA released a poster to promote the event prior featuring the tagline "In a town where legends are made, one strives to reach immortality" and Booker T, Christian Cage, Rhino, Samoa Joe, and Tomko. Release the Flood by Dust for Life was used as the official theme for the show. Promotional material advertising the return of Abyss at the event was featured on TNA's television program TNA Impact!. The scripted wedding of Jay Lethal and SoCal Val was promoted for Slammiversary. This was announced on the May 15 episode of Impact!, when Lethal proposed and Val accepted in the storyline. American singer Ace Young was advertised take part in the segment on the May 22 episode of Impact!. On the May 29 episode of Impact!, Lethal asked Sonjay Dutt to be his best man, to which Dutt agreed. Lethal's groomsmen were announced on the June 5 episode as George Steele, Kamala, Koko B. Ware, and Jake Roberts. ### Storylines Slammiversary featured seven professional wrestling matches and one pre-show match that involved different wrestlers from pre-existing scripted feuds and storylines. Wrestlers portrayed villains, heroes, or less distinguishable characters in the scripted events that built tension and culminated in a wrestling match or series of matches. The main event at Slammiversary was a King of the Mountain match for the TNA World Heavyweight Championship, in which then-champion Samoa Joe defended the title against four other competitors. On the May 15 episode of Impact!, Joe announced the encounter would take place at Slammiversary as well that an agreement had been made between Management Director Jim Cornette and himself on who would compete in the bout. The arrangement entailed that qualifying matches would take place leading to the event between four wrestlers he chose and four wrestlers Cornette chose. Cornette's four wrestlers were James Storm, Matt Morgan, Robert Roode, and Tomko, while Joe's four were A.J. Styles, Booker T, Christian Cage, and Rhino. The qualifying matches were held on the May 22 and May 29 episodes of Impact!. Roode defeated Morgan in the first qualifier, while Booker T defeated Styles in the second, both on the May 22 episode of Impact!. The last two qualification matches were held on the May 29 episode of Impact!, with Rhino defeating Storm and Cage defeating Tomko. Kevin Nash, who played Joe's mentor in the storyline, requested to be made the Special Guest Ringside Enforcer for the bout, which he was granted by Cornette on the May 29 episode of Impact!. The predominant storyline heading into the event was the rivalry between A.J. Styles and Kurt Angle, both members of The Angle Alliance group. On the February 14 episode of Impact!, TNA held the scripted wedding of Angle's real-life wife Karen Angle and Styles despite Angle and Karen still being married on-screen. Afterwards, Karen and Angle separated in the storyline on the March 13 episode of Impact!. TNA continued to build the situation with Angle attempting to reconcile with Karen on the May 15 episode of Impact!. Karen refused Angle's request on the May 22 episode of Impact!, leading to Angle turning on and assaulting Styles later in the episode due to his jealousy of the affection Karen showed for Styles. On the May 29 episode of Impact!, Cornette announced Angle versus Styles for the event. Angle sustained a severe neck injury in early May with several TNA officials believing Angle would not recover in time to perform at the show. Angle was still in pain a few days prior to Slammiversary but was expected to perform normally despite some officials feeling it was too soon to compete. The TNA World Tag Team Championship was defended at Slammiversary by then-champions The Latin American Xchange (Hernandez and Homicide; LAX) against Team 3D (Brother Devon and Brother Ray). At TNA's previous PPV event Sacrifice on May 11, LAX defeated Team 3D in the final round of the Deuces Wild Tag Team Tournament for the vacant TNA World Tag Team Championship. On the May 15 episode of Impact!, Team 3D attacked and was scripted to injure LAX's manager Héctor Guerrero, thus starting a rivalry between the two. Cornette announced a rematch from Sacrifice for the championship to take place at the show on the May 29 episode of Impact!. TNA held a Six Woman Tag Team match pitting The Beautiful People (Angelina Love and Velvet Sky) and Mickie Knuckles against Gail Kim, ODB, and Roxxi at Slammiversary. This was the main storyline in TNA's women's division which started at Sacrifice where TNA held a Ten Woman TNA Knockouts Makeover Battle Royal to become number-one contender to the TNA Women's Knockout Championship. The rules of the contest involved the winner getting a championship match while the runner-up had her head shaven. Love cost Roxxi—then known as Roxxi Laveaux—the match, resulting in her head being shaven. Kim won the bout and went on to have her title opportunity on the May 15 episode of Impact!, which she lost after interference from Love. On the June 5 episode of Impact!, Knuckles made her TNA debut aligning with The Beautiful People in assaulting Kim, ODB, and Roxxi. ## Event TNA held a match to warm–up the crowd known as a dark match prior to the show pitting The Motor City Machine Guns (Alex Shelley and Chris Sabin) against the team of Lance Hoyt and Johnny Devine. The Motor City Machine Guns won the encounter. ### Miscellaneous Slammiversary featured employees other than the wrestlers involved in the matches. Mike Tenay and Don West were the commentators for the telecast, Jeremy Borash and David Penzer were ring announcers for the event. Andrew Thomas, Earl Hebner, Rudy Charles, and Mark "Slick" Johnson participated as referees for the encounters. Lauren Thompson and Borash were used as interviewers during the event. Besides those who competed at the event, Abyss, Ace Young, Eric Young, George Steele, Héctor Guerrero, Jake Roberts, Jay Lethal, Johnny Devine, Kamala, Karen Angle, Koko B. Ware, Raisha Saeed, Rhaka Khan, Salinas, Scott Steiner, SoCal Val, Sonjay Dutt, and Tomko all appeared on camera, either in backstage or in ringside segments. The wedding of Lethal and Val took place after the second \$25,000 Fan Challenge. The segment ended when Dutt proclaimed his love for Val in the storyline and attacked Lethal. Young, Steele, Roberts, Kamala, and Ware came to Lethal's defense before Roberts placed a snake on top of an unconscious Dutt to end the segment. ### Preliminary matches The TNA X Division Championship was defended by then-champion Petey Williams against Kaz in the opening contest of the telecast. Williams was accompanied by Rhaka Khan and Scott Steiner. The duration of the bout was 15 minutes and 19 seconds. Williams wore a protective face mask due to a broken orbital bone. Khan and Steiner interfered in the bout several times. Kaz was legitimately busted open during the match after Williams bashed him in the face with a steel pipe. Williams won the encounter after performing his signature Canadian Destroyer maneuver by slamming Kaz head-first into the mat to retain the TNA X Division Championship. Abyss returned after this match by aiding Kaz who was being attacked by Khan, Steiner, and Williams. The team of The Beautiful People and Mickie Knuckles—renamed Moose—fought the team of Gail Kim, ODB, and Roxxi in a Six Woman Tag Team match next. It lasted 10 minutes and 14 seconds. ODB won the bout for her team after running and slamming Moose against the mat back-first and following with the pin. The TNA World Tag Team Championship was defended in the third match of the event by LAX against Team 3D. Héctor Guerrero and Salinas accompanied LAX to the ring. Salinas, Guerrero, and Team 3D's associate Johnny Devine all interfered in the encounter. Near the end when Team 3D were waiting to perform their signature 3D tag team maneuver on Hernandez, Homicide came up behind Devon and pinned him with a schoolboy pin at 15 minutes to retain the championship. TNA held two \$25,000 Fan Challenge segments next with then-TNA Women's Knockout Champion Awesome Kong and her manager Raisha Saeed offering fans in the crowd the chance to face Kong. Kong and Saeed then chose a willing participant and if they defeated Kong they won \$25,000. The participants chosen for these segments were predetermined, with each planted in the crowd. The first encounter pitted Serena D against Kong, which Kong won after slamming Serena face-first into the mat with her signature Implant Buster maneuver at 2 minutes and 26 seconds. The second was between Josie Robinson and Kong, lasting 1 minute and 42 seconds. Kong won the bout after slamming Josie back-first into the mat with her signature Awesome Bomb maneuver. ### Main event matches A.J. Styles fought Kurt Angle in the sixth encounter of the show next. The match lasted 22 minutes and 44 seconds. Angle was accompanied by Tomko to the ring. The referee forced Tomko to head to the backstage area due to the referee believing he would interfere. Styles attempted to perform his signature Styles Clash maneuver on Angle, which Angle countered into his signature Ankle Lock submission hold. Styles escaped the hold, causing Angle to crash into the referee, knocking him out in the storyline. Karen Angle then ran down to the ringside area and attempted to hand Angle a steel chair. Once Angle grabbed the chair she refused to release, allowing Styles to grab Angle and perform the Styles Clash by slamming Angle face-first into the mat. Styles then followed with the pin attempt to win the contest. After the encounter, Angle and Tomko assaulted Styles. The main event was a King of the Mountain match for the TNA World Heavyweight Championship with Kevin Nash as Special Guest Ringside Enforcer between then-champion Samoa Joe and the challengers Booker T, Christian Cage, Rhino, and Robert Roode. In a King of the Mountain match, the objective is to climb a ladder and hang the championship belt on a hook above the ring. In order to do so, a wrestler must first qualify by either pinning or making another wrestler submit in the match. A wrestler who is pinned or made to submit is this placed in a penalty box for two minutes. The match is fought under no disqualification rules. Booker T was the first to qualify by pinning Rhino after slamming him back-first into the mat with his signature Book End maneuver. Rhino was this placed in the penalty box. Roode was the next to qualify after bashing a ladder Cage held with a chair into him and following with a pin. Immediately afterwards, Rhino pinned Roode with a roll-up pin to qualify. Later, Joe held Booker T in his signature Coquina Clutch submission hold when Cage ascended a padded turnbuckle and jumped off onto Booker T and Joe. He followed by pinning Booker T to qualify and send Booker T to the penalty box. When Booker T was released from the box, he attacked Nash with the title belt and then attempted to hang it. Nash stopped him and then dropped Booker T back-first against the mat with his signature Jackknife Powerbomb maneuver. Joe was the last to qualify by pinning Roode after slamming him back and neck-first into the mat with his signature Muscle Buster maneuver. Joe then hung the title belt at 19 minutes and 49 seconds to win the competition. ## Reception A total of 2,000 people attended Slammiversary, while The Wrestling Observer Newsletter reported that 20,000 people bought the event. Canadian Online Explorer writer Jon Waldman rated the entire event a 7 out of 10, which was lower than the 8 out of 10 given to the 2007 edition by Jason Clevett. The 7 out of 10 was the same rating given to the 2009 edition by Chris and Bryan Sokol. The previous PPV event Sacrifice and TNA's next PPV event Victory Road both received a 7 out of 10 by Chris Sokol and Bob Kapur, respectively. Compared to rival World Wrestling Entertainment's (WWE) One Night Stand PPV event on June 1, both performed equally, as One Night Stand received the same rating from Matt Mackinder. Waldman felt that "TNA put on a strong PPV" that was in "large part to little gimmickery." Regarding the main event, Waldman gave it a 6 out of 10, while the World Tag Team Championship match received a 4 out of 10. He gave the Six Woman Tag Team match a 4.5 out of 10 and the A.J. Styles versus Kurt Angle bout a 9 out of 10. The X Division Championship contest was given a 7 out of 10. Wade Keller of the Pro Wrestling Torch Newsletter reviewed the show. He felt the main event had "lots of action and drama," but that having to hang the belt on a hook does not make for a "particularly dramatic end to a match as it seems like someone hanging a plant in the corner" than "beating someone to win a fight." Keller said the World Tag Team Championship contest was a "solid tag match" with some "elaborate sequences" that were "well executed." Keller stated that the X Division Championship match was a "very good opener." Regarding the Styles and Angle bout, Keller commented that it was a "good match, but short of a classic must-see match in part because there were too many chinlocks mid-match from Angle that took the crowd out of it." James Caldwell, also of the Pro Wrestling Torch Newsletter, posted a review of the show in which he felt the main event was a "slow, plodding match" with an "anticlimactic finish." Caldwell stated that the Styles versus Angle contest was a "fine spotlight singles match," but was a "bit underwhelming when the expectations were reasonably high for two of TNA's best wrestlers in a featured singles match." He went on to say that he felt it was "missing something" and that it "seemed like the match just never moved out of second gear. Caldwell felt the X Division Championship bout was a "very good opening match," which "could have been a featured match to sell a few additional PPV buys, but TNA didn't give the X Division any focus until the final show before the PPV." Caldwell stated the World Tag Team Championship was "just a slow, plodding tag match." Regarding the marriage segment during the show, Caldwell said "it was just a bad, bad, bad segment that died slowly and painfully in front of the live audience." Overall, Caldwell felt that "TNA showcased the X Division in the opening match," but needed more "athleticism on the show to balance the slow, plodding former WWE heavyweight wrestlers in the main event slots." ## Accident After Slammiversary ended, crews began to disassemble the set used for the event. During this time, a man named Kevin "Angus" Sinex was removing a light array when the scaffolding he was positioned on collapsed, causing him to slam against the concrete floor below. He was rushed to the Baptist DeSoto Hospital in Southaven, Mississippi where he was pronounced deceased. Another worker named Paul Martin was also taken to the hospital due to his thumb being cut off in the incident. TNA released a statement regarding the incident the next day through their website. The June 12 episode of Impact! was dedicated to Sinex, with a banner at the beginning of the show stating "In memory Kevin Sinex (1963–2008)". A moment of silence was held prior to the Impact! tapings after Slammiversary in honor of Sinex. ## Aftermath Several wrestlers were concerned with Kurt Angle's health going into his Slammiversary match with A.J. Styles. Despite the concerns, Angle appeared to be out of it after the contest but was expected to be alright. Samoa Joe and Booker T started a rivalry over the TNA World Heavyweight Championship following Slammiversary. On the June 12 episode of Impact!, Booker T claimed that Joe did not beat him at the event due to interference from Kevin Nash. This led to Nash stating that Joe could not beat Booker T in a one-on-one match later in the broadcast. After this segment, Joe announced that Booker T and he would face at Victory Road on July 13 for the title. On the July 10 episode of Impact!, Sting proclaimed that he did not know which of the two would win at Victory Road, but that he would be there to watch. At the event, Joe beat Booker T till he was bloody, causing several referees and security personnel to try to stop him to no avail. He was stopped when Sting interfered in the contest by bashing Joe with a baseball bat. Booker T then covered Joe for an unofficial pinfall victory that was counted by Booker T's legitimate wife Sharmell. The match result was ruled a no-contest, with Joe retaining the title. A.J. Styles was joined by Christian Cage and Rhino in his feud with Kurt Angle, who was joined by Team 3D. Styles and Angle faced in a Lumberjack match on the June 12 episode of Impact!, which Angle won. Team 3D then injured both Cage and Rhino in the narrative, with Rhino being knocked out on the June 19 episode of Impact!, while on the June 26 episode of Impact! Cage was slammed through a glass table by Brother Ray. Rhino returned from injury on the July 3 episode of Impact!, challenging Team 3D and Angle to a Six Man Tag Team match at Victory Road, while teasing at adding Full Metal Mayhem rules to the bout. An online poll was held to determine the stipulation for the match, resulting in Full Metal Mayhem being chosen. The team of Angle and Team 3D were the victors at the event. After Slammiversary, Kaz went on to captain Team TNA in the 2008 TNA World X Cup Tournament. He competed in a Four Way Ultimate X match at Victory Road as the final round of the tournament. He was unsuccessful in winning the match and gaining the appropriate points to win the tournament, thus causing Team TNA (Kaz, Alex Shelley, Chris Sabin, and Curry Man) to finish in second place, with Team Mexico (Averno, Rey Bucanero, Último Guerrero, and Volador Jr.) being the victors in point rankings. LAX feuded with James Storm and Robert Roode over the TNA World Tag Team Championship after Slammiversary. Roode and Storm formed a team known as Beer Money Incorporated and challenged LAX for the title on the June 12 episode of Impact!. The match was originally won by Roode and Storm before being restarted due to interference. LAX won the restart to retain the championship. After the bout, Roode and Storm assaulted LAX and Héctor Guerrero. Management Director Jim Cornette scheduled a title defense at Victory Road between LAX and Roode and Storm under "Fan's Revenge" Lumberjack rules on the June 19 episode of Impact!. LAX were successful in defending the title at Victory Road. In October 2017, with the launch of the Global Wrestling Network, the event became available to stream on demand. ## Results King of the Mountain match
53,629,058	Caltrain Modernization Program	1,171,581,762	Railway electrification project in California, US	[ "2024 in rail transport", "25 kV AC railway electrification", "Caltrain", "Electric railways in California", "Proposed public transportation in the San Francisco Bay Area", "Railway electrification in the United States" ]	The Caltrain Modernization Program (CalMod), sometimes referred to as the Caltrain Electrification Project, is a \$2.44 billion project that will add a positive train control (PTC) system and electrify the main line of the U.S. commuter railroad Caltrain, which serves cities in the San Francisco Peninsula and Silicon Valley, as well as transition from its current diesel-electric locomotive powered trains to electric multiple units (EMU). According to Caltrain, electrification of the tracks will allow it to improve service times via faster acceleration and shorter headways, reduce air pollution and noise, and facilitate a future railway tunnel into downtown San Francisco's Salesforce Transit Center, as diesel trains cannot serve underground stations. Proposals for electrifying the line began as early as 1992, when the California Department of Transportation conducted an early feasibility study. For two decades, the project lay dormant due to lack of funding until Caltrain agreed to share its tracks with the California High-Speed Rail Authority (CHSRA), which was looking for a route for the constitutionally mandated San Jose–San Francisco segment. The Authority agreed to partially fund the electrification project in exchange for rights to share the track. Construction contracts for electrification were awarded in July 2016 and groundbreaking was expected to occur in March 2017, but was delayed when the new United States Secretary of Transportation Elaine Chao indefinitely deferred federal funding just before construction was about to begin. That same month, Caltrain removed the contractor responsible for implementing PTC for failure to perform on-budget and on-schedule. In May 2017, the Federal Transit Administration (FTA) announced its intention to sign the grant and reversed Secretary Chao's deferment. Construction formally began two months later. When completed, CalMod will electrify 51 miles (82 km) of tracks between 4th and King station and Tamien station and install a PTC management system along the tracks. PTC is designed to fulfill federal safety mandates for passenger rail and is part of the Federal Railroad Administration (FRA) waiver to use EMUs on tracks shared with freight traffic. Funding for the project comes from various federal, state, and local sources, including from the CHSRA. Caltrain plans to complete the project in September 2024, after which it plans to use Stadler KISS double-decker EMU trainsets on the electrified route. Some of the diesel locomotives will be retained for service south of Tamien. Stadler KISS units began delivery in March 2022, and testing of the system started in June 2023. ## History ### Background Commuter railroad service on the San Francisco Peninsula was inaugurated in 1863 as the San Francisco and San Jose Rail Road and purchased by Southern Pacific (SP) in 1870. SP announced that it would investigate the electrification of its line in September 1921, promising better and more frequent service. However, SP cited excessive post-war inflation, taxation, and competition from publicly funded highways as factors making electrification neither "practicable or desirable". In the early 1950s, SP began introducing diesel locomotives on the route. By 1977, Southern Pacific were facing rapidly declining ridership and petitioned the state Public Utilities Commission to allow them to discontinue the commuter rail operation. From 1980 until 1992, the California Department of Transportation (Caltrans) and the three service counties, San Francisco, San Mateo, and Santa Clara, subsidized Southern Pacific operations on the railway until the local Peninsula Corridor Joint Powers Board (PCJPB) acquired the right-of-way in 1991. ### Early electrification proposals In 1992, Caltrans released the first feasibility study detailing the possibility of electrifying the railroad between San Francisco and San Jose. The 1992 Feasibility Study proposed replacing the existing diesel-electric locomotives with either a fleet of EMD AEM-7 electric locomotives to move the existing gallery passenger cars or Metro North Budd M-2/M-4 EMUs. The primary benefits of an electrified railway would be improvements in air quality, noise, and acceleration, but would also save on other ancillary costs, such as lubricating oil, cooling water, maintenance, and refueling. Because of the relatively close spacing between stops, the improved acceleration using electric locomotives compared to the existing diesel-electric locomotives would cut transit time between San Francisco and San Jose by up to twelve minutes, and using EMUs would cut the time over the same distance by up to 23 minutes, assuming the use of ten-car trainsets. The 1992 Feasibility Study recommended the use of electric locomotives and 25 kV AC overhead lines as the most cost-effective alternative, since the gallery cars, which had been built in 1985, were then relatively new and could be reused. Due to funding shortages, the project was postponed for the next two decades. In 1997, Mayor Willie Brown canceled the appropriation for San Francisco's share of costs to extend rail service to downtown, saying Peninsula residents "ought to fund the whole project" since it would mainly benefit their commute. San Francisco instead applied the money to the Third Street Light Rail Project. Mike Nevin, PCJPB member from San Mateo County noted that while the downtown extension "would have enhanced particularly the electrification of the system", lack of it would not cause Caltrain to collapse. Instead, Caltrain studied a list of potential upgrades and went on to publish a draft Rapid Rail Study on October 1, 1998, which prioritized capital improvements to the physical infrastructure with the overarching goal of expanding rail service. At that time, Caltrain was reporting daily ridership of approximately 25,000 passengers, a 40-year high. The 1998 Rapid Rail Study assumed that ridership would increase in direct proportion to improving travel times. The study concluded that in order to meet the five goals presented in the 20-Year Strategic Plan of 1997, Caltrain should first rehabilitate and enhance the line, then electrify it. By itself, electrification was not projected to significantly improve service, and the high estimated cost of electrification and its lower priority meant electrification would be deferred. Some of the money to accomplish the rehabilitation and enhancement of existing track came from funds that had been intended for the downtown extension. Steve Schmidt, a councilman from Menlo Park, argued that electrification instead should be the top priority to make the rail line more palatable to neighbors, citing improvements in noise and pollution. Other advocates for electrification of Caltrain noted the \$1.2 billion BART extension to San Francisco International Airport may have revived the decades-old dream of BART around the Bay, which would render an electrified Caltrain redundant. The electrification of Caltrain was assigned a higher priority than a future expansion of the system, which included proposals to bring service to Union City across the Dumbarton Rail Bridge as well as increased service to Gilroy and Salinas. Under the latest proposal to revive rail service over the Dumbarton Rail Corridor, diesel multiple units would first be used to establish Dumbarton Rail service as a rail shuttle between a new rail station in Newark and Caltrain's Redwood City station, later extending service from Newark to Union City, and finally followed by a commuter rail operation running from Union City to San Francisco and San Jose using EMUs. In 2003, The San Francisco County Transit Authority proposed Proposition K in San Francisco, a local transportation sales tax. Voters were given an expenditure plan estimating the total cost of Caltrain electrification as \$183.5 Million with San Francisco's share costing \$20.5M, met with Proposition K, which passed. ### Caltrain/HSR blended system Despite increasing ridership, Caltrain experienced a budget crisis in 2011 that nearly forced it to cut service to peak commute hours only, while funding sources for electrification remained unidentified. At the same time, the California High-Speed Rail Authority (CHSRA) was having trouble identifying a route from San Jose to San Francisco in the face of local opposition. In response, U.S. Representative Anna Eshoo, State Senator Joe Simitian, and Assemblymember Rich Gordon announced a "blended" plan to partially fund electrification with high-speed rail money in return for allowing high-speed rail trains to share tracks in the future. Later, Caltrain announced that it had studied the plan and believed it to be feasible. Under a proposed agreement between Caltrain and the CHSRA, details of which were leaked in February 2012, up to \$1 billion could be available from the high-speed rail project to help fund the CalMod project, including the positive train control system (dubbed "CBOSS"), electrification of the infrastructure, and elimination of some grade crossings.Under the agreement, the Peninsula Corridor would become eligible for high-speed rail money because the planned routing to San Francisco would use the same lines. This was one of two investments in "bookend" electrification projects, which were intended to upgrade existing passenger rail services near the planned CHSRA San Francisco and Los Angeles terminals to allow high-speed rail to share infrastructure. In March 2012, Caltrain and other local agencies signed a memorandum of understanding with the CHSRA that detailed the blended plan, which received approval from the Metropolitan Transportation Commission a week later. Under the memorandum, \$706 million from the high-speed rail bond would be matched by state, regional, and local transportation funds to pay for the estimated \$1.5 billion needed for CalMod. However, since the bonds had not yet been issued, the money was not available, and a prior environmental impact report that had been issued for electrification in 2009 needed to be reissued before construction could start. In September 2012, the California Transportation Commission released \$39.8 million to modernize CBOSS. A month later, the expected funding from high-speed rail bonds rose to \$1.5 billion, which alongside electrification provided funding for the planned Downtown Extension (DTX), which would move the northern terminus of the Caltrain line from 4th and King to the Transbay Transit Center. CHSRA approved the issue of bonds in December 2016. Critics of high-speed rail felt the slower trips and reduced service caused by "blending" the two systems over the Peninsula Corridor did not meet the original voter-approved vision of a quad-track line between San Francisco and Los Angeles, and ridership would never meet projections. ### Lawsuits The town of Atherton, which lies on the tracks, was an early and vocal opponent of electrification. Residents opposed electrification and the proposed high-speed rail route because the overhead electrical lines would require tree removal and the town could potentially be divided in two by permanently closing the two grade crossings at Fair Oaks Lane and Watkins Avenue. In February 2015, shortly after the project received environmental clearance from the state, Atherton sued Caltrain, alleging the agency's environmental impact review was inadequate and that its collaboration with the CHSRA should be further vetted. In July 2015, the suit proceeded after Caltrain's request to the Surface Transportation Board to exempt it from California Environmental Quality Act (CEQA) guidelines was denied. Atherton reiterated its opposition to electrification on the basis that overhead wires would require removing a significant number of heritage trees, and city representatives asserted that "newer, cleaner, more efficient diesel trains" should supplant plans for "century-old catenary electrical line technology". Atherton mayor Rick De Golia was quoted as saying "Caltrain is locked into an old technology and 20th century thinking". After Caltrain issued infrastructure and rolling stock contracts in July 2016, Atherton representatives did not file a temporary restraining order to halt those contracts, preferring to let the suit proceed to a hearing. In September 2016, Contra Costa County Superior Court Judge Barry Goode sided with Caltrain, ruling that the electrification project did not hinge on the high-speed rail project's success, and was thus independent from the latter. > Indeed, at bottom [California High-Speed Rail] is providing funds to Caltrain while hoping that the rest of CHSRA's plans work out well enough that, someday, it can bring the blended system to fruition. But if CHSRA is unable to do that, Caltrain will still have a successful project. Put another way, HSR may need to have Caltrain's Electrification Project completed. But Caltrain does not need to have High Speed Rail completed for the Electrification Project to be a success. Atherton sued CHSRA again in December 2016, stating that using bond money intended for high-speed rail for CalMod was a material change in usage and therefore was unconstitutional because such a change would require voter approval first. In response, the California Legislature allowed the funding to be redirected by passing Assembly Bill No. 1889, which had been championed by Assemblymember Kevin Mullin in 2015. Mullin noted "this entire Caltrain corridor is the epicenter of the innovation economy and it's a job creation and economic engine. This electrification project, I would argue, is monumental with regard to dealing with [increased traffic and environmental impacts] effectively and efficiently." ### Contracts awarded Parsons Transportation Group was awarded a \$138 million contract in November 2011 to design and install CBOSS by October 2015. Parsons began physical work on CBOSS in September 2013, starting with the installation of a fiber optic line along the Caltrain right-of-way. The Federal Railroad Administration (FRA) approved Caltrain's plans in 2014 and Caltrain noted that CBOSS was due to enter revenue service by the end of 2015. Because Caltrain had multiple goals for CBOSS, including increased safety, improved operational efficiency, and ensured interoperability with other rail providers (Caltrain shares tracks with Union Pacific, Altamont Corridor Express, and Amtrak), implementation was challenging and Caltrain, the busiest commuter rail service on the West Coast, still had not fully implemented the system by the end of 2016. The Peninsula Corridor Electrification Project (PCEP) draft environmental impact report was released in February 2014. After addressing comments received, PCJPB certified the final environmental impact report in January 2015. A pre-qualification survey was sent out in May 2014, and six firms were pre-qualified to bid on PCEP construction, which was eventually awarded to Balfour Beatty Construction. In July 2016, Caltrain's Board of Directors awarded contracts to Balfour Beatty and Stadler Rail to construct infrastructure for the electric trains and the electric trains themselves, respectively. Balfour Beatty was awarded a \$697 million contract, its largest contract in the United States, to electrify the line at 25 kV AC, replace signaling systems, construct two traction power substations, one switching substation, and seven paralleling substations. The Swiss firm Stadler was awarded a \$551 million contract to deliver 96 of their "KISS" bilevel electric multiple unit cars, formed into 16 six-car trains. Under the contract, Caltrain holds an option to increase the order with an additional 96 cars in the future. The contract also marks the first American design win for the Stadler KISS. Stadler broke ground for a new factory near the Salt Lake City International Airport on October 13, 2017. The first trains are scheduled for delivery in August 2019. In April 2016, after missing the initial October 2015 deadline, Caltrain requested a third party review of the CBOSS project from the American Public Transportation Association (APTA). APTA noted that Caltrain was not effectively managing the project schedule and cost because of generally poor communication between Caltrain's project management and Parsons, and Caltrain's project manager did not have the technical experience or authority to resolve technical and contractual issues with Parsons. In February 2017, Caltrain terminated its contract with Parsons for failure to perform on time and budget and announced potential litigation. Parsons filed suit on February 22, saying delays were due to changing client requirements and circumstances beyond their control. Caltrain filed suit a week later, seeking \$98 million in damages; although the system has been mostly installed, testing is still incomplete. The plan to complete the installation of positive train control (PTC) was presented to PCJPB in early 2018. At the March 1, 2018 meeting, the PCJPB awarded the \$49.5 million contract to complete PTC to Wabtec. The switch to Wabtec implements I-ETMS technology, which was evaluated to be "the only technically and financially viable" solution to completing PTC before the FRA's deadline of December 31, 2018. Approximately 80% of the equipment for CBOSS that had already been installed was able to be reused, and FRA approved a revised schedule in January 2019 to implement PTC by December 2020. ### Federal funding interruption In early 2016, the CHSRA had selected a route that required extensive and costly tunneling in Southern California and revised its initial operating plans for high-speed rail to include the Bay Area. By February 2017, the electrification project had secured \$1.3 billion in state, local, and regional funding, with the remaining funding gap to be closed by a \$647 million grant from the FTA's Core Capacity program. The grant had undergone a two-year review process starting in November 2015 under the Obama Administration and received a "medium-high" rating from the FTA in August 2016, and was waiting for a signature from the newly appointed Trump Administration Secretary of Transportation Elaine Chao after a 30-day review period to secure a grant approval. However, during the review period, the fourteen Republican party U.S. House representatives from California sent a letter to Secretary Chao, urging her to deny funding due to the project's ties with high-speed rail, which they opposed. The letter went on to call the project "an irresponsible use of taxpayer dollars". The Sacramento Bee pointed out that despite regularly soliciting campaign funds from Silicon Valley business leaders, Representative and House Majority Leader Kevin McCarthy, the author of the Republican letter to Secretary Chao, was targeting a project that benefited the region directly. Another Republican signatory, Representative Devin Nunes, was unmoved by arguments on infrastructure benefits, saying in late February that he would not "feel too bad about one of the richest places on the planet not having a train." Fellow Republican Representative Jeff Denham defended the letter, saying Caltrain's electrification project and CHSRA were closely intertwined because the former derived some funding under the "blended plan" agreement. Representative Tom McClintock reiterated his opposition to high-speed rail without addressing Caltrain: "I have never supported a dollar of state funding going for [high-speed rail], and would never support a dollar of federal funding". Representative Mimi Walters also made a statement that she was not opposed to electrification, but instead held "serious concerns about the use of taxpayer funds for a project that is tied to high speed rail". The 39-member House and Senate Democratic congressional delegation from California wrote a rebuttal letter to Secretary Chao on February 3, noting "a material misstatement of fact" in the Republican delegation's letter, which stated that the grant was being sought by the CHSRA, while in reality it is being sought by Caltrain. The rebuttal letter further delineated the separation between the electrification project and CHSRA and urged Secretary Chao to approve the grant by citing past precedent that only one low-rated project failed to receive a signature from the Secretary of Transportation over the prior twenty-year history of the Core Capacity program. The Democratic letter went on to note the infrastructure benefits of the project and the creation of 9,600 jobs, including 550 jobs at a new Stadler USA plant in Salt Lake City. In the end, Secretary Chao heeded the Republican letter's arguments, and deferred the grant in a letter written by FTA Executive Director Matthew Welbes to Caltrain which stated the FTA needed "additional time to complete review of this significant commitment of Federal resources". Caltrain had expected Secretary Chao to approve the grant and sign the grant agreement by March 1, which is normally a pro forma step performed after the thirty-day comment period for a highly rated project, and had already awarded construction contracts. Balfour Beatty Construction and Stadler Rail had already begun preparations to upgrade the existing tracks and build electrical trainsets, respectively. Caltrain negotiated an emergency four-month contract extension at a potential cost of \$20 million. Under the preliminary budget proposal released in mid-March 2017, the United States Department of Transportation's Capital Investment Grant Program would be eliminated, although approved projects would continue to be funded. Since Secretary Chao had withheld grant approval for the electrification project, its future fell into doubt. In response to the grant deferral, various local officials traveled to Washington D.C. to lobby federal officials to release the money. Editorials in local and national newspapers urged approval of the grant, including the Sacramento Bee, which called the deferral "a petty attack", the East Bay Times, a noted CHSRA detractor, and The New York Times, which called the delay "counter to Mr. Trump's campaign promises of increased infrastructure spending." Henry Grabar noted the grant deferral could be "an early test of a simmering fear that the state's outspoken political opposition to the Trump administration might come with a price". San Jose Mayor Sam Liccardo met with Department of Transportation officials, urging them to upgrade a system that "was built under the presidency of Abraham Lincoln". Additionally, more than 120 Silicon Valley business leaders sent a letter to Secretary Chao, asking her to explain "the last-minute attempt to derail two decades of work". In early March, California Governor Jerry Brown sent a letter to Secretary Chao, asking to discuss the funding grant, and subsequently met with Secretary Chao and Representative McCarthy, urging them to reconsider the funding deferral, saying afterward that he was "cautiously optimistic" that the money would be released. On April 30, legislators in the U.S. Congress released the proposed 2017 federal budget, which included partial funding for the electrification project, but restricts its distribution unless Secretary Chao signs off on the grant. The proposed budget includes \$100 million of the \$647 million grant, with the balance expected in future years. Secretary Chao claimed she could not sign the grant without the full grant being budgeted, which was disputed by Caltrain and both California Senators Dianne Feinstein and Kamala Harris. On May 22, the FTA announced its intent to sign the funding grant, restoring the final piece of funding for the electrification project. The official grant was finally signed on May 23. ### Construction and testing A new weekday schedule designed to allow time for construction became effective on April 10, 2017. The weekend schedule was revised on July 15, 2017, which decreased frequency from 60 minutes to 90 minutes between trains and eliminated eight trains per weekend day. An official groundbreaking ceremony was held on July 21, 2017, at the Millbrae station. As of June 2018, 149 poles had been erected in San Bruno and South San Francisco. In December 2018, Caltrain was carrying 65,000 passengers a day, and expected to carry four times that amount by 2040. Accordingly, Caltrain announced plans to increase its electric train order by a third. After funding was received from the California State Transportation Agency's Transit and Intercity Rail Capital Program, Caltrain's board unanimously approved the purchase of additional cars from Stadler to increase the fleet from 16 six-car sets to 19 seven-car sets. Balfour Beatty reported in 2019 the completion of construction could be delayed to April 2022 in a report to the San Francisco County Transportation Authority (SFCTA); the projected 12-month delay was blamed on the unexpected presence of underground utilities. In June 2021, Caltrain announced that electric service would be delayed to late 2024 due to supply chain disruptions during the COVID-19 pandemic, issues with the signal system, and "unforeseen conditions under Caltrain’s tracks". In February 2022, the last foundation required for the new overhead catenary system was completed, with the entire line planned to be energised by summer 2022. Testing of the line would then begin using an AEM-7 electric locomotive, with revenue service planned for 2024. To expedite construction, the weekday train schedule was reduced and fewer stops were planned north of Hillsdale temporarily in the second half of March 2022. However, construction was suspended temporarily that month after a southbound train collided with work equipment at milepost 11.6 in San Bruno on Thursday, March 10. The train came to rest near San Felipe Avenue, and spilled fuel caused a fire, which damaged the tracks, locomotive, and passenger car. The work crew had contacted the train dispatcher at 9:50 a.m. (local) to establish exclusive occupancy on track 2 for the three hi-rail work vehicles, then released the exclusive occupancy at 9:58; the collision occurred at 10:33. According to the locomotive's event data recorder, the last recorded speed of the southbound train was 63 mph (101 km/h), but the engineer had pulled the emergency brake upon sighting the work vehicles. Fourteen people were injured in the collision and fire, but none of the injuries were life-threatening; the fire was extinguished by 11:14 a.m. The train remained on the tracks while the NTSB conducted an investigation. The reduced schedule was implemented again starting in May to accommodate construction activities in San Mateo and Burlingame. Clearance testing of the first electric trainset on the Caltrain corridor began in July 2022. The southern Traction Power Substation was energized that August. Initial testing of the overhead catenary system and trains began along the Santa Clara Drill Track in June 2023, between the Santa Clara and College Park stations. ## Funding Funding for the originally-\$1.9 billion project comes from a mix of funds contributed by the California Department of Transportation, California High-Speed Rail Authority, California cap and trade revenue, Bay Area Air Quality Management District, Metropolitan Transportation Commission, the city and county of San Francisco, SamTrans, and Santa Clara Valley Transportation Authority. 32% of the funding, or \$647 million, will come from Federal Transit Administration's Core Capacity grant, with the funding agreement approved on May 22, 2017, after a three-month delay. An additional \$600 million comes from Proposition 1A funds that authorized the construction of high-speed rail, \$113 million from cap and trade revenue, and the rest coming from local and regional sources. The delays announced in June 2021 will add \$333 million to the cost for a total of \$2.3 billion. Of the increase, \$161 million is known and allocated costs with a funding plan, while \$172 million is unallocated costs. An additional cost increase of \$162 million, for a total cost of \$2.44 billion, was announced in December 2021. ## Design The Peninsula Corridor Electrification Project (PCEP) will electrify the entire 51-mile (82 km) right-of-way owned by the Peninsula Corridor Joint Powers Board (PCJPB), which extends from the San Francisco terminus at 4th and King to a power substation south of Tamien Station. New electrical infrastructure includes installation of approximately 130 to 140 miles (210 to 230 km) of 25 kV 60 Hz single-phase AC overhead contact lines and ten new power stations (two traction power stations, a switching station approximately halfway along the line, and seven paralleling stations). Land totaling 290,000 sq ft (6.7 acres; 2.7 ha) will be acquired from private property owners along the Peninsula Corridor in order to set up safety buffer zones between the overhead contact system and public property; PCJPB authorized eminent domain proceedings in July 2017 in case negotiations break down. Barriers will be installed where road and pedestrian bridges cross over tracks to prevent damage to the electrical wires. New electric trainsets will be purchased for use on the new electrified segment, while service from Tamien to Salinas station, which is not planned to be electrified, will continue to be served with existing diesel locomotives. The second part of the CalMod project is a positive train control system, "CBOSS" (Communications Based Overlay Signal System), which is designed to meet federal safety requirements and as a condition set by the FRA to allow mixed traffic on the corridor. Key decisions in the development of CalMod can be traced back to the 1992 Feasibility Study, which recommended 25 kV AC overhead lines; the 1998 Rapid Rail Study, which recommended low-cost upgrades to first improve service and build demand; the 2006 Caltrain 2025 proposal, which proposed the use of lightweight electric multiple units; the 2009 FRA waiver, which imposed certain conditions on mixed traffic; and the 2012 memorandum of understanding with CHSRA, which resulted in a "blended" system to use the existing twin-track line as much as possible. The 2012 Blended Operations report concluded a new 8-mile (13 km) quad-track overtake section would allow Caltrain and CHSRA to coexist on the Peninsula Corridor with up to ten trains per peak hour: six Caltrain and four high-speed rail trains. Peak load on the system assuming twelve eight-EMU consists in each direction per hour was estimated to be approximately 75 MW, with the load generally remaining under 40-50 MW at any point. According to Caltrain, the electrification project will bring multiple benefits to the corridor. Firstly, electric trains can accelerate and decelerate more quickly than the existing diesel locomotives, resulting in faster and more frequent service. They will also replace Caltrain's current diesel locomotives and passenger cars, a significant portion of which are nearing the end of their lives. Additionally, electric trainsets are quieter and produce less air pollution than diesel locomotives, and the use of electric trains will lower Caltrain's fuel costs while increasing passenger revenue, due to an expected increase in ridership. Once complete, Caltrain expects to annually reduce carbon dioxide emissions by 176,000 metric tons and increase daily ridership by 21% by 2040. Restoring daily service to Atherton and Broadway stations was considered, although with the permanent closure of Atherton station, only Broadway station will receive restored daily service. Under the original schedule, Caltrain planned to complete the project by the end of 2021. ### Electrical station configuration Power is supplied to the trains through an overhead contact system (OCS), consisting of a messenger wire, which assumes a parabolic shape due to sag, and a contact wire suspended below the messenger wire. The contact wire is nearly parallel to the ground, and supplies traction current to the pantograph(s) of an electric train. Both the messenger wire and the contact wire are energized with single-phase alternating current at 25 kV with a frequency of 60 Hz. This allows the OCS to be used for both Caltrain and future California High-speed Rail service, and this electrical configuration matches that of Amtrak (on the Northeast Corridor) and portions of the New Jersey Transit commuter rail system. The 2×25 kV autotransformer electrification system includes a third energized parallel negative feeder wire which helps control electromagnetic field propagation. The feeder wire is electrified at the same voltage and frequency, but is shifted 180° out of phase so the voltage difference between the contact wire and the feeder wire is always 50kV. The choice of a 2×25 kV autotransformer system means more traction power facilities are required in total, but also requires fewer traction power substations. Contact wire height is planned to vary between 16 and 23 feet (4.9 and 7.0 m), depending on overhead clearance required, with the messenger wire another 2 to 5 feet (0.61 to 1.52 m) above that, and pole height will vary between 30 and 50 feet (9.1 and 15.2 m). Nominal clearance under the contact wire will be 23 feet (7.0 m) to accommodate freight and non-electrified passenger rail service. Poles are nominally spaced 180 to 200 feet (55 to 61 m) apart, but can be reduced to 75 feet (23 m) for the tightest-radius bends (at Sierra Point in Brisbane, and just north of ). Typical pole spacing in bends will be 120 to 150 feet (37 to 46 m), and for straight sections of track, maximum spacing is 230 feet (70 m) between poles. A total of ten electrical stations are planned: two traction power substations, one switching station, and seven paralleling stations. Each traction power substation (TPS) is anticipated to have a footprint of 150 by 200 feet (46 by 61 m) and would contain two 60 MVA transformers to step down supply power (at 115 kV AC) to the 2×25 kV AC required for the messenger/contact and feeder lines. The switching station (SWS) will be located near the Redwood Junction, approximately halfway between the two traction power substations. The SWS will include a phase break to electrically isolate the power supplied from each TPS and two 10 MVA autotransformers, in a footprint of 80 by 160 feet (24 by 49 m). The paralleling stations (PS) each maintain system voltage with one or two 10 MVA autotransformers and have a footprint of 40 by 80 feet (12 by 24 m). PS3 in Burlingame was originally approved via the FEIR for a location near the intersection of California and Lincoln; however, this would interfere with plans to grade separate the crossing at Broadway, so PS3 was moved west of the tracks to a location near Mills and California. Based on resident objections to the new site, however, the City of Burlingame offered an alternative site east of the tracks at 1369 North Carolan adjacent to the city-owned Corporation Yard. ### Construction plans The PCJPB-owned right-of-way has been divided into four construction segments. From the north, the segments are arranged as: 1. , , 2. (, ); (, , ); (, , ); (, ); (, ) 3. , , , , , , , 4. (, , , ) Segments are further divided into work areas, indicated by brackets in the list above. Work was scheduled to begin in Segments 2 and 4 and proceed from north to south within each segment before moving on to Segments 1 and 3. The first work area was in the cities of South San Francisco and San Bruno. Within each work area, the first two months of activity involved tree pruning and removal, followed by three to five months of construction of the foundations for the overhead contact system poles. Once completed, construction of the electrical station(s) (if present) and pole and wire installation work in parallel and take about a year. By January 2022, all foundations were complete. Pole and wiring work in Segments 3 and 4 was also complete, with work remaining in Segments 1 and 2. In Atherton, 18 trees were planned to be removed with an additional 63 trees pruned more than 25%. 83 trees would be replaced as a result, per the Atherton Tree Replacement Plan. Atherton residents objected to the plans in November 2017, stating the five planned double-cantilever side poles (spanning both tracks from one side) were taller than expected, and asked PCJPB to redesign the OCS support to use ten shorter single-cantilever side poles (spanning one track each). In their response, PCJPB stated it would cost an additional \$200,000 to redesign and would require more extensive tree removal; a later response asked that Atherton pay the difference and indemnify Caltrain from further lawsuits related to PCEP, which Atherton rejected. When work is being performed at a station, both northbound and southbound trains will stop on the same platform to accommodate station construction. Signs will be posted to indicate which platform remains active for passengers. Segment 4 is scheduled to be powered on in summer 2022, following testing of the new traction power facilities. ### Specific modifications The Santa Clara Drill track, an existing maintenance track approximately 1.5 miles (2.4 km) long from CEMOF to Santa Clara station, will be converted to an electrified test track. Testing is anticipated to take place during the daytime between late 2019 and spring 2022. The rehabilitation of Santa Clara Drill track began in February 2018. In April 2019, the anticipated completion date for the test track was in May 2020. Testing is scheduled to start in late 2021. The four tunnels originally constructed for the Bayshore Cutoff will be modified to accommodate overhead wires. The tunnel lining will be notched at the crown to allow clearance under the wire for freight trains, which mainly removes shotcrete placed in 2004, but some of the historical brick lining may be removed as part of the tunnel modification work. In addition, up to 21 inches (530 mm) of the decorative stone portal may be removed. In the FEIR, PCJPB noted they may exercise the option to lower tracks to minimize tunnel notching. The tunnel notching work will be performed during weekends, so service between Bayshore and 4th and King will be replaced by buses starting on October 6, 2018, with a planned "late Spring 2019" resumption. CEMOF will be modified to accommodate the new EMUs. An existing inspection pit will be extended by 330 feet (100 m), allowing work over the entire length of a seven-car EMU train. In addition, a rolling maintenance platform will be added to the building to allow work on the top of the train cars, and a permanent tent will be erected for parts storage. ### FRA waiver and I-ETMS PTC As a result of the blended plan, PCJPB mandated that Peninsula Corridor infrastructure and equipment should be compatible with future California High-Speed Rail Authority (CHSRA) trains. CHSRA had proposed that mandated speeds and transit times could be met by using lighter-weight vehicles that did not comply with Federal requirements. These required physical separation between FRA "compliant" and "non-compliant" rail vehicles and structural strength. Caltrain saw this as an opportunity to apply for an FRA waiver to run lighter-weight EMUs, which could accelerate faster and provide headways as low as five minutes. The December 2009 FRA waiver application detailed Caltrain's plans to prevent collisions: first, reduce the probability of collisions to nearly zero by employing temporal and spatial separation from freight rail and restricting freight traffic to the non-revenue hours, then mitigate the impact of a collision by deploying vehicles with crash energy management (CEM) structures, and then deployment of an enhanced positive train control system, designed to check for speeding trains and protect rail workers. Originally, Caltrain employed Parsons Transportation to develop a custom PTC system, called CBOSS, for CalMod, but due to delays, Caltrain switched to Wabtec and their I-ETMS system. Caltrain announced the Federal Railroad Administration had certified its PTC implementation in December 2020. Positive train control became a Federal mandate with the passing of the Rail Safety Improvement Act of 2008. After review, the FRA waiver was granted in May 2010, marking the first time lighter-weight EMUs were allowed to share rails with freight in the United States. The grant was conditioned on meeting nine additional requirements, including demonstrating minimum crashworthiness, seating, improving grade crossing, meeting FRA positive train control standards in Title 49 of the Code of Federal Regulations, part 236 with CBOSS, formalizing the temporal separation plan, and issuing a safety system program. ### Environmental effects Replacing the diesel locomotives with electric multiple units is expected to reduce air pollution and noise. The reduced air pollution would improve the health of El Palo Alto, a coastal redwood tree that stands about 25 feet (7.6 m) away from the Caltrain tracks and lends its name to Palo Alto. Coal soot and diesel exhaust is presumed to have killed parts of the tree's crown since the 19th century. ### Rolling stock Notes #### Stadler EMU The Stadler KISS double-decker EMU that Caltrain ordered will be compliant with the FRA alternative Tier-I crash-worthiness standard. Under the alternative standard, it will have Crash Energy Management (CEM) features that allow parts of the EMU to collapse whilst keeping the passenger seating area intact in the event of collision, instead of relying on pure structural strength as in the traditional Tier-I standard. The implementation of the alternative Tier-I standard results in a lighter train that will save energy and track maintenance cost. Coupled with the positive train control system that is being installed on the Caltrain line, Caltrain KISS trains will be allowed to operate in mixed traffic with heavier trains, such as Amtrak passenger trains and Union Pacific freight trains, instead of the temporal separation required in the 2009 waiver. Because the existing Caltrain platforms are at a different height compared to proposed high-speed rail vehicles, the EMU trains will be equipped with doors at two heights, at 22-inch (560 mm) and 50.5-inch (1,280 mm) above-top-of-rail, allowing Caltrain to eventually transition from the existing 8-inch (200 mm) low platforms to CHSRA-compatible high platforms, enabling unassisted boarding of all passengers as specified by the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990. In January 2018, PCJPB applied for \$631.5 million in state funds for the Electrification Expansion Project (EEP), part of which would be used to exercise the option to purchase an additional 96 EMUs at a cost of \$600M. The existing funding for PCEP includes the purchase of 96 EMUs, which would displace 75% of the current diesel-hauled passenger trains from the Peninsula Corridor. The additional funds requested for EEP would bring the electric fleet to 192 EMUs, enabling Caltrain to displace all diesel passenger locomotives between San Francisco and Tamien with a fleet of 24 8-EMU consists. \$11.5M of the request would be used for station improvements: \$8M to expand certain platforms to accommodate 8-EMU trains and \$3.5M to increase secure bicycle storage. An additional \$14M would be used to implement on-board WiFi for passengers. The remaining \$6M would be used to support planning and policies along the Peninsula Corridor. The configuration of the additional EMUs is not confirmed, although Clem Tillier has speculated the additional EMUs will be similar to the bike trailer cars (which lack traction motors) but with additional seating instead of bike racks. A Stadler brochure shows the seventh car is a passenger trailer with two powered trucks. The first two shells, destined for cab cars, were shipped from Altenrhein to Salt Lake City on June 5, 2018. At the time, Stadler's new Salt Lake City final assembly plant was still under construction, but a portion was ready by the time the first shell arrived in August 2018. Stadler announced the first car bodies arrived on September 5, 2018, and were rolled directly into the new Salt Lake facility. As of January 2019, an option has been exercised to expand the order to 133 cars using Transit and Intercity Rail Capital Program funding, to be delivered as 19 trainsets, each consisting of 7 railcars. By April 2019, Stadler had completed and shipped 15 shells, with 10 received and being finished at Salt Lake City. Stadler moved into its new building on May 15, 2019; at the ceremony, attended by Governor Gary Herbert and Stadler CEO Peter Spuhler, one of the KISS EMUs for Caltrain was displayed alongside the final FLIRT diesel multiple unit for TEXRail, named "Spike". The press conference also was staged to re-enact and honor the 150th anniversary of the completion of the First transcontinental railroad. The first seven-car trainset was moved to Stadler's onsite test track in Salt Lake City for static testing in May 2020; it was completed in July 2020 and began low-speed initial type testing in November 2020. It was shipped to the Transportation Technology Center in Pueblo, Colorado for dynamic type testing in February 2021, and arrived in March 2021. At the same time, one car was sent to Elmira, New York for environmental testing. New trains are scheduled to be delivered through 2024; the first tests of the new electric trainsets in California were scheduled for Spring 2022. In late March 2022, Caltrain received its first Stadler EMU trainsets at CEMOF. Two trainsets were displayed at the 4th and King station during a ceremony attended by politicians on September 24, 2022. In August 2023, Caltrain exercised an option order for four additional seven-car EMU trainsets (\$220 million) and a single four-car battery electric multiple unit (BEMU) trainset (\$80 million). This will result in a fleet of 23 EMU trainsets, six diesel-hauled trainsets, and one BEMU trainset by 2030, with over 90% of service using electric trains. The BEMU trainset will be used on the non-electrified portion of the corridor between San Jose and Gilroy. #### EMD AEM-7AC Since Amtrak have replaced its fleet of EMD AEM-7 locomotives with Siemens ACS-64, PCJPB entered discussions to purchase retired AEM-7s to test the electrification system and to serve as reserve locomotives in the event of EMU unavailability. Because of the delay in delivering ACS-64s, the target sale date for the AEM-7s was moved out to June 2016. Although procuring an ACS-64 for testing was considered, Siemens stated no locomotives were available for lease, and the cost to purchase a new ACS-64 exceeded the budget allowance for testing. The May 2017 PCEP Monthly Progress Report noted that PCJPB was drafting two requests for proposals: one to purchase an electric locomotive to test the electrification system, and another to refurbish an electric locomotive. By October 2017, the work in progress had identified two vendors: Mitsui for purchase, and Amtrak for refurbishment; in January 2018, contracts were ready to be awarded to those vendors. Mitsui owns several ex-Amtrak AEM-7 locomotives. On June 7, 2018, Caltrain staff recommended that two contracts be awarded for a total of approximately \$610,000: one to purchase two AEM-7ACs from Mitsui & Co, and the other to Amtrak for refurbishment, training, and transportation to the Caltrain Centralized Equipment Maintenance and Operations Facility (CEMOF), which passed unanimously. The AEM-7AC locomotives were scheduled to arrive in February 2019, but were still at Amtrak's Ivy City facility (near Washington D.C.) in April 2019 and did not arrive in California until June 28. They were moved to CEMOF in early August and by September, were being stored at the San Francisco Rail Yard. After testing is completed, the used locomotives will be disposed.
57,836,808	Sarah Cooper	1,173,022,594	Jamaican-American comedian and author (born 1977)	[ "1977 births", "20th-century African-American people", "20th-century African-American women", "21st-century African-American women writers", "21st-century African-American writers", "21st-century American comedians", "21st-century American women writers", "African-American bloggers", "African-American stand-up comedians", "American TikTokers", "American YouTubers", "American bloggers", "American sketch comedians", "American stand-up comedians", "American women bloggers", "American women comedians", "American writers of Jamaican descent", "Comedians from Maryland", "Comedy YouTubers", "Commentary YouTubers", "Georgia Tech alumni", "Jamaican emigrants to the United States", "Living people", "People from Rockville, Maryland", "University of Maryland, College Park alumni", "Writers from Maryland", "Writers from New York City", "Writers from San Francisco" ]	Sarah Anne Cooper (born December 19, 1977) is an American author and comedian based in New York City. She worked in design for Yahoo! and in user experience for Google Docs, Sheets, and Slides while also performing stand-up comedy. Cooper left Google to focus full-time on writing and comedy. Her first two books, 100 Tricks to Appear Smart in Meetings and Draw What Success Looks Like were published in 2016. Her third book, How to Be Successful Without Hurting Men's Feelings, was published in 2018. During the COVID-19 pandemic, Cooper began uploading videos of herself lip-syncing statements made by Donald Trump. The success of these led to appearances on several talk shows, and in October 2020 her show Sarah Cooper: Everything's Fine premiered on Netflix. ## Early life and education Cooper was born in Jamaica in 1977. One of her grandmothers was Chinese-Jamaican. Her family moved to Rockville, Maryland, in 1980. Her father worked as an electrical engineer for the Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority in nearby Washington and her mother in the human resources department of a consulting company. Cooper was already interested in show business as a teenager and originally intended to study theater. However, following the wishes of her parents, she first pursued studies outside show business and earned degrees in economics from the University of Maryland, College Park, and in digital design from the Georgia Institute of Technology. ## Career ### Early career Cooper began performing stand-up comedy in Atlanta while she was working as a visual designer at Yahoo! Later, while she was a user experience designer for Google Docs, Sheets, and Slides, she continued to write and perform stand-up and met her former husband, Jeff Palm, who was an engineer on Google Docs. She has said that she would analyze Stephen Colbert's monologues from The Colbert Report to understand what made them humorous. In 2006, Cooper created and starred in a short-lived YouTube web series, The Bubble, which lasted only three four-minute episodes. In 2014, she wrote a blog post called "10 Tricks to Appear Smart in Meetings" that went viral with five million views. Later that year, she left Google to pursue writing and comedy full time. Her first book, 100 Tricks to Appear Smart in Meetings, a satirical version of a self-help book, was published on October 4, 2016. Her "colouring and activity book", Draw What Success Looks Like, was published in the same month. Her third book, How to Be Successful Without Hurting Men's Feelings, was published on October 30, 2018. It is subtitled "Non-threatening Leadership Strategies for Women", and contains satirical advice for women such as "Pepper your emails with exclamation marks and emojis.... Your lack of efficient communication will make you seem more approachable." Her books were not commercially successful. At the end of 2019, five years after she had resigned from Google, Cooper was considering quitting her comedy career due to lack of success. ### Satirical videos In spring 2020, Cooper began publishing a series of videos on TikTok in which she lip-synced comments by Donald Trump on the topic of potential cures for the 2019 coronavirus. Her first viral satire, titled "How to Medical" features her lip-syncing a minute of audio from the April 23 press briefing during which Trump suggested that shining light into the body and injecting disinfectant would be an effective method for treating the coronavirus. She subsequently produced several other viral videos based on the same premise. By late October 2020, "How to Medical" had received over 24 million views across Twitter and TikTok. Cooper also redistributed her "How to Bible" TikTok video using her Instagram, Twitter, and YouTube accounts, achieving a combined total of 16 million views by the end of 2020. In an interview with The Atlantic, Cooper said that she enjoyed performing on TikTok and that she might continue on the platform following the COVID-19 pandemic lockdowns rather than perform stand-up in front of a live audience. The Boston Globe remarked that Cooper's videos are also noted as being examples of extremely economical political satire since they are structured around an unedited voice clip of a politician speaking. This extremely minimalistic comedic approach, which includes neither a script nor an audience, was described as an innovative response to the limitations that comedians faced during COVID-19 lockdowns. Cooper analyzed the videos by commenting that "I had taken away the suit and the podium and the people behind him smiling and nodding and calling him "sir," and all that was left were his empty words, which, in reality, were not the best. It felt like the antidote to the gaslighting." Cooper lip-synced Trump talking about mail-in ballots, for a video played during the 2020 Democratic National Convention. She was named Digital Creator of the Year by Adweek, and was nominated in the "Creator of the Year" and "Comedy" categories for the 10th Streamy Awards. ### Television In the wake of the popularity of her TikTok videos, Cooper was invited to appear on The Last Word with Lawrence O'Donnell and The Ellen DeGeneres Show. She has also appeared on The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon, and The Late Show with Stephen Colbert, and as a guest host on Jimmy Kimmel Live! She played Inigo Montoya in Home Movie: The Princess Bride, a fan film recreation of The Princess Bride, which premiered on Quibi in June 2020. In October 2020, the Netflix special Sarah Cooper: Everything's Fine was released, produced by Maya Rudolph and directed by Natasha Lyonne. It features Cooper as the host of a fictional morning news program. The show is structured around spoofs of news segments, interviews, and commercials, and it incorporates a series of sketches featuring appearances from celebrities including Jon Hamm, Whoopi Goldberg, Helen Mirren, Ben Stiller, and Marisa Tomei. Cooper's character is a news anchor who struggles to retain her sanity and positive attitude despite the dramatic upheaval that she is reporting on, which is a commentary on the experience of observing the political, economic, and pandemic-related disruptions throughout the world in 2020 (as is the sarcasm of the title, Everything's Fine). Reviews for the show were generally positive, with most critics arguing that its satire was insightful but not uniformly successful. The Guardian rated the show 4 out of 5 stars, calling it "a funny and striking document of what living feels like in this fraught and febrile year." A CNN review called the show "on balance impressive, especially factoring in the logistical challenges of turning it around during a pandemic". Variety gave the show a negative review, saying that "Cooper ends up being the straight man in her own comedy special." A New York Times review compared Everything's Fine favorably to the parody news show Saturday Night Live, arguing that Cooper captured the zeitgeist of the news experience in 2020 more successfully than many other contemporary satires, but also asserted that "the comic ideas vary wildly in quality" with jokes that "are hit and miss". It was announced in August 2020 that Cooper and Cindy Chupack would be producing a comedy show for CBS based on How to Be Successful Without Hurting Men's Feelings. The pilot was not picked up to series. Cooper was listed as one of the "Breakout Stars" of 2020 by Vogue and The New York Times, and as one of five Breakthrough Entertainers of 2020 by the Associated Press. In August 2021, Bleecker Street and Stage 6 Films picked up the worldwide rights to James Ponsoldt’s coming of age film Summering, starring Cooper alongside Megan Mullally. ## Personal life Cooper married Jeff Palm, a senior software designer for Google, in February 2015. They divorced in 2021. ## Publications - 100 Tricks to Appear Smart in Meetings. Kansas City: Andrews McMeel Publishing (2016). . OCLC 944463172. - Draw What Success Looks Like. Kansas City: Andrews McMeel Publishing (2016). . OCLC 944470964. - How to Be Successful Without Hurting Men's Feelings. Kansas City: Andrews McMeel Publishing (2018). . OCLC 1028881934. - Tricks to Appear Smart in Meetings 2021 Day-to-Day Calendar Kansas City: Andrews McMeel Publishing (2020). ## Filmography ## Awards and nominations
12,030,689	Twyfelfontein	1,165,387,685	null	[ "Archaeological sites in Namibia", "Former populated places in Namibia", "National Monuments of Namibia", "Prehistoric Africa", "Religious buildings and structures in Namibia", "Rock art in Africa", "World Heritage Sites in Namibia" ]	Twyfelfontein (Afrikaans: uncertain spring), officially known as ǀUi-ǁAis (Damara/Nama: jumping waterhole), is a site of ancient rock engravings in the Kunene Region of north-western Namibia. It consists of a spring in a valley flanked by the slopes of a sandstone table mountain that receives very little rainfall and has a wide range of diurnal temperatures. The site has been inhabited for 6,000 years, first by hunter-gatherers and later by Khoikhoi herders. Both ethnic groups used it as a place of worship and a site to conduct shamanist rituals. In the process of these rituals at least 2,500 items of rock carvings have been created, as well as a few rock paintings. Displaying one of the largest concentrations of rock petroglyphs in Africa, UNESCO approved Twyfelfontein as Namibia's first World Heritage Site in 2007. ## History Twyfelfontein valley has been inhabited by Stone-age hunter-gatherers of the Wilton stone age culture group since approximately 6,000 years ago. They made most of the engravings and probably all the paintings. 2,000 to 2,500 years ago the Khoikhoi, an ethnic group related to the San (Bushmen), occupied the valley, then known under its Damara/Nama name ǀUi-ǁAis (jumping waterhole). The Khoikhoi also produced rock art which can clearly be distinguished from the older engravings. The area was uninhabited by Europeans until after World War II, when a severe drought caused white Afrikaans speaking farmers (Boers) to move in. The farm was later procured by the apartheid government as part of the Odendaal Plan and became part of the Damaraland bantustan. The white settlers left in 1965. Topographer Reinhard Maack, who also discovered the White Lady rock painting at Brandberg, reported the presence of rock engravings in the area in 1921. A more thorough investigation was only conducted after David Levin studied the feasibility of farming in 1947. He rediscovered the spring but struggled to extract enough water to sustain his family and his herd. Slowly becoming obsessed with doubts about the capacity of the spring an Afrikaans-speaking friend began calling him David Twyfelfontein (David Doubts-the-spring) in jest. When Levin bought the land and registered his farm in 1948 he gave it the name Twyfelfontein. While commonly being translated as doubtful spring, a more accurate translation for the word twyfel is therefore "questionable" or "uncertain". In 1950 scientific investigation of the rock art started with an investigation by Ernst Rudolph Scherz who described over 2500 rock engravings on 212 sandstone slabs. Today it is estimated that the site contains more than 5000 individual depictions. ## Location and description Twyfelfontein is situated in the southern Kunene Region of Namibia, an area formerly known as Damaraland. The site lies on the banks of the Aba Huab River in the Huab valley of the Mount Etjo formation. The rocks containing the art work are situated in a valley flanked by the slopes of a sandstone table mountain. An underground aquifer on an impermeable layer of shale sustains a spring in this otherwise very dry area. The name Twyfelfontein refers to the spring itself, to the valley containing the spring, and in the context of traveling and tourism also to a greater area containing nearby tourist attractions: the rock engravings, the Organ Pipes, Burnt Mountain, Doros crater, and the Petrified Forest. The World Heritage Site covers the area of rock engravings. The area is a transitional zone between semi desert, savanna, and shrubland and receives less than 150 mm (5.9 in) annual rainfall. Diurnal temperatures vary from 10 to 28 °C (50 to 82 °F) in the winter month of July and 21 to 35 °C (70 to 95 °F) in the summer month of November. Twyfelfontein lies 20 km (12 mi) south of the C39 major road from Sesfontein to Khorixas. From there it is connected by the district road D3214. The Twyfelfontein Country Lodge features a gravel airstrip. The lodge, camp site, visitor's centre and most of the other tourist facilities are managed as a joint venture between the lodge owners and the Twyfelfontein-Uibasen Conservancy. The rock art area consists of fourteen smaller sites that have been introduced by Scherz in his initial site survey. They are still used to describe the location of artworks in Twyfelfontein: ## Artworks Sandstone rocks at Twyfelfontein are covered by the so-called desert varnish, a hard patina that appears brown or dark grey. Engravings were effected by chiseling through this patina, exposing the lighter rock underneath. The indentations were created over the course of thousands of years. The oldest engravings might be as old as 10,000 years, and the creation of new works probably ended by the arrival of pastoral tribes around 1000 AD. Three different types of engravings can be distinguished at Twyfelfontein: - iconic imagery (images of animals, humans, and fantasy creatures) - pictograms (geometric rock art like pecked circles, rows of dots) - indentations for or from everyday use (grinding hollows, board games, gong stones) Additionally, the site contains rock paintings at 13 different locations, with depictions of humans painted in red ochre in six rock shelters. The similar occurrence of rock paintings and rock engravings is very rare. The hunter-gatherers made most of the iconic engravings and probably all the paintings. The carvings represent animals such as rhinoceroses, elephants, ostriches and giraffes as well as depictions of human and animal footprints. Some of the figures, most prominently the "Lion Man"—a lion with an extremely long rectangular kinked tail ending in a six-toed pugmark— depict the transformation of humans into animals. This transformation and the depiction of animals together with their tracks make it likely that they were created as part of shamanist rituals. The more simplistic perception that they only show hunter-gatherers' attempts to acquire food is now thought to be naïve. Engravings of animals that certainly never occurred in this area, like a sea lion, penguins, and possibly flamingos indicate that the hunter-gatherers might have ventured to the coast more than 100 km (62 mi) away. A modern archaeological survey led by Sven Ouzman questions these descriptions of Scherz' initial investigation and describes the not easily recognisable fauna as "strange animals"—rough work of animals, possibly giraffe, that did occur at Twyfelfontein. The Khoikhoi herders produced the geometric imagery, probably depicting herder groups. They are also the creators of the more worldly indentations in that area that served as grinding hollows and game boards. Some of the stones bear marks from use as gong stones, which make unusual sounds when hit. ## Archaeology The archaeological name of the site is Twyfelfontein 534. It is subdivided into 15 smaller sites as described by Scherz in 1975. Objects from the site include a variety of stone tools made mostly from quartzite. Type and shape of these tools indicate not only the use on rock but also the prevalence of wood and leather working. Artwork such as pendants and beads from ostrich eggshell fragments have been found at several places. Of the items of daily use charcoal and bone fragments have been excavated as well as undecorated pottery fragments, although the pottery might have originated from early farmers rather than the Stone Age culture that produced the rock art. The archaeological value of the site does not compare with its importance as rock art collection. The findings do, however, support the shamanist origin of the engravings because food remains from the site proved to be bones of small antelope, rock dassie and even lizards rather than the large species depicted. ## Site protection and recognition On 15 Aug 1952 the area was declared a National Monument by the South West African administration. Despite its early recognition, the site was left unguarded until 1986 when the entire area was declared a nature reserve. As a result, many of the petroglyphs were damaged or removed. Additionally, visitors have left their own graffiti on the sandstone slabs. Under Namibian legislation, the site is now protected under Section 54 of the National Heritage Act. In 2007, UNESCO approved Twyfelfontein as Namibia's first World Heritage Site as one of the largest concentrations of rock petroglyphs in Africa. The organisation recognised "a coherent, extensive and high quality record of ritual practices relating to hunter-gather communities [...] over at least two millennia" (criterion iii), and "links between ritual and economic practices in the apparent sacred association of the land adjacent to an aquifer" according to criterion V of the cultural selection criteria. Twyfelfontein was Namibia's only World Heritage Site until 2013 when the Namib Sand Sea was listed. To achieve having the site listed by UNESCO, the government of Namibia defined a buffer zone of 91.9 km<sup>2</sup> (35.5 sq mi) to protect the visual setting. In the 0.6 km<sup>2</sup> (0.2 sq mi) core site, grazing is restricted and the establishment of tourism facilities is prohibited. Although Twyfelfontein is regarded as "generally intact", the Twyfelfontein Country Lodge within the "Zeremonienplatz" (Place of Ceremonies) rock engraving site in the buffer zone is of concern to UNESCO, who stated "This has severely compromised the integrity of the rock engravings in this area." The hiking trail allowed visitors unsupervised access and is seen as running too close to many of the rock-art sites. Site management has, however, improved since applying for World Heritage status, particularly with regards to visitor management; unsupervised hiking is no longer allowed. ## References and literature ### Literature [World Heritage Sites in Namibia](Category:World_Heritage_Sites_in_Namibia "wikilink") [Rock art in Africa](Category:Rock_art_in_Africa "wikilink") [Religious buildings and structures in Namibia](Category:Religious_buildings_and_structures_in_Namibia "wikilink") [Prehistoric Africa](Category:Prehistoric_Africa "wikilink") [National Monuments of Namibia](Category:National_Monuments_of_Namibia "wikilink") [Archaeological sites in Namibia](Category:Archaeological_sites_in_Namibia "wikilink") [Former populated places in Namibia](Category:Former_populated_places_in_Namibia "wikilink")
52,596,492	Joachim Bernhard von Prittwitz	1,144,470,192	Prussian general	[ "1726 births", "1793 deaths", "German landowners", "German military personnel of the War of the Austrian Succession", "Lieutenant generals of Prussia", "People from Prussian Silesia", "Prussian military personnel of the Seven Years' War", "Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (military class)", "Silesian nobility" ]	Joachim Bernhardt von Prittwitz and Gaffron (1726–1793) was a Prussian officer credited with saving the life of Frederick the Great at the Battle of Kunersdorf. At the time, he was a cavalry captain in Hans Joachim von Zieten's Hussar regiment. He became the head of gendarmes regiment, and inspector general of the cavalry of Brandenburg March and Magdeburg in 1775. He was promoted to lieutenant general in 1785 and general of cavalry in 1788. Frederick awarded him the Order Pour le Mérite and the Order of the Black Eagle. In 1851, Prittwitz was included on the panels of the Equestrian statue of Frederick the Great as one of the key figures in the establishment of the Prussia state. ## Family Prittwitz was born in Groß Läswitz. He came from the old and established Silesian nobility of Prittwitz, and was the son of the Prussian military captain and landowner Joachim Wilhelm von Prittwitz (13 March 1693–5 June 1758), master of Groß Läswitz, and Sophie Wilhelmine Gottesliebe von Domnig (9 February 1698–28 October 1752). He was born on 3 February 1726, on his father's estate. As a 36-year-old on 16 December 1762 in Berlin, he married the widowed Eleanor of Paczensky and Tenczin, born Freiin von Seherr-Thoß (12 January 1739 on the estate at Schönfeld, Kr. Schweidnitz, Lower Silesia, died 23 February 1799 in Berlin), the daughter of the Junker Karl Heinrich von Seherr-Thoss, lord on the estates Schönfeld and Ludwigsdorf, and the Anna Elisabeth von Zedlitz and Leipe. Eleonore, a wealthy heiress, brought to the marriage fourteen properties in Lower Silesia near Breslau and Hirschberg. ## Military career Prittwitz first attended a village school, later to the Oelser Gymnasium. In August 1741, he entered the Prussian cadet corps in Berlin, and in November of that same year was accepted as a Fahnenjunker (cadet) in Dragoon Regiment Nr. 1 (von Posadowski). From here, Prittwitz's military career modeled that of other Junker sons. In the War of Austrian Succession, Prittwitz remained with Dragoon Regiment Nr. 4 and participated in all the major battles: in particular, he distinguished himself at the Battle of Hohenfriedberg on 7 June 1745. On 4 April 1746, he was promoted to the Fähnrich and was stationed in garrison in Schwedt. On 8 May 1751, he became a second lieutenant. During the Seven Years' War, he was at the Battle of Kolin on 18 June 1757 and the Battle of Zorndorf on 25 August 1758, after which he was honored with the Order Pour le Mérite. Short of cash, though, in 1758 he asked his king for money in a long poem, and he answered: "Wer dieses so artig in Verse gebracht, dem werden 500 Dukaten vermacht. – Ich bin Euer wohlaffectionirter König Friedrich." (He who has expressed himself so well in this verse will be left with 500 ducats. I am your well-disposed King Frederick." At the end of 1758, the King instructed General Hans Joachim von Zieten to select the best officers for his Hussars from the whole army, and he selected Prittwitz as first lieutenant. On 12 August 1759, Prittwitz, then thirty-three years old, was promoted to the Rittmeister (cavalry captain). At a critical point in Battle of Kunersdorf, he saw Frederick standing on a small hill with the remnants of his body-guard—the Leib Cuirassier—determined to either hold the line or to die trying. With a 100-strong Hussar squadron, Rittmeister Prittwitz cut his way through the Cossacks and dragged the King to safety. Prittwitz was promoted to major on 10 December 1760 and received the command of the 1st Battalion of his regiment. In 1761, Prittwitz was often working for the king personally. He was promoted to the lieutenant colonel in 1763, after the end of the Seven Years' War, which he had begun as a lieutenant, and soon became commander of the Hussars' regiment. Upon the death of Charles Frederick Albert, Margrave of Brandenburg-Schwedt without heirs in 1762, his estate reverted to the crown. After the Treaty of Hubertusburg, Frederick II granted these fortunes to the two officers toward whom he had particular gratitude: Lieutenant Colonel Hans Sigismund von Lestwitz, who had proven instrumental at the Battle of Torgau, received the estate of Friedland, and Prittwitz, who had led the King from the battlefield at Kunersdorf, received the estate at Quilitz (present-day Kwielice). Theodor Fontane gave this circumstance a special mention, by quoting a proverb: "Lestwitz a sauvé l'etat, Prittwitz a sauvé le roi." (Lestwitz saved the state, Prittwitz saved the king.") In the years after 1763, Prittwitz carried out special assignments for the King: in 1765, he investigated the suitability of a proposed canal for shipping, and in 1767, he examined irregularities in the casting of Berlin coin. On 12 December 1768 he was appointed colonel. On 20 May 1775, he became major general and commander of the "Regiment Gendarmes" in Berlin and Inspector General of the Cavalry of Brandenburg and Magdeburg. In 1778, during the War of Bavarian Succession, Prittwitz commanded a brigade on the Prussian right wing, consisting of 13 squadrons. In the years 1779–1783, Prittwitz founded the colony "Prittwitzdorf" at his Rudelstadt estate near Kupferberg, whose inhabitants were predominantly weavers and miners. He was promoted to lieutenant general on 20 May 1785, and on 26 May 1785, he received the Order of the Black Eagle in Magdeburg. Until the King's death, he was often a guest in Sanssouci. A lithograph by Georg Schöbel shows Prittwitz, together with other generals, at the deathbed of Frederick on 17 August 1786, at Sanssouci Palace in Potsdam. On 20 May 1789, Prittwitz was appointed general of the cavalry by the new Prussian king Frederick William II. His penchant for gambling caused his dismissal as inspector in 1790. He died on 4 June 1793 in Berlin, and his body was removed to his estate in Quilitz for burial. Prittwitz was also commemorated with Frederick the Great on the equestrian statue, and on a monument in Rheinsberg.
35,555,766	Puente (song)	1,095,531,629	null	[ "2010 singles", "2010 songs", "Ricardo Arjona songs", "Songs written by Ricardo Arjona", "Spanish-language songs", "Warner Music Latina singles" ]	"Puente" is a latin pop song by Guatemalan recording artist Ricardo Arjona, released on August 9, 2010 as the lead single from his twelfth studio album, Poquita Ropa (2010). The song was written by Arjona, who produced it with longtime collaborators Dan Warner and Lee Levin under their stage name Los Gringos. Two versions of the song were made, one of them being a mixture of salsa, merengue along with Cuban music influences; and the other an acoustic version made with piano and percussion. Lyrically, "Puente" is a song related to the actual situation of Cuba and the immigration to the United States. The song received critical praise, with a critic stating that it "brings the album to an extraordinary conclusion", and received comparisons with Fito Páez's song "Habana". Commercially, "Puente" did not attain commercial success, managing only to reach number 36 on the US Billboard Latin Pop Songs chart. An accompanying music video for "Puente" was released in August 2010. It was directed by Joaquín Cambré and filmed between Mexico and Argentina. The clip, which showcases the problematic issues of migration in Cuba, was filmed by Arjona while he was on the Quinto Piso Tour with the collaboration of children from 5 to 13 age old. As of 11 July 2012, the video has reached 1.4 million views on YouTube. ## Background With Poquita Ropa, Arjona wanted to drastically change his musical style. He tried to use as few instruments as possible, resulting in a production that sounds like a capella performances. Arjona said about the album, "music and women look better with little clothes", and that "they [the songs] are like women; they get things up and are so concerned about this that they forget that the less clothes, more beauty. The songs are often overwhelmed by ourselves, because we saturate them with arrangements looking to exalt their qualities and we end up hiding them." Arjona produced the album with the assistance of Dan Warner, who has worked with Shakira, Celine Dion and Christina Aguilera. Jason Birchmeier from Allmusic commented that Poquita Ropa "finds Arjona at his most naked, backed by spare arrangements of acoustic guitar, piano, and Hammond B-3 along with occasional touches of strings, woodwinds, and chorus vocals." Poquita Ropa was the first album that Arjona recorded without producer Tommy Torres, whose last production was 5to Piso (2008). The album is similar in style to Arjona's work on Galería Caribe (2000). ## Composition "Puente" is a latin pop song with salsa, merengue and Cuban music influences crafted in eight and a half minutes and divided in three parts. The first one is an a cappella song, sang mainly with a piano. The second part is a ballad with Caribbean and Latin sounds, with some salsa and Cuban influences. The third is a mixture of salsa and merengue, with Cuban influences. The song was written by Arjona, who produced it alongside longtime collaborators Dan Warner and Lee Levin, under their stagename Los Gringos. Mónica Maristain from newspaper La Nación compared it with a song released by Fito Páez in 1999, "Habana". Jason Birchmeier from Allmusic praised the song, stating that it "brings the album to an extraordinary conclusion." In the song, Arjona sings: "Habana / siempre en las mitades, tan mitad española, tan mitad africana / saben bien las olas que en cada ventana siempre hay un testigo / Habana." He also said that "Puente" was the only song that was "not allowed to undress". When asked about "Puente"'s main theme, Arjona commented, "Although many believe is a threshed topic, it isn't for a Cuban, be it on the island or Florida. The status of this dispute hasn't changed since 1959 and I've never seen something as disgusting as a rivalry between people occasioned from politics. Chávez can fight with Uribe, Fidel with Obama, but what has this to do with two third-generation cousins that inherit an enmity for a politic matter[?]". ## Music video The music video for "Puente" was released on 17 August 2010. It was directed by Argentinian director Joaquín Cambre, who also worked with Arjona on the music video for "Sin Ti, Sin Mi". In the video, to brothers live separately, one of them in La Havana, and the other in Miami, Florida. The video ends with the boys encountering each other in a bridge, along many other people. The video shows the problematic about the migration on Cuba. Arjona shot the video while on his Quinto Piso Tour. It was filmed between Mexico and Argentina, with the collaboration of children from 5 to 13 age old. Coambre commented about the video that ""Puente" for me is an array of images that tell the same story in opposite realities. Two boys exactly alike; one lives in an abandoned hotel on the beach and the other lives in a big city skyscraper, yet both are equally lonely. Miami and Havana are where those two boys are in their own worlds and see that the only way out of their realms are when they decide to encounter one another." The video starts showing Arjona inside a room powering on an old video projector and singing while watching a black and white film projected on the wall. This scenes are shown until the music style of the song changes into salsa. Then, after the musical change, scenes of two twin brothers are shown, interpolated, one of them living in Havana, the other living in Miami, Florida. The following scenes show the technological differences to which the brothers are attached, before going into the musical change to merengue and cuban music, on which two large group of kids, led by the two brothers, are shown sprinting throughout two shores until they meet and start to celebrate. Then, the final musical change is shown, along a collage of different scenes from the United States and Cuba. Finally, Arjona is shown again sit along the video projector, and the clip ends. As of 14 July 2012, the video has reached 1.4 million views on YouTube. ## Trackslisting - Digital Download 1. "Puente" (Caribe) — 8:29 - Digital Download — Acoustic 1. "Puente" (Acoustic) — 4:46 ## Credits and personnel The credits are taken from the iTunes exclusive digital booklet. "Puente" (Acoustic) - Ricardo Arjona — Composer, chorus - Dan Warner — guitars, mandoline - Matt Rollings — piano, piano arrangements - Pete Wallace — Hammond B-3, melody - Lee Levin — percussion, drums - Briang Lang — bass - Wendy Pedersen — background vocals - Roger Silvestre Ramírez — background vocals - Andrés Saavedra — recording engineer - Isaías García — recording engineer "Puente" (Caribe) - Ricardo Arjona — Composer, chorus - Dan Warner — guitars - Matt Rollings — piano, piano arrangements - Lee Levin — percussion - Wendy Pedersen — background vocals - Roger Silvestre Ramírez — background vocals - Efraín Dávila — arrangements, musical production, acoustic piano, keyboards, programming - José Tabares — bass - Luisito Quintero — percussion - José Sibaja — trumpet - Ismael Vergara — saxophone (tenor) - Alberto Barros — trombone - Ahmed Barroso — tres cubano - Gianko "Yanko" Gomez — chorus - Andrés Saavedra — recording engineer - Isaías García — recording engineer Technical credits - Xarah - Pro Tools - Chris Zalles — Pro Tools - Sebastian Krys — mixing engineer - Gavin Lurseen — mastering engineer - Reuben Cohen — mastering assistant - Guido Díaz — sound engineer on "Puente" (Caribe) - Juan Mario Aracil — sound engineer, mixing engineer on "Puente" (Caribe) - Ricardo Arjona — creative direction - Carlos R. Perez — creative direction - Elasticpeople.com — graphic design ## Charts ## Release history
1,107,662	Everard Digby	1,169,942,847	16th- and 17th-century English conspirator in the Gunpowder Plot of 1605	[ "1570s births", "1606 deaths", "16th-century English people", "16th-century Roman Catholics", "17th-century English criminals", "17th-century Roman Catholics", "Converts to Roman Catholicism from Anglicanism", "English Roman Catholics", "English criminals", "Executed English people", "Executed Gunpowder Plotters", "Knights Bachelor", "People executed by Stuart England by hanging, drawing and quartering", "Prisoners in the Tower of London" ]	Sir Everard Digby (c. 1578 – 30 January 1606) was a member of the group of provincial members of the English nobility who planned the failed Gunpowder Plot of 1605. Although he was raised in a Anglican household and married a Protestant, Digby and his wife were secretly received into the strictly illegal and underground Catholic Church in England by the Jesuit priest Fr. John Gerard. In the autumn of 1605, he made a Christian pilgrimage to the shrine of St Winefride's Well in Holywell, Wales. About this time, he met Robert Catesby, who was planning to blow up the House of Lords with gunpowder as an alleged act of tyrannicide and a decapitation strike against King James I. Catesby then planned to lead a popular uprising aimed at regime change, through which a Catholic monarch would be placed upon the English throne. The full extent of Digby's knowledge of and involvement in the plot is unknown, but at Catesby's behest, Digby rented Coughton Court and prepared a "hunting party", ready for the planned uprising. The plot failed, however, and Digby joined the conspirators as they took flight through the Midlands, failing to garner support along their way. Digby left the other fugitives at Holbeche House in Staffordshire, and was soon captured and taken to the Tower of London. Digby was tried on 27 January 1606. Despite an eloquent defence, he was found guilty of high treason, and three days later was hanged, drawn and quartered. ## Origins The Digby family was of Leicestershire origin. Sir John Digby (d. 1269) served on two crusades, and, by 1418, Sir Everard "Greenleaf" Digby was Lord of Tilton and owner of the manor at Drystoke (Stoke Dry), and Rutland's Member of Parliament. Sir Everard lost his life (and his family much of their fortune) fighting in 1461 for Henry VI against Edward IV. The family had a more positive reversal of fortune in 1485 when Sir Everard's sons fought for the victorious Henry VII at the Battle of Bosworth Field. ## Early life Everard Digby was the eldest son of Everard Digby, Esquire (who died in 1592) and his wife Maria (née Neale), daughter of Francis Neale of Keythorpe in Leicestershire. The conspirator was a cousin of Anne Vaux, who for years placed herself at considerable risk by sheltering Jesuit priests such as Henry Garnet. He was probably a near kinsman of the 16th-century scholar Everard Digby, but it is clear that the scholar, who died in 1605, was not his father, because as a Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge (a celibate calling) he could not have been married at the time when the young Everard and some of his 13 siblings were born, nor was he "Esquire", as the father is named in his inquisition post mortem of 1592. In 1596, while still a teenager, he married Mary Mulshaw (or Mushlo), a young heiress who brought with her Gayhurst House in Buckinghamshire. By all accounts their marriage was a happy one, and they had two sons; Kenelm Digby was born in 1603 at Gayhurst, and John in 1605. Unlike other English Catholics, Digby had little first-hand experience of England's recusancy laws. Following the death of his father he had been made a ward of Chancery and was raised in a Protestant household. His wife Mary was converted to Catholicism by the Jesuit priest John Gerard. When Digby fell seriously ill, Gerard used the occasion to convert him also, and the two subsequently became close friends, "calling eachother [sic] 'brother' when we wrote and spoke". Gerard was godfather to Digby's eldest son, Kenelm, and the Digbys also built a hidden chapel and sacristy at Gayhurst. Digby frequented the court of Elizabeth I, and became informally associated with the Elizabethan gentlemen pensioners. His marriage had significantly expanded his holdings, however, and possibly for this reason he left court to manage his estates. He was apparently an unforgiving landlord, as his tenants in Tilton petitioned the Crown for redress when he failed to honour the expensive leases granted them by his father. He added to his property in Buckinghamshire by buying land in Great Missenden, and a month after the queen's death his social station was elevated when on 24 April 1603 he was knighted by James I at Belvoir Castle. Four days later he was present for Elizabeth's funeral in London. ## Robert Catesby In late August or early September 1605, Digby, his wife Mary, and their secret Jesuit chaplain Edward Oldcorne joined a pilgrimage organised by, amongst others, Henry Garnet and Anne Vaux. The party had set out from White Webbs at Enfield Chase, heading for the shrine of St Winefride's Well at Holywell, and had occasionally stopped along the way to collect more followers. As the thirty or so pilgrims returned from Holywell in mid-September, they stopped at Rushton Hall where Sir Thomas Tresham had recently died, and then continued on to Digby's seat at Gayhurst. On 21 October Digby, his wife Mary, Garnet and Vaux were at Harrowden celebrating a delayed Feast of St Luke. While there he met Robert Catesby, who at some point asked him to swear an oath of secrecy before introducing him to what later became known as the Gunpowder Plot. English Catholics had hoped that the years of persecution they suffered during Elizabeth's reign would end when James I came to the throne, as his attitude appeared moderate, even tolerant towards Catholics. In Catesby's view, however, James had reneged on his promises, and he had quickly lost patience with the new Stuart Dynasty. He therefore planned to kill James by blowing up the House of Lords with gunpowder, and then inciting a popular revolt during which a Catholic monarch would be restored to the throne. Catesby had enlisted the aid of other Catholics, but had borne much of the scheme's financial cost and was running out of money. The group had therefore agreed to expand their numbers. To this end Catesby had recruited Ambrose Rookwood—a young and wealthy Catholic with a stable of fine horses—and a wealthy cousin, Francis Tresham. The extent of Digby's knowledge of the plot is unknown, but in the opinion of author Alan Haynes, Digby was shocked by what he heard, and asked what would become of some of their Catholic friends. Catesby replied "Assure your selfe that such of the nobilitie as are worth the saving shalbe preserved and yet knowe not of the matter." None of their friends would be caught in the explosion. He asked if Catesby had spoken of the matter with Garnet, or any other Jesuits; although Catesby was in no doubt that the Jesuits disapproved of any such action, he lied and said that he would not act without their approbation. Catesby then named the other conspirators, and promised Digby that as soon as they reached Gayhurst he would demonstrate that their religion allowed such acts of regicide, thus dissuading the young lord from confessing to Garnet and discovering the Jesuit's opinion of the matter. Catesby told him to rent Coughton Court from the head of the Throckmorton family, so that he would "the better to be able to do good to the cause [kidnap Princess Elizabeth]". From there, he was to organise a hunting party (in reality a group of armed men on horseback) and be ready for some kind of military manoeuvre. Digby also provided monetary assistance; he promised £1,500 after fellow plotter Thomas Percy failed to pay the rent due for several properties in Westminster. ## Hunting party On 2 November at Gayhurst, while making preparations for his hunting party, Digby was visited by Gerard. Having noticed that the house was almost completely empty, the Jesuit asked him if there was "any matter in hand" and if Garnet knew of it. Keen not to implicate Gerard, despite being told less than two weeks earlier that the plot had Jesuit approval, Digby told him that there was nothing he knew of "or could tell him of". Although Gerard later used this conversation to defend himself against those who accused him of involvement in the plot, he lived to regret not being given the opportunity to dissuade Digby from his course. Two days later Digby and his servants were ensconced at the Red Lion inn, in Dunchurch, where his hunt was to take place. He took with him several items of clothing, including "a white satin doublet cut with purple". Also present, but uninvolved, were his uncle, Sir Robert Digby, Humphrey Littleton and his nephew Stephen Littleton. They ate supper, before being joined by fellow conspirator John Grant and a friend. Also invited was the stepbrother of plotters Robert and Thomas Wintour, John Wintour. They attended a mass the next morning, conducted by a Father Hammond, before the party moved on. Around midnight on 4 November, Guy Fawkes was discovered guarding the gunpowder the plotters had placed beneath the House of Lords, and arrested. Those conspirators still in London soon took flight for the Midlands, finding along the way those who had already left to prepare for the planned uprising. They met Digby and his party at Dunchurch. Catesby told Digby that the king and Salisbury were dead, and "if true Catholics would now stir, he doubted not that they might procure to themselves good conditions". Digby was won over, but many of his party were less than impressed at being so badly deceived, and worse, being associated with treason. One of his servants asked Digby what would happen to them; Digby told him that although he was aware of their ignorance, "but now there is no remedy". ## Flight On 6 November the fugitives raided Warwick Castle and managed to secure more horses, before moving on to Norbrook to collect stored weapons. From there they continued their journey toward Huddington. Catesby ordered his servant (and fellow plotter) Thomas Bates to deliver a letter to Father Garnet at Coughton Court. Catesby and Digby asked Garnet to excuse their recklessness, before asking for his help in raising an army in Wales. Garnet's reply begged them to stop their "wicked actions", and to listen to the Pope's teachings. When the priest tried to comfort Mary Digby, also at Coughton Court, she burst into tears. With their ever-decreasing band of supporters, the remaining fugitives arrived at Huddington at about 2:00 pm. Any expectation they had of support began to vanish; almost everyone they met showed concern only for their own safety, fearful of being involved with traitors. The next morning they rode through the rain, stopping briefly to help themselves to supplies from the home of the absent Lord Windsor at Hewell Grange. Still the locals refused to have anything to do with them; Digby later admitted that "not one man" joined them. They arrived that night at Holbeche House on the border of Staffordshire, and tired and desperate, spread out some of the now-soaked gunpowder in front of the fire, to dry out. A spark from the fire landed on the powder and the resultant flames engulfed Catesby, Rookwood, Grant, and another man. ## Surrender Catesby and fellow conspirators Thomas Percy, John Wright and his brother Christopher were killed by the Sheriff of Worcester's men early on 8 November, but Digby had already left to give himself up (the only conspirator to do so). With two servants, possibly Bates and his son, he took several horses and hid in nearby woods. Their tracks were soon found, however, and with some hesitation (Digby had intended to surrender himself to someone more worthy), early that morning he presented himself to the most senior-looking of his adversaries. While Digby was taken to the Tower of London, Gayhurst was ransacked; the servants' belongings were stolen, the livestock was sold cheaply, and Mary Digby was left destitute. The sheriff later remarked "All goods are carried away, even to the very floor of the great parlour." At the Tower, Digby's two trunks of clothing were searched, and found to contain £100 in gold, and £50 in white money. William Waad, Lieutenant of the Tower, asked if he could take £50 to pay for Digby's food and bedding. Digby unsuccessfully sought an audience with James to try and explain himself, in Fraser's opinion suggesting either that the extent of his involvement was limited, or that he was "astonishingly naive and trusting of his sovereign's forgiveness." While imprisoned he busied himself with writing secret letters, smuggled from the Tower and not rediscovered until Kenelm Digby's death in 1665. Although he was fortunate not to suffer the fate of Guy Fawkes, who was tortured on several occasions, one of these letters hints that it had been "in a fashion, offered". He described his refusal to cooperate with his interrogators, boasted of his deceit, and how there was nothing he could do to make the plot appear less abhorrent to fellow Catholics. Digby also carved an inscription on the wall of his cell, extant as of 1996. In December 1605 Mary Digby wrote to the Earl of Salisbury complaining that the Sheriff of Buckinghamshire had allowed people to strip their house for his profit, even her closet, and had not allowed them any of their clothes or linen. She entreated him for the life of her husband and his intercession with King James. ## Trial and execution Digby was tried on the same day as seven of his surviving co-conspirators, in Westminster Hall, on Monday 27 January 1606. As the king and his family watched in secret, the charges against the plotters were read aloud. Alone amongst them Digby pleaded "Guilty", and was tried on a separate indictment. Dressed in a black satin suit and "tuff taffetie gown", he gave a short and moving speech, defending his actions by explaining his affection for Catesby, and the cause of his religion. He accused King James of reneging on his promises of toleration for Catholics, and told of his fears of harsher laws against recusancy. He also pleaded on behalf of his family, that they should not pay for his actions, before making a final request to be beheaded. His words fell on mostly deaf ears. The prosecution poured scorn on James's supposed perfidy, and ridiculed Digby for asking for leniency where he would have given none. Along with the other plotters, he was found guilty. As they were led from the hall, Digby exclaimed: "If I may but hear any of your lordships say, you forgive me, I shall go more cheerfully to the gallows." The reply came back, "God forgive you, and we do." He spent his last few days in the Tower writing letters to his wife and his sons, urging the two brothers to avoid the examples set by figures such as Cain and Abel. He also wrote poetry: Who's that which knocks? Oh stay, my Lord, I come: I know that call, since first it made me know Myself, which makes me now with joy to run Lest he be gone that can my duty show. : Jesu, my Lord, I know thee by the Cross : Thou offer'st me, but not unto my loss. Digby was hanged, drawn and quartered early on Thursday 30 January. Throngs of spectators lined the streets as he was strapped to a wattled hurdle, and alongside Robert Wintour and John Grant was dragged by horse to the western end of Old St Paul's Cathedral churchyard. Thomas Bates was delivered in a similar fashion, but from the Gatehouse Prison. Armed guards interspersed along the route were there to defend against any possible rescue, but did not keep the miscreants' families from witnessing the fate of the four men. Cold and grubby, Digby was the first of the four to face the executioner. He mounted the scaffold and addressed the audience, telling them that he knew he had broken the law, but that morally, and in the eyes of his religion, he had committed no offence. He asked for God's forgiveness, and the country's, and protested the Jesuits' and Father Gerard's innocence. He refused the attentions of a Protestant clergyman, speaking to himself in Latin, before saying goodbye to his friends. Digby was then stripped of his clothing, except for his shirt. Murmuring "O Jesus, Jesus, save me and keep me", he climbed the ladder and was hanged for a short period. The executioner cut the rope, and Digby fell back to the scaffold, wounding his forehead. Fully conscious, he was taken to the block and castrated, disembowelled, and quartered. Wintour, Grant and Bates followed. The remaining four conspirators suffered similar fates the following day, at the Old Palace Yard in Westminster.
194,546	The Chronic	1,173,360,688	null	[ "1992 debut albums", "Albums produced by Dr. Dre", "Albums produced by Suge Knight", "Cannabis music", "Death Row Records albums", "Dr. Dre albums", "G-funk albums", "Interscope Records albums", "Priority Records albums", "United States National Recording Registry albums", "United States National Recording Registry recordings" ]	The Chronic is the debut studio album by the American hip hop producer and rapper Dr. Dre. It was released on December 15, 1992, by his own record label Death Row Records and distributed by Interscope Records. Recording sessions took place in June 1992 at Death Row Studios in Los Angeles and at Bernie Grundman Mastering in Hollywood. The Chronic was Dr. Dre's first solo album after he departed the West Coast hip hop group N.W.A and its label Ruthless Records over a financial dispute. It includes insults towards Ruthless and its owner, former N.W.A member and assembler Eazy-E. It features many appearances by then-emerging American rapper Snoop Dogg, who used the album as a launch pad for boosting his own solo career. The title derives from a slang term for high-grade cannabis, and its cover is an homage to Zig-Zag rolling papers. The Chronic reached number three on the Billboard 200 and has been certified triple platinum with sales of three million copies in the United States, making Dre one of the top ten best-selling American performing artists of 1993. The Chronic spent eight months in the Billboard Top 10. The album's three singles became top ten Billboard singles. "Nuthin' but a ‘G’ Thang" reached number two on the Billboard Hot 100 and number one on the Hot Rap Singles and Hot R&B Singles charts. Dr. Dre's production popularized the G-funk subgenre within gangsta rap. The Chronic has been widely regarded as one of the most important and influential albums of the 1990s and one of the best-produced hip hop albums. In 2019, the album was selected by the Library of Congress for preservation in the National Recording Registry as "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant". ## Music ### Production The production on The Chronic was seen as innovative and ground-breaking, and received universal acclaim from critics. AllMusic commented on Dr. Dre's efforts, "Here, Dre established his patented G-funk sound: fat, blunted Parliament-Funkadelic beats, soulful backing vocals, and live instruments in the rolling basslines and whiny synths" and that "For the next four years, it was virtually impossible to hear mainstream hip-hop that wasn't affected in some way by Dre and his patented G-funk." Unlike other hip hop acts (such as The Bomb Squad) that sampled heavily, Dr. Dre only utilized one or few samples per song. In Rolling Stone'''s The Immortals – The Greatest Artists of All Time, where Dr. Dre was listed at number 56, Kanye West wrote on the album's production quality: "The Chronic is still the hip-hop equivalent to Stevie Wonder's Songs in the Key of Life. It's the benchmark you measure your album against if you're serious." Jon Pareles of The New York Times described the production, writing "The bottom register is swampy synthesizer bass lines that openly emulate Parliament-Funkadelic; the upper end is often a lone keyboard line, whistling or blipping incessantly. In between are wide-open spaces that hold just a rhythm guitar, sparse keyboard chords." Pareles observed that the songs "were smoother and simpler than East Coast rap, and [Dr. Dre and Snoop Dogg] decisively expanded the hip-hop audience into the suburbs." Until this point, mainstream hip hop had been primarily party music (for example, Beastie Boys) or pro-empowerment and politically charged (for example, Public Enemy or X-Clan), and had consisted almost entirely of samples and breakbeats. Dr. Dre ushered in a new musical style and lyrics for hip hop. The beats were slower and mellower, samples from late 1970s and early 1980s funk music. By mixing these early influences with original live instrumentation, a distinctive genre known as G-funk was created. ### Lyrics The album's lyrics caused some controversy, as the subject matter included sexism and violent representations. It was noted that the album was a "frightening amalgam of inner-city street gangs that includes misogynist sexual politics and violent revenge scenarios". Most of the N.W.A members were addressed on the album; Eazy-E and Ice Cube were dissed on the second single "Fuck Wit Dre Day", while MC Ren however was shouted out on the album's intro. Dr. Dre's dissing of former bandmate, Eazy-E, resulted in vicious lyrics, which were mainly aimed at offending his enemy with homosexual implications, although it was noted to have "a spirited cleverness in the phrasing and rhymes; in other words, the song is offensive, but it's creatively offensive". Snoop Dogg, who had a significant role on the album, was praised for his lyrics and flow, and it was stated that, "Coupled with his inventive rhymes, Snoop's distinctive style made him a superstar before he'd even released a recording of his own" and that his involvement was as important to the album's success as its production. Touré of The New York Times remarks that "While Snoop delivers rhymes delicately, the content is anything but. Growing up poor, often surrounded by violence, and having served six months in the Wayside County jail outside of Los Angeles (for cocaine possession) gave Snoop Dogg experiences upon which he draws." Snoop Dogg later commented on the "reality" of his lyrics, stating, "My raps are incidents where either I saw it happen to one of my close homies or I know about it from just being in the ghetto. I can't rap about something I don't know. You'll never hear me rapping about no bachelor's degree. It's only what I know and that's that street life. It's all everyday life, reality." ## Singles Three singles were released from the album: "Nuthin' but a 'G' Thang", "Fuck wit Dre Day" and "Let Me Ride". "Nuthin' but a 'G' Thang" was released as the first single on November 19, 1992. It peaked at number two on the Billboard Hot 100 and number one on the Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Singles & Tracks and Hot Rap Singles. It sold over a million copies and the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) certified it Platinum on March 24, 1993. The song was nominated for Best Rap Performance by a Duo or Group at the 1994 Grammy Awards, but lost to Digable Planets' "Rebirth of Slick (Cool Like Dat)". Steve Huey of AllMusic named it "the archetypal G-funk single" and added "The sound, style, and performances of "Nuthin' but a 'G' Thang" were like nothing else on the early-'90s hip-hop scene." He praised Snoop Dogg's performance, stating "[Snoop Dogg's] flow was laconic and relaxed, massively confident and capable of rapid-fire tongue-twisters, but coolly laid-back and almost effortless at the same time". Today it is one of the most critically and commercially lauded hip-hop/rap songs of all time. It is rated the 134th best song of all time by Acclaimedmusic.net, and the sixth best hip-hop/rap song, and voted in a VH1 poll as the 13th best song of the 1990s. "Fuck wit Dre Day (and Everybody's Celebratin')" was released as the second single on May 20, 1993, and like the previous single, it was a hit on multiple charts. It reached number eight on the Billboard Hot 100 and number six on the Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Singles & Tracks. It sold over 500,000 units and the RIAA certified it Gold on October 8, 1993. Allmusic writer Steve Huey stated that the song was "a classic hip-hop single", citing Dr. Dre's production as "impeccable as ever, uniting his signature whiny synth melodies with a halting, descending bass line, a booming snare, and soulful female vocals in the background" and alluded to Snoop Dogg, stating "Attitude was something Snoop had by the boatload, his drawling, laid-back delivery projecting unassailable control – it sounded lazy even though it wasn't, and that helped establish Snoop's don't-give-a-damn persona." The track contains direct insults to rappers East coast rapper Tim Dog, 2 Live Crew member Luke, and Dre's former accomplices Eazy-E & Ice Cube. "Let Me Ride" was released as a cassette single on September 13, 1993. It experienced moderate success on the charts, reaching number 34 on the Billboard Hot 100 and number three on the Hot Rap Singles. The song won Dr. Dre Best Rap Solo Performance at the 1994 Grammy Awards. On this song and "Nuthin but a "G" Thang", Time magazine noted that Dr. Dre's verses were delivered with a "hypnotically intimidating ease" and made the songs feel like "dusk on a wide-open L.A. boulevard, full of possibility and menace". ## Critical reception In a contemporary review for Rolling Stone, Havelock Nelson wrote that the album "drops raw realism and pays tribute to hip-hop virtuosity." Entertainment Weekly said that it "storms with rage, strolls with confidence, and reverberates with a social realism that's often ugly and horrifying". Matty C of The Source claimed that Snoop Dogg's "Slick Rick-esque style" produces "new ground for West Coast MCs" and that the album is "an innovative and progressive hip-hop package that must not be missed." Edna Gundersen of USA Today found "Dre's prowess as beat-master and street preacher" to be "undeniable". Jonathan Gold of the Los Angeles Times wrote that, although the rappers lack "quick wit" and "rhythmic virtuosity", Dre's artistry is "on a par with Phil Spector's or Brian Wilson's." Gold argued that, because Dre recreates rather than samples beats and instrumental work, the finished album's fidelity is not inflected by that of "scratchy R&B records that have been played a million times", unlike productions from East Coast hip hop. Greg Kot was less enthusiastic in the Chicago Tribune, deeming The Chronic superficial, unrefined entertainment, while writing that "Dre combines street potency with thuggish stupidity in equal measure." Village Voice critic Robert Christgau dismissed it as "sociopathic easy-listening" and "bad pop music" whose innovation—Dre's departure from sampling—is not inspired by contemporary P-Funk, but rather blaxploitation soundtracks, which led him to combine preset bass lines with imitations of "Bernie Worrell's high keyb sustain, a basically irritating sound that in context always signified fantasy, not reality—stoned self-loss or, at a best Dre never approaches, grandiose jive." He felt that the brutal lyrical threats were vague and lacked detail, but that Snoop Dogg rhymed "drolly" and less dully than Dre. Select's Adam Higginbotham opined that The Chronic was not as strong as releases from other gangster rap artists such as Ice Cube and Da Lench Mob and found it neither as "musically sharp, nor as lyrically smart as the latter". His review concluded that the album sounded like "all the pedestrian bits from The Predator", but that it was still better than anything Eazy-E had released. In a retrospective piece, Jon Pareles from The New York Times said that The Chronic and Snoop Dogg's Doggystyle "made the gangsta life sound like a party occasionally interrupted by gunplay". AllMusic's Steve Huey compared Dr. Dre to his inspiration, George Clinton, stating "Dre's just as effortlessly funky, and he has a better feel for a hook, a knack that improbably landed gangsta rap on the pop charts". Rhapsody writer Brolin Winning named the album as "an untouchable masterpiece of California Gangsta Rap" and that it had "track after track of G-Funk gems". In Rolling Stone's 500 Greatest Albums of All Time, it was noted that "Dre funked up the rhymes with a smooth bass-heavy production style and the laid-back delivery of then-unknown rapper Snoop Doggy Dogg." Time magazine's Josh Tyrangiel states that Dr. Dre created "a sound that defined early 90s urban L.A. in the same way that Motown defined 60s Detroit". Laura Sinagra, writing in The Rolling Stone Album Guide (2004), said that The Chronic "features system-busting Funkadelic beats designed to rumble your woofer while the matter-of-fact violence of the lyrics blows your smoke-filled mind". ### Accolades In 1994, "Nuthin' but a "G" Thang" and "Let Me Ride" were nominated at the 36th Grammy Awards, with the latter winning Best Rap Solo Performance for Dr. Dre. That year, readers of Hip Hop Connection voted it the fourth best album of all time, leading the magazine to speculate, "In a few years' time, it could even be remembered as the best rap album of all time." The Chronic was included in Vibe magazine's list of the 100 Essential Albums of the 20th Century, and the magazine later included it in their list of the Top 10 Rap Albums of All Time, dubbing it a "decade-defining opus". The record was ranked eighth in Spin magazine's "90 Greatest Albums of the '90s", and in 2005, it was ranked at number thirty-five in their list of the "100 Greatest Albums, 1985–2005". Rolling Stone ranked The Chronic at number 138 on their list of the 500 Greatest Albums of All Time, and at 37 in their 2020 update. In 2005, MTV Networks listed The Chronic as the third greatest hip hop album in history. The following year, Time magazine named it as one of "The All-Time 100 Albums". In a retrospective issue, XXL magazine awarded The Chronic a perfect "XXL" rating. The Source, who originally gave the album a rating of 4.5 out of 5 mics in 1993, would later include it in their list of the 100 Best Rap Albums; in 2008, the magazine's former editor Reginald Dennis remarked that he "would have given it a five" in retrospect—the magazine's editors had a strict rule forbidding five-mic ratings at the time—and that "no one could have predicted the seismic shift that this album would produce". The Chronic is listed in the book 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die. ## Commercial performance As of 2015, the album has sold 5.7 million copies in the United States, and was certified Triple Platinum by RIAA on November 3, 1993. It is Dr. Dre's second-bestselling album, as his follow-up album, 2001, was certified sextuple Platinum. The album first appeared on music charts in 1993, peaking on the Billboard 200 at number three, and peaking on Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums at number one. The Chronic spent eight months in the Billboard Top 10. The album's three singles became top ten Billboard singles. "Nuthin' but a "G" Thang" peaked at number two on the Billboard Hot 100 and at number one on both the Hot Rap Singles and Hot R&B Singles charts. "Fuck Wit Dre Day (And Everybody's Celebratin')" became a top ten single on four different charts, including the Hot R&B Singles (number 6) and the Hot 100 (number 8). The Chronic didn't chart on the UK Albums Chart until 2000. It re-entered the charts in 2003, peaking on the Ireland Albums Top 75 at number 48, and on the UK Albums Top 75 in 2004 at number 43. As of 2015, it has sold 260,814 copies there. ## Legacy Having split from N.W.A, Dr. Dre's first solo album established him as one of the biggest hip hop stars of his era. Yahoo! Music writer S.L. Duff wrote of the album's impact on his status in hip hop at the time, stating "Dre's considerable reputation is based on this release, alongside his production technique on Snoop's Doggystyle" and his early work with N.W.A. Whatever one thinks of the over-the-top bravado rapping, the tracks and beats Dre assembled are beyond reproach". The Chronic brought G-funk to the mainstream – a genre defined by slow bass beats and melodic synthesizers, topped by P-Funk samples, female vocals, and a laconic, laid-back lyrical delivery referred to as a "lazy drawl". The album takes its name from a slang term for premium grade cannabis, chronic. The album cover is an homage to Zig-Zag rolling papers. Robert Christgau said that, although he "can't stand" it, he respects The Chronic "for its influence and iconicity". The album launched the careers of West Coast hip hop artists, including Snoop Doggy Dogg, Daz Dillinger, Kurupt, Nate Dogg, and Warren G, Dr. Dre's stepbrother – all of whom pursued successful commercial careers. The Chronic'' is widely regarded as the album that re-defined West Coast hip hop, demonstrated gangsta rap's commercial potential as a multi-platinum commodity, and established G-funk as the most popular sound in hip hop music for several years after its release, with Dr. Dre producing major albums that drew heavily on his production style. The album's success established Death Row Records as a dominant force in 1990s hip hop. It has been re-released 3 times, first as a remastered CD, then as a remastered DualDisc with enhanced stereo and four videos, and in 2009 as "The Chronic Re-Lit" with a bonus DVD containing a 30-minute interview and 7 unreleased tracks. On April 20, 2020, the album was distributed across all major streaming services, as it had previously been an Apple Music exclusive since 2015. However, on March 13, 2022, the album (along with several other Death Row albums) was removed from streaming services, with speculation that Snoop Dogg (who had acquired the label the previous month) wanted to turn the albums into NFTs. In January 2023, it was reported that as part of a deal with Universal Music Group and Shamrock Holdings for his music assets, the masters for the album were set to transfer from Death Row back to Dre in August of the same year, with the masters then being transferred to UMG as part of the deal. The following month, Dre announced that he has regained control of rights to the album (through his company Ary, Inc.) and restored the album to streaming services through the album's original distributor, Interscope Records. ## Track listing All songs produced by Dr. Dre. ## Personnel - Dr. Dre – vocals, synthesizers, producer, drum programming, mixing - Snoop Doggy Dogg – vocals, co-writer - RBX – vocals, composer, co-writer - Lady of Rage – vocals - Warren G – vocals, drum programing, composer - The D.O.C. – co-writer, vocals - Nate Dogg – vocals, composer - Dat Nigga Daz – vocals, drum programming, composer - Kurupt – vocals, composer - Jewell - vocals - Colin Wolfe – bass guitar, bass keyboard, co-writer - Justin Reinhardt – keyboards - Katisse Buckingham – flute, saxophone - Eric "The Drunk" Borders – guitar - Chris Clairmont – guitar - Bernie Grundman - mastering - Greg "Gregski" Royal – mixing - Chris "The Glove" Taylor – mixing - Willie Will – mixing - Ben Butler – producer - Jewell – executive producer ## Charts ### Weekly charts ### Year-end charts ## Certifications ## See also - List of number-one R&B albums of 1993 (U.S.)
14,922,935	The Cool Kids	1,168,979,296	American hip hop duo	[ "African-American musical groups", "Alternative hip hop groups", "American hip hop groups", "American hip hop record producers", "American musical duos", "Hip hop duos", "Midwest hip hop groups", "Musical groups established in 2007", "Musical groups from Chicago", "Rappers from Detroit", "Record producers from Illinois", "XL Recordings artists" ]	The Cool Kids are an American hip hop duo composed of rappers Sir Michael Rocks and Chuck Inglish. The Cool Kids' music had been released primarily to the independent Chocolate Industries via their own label C.A.K.E. Recordings. Reed and Ingersoll have made appearances in numerous forms of media, as well as in collaborations with other artists such as Freddie Gibbs, The Alchemist, Mac Miller, Boldy James, The Neptunes, Curren\$y, Dom Kennedy, Larry June, Pac Div, Travis Barker, Lil Wayne, King Chip, Asher Roth, Ab-Soul, and Chance The Rapper. The Cool Kids are also members of the hip hop collectives All City Chess Club and P.O.C. founded in 2010–2011. ## History Reed attended Walter Payton College Prep in Chicago, Illinois while Ingersoll had attended Notre Dame High School in Harper Woods, Michigan where he played football and basketball. Reed and Ingersoll first exchanged conversations in 2005 when Reed found a beat on MySpace that Ingersoll had produced. The two met to discuss terms of the beat's sale, and eventually ended up recording for two hours. They were inspired by golden age hip hop and artists like LL Cool J and Eric B. & Rakim. Ingersoll began promoting the new duo's material, and it was eventually booked by Josh Young of Flosstradamus for a DJ performance. At this performance (in a venue called Town Hall Pub), the duo met the DJ Diplo who offered to release a mixtape of their unreleased tracks titled Totally Flossed Out on his label Mad Decent, though it was eventually released on C.A.K.E. Recordings. They also received an offer from the DJ A-Trak to sign to his Fool's Gold Records label, which they did, but only for one single. Of their time with Fool's Gold Records, the Cool Kids felt they were not getting enough attention: "When your boss is on tour with Kanye West, it’s easy to have timelines missed," said Chuck in an interview. All of their material had been released solely on the band's MySpace page—their recording contract came after performances at the CMJ Music Festival and Pitchfork Media Music Festival, on July 15, 2007. Eventually, The Cool Kids signed to Chocolate Industries, another independent label. The group has revealed on its MySpace page that The Cool Kids' debut album, When Fish Ride Bicycles, will be released in 2008, though it did not come out until 2011. Ingersoll has been the producer for tracks released thus far, but both work in rapping and production. The duo uses music software program Reason from Propellerhead Software to produce their music. They have been on tour, opening for M.I.A. and they also joined the bill of the 2008 Rock the Bells hip hop festival on select dates. The group toured across Australia in February 2008 and also appeared at the Laneway Festival. The group also appeared at SUNY Purchase's Culture Shock event in April 2009. One of the duo's singles, "Black Mags", was featured in a late 2007 Rhapsody TV commercial, along with Sara Bareilles. In the same year, the group collaborated with Lil Wayne and DJ Benzi through the Internet on a track entitled "Gettin' It", which will reportedly appear on the DJ's future album Get Right. The Cool Kids have been featured in the video games NBA Live 08 and MLB 2K8 with the song "88", in Need for Speed Nitro, with The Bloody Beetroots in the song Awesome, and in the episode "The First Cut Is the Deepest" from HBO's TV series Entourage with the song "Mikey Rocks". They were listed in Rolling Stone's Ten Artists to Watch in 2008. According to Rolling Stone, "since "Black Mags" debuted, the Cool Kids have gone from an underground sensation in their native Chicago to the hottest ticket at New York's CMJ festival." The duo has been endorsed by Mountain Dew for their single, "Delivery Man", to which commercials and the music video have aired on MTV2. The group's song "Bassment Party" was featured in the September 21, 2008, episode of the HBO hit comedy Entourage. They also recorded an original track, "2K Pennies," for the soundtrack of NBA 2K9. The Cool Kids have said in an interview that their success has been gradual. They will also be headlining the "NBA 2K Bounce Tour" along with Q-Tip. The Cool Kids also performed at the 2009 Voodoo Experience in New Orleans, Louisiana. Producer Don Cannon said in an interview with XXL, that he will be working with The Cool Kids for their new album. The group's second official mixtape, Gone Fishing was released on May 5, 2009. Their debut album, When Fish Ride Bicycles, was released July 12, 2011. Their song "A Little Bit Cooler" was used in a "Most Valuable Puppets" commercial from Nike with LeBron James and Kobe Bryant entitled "Mrs. Lewis". A new mixtape called Tacklebox came out on May 31, 2010. Chuck Inglish worked with Chip tha Ripper and produced his debut album Gift Raps in its entirety. The group claims they haven't put out an album because of having issues with their former label Chocolate Industries for the past three years, but according to the group these issues are now settled and they are working on putting out When Fish Ride Bicycles. In 2010, Chuck Inglish and Mikey Rocks teamed up with Gary, Indiana's Freddie Gibbs and Cleveland's Chip tha Ripper to form the "super group" P.O.C. (Pulled Over by the Cops). Sir Michael Rocks has released a solo project titled The Rocks Report. When Fish Ride Bicycles was released on July 12, 2011. Featuring production by The Neptunes and also featuring Bun B, Chip Tha Ripper, Ghostface Killah, among other artists. The group plans a follow-up album titled "Shark Week". On October 23, 2011, Mikey Rocks signed with Jet Life Recordings, a Warner Bros. imprint owned by fellow rap artist Curren\$y. Chuck Inglish produced the EP "Candy Jams" for 10ille in February 2012 and is also set to work on a mixtape with Curren\$y. On April 25, 2015, member Mikey Rocks took to Twitter to address the consistent questions about a possible reunion, saying they were "never coming back." However, fellow member Chuck Inglish announced the duo were getting back together on July 13, 2016 The Cool Kids have since announced several concerts for the first half of 2017. ## Discography ### Studio albums ### Extended plays ### Mixtapes ### Singles - "Black Mags" (2007), C.A.K.E., Chocolate Ind. - "Delivery Man" (2008), Green Label Sound - "Pennies" (2008) - "Bundle Up" (2011), Green Label Sound - "Swimsuits" (featuring Mayer Hawthorne) (2011), Green Label Sound - "G.E.D. (Gettin' Every Dolla)" (Sir Michael Rocks Ft. Tris J) (2012) - "Im Doggin" (2012) - "Mikey Rocks" (2014) - "Running Man" (2016) feat. Maxo Kream - "Connect 4" (2016) - "TV Dinner" (2017) - "Checkout" (2017) - "9:15pm" (2017) feat. Jeremih - "Dice Game" (2018) ### Videography - Black Mags (2007) - Delivery Man (2008) - Pennies (2008) - Knocked Down (2009) - Tires (2009) - Free Throws (2009) - Do It Big (2010) - Gold Links (2010) - Big Talk (2010) - Bundle Up (2011) - Summer Jam (2011) - Rush Hour Traffic (2012) - TV Dinner (2017) ## See also - Chicago hip hop
13,716,029	Lockheed XF-104 Starfighter	1,127,153,843	Experimental fighter aircraft	[ "1950s United States experimental aircraft", "1950s United States fighter aircraft", "Lockheed F-104 Starfighter", "Lockheed aircraft", "Mid-wing aircraft", "Single-engined jet aircraft" ]	The Lockheed XF-104 Starfighter was a single-engine, high-performance, supersonic interceptor prototype for a United States Air Force (USAF) series of lightweight and simple fighters. Only two aircraft were built; one aircraft was used primarily for aerodynamic research and the other served as an armament testbed, both aircraft being destroyed in accidents during testing. The XF-104s were forerunners of over 2,500 production Lockheed F-104 Starfighters. During the Korean War, USAF fighter pilots were outclassed by MiG-equipped Soviet pilots. Lockheed engineers, led by Kelly Johnson, designed and submitted a novel design to the Air Force, notable for its sleekness, particularly its thin wings and missile-shaped fuselage, as well as a novel pilot ejection system. Flight testing of the XF-104s began with the first flight in March 1954, encountering several problems, some of which were resolved; however, performance of the XF-104 proved better than estimates and despite both prototypes being lost through accidents, the USAF ordered 17 service-test/pre-production YF-104As. Production Starfighters proved popular, both with the USAF and internationally, serving with a number of countries, including Jordan, Turkey, and Japan. ## Development ### Original requirement Clarence L. "Kelly" Johnson, chief engineer at Lockheed's Skunk Works, visited Korea in December 1951 and talked to fighter pilots about what sort of aircraft they wanted. At the time, U.S. Air Force pilots were confronting the MiG-15 "Fagot" in their North American F-86 Sabres, and many of the pilots felt that the MiGs were superior to the larger and more complex American design. The pilots requested a small and simple aircraft with excellent performance. One pilot in particular, Colonel Gabby Gabreski was quoted as saying; "I'd rather sight with a piece of chewing gum stuck on the windscreen" and told Johnson that radar "was a waste of time". On his return to the U.S., Johnson immediately started the design of just such an aircraft realising that an official requirement would soon be published. In March 1952, his team was assembled, and they sketched several different aircraft proposals, ranging from small designs at 8,000 lb (3.6 t), to fairly large ones at 50,000 lb (23 t). The L-246 as the design became known remained essentially identical to the "Model L-083 Starfighter" as eventually delivered. ### Tender of performance The design was presented to the Air Force in November 1952, who were interested enough to create a new proposal, inviting several companies to participate. Three additional designs were received: the Republic AP-55, an improved version of its prototype XF-91 Thunderceptor; the North American NA-212, which would eventually evolve into the F-107; and the Northrop N-102 Fang, a new General Electric J79-powered design. ### Selected design Although all were interesting, Lockheed had an insurmountable lead and was granted a development contract in March 1953. Test data from the earlier Lockheed X-7 unmanned ramjet/rocket program proved invaluable for aerodynamic research since the XF-104 would share the general design of the X-7's wing and tail. Experience gained from the Douglas X-3 Stiletto was also used in the design phase of the XF-104. Over 400 surplus instrumented artillery rockets were launched to test various airfoils and tail designs; from which the camera film and telemetry were recovered by parachute. ### Prototypes The wooden mock-up was ready for inspection at the end of April, and work started on two prototypes late in May. The J79 engine was not yet ready, so both prototypes were instead designed to use the Wright J65, a licensed built version of the Armstrong Siddeley Sapphire. Construction of the first prototype XF-104 (US serial number 53-7786, Buzz number FG-786) began in summer 1953 at Lockheed's Burbank, California factory. This aircraft was powered by a non-afterburning Buick-built Wright J65-B-3 turbojet. The first prototype was completed by early 1954, and started flying in March. The total time from award of the contract to first flight was only one year, a very short time even then, and unheard of today, when 10–15 years is more typical. Construction of the second prototype (s/n 53-7787) proceeded at a slower pace. ### F-104 production Official approval of the XF-104 design led to a contract for 17 YF-104A service test aircraft and a production run of over 2,500 aircraft built both in the United States and under license worldwide. Visible changes from the XF-104 to production versions of the Starfighter include a longer fuselage (to accommodate the J79 engine and extra internal fuel) and a forward-retracting nose landing gear (except two-seat versions) to increase clearance for the downward-ejecting seat. A ventral fin for increased stability was added during the YF-104A test program. Inlet shock cones and a fuselage spine fairing between the canopy and fin that housed fuel piping were further added features. Production aircraft would also feature a redesigned fin structure using stainless steel spars to eliminate the flutter problem. Since the internal fuel capacity was low limiting the useful range of the aircraft, extra capacity was provided on later versions by lengthening the forward fuselage. ## Design In order to achieve the desired performance, Lockheed chose a minimalist approach: a design that would achieve high performance by wrapping the lightest, most aerodynamically efficient airframe possible around a single powerful engine. The emphasis was on minimizing drag and mass. ### Wing design The XF-104 had a radical wing design. Most supersonic jets use a swept or delta wing. This allows a reasonable balance between aerodynamic performance, lift, and internal space for fuel and equipment. However the most efficient shape for high-speed, supersonic flight had been found to be a small, straight, mid-mounted, trapezoidal wing of low aspect ratio and high wing loading. The wing was extremely thin, with a thickness-to-chord ratio of only 3.4%. The leading edges of the wing were so thin (0.016 in/0.41 mm) and so sharp that they presented a hazard to ground crews, and protective guards had to be installed during ground operations. The thinness of the wings meant that fuel tanks and landing gear had to be contained in the fuselage. The hydraulic actuators driving the ailerons were only one inch (25 mm) thick to fit into the available space and were known as Piccolo actuators because of their resemblance to this musical instrument. The wings had electrically driven leading and trailing edge flaps to increase lift at low speed. The XF-104 did not feature the Boundary Layer Control System of the production aircraft. ### Tail fin After extensive wind tunnel testing, the stabilator was mounted at the top of the fin for optimum stability and control about the pitch axis. Because the vertical tail fin was only slightly shorter than the length of each wing and nearly as aerodynamically effective, it could act as a wing on rudder application (a phenomenon known as "Dutch roll"). To offset this effect, the wings were angled downward to give 10° anhedral. The rudder was manually operated and supplemented by a small yaw damper surface mounted at the bottom of the fin. ### Fuselage The fuselage of the XF-104 had a high fineness ratio, i.e., tapering sharply towards the nose, and a small frontal area of 25 sq ft (2.3 m<sup>2</sup>). The fuselage was tightly packed, containing the cockpit, avionics, cannon, all internal fuel, landing gear, and engine. The air intakes, designed by Ben Rich, were of fixed geometry without inlet cones, since the J65-powered aircraft was incapable of Mach 2 performance. They were similar to those of the F-94 Starfire, being mounted slightly away from the fuselage, with an inner splitter plate for the boundary layer bleed air. The combination of these features provided extremely low drag except at high angle of attack, at which point induced drag became very high. ### Ejection seat The XF-104 featured an unusual downward-ejecting Stanley B seat. It was feared that contemporary ejection seat designs would not have enough explosive power to clear the high "T" tail assembly. In the event of the seat not firing, it was possible to manually release the lower fuselage hatch and then exit the aircraft via gravity. The F-104 series aircraft would later convert to upward-ejecting seats but the fuselage hatch was retained as a useful maintenance feature. ## Operational history ### Testing and evaluation #### First flights The first XF-104 (Lockheed 083-1001, s/n 53-7786) was transported to Edwards AFB amidst high secrecy during the night of 24–25 February, where Lockheed test pilot Tony LeVier was to do the initial testing. On 28 February 1954, the XF-104 made a planned hop of about five feet off the ground during a high-speed taxi, but its first official flight took place on 4 March. During that flight, the landing gear did not retract, and LeVier landed after a low-speed flight of about 20 minutes. Adjustments and further flights discovered that the problem was low pressure in the hydraulic system. Bad weather kept the XF-104 on the ground until 26 March, when further flights were carried out with the landing gear retracting normally. The second prototype (Lockheed 083-1002, s/n 53-7787), fitted with the afterburning J65 from the start, first flew on 5 October. Since it was to be the armament test bed, it was fitted with the 20 mm (.79 in) M61 Vulcan cannon and was equipped with an AN/ASG-14T-1 fire control system. XF-104 \#2 achieved a top speed of Mach 1.79 at 60,000 feet (18,000 m) on 25 March 1955, piloted by Lockheed test pilot J. Ray Goudey. This was the highest speed achieved by the XF-104. #### Performance XF-104 \#1 was subsonic in level flight when powered by the non-afterburning J65, but Mach 1 could be easily exceeded during a slight descent. In July 1954, the J65-B-3 was replaced by the afterburning J65-W-7 turbojet. With this engine installed, the performance of the XF-104 was greatly improved. Maximum level speed was Mach 1.49 at 41,000 ft (12,000 m), and an altitude of 55,000 ft (17,000 m) could be attained in a zoom climb, while Mach 1.6 could be attained in a dive. The first XF-104 was accepted by the USAF in November 1955. #### Firing tests Initial aerial firing tests with the Vulcan cannon on the second aircraft were successful, but on 17 December, there was an explosion during a firing burst and the J65 engine suffered severe compressor stalls. Tony LeVier immediately shut down the engine and glided back to make a successful deadstick landing at Rogers Dry Lake. An investigation later showed that one of the 20 mm cannon rounds had exploded in the breech, blowing the bolt out the rear of the gun and through the structure into the forward fuselage fuel cell. Jet fuel had run into the gun bay, and leaked out of the compartment door seals and into the left engine air intake. The engine immediately flooded with fuel, causing the compressor stalls. ### Crashes XF-104 53-7786 was lost in a crash on 11 July 1957 when it developed an uncontrollable fin flutter while flying chase for F-104A flight tests. The entire tail group was ripped from the airframe, and Lockheed test pilot Bill Park was forced to eject. Fin flutter was a known problem and the aircraft had been limited to speeds of no more than Mach 0.95 at the time of the accident. Tony LeVier had attempted to have the aircraft removed from flight status and placed in a museum, arguing that its performance was not suitable for chase duties. XF-104 53-7787 was lost on 14 April 1955 after accumulating over 1,000 flying hours when test pilot Herman Salmon was forced to eject during gun firing trials at 50,000 ft (15,000 m). The gun malfunctioned during a test firing, and severe vibrations began to build up which knocked loose the ejection hatch below the cockpit. Cabin pressure was lost with Salmon's pressure suit inflating and covering his face so that he could not see. Recalling LeVier's harrowing experience with the exploding cannon shell the previous December, Salmon believed that the same thing had happened to him and that he had no option but to eject. He later found out that he could have saved 53-7787 by bringing it down to a lower altitude and waiting for his pressure suit to deflate. With the loss of the armament testbed, Lockheed engineers were forced to find an alternative, and armament trials were continued on a modified Lockheed F-94C Starfire. The two XF-104s amassed an approximate total of 2,500 flight hours. ### Testing conclusions Flight testing proved that performance estimates were accurate and that even when fitted with the low powered J65 engine, the XF-104 flew faster than the other Century Series fighters being developed at the time. The XF-104's ceiling at 60,000 ft (18,000 m) was 7,000 ft (2,100 m) higher than predicted, and it exceeded estimated speed and drag figures by two to three percent. It was noted however that the low thrust of the J65 engine did not enable the full performance potential of the type to be realized. A number of minor problems surfaced, but were readily fixed. The yaw damper of the XF-104 was found to be ineffective and the rudder did not positively center; these problems were corrected by revising the rudder control system. The unpowered rudder did not provide adequate directional control at high air speeds, which problem was fixed by using hydraulic power on all subsequent versions of the F-104; and some concern was expressed over poor subsonic maneuverability at higher altitudes. During a later interview, Kelly Johnson was asked about his opinion on the aircraft. "Did it come up to my designs? In terms of performance, yes. In terms of engine, we went through a great many engine problems, not with the J65s but with the J79s." For his part in designing the F-104 airframe, Johnson was jointly awarded the Collier Trophy in 1958, sharing the honor with General Electric (engine) and the U.S. Air Force (Flight Records). ## Specifications (XF-104) ## See also
9,593,869	Production of the James Bond films	1,172,853,576	null	[ "1960s in film", "1970s in British cinema", "1980s in British cinema", "1990s in British cinema", "2000s in British cinema", "2010s in British cinema", "2020s in film", "British action adventure films", "Film production", "Film series introduced in 1962", "James Bond in film" ]	The James Bond film series is a British series of spy films based on the fictional character of MI6 agent James Bond, "007", who originally appeared in a series of books by Ian Fleming. It is one of the longest continually running film series in history, having been in ongoing production from 1962 to the present (with a six-year hiatus between 1989 and 1995). In that time, Eon Productions has produced 25 films as of 2021, most of them at Pinewood Studios. With a combined gross of over \$7 billion, the films produced by Eon constitute the fifth-highest-grossing film series. Six actors have portrayed 007 in the Eon series, the latest being Daniel Craig. Albert R. Broccoli and Harry Saltzman co-produced most of the Eon films until 1975, when Broccoli became the sole producer. The single exception during this period was Thunderball, on which Broccoli and Saltzman became executive producers while Kevin McClory produced. From 1984 Broccoli was joined by his stepson Michael G. Wilson as producer and in 1995 Broccoli stepped aside from Eon and was replaced by his daughter Barbara, who has co-produced with Wilson since. Broccoli's (and until 1975, Saltzman's) family company, Danjaq, has held ownership of the series through Eon, and maintained co-ownership with United Artists since the mid-1970s. The Eon series has seen continuity both in the main actors and in the production crews, with directors, writers, composers, production designers, and others employed through a number of films. From the release of Dr. No (1962) to For Your Eyes Only (1981), the films were distributed solely by United Artists. When Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer absorbed United Artists in 1981, MGM/UA Entertainment Co. was formed and distributed the films until 1995. MGM solely distributed three films from 1997 to 2002 after United Artists was retired as a mainstream studio. From 2006 to 2015, MGM and Columbia Pictures co-distributed the film series, following the 2004 acquisition of MGM by a consortium led by Columbia's parent company, Sony Pictures. In November 2010, MGM filed for bankruptcy. Following its emergence from insolvency, Columbia became co-production partner of the series with Eon. Sony's distribution rights to the franchise expired in late 2015 with the release of Spectre. In 2017, MGM and Eon offered a one-film contract to co-finance and distribute the 25th film worldwide, which was reported in May 2018 to have been won by Universal Pictures. The 25th film, No Time to Die, is the first in the franchise to be distributed by United Artists Releasing, a joint venture of Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer and Annapurna Pictures. Independently of the Eon series, there have been three additional productions featuring Bond: an American television adaptation, Casino Royale (1954), produced by CBS; a spoof, also titled Casino Royale (1967), produced by Charles K. Feldman; and a remake of Thunderball titled Never Say Never Again (1983), produced by Jack Schwartzman, who had obtained the rights from McClory. ## First screen adaptation In 1954 the American CBS television network paid Ian Fleming \$1,000 (\$ in dollars) for the rights to turn his first novel, Casino Royale, into a one-hour television adventure as part of the dramatic anthology series Climax Mystery Theater, which ran between October 1954 and June 1958. It was adapted for the screen by Anthony Ellis and Charles Bennett; Bennett was well known for his collaborations with Alfred Hitchcock, including The 39 Steps and Sabotage. Due to the restriction of a one-hour play, the adapted version lost many of the details found in the book, although it retained its violence, particularly in Act III. The hour-long "Casino Royale" episode, which starred American actor Barry Nelson as Bond and Peter Lorre as the villain Le Chiffre, aired on 21 October 1954 as a live production. ## Eon Productions ### Albert R. Broccoli and Harry Saltzman (1962–1964) In 1959 producer Albert R. "Cubby" Broccoli at Warwick Films expressed interest in adapting the Bond novels, but his colleague Irving Allen was unenthusiastic. In June 1961 Fleming sold a six-month option on the film rights to his published and future James Bond novels and short stories to Harry Saltzman, with the exception of Casino Royale, which he had previously sold. Towards the end of Saltzman's option period, screenwriter Wolf Mankowitz introduced him to Broccoli, and Saltzman and Broccoli formed Eon Productions with the intention of making the first Bond film. A number of Hollywood studios did not want to fund the films, finding them "too British" or "too blatantly sexual". Eventually the two signed a deal with United Artists for 100% financial backing and distribution of seven films, with financing of \$1 million for the first feature. Saltzman and Broccoli also created the company Danjaq, which was to hold the rights to the films which Eon Productions was to produce. Eon had originally intended to film Fleming's novel Thunderball first, but Kevin McClory took Fleming to the High Court in London for breach of copyright over the book, and so Eon decided to film Dr. No first. From the outset, the order in which Eon produced its Bond films differed considerably from the publication sequence of Fleming's Bond novels, and therefore also from the fictional chronology of Bond's life and work which the novels establish. #### Dr. No (1962) Eon asked several directors—Bryan Forbes, Guy Green, Val Guest and Guy Hamilton—to helm the film, but all declined, before Terence Young agreed. Eon had originally hired Wolf Mankowitz and Richard Maibaum to write Dr. No's screenplay, partly because of Mankowitz's help in brokering the deal between Broccoli and Saltzman. An initial draft of the screenplay was rejected because the scriptwriters had made the villain, Dr. No, a monkey, and Mankowitz left the film. Maibaum then undertook a second version, more closely in line with the novel; Johanna Harwood and Berkely Mather then worked on Maibaum's script, with Harwood in particular being described as a script doctor credited with improving the British characterisations. To play the lead role of Bond, Sean Connery was not Broccoli or Fleming's first choice, but he was selected after Patrick McGoohan had turned down the role, and Eon had rejected Richard Johnson. After Connery was chosen, Terence Young took the actor to his tailor and hairdresser and introduced him to the high life, restaurants, casinos and women of London. In the words of Bond writer Raymond Benson, Young educated the actor "in the ways of being dapper, witty, and above all, cool". Filming took place on location in Jamaica between 16 January and 21 February 1962; five days later filming began at Pinewood Studios in England with sets designed by Ken Adam, who had previously worked with Broccoli on the 1960 film The Trials of Oscar Wilde. Maurice Binder created the title sequence and introduced the gun barrel motif that appears in all the Eon Bond films. Monty Norman wrote the accompanying soundtrack, which included the "James Bond Theme", heard in the gun barrel sequence and in a calypso medley over the title credits; the theme was described by another Bond film composer, David Arnold, as "bebop-swing vibe coupled with that vicious, dark, distorted electric guitar, definitely an instrument of rock 'n' roll ... it represented everything about the character you would want: It was cocky, swaggering, confident, dark, dangerous, suggestive, sexy, unstoppable. And he did it in two minutes". The theme was arranged by John Barry, who was uncredited for the arrangement but credited for his performance. #### From Russia with Love (1963) After the financial success of Dr. No, United Artists doubled the budget offered to Eon Productions to \$2 million for the company's next film, From Russia with Love. The film was shot in Europe, which had turned out to be the more profitable market for Dr. No. Most of the crew from the first film returned, with major exceptions being production designer Ken Adam—who went to work on Dr. Strangelove and was replaced by Dr. No's art director Syd Cain—and title designer Maurice Binder, who was replaced by Robert Brownjohn. The original screenwriter for the film was Len Deighton, but he was replaced because of his slow progress. Two of the writers from Dr. No, Richard Maibaum and Johanna Harwood, were brought in, with Maibaum being given the sole writing credit and Harwood being credited for "adaptation". From Russia with Love is the first Bond film in the series with John Barry as the primary soundtrack composer, although Lionel Bart wrote the title song "From Russia with Love", sung by Matt Monro. Principal photography began on 1 April 1963 and concluded on 23 August. Filming took place in Turkey, Pinewood Studios and Venice, with Scotland and Switzerland doubling for the Orient Express journey through Eastern Europe. #### Goldfinger (1964) While the previous two films had concentrated on the Caribbean and Europe, Goldfinger was chosen by Eon for the third film, with the American cinema market in mind. Because Terence Young was refused a share of the profits, he declined to direct Goldfinger and worked on The Amorous Adventures of Moll Flanders instead, although he had done some pre-production work before he left. In his place, Eon turned to Guy Hamilton to direct; he was keen to inject elements of humour into the series, have more gadgets and build bigger and more elegant sets. Eon again turned to Richard Maibaum for the script, although Paul Dehn was later introduced for rewrites. After missing From Russia with Love, Ken Adam returned as production designer. Adam's imagination provided the idea of gold stacked upon gold behind iron bars for the scenes in the United States Bullion Depository. Saltzman disliked the design's resemblance to a prison, but Hamilton liked it enough that it was built. Robert Brownjohn returned to develop the opening credit sequence, which featured clips of all three Bond films projected on actress Margaret Nolan's body. Its design was inspired by seeing light projecting on people's bodies as they got up and left a cinema. Principal photography on Goldfinger started on 20 January 1964 in Miami, at the Fontainebleau Hotel; the crew was small, consisting only of Hamilton, Broccoli, Adam and cinematographer Ted Moore. After five days in Florida, production moved to England. The primary location was Pinewood Studios, home to sets including a recreation of the Fontainebleau, the South American city of the pre-title sequence, and both Goldfinger's estate and factory. Ian Fleming visited the set of Goldfinger in April 1964; he died in August, shortly before the film's release. The second unit filmed in Kentucky, and these shots were edited into scenes filmed at Pinewood. Principal photography then moved to Switzerland for the car chase and additional footage for Goldfinger's factory sequence. Filming wrapped on 11 July at Andermatt, after nineteen weeks of shooting. ### Kevin McClory (1965) When writing his novels, Ian Fleming had always considered that they could be adapted for the cinema, and he approached producer Sir Alexander Korda to make a film adaptation of either Live and Let Die or Moonraker. Although Korda was initially interested, he later withdrew. On 1 October 1959, it was announced that Fleming would write an original film script featuring Bond for producer Kevin McClory. Jack Whittingham also worked on the script, culminating in a screenplay entitled James Bond, Secret Agent. However, Alfred Hitchcock and Richard Burton turned down roles as director and star, respectively. McClory was unable to secure the financing for the film, and the deal fell through. Fleming subsequently used the story for his novel Thunderball (1961), and McClory failed to have its publication stopped. On 19 November 1963 he took the matter to the Chancery Division of the High Court in the case of McClory v Fleming, but settled on 9 December 1963, after nine days in court. McClory gained the literary and film rights for the screenplay, while Fleming was given the rights to the novel, although it had to be recognised as being "based on a screen treatment by Kevin McClory, Jack Whittingham and the Author". #### Thunderball (1965) After From Russia with Love, Eon had considered undertaking an adaptation of either On Her Majesty's Secret Service or Casino Royale. They entered into negotiations with Charles K. Feldman, who held the rights to the latter, but a deal proved too difficult to achieve. Instead, Eon turned to the Thunderball novel. Although Eon had wanted to adapt the book in 1962, it had not been possible until the legal obstacles had been cleared. As a result of the settlement of the copyright infringement lawsuit brought by Kevin McClory, Eon negotiated with McClory to make Thunderball. McClory received the sole producer credit on the film, while Broccoli and Saltzman took the title Executive Producer, although "in reality all three men would essentially act as producers". Broccoli later said of the three-way partnership that "We didn't want anyone else to make Thunderball ... We had the feeling that if anyone else came in and made their own Bond film, it would have been bad for our series". Guy Hamilton was asked to direct again, but declined feeling that he was "drained of ideas ... I had nothing to contribute until I'd recharged batteries"; Terence Young returned to direct after the hiatus of Goldfinger. Richard Maibaum's original script from 1961 was used as the basis of the script, which he then re-drafted, with further revisions by John Hopkins. Principal filming began in Paris on 16 February 1965, and moved to Nassau on 22 March, before concluding at Pinewood Studios in May. With worldwide box office earnings of \$141.2 million Thunderball became the highest-grossing instalment and retained the record until it was surpassed by The Spy Who Loved Me twelve years later; adjusted for inflation it remained the most successful entry until Skyfall was released in 2012. As part of the contract with Eon, McClory received 20% of the film's profits and undertook not to produce any other films based on the Thunderball story for a period of ten years following the release of the Eon-produced version in 1965. ### Albert R. Broccoli and Harry Saltzman (1967–1975) #### You Only Live Twice (1967) After the interruption of McClory as producer, Albert Broccoli and Harry Saltzman returned to production once again. The first four Bond films had been popular in Japan, and Eon decided to take advantage of the market by producing You Only Live Twice. The film included progressive elements of Japanese culture as part of the background. Lewis Gilbert was appointed director and Ken Adam returned as production designer. Adam built a volcano hideaway set for the main antagonist, Ernst Stavro Blofeld, at Pinewood for \$1 million (\$ million in dollars); at the time it was the biggest film set in Europe. Gilbert, Broccoli, Saltzman, Ken Adam and director of photography Freddie Young then went to Japan, spending three weeks searching for locations. While in Tokyo, the crew crossed paths with Peter R. Hunt, who was on holiday. Hunt had edited the first four Bond films, and he was invited to direct the second unit. The total budget for the film was \$10.3 million (\$ million in dollars). Initially the screenwriter was to be Harold Jack Bloom, although he was later replaced by Roald Dahl, who had little previous screenwriting experience. You Only Live Twice was the first Bond film to jettison the plot premise of the Fleming source material, although the film retains the title, the Japanese setting, the use of Blofeld as the main villain and a Bond girl named Kissy Suzuki from the novel. Filming commenced at Pinewood on 4 July 1966 before moving out to Japan on 27 July for six weeks' filming. Local Japanese interest in the filming was high, and the crew had to contend with large crowds throughout the process. Connery, however, was somewhat resigned to the project, lacking the enthusiasm he sported for Thunderball. A press conference on his arrival had been tense, "soured by aggressive questioning of Connery's crumpled, jet-lagged appearance". Primary and secondary photography finished in December; the special effects filming for the space scenes were undertaken between January and March 1967, prior to the film's release on 12 June. The cinema posters for the film stated "Sean Connery IS James Bond", to distance the Eon-produced picture from the independent Casino Royale, which had been released two months earlier. However, during the production, Connery announced that it would be his last film as Bond, leaving Broccoli to tell Alan Whicker, "it won't be the last Bond under any circumstances—with all due respect to Sean, who I think has been certainly the best man to play this part. We will, in our own way, try to continue the Bond series for the audience because it's too important". #### On Her Majesty's Secret Service (1969) George Lazenby was signed on to play Bond for OHMSS. Between Sean Connery giving his notice at the beginning of filming You Only Live Twice and its release, Saltzman had planned to adapt The Man with the Golden Gun in Cambodia and use Roger Moore as the next Bond, but political instability meant the location was ruled out and Moore signed up for another series of the television programme The Saint. After You Only Live Twice was released in 1967, the producers once again picked the often-delayed On Her Majesty's Secret Service, which had previously been considered to follow both Goldfinger and then Thunderball. Peter Hunt, who had worked on the five preceding films, had impressed Broccoli and Saltzman enough to earn his directorial debut as they believed his quick cutting had set the style for the series; it was also the result of a long-standing promise from Broccoli and Saltzman for the opportunity to direct. Hunt also asked for the position during the production of Chitty Chitty Bang Bang, and he brought along with him many crew members, including cinematographer Michael Reed. Hunt was focused on putting his mark, saying, "I wanted it to be different than any other Bond film would be. It was my film, not anyone else's". On Her Majesty's Secret Service was the last film on which Hunt worked in the series. Screenwriter Richard Maibaum, who worked on the first four Bond films, returned as script writer. Saltzman and Broccoli decided to drop the science fiction gadgets from the earlier films and focus more on plot as in From Russia With Love. Peter Hunt asked Simon Raven to write some of the dialogue between Contessa Teresa "Tracy" di Vicenzo and Blofeld in Piz Gloria, which was to be "sharper, better and more intellectual"; Raven's additions included rewriting the proposal scene and having Tracy quote James Elroy Flecker. Syd Cain took over from Ken Adam as production designer as Eon decided not to have Adam's larger sets to reduce the film's budget to \$7 million, from the \$10.3 million it took to make You Only Live Twice. Principal photography began in the Canton of Bern, Switzerland, on 21 October 1968, with the first scene shot being an aerial view of Bond climbing the stairs of Blofeld's mountain retreat. The scenes were shot atop the now-famous revolving restaurant Piz Gloria, located atop the Schilthorn near the village of Mürren. The location was found by production manager Hubert Fröhlich after three weeks of location scouting in France and Switzerland. The Swiss filming ended up running 56 days over schedule. In March 1969 production moved to England, with London's Pinewood Studios being used for interior shooting, and M's house being shot in Marlow, Buckinghamshire. In April the filmmakers went to Portugal, where principal photography wrapped in May. Filming finished on 23 June, two months later than planned, which was largely due to the warm Swiss winter, which had hampered shooting. Midway through production, acting on advice from his agent Ronan O'Rahilly, George Lazenby announced that he was not going to continue as Bond in future films, and he left the role before the December 1969 release of On Her Majesty's Secret Service. #### Diamonds Are Forever (1971) Although Eon secured the services of John Gavin to play the role of Bond, United Artists' chief David Picker was unhappy with this decision and instructed associate producer Stanley Sopel to broker a deal with Connery which saw the actor being paid \$1.25 million (\$ million in dollars) and 12.5% of the gross. Connery's salary took a significant part of the \$7.2 million budget. The producers had originally intended to have Diamonds Are Forever re-create commercially successful aspects of Goldfinger, so they hired director Guy Hamilton as a result. Richard Maibaum also returned to write the script; the first draft envisaged the return of Auric Goldfinger portrayer Gert Fröbe, this time in the role of Goldfinger's twin brother. Maibaum also wrote a climax to the film that consisted of the new Goldfinger being chased across Lake Mead by the people of Las Vegas, all being co-ordinated by Bond. In the autumn of 1970 Tom Mankiewicz was hired to undertake re-writes, which included removing Goldfinger's brother and the Lake Mead finale. Filming began on 5 April 1971 with the desert near Las Vegas doubling for the South African scenes, followed by filming in the Great Basin Desert, Nevada in May for scenes in which Bond drives a moon buggy. On 7 June production moved to Pinewood Studios for filming at sets of the returning Ken Adam; his sets spread through four of Pinewood's stages. Filming also took place in London, Dover, Southampton, Amsterdam and the south of France; principal photography finished 13 August 1971. #### Live and Let Die (1973) While filming Diamonds Are Forever, Live and Let Die was chosen as the next Ian Fleming novel to be adapted because screenwriter Tom Mankiewicz thought it would be daring to use black villains, as the Black Panthers and other racial movements were active at that time. The new Bond actor selected by Eon was Roger Moore, and he tried not to imitate either his predecessor Sean Connery or his own performance as Simon Templar in The Saint; Mankiewicz adapted the screenplay to emphasise Moore's persona by giving him more comedy scenes and creating a light-hearted feel to Bond. Guy Hamilton was again chosen to direct, and Mankiewicz suggested they film in New Orleans, as he knew Hamilton was a jazz fan. Hamilton didn't want to use Mardi Gras, as Thunderball featured Junkanoo, a similar festival, so after more discussions with the writer and further scouting, he decided to use two well-known features of the city, the jazz funerals and the canals. While searching for locations in Jamaica, the crew discovered a crocodile farm owned by Ross Kananga, after passing a sign warning that "trespassers will be eaten". The farm was put into the script and also inspired Mankiewicz to name the film's villain after Kananga. With the rise of the popularity of Blaxploitation films in the early 1970s, it was decided to borrow elements of the genre for Live and Let Die. Syd Cain returned as art director and was involved searching for locations with Guy Hamilton in March 1972. Principal photography began on 13 October 1972 in the Irish Bayou in Louisiana for a boat chase scene. On 29 November production moved to Jamaica, which doubled for the fictional island San Monique, the home of antagonist Kananga. In December, production was divided between interiors in Pinewood Studios, while a separate unit also shot in Harlem. John Barry, who had worked on the previous five films, was unavailable during production. Broccoli and Saltzman instead asked Paul McCartney to write the theme song. Since McCartney's salary of \$15,000 (plus royalties) was high and another composer of Barry's stature could not be hired with the remainder of the music budget, George Martin, who had little experience of film scoring, was hired. #### The Man with the Golden Gun (1974) The film of The Man with the Golden Gun saw a change in location from the novel of the same name to put Bond in the Far East for the second time. After considering Beirut, where part of the film is set; Iran, where the location scouting was done but eventually discarded because of the Yom Kippur War; and the Hạ Long Bay in Vietnam, the production team chose Thailand as a primary location, following a suggestion of production designer Peter Murton after he saw pictures of the Phuket bay in a magazine. Saltzman was happy with the choice of the Far East for the setting as he had always wanted to go on location in Thailand and Hong Kong. During the reconnaissance of locations in Hong Kong, Broccoli saw the partially submerged wreckage of the former and came up with the idea of using it as the base for MI6's Far East operations. Tom Mankiewicz wrote a first draft for the script in 1973, delivering a script that was a battle of wills between Bond and the primary villain Francisco Scaramanga, whom he saw as Bond's alter ego, "a super-villain of the stature of Bond himself". Tensions between Mankiewicz and Guy Hamilton led to Richard Maibaum taking over scripting duties. Maibaum, who had worked on six Bond films previously, delivered his own draft based on Mankiewicz's work. Broccoli's stepson Michael G. Wilson researched solar power to create the MacGuffin of the "Solex Agitator". While Live and Let Die had borrowed heavily from the blaxploitation genre, The Man with the Golden Gun borrowed from the martial arts genre that was popular in the 1970s. On 6 November 1973 filming commenced at the exterior location shots of RMS Queen Elizabeth, which acted as a top-secret MI6 base grounded in Victoria Harbour in Hong Kong. The major part of principal photography started in April 1974 in Thailand. Thai locations included Bangkok, Thonburi, Phuket and the nearby Phang Nga Province, on the islands of Ko Khao Phing Kan (Thai: เกาะเขาพิงกัน) and Ko Tapu (Thai: เกาะตะปู). In late April production returned to Hong Kong and also shot in Macau. Production had to move to studio work in Pinewood Studios—which included sets such as Scaramanga's solar energy plant and island interior. John Barry returned to compose the score, but had only three weeks to complete the work, and the theme tune and score are generally considered by critics to be among the weakest of Barry's contributions to the series—an opinion shared by Barry himself: "It's the one I hate most ... it just never happened for me". ### Albert R. Broccoli (1975–1984) Following The Man with the Golden Gun, producer Harry Saltzman sold his 50% stake in Eon Productions' parent company, Danjaq, to United Artists to alleviate his financial problems, brought about by financial constraints following a downturn in the fortunes of Technicolor, in which he had invested heavily. The resulting legalities over the Bond property delayed production of the next Bond film, The Spy Who Loved Me. #### The Spy Who Loved Me (1977) Guy Hamilton was initially scheduled to follow on from The Man with the Golden Gun with The Spy Who Loved Me, but instead turned down Eon Productions during pre-production after being offered the opportunity to direct the 1978 film Superman, although he was ultimately passed up for Richard Donner. Eon then turned to Lewis Gilbert, who had directed the earlier Bond film You Only Live Twice. Broccoli commissioned a number of writers to work on the script, including Stirling Silliphant, John Landis, Ronald Hardy, Anthony Burgess and Derek Marlowe, but Richard Maibaum drew up the first draft script, with some inclusions from the previous writers. When Lewis Gilbert was hired to direct, he brought with him Christopher Wood to revise Maibaum's draft. The draft Wood prepared was challenged in court by Kevin McClory, who alleged infringement based on the use of what he claimed were his rights in SPECTRE and the Blofeld character. Eon disputed McClory's claim but had Wood remove the organisation and character from the script. Ken Adam returned as production designer. As no studio stages were big enough for the interior of the villain Karl Stromberg's supertanker, in March 1976 construction began of a new sound stage at Pinewood, the 007 Stage, which cost \$1.8 million and became the largest stage in the world. In contrast to the volcano crater set Adam had built for You Only Live Twice in 1966—which Adam had called "a workable but ultimately wasteful set"—the 007 Stage would be a permanent structure that could be rented out to other productions. Secondary filming began in July 1976 at Baffin Island, where the ski jump for the opening credits was filmed. Principal filming commenced in Sardinia in August 1976, moving on to Egypt shortly afterwards. Further filming took place in Sardinia, Malta, Japan, Switzerland and the Faslane submarine base. On 5 December 1976, with principal photography finished, the 007 Stage was formally opened by the former Prime Minister Harold Wilson. John Barry could not work in the United Kingdom due to tax problems and suggested Marvin Hamlisch to score the film. Hamlisch composed "Nobody Does It Better" as the theme song; the score and the song were both nominated for Academy and Golden Globe Awards. #### Moonraker (1979) Eon Productions had originally planned to follow The Spy Who Loved Me with an adaptation of For Your Eyes Only, although this plan changed within weeks of the 1977 release, following the box office success of the 1977 space-themed film Star Wars. With a budget of \$34 million Moonraker cost more than double any of the previous Bond films, although both Broccoli and United Artists agreed to the costs because of the profits from The Spy Who Loved Me. Lewis Gilbert was again appointed as director, and a number of the crew from The Spy Who Loved Me also joined the production. Gilbert and Tom Mankiewicz wrote the initial story, but Christopher Wood turned this into the final screenplay. Many of the script ideas came about as a result of location scouting, with Iguazu Falls being identified as a filming location while Broccoli was in Brazil for the release of The Spy Who Loved Me. Unlike previous Bond films, the production of Moonraker was not based at Pinewood, as Broccoli moved it to Paris for financial reasons, although the scenes for the cable car interiors and space battle exteriors were filmed at Pinewood, with the special effects team of Derek Meddings active in the UK throughout production. Principal photography began on 11 August 1978 in Paris. The sets designed by returning production designer Ken Adam were the largest ever constructed in France and required more than 222,000 man-hours to construct (approximately 1,000 hours by each of the crew on average). Much of the film was shot in the cities of London, Paris, Venice, Palmdale, California, Port St. Lucie, Florida and Rio de Janeiro. Principal filming finished back in Paris on 27 February 1979, a 28-week schedule that had allowed Roger Moore only three days off. John Barry was again asked to score an Eon film. #### For Your Eyes Only (1981) For Your Eyes Only marked a change in the production crew: John Glen was promoted from his duties as a film editor to director, a position he would occupy for the next four films. Since Ken Adam was busy with the film Pennies from Heaven, Peter Lamont, who had worked in the art department since Goldfinger, was promoted to production designer. Following a suggestion from Glen, Lamont created realistic sets, instead of the elaborate scenery for which the series had been known. Richard Maibaum was once again the scriptwriter for the story, assisted by Michael G. Wilson. According to Wilson, the ideas could have come from anyone as a committee that could include Broccoli, Maibaum, Wilson, Glen and stunt coordinators worked on the outlines. Much of the inspiration for the stories for the film came from two Fleming short stories from the collection For Your Eyes Only: "Risico" and "For Your Eyes Only". Another set-piece from the novel of Live and Let Die—the keelhauling—which was unused in that novel's adaptation, was inserted into the plot. Production of For Your Eyes Only began on 2 September 1980 in the North Sea, with three days shooting exterior scenes for the scenes involving the St Georges spyboat. The interiors were shot later in Pinewood Studios, as well as the ship's explosion, which was done with a miniature in Pinewood's tank on the 007 Stage. On 15 September principal photography started in Corfu at the Villa Sylva at Kanoni, above Corfu Town, which acted as the location of the Spanish villa. In October filming moved to other Greek locations, including Meteora and the Achilleion. In November the main unit moved to England, which included interior work in Pinewood, while the second unit shot underwater scenes in the Bahamas. On 1 January 1981 production moved to Cortina d'Ampezzo in Italy, where filming wrapped in February. Many of the underwater scenes, especially involving close-ups of Bond and Melina, were shot on a dry soundstage. A combination of lighting effects, slow-motion photography, wind, and bubbles added in post-production, gave the illusion of the actors being underwater. The pre-credits sequence used a church in Stoke Poges as a cemetery, while scenes involving a helicopter were filmed at the abandoned Beckton Gas Works in London. The score of For Your Eyes Only was written by Bill Conti, who retained a number of John Barry-influenced brass elements in the score but also added elements of dance and funk music. #### Octopussy (1983) In 1980 United Artists, which had provided much of the funding for the Bond films, fell into financial difficulties following the box office failure of Heaven's Gate (1980), bringing uncertainty to the future of the funding. The situation was resolved in May 1981, when Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer acquired United Artists. Following For Your Eyes Only, Roger Moore had expressed a desire to stop playing James Bond. His original contract had been for three films, a requirement fulfilled with The Spy Who Loved Me. Subsequent films had been negotiated on a film-by-film basis. The producers engaged in a semi-public quest for the next actor to play Bond, which would be for Octopussy. However, when Kevin McClory announced his re-working of Thunderball as Never Say Never Again, the producers re-contracted Moore in the belief that an established actor in the role would fare better against McClory's choice of Bond, Sean Connery. Before For Your Eyes Only had been released, Albert Broccoli had asked John Glen to return and direct Octopussy. George MacDonald Fraser wrote an initial treatment that was extensively revised by Michael G. Wilson and Richard Maibaum. First unit filming began on 10 August 1982 at the Berlin Wall crossing point Checkpoint Charlie, although the second unit had already been at work for a few weeks, filming scenes for a mid-air fight sequence. The Monsoon Palace served as the exterior of villain Kamal Khan's palace, while scenes set at the palace of titular character Octopussy were filmed at the Lake Palace and Jag Mandir. Bond's hotel was the Shiv Niwas Palace. In England RAF Northolt, RAF Upper Heyford and RAF Oakley were the main locations. Scenes set at the Karl-Marx-Stadt railways scenes were shot at the Nene Valley Railway, while studio work was undertaken at Pinewood Studios and 007 Stage. Filming finished on 21 January 1983. John Barry returned to score, having passed on For Your Eyes Only for tax reasons. While Barry wrote the title song, "All Time High", Tim Rice wrote the lyrics and the song was performed by Rita Coolidge. Octopussy had its premiere on 6 June 1983, four months before the October release of Never Say Never Again. From its budget of \$27.5 million, Octopussy took \$183.7 million at the box office, a figure which saw it surpass the takings of its Connery-led rival, which took \$160 million. ### Albert R. Broccoli and Michael G. Wilson (1984–1989) In 1984 Michael G. Wilson joined Albert R. Broccoli as co-producer at Eon. Wilson had first worked on a Bond production in February 1964 with the filming of Goldfinger. He had worked on every production since The Spy Who Loved Me, and had been executive producer on Moonraker, For Your Eyes Only and Octopussy. #### A View to a Kill (1985) The day before the UK premiere of the non-Eon rival Bond film, Never Say Never Again, Eon announced that Roger Moore would return as Bond for the seventh time. John Glen also returned as director, while Peter Lamont and John Barry also signed up as they had for Octopussy. Michael G. Wilson co-wrote the screenplay with Richard Maibaum. On 27 June 1984 the 007 Stage was almost entirely destroyed by fire. It was rebuilt in time for production and reopened in January 1985, when it was renamed the "Albert Broccoli 007 Stage". The second unit started filming in Iceland in July 1984, while principal photography with Moore commenced on 1 August at Pinewood. Also in August, the second unit filmed in Paris, including scenes involving a parachute jump from the Eiffel Tower. The Amberley Museum & Heritage Centre doubled as the exterior of villain Max Zorin's mine, while the scenes in the complex under Zorin's stables were filmed in a Renault plant in Swindon, before primary filming moved to San Francisco. Filming finished in January 1985 at the 007 Stage, with the filming of the interior of Zorin's mine, designed by Peter Lamont. #### The Living Daylights (1987) With the retirement of Roger Moore following A View to a Kill, the producers searched for a new Bond and eventually cast Timothy Dalton in the lead role in August 1986. Much of the senior production crew from the previous film worked on The Living Daylights, with John Glen directing, John Barry providing the score and Peter Lamont acting as production designer. Michael G. Wilson and Richard Maibaum again provided the script and initially proposed a prequel, showing Bond's first mission, although this was turned down by Broccoli. Script work continued while the producers searched for Moore's successor. The film was shot at the 007 Stage at Pinewood Studios, with principal photography starting on 29 September 1986, before moving to Vienna on 5 October, where the crew filmed for two weeks. Meanwhile, the second unit had started work on the pre-credits sequence on Gibraltar on 17 September before moving to Morocco. Filming finished on 13 February 1987. The Living Daylights was the twelfth and final Bond film to be scored by composer John Barry. The title song of the film, "The Living Daylights", was co-written with Paul Waaktaar-Savoy of the Norwegian pop-music group A-ha and recorded by them. The group and Barry did not collaborate well, resulting in two versions of the theme song. The production costs of The Living Daylights were \$40 million, and the film posted box office results of \$191.2 million. #### Licence to Kill (1989) Shortly after the release of The Living Daylights, producers Albert R. Broccoli and Michael G. Wilson and writer Richard Maibaum started discussing its successor. They decided that the film would retain a realistic style, as well as showing the "darker edge" of the Bond character. For the primary location, the producers wanted a place where the series had not yet visited. While China was visited after an invitation by its government, the idea fell through partly because the 1987 film The Last Emperor had removed some of the novelty from filming in China. By this stage the writers had already talked about a chase sequence along the Great Wall, as well as a fight scene amongst the Terracotta Army. Wilson also wrote two plot outlines about a drug lord in the Golden Triangle before the plans fell through. The writers eventually decided on a setting in a tropical country while Broccoli negotiated to film in Mexico, at the Estudios Churubusco in Mexico City. In 1985 the Films Act was passed, removing the Eady Levy, which resulted in foreign artists being taxed more heavily. The associated rising costs to Eon Productions meant no part of Licence to Kill was filmed in the UK, the first Bond film not to do so. Pinewood Studios, used in every Bond film that far, housed only the post-production and sound re-recording. The initial outline of what would become Licence to Kill was drawn up by Wilson and Maibaum. Before the pair could develop the script, the Writers Guild of America (WGA) went on strike and Maibaum was unable to continue writing, leaving Wilson to work on the script on his own. The script—initially called Licence Revoked—was written with Dalton's characterisation of Bond in mind; the obsession with which Bond pursues the drug lord villain Franz Sanchez on behalf of Bond's friend, the CIA/DEA agent Felix Leiter and his dead wife is seen as being because of Bond's own "brutally cut-short marriage". John Glen returned once again to direct, teaming up once more with production designer Peter Lamont. Principal photography ran from 18 July to 18 November 1988. Shooting began in Mexico, which mostly doubled for the fictional Republic of Isthmus. Other underwater sequences were shot at the Isla Mujeres near Cancún. In August 1988 production moved to the Florida Keys, notably Key West. Seven Mile Bridge towards Pigeon Key was used for the sequence in which the armoured truck transporting Sanchez following his arrest is driven off the edge. Other locations there included the Ernest Hemingway House, Key West International Airport, Mallory Square, St. Mary's Star of the Sea Church for Leiter's wedding and Stephano's House 707 South Street for his house and patio. The US Coast Guard Pier was used to film Isthmus City harbour. John Barry was not available to score the film because of throat surgery, so the soundtrack's score was composed and conducted by Michael Kamen, who was known for scoring many action films at the time, such as Lethal Weapon and Die Hard. The film's darker and more violent plot elicited calls for cuts by the British Board of Film Classification. Licence to Kill marked the end of the involvement for a number of long-term crew members, including John Glen, Maurice Binder, Richard Maibaum and cinematographer Alec Mills. It was also the final film which was produced by the partnership of Albert Broccoli and Michael Wilson. ### Michael G. Wilson and Barbara Broccoli (1990–present) The relatively disappointing box office returns for Licence to Kill led to Albert Broccoli questioning his own leadership of the series, and he put Danjaq, holders of the Bond film copyright, up for sale. Timothy Dalton was quoted at the time as saying "My feeling is this will be the last one. I don't mean my last one, I mean the end of the whole lot. I don't speak with any real authority, but it's sort of a feeling I have". In 1990 the situation was further complicated when MGM/UA was sold to Qintex, which wanted to then merge with Pathé Communications; the Bond back catalogue was leased to Pathé at a lower-than-market value, without consulting Danjaq – which sued MGM/UA Communications, which was itself the target of a failed takeover bid by Pathé. In August 1990 Albert Broccoli appointed his daughter Barbara Broccoli alongside Michael G. Wilson as producers at Eon, while he concentrated on matters at Danjaq. The dispute between Danjaq and MGM/UA was protracted and delayed production of Bond 17, but was finally settled in 1993. The new producers changed the policy of behind-the-scenes continuity prevalent in the series up to that point and, from the 1990s onwards, there were more changes in key production roles, including employing directors "on a 'guest director' footing". #### GoldenEye (1995) Despite the legal action, pre-production towards the next Bond film still progressed, with some early details unveiled at the Cannes Film Festival which took place in May 1990. However, delays occurred because of the ongoing legal action with MGM/UA and, in an August 1993 interview, Dalton revealed that Michael France was involved in writing a script for the next Bond film, with Anthony Hopkins as a potential villain, adding that Hopkins had been in discussions with Eon for a number of weeks. Dalton also stated that the earliest production could begin would be in January or February 1994. Dalton's six-year contract expired in 1993, and after reading France's script for what would become GoldenEye, he announced on 12 April 1994 that he would not be returning to play Bond; he was replaced by Pierce Brosnan. After Michael France delivered the original screenplay, Jeffrey Caine was brought in to rework much of the material. Kevin Wade was also brought into the process before Bruce Feirstein gave the final polish to the script. With Barbara Broccoli and Michael G. Wilson as co-producers, Albert Broccoli oversaw the production of GoldenEye as consulting producer but is credited as "presenter". John Woo was approached to direct the film, but he turned down the opportunity, saying he was honoured by the offer. The producers then chose Martin Campbell to lead the film. Principal photography started on 16 January 1995 and continued until 6 June. The producers were unable to use Pinewood Studios, the usual location for Bond films, because it had been reserved for First Knight, so an old Rolls-Royce factory at the Leavesden Aerodrome in Hertfordshire was converted into a new studio. In February the crew moved to Monaco for scenes in a casino and a demonstration of a Tiger helicopter. The pre-credits sequence involved a bungee jump, which was filmed at the Contra Dam near Locarno, Switzerland. Reference footage for a scene consisting of a tank chase was shot on location in Saint Petersburg and matched to sets built at the Leavesden studio by production designer Peter Lamont. Scenes on a satellite dish were shot at Arecibo Observatory in Puerto Rico, while in the UK, Epsom Downs Racecourse and the Nene Valley Railway were both used. For the scenes of the fictional Russian location of Severnaya, and other effects, Derek Meddings built a number of miniature sets at Leavesden. Meddings had worked on the Bond films since Live and Let Die and died before the film's release; GoldenEye was dedicated to his memory. The soundtrack to GoldenEye was composed and performed by Éric Serra. Prolific Bond composer John Barry turned down an offer by Barbara Broccoli to score the film. The theme song, "GoldenEye", was written by Bono and The Edge and was performed by Tina Turner. As Serra did not collaborate with Bono or The Edge, orchestral versions of the song did not appear throughout GoldenEye, as had been the case in previous James Bond films. #### Tomorrow Never Dies (1997) Before GoldenEye had been released in November 1995, MGM/UA started their preparations for Bond 18, intending for a release in early December 1997, leaving Eon Productions little time for pre-production. The producers were unable to convince Martin Campbell to return; his agent said that "Martin just didn't want to do two Bond films in a row". Instead, Roger Spottiswoode was chosen in September 1996. With Peter Lamont unavailable because he was committed to Titanic, Spottiswoode chose Allan Cameron in his place to provide sets; Spottiswoode and Cameron had previously worked together on Air America. The story was based on a previously discarded treatment by Donald E. Westlake, which had been written before GoldenEye. The script was given a re-working by Bruce Feirstein, based on the return of Hong Kong to the Chinese. Feirstein's script was then contributed to by Nicholas Meyer before being reworked by Dan Petrie Jr. and David Campbell Wilson before Feirstein, who retained the sole writing credit, was brought in for a final polish. The script was finished a week before principal photography started, although Feirstein had to re-write sequences throughout production. The process was further hampered by poor relations between Feirstein and Spottiswoode. With the Leavesden studios unavailable, and Pinewood not having sufficient capacity, Eon converted an abandoned grocery warehouse in Hertfordshire into a filming location. With the principal crew about to fly to location in Vietnam, the Vietnamese authorities revoked permission to film at the last minute, and alternative locations were quickly found in Thailand. Second unit filming began on 18 January 1997 with Vic Armstrong directing; they filmed the pre-credits sequence at Peyresourde Airport in the French Pyrenees, before moving on to Portsmouth to film the scenes where the Royal Navy prepares to engage the Chinese. The main unit began filming on 1 April 1997 at the new studios, before filming at other UK locations; production then moved to Thailand in May. Filming completed three weeks over schedule in September 1997. Eon initially approached John Barry to score the film, but the two sides could not come to terms; the producers then approached David Arnold, whom Barry endorsed. The delays in the production process and the rush to deliver the film by the MGM/UA-imposed deadline of December 1997 drove the costs upwards to \$110 million, although the film recouped \$338.9 million at the box office. #### The World Is Not Enough (1999) Joe Dante and then Peter Jackson were considered as directors for The World Is Not Enough. Barbara Broccoli enjoyed Jackson's Heavenly Creatures, and a screening of The Frighteners was arranged for her. She disliked the latter film, however, and showed no further interest in Jackson. Michael Apted was then selected to lead the film. Writers Neal Purvis and Robert Wade were hired after their work in Plunkett & Macleane, before Michael Apted and his wife, screenwriter Dana Stevens, undertook an uncredited rewrite. Pierce Brosnan was unhappy with some of Stevens' changes to his character, so Michael G. Wilson—who was also uncredited as screenwriter—and Bruce Feirstein undertook further revisions. Production was centred at Pinewood Studios and principal photography began there on 11 January 1999 with scenes from inside the MI6 offices, designed by Peter Lamont. The pre-title sequence was shot in Bilbao, Spain, in February, with production moving to Chamonix, France, which doubled for the Caucasus scenes. The exterior of a Kazakh nuclear facility was shot at the Bardenas Reales, in Navarre, Spain, while the exterior of an oil refinery control centre was doubled by the Motorola building in Groundwell, Swindon. The exterior of the oil pipeline was filmed in Cwm Dyli, Snowdonia, Wales, while the production teams shot the oil pipeline explosion in Hankley Common, Elstead, Surrey. The production also visited Istanbul, Turkey; the scenes of villain Elektra King's Baku villa were filmed in the city, and the famous Maiden's Tower was used for the hideout of the second villain Renard. The underwater submarine scenes were filmed in the Bahamas. David Arnold returned to score the music for The World Is Not Enough—the second Bond soundtrack he composed; Garbage sang the title song. For his work on the film, Arnold won an Ivor Novello Award. #### Die Another Day (2002) Lee Tamahori was hired to direct Die Another Day; Barbara Broccoli admired his film Once Were Warriors, calling it "a phenomenal piece of filmmaking". Broccoli noted that she and Wilson "sensed his genuine enthusiasm for Bond. It was simply great chemistry. Lee was the right guy and we were very, very lucky to get him". Screenwriters Neal Purvis and Robert Wade returned and began work in the summer of 2000 with the producers. They used a premise from Fleming's novel Moonraker as a basis, that of an industrialist villain who had two identities. With the planned release of the film being in the 40th anniversary year of the Bond film series, Tamahori named the Hong Kong hotel seen in the film the "Rubyeon Royale", for Eon's ruby anniversary, as well as Fleming's first novel, Casino Royale. Second unit filming started on Christmas Day 2001 with Laird Hamilton, Dave Kalama and Darrick Doerner performing the surfing scene at the surf break known as Jaws in Peʻahi, Maui; the shore shots were later taken near Cádiz, Spain and Newquay, Cornwall. Principal photography of Die Another Day began on 11 January 2002 at Pinewood studios. The film was shot primarily in the United Kingdom, Iceland, and Cádiz. Filming in the UK took place at the Eden Project, the Reform Club and Pinewood Studios' 007 Stage, with the sets by production designer Peter Lamont, which included the ice palace. During June seven separate units were filming, including underwater, aerial and miniature; principal photography finished on 9 July, in time for the premiere in London on 20 November 2002. The soundtrack was composed by David Arnold, while the title song "Die Another Day" was written and performed by Madonna, who also had a cameo appearance in the film as a fencing instructor. Die Another Day had a budget of \$142 million and earned \$431.9 million at the box office. #### Casino Royale (2006) In 1999 Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer obtained the rights to the 1967 film Casino Royale from Sony Pictures Entertainment for \$10 million in the out-of-court settlement of a lawsuit. The case was brought by MGM after Sony had announced a deal with Kevin McClory to produce a third version of the Thunderball novel, for which McClory held the film rights. McClory had previously acted as producer with Eon on Thunderball and had licensed his rights for the production of Never Say Never Again in 1983. In 2004, following severe financial troubles, MGM was itself acquired by a consortium backed by Sony for \$5 billion. Casino Royale reboots the series, establishing a new timeline and narrative framework not meant to precede or succeed any previous Bond film. Barbara Broccoli stated that "For years, my father wanted to make Casino Royale—it's the Holy Grail ... We wanted to make a tougher film, the way it should have been made years ago". Fellow producer Michael G. Wilson agreed, commenting "We felt the last film was too fantastical, so we decided to go back to the basics and update". Neal Purvis and Robert Wade began writing a screenplay at the end of February 2004, while Pierce Brosnan was still Bond. Paul Haggis was brought in later, and his main contribution included rewriting the climax of the film. He explained that "the draft that was there was very faithful to the book and there was a confession, so in the original draft the character confessed and killed herself. She then sent Bond to chase after the villains; Bond chased the villains into the house. I don't know why but I thought that Vesper [Lynd] had to be in the sinking house and Bond has to want to kill her and then try and save her". In February 2005 Martin Campbell was announced as the film's director and the next Bond film was revealed to be Casino Royale, although the identity of the new Bond was still unknown; the producers had chosen not to renew Pierce Brosnan's contract, and in October Eon announced that the part of Bond would be taken by Daniel Craig. Principal photography for Casino Royale commenced on 3 January 2006. The film was primarily shot at Barrandov Studios in Prague, with additional location shooting in the Bahamas, Italy and the United Kingdom. The shoot concluded at Pinewood Studios on 20 July 2006. In the Bahamas filming took place at Paradise Island and Albany House, an estate owned by golfers Ernie Els and Tiger Woods. Footage set in Mbale, Uganda, was filmed at Black Park, a Country Park in Buckinghamshire, with further UK location shooting taking place at the Dunsfold Aerodrome in Surrey and the Millbrook Vehicle Proving Ground in Bedfordshire. For many of the effects in the film, Special Effects and Miniature Effects Supervisor Chris Corbould used a more realistic style of film making and significantly reduced digital effects compared with previous Bond films. Corbould noted that, "CGI is a great tool and can be very useful, but I will fight to the tooth and nail to do something for real. It's the best way to go". Corbould used the 007 stage at Pinewood for the sinking of the Venetian house at the climax of the film, which featured the largest rig ever built for a Bond film. Casino Royale featured music composed by David Arnold, his fourth soundtrack for the Bond film series. Producers Michael G. Wilson and Barbara Broccoli announced on 26 July 2006 that Chris Cornell would perform the title song, entitled "You Know My Name", which he co-wrote with Arnold. #### Quantum of Solace (2008) In July 2006, as Casino Royale entered post-production, Eon Productions announced that the next film would be based on an original idea by producer Michael G. Wilson. In June 2007 Marc Forster was confirmed as director. He was surprised that he was approached for the job, stating he was not a big Bond film fan through the years, and that he would not have accepted the project had he not seen Casino Royale prior to making his decision: he felt Bond had been humanised in that film, arguing that because travelling the world had become less exotic since the series' advent, it made sense to focus more on Bond as a character. Forster found Casino Royale's 144-minute running time too long, and wanted his follow-up to be "tight and fast ... like a bullet". Neal Purvis and Robert Wade returned as screenwriters and completed a draft of the script by April 2007; Paul Haggis also worked on the script, completing it two hours before the 2007–2008 Writers Guild of America strike officially began. Further work on the script had to be undertaken by Forster and Daniel Craig, who said later, "We had the bare bones of a script and then there was a writers' strike and there was nothing we could do. We couldn't employ a writer to finish it. I say to myself, 'Never again', but who knows? There was me trying to rewrite scenes – and a writer I am not". Craig also admitted that the film was not initially meant to be a sequel, but it became one because of the re-writes undertaken by him and Forster. Haggis located his draft's climax in the Swiss Alps, but Forster wanted the action sequences to allude to the four classical elements of earth, water, air and fire. Michael G. Wilson decided on the film's title Quantum of Solace only "a few days" before its announcement on 24 January 2008. Forster hired Dennis Gassner as production designer, replacing Peter Lamont. Quantum of Solace was shot in six countries, including Italy (Talamone and Siena), Chile (the Paranal Observatory), Austria (Bregenz), Mexico, Panama and the UK. In the UK interior and exterior airport scenes were filmed at Farnborough Airfield and the snowy closing scenes were filmed at the Bruneval Barracks in Aldershot, as well as ten stages at Pinewood and two theatres for ADR work. David Arnold, who composed the scores for the previous four Bond films, returned for Quantum of Solace. He said that Forster likes to work very closely with his composers and that, in comparison to the accelerated schedule he was tied to on Casino Royale, the intention was to spend a long time scoring the film to "really work it out". He also said he would be "taking a different approach" with the score. Jack White of The White Stripes and Alicia Keys collaborated on "Another Way to Die", the first Bond music duet. #### Skyfall (2012) The production of Skyfall was suspended throughout 2010 because of MGM's financial troubles. Eon resumed pre-production following MGM's exit from bankruptcy on 21 December 2010, and in January 2011 the film was given official approval, with production scheduled to start in late 2011. The film's budget is estimated to be between \$150 million and \$200 million, compared to the \$200 million spent on Quantum of Solace. Skyfall was directed by Sam Mendes, who first signed on to the project shortly after Quantum of Solace was released and remained on board as a consultant during the period of uncertainty surrounding MGM's financial situation. Speculation in the media suggested that Mendes had commissioned rewrites of the script to "[remove] action scenes in favour of 'characterful performances'", with the intention of bidding for an Academy Award. Mendes denied the reports, stating that the film's planned action scenes were an important part of the overall film. The script was written by Bond screenwriting regulars Neal Purvis and Robert Wade, as well as John Logan. Roger Deakins signed on as cinematographer, while Dennis Gassner returned as production designer. Thomas Newman, who worked with Sam Mendes as composer for American Beauty, Road to Perdition, Jarhead and Revolutionary Road, replaced David Arnold as composer; British singer-songwriter Adele co-wrote and recorded the film's theme song with her regular songwriter, Paul Epworth. Principal photography was scheduled to take 133 days and began on 7 November 2011 in and around London. Production moved to Turkey in April 2012, with parts of Istanbul—including the Spice Bazaar, Yeni Camii, the Main Post Office, Sultanahmet Square and the Grand Bazaar—closed for filming in April. Filming also took place in Shanghai. Although set in Scotland, Bond's family home of Skyfall was constructed on Hankley Common in Surrey using plywood and plaster to build a full-scale model of the building, with some exterior scenes shot in Glen Etive and Glencoe. #### Spectre (2015) In September 2012 it was announced that Craig had signed to the role of Bond for the following two films, the first of which was Spectre, funded by MGM and Sony. In March 2013 Mendes announced he would not return to direct the next film in the series, although he later decided to return. In July 2013 it was revealed that John Logan would also return as writer, while in October 2014 it was announced that Léa Seydoux would play a Bond girl in the film. Filming started in December 2014 and the film was released into cinemas on 26 October 2015. #### No Time to Die (2021) No Time to Die, the twenty-fifth film in the Eon series, entered development in early 2016. Sony Pictures' contract to co-produce the series with MGM and Eon expired with the release of Spectre and the distribution rights to theatrically release the upcoming film were up for negotiation, until Eon and MGM reached the new partnership with Universal Pictures. As part of the agreement, Universal will handle the international and home video distribution for the film, while MGM retains the theatrical, digital, and television rights in the United States. The film will be theatrically distributed by United Artists Releasing, the joint venture between MGM and Annapurna Pictures, marking the first Bond film to be affiliated with the United Artists brand since 1997's Tomorrow Never Dies. In March 2017 Purvis and Wade were hired as co-screenwriters; that August, Craig was announced to be reprising his role as Bond. In March 2018 Danny Boyle signed on as director, for an original story co-written with John Hodge. That August, Boyle stepped down as director and co-writer because of creative differences; Hodge later left the project for similar reasons. By November, Paul Haggis had completed a rewrite of Purvis and Wade's draft of the script. In February 2019, it was confirmed that Scott Z. Burns was hired to rewrite an overhaul of the script. In the search for a new director, the studio was reportedly considering Christopher McQuarrie, Jean-Marc Vallée, Edgar Wright, David Mackenzie, S. J. Clarkson, Bart Layton, and Yann Demange. But in September 2018, Cary Joji Fukunaga was announced as the film's director, the first American director of the Eon series. Production was initially scheduled to begin on 3 December 2018 with a 25 October 2019 release date. However, production finally began in late March 2019 in Nittedal, Norway with its release date set for November 2019. It was originally set to release on 8 April 2020, but was eventually pushed back to 30 September 2021 due to the COVID-19 pandemic. A report on the launch of the film on 25 April 2019 stated that Rami Malek had joined the cast as the villain. By that time, Daniel Craig had made it clear that this would be his final role as Bond. This film will begin with Bond no longer on active service and living in Jamaica, until Leiter requests his assistance in rescuing a kidnapped scientist. The final script was written by Purvis and Wade with the involvement of Scott Z. Burns and Phoebe Waller-Bridge. Parts of the film were to be undertaken in Jamaica, where much of the cast was present for the official announcement for Bond 25; other planned shooting locations included Matera, Italy, Norway and London, with interiors to be shot at Pinewood Studios. #### Future As of 2023, casting for a new actor to portray James Bond is underway. ### Core crew ## Non-Eon films ### Charles K. Feldman (1967) In March 1955 Ian Fleming sold the film rights of his novel Casino Royale to producer Gregory Ratoff for \$6,000 (\$ in dollars). In 1956 Ratoff set up a production company with Michael Garrison to produce Casino Royale; Ratoff died in December 1960. After Ratoff's death, producer Charles K. Feldman represented Ratoff's widow and obtained the rights to film. #### Casino Royale (1967) Production on Casino Royale was troubled and chaotic, with five different directors being credited for helming different segments of the film: Ken Hughes, John Huston, Joseph McGrath, Robert Parrish and Val Guest. In addition, stunt director Richard Talmadge was uncredited as co-director of the final sequence. Ben Hecht was originally commissioned by Feldman as writer, and he provided a serious interpretation of Fleming's source novel, before it was decided to turn the film into a comedy. Three main screenwriters then worked on the project—Wolf Mankowitz, John Law, and Michael Sayers—and a further nine people provided uncredited additional material. Problems arose on set between Peter Sellers and director Joseph McGrath and between Sellers and Orson Welles. Sellers eventually demanded that he and Welles should not share the same set. Sellers left the film before his part was complete. A further agent's part was then written for Terence Cooper, to cover Sellers' departure, while re-writes, additional filming and post-production cutting compensated for the missing actor. Principal photography started on 11 January 1966 and was scheduled to take up to 26 weeks. Because of the delays and chaotic nature of the filming process, it finally finished ten months later in November. Feldman asked Burt Bacharach and Hal David to provide the music for the film; David worked for a few months completing his part, while Bacharach took nearly two years. The pair produced the song "The Look of Love", which was sung by Dusty Springfield. Columbia Pictures approved a production budget of \$6 million for the film, although this rose to \$12 million at the end of production. The film performed well, with box office returns of \$41.7 million. ### Jack Schwartzman (1983) Never Say Never Again had its origins in the early 1960s following the controversy over the 1961 Thunderball novel, which led to Kevin McClory becoming producer of the Eon Productions film of the same name. Part of the agreement between McClory and Eon was that McClory would not make any further version of the novel for a period of ten years following the release of the 1965 Thunderball. In the mid-1970s McClory again started working on a project to bring a Thunderball adaptation to production and, with the working title Warhead (a.k.a. James Bond of the Secret Service) he brought writer Len Deighton together with Sean Connery to work on a script. The script ran into difficulties after accusations from Eon Productions that the project had gone beyond copyright restrictions, which confined McClory to a film based on the Thunderball novel only, and once again the project was deferred. Towards the end of the 1970s developments were reported on the project under the name James Bond of the Secret Service, but then producer Jack Schwartzman became involved and cleared a number of the legal issues that still surrounded the project and licensed the rights from McClory. #### Never Say Never Again (1983) With Connery still committed to the project, producer Jack Schwartzman asked him to play Bond: Connery accepted, asking for and receiving a fee of \$3 million (\$ million in dollars), a percentage of the profits, as well as casting, script and director approval. Schwartzman then brought on board scriptwriter Lorenzo Semple Jr. to work on the screenplay. Connery was unhappy with some aspects of the work and asked British television writers Dick Clement and Ian La Frenais to undertake re-writes, although they went uncredited for their efforts because of a restriction by the Writers Guild of America. The former Eon Productions editor and director of On Her Majesty's Secret Service, Peter Hunt, was approached to direct the film but declined due to his previous work with Eon. Irvin Kershner, who had achieved success in 1980 with The Empire Strikes Back, was then hired. A number of the crew from the 1981 film Raiders of the Lost Ark were also appointed, including first assistant director David Tomblin; director of photography Douglas Slocombe and production designers Philip Harrison and Stephen Grimes. Filming for Never Say Never Again began on 27 September 1982 on the French Riviera for two months before moving to Nassau, the Bahamas in mid-November where filming took place at Clifton Pier, which was also one of the locations used in Thunderball. The Spanish city of Almería was also used as a location. Villain Maximillian Largo's Palmyran fortress was actually historic Fort Carré in Antibes. Principal photography finished at Elstree Studios where interior shots were filmed. Elstree also housed the "Tears of Allah" underwater cavern, which took three months to construct. Most of the filming was completed in the spring of 1983, although there was some additional shooting during the summer of 1983. Production on the film was troubled with Connery taking on many of the production duties with assistant director David Tomblin. Director Irvin Kershner was critical of producer Jack Schwartzman, saying that whilst he was a good businessman "he didn't have the experience of a film producer". After the production ran out of money, Schwartzman had to fund further production out of his own pocket and later admitted he had underestimated the amount the film would cost to make. The music for Never Say Never Again was written by Michel Legrand. Legrand also wrote the main theme "Never Say Never Again", which featured lyrics by Alan and Marilyn Bergman—who had also worked with Legrand in the Academy Award-winning song "The Windmills of Your Mind"—and was performed by Lani Hall. Fleming's estate, financially backed by Eon Productions and MGM, made a final attempt to block the film in the High Courts in London in the spring of 1983, but this was thrown out by the court and Never Say Never Again was permitted to proceed. When Never Say Never Again was released, it grossed \$9.72 million (\$ million in dollars) on its first weekend, which was reported to be "the best opening record of any James Bond film" up to that point and surpassing Octopussy's \$8.9 million (\$ million in dollars) from June that year. From its budget of \$36 million, Never Say Never Again grossed \$160 million. #### Cancelled sequel and reboot Schwartzman had the option to license the film rights for a sequel to Never Say Never Again from McClory for \$5 million. McClory even announced the planned next film S.P.E.C.T.R.E in February 1984 with a full page advertisement in Screen International. However, Schwartzman decided against producing a second film when Sean Connery refused to work with him again as Bond. McClory attempted to produce another Thunderball adaptation as Warhead 2000 AD following the success of GoldenEye in 1995. Liam Neeson and Timothy Dalton were considered for 007, while Roland Emmerich and Dean Devlin were developing the film at Columbia Pictures. MGM launched a \$25 million lawsuit against Sony, and McClory claimed a portion of the \$3 billion profits from the Bond series. After a prolonged lawsuit, Sony backed down, and McClory eventually exhausted all legal avenues to pursue. As part of the settlement, MGM paid \$10 million for the rights to Casino Royale, which had come into Sony's possession. ### Lisa Osborne (2012) #### Happy and Glorious (2012) Daniel Craig played Bond in a short film, Happy and Glorious, produced by Lisa Osborne for the BBC and directed by Danny Boyle as part of the opening ceremony of the 2012 Summer Olympics in London. In the film Bond is summoned to Buckingham Palace by Queen Elizabeth II—played by herself—and escorts her by helicopter to the Olympic Stadium, where they both jump from the helicopter into the stadium with Union Flag parachutes. For the parachute jump, Bond and the Queen were played respectively by BASE jumpers and stuntmen Mark Sutton and Gary Connery. After the film was shown, the Queen entered the stadium via conventional means in the same outfit and formally opened the Games. ## See also - Motifs in the James Bond film series - List of recurring actors in the James Bond film series - List of recurring characters in the James Bond film series - List of James Bond films
163,047	Barbara Bush	1,172,907,549	First Lady of the United States from 1989 to 1993	[ "1925 births", "2018 deaths", "20th-century American Episcopalians", "20th-century American memoirists", "20th-century American women writers", "21st-century American Episcopalians", "21st-century American women", "American people of English descent", "American women memoirists", "Barbara Bush", "Burials in Texas", "Bush family", "Daughters of the American Revolution people", "First ladies of the United States", "Literacy advocates", "Members of the Junior League", "Mothers of presidents of the United States", "People from Midland, Texas", "People from Rye, New York", "Rye Country Day School alumni", "Second ladies of the United States", "Smith College alumni", "Spouses of Texas politicians", "Texas Republicans", "Women who experienced pregnancy loss", "Writers from Manhattan", "Writers from Texas" ]	Barbara Pierce Bush (June 8, 1925 – April 17, 2018) was the first lady of the United States from 1989 to 1993, as the wife of President George H. W. Bush. She was previously the second lady of the United States from 1981 to 1989, and founded the Barbara Bush Foundation for Family Literacy. Among her six children are George W. Bush, the 43rd president of the United States, and Jeb Bush, the 43rd governor of Florida. She and Abigail Adams are the only two women to be the wife of one U.S. president and the mother of another. At the time she became first lady, she was the second oldest woman to hold the position, behind only Anna Harrison, who never lived in the capital. Bush was generally popular as first lady, recognized for her apolitical grandmotherly image, and periodic Siena College Research Institute surveys of historians have consistently ranked her in the upper-half of American first ladies. Barbara Pierce was born in New York City and grew up in Rye, New York. She met George Herbert Walker Bush at the age of sixteen, and the two married in 1945. They moved to Texas in 1948, where George was successful in the oil industry and later began his political career. Bush had six children between 1946 and 1959, and she had to endure the loss of her four-year-old daughter Robin to leukemia in 1953. She lived in Washington, D.C., New York, and China while accompanying her husband in his various political roles in the 1960s and 1970s. She became an active campaigner for her husband whenever he stood for election. Bush became second lady after her husband became vice president in 1981. She took on the role of a social hostess as second lady, holding frequent events at the vice president's residence, and she traveled to many countries with her husband on his diplomatic missions. Bush became first lady in 1989 after her husband was inaugurated as president. She enjoyed the role and living in the White House, though it was complicated by her protectiveness over her family and her diagnosis of Graves' disease. She frequently carried out charity work, including her projects to promote literacy and her support for AIDS victims. Among the most prominent of her actions as first lady was the commencement speech she gave at Wellesley College; it which saw considerable publicity and her selection was controversial, but it was widely regarded as a success. She remained active in political campaigning after leaving the White House, as two of her sons both ran for office in gubernatorial and presidential campaigns. ## Early life ### Childhood Barbara Pierce was born in New York City on June 8, 1925, the third of four children born to Pauline Pierce (née Robinson) and Marvin Pierce. Her father was a businessman who worked at the McCall Corporation, descended from the Pierce family that included U.S. president Franklin Pierce. She had a close relationship with her father, and she considered him a mentor in many aspects of her life. Pierce's mother, the daughter of a Supreme Court of Ohio justice, was a housewife who was involved in the gardening community. Barbara was the third of her parents' four children, and she often felt overshadowed as a middle child: her older sister Martha was well-liked and modeled for Vogue, her older brother Jimmy was a delinquent, and her younger brother Scott had a bone cyst that led to several surgeries throughout his childhood. Barbara felt especially neglected by her mother, with whom she often argued. Noticing her mother's poor financial habits and general pessimism about her life, Barbara came to see her mother as an example to avoid, instead believing that she had to choose to be happy with what she had. She regretted the resentment that she held toward her mother as she grew older, particularly after she had a sick child of her own. Pierce grew up in Rye, New York, where she lived in relative comfort with servants assisting the family. She later described herself as a "very happy fat child". While the family lost some of their comforts during the Great Depression, her father's successful career kept them from poverty. In her youth, Pierce was athletic and enjoyed swimming, tennis, and cycling. Her interest in reading began early in life; she recalled gathering and reading with her family during the evenings. For the first years of her schooling, Pierce was a public school student, attending Milton School. Insecure with her appearance as a child, she adopted a self-deprecating sense of humor and harshly judged the other children. She also took on more traditionally masculine interests, such as playing football. In her teenage years, she became more popular and was often sought after as a partner in her dance classes. Pierce attended the Rye Country Day School from seventh to tenth grade. She then attended Ashley Hall, a boarding school in Charleston, South Carolina, for eleventh and twelfth grade. She graduated from Ashley Hall in 1943. ### Courtship and marriage When Pierce was 16 and on Christmas vacation, she met George H. W. Bush. They met at a Christmas dance at the Greenwich Country Club, when he saw her across the room and asked a friend to introduce them. After a dance together, they instead sat and talked because Bush did not know how to waltz. They were immediately infatuated with one another, and they met again, first at a dance the following night, and then when Bush agreed to play a basketball game with her brother—a game that was attended by the entire Pierce family, who all wished to see the object of her affections. They kept a correspondence after returning to their respective schools, and they began a courtship in 1942, after Bush asked her to accompany him to his senior prom. They were secretly engaged in 1943, while Pierce was visiting Bush's family prior to his departure after enlisting in the military, though it was soon known by their families. Pierce briefly attended Smith College while Bush was fighting in the Pacific theater of World War II, but she dropped out at the beginning of her second year in anticipation of their wedding. While in college, she focused on the social and athletic aspects rather than her studies, as she already had the promise of a stable life after her wedding. She played her own part to support the war effort, working at a nuts-and-bolts factory as a gofer. While Bush was on leave, Pierce accompanied him to his family home. She took quickly to the family, and they gave her the nickname Bar, which was derived from teasingly calling her the name of the family horse, Barsil, rather than from her own name. She retained the nickname for life. When Bush returned to war, Pierce waited for him to return. In June 1944, she feared him dead after learning that his plane was shot down, but she learned soon after that he had been found and rescued. Pierce married Bush at the Rye First Presbyterian Church on January 6, 1945, when she was 19 years old. The reception was held at The Apawamis Club, where they had gone on their first date, and they had their honeymoon in Sea Island, Georgia. For the first eight months of their marriage, George and Barbara Bush moved around the Eastern United States, to places including Michigan, Maryland, and Virginia, where George Bush's Navy squadron training required his presence. After George was discharged, they moved to New Haven, Connecticut, and they lived in shared housing while George was attending Yale University. Barbara decided not to return to college, instead working a part-time job on the Yale campus before focusing on having and raising children. Their first child, George, was born on July 6, 1946. ### Early married years The Bushes moved to Texas in 1948 when George graduated from Yale, as he had accepted a job in the oil industry from a family friend. He did not consult Barbara before deciding on the move, and she did not raise any protest. The Bushes first lived in Odessa, Texas, where Barbara sought to set up a life in which she was not subjected to her mother's criticisms or compared to her siblings. She credited this sudden lifestyle shift for prompting her to become more mature and self-sufficient, as she had previously seen all of her needs tended to by her family. By the following year, the Bushes moved to California for George's work, where they lived in several different towns over the course of a year. While in California, Bush learned that her mother had died in a traffic collision. To her later regret, she decided not to attend the funeral or visit her injured father in the hospital, fearing the toll that cross-country travel would take on her pregnancy. Two months later, she gave birth to her second child, Robin. The Bushes then returned to Texas so George could start his own oil business, and they established a home in Midland, Texas. This town was wealthier than Odessa, allowing the Bushes a more comfortable lifestyle. Bush was often left alone with the children while George was away for work, sometimes for days at a time. She had her third child, Jeb, in 1953. While living in Texas, Bush decided to convert to her husband's religion of Episcopalianism. But upon taking the necessary classes, the rector congratulated her for achieving "first-class". She was so insulted by the suggestion that members of one religion are superior to another that she left without joining, and she thereafter attended the church without anyone noticing that she was not a member. The family life established by the Bushes was interrupted in 1953 when Robin was diagnosed with leukemia. Against the advice of their physician, they took her to New York to get treatment. Barbara forced herself to maintain her composure throughout the ordeal: George was unable to do so, requiring her support, and she made a point to never cry in front of her daughter. Robin died six months later, and George then had to provide support to Barbara. She fell into a deep depression, in which she struggled to raise her two surviving children. An urban legend held that her hair began to whiten in her grief, though she later dispelled this. Her relationship with her husband and her oldest son helped her recover, as she felt she had to maintain herself for them. She began to process her grief after overhearing her son decline to play with the neighbors because his mother needed him. Bush decided that she would continue having children until she gave birth to another daughter. She had three more children over the following years: Neil in 1955, Marvin in 1956, and Dorothy in 1959. The Bushes drove across the country in 1957, and they found themselves interrupted or barred entry wherever they went, as they were accompanied by their Black housekeeper and their Black babysitter. These incidents instilled in Bush an interest in the civil rights movement. The family moved to Houston in 1959, where Barbara, still pregnant with Dorothy, oversaw the construction of their new home. When her son Neil was diagnosed with dyslexia, she developed a life-long interest in literacy. ## Entering political life ### Late 1960s Bush learned to campaign when her husband chose to run for the chairmanship of the Harris County Republican Party. She had initially believed that he had been appointed to the position, only later realizing that he would need to seek election. She accompanied her husband as he traveled to each precinct in the county. She grew to like campaigning, as it provided her a change of pace and gave her an opportunity to spend more time with her husband, though she found the downtime boring and took up needlepoint to occupy herself. She campaigned with her husband again when he ran to represent Texas in the U.S. Senate in 1964. This campaign demonstrated to Barbara a less pleasant aspect of political life, as false information was spread during her husband's primary election, alleging that her father was a communist. While campaigning, she would sometimes hide her last name to solicit more honest feedback about her husband. She took it personally when he lost the election to incumbent Ralph Yarborough. Bush returned to the campaign trail for her husband in 1966 when he ran for a seat in the U.S. House of Representatives, and the family moved to Washington, D.C. after his victory. In Washington, her primary focus was to raise her younger children and manage her household, but she also involved herself in the activities of the capital. She attended political briefings and social events, including regular events at the White House that endeared her to first lady Lady Bird Johnson. She also started a newspaper column, "Washington Scene", that was published in Houston. Bush was active in the neighborhood where she lived, befriending prominent neighbors such as Shirley Neil Pettis, Potter Stewart, and Franklin D Roosevelt Jr. The Bushes became known in Washington for the barbecues that they hosted each Sunday, a practice that they carried over from their time in Houston. Andrew Card, a member of the Bush administration, cited Barbara's hosting during this time as a significant factor in George's good relations with members of Congress during his presidency. ### 1970s George ran for the U.S. Senate again in 1970, and was again unsuccessful. As with the previous failed senate race, Barbara took an emotional toll from her husband's electoral defeat. She also dcided to stop dying her hair after her dye ran during a campaign trip, instead maintaining the white hair that would later become a recognizable part of her public image. After George lost election to the Senate, President Richard Nixon appointed him the United States ambassador to the United Nations, which enabled Barbara to begin forming relationships in New York City with prominent diplomats. A large apartment was provided as a residence for the UN ambassador, providing them a home in New York. She particularly enjoyed sharing this period of her husband's career, as it provided the couple with extensive social opportunities. While in New York, she volunteered each week at Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, where her daughter had been treated for leukemia years before. Bush was against the idea of her husband becoming the chair of the Republican National Committee in 1973, but he accepted the position against her wishes. Instead of the opportunities of the ambassadorship, she spent her days away from her husband as he managed the fallout of the Watergate scandal. While in Washington, she reconnected with her friends from the city and attended World Affairs Council meetings. When Gerald Ford became president in 1974 and asked George where he wanted to go, George asked to be appointed United States Ambassador to China. He was given the position, and Barbara moved with him to China. She enjoyed the time that she spent in the country and often rode bicycles with her husband to explore cities and regions that few Americans had visited. As she had while a Congressman's wife in Washington, she wrote a newspaper column so the people in Texas could follow her activities. She considered the experience to be a transformative one, allowing her to evaluate her life and sort her priorities. The Bushes returned to the United States in 1975 when George accepted a job as the U.S. Director of Central Intelligence. Given the job's highly secretive nature, Barbara was completely excluded from her husband's work. With this, and the fact that her children were all grown and had moved away, she was overcome by a feeling of isolation. She suffered from depression, which became severe enough that George insisted that she seek out a mental health professional. She did not take his advice, though she later wished that she had. She later cited menopause as a factor that amplified her depression, and some have speculated that George's close relationship with his assistant, Jennifer Fitzgerald, was another cause. Her doubts were amplified by the women's liberation movement, which made her question whether her life as a housewife was the one she wanted. To distract herself, she began regular work at a hospice facility. Barbara eventually reacquainted herself with Washington social life, and built connections for her husband's political career while she practiced her slideshow demonstrations, giving talks about China. The Bushes returned to Houston after George left the CIA in 1977. The Bushes never had a direct conversation about George running in the 1980 presidential election, but the decision was obvious to both of them, and George announced his candidacy. Early in the campaign, there were worries that she would be a liability; she was outspoken, and she looked significantly older than George in a primary election where age was an issue. She eventually came to be seen as an asset. When Barbara was asked what cause she would champion if she became first lady, she decided on literacy, believing that it would be a non-controversial choice and that it affected all of the other major issues. She was a strong advocate for her husband during the campaign, though she caused a stir with the party's conservative wing when she said that she supported ratification of the Equal Rights Amendment and was pro-choice on abortion. For two years, she traveled the country with her aide Becky Brady to campaign for her husband. He did not win the Republican nomination for the presidency, but the eventual winner, Ronald Reagan, chose him as vice president. Barbara accordingly became the second lady. Upon the selection of her husband as Reagan's vice presidential nominee, she promised Reagan that they were "going to work our tails off for you". ## Second Lady of the United States (1981–1989) Upon becoming vice president and second lady, the Bushes moved into the vice presidential residence. Living there for the full eight years of George's tenure as vice president, it was to that point the home that they had lived in longer than any other. They renovated the house, and Barbara hosted over one thousand social events there in her time as second lady. She often ignored order of precedence so that individuals would not be regularly seated among the same group, and she would sometimes have important guests sit next to her husband instead of by her. First lady Nancy Reagan strongly disliked the Bushes. During the 1980 primary election, Nancy and Barbara developed an animosity that lasted for the rest of their lives. Nancy, in her authority over social events as first lady, reduced the social role of the vice president and the second lady. Because of this, Barbara did not take an active role in White House social events. Barbara become known for her tendency to wear blue while she was second lady; Nancy commonly wore red, and for Barbara to also wear red would invite conflict. Bush promoted the cause of literacy while in Washington. She joined several associations and programs to promote literacy, though she rejected more public positions so as not to overshadow Nancy Reagan. Though she was not as widely recognized as other people associated with the president, Bush and her literacy initiatives saw approval from the public. She received many letters from the public, of which her white hair become such a common subject that she began using a stock reply: "Please forget about my hair. Think about my wonderful mind." She also traveled extensively in the United States and abroad, both with her husband and alone while representing him. By the end of her eight years as second lady, Barbara counted 65 different nations that she had visited. Bush campaigned for her husband's reelection as vice president in the 1984 presidential campaign. By the mid-1980s, Bush was comfortable speaking in front of groups, and she routinely spoke to promote issues in which she believed. She became famous for a self-deprecating sense of humor. During the campaign, she made headlines when she declined to give her thoughts on vice presidential candidate Geraldine Ferraro, but that "it rhymes with rich". She later apologized and clarified that she meant "witch". Barbara otherwise avoided drawing attention to herself, and this was the only significant criticism of her during her tenure as second lady. Throughout her tenure as second lady, she always kept George's political career in mind; after noticing that he had not appeared in any recent issues of the RNC's First Monday magazine, she orchestrated a meeting with the RNC chair, and George appeared on the front cover of the following issue. Bush became a full time campaigner once again when her husband entered the 1988 presidential election to succeed Reagan. Her image as a loyal wife and mother proved valuable for the campaign, especially after rumors emerged that George had engaged in an affair with his assistant Jennifer Fitzgerald. The campaign at times focused on the large Bush family, and contrasted her with the incumbent first lady, Nancy Reagan, by highlighting her interest in domestic staples such as church, gardening, and time spent with family while placing less emphasis on style sense and fashion; she drew attention to both her famous white hair and disinterest in wearing designer clothes. When speaking to the campaign's media advisor, she said that she would do anything for the campaign except "dye my hair, change my wardrobe, or lose weight". As the wife of a presidential nominee, Bush was more visible than she had previously been. By this time, she felt confident enough in the world of politics to provide her own input on campaign strategy. She sat in on campaign meetings, and she gave George feedback on his debate answers when they were alone. It was her support for attack ads that convinced George to use them. She spoke at the national party convention, becoming the third candidate's spouse to do so after Eleanor Roosevelt in 1940 and Pat Nixon in 1972. ## First Lady of the United States (1989–1993) ### White House life and ceremonial activity The Bushes moved into the White House on January 20, 1989, and Barbara become the first lady of the United States. She was the oldest first lady to live in the White House at the time, taking the position at age 63. The only first lady older than her to that point, Anna Harrison, did not live in Washington during her husband's term. Bush declined to change herself or develop new skills as most first ladies did when entering the White House, explicitly rejecting suggestions that she dye her hair or lose weight. She did begin purchasing designer gowns, but this went unnoticed by the press. Bush described the position of first lady as "the best job in America" and "the most spoiled woman in the world". Wishing to avoid the example of Nancy Reagan, Bush ensured that vice president Dan Quayle and second lady Marilyn Quayle were involved in social affairs. Shortly after becoming first lady, Bush was diagnosed with Graves' disease, which gave her double vision and caused her to lose weight. Both the condition and the treatment (which included methimazole, prednisone, and radiation therapy) caused her significant discomfort, though she denied in public that her condition was seriously affecting her. Her husband was diagnosed with the same autoimmune disease in 1991. Bush loved the White House, admiring the historical significance of each room. She also liked that her husband worked in the same building that they lived, given the problems of previous years when he was often away for long periods of time. She was active in the White House Historical Association and worked to revitalize the White House Preservation Fund, which she renamed the White House Endowment Trust. The trust raises funds for the building's ongoing refurbishment and restoration. She met her goal of raising \$25 million towards the endowment. The White House residence staff generally found Barbara Bush to be the friendliest and most easygoing of the first ladies with whom they had dealt. Barbara's day-to-day activities often included charity work, meetings, or interviews until 6pm, at which point the Bushes would host company and Barbara would give tours of the White House. She also exercised in the White House pool, swimming 72 laps to complete a mile each day. She sought to engage in normal activities while living in the White House, patronizing local businesses and walking her dog along Pennsylvania Avenue. She believed it was important for her to leave the White House grounds during the day to avoid feeling trapped or isolated. She theorized that if she went in public enough, people in the area would grow used to her presence. Bush was generally skeptical of reporters and the press, feeling that she was entitled to have a private life separately from her public life. Though she did not hold regular press conferences, she worked to develop relationships with several individual reporters. When dealing with the press, she imposed her policy of "if I said it, I said it", in which her staff was not allowed to explain or justify her statements to the press. Bush's press secretary, Anna Perez, was the first Black woman to hold a significant position in the East Wing of the White House. On June 1, 1990, Bush gave a commencement speech to the graduating class of Wellesley College. Her selection as speaker was controversial among students, many of whom felt that Bush was not representative of a successful woman and was only selected because of her husband's accomplishments. The controversy became a national debate. Publicly, she dismissed it "much ado about nothing" by twenty-year-olds. Privately, she was angered by the protest. The media attention leading up the speech was such that when the day came, it was the first speech by a first lady to ever be nationally broadcast live. Bush chose to invite first lady of the Soviet Union Raisa Gorbacheva, who had a visit scheduled to the United States with her husband, to join her at the commencement. Upon giving the speech, Bush was well received by the students and the public, who responded positively to her message of prioritizing personal fulfillment and relationships. ### Advocacy While she was first lady, Bush continued her work in promoting literacy that she had begun as second lady. In March 1989, she established the Barbara Bush Foundation for Family Literacy to promote further literacy programs. In 1990, she hosted the Mrs. Bush's Storytime radio program for ABC, in which she read to children. Bush was known for the affection she had for her pet English Springer Spaniel, Millie, and she wrote the children's book Millie's Book about Millie's new litter of puppies in 1990. The book was a best-seller, producing earnings of nearly \$800,000. This was more than any first lady had ever made while serving in the role. She donated the profits to her literacy foundation. Bush emphasized the issue of adult illiteracy in particular, including work to increase literacy among the homeless and the incarcerated. During her time as first lady, she raised millions of dollars to fund literacy programs, including from large companies such as GM and Motorola. Her interest in the subject broadly affected the administration's education policy: it contributed to the 1989 education summit, and she convinced her husband to end his opposition of the National Literacy Act of 1991, allowing it to be passed into law. Bush was an advocate for AIDS patients while first lady. The issue was controversial at the time due to its association with gay rights. For this reason, her work on this issue was not as widely publicized. To prevent discrimination against AIDS patients and to challenge misconceptions about its contagiousness, a photograph was published of her hugging a child with AIDS. This photograph was credited with a significant shift in public perception of the disease. In private, she urged her husband to take a stronger stand on the rights of those with AIDS. She compared the discrimination faced by AIDS patients to the discomfort that people expressed when her daughter Robin had leukemia. ### Political involvement Bush was a frequent advisor to her husband, and her suggestions played a role in several of the administration's decisions, including multiple cabinet appointments. A White House aide later described her as "the only voice that he 100 percent trusted". She was occasionally tasked with a more formal responsibility, such as a diplomatic mission in 1990 when she led the envoy to attend the inauguration of Costa Rican president Rafael Calderón. In her role as first lady, Bush built a rapport with the first lady of the Soviet Union, Raisa Gorbacheva. This was credited by Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev, as well as other world leaders such as Helmut Kohl and Brian Mulroney, with improving Western–Soviet relations. In one discussion, Kohl assured Mikhail Gorbachev that talks between the nations would continue in part because of Barbara's influence. Gorbacheva was one of several global figures in which Bush's relationship was beneficial to her husband's administration, as she regularly made efforts to develop these social connections with visiting world leaders. These became especially prominent following the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait, where her relationship with Gorbacheva and with French president François Mitterrand eased the process of building the coalition response. During the subsequent Gulf War, Bush tasked herself with making the president's job easier. She curated guest lists to avoid those who she felt would "hammer him about his conduct of the war", and she limited the messages that she passed on to him so as not to disturb him. Due to an injury from a sledding accident, she was limited to the White House residence for the first week of the war and walked with a cane for months after. Bush's attention shifted to her husband's reelection campaign during the 1992 presidential election, and she was invited to give a speech at the Republican National Convention. She was reluctant to engage in another campaign, dreading the political attacks against her husband and her children. Despite this, Bush took a major role in campaigning, more actively endorsing her husband's policy accomplishments than she previously had. The campaign efforts were complicated by the early 1990s recession and the president's subsequent drop in approval ratings. Due to her strong approval ratings compared to her husband, Barbara was made a more prominent face of the campaign. This also allowed the campaign to contrast her with Hillary Clinton, the wife of opposing candidate Bill Clinton. Bush had conflicting feelings about leaving the White House after her husband lost reelection. She was sorry to see her husband lose but relieved to return to Houston and be away from the regular criticism of her family. Bush invited Hillary Clinton to tour the White House two weeks after the election, wishing to avoid repeating the long delay by Nancy Reagan that Bush had found insulting. On this tour, she gave Clinton advice to avoid the press: "They're not your friends. They're not trying to help you." ## Post–White House years ### Retirement Bush described January 20, 1993, the day of Bill Clinton's inauguration, a "tough day" for her and her husband. The Bushes felt that George had earned a second term as president, and Barbara blamed Bill Clinton for her husband's loss. She also blamed the press, believing that they showed preference for Clinton due to his relative youth. The Bushes moved back to Houston, where they lived in a rental home for nine months as they had a new house constructed. This new house featured a six-foot-tall brick wall to ensure the family's privacy. The day after returning to Houston, the Bushes learned that Nancy Reagan had called into ABC News to criticize them. When Nancy later called Barbara to discuss the impropteau interview, Barbara decided that she "didn't feel like playing her game any more": she corrected a false accusation Nancy had made against them, she lied that reporters were harassing her to make Nancy feel guilty, and she hung up after saying "don't you ever call me again". The two never spoke again, excepting brief formalities at state events. After spending eight years as second lady and then another four as first lady, Bush had gone some time without cooking or driving a car, two skills that she was forced to reacquire after leaving the White House. Though she was able to find more opportunities for relaxation after leaving the White House, she remained busy with her various charitable causes, public appearances, and family commitments. The Bushes initially did not have enough money to live the lifestyle they had grown accustomed to, but between speaking fees and a book deal, Barbara made a considerable amount of money after leaving the White House. Her book, Barbara Bush: A Memoir, stayed at the top of The New York Times Best Seller list for several weeks. In 1994, two of Bush's sons sought political office: George W. ran to be the governor of Texas, and Jeb ran to be the governor of Florida. Though she helped them campaign, she found that political attacks against her sons were even more stressful than those against her husband, and she was unable to watch their respective gubernatorial debates. Jeb lost his election, and George W. was elected governor of Texas. Both sons ran for the same offices again in 1998, and both won. George W. went to Barbara for advice when he was considering a presidential campaign in the 2000 presidential election. Rather than giving him an answer, she told him to make up his mind. Later, during a church sermon about accepting the call to do the right thing, she turned to her son and said "he is talking to you", convincing him in that moment to run for president. When George W. announced his candidacy, his parents did not take a prominent role in the campaign, so as to avoid overshadowing him or making the election about the Bush political dynasty. Barbara's primary role was traveling with other women associated with the campaign in the "W Stands for Women" tour in an attempt to increase his share of the women's vote. After a long legal battle over the results, her son's opponent Al Gore conceded the election, and Barbara became the second woman after Abigail Adams to be both the wife and the mother of a U.S. president. ### President's mother Barbara and George were on a flight when the September 11 attacks occurred, so their plane was grounded and they were taken by the Secret Service to a motel. The next day, they were given special authorization by their son to fly back to Kennebunkport, Maine. They participated at a prayer service with other former presidents and first ladies on September 14. Bush later expressed that she felt great pride in her son's handling of the crisis. The attack also convinced her to reinstate her own personal Secret Service protection, which she had dismissed after leaving the White House. In 2002 she became an alumna initiate of the Texas Eta chapter of Pi Beta Phi at Texas A&M University. Bush chose this university due to it being the location of her husband's Presidential Library. She was also a member of the Junior League of Houston. In 2003, Bush published another memoir, Reflections: Life after the White House. Tensions between Iraq and the United States grew during her son's presidency, and by 2003 it seemed likely that her son would launch an invasion of Iraq. She expressed worry that the decision may be a mistake. Two days before the 2003 invasion of Iraq, she spoke dismissively of television news reports about the impending conflict. Her supporters argued that she was rejecting conjecture and speculation by reporters, while her critics argued that she was being insensitive about the situation's severity. After the invasion, she felt that he was being unduly influenced by Donald Rumsfeld, Dick Cheney, and Andy Card; she repeatedly urged her son to reconsider his decisions on Iraq until he sternly rebuked her. Bush returned to campaigning during the 2004 presidential election, giving speeches on her son's behalf when he sought a second term as president. He went on to win reelection. She was involved in promoting some of his policy goals in his second term, including a 2005 tour of Florida to promote his Social Security reform plan. She generated a controversy during her work supporting victims of Hurricane Katrina when she made a comment to a radio station about the situation: > Almost everyone I've talked to says, "We're gonna move to Houston." What I'm hearing, which is sort of scary, is they all want to stay in Texas... Everybody is so overwhelmed by the hospitality, and so many of the people in the arenas here, you know, were underprivileged anyway, so this is working very well for them. The comment was deemed insensitive and reinforced an impression that the Bushes were out of touch. Her involvement in the hurricane relief efforts were further criticized in 2006, when it was revealed that she donated an undisclosed amount of money to the Bush–Clinton Katrina Fund on the condition that the charity do business with an educational software company owned by her son Neil. As George worked with Bill Clinton on various charity projects, the Bushs' views of their former rival softened, and he eventually came to be seen as a member of the family, though Barbara took longer to forgive Clinton's victory in the 1992 election than George did. On October 3, 2008, Bush and her husband opened the "George and Barbara Bush Center" on the University of New England waterfront Biddeford Campus. The George and Barbara Bush Center lays the foundation for the heritage of Barbara Bush in New England and houses "The Bush Legacy Collection", material securing the Bush legacy in Maine, including memorabilia on loan from the George H. W. Bush Presidential Library at Texas A&M University. Particular attention is given to the family's New England heritage and to Barbara's love for Maine. ### Later life and death In their later years, Barbara and George spent each summer in Kennebunkport, spending the remainder of the year in Houston. Bush was hospitalized for abdominal pains and underwent small intestine surgery in November 2008. In 2009, she underwent aortic valve replacement surgery. In 2010, Bush was the subject of controversy when George W. recounted an anecdote that following her miscarriage she had held the fetus in a jar, causing a misconception that she had kept or displayed the remains. In 2015, after several decades of attending Episcopalian services, she was confirmed as a member of the church so she could accept the Dean's Cross award without misrepresenting her faith. Bush was initially opposed to her son Jeb making a potential bid for the presidency, worrying that he would be weighed down by criticisms of the previous Bush presidencies and saying in 2013 that "we've had enough Bushes". She recanted this statement in 2015, after Jeb began preparing his presidential campaign. She campaigned for Jeb during the Republican Party primary elections, describing her son as an honest candidate while criticizing front-runner Donald Trump. She was hospitalized in June 2016 after an incident involving her heart, later blaming the incident on the stress that the Trump campaign caused her. On election day, she wrote in Jeb's name. Trump was elected president, and Bush was critical of him during his presidency. Bush fell and fractured her vertebrae on March 16, 2018, and she was hospitalized. On April 15, her family released a statement regarding her failing health, stating that she had chosen to be at home with family, desiring comfort care rather than further medical treatment. Bush died in her Houston home at the age of 92 on April 17, 2018. President Donald Trump ordered flags to half-staff in her memory. Bush's casket was visited by thousands of admirers, and large crowds greeted the hearse as it passed. Her funeral was held at St. Martin's Episcopal Church in Houston on April 21, 2018. She was buried at the George Bush Presidential Library in College Station, Texas, beside the grave of her daughter Robin. By her request, the funeral was only 90 minutes long: a decision she made after attending the two hour funeral of Lady Bird Johnson. Following Bush's death, a cartoon by Marshall Ramsey, of The Clarion-Ledger, was widely circulated, showing Barbara being greeted by her daughter Robin upon her entry to heaven. Her husband died seven months later on November 30, 2018. ## Political beliefs Bush regularly spoke with her husband about political topics, including issues that he faced in the White House. Though it was generally understood that she disagreed with him on several major political issues, she refused to speak about policy to the press. Unlike her husband, she favored an assault weapons ban, though she was resistant to broader gun control as she believed that it would only restrict law-abiding citizens while criminals would subvert the law. Bush described her positions on social policy, and those of the Republican Party, as liberal, defining liberalism in this context as "caring enormously about people". She increasingly disagreed with the Republican Party as its social positions became more conservative. She supported causes that would support the poor and the sick, though she limited herself to aspects that were not politically charged. She emphasized literacy because of its apolitical nature and because of her belief that illiteracy caused other societal issues. Bush's friends and relatives cited the death of her daughter for social beliefs, saying that she became highly empathetic for the unfortunate after Robin died. She was opposed to the idea of political parties taking stances on issues such as abortion or homosexuality. Bush's opinion on abortion was a minor issue during her husband's political career. Though early on she said that it should be limited to the first trimester, she generally refused to comment on the issue. She privately reconciled her beliefs surrounding abortion during the 1980 presidential campaign, when she wrote several pages of notes referencing philosophical questions and her own personal experience with the death of a child. She concluded with the belief that the soul enters the body at birth, and that this made abortion morally permissible. She further believed that abortion should be federally funded so it was accessible to the poor and that government action to prevent unwanted births should take the form of education. Only later in life did she openly state that she was pro-choice. Though Bush was not an advocate for gay rights, she was not hostile to the idea as many were during her time as first lady. Her work in AIDS relief made her sympathetic to the discrimination faced by the LGBT community, and she said in response to the issue that "we cannot tolerate discrimination against any individuals or groups in our country". This was the first time that someone from the White House made a public statement in support of gay rights. While speaking in 1994, she expressed her opinion that a family caring for its children is more important than whether or not the parents were a same-sex couple. She was skeptical of the Obama administration's publicized hiring of a transgender person in 2015 until her mind was changed following a conversation with Timothy Naftali. Bush was skeptical of the feminist movement, in part because of the criticism that she received about her lifestyle as a housewife. She supported the Equal Rights Amendment through the 1980s, though she stopped expressing public support for it while the first lady. She was ambivalent about women in the military during the United States invasion of Panama, believing that women were emotionally capable of handling war but less so physically. She limited her stance on the issue to her relief that Manual Noriega had been captured. She more explicitly supported American action in the Gulf War, and she received little pushback when she suggested that Iraqi president Saddam Hussein should be charged with war crimes and hanged. Bush opposed the rightward shift of the Republican Party following her husband's presidency. When Pat Buchanan challenged her husband in the 1992 primary elections on a nationalist anti-immigration platform, she accused him of using "racist code words". Bush was also highly critical of Donald Trump, dating back to 1990 before his political career. She opposed his 2016 presidential campaign and his subsequent presidency. She described her reaction to his victory as "horror", and she was confused as to how any woman could support him. After Trump's election, she was gifted a digital clock that counted down the days until the end of his term, which she kept in her bedroom. By early 2018, shortly before her death, Bush decided that she was no longer part of the Republican Party. ## Legacy Bush was generally popular as first lady. On average, she received about 100,000 letters each year during her tenure, far more than she expected. Her image of an easy going woman and a good mother was widely accepted by the American people, as was her determination to remain apolitical on policy issues. This generally affable image of Bush prompted biographer Susan Page to describe her as "the most underestimated first lady of modern times". Where Bush did have critics, they argued that her image as a domestic housewife conflicted with advances made in women's rights. She did not meaningfully alter the role of first lady, and she did not exert significant influence over the White House's social events, instead continuing the practices established by Nancy Reagan. At the time of her death, two of her sons and one of her grandsons had held political office. Because of this, Bush has been described as the "matriarch" of a political dynasty. She rejected the idea of a Bush dynasty, believing that it encouraged a sense of entitlement. Bush has been contrasted with her predecessor, Nancy Reagan, in the context of image and style. Reagan was known for her fashion sense and her small figure, while Bush was recognized for her white hair and her simpler fashion. Bush was especially known for her three-strand fake pearl necklace, which became popular among American women. She described the positive reception that she received from elderly women who saw themselves in her, and she described herself as a "role model for fat ladies". When contrasted with her successor, Hillary Clinton, they have often been differentiated by their lifestyles. Clinton was criticized for the level of independence she maintained from her husband throughout her life, while Bush was criticized for a lack of independence from hers. When describing herself, she cited Eleanor Roosevelt and Bess Truman. Bush was the last first lady to be raised prior to the onset of second-wave feminism, which allowed subsequent first ladies more freedom to seek an education and a career. Bush's social projects and initiatives were taken up by her children. Jeb and George both emphasized education in their political careers, while Jeb and Dorothy took control of the Barbara Bush Literacy Foundation in 2014. George also cited his mother's influence when he enacted the PEPFAR initiative while president, which supported millions of AIDS patients in Africa. Her granddaughter Barbara Pierce Bush co-founded Global Health Corps, which prioritizes AIDS relief as one of its primary goals. Bush's personal papers, including her diaries and letters, are not scheduled to be publicly released until 35 years after her death, in 2053. ### Awards and honors In 1995, Bush received the Award for Greatest Public Service Benefiting the Disadvantaged, an award given out annually by Jefferson Awards. In 1997, she was the recipient of The Miss America Woman of Achievement Award for her work with literacy programs. The same year, she received the Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement. In 2016, she received honorary membership in Phi Beta Kappa from the University of Houston chapter. Multiple schools are named after Barbara Bush. Schools have been named Barbara Bush Elementary School in Houston; Grand Prairie, Texas; and Mesa, Arizona. Schools have been named Barbara Bush Middle School in San Antonio and Irving, Texas. The Barbara Bush Children's Hospital at Maine Medical Center in Portland, Maine, was also named in her honor. Of the places that were given her name, she said that she was most proud of the "Literacy Plaza" that was under construction in Houston that would connect city hall with the neighboring library. #### Honorary degrees Barbara Bush received honorary degrees from many institutions. These include: ### Historical assessments Since 1982 Siena College Research Institute has conducted occasional surveys asking historians to assess American first ladies according to a cumulative score on the independent criteria of their background, value to the country, intelligence, courage, accomplishments, integrity, leadership, being their own women, public image, and value to the president. In terms of cumulative assessment, Bush has been ranked: - 7th-best of 37 in 1993 - 15th-best of 38 in 2003 - 12th-best of 38 in 2008 - 11th-best of 39 in 2014 In the 2003 survey, Bush was the ranked 5th-highest in the criteria of public image. In the 2008 Siena Research Institute survey, Bush was ranked the 9th-best of the twenty 20th century and 21st century First Ladies. In the 2014 survey, Bush and her husband were ranked the 21st-highest out of 39 first couples in terms of being a "power couple". In the 2014 survey, historians ranked Bush 5th among 20th and 21st century American first ladies that they felt "could have done more".
38,413,776	Electrick Children	1,120,044,136	null	[ "2010s American films", "2010s English-language films", "2012 directorial debut films", "2012 films", "American coming-of-age films", "American independent films", "Films about Mormonism", "Films set in Utah", "Films set in the Las Vegas Valley", "Magic realism films", "Mormon fundamentalism in fiction" ]	Electrick Children is a 2012 American independent coming of age film written and directed by Rebecca Thomas and starring Julia Garner, Rory Culkin, and Liam Aiken. Garner plays Rachel, a 15-year-old girl from a fundamentalist Mormon community in Utah. After learning that she is pregnant, she believes she has conceived miraculously through listening to a song on a cassette tape. In writing the script, Thomas drew inspiration from the story of the Virgin Mary, her research on fundamentalist Mormon communities, and her own upbringing. She originally intended to produce the film on a \$25,000-budget and hire her family and friends to work on the cast and crew, but when the budget was raised to \$1 million she was able to hire professional actors. Filming took place over 25 days in Utah and Nevada in late 2011. Electrick Children premiered at the Berlin International Film Festival on February 10, 2012, and was released in the United States on March 8, 2013. It received mostly positive reviews from critics and Thomas and Garner received several accolades for their work on the film. ## Plot After her fifteenth birthday, Rachel McKnight, a member of a fundamentalist Mormon community in Utah, listens to a cassette recorder for the first time and hears a cover of "Hanging on the Telephone" by an obscure rock band on a blue cassette. Her brother, Mr. Will, takes it from her, stating that it is to be used only for God's purposes. When she discovers she is pregnant, she is convinced that she has conceived miraculously, like the Virgin Mary, through the medium of the cassette. After being questioned by her parents, Mr. Will is blamed for impregnating her, and is asked to leave the community, while Rachel is told she will be married the next day. Rather than undergo a shotgun marriage arranged by her father, Paul, she escapes to Las Vegas, along with Mr. Will, who is sleeping in the bed of the family's pickup truck. In Las Vegas Rachel falls in with a group of skaters who live together and play in a band, after becoming intrigued by one of the boys who wears a shirt with a cassette on it. Mr. Will finds her and pleads with her to confess to having sex with someone else so that he can return to their community. Rachel becomes romantically involved with Clyde, one of the skaters, and one night he offers to marry her, saying that together they can look for the man on the tape, who Rachel thinks is the father of her child. When Clyde and Rachel break into his parents' house looking for food and money, Clyde's father calls the police and Mr. Will is arrested while Rachel flees. Remembering one of her mother's bedtime stories, she impulsively follows a red Mustang and discovers that its owner, Tim, is the man who recorded the tape, and is, in fact, her biological father. Finally, Rachel decides to return to her community. Mr. Will is bailed out of jail by Tim, who is looking for Rachel. Together, he and Mr. Will drive out to the community, and on the way they discover Clyde, whose van has broken down on the highway. As Rachel is about to be wed, Tim, Mr. Will, and Clyde pull up in front of the church in the red Mustang and rescue her. Mr. Will returns to the community and is accepted back with a confession that Rachel has recorded on the blue cassette, although she still firmly believes that God has fathered her child. Some months later, Clyde and a visibly pregnant Rachel are living in a tent by the beach and hold hands as they walk through the waves. ## Cast - Julia Garner as Rachel McKnight - Rory Culkin as Clyde - Liam Aiken as Mr. Will - Bill Sage as Tim - Cynthia Watros as Gay Lynn - Billy Zane as Paul ## Production Director Rebecca Thomas was raised as a Mormon. She first researched Mormon fundamentalism for a documentary, and the religious group portrayed in Electrick Children is based on this research. She wanted to write a film based on scripture and decided to adapt the story of the Virgin Mary. In writing the script, she drew from her own experience of growing up in Las Vegas and the conflict she perceived "between the traditions of Mormon culture in Utah and the bright lights of Las Vegas". She was also inspired by Pier Paolo Pasolini's "nonjudgmental approach" to religion in The Gospel According to St. Matthew. Thomas began writing the script in April 2011, after her second year of studying at the Columbia University School of the Arts. Thomas and producer Jessica Caldwell, also a Columbia student, originally intended to make the film on a "microbudget" of \$25,000. To raise funds, they created a Kickstarter project which Caldwell showed to another producer, Richard Neustadter, who donated \$5000. After reading the script, he contacted Thomas and asked if he could help to produce the film with a larger budget. Thomas agreed and Neustadter went on to raise \$1 million for the film's production. Thomas had initially planned to recruit her friends and family to work on the film's cast and crew, but the larger budget allowed her to hire professional actors. She hired several of her Columbia classmates to work on film's crew. Julia Garner was cast less than a week before filming began. Another actor, Peter Vack, had recommended her to Thomas, who said that Garner "was one of the only actresses I found who looked young enough, but also had a mature emotional depth". Electrick Children marked Garner's first lead role in a film, and Thomas thought that her inexperience in acting made her "very teen-like". Thomas sought out Rory Culkin to play Clyde, while Billy Zane was cast on the recommendation of the casting director, who was a friend of Zane. The film was shot over 25 days in September–October 2011. The first part of production took place in Utah, where filming locations included Hurricane and the ghost town of Grafton, Utah. The latter half of filming was completed in Nevada, with locations including Las Vegas and Indian Springs, Nevada. An additional scene was also shot at San Onofre State Beach in California. ## Release Electrick Children had its world premiere at the Berlin International Film Festival on February 10, 2012. It was screened at the South by Southwest Film Festival on March 15, 2012, and went on to be shown at the Buenos Aires International Festival of Independent Cinema, the Deauville American Film Festival, the Miskolc International Film Festival, the Mumbai Film Festival, the Woodstock Film Festival, the BUSTER Copenhagen International Film Festival for Children and Youth, the Camerimage Film Festival, the Palm Springs International Film Festival, and the Tallinn Black Nights Film Festival. The film was distributed by Phase 4 Films in the United States. It was given a "day-and-date release" on March 8, 2013, meaning that it was released simultaneously in theaters and on video on demand. It was also released theatrically in the United Kingdom, Russia, New Zealand, France, Brazil, and Spain, grossing a total of \$137,126 outside of the U.S. ## Reception The film received an 86% "fresh" rating on Rotten Tomatoes, with 19 "fresh" reviews out of a total of 22 and an average rating of 6.2/10. The site's critical consensus states, "A strong directorial debut for Rebecca Thomas, Electrick Children also features an outstanding performance from Julia Garner as a wild teenager from a conservative family." The film has a score of 60 on Metacritic, based on nine reviews—two positive and seven mixed. The New York Times film critic Stephen Holden described Electrick Children as "neither comedy nor drama nor satire but a surreal mélange infused with magical realism". He criticised its lack of narrative continuity but said "the movie's underlying sweetness leaves a residual glow" and praised Garner's "radiant performance". Catherine Shoard of The Guardian awarded the film 3 out of 5 stars, describing it as overly quirky but "so deftly done it's three parts enchantment to one part irritation". She called Garner's performance "magnetic", and thought that the religious community was convincingly portrayed. Variety magazine's Leslie Felperin called the film "a sweet slice of indie quirk", and praised the direction and acting despite feeling that the script had been "overworked". Writing for The Hollywood Reporter, Justin Lowe highlighted Thomas's direction, Mattias Troelstrup's cinematography, and the performance of Garner, whom he described as "a revelation". Chuck Bowen of Slant Magazine described Thomas as "an exceptional stylist", commending her for avoiding clichés, and wrote that "Electrick Children is one of the most sensible and humane explorations of youthful curiosity and alienation I've seen in some time." The Los Angeles Times' Gary Goldstein, however, found the film to be "unevenly told and at times too fanciful for its own good". ### Awards and nominations Electrick Children gained Thomas—at that time a fourth-year student at Columbia University School of the Arts—a nomination for the "Someone to Watch" award at the 2012 Independent Spirit Awards. It won her the FIPRESCI Award at the 2012 International Festival of Independent Cinema PKO Off Camera in Kraków, Poland, and a "Directors to Watch" award at the Palm Springs International Film Festival. Electrick Children won Best Film at the Tallinn Blacks Night Film Festival and Garner won Best Young Actress at the BUSTER Copenhagen International Film Festival for Children and Youth and Best Actress at the Mumbai Film Festival.
18,012,617	Se Me Olvidó Otra Vez	1,144,128,959	1974 song by Juan Gabriel	[ "1970s ballads", "1974 songs", "1975 singles", "1999 singles", "Juan Gabriel songs", "Latin Grammy Award for Best Pop Album by a Duo or Group with Vocals", "Live singles", "Maná songs", "Marco Antonio Solís songs", "RCA Records singles", "Songs written by Juan Gabriel", "Spanish-language songs", "Warner Music Latina singles" ]	"Se Me Olvidó Otra Vez" (transl. "I'd Forgotten Once Again") is a song written and performed by Mexican singer-songwriter Juan Gabriel for his fourth studio album, Juan Gabriel con el Mariachi Vargas de Tecalitlán (1974). The song is a ranchera number that tells of an impossible reunion as the singer forgets he is the only one who loved a woman. It was released as the lead single from the album in 1975. The song has been listed as among Juan Gabriel's best songs according to music critics and was one of the best-performing singles of 1975 in Mexico. Gabriel has re-recorded the song twice, the first for his compilation album, Por Los Siglos (2001), and as a duet with fellow Mexican singer-songwriter Marco Antonio Solís on his 28th studio album, Los Dúo (2015). In 1999, Mexican band Maná covered "Se Me Olvidó Otra Vez" on their second live album-, MTV Unplugged. Mana's rendition is performed as a reggae-tinged cumbia song. Their version was also received positive reactions from music critics and won the Latin Grammy Award for Best Pop Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal in 2000. Commercially, Mana's cover peaked at numbers five and four on the Billboard Hot Latin Songs and Latin Pop Airplay charts in the United States, respectively. ## Background and composition Since his debut album El Alma Joven (1971), Juan Gabriel immediately established himself as a popular Mexican singer. Juan Gabriel followed up with two albums, El Alma Joven II (1972) and El Alma Joven III (1973). In 1974, the artist released his album of mariachi songs Juan Gabriel con el Mariachi Vargas de Tecalitlán, in a collaboration with Vargas de Tecalitlán. As with the previous albums, Juan Gabriel composed all the tracks on the record including "Se Me Olvidó Otra Vez". A ranchera song, it tells of a "jilted lover waits in sad futility 'in the same town and with the same people, so that when you come back you won't find anything out of place'. But reunion is impossible: 'I'd forgotten once again that it was only me who loved you.'" ## Promotion and reception "Se Me Olvidó Otra Vez" was released as the album's lead single in 1975 by RCA. Juan Gabriel performed the song live at the Palacio de Bellas Artes in 1990 and the performance was included on his first live album Juan Gabriel en el Palacio de Bellas Artes (1990). He re-recorded the track on his 2001 compilation album Por Los Siglos and again in 2015 with fellow Mexican singer-songwriter Marco Antonio Solís on Juan Gabriel's vocal duet album Los Dúo. According to the book Grandes Intérpretes del Bolero (2019) by Eladio Rodulfo Gonzalez, it has become one of the most-well known ranchera songs in the world. Univision listed the track as "one of the 13 songs you are obligated to hear". E! contributor Vanessa Odreman ranked "Se Me Olvidó Otra Vez" as Juan Gabriel's 10th best song. Antonieta Ramos of Heraldo USA cited the track as one of the 10 songs "for a heartbreak". The duet version was praised by AllMusic's Thom Jurek as a "lovely ballad". Commercially, the track became one of the best-performing songs of 1975 in Mexico. ## Formats and track listings Mexican single A1 "Se Me Olvidó Otra Vez" – 2:56 B1 "Ases Y Tercia De Reyes – 1:54 ## Maná version In 1999, Mexican band Maná performed a rendition of "Se Me Olvidó Otra Vez" on their second live album MTV Unplugged. "Se Me Olvidó Otra Vez" is one of the three cover songs in the album along with "Te Solte La Rienda" by José Alfredo Jiménez and "Desapariciones" by Rubén Blades. The session was recorded at the Miami Broadcast Center in Florida on 24 March 1999. The record was produced by band members Fher Olvera and Alex González. Mana's cover of the song is performed as a "reggae-tinged" cumbia track. "Se Me Olvidó Otra Vez" was released as the album's lead single by WEA Latina on 21 May 1999. Ricardo Camarena of La Opinión called the performance of the track "stupendous and rhythmic". The Houston Chronicle critic Ramiro Burr remarked that the band makes "raucous takes" of both "Se Me Olvidó Otra Vez" and "Te Solté la Rienda". A writer for Radio Programas del Perú listed Maná's rendition as one of the "10 Juan Gabriel Songs That Are Hits by Other Artists". At the inaugural Latin Grammy Awards in 2000, "Se Me Olvidó Otra Vez" won the Best Pop Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal. It was recognized as one of the best-performing songs of the year at the ASCAP Latin Awards under the pop/ballad category in 2000. Commercially, Mana's rendition peaked at numbers five and four on the Billboard Hot Latin Songs and Latin Pop Airplay charts in the US, respectively. ### Charts #### Weekly charts #### Year-end charts ## See also - List of number-one hits of 1975 (Mexico)
157,770	Siege of Yorktown	1,171,828,088	1781 American Revolutionary War battle	[ "1781 in Virginia", "Battles of the Yorktown Campaign", "Conflicts in 1781", "Sieges of the American Revolutionary War involving France", "Sieges of the Anglo-French War (1778–1783)", "York County in the American Civil War" ]	The siege of Yorktown, also known as the Battle of Yorktown, the surrender at Yorktown, or the German battle because of the presence of Germans in all three armies, began September 28, 1781 and ended on October 19, 1781, at exactly 10:30 am in Yorktown, Virginia. It was a decisive victory by a combined force of the American Continental Army troops led by General George Washington with support from Marquis de Lafayette and French Army troops led by Comte de Rochambeau and a French naval force commanded by Comte de Grasse over the British Army commanded by British Lieutenant General Charles Cornwallis. The siege of Yorktown was the last major land battle of the American Revolutionary War in North America, and led to the surrender of Cornwallis and the capture of both him and his army. The Continental Army's victory at Yorktown prompted the British government to negotiate an end to the conflict. ## Overview In 1780, about 5,500 French soldiers landed in Rhode Island to help their American allies fight the British troops controlling New York City. Following the arrival of dispatches from France that included the possibility of support from the French West Indies fleet of the Comte de Grasse, disagreements arose between Washington and Rochambeau on whether to ask de Grasse for assistance in besieging New York or in military operations against a British army in Virginia. On the advice of Rochambeau, de Grasse informed them of his intent to sail to the Chesapeake Bay, where Cornwallis had taken command of the army. Cornwallis, at first given confusing orders by his superior officer, Henry Clinton, was eventually ordered to build a defensible deep-water port, which he began to do in Yorktown. Cornwallis' movements in Virginia were shadowed by a Continental Army force led by the Marquis de Lafayette. The French and American armies united north of New York City during the summer of 1781. When word of de Grasse's decision arrived, both armies began moving south toward Virginia, engaging in tactics of deception to lead the British to believe a siege of New York was planned. De Grasse sailed from the West Indies and arrived at the Chesapeake Bay at the end of August, bringing additional troops and creating a naval blockade of Yorktown. He was transporting 500,000 silver reales collected from the Spanish subjects residents of Havana, Cuba, to fund supplies for the siege and payroll for the Continental Army. While in Santo Domingo, de Grasse met with Francisco Saavedra de Sangronis, an agent of King Charles III of Spain. De Grasse had planned to leave several of his warships in Santo Domingo. Saavedra promised the assistance of the Spanish Navy to protect the French merchant fleet, enabling de Grasse to sail north with all of his warships. In the beginning of September, he defeated a British fleet led by Sir Thomas Graves that came to relieve Cornwallis at the Battle of the Chesapeake. As a result of this victory, de Grasse blocked any reinforcement or escape by sea for Cornwallis and also disembarked the heavy siege guns required by the allied land forces. By late September, Washington and Rochambeau arrived, and the army and naval forces completely surrounded Cornwallis. After initial preparations, the Americans and French built their first parallel and began the bombardment. With the British defense weakened, on October 14, 1781, Washington sent two columns to attack the last major remaining British outer defenses. A French column under Vicomte de Deux-Ponts took Redoubt No. 9 and an American column under Lieutenant Colonel Alexander Hamilton took Redoubt No. 10. With these defenses taken, the allies were able to finish their second parallel. With the Franco-American artillery closer and its bombardment more intense than ever, the British position began to deteriorate rapidly. Cornwallis asked for capitulation terms on October 17. After two days of negotiation, the surrender ceremony occurred on October 19; Cornwallis was absent from the ceremony. With the capture of more than 7,000 British soldiers, negotiations between the United States and Great Britain began, resulting in the Treaty of Paris of 1783. The battlegrounds are preserved and interpreted today as part of Colonial National Historical Park. ## Prelude ### Franco-American cooperation On December 20, 1780, Benedict Arnold sailed from New York with 1,500 British troops to Portsmouth, Virginia. He first raided Richmond, defeating the defending militia, from January 5–7 before falling back to Portsmouth. Admiral Destouches, who arrived in Newport, Rhode Island, in July 1780 with a fleet transporting 5,500 soldiers, was encouraged by Washington and French Lieutenant General Rochambeau to move his fleet south, and launch a joint land-naval attack on Arnold's troops. The Marquis de Lafayette was sent south with 1,200 men to help with the assault. However, Destouches was reluctant to dispatch many ships, and in February sent only three. After they proved ineffective, he took a larger force of eight ships in March 1781, and fought a tactically inconclusive battle with the British fleet of Marriot Arbuthnot at the mouth of the Chesapeake Bay. Destouches withdrew due to the damage sustained to his fleet, leaving Arbuthnot and the British fleet in control of the bay's mouth. On March 26, Arnold was joined by 2,300 troops under command of Major General William Phillips, who took command of the combined forces. Phillips resumed raiding, defeating the militia at Blandford, then burning the tobacco warehouses at Petersburg on April 25. Richmond was about to suffer the same fate, but Lafayette arrived. The British, not wanting to engage in a major battle, withdrew to Petersburg on May 10. On May 20, Charles Cornwallis arrived at Petersburg with 1,500 men after suffering heavy casualties at the Battle of Guilford Courthouse. He immediately assumed command, as Phillips had recently died of a fever. Cornwallis had not received permission to abandon the Carolinas from his superior, Henry Clinton, but he believed that Virginia would be easier to capture, feeling that it would approve of an invading British army. With the arrival of Cornwallis and more reinforcements from New York, the British Army numbered 7,200 men. Cornwallis wanted to push Lafayette, whose force now numbered 3,000 men with the arrival of Virginia militia. On May 24, he set out after Lafayette, who withdrew from Richmond, and linked forces with those under the command of Baron von Steuben and Anthony Wayne. Cornwallis did not pursue Lafayette. Instead, he sent raiders into central Virginia, where they attacked depots and supply convoys, before being recalled on June 20. Cornwallis then headed for Williamsburg, and Lafayette's force of now 4,500 followed him. General Clinton, in a confusing series of orders, ordered Cornwallis first to Portsmouth and then Yorktown, where he was instructed to build fortifications for a deep water port. On July 6, the French and American armies met at White Plains, north of New York City. Although Rochambeau had almost 40 years of warfare experience, he never challenged Washington's authority, telling Washington he had come to serve, not to command. Washington and Rochambeau discussed where to launch a joint attack. Washington believed an attack on New York was the best option, since the Americans and French now outnumbered the British defenders 3 to 1. Rochambeau disagreed, arguing the fleet in the West Indies under Admiral de Grasse was going to sail to the American coast, where easier options than attacking New York could be attempted. In early July, Washington suggested an attack be made at the northern part of Manhattan Island, but his officers and Rochambeau all disagreed. Washington continued to probe the New York area until August 14, when he received a letter from de Grasse stating he was headed for Virginia with 28 warships and 3,200 soldiers, but could only remain there until October 14. De Grasse encouraged Washington to move south so they could launch a joint operation. Washington abandoned his plan to take New York, and began to prepare his army for the march south to Virginia. ### March to Virginia On August 19, the "celebrated march" to Yorktown led by Washington and Rochambeau began. 7,000 soldiers (4,000 French and 3,000 American) began the march in Newport, Rhode Island, while the rest remained behind to protect the Hudson Valley. Washington wanted to maintain complete secrecy of their destination. To ensure this, he sent out fake dispatches that reached Clinton revealing that the Franco-American army was going to launch an attack on New York, and that Cornwallis was not in danger. The French and American armies marched through Philadelphia from September 2 to 4, where the American soldiers announced they would not leave Maryland until they received one month's pay in coin, rather than in the worthless Continental paper currency. "Count de Rochambeau very readily agreed at Chester to supply at the Head of Elk twenty thousand hard dollars", half of his supply of gold Spanish coins. This would be the last time the men would be paid. This strengthened French and American relations. On September 5, Washington learned of the arrival of de Grasse's fleet off the Virginia Capes. De Grasse debarked his French troops to join Lafayette, and then sent his empty transports to pick up the American troops. Washington made a visit to his home, Mount Vernon, on his way to Yorktown. In August, Admiral Sir Thomas Graves led a fleet from New York to attack de Grasse's fleet. Graves did not realize how large the French fleet was, and neither did Cornwallis. The British fleet was defeated by de Grasse's fleet in the Battle of the Chesapeake on September 5, and forced to fall back to New York. On September 14, Washington arrived in Williamsburg, Virginia. ## The siege ### Initial movements On September 26, transports with artillery, siege tools, and some French infantry and shock troops from Head of Elk, the northern end of the Chesapeake Bay, arrived, giving Washington command of an army of 7,800 Frenchmen, 3,100 militia, and 8,000 Continentals. Early on September 28, Washington led the army out of Williamsburg to surround Yorktown. The French took the positions on the left while the Americans took the position of honor on the right. Cornwallis had a chain of seven redoubts and batteries linked by earthworks along with batteries that covered the narrows of the York River at Gloucester Point. That day, Washington reconnoitered the British defenses, and decided that they could be bombarded into submission. The Americans and the French spent the night of the 28th sleeping out in the open, while work parties built bridges over the marsh. Some of the American soldiers hunted down wild hogs to eat. On September 29, Washington moved the army closer to Yorktown, and British gunners opened fire on the infantry. Throughout the day, several British cannon fired on the Americans, but there were few casualties. Fire was also exchanged between American riflemen and Hessian Jägers. Cornwallis pulled back from all of his outer defenses, except for the Fusilier's redoubt on the west side of the town and redoubts 9 and 10 in the east. Cornwallis had his forces occupy the earthworks immediately surrounding the town because he had received a letter from Clinton that promised relief force of 5,000 men within a week and he wished to tighten his lines. The Americans and the French occupied the abandoned defenses and began to establish their batteries there. With the British outer defenses in their hands, allied engineers began to lay out positions for the artillery. The men improved their works and deepened their trenches. The British also worked on improving their defenses. On September 30, the French attacked the British Fusiliers redoubt. The skirmish lasted two hours, in which the French were repulsed, suffering several casualties. On October 1, the allies learned from British deserters that, to preserve their food, the British had slaughtered hundreds of horses and thrown them on the beach. In the American camp, thousands of trees were cut down to provide wood for earthworks. Preparations for the parallel also began. As the allies began to put their artillery into place, the British kept up a steady fire to disrupt them. British fire increased on the 2nd and the allies suffered moderate casualties. General Washington continued to make visits to the front, despite concern shown by several of his officers over the increasing enemy fire. On the night of October 2, the British opened a storm of fire to cover up the movement of the British cavalry to Gloucester where they were to escort infantrymen on a foraging party. On the 3rd, the foraging party, led by Banastre Tarleton, went out but collided with Lauzun's Legion, and John Mercer's Virginia militia, led by the Marquis de Choisy. The British cavalry quickly retreated behind their defensive lines, losing 50 men. By October 5, Washington was almost ready to open the first parallel. That night the sappers and miners worked, putting strips of pine on the wet sand to mark the path of the trenches. The main/ initial movements of this battle were walking and riding horses. ### Bombardment After nightfall on October 6, troops moved out in stormy weather to dig the first parallel: the heavily overcast sky negated the waning full moon and shielded the massive digging operation from the eyes of British sentries. Washington ceremoniously struck several blows with his pickaxe to begin the trench. The trench was to be 2,000 yd (1,800 m) long, running from the head of Yorktown to the York River. Half of the trench was to be commanded by the French, the other half by the Americans. On the northernmost end of the French line, a support trench was dug so that they could bombard the British ships in the river. The French were ordered to distract the British with a false attack, but the British were told of the plan by a French deserter and the British artillery fire turned on the French from the Fusiliers redoubt. On October 7, the British saw the new allied trench just out of musket-range. Over the next two days, the allies completed the gun placements and dragged the artillery into line. The British fire began to weaken when they saw the large number of guns the allies had. By October 9, all of the French and American guns were in place. Among the American guns there were three twenty-four pounders, three eighteen pounders, two eight-inch (203 mm) howitzers and six mortars, totaling fourteen guns. At 3:00 pm, the French guns opened the barrage and drove the British frigate HMS Guadeloupe across the York River, where she was scuttled to prevent capture. At 5:00 pm, the Americans opened fire. Washington fired the first gun; legend has it that this shot smashed into a table where British officers were eating. The Franco-American guns began to tear apart the British defenses. Washington ordered that the guns fire all night so that the British could not make repairs. All of the British guns on the left were soon silenced. The British soldiers began to pitch their tents in their trenches and soldiers began to desert in large numbers. Some British ships were also damaged by cannonballs that flew across the town into the harbor. On October 10, the Americans spotted a large house in Yorktown. Believing that Cornwallis might be stationed there, they aimed at it and quickly destroyed it. Cornwallis sank more than a dozen of his ships in the harbor. The French began to fire at the British ships and scored a hit on the British HMS Charon, which caught fire, and in turn set two or three other ships on fire. Cornwallis received word from Clinton that the British fleet was to depart on October 12, however Cornwallis responded by saying that he would not be able to hold out for long. On the night of October 11, Washington ordered that the Americans dig a second parallel. It was 400 yd (370 m) closer to the British lines, but could not be extended to the river because the British number 9 and 10 redoubts were in the way. During the night, the British fire continued to land in the old line; Cornwallis did not suspect that a new parallel was being dug. By morning of the 12th, the allied troops were in position on the new line. ### Assault on the redoubts By October 14, the trenches were within 150 yd (140 m) of redoubts No. 9 and No. 10. Washington ordered that all guns within range begin blasting the redoubts to weaken them for an assault that evening. Washington planned to use the cover of a moonless night to gain the element of surprise. To reinforce the darkness, he added silence, ordering that no soldier should load his musket until reaching the fortifications; the advance would be made with only "cold steel." Redoubt 10 was near the river and held only 70 men, while redoubt 9 was a quarter-mile inland, and was held by 120 British and Germans. Both redoubts were heavily fortified with rows of abatis surrounding them, along with muddy ditches that surrounded the redoubts at about 25 yd (23 m). Washington’s officers devised a plan in which the French would launch a diversionary attack on the Fusiliers redoubt, and then a half an hour later, the French would assault redoubt 9 and the Americans redoubt 10. Redoubt 9 would be assaulted by 400 French regular soldiers of the Royal Deux-Ponts Regiment under the command of the Count of Deux-Ponts and redoubt 10 would be assaulted by 400 light infantry troops under the command of Alexander Hamilton. There was a brief dispute as to who should lead the attack on Redoubt No. 10. Lafayette named his aide, Jean-Joseph Sourbader de Gimat, who commanded a battalion of Continental light infantry. However, Hamilton protested, saying that he was the senior officer. Washington concurred with Hamilton and gave him command of the attack. At 6:30 pm, gunfire announced the diversionary attack on the Fusiliers redoubt. At other places in the line, movements were made as if preparing for an assault on Yorktown itself, which caused the British to panic. With bayonets fixed, the Americans marched towards Redoubt No. 10. Hamilton sent Lieutenant Colonel John Laurens around to the rear of the redoubt to prevent the British from escaping. The Americans reached the redoubt and began chopping through the British wooden defenses with their axes. A British sentry called a challenge, and then fired at the Americans. The Americans responded by charging with their bayonets towards the redoubt. They hacked through the abatis, crossed a ditch and climbed the parapet into the redoubt. The Americans forced their way into the redoubt, falling into giant shell holes created by the preparatory bombardment. The British fire was heavy, but the Americans overwhelmed them. Someone in the front shouted, "Rush on boys! The fort's ours!" The British threw hand grenades at the Americans with little effect. Men in the trench stood on the shoulders of their comrades to climb into the redoubt. The bayonet fight cleared the British from the redoubt and almost the entire garrison was captured, including the commander of the redoubt, Major Campbell. In the assault, the Americans lost 9 dead and 25 wounded. The French assault began at the same time, but they were halted by the abatis, which was undamaged by the artillery fire. The French began to hack at the abatis and a Hessian sentry came out and asked who was there. When there was no response, the sentry opened fire as did other Hessians on the parapet. The French soldiers fired back, and then charged the redoubt. The Germans charged the Frenchmen climbing over the walls but the French fired a volley, driving them back. The Hessians then took a defensive position behind some barrels but threw down their arms and surrendered when the French prepared a bayonet charge. With the capture of redoubts 9 and 10, Washington was able to have his artillery shell the town from three directions and the allies moved some of their artillery into the redoubts. On October 15, Cornwallis turned all of his guns onto the nearest allied position. He then ordered a storming party of 350 British troops under the command of Colonel Robert Abercromby to attack the allied lines and spike the American and French cannon (i.e., plug the touch hole with an iron spike). The allies were sleeping and unprepared. As the British charged Abercromby shouted "Push on my brave boys, and skin the bastards!" The British party spiked several cannons in the parallel and then spiked the guns on an unfinished redoubt. A French party came and drove them out of the allied lines and back to Yorktown. The British had been able to spike six guns, but by the morning they were all repaired. The bombardment resumed with the American and French troops engaged in competition to see who could do the most damage to the enemy defenses. On the morning of October 16, more allied guns were in line and the fire intensified. In desperation, Cornwallis attempted to evacuate his troops across the York River to Gloucester Point. At Gloucester Point, the troops might be able to break through the allied lines and escape into Virginia and then march to New York. One wave of boats made it across, but a squall hit when they returned to take more soldiers, making the evacuation impossible. ### British surrender The fire on Yorktown from the allies was heavier than ever as new artillery pieces joined the line. Cornwallis talked with his officers that day and they agreed that their situation was hopeless. On the morning of October 17, a drummer appeared, followed by an officer waving a white handkerchief. The bombardment ceased, and the officer was blindfolded and led behind the French and American lines. Negotiations began at the Moore House on October 18 between Lieutenant Colonel Thomas Dundas and Major Alexander Ross (who represented the British) and Lieutenant Colonel Laurens (who represented the Americans) and Marquis de Noailles (who represented the French). To make sure that nothing fell apart between the French and Americans at the last minute, Washington ordered that the French be given an equal share in every step of the surrender process. At 2:00 pm the allied army entered the British positions, with the French on the left and the Americans on the right. The British had asked for the traditional honors of war, which would allow the army to march out with flags flying, bayonets fixed, and the band playing an American or French tune as a tribute to the victors. However, Washington firmly refused to grant the British the honors that they had denied the defeated American army the year before at the siege of Charleston. Consequently, the British and Hessian troops marched with flags furled and muskets shouldered, while the band was forced to play "a British or German march." American history books recount the legend that the British band played "The World Turn'd Upside Down", but the story may be apocryphal. Cornwallis refused to attend the surrender ceremony, making it up that he had an illness. Instead, Brigadier General Charles O'Hara led the British army onto the field. O'Hara first attempted to surrender to Rochambeau, who shook his head and pointed to Washington. O'Hara then offered his sword to Washington, who also refused and motioned to Benjamin Lincoln, his second-in-command. The surrender finally took place when Lincoln accepted the sword of Cornwallis' deputy. The British soldiers marched out and laid down their arms in between the French and American armies, while many civilians watched. At this time, the troops on the other side of the river in Gloucester also surrendered. The British soldiers had been issued new uniforms hours before the surrender and until prevented by General O'Hara some threw down their muskets with the apparent intention of smashing them. Others wept or appeared to be drunk. In all, 8,000 soldiers, 214 artillery pieces, thousands of muskets, 24 transport ships, wagons, and horses were captured. ### Effect of disease Malaria was endemic in the marshlands of eastern Virginia during the time, and Cornwallis's army suffered greatly from the disease; he estimated during the surrender that half of his army was unable to fight as a result. The Continental Army enjoyed an advantage, in that most of their members had grown up with malaria, and hence had acquired resistance to the disease. As malaria has a month-long incubation period, most of the French soldiers had not begun to exhibit symptoms before the surrender. ## Articles of capitulation The articles of capitulation, outlining the terms and conditions of surrender for officers, soldiers, military supplies, and personal property, were signed on October 19, 1781. Signatories included Washington, Rochambeau, the Comte de Barras (on behalf of the French Navy), Cornwallis, and Captain Thomas Symonds (the senior Royal Navy officer present). Cornwallis' men were declared prisoners of war, promised good treatment in American camps, and officers were permitted to return home after taking their parole. Articles of Capitulation, Yorktown ### Article 10 controversy George Washington refused to accept the Tenth Article of the Yorktown Articles of Capitulation, which granted immunity to provincials, and Cornwallis failed to make any effort to press the matter. "The outcry against the Tenth Article was vociferous and immediate, as Americans on both sides of the Atlantic proclaimed their sense of betrayal." ## Aftermath Following the surrender, the American and French officers entertained the British officers to dinner. The British officers were "overwhelmed" by the civility their erstwhile foes extended to them, with some French officers offering "profuse" sympathies for the defeat, as one British officer, Captain Samuel Graham, commented. Equally, the French aide to Rochambeau, Cromot du Bourg, noted the coolness of the British officers, particularly O'Hara, considering the defeat they had endured. Five days after the battle ended, on October 24, 1781, the British fleet sent by Clinton to rescue the British army arrived. The fleet picked up several provincials who had escaped on October 18, and they informed Admiral Thomas Graves that they believed Cornwallis had surrendered. Graves picked up several more provincials along the coast, and they confirmed this fact. Graves sighted the French Fleet, but chose to leave because he was outnumbered by nine ships, and thus he sent the fleet back to New York. On October 25, Washington issued an order which stipulated that all fugitive slaves who had joined the British were to be rounded up by the Continental Army and placed under the supervision of armed guards in fortified positions on both sides of the York River until arrangements could be made to return them to their enslavers. Historian Gregory J. W. Urwin describes Washington's action as "[converting] his faithful Continentals—the men credited with winning American independence—into an army of slave catchers." After the British surrender, Washington sent Tench Tilghman to report the victory to Congress. After a difficult journey, he arrived in Philadelphia, which celebrated for several days. The British Prime Minister, Lord North, is reported to have exclaimed "Oh God, it's all over" when told of the defeat. Three months after the battle, a motion to end "further prosecution of offensive warfare on the continent of North America" - effectively a no confidence motion - passed in the British House of Commons. Lord North and his government resigned. Washington moved his army to New Windsor, New York where they remained stationed until the Treaty of Paris was signed on September 3, 1783, formally ending the war. Although the peace treaty did not happen for two years following the end of the battle, the Yorktown campaign proved to be decisive; there was no significant battle or campaign on the North American mainland after the Battle of Yorktown and in March 1782, "the British Parliament had agreed to cease hostilities." ## Legacy On October 19, 1881, an elaborate ceremony took place to honor the battle's centennial. U.S. naval vessels floated on Chesapeake Bay, and special markers highlighted where Washington and Lafayette's siege guns were placed. President Chester Arthur, sworn in only thirty days before, following James Garfield's death, made his first public speech as president. Also present were descendants of Lafayette, Rochambeau, de Grasse, and Steuben. To close the ceremony, Arthur gave an order to salute the British flag. There is a belief that General Cornwallis's sword, surrendered by Charles O'Hara after the battle, is to this day on display at the White House. However, U.S. National Park Service historian Jerome Green, in his 2005 history of the siege, The Guns of Independence, concurs with the 1881 centennial account by Johnston, noting simply that when Brigadier General O'Hara presented the sword to Major General Lincoln, he held it for a moment and immediately returned it to O'Hara. The American Battlefield Trust and its partners have preserved 49 battlefield acres outside of the national park as of mid-2023. The siege of Yorktown is also known in some German historiographies as "die deutsche Schlacht" ("the German battle"), because Germans played significant roles in all three armies, accounting for roughly one third of all forces involved. According to one estimate more than 2,500 German soldiers served at Yorktown with each of the British and French armies, and more than 3,000 German-Americans were in Washington's army. Four Army National Guard units (113th Inf, 116th Inf, 175th Inf and 198th Sig Bn) and one active Regular Army Field Artillery battalion (1–5th FA) are derived from American units that participated in the Battle of Yorktown. There are thirty current U.S. Army units with lineages that go back to the colonial era. ## Yorktown Victory Monument Five days after the British surrendered, Congress passed a resolution agreeing to erect a structure dedicated to commemorating those who participated in the battle. Construction of the monument was delayed, however, as the Confederation government had several other financial obligations that were considered to be of a more urgent nature. In 1834, the citizens of Yorktown asked Congress for the monument to be constructed, and then followed up once again in 1836, but still no action was taken. The desirability of the project was recognized in 1876 "when a memorial from the Common Council of Fredericksburg, Virginia was before Congress." The project was postponed once again until the battle's centennial sparked renewed enthusiasm in the resolution and prompted the government to begin building the monument in 1881 amid national support. The crowning figure was set on August 12, 1884; the structure was officially reported in a communication as complete on January 5, 1885, and currently resides within Colonial National Historical Park. The artists commissioned by the Secretary of War for the monument project included Mr. R. M. Hunt (Chairman) and Mr. J. Q. A. Ward (Architect) of New York and Mr. Henry Van Brunt (Sculptor) of Boston. ## Yorktown sesquicentennial and bicentennial celebrations A four-day celebration to commemorate the 150th anniversary of the siege took place in Yorktown on October 16–19, 1931. It was presided over by the Governor of Virginia John Garland Pollard and attended by then President Herbert Hoover along with French representatives. The event included the official dedication of the Colonial National Historical Park, which also includes Historic Jamestown. President Ronald Reagan visited Yorktown in 1981 for the bicentennial celebration. ## See also - List of American Revolutionary War battles - List of George Washington articles - USS Yorktown, for a list of U.S. Navy ships named after the battle
36,179,638	Dance Again... the Hits	1,166,127,869	null	[ "2012 greatest hits albums", "Albums produced by Cory Rooney", "Albums produced by Julio Reyes Copello", "Albums produced by Kuk Harrell", "Albums produced by RedOne", "Albums produced by Rodney Jerkins", "Albums produced by Ryan Tedder", "Albums produced by Sean Combs", "Albums produced by Stargate", "Albums produced by Trackmasters", "Epic Records compilation albums", "Jennifer Lopez albums" ]	Dance Again... the Hits is the first greatest hits album of American singer Jennifer Lopez. It was released on July 20, 2012, by Epic Records, to coincide with the launch of her first world tour, the Dance Again World Tour. Lopez previously conceived plans for a greatest hits album in 2009, but instead opted to use the material recorded for her seventh studio album, Love? (2011), which was released by Island Records in May 2011 after her departure from Epic Records in 2010. As Lopez owed the label one last album to fulfill her contract, she began work on a new greatest hits album in November 2011. She later became unsure whether she wanted to go along with plans to release a greatest hits album or a new studio album, eventually deciding on the former. Dance Again... the Hits comprises eleven previously released tracks, and two new recordings: "Dance Again" and "Goin' In". A deluxe edition of the album was also released, featuring three additional previously released tracks, and a DVD featuring a selection of eleven music videos. The album received generally positive reviews from music critics, who praised it as a reflection of Lopez's success. Some critics expressed their disappointment in the absence of several successful singles, but deemed this as impressive, noting that this may have been due to the large volume of hit singles she has released over the years. Dance Again... The Hits was a moderate commercial success, peaking within the top ten in fourteen national charts, and the top twenty in ten national charts. ## Background and development Following the commercial failure of her sixth studio album Brave (2007)—and while pregnant with twins Max and Emme—Lopez began working on new music for a future project in 2008. The project was kept under wraps until February 2009 when a new song from the recording sessions titled "Hooked on You" leaked online. Following the leak of "Hooked on You", "One Love" and "What Is Love?" were subsequently leaked online in May. The leaked songs were, at the time, meant to appear on a greatest hits album that later turned into a studio album. "Louboutins", a song written and produced by The-Dream and C. "Tricky" Stewart, was released as the lead single from her seventh studio album, Love?, in November 2009. However, upon release, the song failed to garner enough airplay to chart, despite topping the US Billboard Hot Dance Club Songs chart. Lopez subsequently left Epic Records in February 2010, citing that she had fulfilled her contractual obligations and now wished to release Love? under a new label. Her departure from the label temporarily halted production on the album, however upon signing a new contract with Island Records, recording resumed on the album. The New York Daily News revealed that Lopez would be taking some of the records recorded under Epic Records to Island Records so that they could be included on the album. "On the Floor", Lopez's first single with the label, was released in February 2011. The song topped the charts across the globe, becoming one of the most successful singles of the year. Following the release of "On the Floor", Love? produced two moderately successful singles: "I'm Into You" and "Papi", both of which topped the US Billboard Hot Dance Club Songs chart. Love? itself was a moderate commercial success and was viewed as a humble comeback from Lopez, as many had considered her recording career over. It was announced in November that Lopez was again working on new material for a greatest hits album. The following month, Lopez revealed that she had been playing some of her new music for L.A. Reid, who signed her to Island Records and left the label to become the CEO and chairman of Epic Records. This led further speculation that Lopez had moved back to Epic Records, which was first reported in July. The reports were later confirmed untrue, as Lopez was back with Epic Records because she owed the label one final album to end her contract, despite previously announcing that she had fulfilled her contract with them. ## New material Lopez began working on a "collection of songs" in 2011, unaware of what she was "going to do with them". At the time, she was deciding whether she wanted to release a greatest hits album or a new studio album. Lopez stated that when it comes time to make an album, she doesn't sit down and write for the entire thing. She revealed that she is always working on new music and that her albums "happen organically" when she has recorded enough material. Lopez explained: "I don't ever stop. I keep going with it. These records, like 'Follow the Leader,' [a collaboration with Puerto Rican duo Wisin & Yandel] they just kind of came about. It wasn't something like, 'Oh, I'm going to sit down and make a record right now.'" Among the songs she recorded, two were chosen to be included on Dance Again... The Hits: "Dance Again" and "Goin' In". The album's title and opening track, "Dance Again", was written by RedOne, Enrique Iglesias, Bilal "The Chef", AJ Junior and Pitbull, who is also featured in the song. After hearing a demo version of the track, she begged Iglesias to let her record the song, telling him that it was "her song". Lopez, who was going through a divorce with Marc Anthony and the "breakup of a family", felt as if the song had come to her at the "perfect moment". According to Lopez, the period was devastating because family is very important to her. Lopez revealed: "I had to turn that into something better"; she thought: "I don't want to just survive it, I want to come out better than that." Lopez didn't want to be "the woman who stayed in bed for months". "I knew I had to get through it. I'd dance every day, I'd work out, I'd say a little prayer and I still wouldn't feel any better. Then I'd go to bed and get up the next day and do it all again. It was a process, and it very gradually got a little easier ... I had to do it for my kids. I had to get through it for them." She re-wrote parts of the verses to better relate to her experiences. The song "helped lift her out of the darkness" and gave her hope again. Looking back on the song in December 2012, Lopez stated that: "'Dance Again' became my anthem ... an expression of what I needed to do at that time in my life and for what I was taking on with [my career]. It was a beautiful metaphor that became my reality." Lopez's vocals for "Dance Again" were arranged by RedOne and produced by Kuk Harrell. They were recorded at Pinky's Palace. Pitbull's vocals were recorded by Al Burna at Al Burna Studios, Miami, Florida. Chris "Tek" O'Ryan and Trevor Muzzy handled audio engineering of the song, with assistance from Anthony Falcone and Peter Mack. O'Ryan and Trevor Muzzy were in charge of vocal editing. All instruments in the song were played and programmed by RedOne, who also produced the song. The song was later mixed by Trevor Muzzy. In an interview with Ryan Seacrest, Lopez revealed that she loved being able to collaborate with RedOne and Pitbull again. She stated: "We had a great chemistry the last time, and it was like 'We're going to have to do something again.' And this was the perfect song. I love the message of the song. That when something bad happens, your life is not over. You have to get up. You're gonna live. You're gonna to be okay. You're gonna dance again." "Goin' In" was written by Michael Warren, Jamahl Listenbee, Joseph Angel, Coleridge Tillman, David Quiñones and Tramar Dillard. Lopez's vocals were produced by Harrell and recorded at Pinky's Palace. Josh Gudwin and O'Ryan handled audio engineering of the song, with assistance from Falcone and Mack. The song features additional vocals from American rapper Lil Jon. GoonRock produced and later mixed the song alongside Kenny Moran at The House on the Hill Studios in Los Angeles, California. Of GoonRock, Lopez commented by stating that he is "very forward with his sound". After recording her vocals for the song, Flo Rida recorded a rap verse for the song. Those involved in the production of the song were extremely happy with the song before Flo Rida's rap appeared on it, but once his vocals were on the song it "took it over the top top". When choosing who she wanted to feature on the song, Lopez had several other rappers in mind, such as Big Sean. Lopez revealed: "We had a couple of people who said yes, that they would get on it, but [Flo Rida] just seemed like the perfect one." She further explained that the style of the song "really fit Flo Rida"; "It was half-dance, but half kind of hard too." ## Critical reception Dance Again... The Hits received generally positive reviews from contemporary music critics. At Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics, the album received an average score of 72, based on four reviews, which indicates "generally favorable reviews". Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine wrote that the "most immediately striking thing" about the compilation is "just how many hits [she] has racked up over the years". "So many, in fact, that there's a hefty handful of singles missing from the standard edition of the album", using her number-one single "All I Have" as an example of this. He stated that Lopez's "output has been nothing if not on trend", and that Dance Again... The Hits plays not only as a chronicle of her music career, but of "pop music as a whole since just before the turn of the century", with genres spanning Latin pop, dance, and R&B. According to Cinquemani, the album also serves as a "historical record" of who the rappers du jour were "over the last dozen years or so", from Big Pun, Fat Joe, Ja Rule, and Lil Wayne. He concluded by stating that if the compilation "proves anything" it's that Lopez is, "if not the queen, then at least the duchess of reinvention and should never be counted out". Michael Cragg of BBC Music wrote that it's "surprising that she hadn't unleashed a hits collection before now given that she's what you might politely call a 'singles artist'". He questioned the song choices, writing that the person who made the decision to not include "Papi" needs to have a "long, hard look in the mirror", although it's "hard to argue with most of what's on offer", Lopez "slipping effortlessly into different guises with each song". He concluded by stating that: "A cipher for good songs rather than the reasons those songs are good she may be, but there are few that do it better". Lewis Corner of Digital Spy too questioned the decisions of which songs appeared on the album, but wrote that: "the very fact that she can't fit all her classics on to one disc can be seen as nothing more than a testament to her enduring career". AllMusic's Stephen Thomas Erlewine pointed out that Lopez's other well or moderately charted songs such as "Play", "I'm Gonna Be Alright", "I'm Glad", and "Hold You Down" were not present on the compilation, while also writing that her older hits did not fit neatly with her newer songs and that its sequencing was "scattershot". Erlewine, nonetheless, said that "[the album] does have the familiar tunes, so it serves its purpose". Irving Tan of Sputnikmusic put Dance Again... The Hits into the category of a greatest hits album that "you get facial brickbat of moderate-to-raw disappointment at the discovery of how thin and forced the artist's discography really is". He wrote that having another artist featured on nine of the thirteen tracks "gives the impression that as a product, having Jennifer Lopez alone is simply not enough". He further criticized the decision to include the Murder remixes of "Ain't It Funny" and "I'm Real" over the original studio versions, stating that it was almost like "Sony Music held their hands up and admitted that the initial cuts that they published simply weren't up to scratch". Tan concluded that for a greatest hits album, the track listing is "simply all over the place", with no indication that the record executives or Lopez "looked around for a logical start" or an "easy access ramp to her seven-album canon". ## Commercial performance Dance Again... the Hits enjoyed moderate commercial success in the United States, peaking at number 20 on the Billboard 200 the week of its debut with sales of 14,000 copies. The album performed better on the Billboard R&B/Hip-Hop Albums component chart, where it managed to reach number six. After a month, the album had sold 38,000 copies in the United States. As of December 2012, Dance Again... the Hits is Lopez's second lowest charting effort in the country; only The Reel Me achieved a lower chart position in 2003, peaking at number 69. On the UK Albums Chart, Dance Again... the Hits debuted at number four with sales of 9,213 copies in its first week of release, matching the peak of J to Tha L-O!: The Remixes in that country. As of July 2020 the album has sold 126,000 Copies in the United States Overseas, Dance Again... the Hits performed well in most music markets, reaching the top ten in fourteen national charts, five of which were in the first five positions. Its highest position came from the Canadian Albums chart, where the album achieved number three. The album reached the same peak on the Italian Albums chart. Other countries where the album managed to score a high peak were Spain (number five), the Czech Republic (number six) and Switzerland (number seven). On the Australian Albums Chart, the album had a moderate commercial performance, reaching number 20; her previous compilation album, J to tha L–O! The Remixes, achieved a higher position of number 11. In Latin America, the album appeared on the Mexican Album chart, reaching a peak of number 10. ## Track listing Notes - signifies a vocal producer - signifies an executive producer - signifies a remixer ## Credits and personnel Credits for Dance Again... the Hits adapted from AllMusic. - Josie Aiello – background vocals - Mert Alas – photography - Justin Angel – background vocals - Jim Annunziato – mixing, vocal engineer - Tom Barney – bass - Jane Barrett – background vocals - Scotty Beatz – engineer - Big Pun – vocals - B-Money – scratching - Al Burna – engineer, vocal engineer - Michael "Banger" Cadahia – vocal engineer - Caddillac Tah – vocals - Maria Christiansen – background vocals - Sean "Puffy" Combs – producer - Margret Dorn – background vocals - Ashanti Douglas – background vocals - Tony Duran – photography - Mikkel S. Eriksen – engineer, instrumentation - Fabolous – vocals - Fat Joe – featured artist - Jose Fernando – vocals - Flo Rida – vocals - Alessandro Giulini – accordion - Larry Gold – arranger, conductor - GoMillion – photography - GoonRock – mixing, producer - Irv Gotti – mixing, producer - Franklyn Grant – engineer - Josh Gudwin – engineer, vocal engineer - Kuk Harrell – producer, vocal arrangement, vocal editing, vocal engineer, vocal producer, background vocals - Shawnyette Harrell – background vocals - Rich Harrison – producer - Alexei Hay – photography - Tor Erik Hermansen – instrumentation - Dan Hetzel – engineer, mixing - Jean-Marie Horvat – mixing - Ja Rule – vocals - Jadakiss – vocals - Jim Janik – mixing - Rodney Jerkins – producer - Richie Jones – arranger, drums, mixing, percussion, producer, programming, remixing - Jennifer Karr – background vocals - Peter Wade Keusch – engineer - Eric Kupper – keyboards - Dave Kutch – mastering - Greg Lawson – arranger - Damien Lewis – assistant engineer, engineer - Lil Jon – vocals - Lil Wayne – featured artist - Jennifer Lopez – vocals - Peter Mack – assistant - Bill Makina – programming - Manny Marroquin – mixing - Milwaukee Buck – engineer - Chieli Minucci – guitar - Kenny Moran – mixing - Trevor Muzzy – engineer, mixing, vocal editing - Troy Oliver – drum programming, producer - Jeanette Olsson – background vocals - Chris "Tek" O'Ryan – engineer, vocal editing - Marty Osterer – bass - Julian Peploe – art direction, design - Wendy Peterson – background vocals - Marcus Piggott – photography - Pitbull – vocals - Poke and Tone – producer - Prince Charles – engineer, mixing - Rita Quintero – background vocals - Natasha Ramos – background vocals - RedOne – engineer, instrumentation, producer, programming, vocal arrangement, vocal editing, vocal producer - Julio Reyes – engineer - Cory Rooney – engineer, producer, remixing - Marc Russell – assistant producer - Dave Scheuer – arranger, engineer, producer - Brian Springer – engineer, mixing - Stargate – producer - Styles P – vocals - Bruce Swedien – engineer - David Swope – engineer - Phil Tan – mixing - Ryan Tedder – engineer, producer - Michael Thompson – photography - Ric Wake – arranger, producer - Miles Walker – engineer - Robb Williams – engineer - Thomas R. Yezzi – engineer ## Charts ### Weekly charts ### Year-end charts ## Certifications ## Release history ## See also - 2012 in American music
57,548,585	Imperial German plans for the invasion of the United Kingdom	1,055,346,476	Imperial german war plans	[ "German Army (German Empire)", "German Empire", "Imperial German Navy", "Military history of the United Kingdom during World War I", "Military of the German Empire" ]	Imperial German plans for the invasion of the United Kingdom were first conceived in 1897 by Admiral Eduard von Knorr, commander of the Imperial German Navy, against a background of increasing Anglo-German rivalry and German naval expansion. Acknowledging the inferiority of the small German fleet, his concept called for a preemptive strike against the Royal Navy to establish temporary naval supremacy. This would be followed by an immediate landing, before British naval reinforcements re-established command of the sea. Subsequent studies determined that the shortest possible sea-crossing would be a prerequisite for success, requiring the use of port facilities seized in Belgium and the Netherlands to embark the expeditionary force. Reconnaissance of the English east coast was completed and potential landing sites in East Anglia were selected. Comments were invited from Alfred von Schlieffen, Chief of the German General Staff, who regarded an invasion to be impractical. His staff estimated that it would require up to 320,000 troops to defeat the British home defences and capture London, and that a quick victory would be necessary if the expeditionary force was not to be cut off and forced to surrender. The plans were opposed throughout by Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz, State Secretary of the German Imperial Naval Office. They were shelved in 1899 when it became apparent that the German navy and merchant marine were not sufficiently strong to accomplish an invasion without compromising the secrecy considered essential for success. During the First World War, German naval operations against the British mainland were restricted to raids, designed to force the Royal Navy to dissipate its superior strength in coastal defence and thereby allow the smaller German navy to engage it on more favourable terms. ## Background After becoming German Emperor in 1888, Wilhelm II abandoned Imperial Chancellor Otto von Bismarck's restraint in international affairs and adopted an aggressive foreign policy in an attempt to claim for Germany a leading position on the world stage. An example of this shift in policy was the Emperor's demand in January 1896 for German intervention in the Boer republic of Transvaal, following the Jameson Raid of December 1895–January 1896. The Foreign Secretary, Adolf Marschall von Bieberstein, persuaded Wilhelm not to become militarily involved and convinced him instead to send a telegram congratulating Transvaal President Paul Kruger on repelling the British raid. The "Kruger telegram" of 3 January 1896 precipitated a deterioration in Anglo-German relations which was accelerated by a German naval expansion designed to challenge British naval supremacy and to lead to the German Empire supplanting the United Kingdom as the dominant world power. ## Initial planning As a result of the increasing rivalry between the two countries, German planners began considering the invasion of the United Kingdom in 1895. A concept was submitted to Wilhelm in May 1897 by Admiral Eduard von Knorr, commander of the Imperial German Navy. It considered that the small German navy would be able to launch a preemptive strike against the Royal Navy on the fifth day of mobilisation, before the British fleet became battle ready, followed immediately by a landing on British shores. Wilhelm authorised further study, and the results of a project titled Memorandum: an Operation against Antwerp undertaken by the naval staff were presented to von Knorr in November. Reasoning that the shortest sea crossing offered the best chance of success, the project called for the violation of Belgian and Dutch sovereignty with a simultaneous land and sea operation to capture Antwerp and the forts on both banks of the River Scheldt. Troops were to be landed from seven steamers assembled under cover of darkness at the mouth of the river, while the VII and VIII Army Corps were to cross the Dutch and Belgian borders and strike west in three columns to capture Breda and link up with the seaborne force at Antwerp. This and other facilities in the Low Countries would be used as embarkation points for the invasion of the United Kingdom. The operation was to commence at least 24 hours before a formal declaration of war against the United Kingdom. The six months it took for Alfred von Schlieffen, Chief of the German General Staff, to respond to the navy's request for comments indicates the army's lack of interest in the project. He did not consider an invasion to be feasible but saw some value in naval operations against Belgium and the Netherlands in his planning for a two-front war against the Franco-Russian Alliance; a German fleet operating from the Low Countries would deny the French navy the ability to operate in the North Sea. He suggested Vlissingen in south-west Holland as the best port of embarkation and recommended allocating all available troops, limited only by the amount of transport available, to the invasion force. He thought the Thames estuary or areas north of it would be the best place to land and believed that the landing should be completed by the fifteenth day. It was anticipated that the remainder of the British fleet would arrive and re-establish naval superiority. He stressed that an invasion must quickly force the British to sue for peace, or the Royal Navy would cut off the invading army from re-supply and reinforcement, thus compelling it to surrender. By the end of 1897, a number of events revealed how over-ambitious German planning was. The small German fleet was weakened when ships were sent to the Far East. At the same time, the British Channel Squadron was doubled in size. It became the most powerful squadron in the world and its eight modern first-class ships outnumbered the five smaller first-class ships of the entire German fleet. To succeed, the plans for the invasion of Britain depended on secrecy, but the German seizure of Kiao-Chow in China in August had shown that it would be impossible to prepare an invasion force in secret. The Kiao-Chow expedition had also exposed Germany's lack of resources; the effort involved in equipping and sending one battalion had exhausted German transport facilities. Invasion plans were strongly opposed by Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz, who had been appointed State Secretary of the German Imperial Naval Office in June 1897. He regarded von Knorr's plans as reckless and felt that an invasion could not be considered until the German navy was strong enough to rival that of the British. His thinking on offensive naval action, during planning in 1896 while Chief of the Naval Staff, was limited to a suicide mission immediately after the declaration of war. Designed only to attack merchant vessels and shell London, a slightly modified plan was produced two months later by one of his protegés on von Knorr's staff, who recommended mining the mouth of the Thames instead of shelling London. Planning continued through 1898, based on the hope that the German fleet would one day be a match for the Royal Navy. Studies indicated that, without preparation before the outbreak of war, it would take eight days rather than five to begin landing troops on British shores. In April, the navy estimated that 145 ships and less than three army corps would be available, but the army estimated in May that up to eight corps, some 320,000 troops, would be necessary for an invasion to succeed. Even if such a large force could be spared in a war against France and Russia, it could not be assembled in secret and it would be years before the German harbour facilities and merchant marine would be capable of embarking and transporting it. ## Landing site Planners gave detailed consideration to the selection of a landing site. They rejected areas south of Dover due to the concentration of defensive fortifications, and based on the increasing strength of the Dover harbour facilities, they ruled out a landing along the Thames in March 1898. Studies focussed on areas north of the Thames, based on the presence of suitable harbour facilities and their proximity to forts. Harwich was particularly attractive for its capacity to accommodate larger ships, the lack of nearby forts and the ability to protect operations there with mines. Reconnaissance was carried out on the English coast from Orford Ness, Suffolk, to Scarborough, Yorkshire. Four locations were identified as suitable for a landing, based on ease of anchorage and beach approaches, from north to south: - Flamborough Head, Yorkshire; - The Humber estuary below Grimsby, Lincolnshire; - The East Anglian coast from Great Yarmouth, Norfolk, to Southwold, Suffolk; - The Suffolk coast from Southwold to Orford Ness. Army planners favoured a location as close as possible to London. Schlieffen concurred with the naval planners' assessment that British coastal defences ruled out a landing south of Orford Ness. He rejected any plan to invade north of the Humber as too far from any worthwhile objective and recommended that planning should be based on a landing between Great Yarmouth and Aldeburgh, Suffolk. During the First World War, this was the area which British defence planners judged to be the most likely invasion route. ## Shelving the plans In January 1899, von Knorr concluded that, without allies, the German Empire could not contemplate an invasion. It would, he felt, be impossible to assemble a large enough transport fleet in secrecy or achieve naval superiority, even for the seven days regarded as necessary to complete the landings. Army planners came to the same conclusion, though some interest in the project was revived as a result of the Second Boer War. The conflict in South Africa forced the British to denude their home defences, leaving only four battalions of the regular army at home by March 1900. Lieutenant-General Colmar Freiherr von der Goltz, commander of the Engineer Corps of the Prussian Army, saw in this an opportunity to gain temporary naval superiority and launch an invasion. His plan, submitted at the end of March, involved the use of a fleet of barges towed by tugs to transport an invasion force. German naval staff did not regard his idea as credible and did not pursue it further, although it was later echoed by Erskine Childers in his invasion novel, The Riddle of the Sands, published in the United Kingdom in 1903. In 1901, several combined services amphibious exercises were carried out, the largest of which involved landing 1,700 marines. A British observer, already unimpressed by the size of the force, believed that the exercise had been staged by deliberately holding back the defending force. In the same year, a German staff officer produced a paper detailing how an expeditionary force of one cavalry and four infantry divisions might live off the land, destroy the British home army and capture London. The paper was suppressed by the authorities, reflecting the official military position, as maintained by Tirpitz throughout, that invasion was impossible. Further thought on the concept was limited to a formal evaluation by army and navy staffs, on the orders of Wilhelm, of William Le Queux's novel The Invasion of 1910 when it was serialised in the Daily Mail in 1906. ## Aftermath At the beginning of the First World War, German intelligence over-rated the strength of British coastal defences, leading to the conclusion that even a large raid would involve too much risk for little reward. Naval operations against the British mainland were restricted to shelling coastal locations – Great Yarmouth on 3 November 1914, Scarborough, Hartlepool and Whitby on 16 December 1914 and Great Yarmouth and Lowestoft on 24 April 1916. The objective of these operations was purely naval, with the intention of enlisting British public opinion to pressure the Royal Navy into dispersing the Grand Fleet in defence of the coast, thereby creating an opportunity for the German High Seas Fleet to defeat it in detail. ## See also - Operation Sea Lion, Nazi Germany's plan to invade the United Kingdom during World War Two
25,869,569	Scyllarides latus	1,134,203,855	Species of crustacean	[ "Achelata", "Crustaceans described in 1802", "Crustaceans of the Atlantic Ocean", "Edible crustaceans" ]	Scyllarides latus, the Mediterranean slipper lobster, is a species of slipper lobster found in the Mediterranean Sea and in the eastern Atlantic Ocean. It is edible and highly regarded as food, but is now rare over much of its range due to overfishing. Adults may grow to 1 foot (30 cm) long, are camouflaged, and have no claws. They are nocturnal, emerging from caves and other shelters during the night to feed on molluscs. As well as being eaten by humans, S. latus is also preyed upon by a variety of bony fish. Its closest relative is S. herklotsii, which occurs off the Atlantic coast of West Africa; other species of Scyllarides occur in the western Atlantic Ocean and the Indo-Pacific. The larvae and young animals are largely unknown. ## Distribution Scyllarus latus is found along most of the coast of the Mediterranean Sea (one exception being the northern Adriatic Sea), and in parts of the eastern Atlantic Ocean from near Lisbon in Portugal south to Senegal, including the islands of Madeira, the Azores, the Selvagens Islands and the Cape Verde Islands. In Senegal, it occurs together with a related species Scyllarides herklotsii, which it closely resembles. ## Description S. latus can grow to a total body length about 45 centimetres (18 in), although rarely more than 30 cm (12 in). This is equivalent to a carapace length of up to 12 cm (4.7 in). An individual may weigh as much as 1.5 kilograms (3.3 lb). As in all slipper lobsters, the second pair of antennae are enlarged and flattened into "shovels" or "flippers". Despite the name "lobster", slipper lobsters such as Scyllarides latus have no claws, and nor do they have the protective spines of spiny lobsters. Instead, the exoskeleton, and particularly the carapace, are thicker than in clawed lobsters and spiny lobsters, acting as resilient armour. Adults are cryptically coloured, and the carapace is covered in conspicuous, high tubercles. ## Ecology ### Substrate S. latus lives on rocky or sandy substrates at depths of 4–100 metres (13–328 ft). They shelter during the day in natural dens, on the ceilings of caves, or in reefs, preferring situations with more than one entrance or exit. ### Diet The diet of S. latus consists generally of molluscs. The preferred prey is, according to different sources, either limpets or bivalves. The prey, which S. latus can detect even under 3.5 cm (1.4 in) of sediment, is opened by careful use of the strong pointed pereiopods. They will also eat oysters and squid, but not sea urchins or muricid snails. They eat more in warmer seasons, getting through 3.2 oysters per day in July, but only 0.2 oysters per day in January. ### Predators The most significant predator of S. latus is the grey triggerfish, Balistes capriscus, although a number of other fish species have also been reported to prey on S. latus, including dusky groupers (Epinephelus guaza), combers (Serranus spp.), Mediterranean rainbow wrasse (Coris julis), red groupers (Epinephelus morio) and gag groupers (Mycteroperca microlepis). An Octopus vulgaris has been observed to eat S. latus in an artificial setting, but it is unclear whether S. latus is preyed on by octopuses in nature. ## Life cycle Male Scyllarus latus carry spermatophores at the base of the last two pairs of pereiopods in April. Fertilisation has not been observed in this species, but most reptant decapods mate with the ventral surfaces together. Between July and August, females carry around 100,000 eggs on their enlarged, feathery pleopods. The eggs develop from being a bright orange colour to a dark brown before being shed into the water after around 16 days of development. There is normally only one generation per year. The larvae are much less well known than the adults. An initial 1.3 millimetres (0.05 in) long naupliosoma stage, which swims using its antennae, moults into the first of eleven phyllosoma stages, which swim using their thoracic legs. The last phyllosoma stage may reach a size of 48 mm (1.9 in) and can be up to 11 months old; most of the intermediate phyllosoma stages have not been observed. A single nisto (juvenile has been recorded, having been caught off Reggio Calabria in 1900, but only recognised as being a juvenile S. latus in 2009. Young adults are also rare; a museum specimen with a carapace length of 34 mm (1.3 in) is the smallest adult yet observed. Adults moult annually, and probably migrate to cooler waters with a temperature of 13–18 °C (55–64 °F) to do so. The old exoskeleton softens over a period of 10–22 days before being shed, and the new, pale exoskeleton takes around three weeks to harden completely. Smaller individuals typically gain weight over the course of a moult, but this difference is less pronounced in larger animals. ## Behaviour Scyllarides latus is mostly nocturnal in the wild, since most of its predators are diurnal. While sheltering, S. latus tends to be gregarious, with several individuals sharing the same shelter. When confronted with a predator, S. latus has no claws or spines to repel the predator, and instead either clings to the substrate, or swims away with powerful flexion of the abdomen, or "tail-flips". Larger lobsters can exert a stronger grip than smaller ones, with a force of up to 150 newtons (equivalent to a weight of 15 kilograms or 33 pounds) required to dislodge the largest individuals. Predator avoidance may also explain the frequent behaviour where S. latus will carry food items back to a shelter before consuming them. When two S. latus individuals compete for a food item, they may use the enlarged second antennae to flip their opponent over, by wedging the antennae underneath the opponent's body and quickly raising them. An alternative strategy is to grip an opponent and begin the tail-flipping movement, or to engage in a tug of war. ## Taxonomy Scyllarides latus was originally classified in the genus Scyllarus, along with the four other slipper lobsters known at the time (Scyllarus arctus, Scyllarides aequinoctialis, Thenus orientalis and Arctides guineensis). Separate genera were first introduced by William Elford Leach in 1815, namely Thenus and Ibacus. In 1849, Wilhem de Haan divided the genus Scyllarus into two genera, Scyllarus and Arctus, but made the error of including the type species of Scyllarus in the genus Arctus. This was first recognised by the ichthyologist Theodore Gill in 1898, who synonymised Arctus with Scyllarus, and erected a new genus Scyllarides to hold the species that De Haan had placed in Scyllarus. Scyllarides is placed in the subfamily Arctidinae, which is differentiated from other subfamilies by the presence of multiarticulated exopods on all three maxillipeds, and a three-segmented palp on the mandible. The only other genus in the subfamily, Arctides, is distinguished by having a more highly sculptured carapace, with an extra spine behind each eye, and a transverse groove on the first segment of the abdomen. The only other species of Scyllarides to occur in the Eastern Atlantic is Scyllarides herklotsii, which differs from S. latus mostly in the ornamentation on the carapace; while in S. latus the tubercles (lumps projecting from the surface) are high and pronounced, they are lower and more rounded in S. herklotsii. ### Type specimen The type locality given by Pierre André Latreille in his original description of the species was simply "Mediterranée" (Mediterranean Sea), without designating a type specimen. Lipke Holthuis later chose a lectotype for the species, which was the animal illustrated by Cornelius Sittardus, and published in Conrad Gesner's Historiae animalium in 1558 (book 4, p. 1097). This illustration, originally a watercolour but reproduced by Gesner in a woodcut, had been mentioned by Latreille in his description as being particularly fine, and is all that remains of the type specimen. Given that Sittardus was working in Rome at the time, it is likely that the type specimen was a fresh specimen from the Tyrrhenian Sea near Rome. ## Human consumption S. latus is edible, but it is a relatively rare species, and is therefore of little interest to fisheries. However, it is caught in small numbers throughout its distribution, mostly in trammel nets, by trawling and in lobster pots. An annual catch of 2,000–3,000 kg (4,400–6,600 lb) has been reported for Israel. Catching by hand has become increasingly frequent, since the advent of SCUBA diving made the animal's habitat more accessible to humans. This may have affected population sizes of S. latus in some areas.
2,308	Actinide	1,172,537,446	F-block chemical elements	[ "Actinides", "Periodic table" ]	The actinide (/ˈæktɪnaɪd/) or actinoid (/ˈæktɪnɔɪd/) series encompasses the 15 metallic chemical elements with atomic numbers from 89 to 103, actinium through lawrencium. The actinide series derives its name from the first element in the series, actinium. The informal chemical symbol An is used in general discussions of actinide chemistry to refer to any actinide. The 1985 IUPAC Red Book recommends that actinoid be used rather than actinide, since the suffix -ide normally indicates a negative ion. However, owing to widespread current use, actinide is still allowed. Since actinoid literally means actinium-like (cf. humanoid or android), it has been argued for semantic reasons that actinium cannot logically be an actinoid, but IUPAC acknowledges its inclusion based on common usage. All the actinides are f-block elements, except the final one (lawrencium) which is a d-block element: on this basis the inclusion of lawrencium among the actinides has sometimes been questioned, as it is also a transition metal. The series mostly corresponds to the filling of the 5f electron shell, although in the ground state many have anomalous configurations involving the filling of the 6d shell due to interelectronic repulsion. In comparison with the lanthanides, also mostly f-block elements, the actinides show much more variable valence. They all have very large atomic and ionic radii and exhibit an unusually large range of physical properties. While actinium and the late actinides (from americium onwards) behave similarly to the lanthanides, the elements thorium, protactinium, and uranium are much more similar to transition metals in their chemistry, with neptunium and plutonium occupying an intermediate position. All actinides are radioactive and release energy upon radioactive decay; naturally occurring uranium and thorium, and synthetically produced plutonium are the most abundant actinides on Earth. These are used in nuclear reactors and nuclear weapons. Uranium and thorium also have diverse current or historical uses, and americium is used in the ionization chambers of most modern smoke detectors. Of the actinides, primordial thorium and uranium occur naturally in substantial quantities. The radioactive decay of uranium produces transient amounts of actinium and protactinium, and atoms of neptunium and plutonium are occasionally produced from transmutation reactions in uranium ores. The other actinides are purely synthetic elements. Nuclear weapons tests have released at least six actinides heavier than plutonium into the environment; analysis of debris from a 1952 hydrogen bomb explosion showed the presence of americium, curium, berkelium, californium, einsteinium and fermium. In presentations of the periodic table, the f-block elements are customarily shown as two additional rows below the main body of the table. This convention is entirely a matter of aesthetics and formatting practicality; a rarely used wide-formatted periodic table inserts the 4f and 5f series in their proper places, as parts of the table's sixth and seventh rows (periods). ## Discovery, isolation and synthesis Like the lanthanides, the actinides form a family of elements with similar properties. Within the actinides, there are two overlapping groups: transuranium elements, which follow uranium in the periodic table; and transplutonium elements, which follow plutonium. Compared to the lanthanides, which (except for promethium) are found in nature in appreciable quantities, most actinides are rare. Most do not occur in nature, and of those that do, only thorium and uranium do so in more than trace quantities. The most abundant or easily synthesized actinides are uranium and thorium, followed by plutonium, americium, actinium, protactinium, neptunium, and curium. The existence of transuranium elements was suggested in 1934 by Enrico Fermi, based on his experiments. However, even though four actinides were known by that time, it was not yet understood that they formed a family similar to lanthanides. The prevailing view that dominated early research into transuranics was that they were regular elements in the 7th period, with thorium, protactinium and uranium corresponding to 6th-period hafnium, tantalum and tungsten, respectively. Synthesis of transuranics gradually undermined this point of view. By 1944, an observation that curium failed to exhibit oxidation states above 4 (whereas its supposed 6th period homolog, platinum, can reach oxidation state of 6) prompted Glenn Seaborg to formulate an "actinide hypothesis". Studies of known actinides and discoveries of further transuranic elements provided more data in support of this position, but the phrase "actinide hypothesis" (the implication being that a "hypothesis" is something that has not been decisively proven) remained in active use by scientists through the late 1950s. At present, there are two major methods of producing isotopes of transplutonium elements: (1) irradiation of the lighter elements with neutrons; (2) irradiation with accelerated charged particles. The first method is more important for applications, as only neutron irradiation using nuclear reactors allows the production of sizeable amounts of synthetic actinides; however, it is limited to relatively light elements. The advantage of the second method is that elements heavier than plutonium, as well as neutron-deficient isotopes, can be obtained, which are not formed during neutron irradiation. In 1962–1966, there were attempts in the United States to produce transplutonium isotopes using a series of six underground nuclear explosions. Small samples of rock were extracted from the blast area immediately after the test to study the explosion products, but no isotopes with mass number greater than 257 could be detected, despite predictions that such isotopes would have relatively long half-lives of α-decay. This non-observation was attributed to spontaneous fission owing to the large speed of the products and to other decay channels, such as neutron emission and nuclear fission. ### From actinium to uranium Uranium and thorium were the first actinides discovered. Uranium was identified in 1789 by the German chemist Martin Heinrich Klaproth in pitchblende ore. He named it after the planet Uranus, which had been discovered eight years earlier. Klaproth was able to precipitate a yellow compound (likely sodium diuranate) by dissolving pitchblende in nitric acid and neutralizing the solution with sodium hydroxide. He then reduced the obtained yellow powder with charcoal, and extracted a black substance that he mistook for metal. Sixty years later, the French scientist Eugène-Melchior Péligot identified it as uranium oxide. He also isolated the first sample of uranium metal by heating uranium tetrachloride with metallic potassium. The atomic mass of uranium was then calculated as 120, but Dmitri Mendeleev in 1872 corrected it to 240 using his periodicity laws. This value was confirmed experimentally in 1882 by K. Zimmerman. Thorium oxide was discovered by Friedrich Wöhler in the mineral thorianite, which was found in Norway (1827). Jöns Jacob Berzelius characterized this material in more detail in 1828. By reduction of thorium tetrachloride with potassium, he isolated the metal and named it thorium after the Norse god of thunder and lightning Thor. The same isolation method was later used by Péligot for uranium. Actinium was discovered in 1899 by André-Louis Debierne, an assistant of Marie Curie, in the pitchblende waste left after removal of radium and polonium. He described the substance (in 1899) as similar to titanium and (in 1900) as similar to thorium. The discovery of actinium by Debierne was however questioned in 1971 and 2000, arguing that Debierne's publications in 1904 contradicted his earlier work of 1899–1900. This view instead credits the 1902 work of Friedrich Oskar Giesel, who discovered a radioactive element named emanium that behaved similarly to lanthanum. The name actinium comes from the Ancient Greek: ακτίς, ακτίνος (aktis, aktinos), meaning beam or ray. This metal was discovered not by its own radiation but by the radiation of the daughter products. Owing to the close similarity of actinium and lanthanum and low abundance, pure actinium could only be produced in 1950. The term actinide was probably introduced by Victor Goldschmidt in 1937. Protactinium was possibly isolated in 1900 by William Crookes. It was first identified in 1913, when Kasimir Fajans and Oswald Helmuth Göhring encountered the short-lived isotope <sup>234m</sup>Pa (half-life 1.17 minutes) during their studies of the <sup>238</sup>U decay. They named the new element brevium (from Latin brevis meaning brief); the name was changed to protoactinium (from Greek πρῶτος + ἀκτίς meaning "first beam element") in 1918 when two groups of scientists, led by the Austrian Lise Meitner and Otto Hahn of Germany and Frederick Soddy and John Cranston of Great Britain, independently discovered the much longer-lived <sup>231</sup>Pa. The name was shortened to protactinium in 1949. This element was little characterized until 1960, when A. G. Maddock and his co-workers in the U.K. isolated 130 grams of protactinium from 60 tonnes of waste left after extraction of uranium from its ore. ### Neptunium and above Neptunium (named for the planet Neptune, the next planet out from Uranus, after which uranium was named) was discovered by Edwin McMillan and Philip H. Abelson in 1940 in Berkeley, California. They produced the <sup>239</sup>Np isotope (half-life = 2.4 days) by bombarding uranium with slow neutrons. It was the first transuranium element produced synthetically. Transuranium elements do not occur in sizeable quantities in nature and are commonly synthesized via nuclear reactions conducted with nuclear reactors. For example, under irradiation with reactor neutrons, uranium-238 partially converts to plutonium-239: $\ce{{^{238}_{92}U} + {}^{1}_{0}n -> {}^{239}_{92}U ->[\beta^-] [23.5\ \ce{min}] {}^{239}_{93}Np ->[\beta^-] [2.3\ \ce{days}] {}^{239}_{94}Pu} \left( \ce{->[\alpha] [2.4\cdot 10^4\ \ce{years}]} \right) \ce{{^{235}_{92}U}}$ This synthesis reaction was used by Fermi and his collaborators in their design of the reactors located at the Hanford Site, which produced significant amounts of plutonium-239 for the nuclear weapons of the Manhattan Project and the United States' post-war nuclear arsenal. Actinides with the highest mass numbers are synthesized by bombarding uranium, plutonium, curium and californium with ions of nitrogen, oxygen, carbon, neon or boron in a particle accelerator. Thus nobelium was produced by bombarding uranium-238 with neon-22 as \_{92}^{238}U + \_{10}^{22}Ne -\> \_{102}^{256}No + 4_0^1n. The first isotopes of transplutonium elements, americium-241 and curium-242, were synthesized in 1944 by Glenn T. Seaborg, Ralph A. James and Albert Ghiorso. Curium-242 was obtained by bombarding plutonium-239 with 32-MeV α-particles \_{94}^{239}Pu + \_2^4He -\> \_{96}^{242}Cm + \_0^1n. The americium-241 and curium-242 isotopes also were produced by irradiating plutonium in a nuclear reactor. The latter element was named after Marie Curie and her husband Pierre who are noted for discovering radium and for their work in radioactivity. Bombarding curium-242 with α-particles resulted in an isotope of californium <sup>245</sup>Cf (1950), and a similar procedure yielded in 1949 berkelium-243 from americium-241. The new elements were named after Berkeley, California, by analogy with its lanthanide homologue terbium, which was named after the village of Ytterby in Sweden. In 1945, B. B. Cunningham obtained the first bulk chemical compound of a transplutonium element, namely americium hydroxide. Over the few years, milligram quantities of americium and microgram amounts of curium were accumulated that allowed production of isotopes of berkelium (Thomson, 1949) and californium (Thomson, 1950). Sizeable amounts of these elements were produced in 1958 (Burris B. Cunningham and Stanley G. Thomson), and the first californium compound (0.3 μg of CfOCl) was obtained in 1960 by B. B. Cunningham and J. C. Wallmann. Einsteinium and fermium were identified in 1952–1953 in the fallout from the "Ivy Mike" nuclear test (1 November 1952), the first successful test of a hydrogen bomb. Instantaneous exposure of uranium-238 to a large neutron flux resulting from the explosion produced heavy isotopes of uranium, including uranium-253 and uranium-255, and their β-decay yielded einsteinium-253 and fermium-255. The discovery of the new elements and the new data on neutron capture were initially kept secret on the orders of the US military until 1955 due to Cold War tensions. Nevertheless, the Berkeley team were able to prepare einsteinium and fermium by civilian means, through the neutron bombardment of plutonium-239, and published this work in 1954 with the disclaimer that it was not the first studies that had been carried out on those elements. The "Ivy Mike" studies were declassified and published in 1955. The first significant (submicrograms) amounts of einsteinium were produced in 1961 by Cunningham and colleagues, but this has not been done for fermium yet. The first isotope of mendelevium, <sup>256</sup>Md (half-life 87 min), was synthesized by Albert Ghiorso, Glenn T. Seaborg, Gregory R. Choppin, Bernard G. Harvey and Stanley G. Thompson when they bombarded an <sup>253</sup>Es target with alpha particles in the 60-inch cyclotron of Berkeley Radiation Laboratory; this was the first isotope of any element to be synthesized one atom at a time. There were several attempts to obtain isotopes of nobelium by Swedish (1957) and American (1958) groups, but the first reliable result was the synthesis of <sup>256</sup>No by the Russian group (Georgy Flyorov et al.) in 1965, as acknowledged by the IUPAC in 1992. In their experiments, Flyorov et al. bombarded uranium-238 with neon-22. In 1961, Ghiorso et al. obtained the first isotope of lawrencium by irradiating californium (mostly californium-252) with boron-10 and boron-11 ions. The mass number of this isotope was not clearly established (possibly 258 or 259) at the time. In 1965, <sup>256</sup>Lr was synthesized by Flyorov et al. from <sup>243</sup>Am and <sup>18</sup>O. Thus IUPAC recognized the nuclear physics teams at Dubna and Berkeley as the co-discoverers of lawrencium. ## Isotopes 32 isotopes of actinium and eight excited isomeric states of some of its nuclides were identified by 2016. Three isotopes, <sup>225</sup>Ac, <sup>227</sup>Ac and <sup>228</sup>Ac, were found in nature and the others were produced in the laboratory; only the three natural isotopes are used in applications. Actinium-225 is a member of the radioactive neptunium series; it was first discovered in 1947 as a decay product of uranium-233, it is an α-emitter with a half-life of 10 days. Actinium-225 is less available than actinium-228, but is more promising in radiotracer applications. Actinium-227 (half-life 21.77 years) occurs in all uranium ores, but in small quantities. One gram of uranium (in radioactive equilibrium) contains only 2×10<sup>−10</sup> gram of <sup>227</sup>Ac. Actinium-228 is a member of the radioactive thorium series formed by the decay of <sup>228</sup>Ra; it is a β<sup>−</sup> emitter with a half-life of 6.15 hours. In one tonne of thorium there is 5×10<sup>−8</sup> gram of <sup>228</sup>Ac. It was discovered by Otto Hahn in 1906. There are 31 known isotopes of thorium ranging in mass number from 208 to 238. Of these, the longest-lived is <sup>232</sup>Th, whose half-life of 1.4×10<sup>10</sup> years means that it still exists in nature as a primordial nuclide. The next longest-lived is <sup>230</sup>Th, an intermediate decay product of <sup>238</sup>U with a half-life of 75,400 years. Several other thorium isotopes have half-lives over a day; all of these are also transient in the decay chains of <sup>232</sup>Th, <sup>235</sup>U, and <sup>238</sup>U. 28 isotopes of protactinium are known with mass numbers 212–239 as well as three excited isomeric states. Only <sup>231</sup>Pa and <sup>234</sup>Pa have been found in nature. All the isotopes have short lifetimes, except for protactinium-231 (half-life 32,760 years). The most important isotopes are <sup>231</sup>Pa and <sup>233</sup>Pa, which is an intermediate product in obtaining uranium-233 and is the most affordable among artificial isotopes of protactinium. <sup>233</sup>Pa has convenient half-life and energy of γ-radiation, and thus was used in most studies of protactinium chemistry. Protactinium-233 is a β-emitter with a half-life of 26.97 days. There are 26 known isotopes of uranium, having mass numbers 215–242 (except 220 and 241). Three of them, <sup>234</sup>U, <sup>235</sup>U and <sup>238</sup>U, are present in appreciable quantities in nature. Among others, the most important is <sup>233</sup>U, which is a final product of transformation of <sup>232</sup>Th irradiated by slow neutrons. <sup>233</sup>U has a much higher fission efficiency by low-energy (thermal) neutrons, compared e.g. with <sup>235</sup>U. Most uranium chemistry studies were carried out on uranium-238 owing to its long half-life of 4.4×10<sup>9</sup> years. There are 24 isotopes of neptunium with mass numbers of 219, 220, and 223–244; they are all highly radioactive. The most popular among scientists are long-lived <sup>237</sup>Np (t<sub>1/2</sub> = 2.20×10<sup>6</sup> years) and short-lived <sup>239</sup>Np, <sup>238</sup>Np (t<sub>1/2</sub> \~ 2 days). There are 20 known isotopes of plutonium, having mass numbers 228–247. The most stable isotope of plutonium is <sup>244</sup>Pu with half-life of 8.13×10<sup>7</sup> years. Eighteen isotopes of americium are known with mass numbers from 229 to 247 (with the exception of 231). The most important are <sup>241</sup>Am and <sup>243</sup>Am, which are alpha-emitters and also emit soft, but intense γ-rays; both of them can be obtained in an isotopically pure form. Chemical properties of americium were first studied with <sup>241</sup>Am, but later shifted to <sup>243</sup>Am, which is almost 20 times less radioactive. The disadvantage of <sup>243</sup>Am is production of the short-lived daughter isotope <sup>239</sup>Np, which has to be considered in the data analysis. Among 19 isotopes of curium, ranging in mass number from 233 to 251, the most accessible are <sup>242</sup>Cm and <sup>244</sup>Cm; they are α-emitters, but with much shorter lifetime than the americium isotopes. These isotopes emit almost no γ-radiation, but undergo spontaneous fission with the associated emission of neutrons. More long-lived isotopes of curium (<sup>245–248</sup>Cm, all α-emitters) are formed as a mixture during neutron irradiation of plutonium or americium. Upon short irradiation, this mixture is dominated by <sup>246</sup>Cm, and then <sup>248</sup>Cm begins to accumulate. Both of these isotopes, especially <sup>248</sup>Cm, have a longer half-life (3.48×10<sup>5</sup> years) and are much more convenient for carrying out chemical research than <sup>242</sup>Cm and <sup>244</sup>Cm, but they also have a rather high rate of spontaneous fission. <sup>247</sup>Cm has the longest lifetime among isotopes of curium (1.56×10<sup>7</sup> years), but is not formed in large quantities because of the strong fission induced by thermal neutrons. Seventeen isotopes of berkelium were identified with mass numbers 233–234, 236, 238, and 240–252. Only <sup>249</sup>Bk is available in large quantities; it has a relatively short half-life of 330 days and emits mostly soft β-particles, which are inconvenient for detection. Its alpha radiation is rather weak (1.45×10<sup>−3</sup>% with respect to β-radiation), but is sometimes used to detect this isotope. <sup>247</sup>Bk is an alpha-emitter with a long half-life of 1,380 years, but it is hard to obtain in appreciable quantities; it is not formed upon neutron irradiation of plutonium because of the β-stability of isotopes of curium isotopes with mass number below 248. The 20 isotopes of californium with mass numbers 237–256 are formed in nuclear reactors; californium-253 is a β-emitter and the rest are α-emitters. The isotopes with even mass numbers (<sup>250</sup>Cf, <sup>252</sup>Cf and <sup>254</sup>Cf) have a high rate of spontaneous fission, especially <sup>254</sup>Cf of which 99.7% decays by spontaneous fission. Californium-249 has a relatively long half-life (352 years), weak spontaneous fission and strong γ-emission that facilitates its identification. <sup>249</sup>Cf is not formed in large quantities in a nuclear reactor because of the slow β-decay of the parent isotope <sup>249</sup>Bk and a large cross section of interaction with neutrons, but it can be accumulated in the isotopically pure form as the β-decay product of (pre-selected) <sup>249</sup>Bk. Californium produced by reactor-irradiation of plutonium mostly consists of <sup>250</sup>Cf and <sup>252</sup>Cf, the latter being predominant for large neutron fluences, and its study is hindered by the strong neutron radiation. Among the 18 known isotopes of einsteinium with mass numbers from 240 to 257, the most affordable is <sup>253</sup>Es. It is an α-emitter with a half-life of 20.47 days, a relatively weak γ-emission and small spontaneous fission rate as compared with the isotopes of californium. Prolonged neutron irradiation also produces a long-lived isotope <sup>254</sup>Es (t<sub>1/2</sub> = 275.5 days). Twenty isotopes of fermium are known with mass numbers of 241–260. <sup>254</sup>Fm, <sup>255</sup>Fm and <sup>256</sup>Fm are α-emitters with a short half-life (hours), which can be isolated in significant amounts. <sup>257</sup>Fm (t<sub>1/2</sub> = 100 days) can accumulate upon prolonged and strong irradiation. All these isotopes are characterized by high rates of spontaneous fission. Among the 17 known isotopes of mendelevium (mass numbers from 244 to 260), the most studied is <sup>256</sup>Md, which mainly decays through the electron capture (α-radiation is ≈10%) with the half-life of 77 minutes. Another alpha emitter, <sup>258</sup>Md, has a half-life of 53 days. Both these isotopes are produced from rare einsteinium (<sup>253</sup>Es and <sup>255</sup>Es respectively), that therefore limits their availability. Long-lived isotopes of nobelium and isotopes of lawrencium (and of heavier elements) have relatively short half-lives. For nobelium, 11 isotopes are known with mass numbers 250–260 and 262. The chemical properties of nobelium and lawrencium were studied with <sup>255</sup>No (t<sub>1/2</sub> = 3 min) and <sup>256</sup>Lr (t<sub>1/2</sub> = 35 s). The longest-lived nobelium isotope, <sup>259</sup>No, has a half-life of approximately 1 hour. Lawrencium has 13 known isotopes with mass numbers 251–262 and 266. The most stable of them all is <sup>266</sup>Lr with a half life of 11 hours. Among all of these, the only isotopes that occur in sufficient quantities in nature to be detected in anything more than traces and have a measurable contribution to the atomic weights of the actinides are the primordial <sup>232</sup>Th, <sup>235</sup>U, and <sup>238</sup>U, and three long-lived decay products of natural uranium, <sup>230</sup>Th, <sup>231</sup>Pa, and <sup>234</sup>U. Natural thorium consists of 0.02(2)% <sup>230</sup>Th and 99.98(2)% <sup>232</sup>Th; natural protactinium consists of 100% <sup>231</sup>Pa; and natural uranium consists of 0.0054(5)% <sup>234</sup>U, 0.7204(6)% <sup>235</sup>U, and 99.2742(10)% <sup>238</sup>U. ## Formation in nuclear reactors The figure buildup of actinides is a table of nuclides with the number of neutrons on the horizontal axis (isotopes) and the number of protons on the vertical axis (elements). The red dot divides the nuclides in two groups, so the figure is more compact. Each nuclide is represented by a square with the mass number of the element and its half-life. Naturally existing actinide isotopes (Th, U) are marked with a bold border, alpha emitters have a yellow colour, and beta emitters have a blue colour. Pink indicates electron capture (<sup>236</sup>Np), whereas white stands for a long-lasting metastable state (<sup>242</sup>Am). The formation of actinide nuclides is primarily characterised by: - Neutron capture reactions (n,γ), which are represented in the figure by a short right arrow. - The (n,2n) reactions and the less frequently occurring (γ,n) reactions are also taken into account, both of which are marked by a short left arrow. - Even more rarely and only triggered by fast neutrons, the (n,3n) reaction occurs, which is represented in the figure with one example, marked by a long left arrow. In addition to these neutron- or gamma-induced nuclear reactions, the radioactive conversion of actinide nuclides also affects the nuclide inventory in a reactor. These decay types are marked in the figure by diagonal arrows. The beta-minus decay, marked with an arrow pointing up-left, plays a major role for the balance of the particle densities of the nuclides. Nuclides decaying by positron emission (beta-plus decay) or electron capture (ε) do not occur in a nuclear reactor except as products of knockout reactions; their decays are marked with arrows pointing down-right. Due to the long half-lives of the given nuclides, alpha decay plays almost no role in the formation and decay of the actinides in a power reactor, as the residence time of the nuclear fuel in the reactor core is rather short (a few years). Exceptions are the two relatively short-lived nuclides <sup>242</sup>Cm (T<sub>1/2</sub> = 163 d) and <sup>236</sup>Pu (T<sub>1/2</sub> = 2.9 y). Only for these two cases, the α decay is marked on the nuclide map by a long arrow pointing down-left. A few long-lived actinide isotopes, such as <sup>244</sup>Pu and <sup>250</sup>Cm, cannot be produced in reactors because neutron capture does not happen quickly enough to bypass the short-lived beta-decaying nuclides <sup>243</sup>Pu and <sup>249</sup>Cm; they can however be generated in nuclear explosions, which have much higher neutron fluxes. ## Distribution in nature Thorium and uranium are the most abundant actinides in nature with the respective mass concentrations of 16 ppm and 4 ppm. Uranium mostly occurs in the Earth's crust as a mixture of its oxides in the mineral uraninite, which is also called pitchblende because of its black color. There are several dozens of other uranium minerals such as carnotite (KUO<sub>2</sub>VO<sub>4</sub>·3H<sub>2</sub>O) and autunite (Ca(UO<sub>2</sub>)<sub>2</sub>(PO<sub>4</sub>)<sub>2</sub>·nH<sub>2</sub>O). The isotopic composition of natural uranium is <sup>238</sup>U (relative abundance 99.2742%), <sup>235</sup>U (0.7204%) and <sup>234</sup>U (0.0054%); of these <sup>238</sup>U has the largest half-life of 4.51×10<sup>9</sup> years. The worldwide production of uranium in 2009 amounted to 50,572 tonnes, of which 27.3% was mined in Kazakhstan. Other important uranium mining countries are Canada (20.1%), Australia (15.7%), Namibia (9.1%), Russia (7.0%), and Niger (6.4%). The most abundant thorium minerals are thorianite (ThO<sub>2</sub>), thorite (ThSiO<sub>4</sub>) and monazite, ((Th,Ca,Ce)PO<sub>4</sub>). Most thorium minerals contain uranium and vice versa; and they all have significant fraction of lanthanides. Rich deposits of thorium minerals are located in the United States (440,000 tonnes), Australia and India (\~300,000 tonnes each) and Canada (\~100,000 tonnes). The abundance of actinium in the Earth's crust is only about 5×10<sup>−15</sup>%. Actinium is mostly present in uranium-containing, but also in other minerals, though in much smaller quantities. The content of actinium in most natural objects corresponds to the isotopic equilibrium of parent isotope <sup>235</sup>U, and it is not affected by the weak Ac migration. Protactinium is more abundant (10<sup>−12</sup>%) in the Earth's crust than actinium. It was discovered in the uranium ore in 1913 by Fajans and Göhring. As actinium, the distribution of protactinium follows that of <sup>235</sup>U. The half-life of the longest-lived isotope of neptunium, <sup>237</sup>Np, is negligible compared to the age of the Earth. Thus neptunium is present in nature in negligible amounts produced as intermediate decay products of other isotopes. Traces of plutonium in uranium minerals were first found in 1942, and the more systematic results on <sup>239</sup>Pu are summarized in the table (no other plutonium isotopes could be detected in those samples). The upper limit of abundance of the longest-living isotope of plutonium, <sup>244</sup>Pu, is 3×10<sup>−20</sup>%. Plutonium could not be detected in samples of lunar soil. Owing to its scarcity in nature, most plutonium is produced synthetically. ## Extraction Owing to the low abundance of actinides, their extraction is a complex, multistep process. Fluorides of actinides are usually used because they are insoluble in water and can be easily separated with redox reactions. Fluorides are reduced with calcium, magnesium or barium: <math chem>\begin{array}{l}{}\\\\ \ce{2AmF3{} + 3Ba -\>[\ce{1150-1350^\circ C}] 3BaF2{} + 2Am}\\\\ \ce{PuF4{} + 2Ba -\>[\ce{1200^\circ C}] 2BaF2{} + Pu}\\\\ \ce{UF4{} + 2Mg -\>[\ce{\> 500^\circ C}] U{} + 2MgF2}\\\\{} \end{array}</math> Among the actinides, thorium and uranium are the easiest to isolate. Thorium is extracted mostly from monazite: thorium pyrophosphate (ThP<sub>2</sub>O<sub>7</sub>) is reacted with nitric acid, and the produced thorium nitrate treated with tributyl phosphate. Rare-earth impurities are separated by increasing the pH in sulfate solution. In another extraction method, monazite is decomposed with a 45% aqueous solution of sodium hydroxide at 140 °C. Mixed metal hydroxides are extracted first, filtered at 80 °C, washed with water and dissolved with concentrated hydrochloric acid. Next, the acidic solution is neutralized with hydroxides to pH = 5.8 that results in precipitation of thorium hydroxide (Th(OH)<sub>4</sub>) contaminated with \~3% of rare-earth hydroxides; the rest of rare-earth hydroxides remains in solution. Thorium hydroxide is dissolved in an inorganic acid and then purified from the rare earth elements. An efficient method is the dissolution of thorium hydroxide in nitric acid, because the resulting solution can be purified by extraction with organic solvents: Th(OH)<sub>4</sub> + 4 HNO<sub>3</sub> → Th(NO<sub>3</sub>)<sub>4</sub> + 4 H<sub>2</sub>O Metallic thorium is separated from the anhydrous oxide, chloride or fluoride by reacting it with calcium in an inert atmosphere: ThO<sub>2</sub> + 2 Ca → 2 CaO + Th Sometimes thorium is extracted by electrolysis of a fluoride in a mixture of sodium and potassium chloride at 700–800 °C in a graphite crucible. Highly pure thorium can be extracted from its iodide with the crystal bar process. Uranium is extracted from its ores in various ways. In one method, the ore is burned and then reacted with nitric acid to convert uranium into a dissolved state. Treating the solution with a solution of tributyl phosphate (TBP) in kerosene transforms uranium into an organic form UO<sub>2</sub>(NO<sub>3</sub>)<sub>2</sub>(TBP)<sub>2</sub>. The insoluble impurities are filtered and the uranium is extracted by reaction with hydroxides as (NH<sub>4</sub>)<sub>2</sub>U<sub>2</sub>O<sub>7</sub> or with hydrogen peroxide as UO<sub>4</sub>·2H<sub>2</sub>O. When the uranium ore is rich in such minerals as dolomite, magnesite, etc., those minerals consume much acid. In this case, the carbonate method is used for uranium extraction. Its main component is an aqueous solution of sodium carbonate, which converts uranium into a complex [UO<sub>2</sub>(CO<sub>3</sub>)<sub>3</sub>]<sup>4−</sup>, which is stable in aqueous solutions at low concentrations of hydroxide ions. The advantages of the sodium carbonate method are that the chemicals have low corrosivity (compared to nitrates) and that most non-uranium metals precipitate from the solution. The disadvantage is that tetravalent uranium compounds precipitate as well. Therefore, the uranium ore is treated with sodium carbonate at elevated temperature and under oxygen pressure: 2 UO<sub>2</sub> + O<sub>2</sub> + 6 CO<sup>2−</sup> <sub>3</sub> → 2 [UO<sub>2</sub>(CO<sub>3</sub>)<sub>3</sub>]<sup>4−</sup> This equation suggests that the best solvent for the uranium carbonate processing is a mixture of carbonate with bicarbonate. At high pH, this results in precipitation of diuranate, which is treated with hydrogen in the presence of nickel yielding an insoluble uranium tetracarbonate. Another separation method uses polymeric resins as a polyelectrolyte. Ion exchange processes in the resins result in separation of uranium. Uranium from resins is washed with a solution of ammonium nitrate or nitric acid that yields uranyl nitrate, UO<sub>2</sub>(NO<sub>3</sub>)<sub>2</sub>·6H<sub>2</sub>O. When heated, it turns into UO<sub>3</sub>, which is converted to UO<sub>2</sub> with hydrogen: UO<sub>3</sub> + H<sub>2</sub> → UO<sub>2</sub> + H<sub>2</sub>O Reacting uranium dioxide with hydrofluoric acid changes it to uranium tetrafluoride, which yields uranium metal upon reaction with magnesium metal: 4 HF + UO<sub>2</sub> → UF<sub>4</sub> + 2 H<sub>2</sub>O To extract plutonium, neutron-irradiated uranium is dissolved in nitric acid, and a reducing agent (FeSO<sub>4</sub>, or H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>2</sub>) is added to the resulting solution. This addition changes the oxidation state of plutonium from +6 to +4, while uranium remains in the form of uranyl nitrate (UO<sub>2</sub>(NO<sub>3</sub>)<sub>2</sub>). The solution is treated with a reducing agent and neutralized with ammonium carbonate to pH = 8 that results in precipitation of Pu<sup>4+</sup> compounds. In another method, Pu<sup>4+</sup> and UO<sup>2+</sup> <sub>2</sub> are first extracted with tributyl phosphate, then reacted with hydrazine washing out the recovered plutonium. The major difficulty in separation of actinium is the similarity of its properties with those of lanthanum. Thus actinium is either synthesized in nuclear reactions from isotopes of radium or separated using ion-exchange procedures. ## Properties Actinides have similar properties to lanthanides. The 6d and 7s electronic shells are filled in actinium and thorium, and the 5f shell is being filled with further increase in atomic number; the 4f shell is filled in the lanthanides. The first experimental evidence for the filling of the 5f shell in actinides was obtained by McMillan and Abelson in 1940. As in lanthanides (see lanthanide contraction), the ionic radius of actinides monotonically decreases with atomic number (see also Aufbau principle). ### Physical properties Actinides are typical metals. All of them are soft and have a silvery color (but tarnish in air), relatively high density and plasticity. Some of them can be cut with a knife. Their electrical resistivity varies between 15 and 150 μΩ·cm. The hardness of thorium is similar to that of soft steel, so heated pure thorium can be rolled in sheets and pulled into wire. Thorium is nearly half as dense as uranium and plutonium, but is harder than either of them. All actinides are radioactive, paramagnetic, and, with the exception of actinium, have several crystalline phases: plutonium has seven, and uranium, neptunium and californium three. The crystal structures of protactinium, uranium, neptunium and plutonium do not have clear analogs among the lanthanides and are more similar to those of the 3d-transition metals. All actinides are pyrophoric, especially when finely divided, that is, they spontaneously ignite upon reaction with air at room temperature. The melting point of actinides does not have a clear dependence on the number of f-electrons. The unusually low melting point of neptunium and plutonium (\~640 °C) is explained by hybridization of 5f and 6d orbitals and the formation of directional bonds in these metals. ### Chemical properties Like the lanthanides, all actinides are highly reactive with halogens and chalcogens; however, the actinides react more easily. Actinides, especially those with a small number of 5f-electrons, are prone to hybridization. This is explained by the similarity of the electron energies at the 5f, 7s and 6d shells. Most actinides exhibit a larger variety of valence states, and the most stable are +6 for uranium, +5 for protactinium and neptunium, +4 for thorium and plutonium and +3 for actinium and other actinides. Actinium is chemically similar to lanthanum, which is explained by their similar ionic radii and electronic structures. Like lanthanum, actinium almost always has an oxidation state of +3 in compounds, but it is less reactive and has more pronounced basic properties. Among other trivalent actinides Ac<sup>3+</sup> is least acidic, i.e. has the weakest tendency to hydrolyze in aqueous solutions. Thorium is rather active chemically. Owing to lack of electrons on 6d and 5f orbitals, the tetravalent thorium compounds are colorless. At pH \< 3, the solutions of thorium salts are dominated by the cations [Th(H<sub>2</sub>O)<sub>8</sub>]<sup>4+</sup>. The Th<sup>4+</sup> ion is relatively large, and depending on the coordination number can have a radius between 0.95 and 1.14 Å. As a result, thorium salts have a weak tendency to hydrolyse. The distinctive ability of thorium salts is their high solubility both in water and polar organic solvents. Protactinium exhibits two valence states; the +5 is stable, and the +4 state easily oxidizes to protactinium(V). Thus tetravalent protactinium in solutions is obtained by the action of strong reducing agents in a hydrogen atmosphere. Tetravalent protactinium is chemically similar to uranium(IV) and thorium(IV). Fluorides, phosphates, hypophosphate, iodate and phenylarsonates of protactinium(IV) are insoluble in water and dilute acids. Protactinium forms soluble carbonates. The hydrolytic properties of pentavalent protactinium are close to those of tantalum(V) and niobium(V). The complex chemical behavior of protactinium is a consequence of the start of the filling of the 5f shell in this element. Uranium has a valence from 3 to 6, the last being most stable. In the hexavalent state, uranium is very similar to the group 6 elements. Many compounds of uranium(IV) and uranium(VI) are non-stoichiometric, i.e. have variable composition. For example, the actual chemical formula of uranium dioxide is UO<sub>2+x</sub>, where x varies between −0.4 and 0.32. Uranium(VI) compounds are weak oxidants. Most of them contain the linear "uranyl" group, UO<sup>2+</sup> <sub>2</sub>. Between 4 and 6 ligands can be accommodated in an equatorial plane perpendicular to the uranyl group. The uranyl group acts as a hard acid and forms stronger complexes with oxygen-donor ligands than with nitrogen-donor ligands. NpO<sup>2+</sup> <sub>2</sub> and PuO<sup>2+</sup> <sub>2</sub> are also the common form of Np and Pu in the +6 oxidation state. Uranium(IV) compounds exhibit reducing properties, e.g., they are easily oxidized by atmospheric oxygen. Uranium(III) is a very strong reducing agent. Owing to the presence of d-shell, uranium (as well as many other actinides) forms organometallic compounds, such as U<sup>III</sup>(C<sub>5</sub>H<sub>5</sub>)<sub>3</sub> and U<sup>IV</sup>(C<sub>5</sub>H<sub>5</sub>)<sub>4</sub>. Neptunium has valence states from 3 to 7, which can be simultaneously observed in solutions. The most stable state in solution is +5, but the valence +4 is preferred in solid neptunium compounds. Neptunium metal is very reactive. Ions of neptunium are prone to hydrolysis and formation of coordination compounds. Plutonium also exhibits valence states between 3 and 7 inclusive, and thus is chemically similar to neptunium and uranium. It is highly reactive, and quickly forms an oxide film in air. Plutonium reacts with hydrogen even at temperatures as low as 25–50 °C; it also easily forms halides and intermetallic compounds. Hydrolysis reactions of plutonium ions of different oxidation states are quite diverse. Plutonium(V) can enter polymerization reactions. The largest chemical diversity among actinides is observed in americium, which can have valence between 2 and 6. Divalent americium is obtained only in dry compounds and non-aqueous solutions (acetonitrile). Oxidation states +3, +5 and +6 are typical for aqueous solutions, but also in the solid state. Tetravalent americium forms stable solid compounds (dioxide, fluoride and hydroxide) as well as complexes in aqueous solutions. It was reported that in alkaline solution americium can be oxidized to the heptavalent state, but these data proved erroneous. The most stable valence of americium is 3 in the aqueous solutions and 3 or 4 in solid compounds. Valence 3 is dominant in all subsequent elements up to lawrencium (with the exception of nobelium). Curium can be tetravalent in solids (fluoride, dioxide). Berkelium, along with a valence of +3, also shows the valence of +4, more stable than that of curium; the valence 4 is observed in solid fluoride and dioxide. The stability of Bk<sup>4+</sup> in aqueous solution is close to that of Ce<sup>4+</sup>. Only valence 3 was observed for californium, einsteinium and fermium. The divalent state is proven for mendelevium and nobelium, and in nobelium it is more stable than the trivalent state. Lawrencium shows valence 3 both in solutions and solids. The redox potential \mathit E\_\frac{M^4+}{AnO2^2+} increases from −0.32 V in uranium, through 0.34 V (Np) and 1.04 V (Pu) to 1.34 V in americium revealing the increasing reduction ability of the An<sup>4+</sup> ion from americium to uranium. All actinides form AnH<sub>3</sub> hydrides of black color with salt-like properties. Actinides also produce carbides with the general formula of AnC or AnC<sub>2</sub> (U<sub>2</sub>C<sub>3</sub> for uranium) as well as sulfides An<sub>2</sub>S<sub>3</sub> and AnS<sub>2</sub>. ## Compounds ### Oxides and hydroxides An – actinide \\Depending on the isotopes Some actinides can exist in several oxide forms such as An<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>, AnO<sub>2</sub>, An<sub>2</sub>O<sub>5</sub> and AnO<sub>3</sub>. For all actinides, oxides AnO<sub>3</sub> are amphoteric and An<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>, AnO<sub>2</sub> and An<sub>2</sub>O<sub>5</sub> are basic, they easily react with water, forming bases: An<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub> + 3 H<sub>2</sub>O → 2 An(OH)<sub>3</sub>. These bases are poorly soluble in water and by their activity are close to the hydroxides of rare-earth metals. Np(OH)<sub>3</sub> has not yet been synthesized, Pu(OH)<sub>3</sub> has a blue color while Am(OH)<sub>3</sub> is pink and curium hydroxide Cm(OH)<sub>3</sub> is colorless. Bk(OH)<sub>3</sub> and Cf(OH)<sub>3</sub> are also known, as are tetravalent hydroxides for Np, Pu and Am and pentavalent for Np and Am. The strongest base is of actinium. All compounds of actinium are colorless, except for black actinium sulfide (Ac<sub>2</sub>S<sub>3</sub>). Dioxides of tetravalent actinides crystallize in the cubic system, same as in calcium fluoride. Thorium reacting with oxygen exclusively forms the dioxide: Th{} + O2 -\>[\ce{1000^\circ C}] \overbrace{ThO2}^{Thorium\~dioxide} Thorium dioxide is a refractory material with the highest melting point among any known oxide (3390 °C). Adding 0.8–1% ThO<sub>2</sub> to tungsten stabilizes its structure, so the doped filaments have better mechanical stability to vibrations. To dissolve ThO<sub>2</sub> in acids, it is heated to 500–600 °C; heating above 600 °C produces a very resistant to acids and other reagents form of ThO<sub>2</sub>. Small addition of fluoride ions catalyses dissolution of thorium dioxide in acids. Two protactinium oxides have been obtained: PaO<sub>2</sub> (black) and Pa<sub>2</sub>O<sub>5</sub> (white); the former is isomorphic with ThO<sub>2</sub> and the latter is easier to obtain. Both oxides are basic, and Pa(OH)<sub>5</sub> is a weak, poorly soluble base. Decomposition of certain salts of uranium, for example UO<sub>2</sub>(NO<sub>3</sub>)·6H<sub>2</sub>O in air at 400 °C, yields orange or yellow UO<sub>3</sub>. This oxide is amphoteric and forms several hydroxides, the most stable being uranyl hydroxide UO<sub>2</sub>(OH)<sub>2</sub>. Reaction of uranium(VI) oxide with hydrogen results in uranium dioxide, which is similar in its properties with ThO<sub>2</sub>. This oxide is also basic and corresponds to the uranium hydroxide (U(OH)<sub>4</sub>). Plutonium, neptunium and americium form two basic oxides: An<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub> and AnO<sub>2</sub>. Neptunium trioxide is unstable; thus, only Np<sub>3</sub>O<sub>8</sub> could be obtained so far. However, the oxides of plutonium and neptunium with the chemical formula AnO<sub>2</sub> and An<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub> are well characterized. ### Salts \An – actinide \\*Depending on the isotopes Actinides easily react with halogens forming salts with the formulas MX<sub>3</sub> and MX<sub>4</sub> (X = halogen). So the first berkelium compound, BkCl<sub>3</sub>, was synthesized in 1962 with an amount of 3 nanograms. Like the halogens of rare earth elements, actinide chlorides, bromides, and iodides are water-soluble, and fluorides are insoluble. Uranium easily yields a colorless hexafluoride, which sublimates at a temperature of 56.5 °C; because of its volatility, it is used in the separation of uranium isotopes with gas centrifuge or gaseous diffusion. Actinide hexafluorides have properties close to anhydrides. They are very sensitive to moisture and hydrolyze forming AnO<sub>2</sub>F<sub>2</sub>. The pentachloride and black hexachloride of uranium were synthesized, but they are both unstable. Action of acids on actinides yields salts, and if the acids are non-oxidizing then the actinide in the salt is in low-valence state: U + 2 H<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>4</sub> → U(SO<sub>4</sub>)<sub>2</sub> + 2 H<sub>2</sub> 2 Pu + 6 HCl → 2 PuCl<sub>3</sub> + 3 H<sub>2</sub> However, in these reactions the regenerating hydrogen can react with the metal, forming the corresponding hydride. Uranium reacts with acids and water much more easily than thorium. Actinide salts can also be obtained by dissolving the corresponding hydroxides in acids. Nitrates, chlorides, sulfates and perchlorates of actinides are water-soluble. When crystallizing from aqueous solutions, these salts forming a hydrates, such as Th(NO<sub>3</sub>)<sub>4</sub>·6H<sub>2</sub>O, Th(SO<sub>4</sub>)<sub>2</sub>·9H<sub>2</sub>O and Pu<sub>2</sub>(SO<sub>4</sub>)<sub>3</sub>·7H<sub>2</sub>O. Salts of high-valence actinides easily hydrolyze. So, colorless sulfate, chloride, perchlorate and nitrate of thorium transform into basic salts with formulas Th(OH)<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>4</sub> and Th(OH)<sub>3</sub>NO<sub>3</sub>. The solubility and insolubility of trivalent and tetravalent actinides is like that of lanthanide salts. So phosphates, fluorides, oxalates, iodates and carbonates of actinides are weakly soluble in water; they precipitate as hydrates, such as ThF<sub>4</sub>·3H<sub>2</sub>O and Th(CrO<sub>4</sub>)<sub>2</sub>·3H<sub>2</sub>O. Actinides with oxidation state +6, except for the AnO<sub>2</sub><sup>2+</sup>-type cations, form [AnO<sub>4</sub>]<sup>2−</sup>, [An<sub>2</sub>O<sub>7</sub>]<sup>2−</sup> and other complex anions. For example, uranium, neptunium and plutonium form salts of the Na<sub>2</sub>UO<sub>4</sub> (uranate) and (NH<sub>4</sub>)<sub>2</sub>U<sub>2</sub>O<sub>7</sub> (diuranate) types. In comparison with lanthanides, actinides more easily form coordination compounds, and this ability increases with the actinide valence. Trivalent actinides do not form fluoride coordination compounds, whereas tetravalent thorium forms K<sub>2</sub>ThF<sub>6</sub>, KThF<sub>5</sub>, and even K<sub>5</sub>ThF<sub>9</sub> complexes. Thorium also forms the corresponding sulfates (for example Na<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>4</sub>·Th(SO<sub>4</sub>)<sub>2</sub>·5H<sub>2</sub>O), nitrates and thiocyanates. Salts with the general formula An<sub>2</sub>Th(NO<sub>3</sub>)<sub>6</sub>·nH<sub>2</sub>O are of coordination nature, with the coordination number of thorium equal to 12. Even easier is to produce complex salts of pentavalent and hexavalent actinides. The most stable coordination compounds of actinides – tetravalent thorium and uranium – are obtained in reactions with diketones, e.g. acetylacetone. ## Applications While actinides have some established daily-life applications, such as in smoke detectors (americium) and gas mantles (thorium), they are mostly used in nuclear weapons and as fuel in nuclear reactors. The last two areas exploit the property of actinides to release enormous energy in nuclear reactions, which under certain conditions may become self-sustaining chain reactions. The most important isotope for nuclear power applications is uranium-235. It is used in the thermal reactor, and its concentration in natural uranium does not exceed 0.72%. This isotope strongly absorbs thermal neutrons releasing much energy. One fission act of 1 gram of <sup>235</sup>U converts into about 1 MW·day. Of importance, is that <sup>235</sup> <sub>92</sub>U emits more neutrons than it absorbs; upon reaching the critical mass, <sup>235</sup> <sub>92</sub>U enters into a self-sustaining chain reaction. Typically, uranium nucleus is divided into two fragments with the release of 2–3 neutrons, for example: <sup>235</sup> <sub>92</sub>U + <sup>1</sup> <sub>0</sub>n ⟶ <sup>115</sup> <sub>45</sub>Rh + <sup>118</sup> <sub>47</sub>Ag + 3<sup>1</sup> <sub>0</sub>n Other promising actinide isotopes for nuclear power are thorium-232 and its product from the thorium fuel cycle, uranium-233. Emission of neutrons during the fission of uranium is important not only for maintaining the nuclear chain reaction, but also for the synthesis of the heavier actinides. Uranium-239 converts via β-decay into plutonium-239, which, like uranium-235, is capable of spontaneous fission. The world's first nuclear reactors were built not for energy, but for producing plutonium-239 for nuclear weapons. About half of the produced thorium is used as the light-emitting material of gas mantles. Thorium is also added into multicomponent alloys of magnesium and zinc. So the Mg-Th alloys are light and strong, but also have high melting point and ductility and thus are widely used in the aviation industry and in the production of missiles. Thorium also has good electron emission properties, with long lifetime and low potential barrier for the emission. The relative content of thorium and uranium isotopes is widely used to estimate the age of various objects, including stars (see radiometric dating). The major application of plutonium has been in nuclear weapons, where the isotope plutonium-239 was a key component due to its ease of fission and availability. Plutonium-based designs allow reducing the critical mass to about a third of that for uranium-235. The "Fat Man"-type plutonium bombs produced during the Manhattan Project used explosive compression of plutonium to obtain significantly higher densities than normal, combined with a central neutron source to begin the reaction and increase efficiency. Thus only 6.2 kg of plutonium was needed for an explosive yield equivalent to 20 kilotons of TNT. (See also Nuclear weapon design.) Hypothetically, as little as 4 kg of plutonium—and maybe even less—could be used to make a single atomic bomb using very sophisticated assembly designs. Plutonium-238 is potentially more efficient isotope for nuclear reactors, since it has smaller critical mass than uranium-235, but it continues to release much thermal energy (0.56 W/g) by decay even when the fission chain reaction is stopped by control rods. Its application is limited by its high price (about US\$1000/g). This isotope has been used in thermopiles and water distillation systems of some space satellites and stations. So Galileo and Apollo spacecraft (e.g. Apollo 14) had heaters powered by kilogram quantities of plutonium-238 oxide; this heat is also transformed into electricity with thermopiles. The decay of plutonium-238 produces relatively harmless alpha particles and is not accompanied by gamma-irradiation. Therefore, this isotope (\~160 mg) is used as the energy source in heart pacemakers where it lasts about 5 times longer than conventional batteries. Actinium-227 is used as a neutron source. Its high specific energy (14.5 W/g) and the possibility of obtaining significant quantities of thermally stable compounds are attractive for use in long-lasting thermoelectric generators for remote use. <sup>228</sup>Ac is used as an indicator of radioactivity in chemical research, as it emits high-energy electrons (2.18 MeV) that can be easily detected. <sup>228</sup>Ac-<sup>228</sup>Ra mixtures are widely used as an intense gamma-source in industry and medicine. Development of self-glowing actinide-doped materials with durable crystalline matrices is a new area of actinide utilization as the addition of alpha-emitting radionuclides to some glasses and crystals may confer luminescence. ## Toxicity Radioactive substances can harm human health via (i) local skin contamination, (ii) internal exposure due to ingestion of radioactive isotopes, and (iii) external overexposure by β-activity and γ-radiation. Together with radium and transuranium elements, actinium is one of the most dangerous radioactive poisons with high specific α-activity. The most important feature of actinium is its ability to accumulate and remain in the surface layer of skeletons. At the initial stage of poisoning, actinium accumulates in the liver. Another danger of actinium is that it undergoes radioactive decay faster than being excreted. Adsorption from the digestive tract is much smaller (\~0.05%) for actinium than radium. Protactinium in the body tends to accumulate in the kidneys and bones. The maximum safe dose of protactinium in the human body is 0.03 μCi that corresponds to 0.5 micrograms of <sup>231</sup>Pa. This isotope, which might be present in the air as aerosol, is 2.5×10<sup>8</sup> times more toxic than hydrocyanic acid. Plutonium, when entering the body through air, food or blood (e.g. a wound), mostly settles in the lungs, liver and bones with only about 10% going to other organs, and remains there for decades. The long residence time of plutonium in the body is partly explained by its poor solubility in water. Some isotopes of plutonium emit ionizing α-radiation, which damages the surrounding cells. The median lethal dose (LD<sub>50</sub>) for 30 days in dogs after intravenous injection of plutonium is 0.32 milligram per kg of body mass, and thus the lethal dose for humans is approximately 22 mg for a person weighing 70 kg; the amount for respiratory exposure should be approximately four times greater. Another estimate assumes that plutonium is 50 times less toxic than radium, and thus permissible content of plutonium in the body should be 5 μg or 0.3 μCi. Such amount is nearly invisible under microscope. After trials on animals, this maximum permissible dose was reduced to 0.65 μg or 0.04 μCi. Studies on animals also revealed that the most dangerous plutonium exposure route is through inhalation, after which 5–25% of inhaled substances is retained in the body. Depending on the particle size and solubility of the plutonium compounds, plutonium is localized either in the lungs or in the lymphatic system, or is absorbed in the blood and then transported to the liver and bones. Contamination via food is the least likely way. In this case, only about 0.05% of soluble 0.01% insoluble compounds of plutonium absorbs into blood, and the rest is excreted. Exposure of damaged skin to plutonium would retain nearly 100% of it. Using actinides in nuclear fuel, sealed radioactive sources or advanced materials such as self-glowing crystals has many potential benefits. However, a serious concern is the extremely high radiotoxicity of actinides and their migration in the environment. Use of chemically unstable forms of actinides in MOX and sealed radioactive sources is not appropriate by modern safety standards. There is a challenge to develop stable and durable actinide-bearing materials, which provide safe storage, use and final disposal. A key need is application of actinide solid solutions in durable crystalline host phases. ## Nuclear properties ## See also - Actinides in the environment - Lanthanides - Major actinides - Minor actinides - Transuranics
477,736	The Neutral Zone (Star Trek: The Next Generation)	1,171,677,868	null	[ "1988 American television episodes", "Fiction about suspended animation", "Star Trek: The Next Generation (season 1) episodes", "Television episodes directed by James L. Conway" ]	"The Neutral Zone" is the season finale of the first season of the American science fiction television series Star Trek: The Next Generation, originally aired within the United States on May 16, 1988, in broadcast syndication. The episode originated as a story submission purchased by Paramount written by Deborah McIntyre and Mona Clee, and was turned into a teleplay by Maurice Hurley. Because of the 1988 Writers Guild of America strike, Hurley created the script in a day and a half, and the timescale forced the abandonment of both the idea of a two-part episode and of the first appearance of the Borg, which was delayed until the following season episode "Q Who". Set in the 24th century, the series follows the adventures of the Starfleet crew of the Federation starship Enterprise-D. In "The Neutral Zone", the Enterprise is sent to investigate the destruction of Federation outposts near space controlled by the Romulan Star Empire, discovering a derelict Earth satellite with cryonically frozen humans aboard. This episode introduced the redesigned Romulans, with prosthetic forehead pieces designed by makeup supervisor Michael Westmore, and the first appearance of the Romulan Warbird, which was designer Andrew Probert's final work for the Star Trek franchise. The episode was mildly received by critics who viewed it after the end of the season, who criticized the two-plot nature of the episode and the general lack of excitement. ## Plot While Captain Picard (Patrick Stewart) is away at an emergency Federation conference, the Enterprise crew discovers an ancient space capsule from Earth. Inside they find three humans in cryonic chambers. Lt. Cdr. Data (Brent Spiner) asks to move the chambers to the Enterprise and Commander Riker (Jonathan Frakes) agrees. Picard returns and orders the Enterprise to the Neutral Zone, as several Federation outposts near the edges of the zone have not responded to communications. He explains that the conference was about the potential threat of the Romulans, who have not been seen for decades. As Data and Chief Medical Officer Dr. Crusher (Gates McFadden) work to thaw the cryonically preserved humans, Picard admonishes Data for bringing them aboard during a crucial time, and puts Riker in charge of looking after them. The survivors—Claire Raymond (Gracie Harrison), a housewife; Ralph Offenhouse (Peter Mark Richman), a financier; and L. Q. "Sonny" Clemmons (Leon Rippy), a musician—are from the late 20th century. All died of incurable illnesses at the time and were placed in cryonic suspension after their deaths in the hope that cures might be found in the future. Dr. Crusher, in reviving them, easily cures them of their illnesses. They have to cope with the culture shock of awakening in a distant future with the realization that everything they knew and had are now gone. Of the three, Clemmons seems to fare the best at adapting to life in the future and befriends Data. Claire is distraught at the thought of losing everyone she ever knew, particularly her children, so Counselor Troi (Marina Sirtis) suggests searching for Claire's descendants. Offenhouse is irritated by the lack of access to news or other information, and uses the comm unit to disturb Picard on the bridge. Picard comes down to assure everyone that all questions will be answered, but that the ship's mission requires Picard's full attention. The Enterprise reaches the Neutral Zone and confirms that the outposts have been destroyed. They are soon met by a Romulan Warbird and Commander Tebok (Marc Alaimo) questions why the Enterprise has approached the zone. As Picard tries to explain his actions, Offenhouse arrives on the bridge and threatens to disrupt the tense situation, though he correctly ascertains that the Romulans are also seeking answers. Picard and the Romulans agree to pool their resources to discover the culprit. Picard later comments that while the encounter went favorably, the Romulans may be a significant threat in future engagements. Picard arranges to transport the 20th-century humans to Earth. Troi locates one of Claire's descendants on Earth, and while Claire is unsure of her place in her new reality, Troi suggests that family is a good starting point. Clemmons expresses enthusiasm for the future, and Picard sets Offenhouse the challenge of improving himself. ## Production ### Writing and casting Due to the impending Writers Guild of America strike, writer and co-executive producer Maurice Hurley developed the teleplay in a day and a half from a story submission purchased by Paramount written by Deborah McIntyre and Mona Clee. Due to the strike, certain story ideas were removed from the plot including the planned first appearance of the Borg, which was delayed until the second-season episode "Q Who". "The Neutral Zone" was originally intended to be the first of a two-part episode but due to the strike there wasn't enough time to write the second part and so the story was shortened. The second episode would have seen the Enterprise and the Romulans unite against the Borg. The script that was shot was a first draft and due to the writer's strike, no amendments were made. Director James L. Conway later explained, "If there hadn't been a strike, I think it would have been a better script." It was the second episode of The Next Generation directed by Conway, the first being "Justice". He did not direct another episode until "Frame of Mind" during season six. In the writers and directors' guide for the series, written by the show's creator Gene Roddenberry prior to the first season, Romulans were covered by one of the main writing rules which stated "No stories about warfare with Klingons and Romulans and no stories with Vulcans. We are determined not to copy ourselves and believe there must be other interesting aliens in a galaxy filled with billions of stars and planets." Following the perceived failure of the Ferengi as the main villains of TNG by the production staff, the Romulans became the main villains during the early years of the series. This was in addition to the Borg, who were originally developed as an insectoid race for this episode but became a race of cyborgs by the time they first appeared in "Q Who". While the Romulans made their first TNG appearance in this episode, they had been mentioned in "Angel One" and "Heart of Glory". The episode was the final one of season one to be completed, with production wrapping ten months after it began on "Encounter at Farpoint". The episode featured an appearance by Gene Roddenberry's production assistant Susan Sackett as a Starfleet science officer. Her appearance was the result of winning a bet over her weight loss. She would go on to write two episodes of The Next Generation with Fred Bronson, "Ménage à Troi" and "The Game". Peter Mark Richman appeared as Ralph Offenhouse who had appeared in a guest star capacity in over 500 roles on television. Leon Rippy appeared as L.Q. "Sonny" Clemonds, having previously appeared alongside Jonathan Frakes in North and South. Marc Alaimo made his second Star Trek appearance in this episode, having appeared in "Lonely Among Us" as the Antican leader and would go on to appear in season four's "The Wounded" as Cardassian Gul Macet, as well as appearing in season five's finale "Time's Arrow" as card shark Frederick LaRouque, before being cast once more as a Cardassian in the recurring role of Gul Dukat on Star Trek: Deep Space Nine. Two of the time-displaced humans returned in Star Trek literature, with Ralph Offenhouse appearing in The Next Generation novel Debtor's Planet as the Federation Ambassador to the Ferengi and again in the Star Trek: Destiny trilogy as the Secretary of Commerce for the Federation. Clare Raymond made a further appearance in the Star Trek: Department of Temporal Investigations novel Watching the Clock as a counsellor for time-displaced people. Offenhouse, Raymond and "Sonny" Clemmons also appeared in the two-part Star Trek: The Eugenic Wars by Greg Cox, which was set prior to their appearance in this episode. ### Make-up and design Michael Westmore developed a new appearance for the Romulans in this episode, necessarily taking into account the concepts introduced for them in the original series episodes "Balance of Terror" and "The Enterprise Incident". There was also a desire to ensure that they appeared different from the Vulcans, with the default appearance of the Romulans being more aggressive and warlike. Westmore developed prosthetic forehead pieces, taking careful steps to ensure that they didn't look like Neanderthals. Rather than individual designs for each forehead as with the Klingons, a number of standard designs were created. The Romulan Warbird made its first appearance in this episode. It was the final design by Andrew Probert for the Star Trek franchise. He had previously designed both the Enterprise in Star Trek: The Motion Picture and the Enterprise-D for The Next Generation. The double-hulled nature of the starship originated in early designs, but the wings were originally vertical rather than horizontal. The ship was deliberately made to be larger than the Enterprise. ## Reception "The Neutral Zone" aired in broadcast syndication during the week of May 20, 1988. It received Nielsen ratings of 10.2. This was the highest ratings received by the series since "Symbiosis" four episodes earlier. Several reviewers re-watched Star Trek: The Next Generation after the end of the series. Keith DeCandido on Tor.com felt that the episode did not really work, saying that the "smug moralizing with regard to the three 20th-century refugees is laid on a bit too thick", and that the appearance of the Romulans tried too hard to be reminiscent of their first appearance in "Balance of Terror". Overall he said that the "first season ends, not with a bang, but with a whimper". Zack Handlen of The A.V. Club felt that the previous episode, "Conspiracy", would have served better as an end to the first season as "The Neutral Zone" wasn't the worst so far, "but it may possibly be the most frustrating, because it has two storylines". He felt that the Romulan plot would have been sufficient alone and described the storyline featuring the cryonic survivors as "extremely painful comic relief". He gave the episode a grade of C−. The Romulan Warbird (the "D'deridex class"), which made periodic appearances in the Star Trek franchise after this episode, was rated by Space.com as the 9th-best Star Trek spacecraft. In particular they note its debut, uncloaking before the Enterprise 1701-D after the Romulans’ half-century of isolation. The spacecraft's fictional power and elusiveness is noted in regards to the Star Trek science fiction universe. The New Yorker, in a 2016 article for the 50th anniversary of Star Trek, noted "The Neutral Zone" as one of the defining moments of the new series. They note how when they uncover a frozen Wall Street broker, he is shocked to find a future where there is more to life than accumulating wealth. In 2017, Den of Geek ranked "The Neutral Zone" as one of top 25 "must watch" episodes of Star Trek: The Next Generation. ## Media releases The first home media release of "The Neutral Zone" was on VHS cassette on May 26, 1993, in the United States and Canada. The episode was later included on the Star Trek: The Next Generation season one DVD boxed set, released in March 2002, and was released as part of the season one Blu-ray set on July 24, 2012.
8,151,610	The Legendary Axe	1,169,511,087	1988 video game	[ "1988 video games", "Fantasy video games", "Platform games", "Single-player video games", "TurboGrafx-16 games", "TurboGrafx-16-only games", "Video games about cults", "Video games developed in Japan", "Video games scored by Jun Chikuma" ]	The Legendary Axe (魔境伝説 Makyō Densetsu in Japan) is a horizontal platform video game for the TurboGrafx-16. It was developed and published by Victor Musical Industries in Japan and by NEC in North America. It was released in Japan on September 23, 1988 (1988-09-23) and in North America as a TurboGrafx-16 launch title on August 29, 1989 (1989-08-29). In the game, the player controls Gogan, a barbarian whose girl, Flare, was kidnapped by the cult of Jagu. The player must navigate through six platforming levels, armed with a legendary axe named "Sting" to defeat Jagu and his minions and rescue Flare. The game features a rechargeable "strength meter" that determines how much damage is dealt from the axe to enemies. The Legendary Axe received high praise and accolades among video game reviewers, and it received positive preview coverage in anticipation with the TurboGrafx-16's launch, showcasing the new console's capabilities. Reviews from gaming magazines such as Electronic Gaming Monthly called it one of the best adventure games seen at the time. It was highly praised for its detailed graphics and animation, diverse music and gameplay, difficulty level, and execution. It won the "Best [TurboGrafx-16] Game of the Year" and "Video Game of the Year" (for all consoles) awards from Electronic Gaming Monthly and VideoGames & Computer Entertainment respectively for 1989. The game continued to receive praise from reviewers years after its release for its simple gameplay and game design that showed the performance and capabilities of the TurboGrafx-16. ## Plot The Legendary Axe takes place in a faraway land, where its inhabitants have been under the control of the cult of Jagu. The cult, who has regularly pillaged the countryside, is led by a half-man half-beast named Jagu. The game's protagonist, Gogan, lives in the village of Minofu, who must hand over one person as a human sacrifice to the Jagu every year. Gogan was away in a remote village studying warfare when he finds out that his childhood friend, Flare, has been selected by the Jagu as their annual sacrifice. Rushing back to Minofu, he finds that she has already been taken by the Jagu to the "Evil Place" located in the mountains. The village elders hand Gogan the Legendary Axe named "Sting" which gives him great strength to fight the evil cult. Armed with this axe, he sets off to the Evil Place to defeat Jagu and his cult and rescue Flare. ## Gameplay The Legendary Axe is a side-scrolling action/platform video game in which the player assumes the role of Gogan, who sets out through six differently-themed levels (called "zones") including jungles, caves, and mountains; the object is to defeat creatures such as "frog men", bears, and giant spiders with his Legendary Axe "Sting"; eliminate Jagu and his cult; and rescue Flare. Players must also navigate obstacles and hazards by jumping. Gogan has a life meter that decreases every time he sustains damage from creatures, and the player loses a life when Gogan's life meter runs out or if he falls off the screen. The game ends when players have lost all their lives, but they get four continues in which they can restart the game at the same section in which they have lost all their lives. Gogan has a flashing "strength meter" on the top of the screen that determines how much damage he can inflict on enemies when he swings his axe. The strength meter empties after attacking and then slowly refills back to its maximum. The strength meter increases by 25% whenever the player collects a "crystal container". This incorporates an element of strategy in the game in which the player can either make a series of weak strikes with the axe or wait and build the strength meter for a single, more powerful strike. Scattered throughout the game to help Gogan are miniature statues called "Jagu idols" that reveal power-ups when destroyed; these power-ups include "crystal containers" that increase Gogan's attack strength, wings that increase the speed of Gogan's attacks, power balls that help replenish Gogan's life meter, crystals that award bonus points, and extra lives. Additional lives can also be obtained by earning certain numbers of points. The zones in The Legendary Axe consist of different environments; they range from dark forests to caverns to mountain plateaus to fortresses. Players face many enemies along the way which they need to get through: "frog men" that leap from the water and spit fire; jumping and rolling amoeba-type creatures in the caverns; "rock men" that spring out and attack on the mountain plateaus; and giant spiders that shoot webs at players. The bosses in the game are guardians of Jagu's cult and are fought at the end of each zone. They include the following: at the end of Zone 1, a pair of possessed grizzly bears; of Zone 2, a magical boulder; of Zone 3, a group of flying slinky-type monsters called "Aqua Lungs"; and of Zone 4, a pair of creatures with shields and spears called "Punjabbis". Zone 5 culminates with a maze of rooms called the "Pits of Madness" which feature every enemy encountered up to that point plus some new enemies; at its end is a fire-throwing cult demon. Zone 6 consists of the final battle with Jagu himself. ## Development The Legendary Axe was developed by Victor Musical Industries, and it was released under the title Makyō Densetsu in Japan for the PC Engine by the same company on September 23, 1988 (1988-09-23). Prior to its North American release, the game was retitled The Legendary Axe and was displayed with the other PC Engine games and the console itself at the 1989 International Winter Consumer Electronics Show in Las Vegas, Nevada. Later in 1989, NEC retooled Hudson Soft's console and renamed it the TurboGrafx-16 for its imminent North American release. NEC sought third-party support to develop the console; since they were purely a hardware developer, they lacked the ability to develop any software or games. This allowed NEC to publish games developed by those supporting third-party companies in North America. The Legendary Axe was released in North America as a launch title for the TurboGrafx-16 on August 29, 1989 (1989-08-29). In 1990, Victor published The Legendary Axe II (Ankoku Densetsu, roughly translated as "Dark Legend"). Intended as a sequel to The Legendary Axe in Japan, the titular axe is not the main weapon, and the "strength meter" gameplay mechanic has been removed. ## Reception The Legendary Axe received positive coverage upon its release. In an overview of the PC Engine, VideoGames & Computer Entertainment referred to the game as "characteristic of the PC Engine's advanced sound, graphics and game play". A later preview from the same magazine said that it was one of the console's better games, and they applauded the arcade-like graphics and gameplay. They said that everyone who owned the console should own the game and that it was an "excellent showcase of the game system's capabilities". Electronic Gaming Monthly's Steve Harris said it was one of his favorite games, praising its theme, graphics, sound, and execution; he added that its features were unsurpassed by any video game at the time. Ed Semrad said it "is how [a platform game] should have been done" and that it should be the first game TurboGrafx-16 owners should buy. Donn Nauert called the game one of the best adventure games seen at the time and echoed Harris' praises. Jim Allee repeated Semrad's observation that the game is Rastan but with better graphics; he praised its detailed sprites, the diverse music and gameplay, and difficulty level and concluded that it "is everything you could want in a game". The Legendary Axe received several awards and accolades. In Electronic Gaming Monthly's "Best and Worst of 1989", the game won "Best Game of the Year" honors for the TurboGrafx-16. The magazine cited a "perfect blend of action and adventure" and outstanding graphics and sound. It also received an award for "Coolest Boss Attackers" for its final boss Jagu – an award that was shared with 1989 Sega Genesis "Best Game of the Year" Ghouls 'n Ghosts for its final boss "Loki". The game won "Video Game of the Year" (for all consoles) honors from VideoGames & Computer Entertainment in 1989. They said that the game "has a little of everything: loads of axe-swinging action, layer upon layer of high-quality music and smooth, colorful animation. The combination of these elements brought this action adventure to the top of the video-game heap like rising cream." The Legendary Axe continued to receive praise from reviewers years after its release. In 1997 Electronic Gaming Monthly editors ranked it number 80 on their "100 Best Games of All Time", attributing the game's popularity to its huge levels, "dead-on control", intelligently designed charge mechanic, and huge bosses, particularly the final boss. In his overview of the TurboGrafx-16's history, IGN's Levi Buchanan pointed out that the game made the console "an easy sell" for buyers and showed the superior performance of the TurboGrafx-16 over the Nintendo Entertainment System. He said that The Legendary Axe "made the NES look downright ancient". In a separate full review of the game, Buchanan noted that the game was an improvement over the console's pack-in game Keith Courage in Alpha Zones; he said that The Legendary Axe was more fun and had good action compared to the former. He noted that the game remained enjoyable almost 20 years after its release because of its simple platforming gameplay compared to more complicated modern video games like Mass Effect. He praised the game's smooth animation, innovative and detailed backgrounds, enemy designs, and soundtrack – saying that "any classic game tune nerd would enjoy having [the music] on their iPod". Allgame noted a change in the gameplay near the end of the game; after the fifth level, players must navigate a maze called the "Pits of Madness" which if they take the wrong path, they get sent back to its beginning. The Legendary Axe was not released for the Wii's Virtual Console service, and IGN's Lucas Thomas rated the game as the 3rd best in a list of "Top 10 unreleased TurboGrafx Titles" for the system. He said that he was shocked to find that this game was not on the Virtual Console, given that it was one of the TurboGrafx-16's flagship titles that were heavily advertised when it was released. UK-based magazine Retro Gamer, in a look back to video gaming in January 1989, made a similar comparison of the game to Rastan, "with a lot of sword slashing and platform jumping". The reviewer said that the popularity of The Legendary Axe in Japan was what caused it to be released as a TurboGrafx-16 launch title in North America.
3,742,574	Berlin Trilogy	1,142,003,129	Trilogy of studio albums by David Bowie	[ "Brian Eno", "David Bowie", "Music in Berlin", "Trilogies" ]	The Berlin Trilogy consists of three studio albums by English musician David Bowie: Low, "Heroes" (both 1977) and Lodger (1979). Bowie recorded the albums in collaboration with English musician Brian Eno and American producer Tony Visconti. The trilogy originated following Bowie's move from Los Angeles to Europe with American singer Iggy Pop to rid themselves of worsening drug addiction. Influences included the German krautrock scene and the recent ambient releases of Eno. Both Low and "Heroes" experiment with electronic and ambient music, with conventional tracks on side one and instrumental pieces on side two. Lodger features a wide variety of musical styles with more accessible songs throughout; both sides are split thematically by the lyrics. King Crimson guitarists Robert Fripp and Adrian Belew contributed lead guitar to "Heroes" and Lodger, respectively. During the period, Bowie also co-wrote and produced Iggy Pop's debut solo album The Idiot (1977) and follow-up Lust for Life (also 1977); the former features a sound similar to that which Bowie explored on the trilogy. Bowie began referring to the three albums as a Berlin-centred trilogy during the promotion of Lodger, although "Heroes" was the only instalment recorded completely in the city; Low was recorded mostly in France, while Lodger was recorded in Switzerland and New York City. Though considered significant in artistic terms, the trilogy has proven less successful commercially. Bowie would later call the trilogy's music his "DNA". Although the trilogy received mixed reviews on release, over time, it has garnered massive acclaim and proven highly influential. Consequence of Sound considered the trilogy an "art rock trifecta". While Low provided a major influence on the post-punk genre, inspiring artists like Joy Division and Gary Numan, elements of Lodger have been identified as a precursor to world music. The American composer and pianist Philip Glass adapted the three albums into classical symphonies. They were remastered in 2017 as part of the A New Career in a New Town (1977–1982) box set. ## Background In the summer of 1974, David Bowie developed a cocaine addiction. Over the following two years, his addiction worsened, affecting both his physical and mental state. He recorded both Young Americans (1975) and Station to Station (1976), and filmed The Man Who Fell to Earth (1976), while under the influence of the drug. He attributed his growing addiction to the city of Los Angeles, California, where he moved in the spring of 1975. His drug intake escalated so that decades later, he recalled almost nothing of the recording of Station to Station, saying, "I know it was in L.A. because I've read it was." Although he enjoyed commercial success during this period, particularly with the singles "Fame" and "Golden Years", he was ready to rid himself of the drug culture of Los Angeles and get sober. After abandoning a proposed soundtrack album for The Man Who Fell to Earth, Bowie decided to move back to Europe. He began rehearsals for the Isolar tour to promote Station to Station in January 1976; the tour began on 2 February. While the tour was critically acclaimed, Bowie became a controversial figure during the tour. In his persona as the Thin White Duke, he made statements about Adolf Hitler and Nazi Germany that some interpreted as expressing sympathy for or even promoting fascism. He later blamed his erratic behaviour during this period on his addictions and precarious mental state, saying, "I was out of my mind, totally crazed." He later said: "It was a dangerous period for me. I was at the end of my tether physically and emotionally and had serious doubts about my sanity." At the conclusion of the Isolar tour on 18 May 1976, Bowie and his wife Angela moved to Switzerland. ## Development ### Early influences After completing Station to Station in December 1975, Bowie began work on a soundtrack for The Man Who Fell to Earth with Paul Buckmaster, his collaborator on Space Oddity (1969). Bowie was expected to be wholly responsible for the film's music but found that "when I'd finished five or six pieces, I was then told that if I would care to submit my music along with some other people's ... and I just said 'Shit, you're not getting any of it.' I was so furious, I'd put so much work into it." Station to Station co-producer Harry Maslin argued Bowie was "burned out" and could not complete the work. The singer eventually collapsed, admitting later, "There were pieces of me laying all over the floor." One instrumental composed for the soundtrack evolved into "Subterraneans", later properly recorded for Low; the remaining material was scrapped. When Bowie presented his material for the film to Nicolas Roeg, the director decided it would not be suitable; Roeg preferred a more folksy sound. The soundtrack's eventual composer John Phillips described Bowie's material as "haunting and beautiful". Six months after Bowie's proposal was rejected, he sent Roeg a copy of Low with a note stating: "This is what I wanted to do for the soundtrack. It would have been a wonderful score." While on the Isolar tour in May 1976, Bowie met ex–Roxy Music keyboardist and conceptualist Brian Eno backstage at a London concert. Although the two had occasional meetups since 1973, they had yet to become friends. Since leaving Roxy Music, Eno released two ambient solo albums in 1975—Another Green World and Discreet Music; Bowie listened to the latter regularly during the American leg of the tour. Biographers Marc Spitz and Hugo Wilcken later recognised Another Green World in particular as a major influence on the sound Bowie aimed to create for Low; Bowie biographer Christopher Sandford also cites Eno's Taking Tiger Mountain (By Strategy) (1974) as an influence on Bowie. Individually, the two became infatuated with the German music scene, including the acts Tangerine Dream, Neu!, Kraftwerk and Harmonia. While Eno had worked with Harmonia both in-studio and on stage, Bowie exhibited a krautrock influence on Station to Station, particularly its title track. After the meetup, the two agreed to stay in touch. ### The Idiot After moving to Switzerland, Bowie booked studio time later in the summer at the Château d'Hérouville in Hérouville, France, where he made plans to write and produce an album for his old friend, singer Iggy Pop. Pop, who was also suffering from drug addiction, was ready to get sober and accepted Bowie's invitation to accompany him on the Isolar tour, and then move to Europe with him. After they relocated to the Château, Bowie travelled back to Switzerland, where he spent the next few weeks writing and devising plans for his next album. Bowie composed a majority of the music for The Idiot (1977), while Pop wrote most of the lyrics, often in response to the music Bowie was creating. During its recording, Bowie developed a new process, where the backing tracks were recorded first, followed by overdubs, with lyrics and vocals written and recorded last. He heavily favoured this "three-phase" process, which he would use for the rest of his career. Because The Idiot was recorded before Low, the album has been referred to as the unofficial beginning of Bowie's Berlin period, as its music featured a sound reminiscent of that which Bowie would explore in the Berlin Trilogy. Bowie and Tony Visconti co-mixed it at Hansa Studios in West Berlin. Bowie became fascinated with Berlin, finding it a place of great escape. In love with the city, he and Pop decided to move there in a further attempt to kick their drug habits and escape the spotlight. Although The Idiot was completed by August 1976, Bowie wanted to be sure he had his own album in stores before its release. Château owner and The Idiot bassist Laurent Thibault opined that, "[Bowie] didn't want people to think he'd been inspired by Iggy's album, when in fact it was all the same thing." Although reviewers consider The Idiot good in its own right, Pop's fans have criticised the album as unrepresentative of his repertoire and as evidence of his being "co-opted" by Bowie for his own ends. Bowie later admitted: "Poor [Iggy], in a way, became a guinea pig for what I wanted to do with sound. I didn't have the material at the time, and I didn't feel like writing at all. I felt much more like laying back and getting behind someone else's work, so that album was opportune, creatively." Biographer Chris O'Leary considers The Idiot a Bowie album just as much as a Pop one. Although the Berlin Trilogy is said to comprise Low, "Heroes", and Lodger, O'Leary argues the true Berlin Trilogy consists of The Idiot, Low, and "Heroes", with Lust for Life a "supplement" and Lodger an "epilogue". ## History ### 1976: Low The first album in the trilogy was Low, most of which was recorded at the Château, with the sessions completing at Hansa in Berlin. At this point, Bowie was fully ready to move to Berlin but had already booked another month of studio time at the Château, so recording began there. Bowie and Visconti co-produced the album, with contributions from Eno. Visconti, who was absent for the recording of Station to Station because of conflicting schedules, was brought back to co-produce after mixing The Idiot. Despite being widely perceived as a co-producer, Eno was not. Visconti commented: "Brian is a great musician, and was very integral to the making of [the Berlin Trilogy]. But he was not the producer." According to biographer Paul Trynka, Eno arrived late in the sessions, after all the backing tracks for side one were "essentially" finished. Low's music delves into electronic, ambient, art rock and experimental rock. The tracks on Low emphasize tone and atmosphere, rather than guitar-based rock. German bands like Tangerine Dream, Neu! and Kraftwerk influence the music. Side one consists primarily of short, direct avant-pop song-fragments; side two comprises longer, mostly instrumental tracks. In 1977, Bowie said side one was about himself and his "prevailing moods" at the time while side two was about his musical observations living in Berlin. Low features a unique drum sound created by Visconti using an Eventide H910 Harmonizer. When Bowie asked him what it did, Visconti replied, "it fucks with the fabric of time". Visconti rigged the machine to Davis's snare drum and fed the results through his headphones, so he could hear the resultant sound. Bowie's label, RCA Records, was shocked after hearing Low. Fearing the album would perform poorly commercially, RCA delayed its original planned release date in November 1976, releasing it instead in January 1977. Upon release, it received little to no promotion from either RCA or Bowie. Bowie felt it was his "least commercial" record and rather than promote it, opted to tour as Pop's keyboardist instead. Despite the lack of promotion, Low was a commercial success. The success of the single "Sound and Vision" helped Bowie to persuade RCA to release The Idiot, which they did in March 1977. #### The Idiot tour and Lust for Life Although RCA was hoping he would tour to support Low, Bowie toured with Pop as he promoted The Idiot. The tour began on 1 March 1977 and ended on 16 April. Bowie was adamant about not taking the spotlight away from Pop, often staying behind his keyboard and not addressing the audience. Despite this, some reviewers believed Bowie was still in charge. Likewise, during interviews, Pop was often asked more about Bowie than his own work. As a result, Pop took a more direct approach when making Lust for Life. At the end of the tour, Bowie and Pop returned to the studio to record Pop's second solo album Lust for Life (1977). Bowie had less influence over Lust for Life. Instead, he let Pop compose his own arrangements for the tracks, resulting in a sound more reminiscent of Pop's earlier work. Recording took place at Hansa by the Wall in West Berlin and was completed in two and a half weeks, from May to June 1977, and released in August. Although Bowie had told interviewers he planned to collaborate on a third project with Pop in 1978, Lust for Life would be the pair's last official collaboration until the mid-1980s. ### 1977: "Heroes" As the second release of the Berlin Trilogy, "Heroes" (1977) expands on the material found on Low. Like its predecessor, it delves into art rock and experimental rock, while continuing Bowie's work in the electronic and ambient genres. The songs emphasise tone and atmosphere rather than guitar-based rock. However, they have been described as more positive in both tone and atmosphere than the songs on Low. Visconti would describe the album as "a very positive version of Low". It follows the same structure as its predecessor, with side one featuring more conventional tracks and side two featuring mostly instrumental tracks. "Heroes" was the only instalment of the Berlin Trilogy recorded entirely in Berlin. Most of the same personnel on Low returned to record, with the addition of Bowie on piano, and guitarist Robert Fripp, formerly of the band King Crimson, who Bowie recruited at Eno's suggestion. On his arrival at the studio, Fripp sat down and recorded lead guitar parts for tracks he had never heard before. He received little guidance from Bowie, who had yet to write lyrics or melodies. Fripp completed his guitar parts in three days. Bowie was in a much healthier state of mind during the sessions compared to those for Low. He and Visconti frequently travelled around Berlin. While there, Bowie began exploring other art forms and visiting galleries in Geneva and the Brücke Museum, becoming in Sandford's words: "a prolific producer and collector of contemporary art ... Not only did he become a well-known patron of expressionist art, locked in Clos des Mésanges he began an intensive self-improvement course in classical music and literature, and started work on an autobiography." Eno played a greater role on "Heroes" than he had on Low. He is credited as co-author on four of the ten songs, leading biographer Thomas Jerome Seabrook to call this album the "truer" collaboration. Eno acted as "assistant director" for Bowie, giving feedback to the musicians and suggesting new and unusual ways to approach the tracks. One way was using Eno's Oblique Strategies cards. According to O'Leary, these cards were "part-fortune cookie, part-Monopoly 'Chance' cards", intended to spark creative ideas. Bowie improvised lyrics while standing at the microphone, after seeing Pop do so for The Idiot. "Heroes" was released in October 1977 in the wake of the punk rock movement. RCA marketed the album with the slogan, "There's Old Wave. There's New Wave. And there's David Bowie ...". Like Low, "Heroes" was commercially successful—more so in the UK than in the US. Bowie promoted "Heroes" extensively, conducting numerous interviews and performing on various television programmes, including Marc, Bing Crosby's Merrie Olde Christmas, and Top of the Pops. #### 1978: Isolar II Tour After releasing "Heroes", Bowie spent much of 1978 on the Isolar II world tour, bringing the music of the first two Berlin Trilogy albums to almost a million people during 70 concerts in 12 countries. By now he had broken his drug addiction; biographer David Buckley writes Isolar II was "Bowie's first tour for five years in which he had probably not anaesthetised himself with copious quantities of cocaine before taking the stage. ... Without the oblivion that drugs had brought, he was now in a healthy enough mental condition to want to make friends." He played tracks from both Low and "Heroes" on the tour. Recordings from the tour were included on the live album Stage, released later the same year, and again from a different venue in 2018 on Welcome to the Blackout. During this time he also portrayed the lead role in the David Hemmings film Just a Gigolo (1978), set in pre-World War II Berlin. ### 1979: Lodger It was around the time of Lodger (1979) that Bowie began framing his previous two albums as the beginning of a Berlin-centred trilogy, concluding with Lodger, largely as a marketing technique to support the unusual new album. Compared to its two predecessors, Lodger abandons the electronic and ambient styles and the song/instrumental split that defined the two earlier works, in favour of more conventional song structures. Instead, Lodger features a variety of musical styles, including new wave, Middle Eastern music, reggae and krautrock. Some of its musical textures, particularly on "African Night Flight", have been cited by The Quietus as presaging the popularity of world music. Lodger was recorded at Mountain Studios in Montreux, Switzerland, with additional recording at the Record Plant in New York City. Many of the same musicians from the previous records returned for the Lodger sessions; a new addition was future King Crimson guitarist Adrian Belew. The sessions saw a greater emphasis on Eno's Oblique Strategies cards: "Boys Keep Swinging" entailed band members swapping instruments, "Move On" used the chords from Bowie's 1972 composition "All the Young Dudes" played backwards, and "Red Money" took backing tracks from The Idiot track "Sister Midnight". Unlike "Heroes", most of Lodger's lyrics were written late; they were unknown during the Mountain sessions. The lyrics have been interpreted as covering two major themes—travel on side one and critiques of Western civilisation on side two. Biographer Nicholas Pegg writes of side one's theme of travel, that the songs revive a "perennial motif" prevailing throughout the Berlin Trilogy, highlighting the line, "I've lived all over the world, I've left every place" from the Low track "Be My Wife", pointing out the journey is both metaphorical and geographical. Lodger was released in May 1979, almost two years after "Heroes". Buckley notes that music videos and artists who were influenced by the music on Bowie's prior releases of the Berlin Trilogy, like Gary Numan, were becoming popular. Although Lodger performed well commercially, Numan out-performed Bowie commercially throughout the year. According to Buckley, Numan's fame led indirectly to Bowie taking a more pop-oriented direction for his next studio album, Scary Monsters (and Super Creeps) (1980), his first release after the Berlin Trilogy. ## Reception The Berlin Trilogy initially received a mixed reception from music critics. Low divided critics; some, including Rolling Stone and NME were negative, while others, including Billboard and Sounds magazine, were positive. Initially, "Heroes" was the most well-received work of the trilogy, with NME and Melody Maker naming it their Album of the Year. Lodger was the least well-received, with Rolling Stone calling it one of Bowie's weakest releases to date. Although each album reached the top five on the UK charts, they proved less commercially successful than Bowie's earlier records. Buckley writes that with his next album, Scary Monsters, Bowie achieved "the perfect balance" of creativity and mainstream success. Considered by Wilcken to be ahead of its time, Low is now recognised as one of Bowie's greatest and most innovative records. The Quietus argues that Bowie created the blueprint "reinvention" album with Low, a record from an artist at the peak of their popularity that confounded the listening public's expectations. Furthermore, it "challeng[ed] the idea of what an album could be, in its structure and in its ingredients", a feat that would not be achieved again until the release of Radiohead's Kid A (2000). Billboard similarly notes it was not until Kid A that rock and electronic would once again meet and move forward in such a mature fashion. Although "Heroes" was the best-received work of the Berlin Trilogy on release, in subsequent decades critical and public opinion has typically shifted in favour of Low as the more ground-breaking record owing to its daring experimental achievements. Pegg writes the album is seen as an extension or refinement of its predecessor's achievements rather than a "definitive new work". It has, nonetheless, been regarded as one of Bowie's best and most influential works. Although regarded as the weakest of the Berlin Trilogy on release, Lodger has come to be considered one of Bowie's most underrated works. Bowie would later describe the trilogy's music as his "DNA". Consequence of Sound characterised the trilogy as an "art rock trifecta". In 2017, Chris Gerard of PopMatters considered the trilogy, along with Scary Monsters, among "the most vital and influential [albums] by anyone in the rock era". He found the albums to be the reason Bowie is "so profoundly revered", further describing them as "uncompromising and untethered artistic expressions with no commercial considerations limiting...scope". He concluded by praising these albums' abilities to take the listener into new worlds, "offer[ing] full immersion into another universe of sound and vision". Three years later, Classic Rock History ranked the Berlin Trilogy as Bowie's seventh greatest work, calling the three albums a "fascinating chapter" in Bowie's life. ## Influence Commentators regard the Berlin Trilogy as among the most innovative works of Bowie's career. When reviewing Bowie's 1995 album Outside, Barry Walters of Spin compared its sound to that of the Berlin Trilogy, which he considered forerunners in the development of industrial rock, synth-pop and "ambient trance". In Stylus Magazine, Alfred Soto also noted the influence of the trilogy, alongside Bowie's earlier Diamond Dogs (1974), on gothic rock, stating that the "sepulchral baritone" of the records "rumbled beneath the desiccated landscapes created by The Mission U.K., Fields of the Nephilim, Sisters of Mercy and, most famously, Bauhaus." Both Low and The Idiot have been considered major influences on the post-punk genre. Stylus Magazine regards Low as a crucial influence on the post-rock genre, which would come to prominence among underground musicians nearly two decades after the album's release. Commentators have cited Joy Division, an English post-punk band formed in the months between the releases of Low and The Idiot, as having been influenced by both albums. Joy Division themselves have acknowledged Low's influence on the band; their original name was "Warsaw", a reference to the Low track "Warszawa". The band's drummer, Stephen Morris, told Uncut magazine in 2001 that when they made their 1978 An Ideal for Living EP, the band asked the engineer to imitate Low's drum sound; they could not. Like Morris, many musicians, producers and engineers tried to imitate Low's drum sound. Visconti refused to explain how he did it, instead asking them how they thought it had been done. Commentators would later recognise an array of artists who were influenced by Low, including the Human League, Cabaret Voltaire, Arcade Fire, Gary Numan, Devo, Ultravox, Orchestral Manoeuvres in the Dark, Magazine, Gang of Four and Wire. Robert Smith of the Cure and Trent Reznor of Nine Inch Nails have also acknowledged Low's influence on their respective records Seventeen Seconds (1980) and The Downward Spiral (1994). Artists inspired by "Heroes" include Andy McCluskey of Orchestral Manoeuvres in the Dark, who referred to the "unconscious influence" of Bowie on his singing style, Vince Clarke, who called it a "rebellion inspiration", Ian Astbury of the Cult and Robyn Hitchcock. John Lennon and U2 have also acknowledged the album's influence when making their records Double Fantasy (1980) and Achtung Baby (1991), respectively. Scott Walker used "Heroes" as "the reference album" when making the Walker Brothers' Nite Flights (1978), according to engineer Steve Parker. Lodger's use of world music has been cited by Trynka as influencing Talking Heads and Spandau Ballet, while Spitz views it as influential on Talking Heads' Remain in Light (1980) and Paul Simon's Graceland (1986). In the 1990s, Britpop bands Blur and Oasis would use aspects of Lodger tracks in their own recordings, including the former's 1997 single "M.O.R." and the latter's 1996 single "Don't Look Back in Anger". ### Philip Glass symphonies In 1992, the American composer and pianist Philip Glass composed a classical suite based on Low, titled "Low" Symphony. It was his first symphony and consisted of three movements, each based on three Low tracks. The Brooklyn Philharmonic Orchestra recorded the work at Glass's Looking Glass Studios in New York and his Point Music label released it in 1993. Speaking about the album, Glass said: "They were doing what few other people were trying to do – which was to create an art within the realm of popular music. I listened to it constantly." On his decision to create a symphony based on the record, Glass said: "In the question of Bowie and Eno's original Low LP, to me there was no doubt that both talent and quality were evident there ... My generation was sick to death of academics telling us what was good and what wasn't." Glass used both original themes and themes from three of the record's instrumentals for the symphony. The "Low" Symphony acknowledges Eno's contributions on the original record. Portraits of Bowie, Eno and Glass appear on the album cover. Bowie was flattered by the symphony and gave it unanimous praise, as did Pegg. In 1997, Glass adapted "Heroes" into a classical suite, titled "Heroes" Symphony. The piece is separated into six movements; each is named after tracks on "Heroes". Like its predecessor, Glass acknowledged Eno's contributions as equal to Bowie's on the original album and credited the movements to the two equally. American choreographer Twyla Tharp developed "Heroes" Symphony into a ballet. Both the ballet and Symphony were greeted with acclaim. Glass described Low and "Heroes" as "part of the new classics of our time". Bowie and Glass remained in contact until 2003 and discussed making a third symphony, which never came to fruition. After Bowie's death in 2016, Glass said the two had talked about adapting Lodger for the third symphony, adding "the idea has not totally disappeared". In January 2018, Glass announced the completion of a symphony based on Lodger. The work is Glass's 12th Symphony; it premiered in Los Angeles in January 2019. Like Glass's other adaptations, the "Lodger" Symphony is separated into seven movements, each named after tracks on Lodger. The symphony marked the completion of his trilogy of works based on the Berlin Trilogy. ## Later releases The Berlin Trilogy, along with the live album Stage and Scary Monsters, was remastered in 2017 for Parlophone's A New Career in a New Town (1977–1982) box set. Named after the Low track of the same name, it was released in CD, vinyl, and digital formats, as part of this compilation and then separately the following year. The box set also includes a new remix of Lodger by Visconti, which was approved by Bowie before his death in 2016. Both The Idiot and Lust for Life were expanded and remastered in 2020 for the seven-disc deluxe box set The Bowie Years. The set includes remastered versions of both albums along with outtakes, alternate mixes, and a 40-page booklet. The two original albums were also re-released individually, each paired with an additional album of live material to create separate stand-alone two-disc deluxe editions. ## See also - Christiane F. (soundtrack compilation of songs from the Berlin Trilogy and Station to Station)
1,754,780	Ashur-nirari V	1,163,978,485	null	[ "745 BC deaths", "8th-century BC Assyrian kings", "Year of birth unknown" ]	Ashur-nirari V (Neo-Assyrian cuneiform: Aššur-nārāri, meaning "Ashur is my help") was the king of the Neo-Assyrian Empire from 755 BC to his death in 745 BC. Ashur-nirari was a son of Adad-nirari III (r. 811–783 BC) and succeeded his brother Ashur-dan III as king. He ruled during a period of Assyrian decline from which few sources survive. As such his reign, other than broad political developments, is poorly known. At this time, the Assyrian officials were becoming increasingly powerful relative to the king, and Assyria's enemies were growing more dangerous. An unusually small share of Ashur-nirari's reign was devoted to campaigns against foreign enemies, perhaps suggesting domestic political instability within Assyria. In 746 or 745 BC, there are records of a revolt in Nimrud, the Assyrian capital. Ashur-nirari was succeeded by Tiglath-Pileser III, either his son or brother, but it is unclear in what manner. Though it is traditionally assumed that Tiglath-Pileser deposed Ashur-nirari, it is also possible that it was a smooth and legitimate succession, or that for a brief time they were co-rulers. ## Reign Ashur-nirari V was a son of Adad-nirari III (r. 811–783 BC). He succeeded his brother Ashur-dan III as king of Assyria in 755. Ashur-nirari ruled during an obscure period in Assyrian history, from which little information survives. As a result, his reign is poorly known. During this obscure time, the Neo-Assyrian Empire experienced a period of decline. In particular, the power of the king himself was being threatened due to the emergence of extraordinarily powerful officials, who, while they accepted the authority of the Assyrian monarch, in practice acted with supreme authority and began to write their own cuneiform inscriptions concerning building and political activities, similar to those of the kings. Such inscriptions by officials are more common from this time than inscriptions from the kings themselves. At the same time, the enemies of Assyria grew stronger and more serious. This period of Assyrian decline, for instance, coincided with the peak of the northern Kingdom of Urartu. Inscriptions from after Ashur-nirari's reign that mention him include the Assyrian King List (from which the length of his reign is known) and a later list of eponyms (year names, typically including the name of an official and a significant event) that include the eponyms of his reign. Contemporary inscriptions that mention Ashur-nirari include an inscription by Sarduri II of Urartu, wherein Sarduri claims to have defeated Ashur-nirari in battle. A fragmentary copy of a treaty between Ashur-nirari and Mati'ilu, king of Arpad, also survives. Also known is a fragmentary description, the only known inscription written under Ashur-nirari himself, which records the grant of lands and tax exemption to the official Marduk-sarra-usur by Ashur-nirari following Marduk-sarra-usur having distinguished himself in a battle. Marduk-sarra-usur might be the same individual as a man of the same name mentioned in the eponym of 784 BC. Based on the list of eponyms, Ashur-nirari's reign was lackluster from a military perspective. The king is recorded to have stayed "in the land" (i.e. not campaigned) for almost every year of his reign, save for only three years. In 755 BC, the year of his accession, he campaigned against Arpad and in 748–747, he campaigned against the city of Namri in Urartu. It is probably from the conclusion of the 755 BC campaign that the treaty with Mati'ilu comes from. Almost all of the surviving portions of this treaty is made up of curses against Mati'ilu. It was customary for an Assyrian king to campaign every year which means that Ashur-nirari staying in Assyria could be a sign of domestic instability. Most Assyrian kings also undertook building projects, but no construction work conducted under Ashur-nirari V is known. ## Succession Ashur-nirari is generally regarded to have died in 745 BC, as this was the year of his successor Tiglath-Pileser III's accession. The nature of Tiglath-Pileser's rise to the throne is not clear, particularly because ancient sources give conflicting accounts of his lineage. The Assyrian King List states that Tiglath-Pileser was the son of Ashur-nirari V, but in his own inscriptions Tiglath-Pileser claimed to be the son of Adad-nirari III and thus Ashur-nirari's brother. Given that there are records of a revolt in Nimrud, the capital of the Assyria, in 746/745 BC, and that Tiglath-Pileser in his inscriptions attributes his rise to the throne as a result of divine selection rather than his royal ancestry, he is typically assumed to have usurped the throne from Ashur-nirari. In her 2016 PhD thesis, the historian Tracy Davenport advanced the hypothesis that Tiglath-Pileser may have succeeded entirely legitimately and had even briefly been co-ruler with Ashur-nirari. Davenport based this idea primarily on oddities in the sequence of eponyms under Tiglath-Pileser, an unusual horizontal line in the list of eponyms after 744 BC (which might mark Ashur-nirari's death) and the Assyrian King List giving Ashur-nirari a reign lasting 10 years. Since the Assyrians counted reign lengths from the first full year of a king, Ashur-nirari's first year was reckoned to be 754 BC which means he would have ruled for 10 years only if he died in 744 BC. The Assyrian King List is however not without known errors and there are for some earlier kings discrepancies between different versions of the list.
9,126,427	Little Fishing Creek	1,145,364,529	Creek in Columbia County, Pennsylvania	[ "Rivers of Columbia County, Pennsylvania", "Rivers of Lycoming County, Pennsylvania", "Rivers of Pennsylvania", "Rivers of Sullivan County, Pennsylvania", "Tributaries of Fishing Creek (North Branch Susquehanna River)" ]	Little Fishing Creek is a tributary of Fishing Creek in Sullivan County, Lycoming County, and Columbia County, in Pennsylvania, in the United States. It is approximately 23.5 miles (37.8 km) long and flows through eight townships. The watershed of the creek has an area of 68.1 square miles (176 km<sup>2</sup>). The creek has six named tributaries, of which the largest are Spruce Run and West Branch Run. There are at least two major rock formations in the watershed of Little Fishing Creek: the Chemung Formation and the Hamilton Group. The creek's watershed includes part of the Greenwood Valley. Much of the watershed is forested and major roads in it include Pennsylvania Route 42. The first European settler first arrived in the vicinity of the creek during the 1760s or 1770s, with other settlers arriving in the 1790s. A number of sawmills, woolen mills, and tanneries historically operated on the creek. A number of covered bridges have also been built over it and there were historically some railroads in the watershed. Little Fishing Creek is considered to be an Exceptional Value stream for part of its length. One of its tributaries is considered to be Class A Wild Trout Waters for part of its length, as is part of the creek itself. However, the creek is considered to be impaired by pathogens for a portion of its length. Parts of the creek are suitable for canoeing on. ## Course Little Fishing Creek begins on Huckleberry Mountain in Davidson Township, Sullivan County. It flows south and exits Davidson Township and Sullivan County within a few tenths of a mile. Upon exiting Sullivan County, the creek enters Jordan Township, Lycoming County. In this township, it continues south before turning southeast and crossing Pennsylvania Route 118 and Pennsylvania Route 239. Downstream, it exits Jordan Township and Lycoming County. Upon exiting Lycoming County, Little Fishing Creek enters Jackson Township, in Columbia County. It flows southeast along the western border of Jackson Township and then turns southwest, following the border, and passes Huckleberry Ridge. The creek then leaves Jackson Township and continues flowing along the border between Pine Township and Greenwood Township. After several miles, it starts flowing parallel to Pennsylvania Route 42 receives the tributary Branch Run. The creek then passes by the western edge of Millville and continues flowing south roughly parallel to Pennsylvania Route 42. Downstream of Millville, it crosses Pennsylvania Route 254. Several miles downstream, it passes Eyers Grove, where it receives the tributary Spruce Run and leaves behind Greenwood Township. The creek then flows along the western border of Mount Pleasant Township and continues to flow alongside Pennsylvania Route 42. After some distance, the creek passes Mordansville and reaches the southern border of Mount Pleasant Township several miles later. Little Fishing Creek enters Fishing Creek at the border between Mount Pleasant Township and Bloomsburg. Little Fishing Creek joins Fishing Creek 3.86 miles (6.21 km) upstream of its mouth. ### Tributaries All but one of the tributaries of the Little Fishing Creek upstream of the United States Geological Survey stream gauge empty into it from the right. The creek has a number of small tributaries in ravines in Pine Township. Little Fishing Creek's named tributaries include Spruce Run, West Branch Run, Lick Run, Wolfhouse Run, Devil Hole Run, and Little Brier Run. Spruce Run and West Branch Run are the largest, with watershed areas of 9.80 square miles (25.4 km<sup>2</sup>) and 10.20 square miles (26.4 km<sup>2</sup>), respectively. ## Hydrology A total of 2.4 miles (3.9 km) of Little Fishing Creek are considered impaired due to pathogens of an unknown source. At Millville, the "caution stage" for flooding is 7 feet (2.1 m) and the flood stage is 10 feet (3.0 m). At Eyers Grove, the "caution stage" is 5 feet (1.5 m), except in areas with levees, where it is 7 feet (2.1 m). The flood stage is 7 feet (2.1 m) in areas without levees and 10 feet (3.0 m) in areas with them. The average annual rate of precipitation in the watershed of Little Fishing Creek ranges from 35 to 45 inches (89 to 114 cm). The annual recharge levels of Little Fishing Creek at Eyers Grove ranged from 6 to 23 inches (15 to 58 cm) between 1941 and 1957. March, April, and February produced the most recharge of any month on average, contributing 18.2 percent, 13.7 percent, and 12.5 percent of the annual recharge, respectively. August produced the least recharge of any month on average, contributing 1.6 percent of the annual recharge. Between its headwaters and Talmar Road, the concentration of alkalinity in the waters of Little Fishing Creek is 11 milligrams per liter. ## Geography and geology The elevation near the mouth of Little Fishing Creek is 479 feet (146 m) above sea level. The elevation of the creek's source is between 1,620 feet (490 m) and 1,640 feet (500 m) above sea level. Little Fishing Creek serves as a border between five pairs of townships in Columbia County: Jackson Township and Pine Township, Greenwood Township and Pine Township, Greenwood Township and Madison Township, Mount Pleasant Township and Madison Township, and Mount Pleasant Township and Hemlock Township. One type of soil series found in the vicinity of Little Fishing Creek is the Middlebury Series. This soil series ranges from deep and fairly well-drained to poorly-drained alluvial soil. It consists of Tioga soils and Holly soils. All of the rock in the creek's watershed upstream of the United States Geological Survey's stream gauge is shale or sandstone. A fairly narrow band of rock of the Hamilton Group is located near the creek. Rock outcroppings of the Chemung Formation are visible in Hemlock Township, approximately 1 mile (1.6 km) upstream of Fishing Creek. Rock formations consisting of shale and sandstone are present in the vicinity of the creek. Numerous riffles occur on parts of Little Fishing Creek. There are also strainers in places. The Greenwood Valley runs between Little Fishing Creek and Green Creek. Additionally, the Milton axis crosses Little Fishing Creek in Pine Township. A steep ridge known as the "Divide" separates the creek's watershed from that of Chillisquaque Creek. The topography of Little Fishing Creek is described as "rough and hilly" in a 1921 book. The watershed contains narrow valleys with steep and high hills surrounding them. The creek's channel is sinuous. ## Watershed The watershed of Little Fishing Creek has an area of 68.1 square miles (176 km<sup>2</sup>). The creek's mouth is in the United States Geological Survey quadrangle of Bloomsburg. However, its source is in the quadrangle of Elk Grove. The creek also passes through the quadrangles of Benton, Lairdsville, and Millville. The watershed of Little Fishing Creek is considerably longer than it is wide. The drainage basin area of the creek upstream of the stream gauge at Eyers Grove is 56.5 square miles. Most of the watershed is in Columbia County. However, a substantial part of the northwestern portion of the watershed is in Lycoming County and the northernmost part of it is in Sullivan County. The watershed is part of the Lower North Branch Susquehanna River drainage basin. Much of the watershed of Little Fishing Creek upstream of the stream gauge on it is forest. There is also agricultural land, especially in the northwestern and southern parts of the watershed and small areas of developed land in the watershed's southern section. 64.5 percent of the land in the watershed upstream of Eyers Grove is forested land and 34.7 percent is agricultural land. 0.7 percent of the land is developed and the remaining 0.2 percent has other uses. Pennsylvania Route 42 follows Little Fishing Creek for a significant portion of its length. However, the creek is relatively far from it between Millville and Eyers Grove. Major communities in the watershed of the creek include Millville, Iola, Eyers Grove, and Mordansville. Between its headwaters and Talmar Road, 6 percent of the creek's length is on open public land. 44 percent is on closed private land and 50 percent is on open private land. ## History, industries, and etymology Little Fishing Creek was entered into the Geographic Names Information System on August 2, 1979. Its identifier in the Geographic Names Information System is 1179545. The creek is named for the fact that it is smaller than Fishing Creek, which it is a tributary of. Little fishing Creek is also known as Hemlock Creek. This variant name appears in a 1982 map of Columbia County published by the Pennsylvania Department of Transportation. John Eves likely settled in the valley of Little Fishing Creek before 1774 and possibly as early as 1769. In 1778, Moses Van Campen led a scouting part past from Fort Wheeler to Chillisquaque Creek via Little Fishing Creek. The headwaters of Little Fishing Creek were uninhabited considerably after the valleys of Greenwood and Jerseytown were inhabited. Several covered bridges cross Little Fishing Creek. The Creasyville Covered Bridge (formerly known as the Derr Bridge) is a Queenpost truss covered bridge that was built over Little Fishing Creek in 1881 for a cost of \$301.25. It is 44.5 feet (13.6 m) long and crosses the creek north of Millville and Iola. The Jud Christie Covered Bridge No. 95, which is also a Queenpost truss bridge, crosses the creek between Jackson Township and Pine Township. It is 53 feet (16 m) long and was built in 1876 for \$239.00. The Sam Eckman Covered Bridge No. 92 crosses the creek between Pine Township and Greenwood Township and was built in 1876 for \$498.00. It is 66 feet (20 m) long. The Wanich Covered Bridge No. 69 was built in 1844 for \$500.00 and is 98 feet (30 m) long. Other bridges have also been built over Little Fishing Creek. A steel truss bridge was built over it in 1896. A bridge carrying Pennsylvania Route 254 over the creek was built in 1930 and a bridge carrying Pennsylvania Route 42 over the creek was built in 1939, as was one other bridge. Five other bridges were built in the 1940s and 1950s, including another bridge built in 1955 and carrying Pennsylvania Route 42. Several more bridges were built in the 1960s. The newest bridges over the creek were constructed in 1974, 1990, and 2009. John Mordan settled on Little Fishing Creek in Mount Pleasant Township in the 1790s. He also built the first sawmill in Mount Pleasant Township on Little Fishing Creek. When numerous other settlers arrived in the vicinity of Mordan's mill, the area became known as Mordansville. There was also once an obscure gristmill on an island on the creek. The Catawissa Railroad historically went up the valley of the creek. Little Fishing Creek serves as a water supply source for nearby communities such as Millville. Slate has been quarried on the creek and limestone has also been produced there. In the early 1900s, there were woolen mills and tanneries in the watershed and agriculture was also practiced. The creek also powered several small gristmills. The Susquehanna, Bloomsburg, and Berwick Railroad historically crossed the watershed and followed the creek between its mouth and Millville. ## Biology The drainage basin of Little Fishing Creek is designated as Exceptional Value waters and a Migratory Fishery upstream of the tributary Lick Run in the community of Sereno. The creek's watershed downstream of Lick Run is designated as a Coldwater Fishery and a Migratory Fishery, as is the watershed of Lick Run itself. The creek is considered by the Pennsylvania Fish and Boat Commission to be Class A Wild Trout Waters from its headwaters to Talmar Road: a distance of 4.3 miles (6.9 km). A part of the tributary Lick Run is also considered to be Class A Wild Trout Waters. Ruffed grouse occur in large numbers on Little Fishing Creek north of Iola. They also occur on Spruce Run, a tributary of the creek. Little Fishing Creek has a significant riparian buffer throughout most of Jackson Township. ## Recreation It is possible to canoe on 11.4 miles (18.3 km) of Little Fishing Creek during snowmelt or within two days of heavy rain. The difficulty rating of the creek is 1. Edward Gertler describes the scenery along the creek as "good to poor". However, Gertler also describes the creek as "a disappointing little feeder to Fishing Creek" states that it "does not do justice to the beautiful countryside through which it flows". ## See also - Green Creek (Fishing Creek) - Hemlock Creek - List of rivers of Pennsylvania
31,620,504	The Kingsroad	1,143,092,241	null	[ "2011 American television episodes", "Game of Thrones (season 1) episodes", "Television episodes directed by Tim Van Patten", "Television episodes written by David Benioff and D. B. Weiss" ]	"The Kingsroad" is the second episode of the first season of the HBO medieval fantasy television series Game of Thrones, first aired on April 24, 2011. It was written by series creators David Benioff and D. B. Weiss, and directed by Tim Van Patten. Nearly all the action of the episode happens during travel: Eddard Stark and his daughters accompany the king's entourage to King's Landing to occupy the post of Hand of the King, Tyrion Lannister joins Jon in his travel to the Wall, and the newly wed Daenerys goes with her husband's khalasar to the city of Vaes Dothrak. Meanwhile, in Winterfell a grieving Catelyn Stark watches over her unconscious son Bran. The title of the episode refers to the long road that snakes throughout Westeros, eventually ending at King's Landing. Viewing figures were unchanged from the premiere, despite the second episode airing on Easter Sunday. Critical reception to the episode was favorable. Filming locations included several notable Northern Ireland locations, and the filming itself was complicated by the difficulty of integrating canine actors into several crucial scenes. In the United States, the episode achieved a viewership of 2.2 million in its initial broadcast. ## Plot ### In the Dothraki Sea En route to Vaes Dothrak with Khal Drogo's khalasar, Jorah Mormont reveals to Viserys Targaryen that he was exiled for selling poachers into slavery. Viserys is impatient for control of Drogo's army. Daenerys Targaryen struggles with her new marriage and the nomadic Dothraki lifestyle, taking comfort in her dragon eggs. Distressed by sex with the Khal, she asks her handmaiden Doreah how to please her husband. Later, she is able to have sex with Drogo while facing him, leading the relationship to become more intimate. ### At Winterfell Bran Stark has been in a coma for over a month. After slapping his nephew Joffrey Baratheon for refusing to give his condolences to the Starks, Tyrion Lannister informs his siblings that Bran will survive. Ned Stark and his daughters prepare to journey to the capital with King Robert Baratheon, while Jon Snow leaves to join his uncle Benjen in the Night's Watch, accompanied by Tyrion. Jon gives Arya Stark a sword, and Catelyn Stark chastises Ned for leaving her. Ned promises Jon to tell him about his mother when they meet again. As they embark for King's Landing, Robert tells Ned of Daenerys Targaryen's marriage to Khal Drogo and the possibility of Viserys raising a Dothraki army to overthrow him. A fire breaks out at Winterfell as an assassin tries to kill Bran, but the assassin is held off by Catelyn and killed by Bran's direwolf. A strand of blonde hair in the tower where Bran fell convinces Catelyn that the Lannisters are involved. Confiding with her son Robb, Maester Luwin, Master-at-Arms Ser Rodrik Cassel, and the Starks' ward Theon Greyjoy, Catelyn decides to go to King's Landing to warn Ned. ### At the Wall Reaching the Wall, Tyrion disabuses Jon of his romantic notions of the once-noble Night's Watch, now a place for criminals, prisoners, and bastards. ### At the Inn at the Crossroads The king's entourage stops at an inn, where Joffrey's cruelty to Arya's commoner friend Mycah results in Joffrey being bitten by Arya's direwolf Nymeria, whom he accuses of attacking him. Sansa, newly betrothed to Joffrey, claims to remember nothing, and King Robert gives in to Cersei Lannister's demand that the direwolf be killed. With Nymeria having fled, Sansa's direwolf Lady is to be killed instead, which Ned takes responsibility for himself. He encounters Joffrey's bodyguard, Sandor "The Hound" Clegane, who has killed Mycah for the prince. Reluctantly, Ned kills Lady, while in the North, Bran suddenly awakens from his coma. ## Production ### Writing The second episode was written by the show creators and executive producers David Benioff and D. B. Weiss, based on the original book by George R. R. Martin."The Kingsroad" includes chapters 10-11, 13-18 and 24. (Tyrion I, Jon II, Eddard II, Tyrion II, Catelyn III, Sansa I, Eddard III, Bran III, Daenerys III.) While the events in this episode mostly follow the book, differences in the screen adaptation include not introducing the council's delegation with Ser Barristan and Lord Renly and the conversation between Robert and Eddard taking place during breakfast instead of on horseback. Some scenes were also created for the series, most notably a conversation between Catelyn and Cersei at Bran's bedside remembering the Queen's first child by Robert that died early of sickness (in the novel, when Ned confronts Cersei about Jaime fathering her children, she hinted that her first pregnancy, which was by Robert, she had aborted), and a confrontation between Jaime and Jon before Jon leaves for the Wall. ### Casting This episode marks the first appearance of regular guest star Roxanne McKee, best known for her role of Louise Summers in the British Channel 4 soap opera Hollyoaks. McKee was chosen among a great number of candidates to play the part of Doreah, a slave serving as Daenerys Targaryen's handmaiden. Also introduced in this episode is British musician Wilko Johnson as the executioner Ilyn Payne. The mute headsman of Game of Thrones is Johnson's first acting job. ### Filming locations The principal shooting for the episode was done at The Paint Hall studio. The scenes at the Inn at the Crossroads were filmed on location at the Redhall Estate, in Ballycarry, during the first days of September 2010. ### Direwolves "The Kingsroad" has a significant number of scenes that include direwolves. To stand in for the extinct species, the production team considered using real wolves, but the UK safety laws and close work with child actors made this impractical. Instead, they chose to use Northern Inuit Dogs due to their resemblance to wolves. The dog that portrayed Lady, Zanni, was adopted after the season wrapped by the family of Sophie Turner, the actress playing the direwolf's owner, Sansa Stark. ## Reception ### Ratings The second episode of Game of Thrones attracted the same viewing figures as the premiere, with 2.2 million viewers. The second repeat obtained 0.7 million, which was also similar to the previous week's figure. These ratings have been considered positive, especially considering that it was aired on an Easter Sunday. ### Critical response Critical reaction was favorable, although some critics felt it was inferior to the first episode. Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes surveyed 17 reviews of the episode and judged 100% of them to be positive with an average score of 7.3 out of 10. The website's critical consensus reads, "'The Kingsroad' brings surprising new developments for characters undergoing change while pushing the various plots forward at an effective pace." Entertainment Weekly's James Hibberd considered the second episode better than the first one, while TV Squad's Maureen Ryan gave "The Kingsroad" the lowest score from the first six episodes of the series. Matt Fowler, who reviewed the episode for IGN, gave it a score of 8/10, and maintained that it was still a solid effort that focused on shifting all the main characters out of their comfort zones. Tod VanDerWerff, from The A.V. Club, gave the episode a B, saying "it was a small step up from the pilot...and is a particularly eventful hour of Game Of Thrones, layering on plot point after plot point in a brisk, fairly economical matter." Alan Sepinwall from HitFix, has described "The Kingsroad" as a transition episode and therefore "not as likely to excite as the premiere or some of the season's later episodes." Maureen Ryan felt that the show lacked a thematic unity, and while it had some effective moments, in some ways "lacked emotional spark." At Cultural Learnings, Myles McNutt admitted that having to move all pieces into place made the episode resemble a travelogue, but he considered the lack of cohesion to be very purposeful since it helped to emphasize the splitting of the Stark family and the different motivations and destinies that awaited the protagonists.
34,542,571	Harmondsworth Great Barn	1,087,011,775	Grade I listed building in Harmondsworth, UK	[ "15th-century architecture in the United Kingdom", "Barns in England", "Buildings and structures completed in the 15th century", "Buildings and structures in the London Borough of Hillingdon", "English Heritage sites in London", "Grade I listed agricultural buildings", "Grade I listed buildings in the London Borough of Hillingdon", "History of Middlesex", "Timber framed buildings in London", "Tithe barns in Europe", "Tourist attractions in the London Borough of Hillingdon" ]	Harmondsworth Great Barn (also known as Manor Farm Barn) is a medieval barn on the former Manor Farm in the village of Harmondsworth, in the London Borough of Hillingdon, England. It is north-west of fields and the A4 next to Heathrow Airport. Built in the early 15th century by Winchester College, it is the largest timber-framed building in England and is regarded as an outstanding example of medieval carpentry. It was described by the English poet John Betjeman as the "Cathedral of Middlesex". A similar though smaller barn is part of the Manor Farm complex in Ruislip. The barn was briefly in royal ownership but passed into the hands of three families who continued to use it for agricultural purposes until as late as the 1970s. It was subsequently owned by a property development company which redeveloped the farm complex. After the company went bankrupt in 2006, the barn was bought by property speculators betting on its compensation value if the nearby Heathrow Airport was expanded. The barn fell into disrepair and was closed to the public for all but one day a year. English Heritage stepped in, using a rare legal procedure to carry out repairs without the owner's consent, and eventually purchased the barn in January 2012. It is now open to the public from April to October on the second and fourth Sunday of each month under the management of the Friends of the Great Barn group. ## Structure The barn measures 192 feet (59 m) long, 37 feet (11 m) wide, and 39 feet (12 m) high, with twelve bays, running in a north–south direction. It occupies a footprint of about 7,110 square feet (661 m<sup>2</sup>) and has an internal volume of about 173,000 cubic feet (4,900 m<sup>3</sup>). There are three doors on the east side to permit the entry of wagons. The exterior of the barn is weatherboarded, with a hipped tiled roof. It was originally a much larger structure, with two wings, but the north wing was dismantled in 1774 and rebuilt in the now-demolished hamlet of Heathrow, on the site of the modern airport. The vast majority of the surviving structure is original; it has been estimated that 95 per cent of the timbers, including the external weatherboarding, have survived from the original building. It has been described by English Heritage as "a supreme example of late-medieval craftsmanship – a masterpiece of carpentry containing one of the best and most intact interiors of its age and type in all of Europe." It is an outstanding example of a late medieval aisled barn and is the largest timber-framed building in England. Barns of this type were based on a longitudinal frame, with two rows of posts connected by arcade plates. Because such barns tend to be both long and high, they experience high structural loads from the wind. They therefore have numerous internal braces, acting in much the same way as buttresses, to strengthen the structure. This gives the barn its distinctive internal appearance, with a lattice of beams and braces holding up the roof. The techniques used in its construction are similar to those employed on the great cathedrals being built at the time, and some of the same craftsmen were probably involved. The barn's main posts are made of oak. Each is about 14 inches (36 cm) square and sits on a block of Reigate sandstone, a common building material in medieval London. The posts were cut into shape using axes, adzes and saws, the marks from which can still be seen in some instances. The builders cut and fitted the timberwork together on the ground and scratched Roman numerals, called assembly marks, on the joints to indicate where pieces of timber were to be combined. Some of the pairs of main posts were made from the trunks of very large individual trees which were cut in two. They were all placed upside down, relative to the original direction of the tree. This was because the bottom of a tree is always wider than the top; the greater width was needed to accommodate the joints with the beams that support the roof. Despite the care that the builders took to get the joints right, they may have made some mistakes along the way, as some of the timbers have holes for pegs and mortises that were never used. Alternatively, the timbers may have been reused from another construction. The rows of arcade posts support tie beams, with curved braces to strengthen the frame. The collar beam, which supports the opposing principal rafters, is supported by the crown post. Roof purlins run the length of the barn and are tenoned into the principal rafters, with additional support from curved wind braces. Some aspects of this design are unusual, both in the way that they are executed and in terms of their early date. A number of features in the barn's carpentry are described by English Heritage as "experimental, precocious and regionally unusual," which is attributed to the very high level of skill of the master carpenters who built it. The use of aisles enabled the barn's architects to increase its width and by doing so, provided the maximum space for threshing floors. The longer the barn was, the more threshing floors could be provided. English barns went through an evolution in the number of threshing floors; the earliest had just one central floor, a design that became the commonest to be found in Britain. Harmondsworth Great Barn is unusual in having three threshing floors, allowing much more grain to be threshed at one time. The boards on the exterior of the barn are made from a mixture of oak, elm and softwoods such as pine and fir. Some are of modern or relatively modern origins; those on the south end of the barn are noticeably lighter in colour than the rest and are the result of the repairs made after the 1972 fire. Each side of the barn's roof holds 92 tile courses and a total of around 76,000 tiles, which were originally held in place by oak pegs. Many of the tiles have been replaced over the years and the oak pegs have been replaced by galvanised peg nails due to the effects of decay. The floor of the barn was originally made of hard-packed flint gravel held together with iron panning, excavated from a local gravel deposit, which was used as a more readily available alternative to stone. In subsequent years it was repaired with brick, tile and, ultimately, cement, obscuring the original appearance of the floor. An indication of how it would have looked can still be obtained from the outside of the west side of the barn. The design of the barn has provided inspiration to a number of architects in the 19th and 20th centuries who were involved with the Gothic Revival movement. Sir George Gilbert Scott visited the barn in 1850 and sketched it, using its design as the basis for proposals for the new ChristChurch Cathedral in Christchurch, New Zealand. The library of Mansfield College, Oxford designed by Basil Champneys in the late 1880s also owes its inspiration to the barn. Bedales School's library, completed in 1922 and designed by Ernest Gimson, may also have had its origins in the barn's design. ## History The manor of Harmondsworth was owned before the Norman Conquest by King Harold Godwinson, but was seized by William the Conqueror after Harold's death at the Battle of Hastings in 1066. Three years later, William granted it to William FitzOsbern, one of his close confidants. It was subsequently transferred to the Abbey of Rouen. In 1391, it was acquired from the abbot and prior by William of Wykeham, the Bishop of Winchester. He gave it to Winchester College, which he had founded in 1382, as part of his endowment of that establishment. Its revenues went towards supporting the college. There was already a "Great Barn" on the site, and as early as 1110 a manor record shows that men who were not wanted for ploughing were required to "thresh in the Great Barn until sunset". A granary was recorded in a survey conducted in 1293–4 and a further survey of 1324 recorded the existence of a monastic grange in addition to the granary. The wheat barn at Harmondsworth was damaged in a storm in 1398 and records from Winchester College show that two carpenters were sent to make repairs, for which a large quantity of tiles, nails and other roofing materials was purchased. By this time, however, the existing barn was evidently becoming inadequate. The college's records indicate that in 1426–7 it commissioned two men, William Kypping (or Kipping) and John atte Oke, to obtain timbers from Kingston upon Thames to use for a new barn at Harmondsworth. This date matches an early fifteenth-century origin for the Great Barn's timbers, which has been established through dendrochronology. The architect is not known, but it is possible that William Wyse may have been involved. He was the main carpenter for New College, Oxford and the master carpenter at Windsor Castle in 1430, and worked on repairing the aisles at the church of St Mary's in Harmondsworth, practically next door to the manor. Carpenters from Ickenham and Uxbridge were also involved and a tiler appears to have been employed by the college at the same time. Once completed, the barn would have been used to thresh and store grain from the manor farm. In 1544, the manor was taken by King Henry VIII to add to his hunting estate around Hampton Court but he does not appear to have used it, and shortly afterwards he granted it to the Paget family. It remained in their hands until 1869. During the first half of the 20th century the manor was owned by the Ashby family. The last Ashby to farm there died in 1948 and the farm was sold in 1950 to Peter Purser, who died in the late 1970s. It was already a Scheduled Monument and was given Grade I listed building status in March 1950 when new heritage protection legislation was brought into force. The barn continued to be used for agricultural purposes until as late as the 1970s. It had a couple of narrow escapes during the 20th century; during the Second World War a German V-1 flying bomb flattened a nearby barn, but only managed to dislodge a few roof tiles on the Great Barn. The barn's southern bay was seriously damaged by fire in 1972 but it was subsequently restored. The building was greatly admired by the Poet Laureate Sir John Betjeman, who dubbed it "the cathedral of Middlesex". It underwent a detailed eighteen-month survey in the late 1980s by the craftsman Peter McCurdy (who later went on to rebuild Shakespeare's Globe theatre), supported by the Museum of London. ## Neglect and rescue The barn and the surrounding Manor Farm property were purchased in 1986 by the John Wiltshier Group, a builder/property developer which aimed to restore the barn to serve as a showcase for the company. The farm underwent major changes, with several of the more dilapidated buildings demolished and a new L-shaped office building constructed facing the barn. Planning permission was granted on the basis that income from the new offices was supposed to pay for ongoing repairs to the barn, following an initial renovation carried out in 1989. However, in 2006, the company went into receivership. The other buildings were individually sold to new owners but the receiver's attempts to sell the barn separately fell through. The receiver offered the barn to Hillingdon Council and English Heritage for £1, but both refused the offer. Instead, a Gibraltar-based company calling itself Harmondsworth Barn Ltd bought the barn. The company had no other assets and it was reported that it was seeking to speculate on obtaining compensation from a proposed expansion of Heathrow Airport. Such compensation would be paid should the land be required and the property demolished, although the barn fell just slightly outside the area required for a new runway. The new owners made no effort to maintain the barn, which fell into disrepair and was closed to the public apart from an annual one-day opening in conjunction with the Open House Weekend each September. The Society for the Protection of Ancient Buildings (SPAB) raised the alarm in a 2009 edition of its magazine, Cornerstone, in which the deteriorating condition of the barn was highlighted as the magazine's cover story. The magazine reported that on a recent visit "more than a dozen gaps in the tiled roof were seen, some large. The site appeared to lack fire-fighting equipment or alarms, and could be easily accessed. Plants have taken root in the stone-and-brick plinth, and have begun to damage the medieval blocks upon which the barn stands." English Heritage issued a statement saying: "The absentee owner of the barn has declined to engage with English Heritage (and the local authority) for some years despite our offers of help, support, advice and grants. The Heathrow expansion area would surround the site of the barn on three sides but would not, according to plans we have seen, propose its demolition or removal. However, this still leaves question marks over the barn’s future and in particular, the issues of viability and setting." Following the publication of the Cornerstone article, English Heritage stepped in to begin legal proceedings that would lead to the compulsory purchase of the barn. It carried out emergency repairs of the barn in November 2009, without the owners' consent, under an Urgent Works Notice. The agency carried out an unusual legal manoeuvre to speed up the works, declassifying the barn from a scheduled monument to a Grade I listed building. This enabled the notice to be issued more speedily, overriding the owners' objections. The repairs mainly involved fixing holes in the roof and preventing the ingress of rain water, as well as repairing the weatherboards on the sides. The intervention by English Heritage led to a protracted dispute over the £30,000 cost of the repairs that was scheduled to come to trial at the High Court of Justice in April 2012. In January 2012, a settlement was reached in which Harmondsworth Barn Ltd sold the barn to English Heritage for £20,000. By that time the government had abandoned its plans to expand Heathrow Airport and the barn had become a liability for the company. Simon Thurley, the Chief Executive of English Heritage, called the barn "one of the greatest medieval buildings in Britain, built by the same skilled carpenters who worked on our magnificent medieval cathedrals. Its rescue is at the heart of what English Heritage does." The local Member of Parliament, John McDonnell, praised the hard work of local people and English Heritage staff and said that he was "now overjoyed that we have secured this wonderful building for future generations." The SPAB also welcomed the decision, calling the barn one of the "symbols of the dominance of the rural economy in the past, and the immense investment in craftsmanship and materials that agriculture deserved." ## Reopening and future management The barn is managed by volunteers from the Friends of the Great Barn at Harmondsworth, a local preservation group, acting on behalf of the owners, English Heritage. It is open to the public for free on the second and fourth Sunday of each month between April and October.
16,603	Keanu Reeves	1,172,379,548	Canadian actor (born 1964)	[ "1964 births", "20th-century Canadian bass guitarists", "20th-century Canadian guitarists", "20th-century Canadian male actors", "20th-century Canadian male musicians", "21st-century Canadian bass guitarists", "21st-century Canadian guitarists", "21st-century Canadian male actors", "21st-century Canadian male musicians", "Actors with dyslexia", "Alternative rock bass guitarists", "Alternative rock guitarists", "Canadian alternative rock musicians", "Canadian documentary film producers", "Canadian expatriate male actors in the United States", "Canadian male actors of Chinese descent", "Canadian male film actors", "Canadian male guitarists", "Canadian male television actors", "Canadian male voice actors", "Canadian musicians of Chinese descent", "Canadian people of American descent", "Canadian people of Chinese descent", "Canadian people of English descent", "Canadian people of Irish descent", "Canadian people of Native Hawaiian descent", "Canadian people of Portuguese descent", "Canadian people with disabilities", "Canadian philanthropists", "Canadian practitioners of Brazilian jiu-jitsu", "Canadian rock bass guitarists", "Canadian rock guitarists", "Canadian spiritualists", "Dogstar (band) members", "Film producers from Ontario", "Grunge musicians", "Internet memes", "Living people", "Male actors from Beirut", "Male actors from Ontario", "Male actors from Toronto", "Male bass guitarists", "Musicians from Beirut", "Musicians from Toronto", "Naturalized citizens of Canada", "People of Native Hawaiian descent" ]	Keanu Charles Reeves (/kiˈɑːnuː/ kee-AH-noo; born September 2, 1964) is a Canadian actor and musician. Born in Beirut and raised in Toronto, he made his acting debut in the Canadian television series Hangin In (1984), before making his feature film debut in Youngblood (1986). He had his breakthrough role in the science fiction comedy Bill & Ted's Excellent Adventure (1989), and he reprised his role in its sequels. He gained praise for playing a hustler in the independent drama My Own Private Idaho (1991) and established himself as an action hero with leading roles in Point Break (1991) and Speed (1994). Following several box office failures, Reeves's performance in the horror film The Devil's Advocate (1997) was well received. Greater stardom came for playing Neo in the science fiction series The Matrix, beginning in 1999. He played John Constantine in Constantine (2005) and starred in the romantic drama The Lake House (2006), the science fiction thriller The Day the Earth Stood Still (2008), and the crime thriller Street Kings (2008). Following another commercially down period, Reeves made a successful comeback by playing the titular assassin in the John Wick film series, beginning in 2014. Time named him one of the 100 most influential people in the world in 2022. In addition to acting, Reeves has directed the film Man of Tai Chi (2013). He plays bass guitar for the band Dogstar and pursued other endeavours such as writing and philanthropy. ## Early life Reeves was born in Beirut, Lebanon, on September 2, 1964, the son of Patricia (née Taylor), a costume designer and performer, and Samuel Nowlin Reeves Jr. His mother is English, originating from Essex. His American father is from Hawaii, and is of Native Hawaiian, Chinese, English, Irish, and Portuguese descent. His paternal grandmother is Chinese Hawaiian. His mother was working in Beirut when she met his father, who abandoned his wife and family when Reeves was three years old. Reeves last met his father on the Hawaiian island of Kauai when he was 13. After his parents divorced in 1966, his mother moved the family to Sydney, and then to New York City, where she married Paul Aaron, a Broadway and Hollywood director, in 1970. The couple moved to Toronto and divorced in 1971. When Reeves was nine, he took part in a theatre production of Damn Yankees. Aaron remained close to Reeves, offering him advice and recommending him a job at the Hedgerow Theatre in Pennsylvania. Reeves's mother married Robert Miller, a rock music promoter, in 1976; the couple divorced in 1980. Reeves and his sisters grew up primarily in the Yorkville neighbourhood of Toronto, with a nanny caring for them frequently. Because of his grandmother's ethnicity, he grew up with Chinese art, furniture, and cuisine. Reeves watched British comedy shows such as The Two Ronnies, and his mother imparted English manners that he has maintained into adulthood. Describing himself as a "private kid", Reeves attended four different high schools, including the Etobicoke School of the Arts, from which he was expelled. Reeves said he was expelled because he was "just a little too rambunctious and shot my mouth off once too often... I was not generally the most well-oiled machine in the school". Reeves has dyslexia and has said, "Because I had trouble reading, I wasn't a good student". At De La Salle College, he was a successful ice hockey goalkeeper. Reeves had aspirations to become a professional ice hockey player for the Canadian Olympic team but decided to become an actor when he was 15. After leaving De La Salle College, he attended Avondale Secondary Alternative School, which allowed him to get an education while working as an actor. He dropped out of high school when he was 17. He obtained a green card through his American stepfather and moved to Los Angeles three years later. Reeves holds only Canadian citizenship. ## Career ### 1984–1990: Early work In 1984, Reeves was a correspondent for the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (CBC) youth television program Going Great. That same year, he made his acting debut in an episode of the television series, called Hangin' In. In 1985, he played Mercutio in a stage production of Romeo and Juliet at the Leah Posluns Theatre in North York, Ontario. He made further appearances on stage, including Brad Fraser's cult hit Wolfboy in Toronto. He also appeared in a Coca-Cola commercial in 1983, and in the National Film Board of Canada (NFB) coming-of-age, short film One Step Away. Reeves later said that, when he was looking for work in the mid-1980s, his agents advised him to go by a different name because his first name was "too ethnic." He briefly initialized his first and middle name and attended auditions as "K. C." or "Casey" Reeves before reverting to Keanu. Reeves made a foray into television films in 1986, including NBC's Babes in Toyland, Act of Vengeance and Brotherhood of Justice. He made his first motion picture appearances in Peter Markle's Youngblood (1986), in which he played a goalkeeper, and in the low-budget romantic drama, Flying. He was cast as Matt in River's Edge, a crime drama about a group of high school friends dealing with a murder case, loosely based on the 1981 murder of Marcy Renee Conrad. The film premiered in 1986 at the Toronto International Film Festival to a largely positive response. Janet Maslin of The New York Times describes the performances of the young cast as "natural and credible", with Reeves being described as "affecting and sympathetic". Towards the end of the 1980s, Reeves starred in several dramas aimed at teen audiences, including as the lead in The Night Before (1988), a comedy starring opposite Lori Loughlin, The Prince of Pennsylvania (1988) and Permanent Record (1988). Although the latter received mixed reviews, Variety magazine praised Reeves's performance, "which opens up nicely as the drama progresses". His other acting efforts included a supporting role in Dangerous Liaisons (1988), which earned seven nominations at the 61st Academy Awards, winning three: Best Adapted Screenplay, Best Costume Design, and Best Production Design. This was followed by Bill & Ted's Excellent Adventure (1989), in which he portrays a slacker who travels through time with a friend (portrayed by Alex Winter), to assemble historical figures for a school presentation. The film was generally well received by critics and grossed \$40.5 million at the worldwide box office. Film review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes gave the film a 79% approval rating with the critical consensus: "Keanu Reeves and Alex Winter are just charming, goofy, and silly enough to make this fluffy time-travel Adventure work". In 1989, Reeves starred in the comedy-drama Parenthood directed by Ron Howard. Nick Hilditch of the BBC gave the film three out of five stars, calling it a "feelgood movie" with an "extensive and entertaining ensemble cast". In 1990, Reeves gave two acting performances; he portrayed an incompetent hitman in the black comedy I Love You to Death, and played Martin, a radio station employee in the comedy Tune in Tomorrow. He also appeared in Paula Abdul's music video for Rush Rush which featured a Rebel Without a Cause motif, with him in the James Dean role. ### 1991–1994: Breakthrough with adult roles In 1991, Reeves starred in Bill & Ted's Bogus Journey, a sequel to Bill & Ted's Excellent Adventure, with his co-star Alex Winter. Michael Wilmington of the Los Angeles Times wrote that the sequel was "more imaginative, more opulent, wilder and freer, more excitingly visualized", praising the actors for their "fuller" performances. Film critic Roger Ebert thought it was "a riot of visual invention and weird humour that works on its chosen sub-moronic level [...] It's the kind of movie where you start out snickering in spite of yourself, and end up actually admiring the originality that went into creating this hallucinatory slapstick". The rest of 1991 marked a significant transition for Reeves's career as he undertook adult roles. Co-starring with River Phoenix as a street hustler in the adventure My Own Private Idaho, the characters embark on a journey of personal discovery. The story was written by Gus Van Sant, and is loosely based on Shakespeare's Henry IV, Part 1, Henry IV, Part 2, and Henry V. The film premiered at the 48th Venice International Film Festival, followed by a theatrical release in the United States on September 29, 1991. The film earned \$6.4 million at the box office. My Own Private Idaho was positively received, with Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly describing the film as "a postmodern road movie with a mood of free-floating, trance-like despair [...] a rich, audacious experience". The New York Times complimented Reeves and Phoenix for their insightful performances. Reeves starred alongside Patrick Swayze, Lori Petty and Gary Busey in the action thriller Point Break (1991), directed by Kathryn Bigelow. He plays an undercover FBI agent tasked with investigating the identities of a group of bank robbers. To prepare for the film, Reeves and his co-stars took surfing lessons with professional surfer Dennis Jarvis in Hawaii; Reeves had never surfed before. Upon its release, Point Break was generally well-received, and a commercial success, earning \$83.5 million at the box office. Reeves's performance was praised by The New York Times for "considerable discipline and range", adding, "He moves easily between the buttoned-down demeanour that suits a police procedural story and the loose-jointed manner of his comic roles". Writing for The Washington Post, Hal Hinson called Reeves the "perfect choice" and praised the surfing scenes, but opined that "the filmmakers have their characters make the most ludicrously illogical choices imaginable". At the 1992 MTV Movie Awards, Reeves won the Most Desirable Male award. In 1991, Reeves developed an interest in a music career; he formed an alternative rock band called Dogstar, consisting of members Robert Mailhouse, Gregg Miller and Bret Domrose. Reeves played the bass guitar. A year later, he played Jonathan Harker in Francis Ford Coppola's Gothic horror Bram Stoker's Dracula, based on Stoker's 1897 novel Dracula. Starring alongside Gary Oldman, Winona Ryder and Anthony Hopkins, the film was critically and commercially successful. It grossed \$215.8 million worldwide. For his role, Reeves was required to speak with an English accent, which drew some ridicule; "Overly posh and entirely ridiculous, Reeves's performance is as painful as it is hilarious", wrote Limara Salt of Virgin Media. In a retrospective interview in 2015, director Coppola said, "[Reeves] tried so hard [...] He wanted to do it perfectly and in trying to do it perfectly it came off as stilted". Bram Stoker's Dracula was nominated for four Academy Awards, winning three in Best Costume Design, Best Sound Editing and Best Makeup. The film also received four nominations at the British Academy Film Awards. In 1993, he had a role in Much Ado About Nothing, based on Shakespeare's play of the same name. The film received positive reviews, although Reeves was nominated for a Golden Raspberry Award for Worst Supporting Actor. The New Republic magazine thought his casting was "unfortunate" because of his amateur performance. In that same year, he starred in two more drama films, Even Cowgirls Get the Blues and Little Buddha, both of which garnered a mixed-to-negative reception. The Independent critic gave Little Buddha a mixed review but opined that Reeves's part as a prince was "credible". The film also left an impression on Reeves; he later said, "When I played this innocent prince who starts to suspect something when he has the first revelations about old age, sickness and death, it hit me. [...] That lesson has never left me." He starred in the action thriller Speed (1994) alongside Sandra Bullock and Dennis Hopper. He plays police officer Jack Traven, who must prevent a bus from exploding by keeping its speed above 50 mph. Speed was the directorial debut of Dutch director Jan de Bont. Several actors were considered for the lead role, but Reeves was chosen because Bont was impressed with his Point Break performance. To look the part, Reeves shaved all his hair off and spent two months in the gym to gain muscle mass. During production, Reeves's friend River Phoenix (and co-star in My Own Private Idaho) died, resulting in adjustments to the filming schedule to allow him to mourn. Speed was released on June 10 to a critically acclaimed response. Gene Siskel of the Chicago Tribune lauded Reeves, calling him "absolutely charismatic [...] giving a performance juiced with joy as he jumps through elevator shafts [...] and atop a subway train". David Ansen, writing for Newsweek, summarized Speed as, "Relentless without being overbearing, this is one likely blockbuster that doesn't feel too big for its britches. It's a friendly juggernaut". The film grossed \$350 million from a \$30 million budget and won two Academy Awards in 1995 – Best Sound Editing and Best Sound. ### 1995–1998: Continued acting efforts Reeves's next leading role came in the 1995 cyberpunk action thriller Johnny Mnemonic, directed by artist Robert Longo and based on the 1981 story of the same name by William Gibson. Set in 2021, it is about a man who has a cybernetic brain implant and must deliver a data package before he dies or is killed by the Yakuza. The film received mainly negative reviews and critics felt Reeves was "woefully miscast". Roger Ebert opined that the film is one of the "great goofy gestures of recent cinema, a movie that doesn't deserve one nanosecond of serious analysis but has a kind of idiotic grandeur that makes you almost forgive it." As part of the film studio's marketing efforts, a CD-ROM video game was also released. He next appeared in the romantic drama A Walk in the Clouds (1995), which also garnered mixed-to-negative reviews. Reeves plays a young soldier returning home from World War II, trying to settle down with a woman he married impulsively just before he enlisted. Film critic Mick LaSalle opined that "A Walk in the Clouds is for the most part a beautiful, well-acted and emotionally rich picture", whereas Hal Hinson from The Washington Post said, "The film has the syrupy, Kodak magic-moment look of a Bo Derek movie, and pretty much the same level of substance". Besides film work, Reeves retreated briefly to the theatre playing Prince Hamlet in a 1995 Manitoba Theatre Centre production of Hamlet in Winnipeg, Manitoba. The Sunday Times critic Roger Lewis believed his performance, writing he "quite embodied the innocence, the splendid fury, the animal grace of the leaps and bounds, the emotional violence, that form the Prince of Denmark ... He is one of the top three Hamlets I have seen, for a simple reason: he is Hamlet". Reeves was soon drawn to science fiction roles, appearing in Chain Reaction (1996) with co-stars Morgan Freeman, Rachel Weisz, Fred Ward, Kevin Dunn and Brian Cox. He plays a researcher of a green energy project, who has to go on the run when he is framed for murder. Chain Reaction was not a critical success and gained mostly a negative reaction; review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes gave it a rating of 16% and described it as "a man-on-the-run thriller that mostly sticks to generic formula". Reeves's film choices after Chain Reaction were also critical disappointments. He starred in the independent crime comedy Feeling Minnesota (1996), with Vincent D'Onofrio and Cameron Diaz, which was described as "shoddily assembled, and fundamentally miscast" by Rotten Tomatoes. In that year, he turned down an offer to star in Speed 2: Cruise Control, despite being offered a salary of \$12 million. According to Reeves, this decision caused 20th Century Fox to sever ties with him for a decade. Instead, Reeves toured with his band Dogstar, and appeared in the drama The Last Time I Committed Suicide (1997), based on a 1950 letter written by Neal Cassady to Jack Kerouac. Reeves's performance gained mixed reviews; Paul Tatara of CNN called him "void of talent [...] here he is again, reciting his lines as if they're non-related words strung together as a memory exercise", whereas Empire magazine thought "Reeves gives the nearest thing to a performance in his career as the enthusiastic feckless drunk". He starred in the 1997 supernatural horror The Devil's Advocate alongside Al Pacino and Charlize Theron; Reeves agreed to a pay cut of several million dollars so that the film studio could afford to hire Pacino. Based on Andrew Neiderman's novel of the same name, the feature is about a successful young lawyer invited to New York City to work for a major firm, who discovers the owner of the firm is a devil. The Devil's Advocate attracted positive reviews from critics. Film critic James Berardinelli called the film "highly enjoyable" and wrote, "There are times when Reeves lacks the subtlety that would have made this a more multi-layered portrayal, but it's nevertheless a solid job". ### 1999–2004: Stardom with The Matrix franchise and comedies In 1999, Reeves starred in the critically acclaimed science fiction film The Matrix, the first installment in what would become The Matrix franchise. Reeves portrays computer programmer Thomas Anderson, a hacker using the alias "Neo", who discovers humanity is trapped inside a simulated reality created by intelligent machines. Written and directed by the Wachowskis, Reeves had to prepare by reading Kevin Kelly's Out of Control: The New Biology of Machines, Social Systems, and the Economic World, and Dylan Evans's ideas on evolutionary psychology. The principal cast underwent months of intense training with martial arts choreographer Yuen Woo-ping to prepare for the fight scenes. The Matrix proved to be a box office success; several critics considered it to be one of the best science fiction films of all time. Kenneth Turan of the Los Angeles Times felt it was a "wildly cinematic futuristic thriller that is determined to overpower the imagination", despite perceiving weaknesses in the film's dialogue. Janet Maslin of The New York Times credited Reeves for being a "strikingly chic Prada model of an action hero", and thought the martial arts stunts were the film's strongest feature. The Matrix received Academy Awards for Best Film Editing, Best Sound Editing, Best Visual Effects, and Best Sound. After the success of The Matrix, Reeves avoided another blockbuster in favour of a lighthearted sports comedy, The Replacements (2000). He agreed to a pay cut to enable Gene Hackman to co-star in the film. Against his wishes, Reeves starred in the thriller The Watcher (2000), playing a serial killer who stalks a retired FBI agent. He said that a friend forged his signature on a contract, which he could not prove; he appeared in the film to avoid legal action. Upon its release, the film was critically panned. That year, he had a supporting role in another thriller, Sam Raimi's The Gift, a story about a woman (played by Cate Blanchett) with extrasensory perception asked to help find a young woman who disappeared. The film grossed \$44 million worldwide. Film critic Paul Clinton of CNN thought the film was fairly compelling, saying of Reeves's acting: "[Raimi] managed to get a performance out of Reeves that only occasionally sounds like he's reading his lines from the back of a cereal box." In 2001, Reeves continued to explore and accept roles in a diverse range of genres. The first was a romantic drama, Sweet November, a remake of the 1968 film of the same name. This was his second collaboration with Charlize Theron; the film was met with a generally negative reception. Desson Thompson of The Washington Post criticized it for its "syrupy cliches, greeting-card wisdom and over-the-top tragicomedy", but commended Reeves for his likability factor in every performance he gives. Hardball (2001) marked Reeves's attempt in another sports comedy. Directed by Brian Robbins, it is based on the book Hardball: A Season in the Projects by Daniel Coyle. Reeves plays Conor O'Neill, a troubled young man who agrees to coach a Little League team from the Cabrini Green housing project in Chicago as a condition of obtaining a loan. Film critic Roger Ebert noted the film's desire to tackle difficult subjects and baseball coaching, but felt it lacked depth, and Reeves's performance was "glum and distant". By 2002, his professional music career had come to an end when Dogstar disbanded. The band had released two albums during their decade together; Our Little Visionary in 1996 and Happy Ending in 2000. Sometime afterwards, Reeves performed in the band Becky for a year, founded by Dogstar band-mate Rob Mailhouse, but quit in 2005, citing a lack of interest in a serious music career. After being absent from the screen in 2002, Reeves returned to The Matrix sequels in 2003 with The Matrix Reloaded and The Matrix Revolutions, released in May and November, respectively. Principal photography for both films was completed back-to-back, primarily at Fox Studios in Australia. The Matrix Reloaded garnered mostly favourable reviews; John Powers of LA Weekly praised the "dazzling pyrotechnics" but was critical of certain machine-like action scenes. Of Reeves's acting, Powers thought it was somewhat "wooden" but felt he has the ability to "exude a charmed aura". Andrew Walker, writing for the Evening Standard, praised the cinematography ("visually it gives full value as a virtuoso workout for your senses") but he was less taken by the film's "dime-store philosophy". The film grossed \$739 million worldwide. The Matrix Revolutions, the third instalment, was met with mixed reception. According to review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the consensus was that "characters and ideas take a back seat to the special effects". Paul Clinton, writing for CNN, praised the special effects but felt Reeves's character was unfocused. In contrast, the San Francisco Chronicle's Carla Meyer was highly critical of the special effects, writing, "[The Wachowskis] computer-generated imagery goes from dazzling to deadening in action scenes that favor heavy, clanking weaponry over the martial-arts moves that thrilled viewers of The Matrix and The Matrix Reloaded." Nevertheless, the film grossed a healthy \$427 million worldwide, although less than the two previous films. Something's Gotta Give, a romantic comedy, was Reeves's last release of 2003. He co-starred with Jack Nicholson and Diane Keaton, and played Dr. Julian Mercer in the film. Something's Gotta Give received generally favourable reviews. ### 2005–2013: Thrillers, documentaries and directorial debut In 2005, Reeves played the titular role in Constantine, an occult detective film, about a man who has the ability to perceive and communicate with half-angels and half-demons. The film was a respectable box office hit, grossing \$230 million worldwide from a \$100 million budget but attracted mixed-to-positive reviews. The Sydney Morning Herald's critic wrote that "Constantine isn't bad, but it doesn't deserve any imposing adjectives. It's occasionally cheesy, sometimes enjoyable, intermittently scary, and constantly spiked with celestial blatherskite". He next appeared in Thumbsucker, which premiered at the Sundance Film Festival in 2005. A comedy adapted from the 1999 Walter Kirn novel of the same name, the story follows a boy with a thumb-sucking problem. Reeves and the cast garnered positive critical reviews, with The Washington Post describing it as "a gently stirring symphony about emotional transition filled with lovely musical passages and softly nuanced performances". Reeves appeared in the Richard Linklater-directed animated science fiction thriller A Scanner Darkly, which premiered at the 2006 Cannes Film Festival. Reeves played Bob Arctor/Fred, an undercover agent in a futuristic dystopia under high-tech police surveillance. Based on the novel of the same name by Philip K. Dick, the film was a box office failure. However, the film attracted generally favourable reviews; Paul Arendt of the BBC thought the film was "beautiful to watch", but Reeves was outshone by his co-star Robert Downey Jr. His next role was Alex Wyler in The Lake House (2006), a romantic drama adaptation of the South Korean film Il Mare (2000), which reunited him with Sandra Bullock. Despite its box office success, Mark Kermode of The Guardian was highly critical, writing "this syrup-drenched supernatural whimsy achieves stupidity at a genuinely international level [...] The last time Bullock and Reeves were together on screen the result was Speed. This should have been entitled Stop". Towards the end of 2006, he co-narrated The Great Warming with Alanis Morissette, a documentary about climate change mitigation. Next in 2008, Reeves collaborated with director David Ayer on the crime thriller Street Kings. He played an undercover policeman who must clear his name after the death of another officer. Released on April 11, the film grossed a moderate \$66 million worldwide. The film's plot and Reeves' performance, however, were met with mostly unenthusiastic reviews. Paul Byrnes of The Sydney Morning Herald stated, "It's full of twists and turns, a dead body in every reel, but it's not difficult to work out who's betraying whom, and that's just not good enough". The Guardian opined that "Reeves is fundamentally blank and uninteresting". Reeves starred in another science fiction film, The Day the Earth Stood Still, a loose adaptation of the 1951 film of the same name. He portrayed Klaatu, an alien sent from outer space to try to change human behaviour or eradicate humans because of their environmental impact. At the 2009 Razzie Awards, the film was nominated for Worst Prequel, Remake, Rip-off or Sequel. Many critics were unimpressed with the heavy use of special effects; The Telegraph credited Reeves' ability to engage the audience, but thought the cinematography was abysmal and the "sub-Al-Gore environment lecture leaves you light-headed with tedium". Rebecca Miller's The Private Lives of Pippa Lee was Reeves' sole release of 2009, which premiered at the 59th Berlin International Film Festival. The romantic comedy and its ensemble received an amicable review from The Telegraph's David Gritten; "Miller's film is a triumph. Uniformly well acted, it boasts a psychologically knowing script, clearly written by a smart, assertive human". In 2010, he starred in another romantic comedy, Henry's Crime, about a man who is released from prison for a crime he did not commit, but then targets the same bank with his former cellmate. The film was not a box office hit. Reeves' only work in 2011 was an adult picture book titled Ode to Happiness, which he wrote, complemented by Alexandra Grant's illustrations. Reeves co-produced and appeared in a 2012 documentary, Side by Side. He interviewed filmmakers including James Cameron, Martin Scorsese, and Christopher Nolan; the feature investigated digital and photochemical film creation. Next, Reeves starred in Generation Um... (2012), an independent drama which was critically panned. In 2013, Reeves starred in his own directorial debut, the martial arts film Man of Tai Chi. The film has multilingual dialogue and follows a young man drawn to an underground fight club, partially inspired by the life of Reeves' friend Tiger Chen. Principal photography took place in China and in Hong Kong. Reeves was also assisted by Yuen Woo-ping, the fight choreographer of The Matrix films. Man of Tai Chi premiered at the Beijing Film Festival and the Cannes Film Festival, and received praise from director John Woo. A wider, warm response followed suit; Bilge Ebiri of Vulture thought the fight sequences were "beautifully assembled", and Reeves showed restraint with the film editing to present the fighters' motion sequences. The Los Angeles Times wrote, "The brutally efficient shooting style Reeves employs to film master choreographer Yuen Woo-ping's breathtaking fights [...] is refreshingly grounded and old-school kinetic", while Dave McGinn of The Globe and Mail called the film "ambitious but generic". At the box office, Man of Tai Chi was a commercial disappointment, grossing only \$5.5 million worldwide from a budget of \$25 million. Also in 2013, Reeves played Kai in the 3D fantasy 47 Ronin, a Japanese fable about a group of rogue samurai. The film premiered in Japan but failed to gain traction with audiences; reviews were not positive, causing Universal Pictures to reduce advertising for the film elsewhere. 47 Ronin was a box office flop and was mostly poorly received. ### 2014–present: Resurgence with John Wick After this series of commercial failures, Reeves' career rebounded in 2014. He played the titular role in the action thriller John Wick, directed by Chad Stahelski. In the first instalment of the John Wick franchise, Reeves plays a retired hitman seeking vengeance. He worked closely with the screenwriter to develop the story; "We all agreed on the potential of the project. I love the role, but you want the whole story, the whole ensemble to come to life", Reeves said. Filmed on location in the New York City area, the film was eventually released on October 24 in the United States. The Hollywood Reporter was impressed by the director's "confident, muscular action debut", and Reeves' "effortless" performance, which marked his return to the action genre. Jeannette Catsoulis of The New York Times praised Reeves' fight scenes and wrote he is "always more comfortable in roles that demand cool over hot, attitude over emotion". John Wick proved to be a box office success, grossing \$86 million worldwide. Next, Reeves starred in a smaller-scale horror feature, Knock Knock (2015), a remake of the 1977 film Death Game. Described as "over-the-top destruction" by the Toronto Star, Reeves plays a father, home alone, when two young women show up and start a game of cat and mouse. His other releases in 2015 were the documentaries Deep Web, about crime on the dark web, and Mifune: The Last Samurai, about the life of a Japanese actor (Toshiro Mifune) famous for playing samurai characters. He narrated both films. Reeves appeared in five film releases in 2016. The first was Exposed, a crime thriller about a detective who investigates his partner's death and discovers police corruption along the way. The film received negative reviews for its confused plot, and Reeves was criticized for displaying limited facial expressions. His next release, the comedy Keanu, was better received. In it he voiced the eponymous kitten. Reeves then had a minor role in The Neon Demon, a psychological horror directed by Nicolas Winding Refn. He played Hank, a lustful motel owner who appears in Jesse's (played by Elle Fanning) nightmare. In his fourth release, he played a charismatic leader of a settlement in The Bad Batch. His final release of the year was The Whole Truth, featuring Gabriel Basso, Gugu Mbatha-Raw, Renée Zellweger, and Jim Belushi. He played Richard, a defence attorney. Noel Murray of The A.V. Club described it as "moderately clever, reasonably entertaining courtroom drama", with a skilled cast but overall a "mundane" film. Reeves also appeared in Swedish Dicks, a two-season web television series. In 2017, Reeves agreed to reprise his role for a sequel in the John Wick franchise, John Wick: Chapter 2. The story carries on from the first film and follows John Wick as he goes on the run when a bounty is placed on him. The film was a critical and commercial success, grossing \$171.5 million worldwide, more than its predecessor. Chris Hewitt of Empire magazine praised Reeves' performance, which complemented his previous action roles (Point Break and Speed). However, Justin Chang of the Los Angeles Times described the picture as "a down-and-dirty B-picture with a lustrous A-picture soul". Besides to this large-scale feature, Reeves starred in a drama, To the Bone, in which he plays a doctor helping a young woman with anorexia. It premiered at the 2017 Sundance Film Festival, followed by distribution on Netflix in July. Early reviews were positive, with praise for its non-glamorized portrayal of anorexia, although the New Statesman magazine thought it was irresponsible. That year, Reeves also made cameo appearances in the films A Happening of Monumental Proportions and SPF-18. Reeves reunited with Winona Ryder in the 2018 comedy Destination Wedding, about wedding guests who develop a mutual affection for each other. They had worked together previously in Bram Stoker's Dracula, A Scanner Darkly and The Private Lives of Pippa Lee. Reeves also co-produced and starred in two thrillers. Siberia, in which he plays a diamond trader who travels to Siberia to search for his Russian partner, and Replicas, which tells the story of a neuroscientist who violates laws and bioethics to bring his family back to life after they die in a car crash. Siberia was critically panned; reviewers thought the plot was nonsensical and Reeves had little chemistry with co-star Ana Ularu. Replicas did not fare well with critics either; The A.V. Club praised Reeves' performance, but gave the film a grade D−, adding it is "garbage". It was also a box office failure, earning \$9.3 million from a budget of \$30 million. Returning to the John Wick franchise, Reeves starred in John Wick: Chapter 3 – Parabellum (2019), the third feature in the series directed by Stahelski. The film takes place immediately after the events of John Wick: Chapter 2 and features new cast members including Halle Berry. The film was another box office hit, grossing \$171 million in the United States and more than \$155 million internationally. The Globe and Mail's reviewer gave the film three out of four stars, praising the fight scenes, but felt there was "aesthetic overindulgence" with the cinematography. The Guardian's Cath Clarke questioned Reeves' acting; she wrote that "he keeps his face statue-still [...] three movies in, franchise bloat is beginning to set in". Reeves was nominated for Favorite Male Movie Star of 2019 in the People's Choice Awards, and the film itself was nominated for Best Contemporary Film in the Art Directors Guild Awards. Reeves then voiced Duke Caboom in 2019's Toy Story 4, the fourth instalment of Pixar's Toy Story franchise. In that same year on April 27 and 28, a film festival was held in his honour, called KeanuCon, hosted in Glasgow, Scotland. Over two days, nine of his films were screened for guests. As early as 2008, Reeves and Alex Winter had shown enthusiasm for a third Bill & Ted film, but the project went into development limbo. Finally in 2020, Bill & Ted Face the Music, the third film in the franchise was released. The critic from Salon magazine was disappointed in Reeves' performance, but praised the film for its message that "music has the power to unite the world". Leah Greenblatt of Entertainment Weekly gave the film a grade B, and complimented the onscreen chemistry between Reeves and Winter. He also appeared in The SpongeBob Movie: Sponge on the Run as a tumbleweed named Sage. Reeves appears as Johnny Silverhand in the video game Cyberpunk 2077. In December 2021, Reeves returned to the screen for the fourth film in The Matrix franchise: The Matrix Resurrections. Carrie-Anne Moss also reprised her role as Trinity. The Matrix Resurrections was a box office disappointment; one critic praised Reeves' and Moss' performances, but thought the film was "no game-changer". Lionsgate's John Wick: Chapter 4 premiered on March 24, 2023; Reeves reprised his role as the title character.[^1] #### Upcoming projects In 2019, Reeves travelled to São Paulo to produce a Netflix series, Conquest. Details are being kept secret. A comic book series, BRZRKR, co-written by Reeves was published in March 2021. He is expected to star in a film adaptation of it. A fifth sequel to John Wick was planned, but Stahelski said he would like to give the franchise a "rest" for the time being. Reeves will reprise his role as Johnny Silverhand in the Cyberpunk 2077 expansion, Phantom Liberty. ## Personal life In 1998, Reeves met director David Lynch's assistant Jennifer Syme at a party thrown for his band Dogstar, and they started dating. On December 24, 1999, Syme gave birth eight months into her pregnancy to the couple's child, who was stillborn. The couple broke up several weeks afterward, but later reconciled. On April 2, 2001, Syme was killed when her vehicle collided with three parked cars on Cahuenga Boulevard in Los Angeles. Syme was impaired, and also not belted in. Reeves told investigators that they were back together, and had brunch together in San Francisco the day before the accident. Reeves acted as a pallbearer for Syme, who was buried next to their daughter. He was scheduled to film the sequels to The Matrix the following spring, but sought "peace and time", according to friend Bret Domrose of Dogstar. Reeves has also been romantically linked to longtime friend and filmmaker Brenda Davis, whose child he is godfather to, and model-actress China Chow. In 2009, Reeves met Alexandra Grant at a dinner party; they went on to collaborate on two books together. They went public with their relationship in November 2019. Reeves is discreet about his spiritual beliefs, saying that it is something "personal and private". When asked if he was a spiritual person, he said that he believes "in God, faith, inner faith, the self, passion, and things", and that he is "very spiritual" and "supremely bountiful". Although he does not formally practice Buddhism, the religion has left a strong impression on him, especially after filming Little Buddha. He said, "Most of the things I've come away with from Buddhism have been human—understanding feelings, impermanence, and trying to understand other people and where they're coming from." When asked on The Late Show with Stephen Colbert in 2019 about his views on what happens after death, Reeves replied, "I know that the ones who love us will miss us". In 2023, the lipopeptide Keanumycin, a substance deadly to fungi, was named in honor of Reeves. ## Business and philanthropy Reeves supports several charities and causes. In response to his sister's battle with leukemia, he founded a private cancer foundation, which aids children's hospitals and provides cancer research. In June 2020, he volunteered for Camp Rainbow Gold, an Idaho children's cancer charity. Reeves has said, "Money is the last thing I think about. I could live on what I have already made for the next few centuries". It was rumoured that Reeves gave away a substantial portion, estimated to be \$35–\$125 million, of his earnings from The Matrix to the special effects and makeup crews. However, this has been significantly embellished; Reeves negotiated a smaller deal, relinquishing his contractual right to a percentage of the sequels' profits in exchange for a more extensive special effects budget. After filming John Wick: Chapter 4, Reeves, Chad Stahelski and Brazilian jiu-jitsu instructor Dave Camarillo, signed an exclusive training uniform that was put up for auction in March 2023 to raise money for St. Jude Children's Research Hospital. Reeves co-founded a production company, Company Films, with friend Stephen Hamel. In 2011, Reeves, an avid motorcyclist, co-founded Arch Motorcycle Company, which builds and sells custom motorcycles, with Gard Hollinger. In 2017, Reeves, Jessica Fleischmann, and Alexandra Grant founded book publisher, X Artists' Books (also known as XAB). He has written two books: Ode to Happiness and Shadows, both of which are collaborations with Grant; he provided the text to her photographs and art. ## Censorship In 2022, Reeves's recitation of the Beat poem "Pull My Daisy" for a virtual benefit concert for Tibet House US, a nonprofit organization affiliated with the exiled Tibetan spiritual leader, the Dalai Lama, angered Chinese nationalists. Reeves's films have been banned from streaming platforms in China such as iQiyi, Tencent Video and Youku. ## In the media In a 2005 article for Time magazine, Lev Grossman called Reeves "Hollywood's ultimate introvert". He has been described as a workaholic, charming and "excruciatingly shy". During the production of Constantine, director Francis Lawrence commented on his personality, calling him "hardworking" and "generous". His co-star Shia LaBeouf said, "I've worked with him for a year and a couple of months, but I don't really know him that much". Erwin Stoff of 3 Arts Entertainment has served as Reeves's agent and manager since he was 16, and produced many of his films. Stoff said Reeves "is a really private person" and keeps his distance from other people. In 2010, an image of Reeves became an internet meme after photographs of him were published, sitting on a park bench with a sad facial expression. The images were posted on the 4chan discussion board and were soon distributed via several blogs and media outlets, leading to the "Sad Keanu" meme being spread on the internet. An unofficial holiday was created when a Facebook fan page declared June 15 as "Cheer-up Keanu Day". He would later downplay the photo, saying, "Man, I was eating a sandwich. I was thinking—I had some stuff going on. I was hungry." Reeves's casual persona and ability to establish rapport have been observed by the public, leading him to be dubbed the "Internet's boyfriend". In 2019, Vox cited Reeves's unorthodox filmography and ability to appeal to nerd culture as the primary reasons for his internet popularity. While filming Bill & Ted Face the Music in July 2019, Reeves and other cast members came across a house with a banner reading "You're Breathtaking" and "Mini Keanu", two memes that had come out of Reeves's appearance at the Electronic Entertainment Expo 2019 for the game Cyberpunk 2077. Reeves took time to sign the banner, and talk to the family. Reeves appeared on Forbes' annual Celebrity 100 list in 2001 and 2002, at number 36 and 49, respectively. In 2005, Reeves received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame for his contributions to the motion picture industry. In 2016, The Hollywood Reporter calculated that Reeves had earned \$250 million for The Matrix franchise, making him one of the highest-paid actors. In 2020, The New York Times ranked him at number four on its list of the 25 Greatest Actors of the 21st Century. ## Filmography and awards Prolific in film since 1985, Reeves's most acclaimed and highest-grossing films, according to the review aggregate site Rotten Tomatoes, include: River's Edge (1987), Bill and Ted's Excellent Adventure (1989), My Own Private Idaho (1991), Much Ado About Nothing (1993), Speed (1994), The Matrix (1999), John Wick (2014), John Wick: Chapter 2 (2017), John Wick: Chapter 3 – Parabellum (2019), and Toy Story 4 (2019). Reeves has won four MTV Movie Awards, and received two Best Actor nominations at the Saturn Awards. He was nominated twice for a People's Choice Award: Favorite Male Movie Star and Favorite Action Movie Star, for his performance in John Wick: Chapter 3 – Parabellum (2019). In September 2021, Tae Kwon Do Life Magazine'' deemed Reeves the "#1 Martial Arts movie star in the world" based upon his multiple films in the genre, their popularity, and sheer box office gross. [^1]:
62,251	Ctenophora	1,171,243,062	Phylum of gelatinous marine animals	[ "Animal phyla", "Articles containing video clips", "Bioluminescent ctenophores", "Cambrian Series 2 first appearances", "Ctenophores", "Extant Cambrian first appearances" ]	Ctenophora (/təˈnɒfərə/; : ctenophore /ˈtɛnəfɔːr, ˈtiːnə-/; ) comprise a phylum of marine invertebrates, commonly known as comb jellies, that inhabit sea waters worldwide. They are notable for the groups of cilia they use for swimming (commonly referred to as "combs"), and they are the largest animals to swim with the help of cilia. Depending on the species, adult ctenophores range from a few millimeters to 1.5 m (5 ft) in size. Only 100 to 150 species have been validated, and possibly another 25 have not been fully described and named. Their bodies consist of a mass of jelly, with a layer two cells thick on the outside, and another lining the internal cavity. The phylum has a wide range of body forms, including the egg-shaped cydippids with a pair of retractable tentacles that capture prey, the flat generally combless platyctenids, and the large-mouthed beroids, which prey on other ctenophores. Almost all ctenophores function as predators, taking prey ranging from microscopic larvae and rotifers to the adults of small crustaceans; the exceptions are juveniles of two species, which live as parasites on the salps on which adults of their species feed. Despite their soft, gelatinous bodies, fossils thought to represent ctenophores appear in lagerstätten dating as far back as the early Cambrian, about 525 million years ago. The position of the ctenophores in the "tree of life" has long been debated in molecular phylogenetics studies. Biologists proposed that ctenophores constitute the second-earliest branching animal lineage, with sponges being the sister-group to all other multicellular animals (Porifera Sister Hypothesis). Other biologists contend that ctenophores were emerging earlier than sponges (Ctenophora Sister Hypothesis), which themselves appeared before the split between cnidarians and bilaterians. Pisani et al. reanalyzed the data and suggested that the computer algorithms used for analysis were misled by the presence of specific ctenophore genes that were markedly different from those of other species. Follow up analysis by Whelan et al. (2017) yielded further support for the Ctenophora Sister hypothesis, and the issue remains a matter of taxonomic dispute. Schultz et al. (2023) found irreversible changes in synteny in the sister of the Ctenophora, the Myriazoa, consisting of the rest of the animals. ## Distinguishing features Among animal phyla, the Ctenophores are more complex than sponges, about as complex as cnidarians (jellyfish, sea anemones, etc.), and less complex than bilaterians (which include almost all other animals). Unlike sponges, both ctenophores and cnidarians have: - cells bound by inter-cell connections and - carpet-like basement membranes; - muscles; - nervous systems; and - sensory organs (in some, not all). Ctenophores are distinguished from all other animals by having colloblasts, which are sticky and adhere to prey, although a few ctenophore species lack them. Like sponges and cnidarians, ctenophores have two main layers of cells that sandwich a middle layer of jelly-like material, which is called the mesoglea in cnidarians and ctenophores; more complex animals have three main cell layers and no intermediate jelly-like layer. Hence ctenophores and cnidarians have traditionally been labelled diploblastic, along with sponges. Both ctenophores and cnidarians have a type of muscle that, in more complex animals, arises from the middle cell layer, and as a result some recent text books classify ctenophores as triploblastic, while others still regard them as diploblastic. The comb jellies have more than 80 different cell types, exceeding the numbers from other groups like placozoans, sponges, cnidarians, and some deep-branching bilaterians. Ranging from about 1 millimeter (0.04 in) to 1.5 meters (5 ft) in size, ctenophores are the largest non-colonial animals that use cilia ("hairs") as their main method of locomotion. Most species have eight strips, called comb rows, that run the length of their bodies and bear comb-like bands of cilia, called "ctenes", stacked along the comb rows so that when the cilia beat, those of each comb touch the comb below. The name "ctenophora" means "comb-bearing", from the Greek κτείς (stem-form κτεν-) meaning "comb" and the Greek suffix -φορος meaning "carrying". ## Description For a phylum with relatively few species, ctenophores have a wide range of body plans. Coastal species need to be tough enough to withstand waves and swirling sediment particles, while some oceanic species are so fragile that it is very difficult to capture them intact for study. In addition, oceanic species do not preserve well, and are known mainly from photographs and from observers' notes. Hence most attention has until recently concentrated on three coastal genera – Pleurobrachia, Beroe and Mnemiopsis. At least two textbooks base their descriptions of ctenophores on the cydippid Pleurobrachia. Since the body of many species is almost radially symmetrical, the main axis is oral to aboral (from the mouth to the opposite end). However, since only two of the canals near the statocyst terminate in anal pores, ctenophores have no mirror-symmetry, although many have rotational symmetry. In other words, if the animal rotates in a half-circle it looks the same as when it started. ### Common features The Ctenophore phylum has a wide range of body forms, including the flattened, deep-sea platyctenids, in which the adults of most species lack combs, and the coastal beroids, which lack tentacles and prey on other ctenophores by using huge mouths armed with groups of large, stiffened cilia that act as teeth. #### Body layers Like those of cnidarians, (jellyfish, sea anemones, etc.), ctenophores' bodies consist of a relatively thick, jelly-like mesoglea sandwiched between two epithelia, layers of cells bound by inter-cell connections and by a fibrous basement membrane that they secrete. The epithelia of ctenophores have two layers of cells rather than one, and some of the cells in the upper layer have several cilia per cell. The outer layer of the epidermis (outer skin) consists of: sensory cells; cells that secrete mucus, which protects the body; and interstitial cells, which can transform into other types of cell. In specialized parts of the body, the outer layer also contains colloblasts, found along the surface of tentacles and used in capturing prey, or cells bearing multiple large cilia, for locomotion. The inner layer of the epidermis contains a nerve net, and myoepithelial cells that act as muscles. The internal cavity forms: a mouth that can usually be closed by muscles; a pharynx ("throat"); a wider area in the center that acts as a stomach; and a system of internal canals. These branch through the mesoglea to the most active parts of the animal: the mouth and pharynx; the roots of the tentacles, if present; all along the underside of each comb row; and four branches around the sensory complex at the far end from the mouth – two of these four branches terminate in anal pores. The inner surface of the cavity is lined with an epithelium, the gastrodermis. The mouth and pharynx have both cilia and well-developed muscles. In other parts of the canal system, the gastrodermis is different on the sides nearest to and furthest from the organ that it supplies. The nearer side is composed of tall nutritive cells that store nutrients in vacuoles (internal compartments), germ cells that produce eggs or sperm, and photocytes that produce bioluminescence. The side furthest from the organ is covered with ciliated cells that circulate water through the canals, punctuated by ciliary rosettes, pores that are surrounded by double whorls of cilia and connect to the mesoglea. #### Feeding, excretion and respiration When prey is swallowed, it is liquefied in the pharynx by enzymes and by muscular contractions of the pharynx. The resulting slurry is wafted through the canal system by the beating of the cilia, and digested by the nutritive cells. The ciliary rosettes in the canals may help to transport nutrients to muscles in the mesoglea. The anal pores may eject unwanted small particles, but most unwanted matter is regurgitated via the mouth. Little is known about how ctenophores get rid of waste products produced by the cells. The ciliary rosettes in the gastrodermis may help to remove wastes from the mesoglea, and may also help to adjust the animal's buoyancy by pumping water into or out of the mesoglea. #### Locomotion The outer surface bears usually eight comb rows, called swimming-plates, which are used for swimming. The rows are oriented to run from near the mouth (the "oral pole") to the opposite end (the "aboral pole"), and are spaced more or less evenly around the body, although spacing patterns vary by species and in most species the comb rows extend only part of the distance from the aboral pole towards the mouth. The "combs" (also called "ctenes" or "comb plates") run across each row, and each consists of thousands of unusually long cilia, up to 2 millimeters (0.08 in). Unlike conventional cilia and flagella, which has a filament structure arranged in a 9 + 2 pattern, these cilia are arranged in a 9 + 3 pattern, where the extra compact filament is suspected to have a supporting function. These normally beat so that the propulsion stroke is away from the mouth, although they can also reverse direction. Hence ctenophores usually swim in the direction in which the mouth is eating, unlike jellyfish. When trying to escape predators, one species can accelerate to six times its normal speed; some other species reverse direction as part of their escape behavior, by reversing the power stroke of the comb plate cilia. It is uncertain how ctenophores control their buoyancy, but experiments have shown that some species rely on osmotic pressure to adapt to the water of different densities. Their body fluids are normally as concentrated as seawater. If they enter less dense brackish water, the ciliary rosettes in the body cavity may pump this into the mesoglea to increase its bulk and decrease its density, to avoid sinking. Conversely, if they move from brackish to full-strength seawater, the rosettes may pump water out of the mesoglea to reduce its volume and increase its density. #### Nervous system and senses Ctenophores have no brain or central nervous system, but instead have a subepidermal nerve net (rather like a cobweb) that forms a ring round the mouth and is densest near structures such as the comb rows, pharynx, tentacles (if present) and the sensory complex furthest from the mouth. The communication between nerve cells make use of two different methods; some of the neurons are found to have synaptic connections, but the neurons in the nerve net are highly distinctive by being fused into a syncytium, rather than being connected by synapses. Some animals outside ctenophores also have fused nerve cells, but never to such a degree that they form a whole nerve net. Fossils shows that Cambrian species had a more complex nervous system, with long nerves which connected with a ring around the mouth. The only known ctenophores with long nerves today is Euplokamis in the order Cydippida. Their nerve cells arise from the same progenitor cells as the colloblasts. In addition there is a less organized mesogleal nerve net consisting of single neurites. The largest single sensory feature is the aboral organ (at the opposite end from the mouth), which is underlined with its own nerve net. This organ's main component is a statocyst, a balance sensor consisting of a statolith, a tiny grain of calcium carbonate, supported on four bundles of cilia, called "balancers", that sense its orientation. The statocyst is protected by a transparent dome made of long, immobile cilia. A ctenophore does not automatically try to keep the statolith resting equally on all the balancers. Instead, its response is determined by the animal's "mood", in other words, the overall state of the nervous system. For example, if a ctenophore with trailing tentacles captures prey, it will often put some comb rows into reverse, spinning the mouth towards the prey. Research supports the hypothesis that the ciliated larvae in cnidarians and bilaterians share an ancient and common origin. The larvae's apical organ is involved in the formation of the nervous system. The aboral organ of comb jellies is not homologous with the apical organ in other animals, and the formation of their nervous system has therefore a different embryonic origin. Ctenophore nerve cells and nervous system have different biochemistry as compared to other animals. For instance, they lack the genes and enzymes required to manufacture neurotransmitters like serotonin, dopamine, nitric oxide, octopamine, noradrenaline, and others, otherwise seen in all other animals with a nervous system, with the genes coding for the receptors for each of these neurotransmitters missing. Monofunctional catalase (CAT), one of the three major families of antioxidant enzymes that target hydrogen peroxide, an important signaling molecule for synaptic and neuronal activity, is also absent, most likely due to gene loss. They have been found to use L-glutamate as a neurotransmitter, and have an unusually high variety of ionotropic glutamate receptors and genes for glutamate synthesis and transport compared to other metazoans. The genomic content of the nervous system genes is the smallest known of any animal, and could represent the minimum genetic requirements for a functional nervous system. The fact that portions of the nervous system feature directly fused neurons, without synapses, suggests that ctenophores might form a sister group to other metazoans, having developed a nervous system independently. If ctenophores are the sister group to all other metazoans, nervous systems may have either been lost in sponges and placozoans, or arisen more than once among metazoans. ### Cydippids Cydippid ctenophores have bodies that are more or less rounded, sometimes nearly spherical and other times more cylindrical or egg-shaped; the common coastal "sea gooseberry", Pleurobrachia, sometimes has an egg-shaped body with the mouth at the narrow end, although some individuals are more uniformly round. From opposite sides of the body extends a pair of long, slender tentacles, each housed in a sheath into which it can be withdrawn. Some species of cydippids have bodies that are flattened to various extents so that they are wider in the plane of the tentacles. The tentacles of cydippid ctenophores are typically fringed with tentilla ("little tentacles"), although a few genera have simple tentacles without these sidebranches. The tentacles and tentilla are densely covered with microscopic colloblasts that capture prey by sticking to it. Colloblasts are specialized mushroom-shaped cells in the outer layer of the epidermis, and have three main components: a domed head with vesicles (chambers) that contain adhesive; a stalk that anchors the cell in the lower layer of the epidermis or in the mesoglea; and a spiral thread that coils round the stalk and is attached to the head and to the root of the stalk. The function of the spiral thread is uncertain, but it may absorb stress when prey tries to escape, and thus prevent the collobast from being torn apart. In addition to colloblasts, members of the genus Haeckelia, which feed mainly on jellyfish, incorporate their victims' stinging nematocytes into their own tentacles – some cnidaria-eating nudibranchs similarly incorporate nematocytes into their bodies for defense. The tentilla of Euplokamis differ significantly from those of other cydippids: they contain striated muscle, a cell type otherwise unknown in the phylum Ctenophora; and they are coiled when relaxed, while the tentilla of all other known ctenophores elongate when relaxed. Euplokamis''' tentilla have three types of movement that are used in capturing prey: they may flick out very quickly (in 40 to 60 milliseconds); they can wriggle, which may lure prey by behaving like small planktonic worms; and they coil round prey. The unique flicking is an uncoiling movement powered by contraction of the striated muscle. The wriggling motion is produced by smooth muscles, but of a highly specialized type. Coiling around prey is accomplished largely by the return of the tentilla to their inactive state, but the coils may be tightened by smooth muscle. There are eight rows of combs that run from near the mouth to the opposite end, and are spaced evenly round the body. The "combs" beat in a metachronal rhythm rather like that of a Mexican wave. From each balancer in the statocyst a ciliary groove runs out under the dome and then splits to connect with two adjacent comb rows, and in some species runs along the comb rows. This forms a mechanical system for transmitting the beat rhythm from the combs to the balancers, via water disturbances created by the cilia. ### Lobates The Lobata has a pair of lobes, which are muscular, cuplike extensions of the body that project beyond the mouth. Their inconspicuous tentacles originate from the corners of the mouth, running in convoluted grooves and spreading out over the inner surface of the lobes (rather than trailing far behind, as in the Cydippida). Between the lobes on either side of the mouth, many species of lobates have four auricles, gelatinous projections edged with cilia that produce water currents that help direct microscopic prey toward the mouth. This combination of structures enables lobates to feed continuously on suspended planktonic prey. Lobates have eight comb-rows, originating at the aboral pole and usually not extending beyond the body to the lobes; in species with (four) auricles, the cilia edging the auricles are extensions of cilia in four of the comb rows. Most lobates are quite passive when moving through the water, using the cilia on their comb rows for propulsion, although Leucothea has long and active auricles whose movements also contribute to propulsion. Members of the lobate genera Bathocyroe and Ocyropsis can escape from danger by clapping their lobes, so that the jet of expelled water drives them back very quickly. Unlike cydippids, the movements of lobates' combs are coordinated by nerves rather than by water disturbances created by the cilia, yet combs on the same row beat in the same Mexican wave style as the mechanically coordinated comb rows of cydippids and beroids. This may have enabled lobates to grow larger than cydippids and to have less egg-like shapes. An unusual species first described in 2000, Lobatolampea tetragona, has been classified as a lobate, although the lobes are "primitive" and the body is medusa-like when floating and disk-like when resting on the sea-bed. ### Beroids The Beroida, also known as Nuda, have no feeding appendages, but their large pharynx, just inside the large mouth and filling most of the saclike body, bears "macrocilia" at the oral end. These fused bundles of several thousand large cilia are able to "bite" off pieces of prey that are too large to swallow whole – almost always other ctenophores. In front of the field of macrocilia, on the mouth "lips" in some species of Beroe, is a pair of narrow strips of adhesive epithelial cells on the stomach wall that "zip" the mouth shut when the animal is not feeding, by forming intercellular connections with the opposite adhesive strip. This tight closure streamlines the front of the animal when it is pursuing prey. ### Other body forms The Ganeshida has a pair of small oral lobes and a pair of tentacles. The body is circular rather than oval in cross-section, and the pharynx extends over the inner surfaces of the lobes. The Thalassocalycida, only discovered in 1978 and known from only one species, are medusa-like, with bodies that are shortened in the oral-aboral direction, and short comb-rows on the surface furthest from the mouth, originating from near the aboral pole. They capture prey by movements of the bell and possibly by using two short tentacles. The Cestida ("belt animals") are ribbon-shaped planktonic animals, with the mouth and aboral organ aligned in the middle of opposite edges of the ribbon. There is a pair of comb-rows along each aboral edge, and tentilla emerging from a groove all along the oral edge, which stream back across most of the wing-like body surface. Cestids can swim by undulating their bodies as well as by the beating of their comb-rows. There are two known species, with worldwide distribution in warm, and warm-temperate waters: Cestum veneris ("Venus' girdle") is among the largest ctenophores – up to 1.5 meters (4.9 ft) long, and can undulate slowly or quite rapidly. Velamen parallelum, which is typically less than 20 centimeters (0.66 ft) long, can move much faster in what has been described as a "darting motion". Most Platyctenida have oval bodies that are flattened in the oral-aboral direction, with a pair of tentilla-bearing tentacles on the aboral surface. They cling to and creep on surfaces by everting the pharynx and using it as a muscular "foot". All but one of the known platyctenid species lack comb-rows. Platyctenids are usually cryptically colored, live on rocks, algae, or the body surfaces of other invertebrates, and are often revealed by their long tentacles with many side branches, seen streaming off the back of the ctenophore into the current. ### Reproduction and development Adults of most species can regenerate tissues that are damaged or removed, although only platyctenids reproduce by cloning, splitting off from the edges of their flat bodies fragments that develop into new individuals. The last common ancestor (LCA) of the ctenophores was hermaphroditic. Some are simultaneous hermaphrodites, which can produce both eggs and sperm at the same time, while others are sequential hermaphrodites, in which the eggs and sperm mature at different times. There is no metamorphosis. At least three species are known to have evolved separate sexes (dioecy); Ocyropsis crystallina and Ocyropsis maculata in the genus Ocyropsis and Bathocyroe fosteri in the genus Bathocyroe. The gonads are located in the parts of the internal canal network under the comb rows, and eggs and sperm are released via pores in the epidermis. Fertilization is generally external, but platyctenids use internal fertilization and keep the eggs in brood chambers until they hatch. Self-fertilization has occasionally been seen in species of the genus Mnemiopsis, and it is thought that most of the hermaphroditic species are self-fertile. Development of the fertilized eggs is direct; there is no distinctive larval form. Juveniles of all groups are generally planktonic, and most species resemble miniature adult cydippids, gradually developing their adult body forms as they grow. In the genus Beroe, however, the juveniles have large mouths and, like the adults, lack both tentacles and tentacle sheaths. In some groups, such as the flat, bottom-dwelling platyctenids, the juveniles behave more like true larvae. They live among the plankton and thus occupy a different ecological niche from their parents, only attaining the adult form by a more radical ontogeny. after dropping to the sea-floor. At least in some species, juvenile ctenophores appear capable of producing small quantities of eggs and sperm while they are well below adult size, and adults produce eggs and sperm for as long as they have sufficient food. If they run short of food, they first stop producing eggs and sperm, and then shrink in size. When the food supply improves, they grow back to normal size and then resume reproduction. These features make ctenophores capable of increasing their populations very quickly. Members of the Lobata and Cydippida also have a reproduction form called dissogeny; two sexually mature stages, first as larva and later as juveniles and adults. During their time as larva they are capable of releasing gametes periodically. After their first reproductive period is over they will not produce more gametes again until later. A population of Mertensia ovum in the central Baltic Sea have become paedogenetic, and consist solely of sexually mature larvae less than 1.6 mm. In Mnemiopsis leidyi, NOS is present both in adult tissues and differentially expressed in later embryonic stages suggesting the involvement of NO in developmental mechanisms. ### Colors and bioluminescence Most ctenophores that live near the surface are mostly colorless and almost transparent. However some deeper-living species are strongly pigmented, for example the species known as "Tortugas red" (see illustration here), which has not yet been formally described. Platyctenids generally live attached to other sea-bottom organisms, and often have similar colors to these host organisms. The gut of the deep-sea genus Bathocyroe is red, which hides the bioluminescence of copepods it has swallowed. The comb rows of most planktonic ctenophores produce a rainbow effect, which is not caused by bioluminescence but by the scattering of light as the combs move. Most species are also bioluminescent, but the light is usually blue or green and can only be seen in darkness. However some significant groups, including all known platyctenids and the cydippid genus Pleurobrachia, are incapable of bioluminescence. When some species, including Bathyctena chuni, Euplokamis stationis and Eurhamphaea vexilligera, are disturbed, they produce secretions (ink) that luminesce at much the same wavelengths as their bodies. Juveniles will luminesce more brightly in relation to their body size than adults, whose luminescence is diffused over their bodies. Detailed statistical investigation has not suggested the function of ctenophores' bioluminescence nor produced any correlation between its exact color and any aspect of the animals' environments, such as depth or whether they live in coastal or mid-ocean waters. In ctenophores, bioluminescence is caused by the activation of calcium-activated proteins named photoproteins in cells called photocytes, which are often confined to the meridional canals that underlie the eight comb rows. In the genome of Mnemiopsis leidyi ten genes encode photoproteins. These genes are co-expressed with opsin genes in the developing photocytes of Mnemiopsis leidyi, raising the possibility that light production and light detection may be working together in these animals. ## Ecology ### Distribution Ctenophores are found in most marine environments: from polar waters at −2°C to the tropics at 30°C; near coasts and in mid-ocean; from the surface waters to the ocean depths at more than 7000 meters. The best-understood are the genera Pleurobrachia, Beroe and Mnemiopsis, as these planktonic coastal forms are among the most likely to be collected near shore. No ctenophores have been found in fresh water. In 2013 Mnemiopsis was recorded in lake Birket Qarun, and in 2014 in lake El Rayan II, both near Faiyum in Egypt, where they were accidentally introduced by the transport of fish (mullet) fry. Though many species prefer brackish waters like estuaries and coastal lagoons in open connection with the sea, this was the first record from an inland environment. Both lakes are saline, with Birket Qarun being hypersaline, and shows that some ctenophores can establish themselves in saline limnic environments without connection to the ocean. In the long run it is not expected the populations will survive. The two limiting factors in saline lakes are availability of food and a varied diet, and high temperatures during hot summers. Because a parasitic isopod, Livoneca redmanii, was introduced at the same time, it is difficult to say how much of the ecological impact of invasive species is caused by the ctenophore alone. Ctenophores may be abundant during the summer months in some coastal locations, but in other places, they are uncommon and difficult to find. In bays where they occur in very high numbers, predation by ctenophores may control the populations of small zooplanktonic organisms such as copepods, which might otherwise wipe out the phytoplankton (planktonic plants), which are a vital part of marine food chains. ### Prey and predators Almost all ctenophores are predators – there are no vegetarians and only one genus that is partly parasitic. If food is plentiful, they can eat 10 times their own weight per day. While Beroe preys mainly on other ctenophores, other surface-water species prey on zooplankton (planktonic animals) ranging in size from the microscopic, including mollusc and fish larvae, to small adult crustaceans such as copepods, amphipods, and even krill. Members of the genus Haeckelia prey on jellyfish and incorporate their prey's nematocysts (stinging cells) into their own tentacles instead of colloblasts. Ctenophores have been compared to spiders in their wide range of techniques for capturing prey – some hang motionless in the water using their tentacles as "webs", some are ambush predators like Salticid jumping spiders, and some dangle a sticky droplet at the end of a fine thread, as bolas spiders do. This variety explains the wide range of body forms in a phylum with rather few species. The two-tentacled "cydippid" Lampea feeds exclusively on salps, close relatives of sea-squirts that form large chain-like floating colonies, and juveniles of Lampea attach themselves like parasites to salps that are too large for them to swallow. Members of the cydippid genus Pleurobrachia and the lobate Bolinopsis often reach high population densities at the same place and time because they specialize in different types of prey: Pleurobrachia's long tentacles mainly capture relatively strong swimmers such as adult copepods, while Bolinopsis generally feeds on smaller, weaker swimmers such as rotifers and mollusc and crustacean larvae. Ctenophores used to be regarded as "dead ends" in marine food chains because it was thought their low ratio of organic matter to salt and water made them a poor diet for other animals. It is also often difficult to identify the remains of ctenophores in the guts of possible predators, although the combs sometimes remain intact long enough to provide a clue. Detailed investigation of chum salmon, Oncorhynchus keta, showed that these fish digest ctenophores 20 times as fast as an equal weight of shrimps, and that ctenophores can provide a good diet if there are enough of them around. Beroids prey mainly on other ctenophores. Some jellyfish and turtles eat large quantities of ctenophores, and jellyfish may temporarily wipe out ctenophore populations. Since ctenophores and jellyfish often have large seasonal variations in population, most fish that prey on them are generalists and may have a greater effect on populations than the specialist jelly-eaters. This is underlined by an observation of herbivorous fishes deliberately feeding on gelatinous zooplankton during blooms in the Red Sea. The larvae of some sea anemones are parasites on ctenophores, as are the larvae of some flatworms that parasitize fish when they reach adulthood. ### Ecological impacts Most species are hermaphrodites, and juveniles of at least some species are capable of reproduction before reaching the adult size and shape. This combination of hermaphroditism and early reproduction enables small populations to grow at an explosive rate. Ctenophores may balance marine ecosystems by preventing an over-abundance of copepods from eating all the phytoplankton (planktonic plants), which are the dominant marine producers of organic matter from non-organic ingredients. On the other hand, in the late 1980s the Western Atlantic ctenophore Mnemiopsis leidyi was accidentally introduced into the Black Sea and Sea of Azov via the ballast tanks of ships, and has been blamed for causing sharp drops in fish catches by eating both fish larvae and small crustaceans that would otherwise feed the adult fish. Mnemiopsis is well equipped to invade new territories (although this was not predicted until after it so successfully colonized the Black Sea), as it can breed very rapidly and tolerate a wide range of water temperatures and salinities. The impact was increased by chronic overfishing, and by eutrophication that gave the entire ecosystem a short-term boost, causing the Mnemiopsis population to increase even faster than normal – and above all by the absence of efficient predators on these introduced ctenophores. Mnemiopsis populations in those areas were eventually brought under control by the accidental introduction of the Mnemiopsis-eating North American ctenophore Beroe ovata, and by a cooling of the local climate from 1991 to 1993, which significantly slowed the animal's metabolism. However the abundance of plankton in the area seems unlikely to be restored to pre-Mnemiopsis levels. In the late 1990s Mnemiopsis appeared in the Caspian Sea. Beroe ovata arrived shortly after, and is expected to reduce but not eliminate the impact of Mnemiopsis there. Mnemiopsis also reached the eastern Mediterranean in the late 1990s and now appears to be thriving in the North Sea and Baltic Sea. ## Taxonomy The number of known living ctenophore species is uncertain since many of those named and formally described have turned out to be identical to species known under other scientific names. Claudia Mills estimates that there about 100 to 150 valid species that are not duplicates, and that at least another 25, mostly deep-sea forms, have been recognized as distinct but not yet analyzed in enough detail to support a formal description and naming. ### Early classification Early writers combined ctenophores with cnidarians into a single phylum called Coelenterata on account of morphological similarities between the two groups. Like cnidarians, the bodies of ctenophores consist of a mass of jelly, with one layer of cells on the outside and another lining the internal cavity. In ctenophores, however, these layers are two cells deep, while those in cnidarians are only a single cell deep. Ctenophores also resemble cnidarians in relying on water flow through the body cavity for both digestion and respiration, as well as in having a decentralized nerve net rather than a brain. Genomic studies have suggested that the neurons of Ctenophora, which differ in many ways from other animal neurons, evolved independently from those of the other animals, and increasing awareness of the differences between the comb jellies and the other coelentarata has persuaded more recent authors to classify the two as separate phyla. The position of the ctenophores in the evolutionary family tree of animals has long been debated, and the majority view at present, based on molecular phylogenetics, is that cnidarians and bilaterians are more closely related to each other than either is to ctenophores. ### Modern taxonomy The traditional classification divides ctenophores into two classes, those with tentacles (Tentaculata) and those without (Nuda). The Nuda contains only one order (Beroida) and family (Beroidae), and two genera, Beroe (several species) and Neis (one species). The Tentaculata are divided into the following eight orders: - Cydippida, egg-shaped animals with long tentacles - Lobata, with paired thick lobes - Platyctenida, flattened animals that live on or near the sea-bed; most lack combs as adults, and use their pharynges as suckers to attach themselves to surfaces - Ganeshida, with a pair of small lobes round the mouth, but an extended pharynx like that of platyctenids - Cambojiida - Cryptolobiferida - Thalassocalycida, with short tentacles and a jellyfish-like "umbrella" - Cestida, ribbon-shaped and the largest ctenophores ## Evolutionary history Despite their fragile, gelatinous bodies, fossils thought to represent ctenophores – apparently with no tentacles but many more comb-rows than modern forms – have been found in Lagerstätten as far back as the early Cambrian, about . Nevertheless, a recent molecular phylogenetics analysis concludes that the common ancestor originated approximately 350 million years ago ± 88 million years ago, conflicting with previous estimates which suggests it occurred after the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event. ### Fossil record Because of their soft, gelatinous bodies, ctenophores are extremely rare as fossils, and fossils that have been interpreted as ctenophores have been found only in lagerstätten, places where the environment was exceptionally suited to the preservation of soft tissue. Until the mid-1990s only two specimens good enough for analysis were known, both members of the crown group, from the early Devonian (Emsian) period. Three additional putative species were then found in the Burgess Shale and other Canadian rocks of similar age, about in the mid-Cambrian period. All three lacked tentacles but had between 24 and 80 comb rows, far more than the 8 typical of living species. They also appear to have had internal organ-like structures unlike anything found in living ctenophores. One of the fossil species first reported in 1996 had a large mouth, apparently surrounded by a folded edge that may have been muscular. Evidence from China a year later suggests that such ctenophores were widespread in the Cambrian, but perhaps very different from modern species – for example one fossil's comb-rows were mounted on prominent vanes. The youngest fossil of a species outside the crown group is the species Daihuoides from late Devonian, and belongs to a basal group that was assumed to have gone extinct more than 140 million years earlier. The Ediacaran Eoandromeda could putatively represent a comb jelly. It has eightfold symmetry, with eight spiral arms resembling the comblike rows of a Ctenophore. If it is indeed a Ctenophore, it places the group close to the origin of the Bilateria. The early Cambrian sessile frond-like fossil Stromatoveris, from China's Chengjiang lagerstätte and dated to about , is very similar to Vendobionta of the preceding Ediacaran period. De-Gan Shu, Simon Conway Morris et al. found on its branches what they considered rows of cilia, used for filter feeding. They suggested that Stromatoveris was an evolutionary "aunt" of ctenophores, and that ctenophores originated from sessile animals whose descendants became swimmers and changed the cilia from a feeding mechanism to a propulsion system. Other fossils that could support the idea of ctenophores having evolved from sessile forms are Dinomischus and Daihua sanqiong, which also lived on the seafloor, had organic skeletons and cilia-covered tentacles surrounding their mouth, although not all yet agree that these were actually comb jellies. 520 million years old Cambrian fossils also from Chengjiang in China show a now wholly extinct class of ctenophore, named "Scleroctenophora", that had a complex internal skeleton with long spines. The skeleton also supported eight soft-bodied flaps, which could have been used for swimming and possibly feeding. One form, Thaumactena, had a streamlined body resembling that of arrow worms and could have been an agile swimmer. ### Relationship to other animal groups The phylogenetic relationship of ctenophores to the rest of Metazoa is very important to our understanding of the early evolution of animals and the origin of multicellularity. It has been the focus of debate for many years. Ctenophores have been purported to be the sister lineage to the Bilateria, sister to the Cnidaria, sister to Cnidaria, Placozoa, and Bilateria, and sister to all other animals. Walter Garstang in his book Larval Forms and Other Zoological Verses (Mülleria and the Ctenophore) even expressed a theory that ctenophores were descended from a neotenic Mülleria larva of a polyclad. A series of studies that looked at the presence and absence of members of gene families and signalling pathways (e.g., homeoboxes, nuclear receptors, the Wnt signaling pathway, and sodium channels) showed evidence congruent with the latter two scenarios, that ctenophores are either sister to Cnidaria, Placozoa, and Bilateria or sister to all other animal phyla. Several more recent studies comparing complete sequenced genomes of ctenophores with other sequenced animal genomes have also supported ctenophores as the sister lineage to all other animals. This position would suggest that neural and muscle cell types either were lost in major animal lineages (e.g., Porifera and Placozoa) or evolved independently in the ctenophore lineage. Other researchers have argued that the placement of Ctenophora as sister to all other animals is a statistical anomaly caused by the high rate of evolution in ctenophore genomes, and that Porifera (sponges) is the earliest-diverging animal taxon instead. They also have extremely high rates of mitochondrial evolution, and the smallest known RNA/protein content of the mtDNA genome in animals. As such, the Ctenophora appear to be a basal diploblast clade. In agreement with the latter point, the analysis of a very large sequence alignment at the metazoan taxonomic scale (1,719 proteins totalizing ca. 400,000 amino acid positions) showed that ctenophores emerge as the second-earliest branching animal lineage, and sponges are sister-group to all other multicellular animals. Also, research on mucin genes, which allow an animal to produce mucus, shows that sponges have never had them while all other animals, including comb jellies, appear to share genes with a common origin. And it has been revealed that despite all their differences, ctenophoran neurons share the same foundation as cnidarian neurons after findings shows that peptide-expressing neurons are probably ancestral to chemical neurotransmitters. Yet another study strongly rejects the hypothesis that sponges are the sister group to all other extant animals and establishes the placement of Ctenophora as the sister group to all other animals, and disagreement with the last-mentioned paper is explained by methodological problems in analyses in that work. Neither ctenophores or sponges possess HIF pathways, their genome express only a single type of voltage-gated calcium channel unlike other animals which have three types, and they are the only known animal phyla that lack any true hox genes. A few species from other phyla; the nemertean pilidium larva, the larva of the Phoronid species Phoronopsis harmeri and the acorn worm larva Schizocardium californicum, do not depend on hox genes in their larval development either, but need them during metamorphosis to reach their adult form. ### Relationships within Ctenophora Since all modern ctenophores except the beroids have cydippid-like larvae, it has widely been assumed that their last common ancestor also resembled cydippids, having an egg-shaped body and a pair of retractable tentacles. Richard Harbison's purely morphological analysis in 1985 concluded that the cydippids are not monophyletic, in other words do not contain all and only the descendants of a single common ancestor that was itself a cydippid. Instead he found that various cydippid families were more similar to members of other ctenophore orders than to other cydippids. He also suggested that the last common ancestor of modern ctenophores was either cydippid-like or beroid-like. A molecular phylogeny analysis in 2001, using 26 species, including 4 recently discovered ones, confirmed that the cydippids are not monophyletic and concluded that the last common ancestor of modern ctenophores was cydippid-like. It also found that the genetic differences between these species were very small – so small that the relationships between the Lobata, Cestida and Thalassocalycida remained uncertain. This suggests that the last common ancestor of modern ctenophores was relatively recent, and perhaps survived the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event while other lineages perished. When the analysis was broadened to include representatives of other phyla, it concluded that cnidarians are probably more closely related to bilaterians than either group is to ctenophores but that this diagnosis is uncertain. A clade including Mertensia, Charistephane and Euplokamis'' may be the sister lineage to all other ctenophores. Divergence times estimated from molecular data indicated approximately how many million years ago (Mya) the major clades diversified: 350 Mya for Cydippida relative to other Ctenophora, and 260 Mya for Platyctenida relative to Beroida and Lobata. ## See also - Gelatinous zooplankton
1,947,846	Héctor Garza	1,172,441,387	Mexican professional wrestler (1969–2013)	[ "1969 births", "2013 deaths", "20th-century professional wrestlers", "21st-century professional wrestlers", "CMLL World Heavyweight Champions", "CMLL World Tag Team Champions", "CMLL World Trios Champions", "Deaths from cancer in Mexico", "Deaths from lung cancer", "Latino World Order members", "Mexican National Light Heavyweight Champions", "Mexican National Tag Team Champions", "Mexican male professional wrestlers", "Professional wrestlers from Nuevo León", "Sportspeople from Monterrey", "UWA World Middleweight Champions" ]	Héctor Solano Segura (June 12, 1969 – May 26, 2013) was a Mexican professional wrestler, better known by the ring name Héctor Garza. During his career he worked for various major Mexican professional wrestling promotions such as Consejo Mundial de Lucha Libre (CMLL), Perros del Mal Producciones and, at the time of death, AAA. Garza also worked for several major promotions such as World Championship Wrestling (WCW), the World Wrestling Federation (WWF) and Total Nonstop Action Wrestling (TNA) in the United States. Solano was a second-generation wrestler, son of Humberto Garza. His own son, known as El Sultán, also became a professional wrestler after Garza's death. The extended Garza family includes Angel Garza and Humberto Carrillo (formerly known as Último Ninja). In 2017 Garza Jr. adopted a ring persona similar to that of Solano, paying homage to his uncle's rudo ("bad guy") persona and wrestling style. At the time of his death, Garza was in the middle of his second reign with the Mexican National Heavyweight Championship. He had also won the CMLL World Heavyweight Championship, the CMLL World Tag Team Championship three times, the CMLL World Trios Championship five times in CMLL and the IWC World Heavyweight Championship, the Mexican National Light Heavyweight Championship and the Mexican National Tag Team Championship. He was posthumously inducted in the AAA Hall of Fame. ## Professional wrestling career After being trained by his uncle Mario Segura, and Mr. Lince and Blue Fish, Solano made his professional wrestling debut in 1992, using the ring name "Héctor Garza", after his father who worked as Humberto Garza. He initially wrestled for Federacion Internacional de Lucha Libre (FILL; "International Wrestling Federation" in Spanish) promotion in Monterrey, Nuevo León. As Garza, his first prominent storyline feud played out in 1993 as he was paired with El Sanguinario ("The Bloodthirsty One"), who portrayed a ruthless rudo (a "heel character", those that portray the "bad guys" in wrestling), juxtaposed with the young, fan-friendly técnico (or "face character", those who portray the "good guys"). On June 6, 1993, Garza won his first Lucha de Apuestas, or "Bet match", when he defeated El Sanguinario to force El Sanguinario to be shaved bald as a result. Two months later, Garza defeated Sanguinario once more, this time to win the FILL Light Heavyweight Championship. ### Consejo Mundial de Lucha Libre (1994–1996) After his local success in Monterrey, Consejo Mundial de Lucha Libre (CMLL) hired him to work nationally instead, joining the world's oldest professional wrestling promotion as part of CMLL's rebuilding after a split that led to the creation of Asistencia Asesoría y Administración (AAA). He was put over veteran rudos like Bestia Salvaje and Satánico in hair matches and Garza quickly became one of the top técnicos in the company. In the following year, he teamed with Dos Caras and La Fiera to win the CMLL World Trios Championship, and lost to Emilio Charles Jr. in the final of the La Copa Junior, a tournament for second-generation wrestlers. ### AAA / World Wrestling Federation (1996–1997) When Garza joined AAA, he was also able to work for the US-based World Wrestling Federation (WWF) through AAA's working agreement. His first televised WWF appearance saw him defeat T.L. Hopper on an episode of Superstars. At the 1997 Royal Rumble pay-per-view show Garza teamed up with El Canek and Perro Aguayo to defeat Fuerza Guerrera, Heavy Metal and Jerry Estrada. He worked several more matches for the WWF, with his last appearance for the company taking place on March 10, 1997, where he, Latin Lover and Octagón lost to Pentagón, Heavy Metal and Pierroth on the 200th episode of Monday Night Raw. In AAA he often worked as part of a trio known as La Maquina del Amor ("The Love Machine") alongside Heavy Metal and Latin Lover, a group of young, good looking, fan favorites that were very popular with the female fans. All three members of La Maquina del Amor qualified for the 1997 Rey de Reyes tournament along with Octagón, which Latin Lover won. Later that year Garza teamed up with Super Nova for the "Young Stars" tag team tournament. In the first round the duo defeated May Flowers and Pentagón, but lost to Fuerza Guerra and Mosco de la Merced in the semi-finals. ### World Championship Wrestling (1997-1999) #### Cruiserweight division (1997–1998) The AAA/WWF collaboration ended in mid-1997, which led to many AAA workers wrestling for WWF's rival, World Championship Wrestling (WCW), later in the year. Garza made his WCW debut on May 20 by defeating Psychosis at a live event. He made his televised debut in WCW on the May 26 episode of Monday Nitro by teaming with Juventud Guerrera and Super Calo to defeat Ciclope, Damien and La Parka in a six-man tag team match. His first televised singles match in WCW took place on the June 7 episode of Saturday Night against Billy Kidman, which Garza won. The young Garza would become known in WCW for his twirling turnbuckle to floor plancha called the "corkscrew plancha". On the June 30 episode of Nitro, Garza received his first title shot in WCW as he unsuccessfully challenged Lord Steven Regal for the World Television Championship. The following month, he made his first pay-per-view appearance in WCW at Bash at the Beach, where he teamed with Juventud Guerrera and Lizmark Jr. to defeat La Parka, Psychosis and Villano IV. On the September 22 episode of Nitro, Garza enjoyed the biggest moment of his WCW career by scoring an upset victory over Scott Hall. The victory was played off as a "fluke" and Hall defeated Garza two weeks later on Nitro in just over a minute as a follow-up to the storyline. Garza competed in the World War 3 battle royal at the namesake event for a future WCW World Heavyweight Championship opportunity but failed to win the match. Garza continued to team with and compete against various luchadors in tag team matches and singles competition while alternating between WCW and Mexico. He took a hiatus from WCW in early 1998 and competed in his native Mexico throughout the year. He returned to WCW on the September 7 episode of Nitro by unsuccessfully challenging Juventud Guerrera for the Cruiserweight Championship. #### Latino World Order (1998–1999) On the October 5 episode of Nitro, Eddie Guerrero interrupted a match between Garza and Damien and prevented luchadors from fighting each other and instead urging them to unite which resulted in the formation of Guerrero's new faction Latino World Order (lWo), consisting of the underutilized Mexican wrestlers on the WCW, with Garza joining in as one of the pioneer members of the group. The group began feuding with Rey Misterio Jr. as he refused to join the lWo. The following month, at World War 3, Garza participated in the namesake battle royal for a future World Heavyweight Championship opportunity but failed to win. LWO prematurely disbanded in 1999 after Guerrero was injured in a car accident and the New World Order attacked various LWO members and threatened them to disband with the President Ric Flair urging them to disband the group and fight on WCW side with the promise of a better treatment than Eric Bischoff. Following the dissolution of LWO, Garza resumed competing in WCW's lower mid-card, competing mostly against fellow luchadors while also serving as an enhancement talent to upper mid-card wrestlers. Garza's final televised match in WCW took place on the February 18 episode of Thunder, where he teamed with Silver King against Konnan and Rey Misterio, Jr. in a losing effort. Garza's last match for WCW took place at a live event on October 1, where he teamed with King to defeat Los Villanos (Villano IV and Villano V). Garza was released from his WCW contract in November 1999 as part of mass releases including twenty-one other wrestlers due to budget cuts. ### AAA (1999–2004) In late 1999, Garza returned to AAA where he became involved in a long-running storyline feud with Heavy Metal, Latin Lover and Perro Aguayo Jr. that would span several years. On December 26, 1999, Héctor Garza defeated Pirata Morgan to win the IWC World Heavyweight Championship, his first championship reign in AAA. 98 days later, Garza lost the championship back to Pirata Morgan. Two months later Garza defeated Sangre Chicana to win the Mexican National Light Heavyweight Championship on a show in his home town of Monterrey. As part of their ongoing storyline, Garza and Aguayo Jr. teamed up to defeat Los Vipers (Abismo Negro and Electroshock) to win the Mexican National Tag Team Championship, starting a 61-day reign. Their reign was ended by El Texano and Pirata Morgan on September 8, 2000. The four-way feud led to a Lucha de Apuetas match between Garza and Heavy Metal as part of AAA's 2001 Guerra de Titanes PPV. The match saw Garza pin Heavy Metal in the third and deciding fall, forcing Heavy Metal to have all of his hair shaved off. After the 2001 Guerra de Titanes the feud shifted to focusing on Garza and Latin Lover instead. On May 5, 2002, Garza defeated Latin Lover to win the Mexican National Heavyweight Championship as part of the escalating tension between the two. On November 15, 2002, at that year's Guerra de Titanes show, Garza, Latin Lover, Perro Aguayo Jr. and Mr. Águila faced off in a steel cage match. Latin Lover defeated Garza, causing him to have his hair shaved off for the first time in his career. On May 5, 2003, he lost the Mexican National Heavyweight Championship to E; Zorro, exactly one year after winning it. On October 26, 2003, Garza lost another Lucha de Apuestas match to Latin Lover, which turned out to be his last major storyline in AAA. ### Total Nonstop Action Wrestling (2004) In 2004, he returned to the United States for Total Nonstop Action Wrestling during AAA's working agreement with the company. Along with Abismo Negro, Juventud Guerrera, Mr. Águila and later Heavy Metal, "Team Mexico" was successful in winning the America's X-Cup. After Team Canada was repackaged, Team Mexico became faces. In June, he returned to CMLL. While the AAA-TNA deal was still in effect, Garza wrestled exclusively in Mexico. In CMLL, he helped Perro Aguayo Jr. adopt a "heel" character, becoming one of the "bad guys" in wrestling, and became involved in Aguayo's storyline feud with El Hijo del Santo. Eventually, he would help found La Furia del Norte with El Terrible and Tarzan Boy. Teaming with Tarzan and Terrible, La Furia chased after and defeated the CMLL Tríos champions Black Warrior, El Canek and Rayo de Jalisco Jr. Meanwhile, in the United States, the AAA-TNA deal was terminated, which led to TNA to bringing Garza back. He returned for TNA Victory Road 2004, TNA's first three-hour pay-per-view when he won a Twenty Man X-Division Gauntlet. The push continued with a match against NWA World Heavyweight Champion Jeff Jarrett on TNA's weekly TV show. ### Consejo Mundial de Lucha Libre (2005–2011) After being deported for drug possession, he returned to working full-time in Mexico for CMLL. He teamed with Perro Aguayo Jr. against Los Capos and became a major part of the new group, Los Perros del Mal along with members of La Furia del Norte, Los Pierroths and La Familia de Tijuana. In August, Pierroth Jr. was ejected from the group and Garza volunteered to face him in a hair vs. hair match, which Garza won. After the Dr. Wagner Jr. vs. Atlantis mask vs. mask match fell through, CMLL decided to go with Héctor Garza and Perro Aguayo Jr. vs. Universo 2000 and Máscara Año 2000 double hair vs. hair match as the main event of the CMLL 72nd Anniversary Show. Three weeks before the show, Garza hit Máscara Año 2000 with a "Martinete" (tombstone piledriver). The match for the anniversary show was changed to a triangle match with Universo 2000 vs. Perro Aguayo Jr. vs. Héctor Garza where the last man to get pinned gets his hair shaved. In the end, Universo pinned Garza with help of a low blow from his brother, Cien Caras, and Pierroth's valet, La Nazi. In 2008 Garza began teaming with El Hijo del Fantasma and La Máscara and the trio quickly won the vacant CMLL World Trios Championship when they defeated Blue Panther, Dos Caras Jr. and Místico in the finals of a tournament for the title. The team lost, then regained the trios title to the team of Atlantis, Último Guerrero and Negro Casas. In March 2010 signs of dissention amongst the team began showing as Garza left the ring during a trios match mistakenly thinking that one of his teammates had attacked him. Following this Garza kept insincerely insisting that he was still a tecnico and that his team was getting along great. Further doubts about Garza's allegiance arose when he teamed up with the Rúdo Pólvora for the 2010 Gran Alternativa tournament. The team defeated Sensei and La Máscara in the first round with Garza showing no problems in going after his teammate. They also defeated Rey Cometa and Blue Panther as well as Diamante and La Sombra to qualify for the finals. On the April 30, 2010 Super Viernes Garza and Pólvora won the 2010 Gran Alternativa when they defeated Delta and Volador Jr. When Garza, La Máscara and Hijo del Fantasma were booked for a CMLL World Trios defense the following week, Garza complained that his partners had agreed to the match without asking him, but swore that he would still be professional about it. During the title defense on the May 7, 2010 Super Viernes Garza attacked both Hijo del Fantasma and La Máscara, allowing La Ola Amarillo (Hiroshi Tanahashi, Okumura and Taichi) to win the CMLL World Trios Championship, turning full blown Rudo in the process. #### Los Invasores (2010) During a trios match with the Los Invasores team of El Alebrije, Histeria and Maniaco going against Garza, Brazo de Plata and Toscano, Garza turned on his teammates and joined Los Invasores. CMLL held a press conference on May 20, 2010, announcing that they would hold a special Sin Salida event on June 6, 2010, that would center around the Los Invasores vs. CMLL storyline. During the press conference Olímpico was part of the Invasores group. It was also announced that Garza and Mr. Águila were the co-leaders of Los Invasores. At the July 16, 2010 Super Viernes Héctor Garza and Mr. Águila defeated the team of La Sombra and Volador Jr. to win the CMLL World Tag Team Championship, Garza's third reign and Mr. Águila's first reign. On November 2, 2010, Garza and Águila lost the CMLL World Tag Team Championship to Dragón Rojo Jr. and Último Guerrero. #### World Heavyweight Champion (2011) On January 4, 2011, Garza made his debut for New Japan Pro-Wrestling (NJPW) at Wrestle Kingdom V in Tokyo Dome, where he and Jushin Thunder Liger were defeated by Máscara Dorada and La Sombra in a tag team match. Garza returned for a tour of New Japan on July 8, 2011. His tour of the promotion concluded on July 18, when he was defeated by CMLL World Middleweight Champion, Jushin Thunder Liger in a non-title match. Upon Garza's return to CMLL, he turned technico and left Los Invasores. On August 12, Garza defeated Último Guerrero to win the CMLL World Heavyweight Championship for the first time. ### Perros del Mal Producciones (2011–2012) On November 11, 2011, Garza held a press conference, announcing that he had left CMLL and joined Perro Aguyao Jr.'s Perros del Mal Producciones as a member of the Perros del Mal stable. Before leaving CMLL, Garza handed the World Heavyweight Championship belt back to the promotion. Behind the scenes, Garza had offered to lose the title to El Terrible prior to leaving the promotion, but CMLL refused to allow him to wrestle another match. Garza made his debut for the promotion on November 13, when he ran in to save Perro Aguayo Jr., Damián 666, Halloween and X-Fly from Los Psycho Circus, Nosawa and Zumbi. The following day, Garza returned to AAA, when he, along with members of Los Perros del Mal, attacked El Mesías and Jack Evans, after they had defeated Aguayo and Chessman in a match. On December 16 at Guerra de Titanes, Garza, Aguayo and Halloween defeated Evans, Fénix and Drago in a six-man tag team match. On February 14, 2012, Garza defeated champion X-Fly, El Hijo del Perro Aguayo, El Mesías, El Texano Jr. and Toscano in a six-way elimination match at a Perros del Mal Producciones event to win the Mexican National Heavyweight Championship for the second time. On August 5 at Triplemanía XX, Garza's accidental chair shot to El Hijo del Perro Aguayo cost the Perros del Mal leader his match for the AAA Mega Championship. On August 10, Los Perros del Mal turned on Garza and kicked him out of the stable. ## Personal life Héctor Solano Segura was born on June 12, 1969, in Monterrey, Nuevo León, Mexico, son of professional wrestler Humberto Garza. His brother works as a professional wrestler and promoter under the ring name "Humberto Garza Jr." and his son, originally known as "Último Ninja" in Mexico and "Humberto Carrillo" in NXT, is a professional wrestler, using the name El Sultán. His uncle is Mike Segura, better known under the ring name "El Ninja". Solano's cousin is known as "El Ninja Jr.", and his nephew, Humberto Garza Solano, works under the ring name Angel Garza. In 2005, Solano was set to wrestle Scott Hall at TNA's Final Resolution 2005 but was arrested in Houston, Texas, for possession of steroids. The police found Deca-Durabolin and Primobolan, both of which are legal to have and use in Mexico, but not in the United States, and Solano claimed that he had legal prescriptions for them but could not produce them at the time of his arrest. Solano was deported back to Mexico and barred from entry for a number of years, effectively ending his career in the United States. Garza claimed that he did not know the steroids were illegal in the United States and that he was humiliated by the guards. ### Illness and death On October 15, 2012, a press release revealed that Solano had been diagnosed with lung cancer. He retired from active competition to undergo chemotherapy and additional treatment. He died on May 26, 2013, from the cancer at the age of 43. He was the reigning Mexican National Heavyweight Champion at the time of his death. As a result of his death, the "Comisión de Box y Lucha Libre Mexico D.F." (the Mexico City Boxing and Wrestling Commission) deemed the Mexican National Heavyweight Championship inactive. ## Legacy On August 9, 2015, at Triplemanía XXIII, Garza was inducted into the AAA Hall of Fame. When his nephew Humberto Garza Solano began working for Lucha Libre AAA Worldwide, he changed his ring name from "El Hijo del Ninja" to "Garza Jr." in honor of his uncle, adopting both the look and some of the mannerisms and wrestling moves that his uncle had become known for. ### Solano/Segura family tree † = deceased ## Championships and accomplishments - AAA / Asistencia Asesoría y Administración - IWC World Heavyweight Championship (2 times) - Mexican National Heavyweight Championship (2 times) - Mexican National Light Heavyweight Championship (1 time) - Mexican National Tag Team Championship (1 time) – with Perro Aguayo Jr. - AAA Hall of Fame (Class of 2015) - Consejo Mundial de Lucha Libre - CMLL World Heavyweight Championship (1 time) - CMLL World Tag Team Championship (3 times) – with Místico (2) and Mr. Águila (1) - CMLL World Trios Championship (5 times) – with La Fiera and Dos Caras (1), Tarzan Boy and El Terrible (1), Mr. Águila and Perro Aguayo Jr. (1), and El Hijo del Fantasma and La Mascara (2) - CMLL Trio of the year: 2009 (with La Máscara and Hijo del Fantasma) - La Copa Junior: 1996 - Torneo Gran Alternativa 1994, 2010 – with Negro Casas (1994), with Pólvora (2010) - Federación Internacional de Lucha Libre - FILL Light Heavyweight Championship (1 time) - Lucha Libre Azteca - LLA Azteca Championship (1 time) - Perros del Mal Producciones - Mexican National Heavyweight Championship (1 time) - Pro Wrestling Illustrated - Ranked No. 283 of the 500 best singles wrestlers of the PWI Years in 2003 - Ranked No. 19 of the 500 best singles wrestlers of the PWI 500 in 2004 - Total Nonstop Action Wrestling - America's X Cup (2004) – with Mr. Águila, Juventud Guerrera, Abismo Negro and Heavy Metal - TNA Year End Award (1 time) - Who to Watch in 2005 (2004) - Universal Wrestling Association - UWA World Middleweight Championship (1 time) - World Wrestling Association - WWA World Tag Team Championship (1 time) – Perro Aguayo Jr. ## Luchas de Apuestas record ## See also - List of premature professional wrestling deaths
12,159,986	Phallus impudicus	1,173,297,352	Fungus known as the common stinkhorn	[ "Edible fungi", "Fungi described in 1753", "Fungi of Asia", "Fungi of Australia", "Fungi of Central America", "Fungi of Europe", "Fungi of Iceland", "Fungi of North America", "Phallales", "Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus" ]	Phallus impudicus, known colloquially as the common stinkhorn, is a widespread fungus in the Phallaceae (stinkhorn) family. It is recognizable for its foul odor and its phallic shape when mature, the latter feature giving rise to several names in 17th-century England. It is a common mushroom in Europe and North America, where it occurs in habitats rich in wood debris such as forests and mulched gardens. It appears from summer to late autumn. The fruiting structure is tall and white with a slimy, dark olive colored conical head. Known as the gleba, this material contains the spores, and is transported by insects which are attracted by the odor—described as resembling carrion. Despite its foul smell, it is not usually poisonous and immature mushrooms are consumed in parts of France, Germany and the Czech Republic. ## Taxonomy The Italian naturalist Ulisse Aldrovandi described the fungus in 1560 with name fungus priapeus, and he depicted it in his series of water-coloured plates called teatro della natura ('nature's theater' 1560–1590). Another botanist, John Gerard called it the "pricke mushroom" or "fungus virilis penis effigie" in his General Historie of Plants of 1597, and John Parkinson referred to it as "Hollanders workingtoole" or "phallus hollandicus" in his Theatrum botanicum of 1640. Linnaeus described it in his 1753 Species Plantarum, and it still bears its original binomial name. Its specific epithet, impudicus, is derived from the Latin for "shameless" or "immodest". ## Description Sometimes called the witch's egg, the immature stinkhorn is whitish or pinkish, egg-shaped, and typically 4 to 6 cm (1.6 to 2.4 in) by 3 to 5 cm (1.2 to 2.0 in).On the outside is a thick whitish volva, also known as the peridium, covering the olive-colored gelatinous gleba. It is the latter that contains the spores and later stinks and attracts the flies; within this layer is a green layer which will become the 'head' of the expanded fruit body; and inside this is a white structure called the receptaculum (the stalk when expanded), that is hard, but has an airy structure like a sponge. The eggs become fully grown stinkhorns very rapidly, over a day or two. The mature stinkhorn is 10 to 30 cm (3.9 to 11.8 in) tall and 4 to 5 cm (1.6 to 2.0 in) in diameter, topped with a conical cap 2 to 4 cm (0.8 to 1.6 in) high that is covered with the greenish-brown slimy gleba. In older fungi the slime is eventually removed, exposing a bare yellowish pitted and ridged (reticulate) surface. This has a passing resemblance to the common morel (Morchella esculenta), for which it is sometimes mistaken. The rate of growth of Phallus impudicus has been measured at 10–15 cm (4–6 in) per hour. The growing fruit body is able to exert up to 1.33 kPa of pressure — a force sufficient to push up through asphalt. The spores have an elliptical to oblong shape, with dimensions of 3–5 to 1.5–2.5 μm. ### Similar species In North America, Phallus impudicus can be distinguished from the very similar P. hadriani by the latter's purplish-tinted volva. Other similar species include Clathrus ruber, Lysurus cruciatus, and Lysurus mokusin. ## Spore dispersal The dispersal of spores is different from most "typical" mushrooms that spread their spores through the air. Stinkhorns instead produce a sticky spore mass on their tip which has a sharp, sickly-sweet odor of carrion to attract flies and other insects. Odorous chemicals in the gleba include methanethiol, hydrogen sulfide, linalool, trans-ocimene, phenylacetaldehyde, dimethyl sulfide, and dimethyl trisulfide. The latter compound has been found to be emitted from fungating cancerous wounds. The mature fruiting bodies can be smelled from a considerable distance in the woods, and at close quarters most people find the cloying stink extremely repulsive. The flies land in the gleba and in doing so collect the spore mass on their legs and carry it to other locations. An Austrian study demonstrated that blow-flies (species Calliphora vicina, Lucilia caesar, Lucilia ampullacea and Dryomyza anilis) also feed on the slime, and soon after leaving the fruit body, they deposit liquid feces that contain a dense suspension of spores. The study also showed that beetles (Oeceoptoma thoracica and Meligethes viridescens) are attracted to the fungus, but seem to have less of a role in spore dispersal as they tend to feed on the hyphal tissue of the fruiting body. There is also a possible ecological association between the P. impudicus and badger (Meles meles) setts. Fruiting bodies are commonly clustered in a zone 24 to 39 metres (79 to 128 ft) from the entrances; the setts typically harbor a regularly-available supply of badger cadavers – the mortality rate of cubs is high, and death is more likely to occur within the sett. The fruiting of large numbers of stinkhorns attracts a high population of blow-flies (Calliphora and Lucilla breed on carrion); this ensures the rapid elimination of badger carcasses, removing a potential source of disease to the badger colony. The laxative effect of the gleba reduces the distance from the fruiting body to where the spores are deposited, ensuring the continued production of high densities of stinkhorns. ## Distribution and habitat The common stinkhorn can be found throughout much of Europe and North America, and it has also been collected in Asia (including China, Taiwan, and India), Costa Rica, Iceland, Tanzania, and southeast Australia. In North America, it is most common west of the Mississippi River; Ravenel's stinkhorn (Phallus ravenelii) is more common to the east. The fungus is associated with rotting wood, and as such it is most commonly encountered in deciduous woods where it fruits from summer to late autumn, though it may also be found in conifer woods or even grassy areas such as parks and gardens. It may also form mycorrhizal associations with certain trees. ## Uses ### Edibility At the egg stage, pieces of the inner layer (the receptaculum) can be cut out with a knife and eaten raw. They are crisp and crunchy with an attractive radishy taste. The fungus is enjoyed and eaten in France and parts of Germany, where it may be sold fresh or pickled and used in sausages. Similar species are consumed in China. ### Medicinal properties Venous thrombosis, the formation of a blood clot in a vein, is a common cause of death in breast cancer patients; patients with recurrent disease are typically maintained on anticoagulants for their lifetimes. A research study has suggested that extracts from P. impudicus can reduce the risk of this condition by reducing the incidence of platelet aggregation, and may have potential as a supportive preventive nutrition. It was used in medieval times as a cure for gout and as a love potion. ### Folk uses In Northern Montenegro, peasants rub Phallus impudicus on the necks of bulls before bull fighting contests in an attempt to make them stronger. They are also fed to young bulls as they are thought to be a potent aphrodisiac. In 1777, the reverend John Lightfoot wrote that the people of Thuringia called the unopened stinkhorns "ghost's or daemon's eggs" and dried and powdered them before mixing them in spirits as an aphrodisiac. ## In culture Writing about life in Victorian Cambridge, Gwen Raverat (granddaughter of Charles Darwin) describes the 'sport' of stinkhorn hunting: > In our native woods there grows a kind of toadstool, called in the vernacular The Stinkhorn, though in Latin it bears a grosser name. The name is justified, for the fungus can be hunted by the scent alone; and this was Aunt Etty's great invention. Armed with a basket and a pointed stick, and wearing special hunting cloak and gloves, she would sniff her way round the wood, pausing here and there, her nostrils twitching, when she caught a whiff of her prey; then at last, with a deadly pounce, she would fall upon her victim, and poke his putrid carcass into her basket. At the end of the day's sport, the catch was brought back and burnt in the deepest secrecy on the drawing-room fire, with the door locked; because of the morals of the maids. In Thomas Mann's novel The Magic Mountain (Der Zauberberg), the psychologist Dr. Krokowski gives a lecture on the Phallus impudicus: > And Dr. Krokowski had spoken about one fungus, famous since classical antiquity for its form and the powers ascribed to it -- a morel, its Latin name ending in the adjective impudicus, its form reminiscent of love, and its odor, of death. For the stench given off by the impudicus was strikingly like that of a decaying corpse, the odor coming from greenish, viscous slime that carried its spores and dripped from the bell-shaped cap. And even today, among the uneducated, this morel was thought to be an aphrodisiac. In Danilo Kiš's novel Garden, Ashes the protagonist's father Eduard Schaum provokes the suspicions of the local residents and authorities through his mad wandering and sermonizing in the forests: > The story went round, and was preached from the pulpit, that his iron-tipped cane possessed magical powers, that trees withered like grass whenever he walked in the Count's forest, that his spit produced poisonous mushrooms --Ithyphalus impudicus--that grew under the guise of edible, cultivated varieties.
32,161	Urinary tract infection	1,172,430,320	Infection that affects part of the urinary tract	[ "Infectious diseases", "Urological conditions", "Wikipedia emergency medicine articles ready to translate", "Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate (full)" ]	A urinary tract infection (UTI) is an infection that affects part of the urinary tract. When it affects the lower urinary tract it is known as a bladder infection (cystitis) and when it affects the upper urinary tract it is known as a kidney infection (pyelonephritis). Symptoms from a lower urinary tract infection include pain with urination, frequent urination, and feeling the need to urinate despite having an empty bladder. Symptoms of a kidney infection include fever and flank pain usually in addition to the symptoms of a lower UTI. Rarely the urine may appear bloody. In the very old and the very young, symptoms may be vague or non-specific. The most common cause of infection is Escherichia coli, though other bacteria or fungi may sometimes be the cause. Risk factors include female anatomy, sexual intercourse, diabetes, obesity, and family history. Although sexual intercourse is a risk factor, UTIs are not classified as sexually transmitted infections (STIs). Kidney infection, if it occurs, usually follows a bladder infection but may also result from a blood-borne infection. Diagnosis in young healthy women can be based on symptoms alone. In those with vague symptoms, diagnosis can be difficult because bacteria may be present without there being an infection. In complicated cases or if treatment fails, a urine culture may be useful. In uncomplicated cases, UTIs are treated with a short course of antibiotics such as nitrofurantoin or trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole. Resistance to many of the antibiotics used to treat this condition is increasing. In complicated cases, a longer course or intravenous antibiotics may be needed. If symptoms do not improve in two or three days, further diagnostic testing may be needed. Phenazopyridine may help with symptoms. In those who have bacteria or white blood cells in their urine but have no symptoms, antibiotics are generally not needed, although during pregnancy is an exception. In those with frequent infections, a short course of antibiotics may be taken as soon as symptoms begin or long-term antibiotics may be used as a preventive measure. About 150 million people develop a urinary tract infection in a given year. They are more common in women than men, but similar between anatomies while carrying indwelling catheters. In women, they are the most common form of bacterial infection. Up to 10% of women have a urinary tract infection in a given year, and half of women have at least one infection at some point in their lifetime. They occur most frequently between the ages of 16 and 35 years. Recurrences are common. Urinary tract infections have been described since ancient times with the first documented description in the Ebers Papyrus dated to c. 1550 BC. ## Signs and symptoms Lower urinary tract infection is also referred to as a bladder infection. The most common symptoms are burning with urination and having to urinate frequently (or an urge to urinate) in the absence of vaginal discharge and significant pain. These symptoms may vary from mild to severe and in healthy women last an average of six days. Some pain above the pubic bone or in the lower back may be present. People experiencing an upper urinary tract infection, or pyelonephritis, may experience flank pain, fever, or nausea and vomiting in addition to the classic symptoms of a lower urinary tract infection. Rarely, the urine may appear bloody or contain visible pus in the urine. UTIs have been associated with onset or worsening of delirium, dementia, and neuropsychiatric disorders such as depression and psychosis. However, there is insufficient evidence to determine whether UTI causes confusion. The reasons for this are unknown, but may involve a UTI-mediated systemic inflammatory response which affects the brain. Cytokines such as interleukin-6 produced as part of the inflammatory response may produce neuroinflammation, in turn affecting dopaminergic and/or glutamatergic neurotransmission as well as brain glucose metabolism. ### Children In young children, the only symptom of a urinary tract infection (UTI) may be a fever. Because of the lack of more obvious symptoms, when females under the age of two or uncircumcised males less than a year exhibit a fever, a culture of the urine is recommended by many medical associations. Infants may feed poorly, vomit, sleep more, or show signs of jaundice. In older children, new onset urinary incontinence (loss of bladder control) may occur. About 1 in 400 infants of 1 to 3 months of age with a UTI also have bacterial meningitis. ### Elderly Urinary tract symptoms are frequently lacking in the elderly. The presentations may be vague with incontinence, a change in mental status, or fatigue as the only symptoms, while some present to a health care provider with sepsis, an infection of the blood, as the first symptoms. Diagnosis can be complicated by the fact that many elderly people have preexisting incontinence or dementia. It is reasonable to obtain a urine culture in those with signs of systemic infection that may be unable to report urinary symptoms, such as when advanced dementia is present. Systemic signs of infection include a fever or increase in temperature of more than 1.1 °C (2.0 °F) from usual, chills, and an increased white blood cell count. ## Cause Uropathogenic E. coli from the gut is the cause of 80–85% of community-acquired urinary tract infections, with Staphylococcus saprophyticus being the cause in 5–10%. Rarely they may be due to viral or fungal infections. Healthcare-associated urinary tract infections (mostly related to urinary catheterization) involve a much broader range of pathogens including: E. coli (27%), Klebsiella (11%), Pseudomonas (11%), the fungal pathogen Candida albicans (9%), and Enterococcus (7%) among others. Urinary tract infections due to Staphylococcus aureus typically occur secondary to blood-borne infections. Chlamydia trachomatis and Mycoplasma genitalium can infect the urethra but not the bladder. These infections are usually classified as a urethritis rather than urinary tract infection. ### Intercourse In young sexually active women, sexual activity is the cause of 75–90% of bladder infections, with the risk of infection related to the frequency of sex. The term "honeymoon cystitis" has been applied to this phenomenon of frequent UTIs during early marriage. In post-menopausal women, sexual activity does not affect the risk of developing a UTI. Spermicide use, independent of sexual frequency, increases the risk of UTIs. Diaphragm use is also associated. Condom use without spermicide or use of birth control pills does not increase the risk of uncomplicated urinary tract infection. ### Sex Women are more prone to UTIs than men because, in females, the urethra is much shorter and closer to the anus. As a woman's estrogen levels decrease with menopause, her risk of urinary tract infections increases due to the loss of protective vaginal flora. Additionally, vaginal atrophy that can sometimes occur after menopause is associated with recurrent urinary tract infections. Chronic prostatitis in the forms of chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome and chronic bacterial prostatitis (not acute bacterial prostatitis or asymptomatic inflammatory prostatitis) may cause recurrent urinary tract infections in males. Risk of infections increases as males age. While bacteria is commonly present in the urine of older males this does not appear to affect the risk of urinary tract infections. ### Urinary catheters Urinary catheterization increases the risk for urinary tract infections. The risk of bacteriuria (bacteria in the urine) is between three and six percent per day and prophylactic antibiotics are not effective in decreasing symptomatic infections. The risk of an associated infection can be decreased by catheterizing only when necessary, using aseptic technique for insertion, and maintaining unobstructed closed drainage of the catheter. Male scuba divers using condom catheters and female divers using external catching devices for their dry suits are also susceptible to urinary tract infections. ### Others A predisposition for bladder infections may run in families. This is believed to be related to genetics. Other risk factors include diabetes, being uncircumcised, and having a large prostate. In children UTIs are associated with vesicoureteral reflux (an abnormal movement of urine from the bladder into ureters or kidneys) and constipation. Persons with spinal cord injury are at increased risk for urinary tract infection in part because of chronic use of catheter, and in part because of voiding dysfunction. It is the most common cause of infection in this population, as well as the most common cause of hospitalization. ## Pathogenesis The bacteria that cause urinary tract infections typically enter the bladder via the urethra. However, infection may also occur via the blood or lymph. It is believed that the bacteria are usually transmitted to the urethra from the bowel, with females at greater risk due to their anatomy. After gaining entry to the bladder, E. Coli are able to attach to the bladder wall and form a biofilm that resists the body's immune response. Escherichia coli is the single most common microorganism, followed by Klebsiella and Proteus spp., to cause urinary tract infection. Klebsiella and Proteus spp., are frequently associated with stone disease. The presence of Gram positive bacteria such as Enterococcus and Staphylococcus is increased. The increased resistance of urinary pathogens to quinolone antibiotics has been reported worldwide and might be the consequence of overuse and misuse of quinolones. ## Diagnosis In straightforward cases, a diagnosis may be made and treatment given based on symptoms alone without further laboratory confirmation. In complicated or questionable cases, it may be useful to confirm the diagnosis via urinalysis, looking for the presence of urinary nitrites, white blood cells (leukocytes), or leukocyte esterase. Another test, urine microscopy, looks for the presence of red blood cells, white blood cells, or bacteria. Urine culture is deemed positive if it shows a bacterial colony count of greater than or equal to 10<sup>3</sup> colony-forming units per mL of a typical urinary tract organism. Antibiotic sensitivity can also be tested with these cultures, making them useful in the selection of antibiotic treatment. However, women with negative cultures may still improve with antibiotic treatment. As symptoms can be vague and without reliable tests for urinary tract infections, diagnosis can be difficult in the elderly. ### Based on pH Normal urine pH is slightly acidic, with usual values of 6.0 to 7.5, but the normal range is 4.5 to 8.0. A urine pH of 8.5 or 9.0 is indicative of a urea-splitting organism, such as Proteus, Klebsiella, or Ureaplasma urealyticum; therefore, an asymptomatic patient with a high pH means UTI regardless of the other urine test results. Alkaline pH also can signify struvite kidney stones, which are also known as "infection stones". ### Classification A urinary tract infection may involve only the lower urinary tract, in which case it is known as a bladder infection. Alternatively, it may involve the upper urinary tract, in which case it is known as pyelonephritis. If the urine contains significant bacteria but there are no symptoms, the condition is known as asymptomatic bacteriuria. If a urinary tract infection involves the upper tract, and the person has diabetes mellitus, is pregnant, is male, or immunocompromised, it is considered complicated. Otherwise if a woman is healthy and premenopausal it is considered uncomplicated. In children when a urinary tract infection is associated with a fever, it is deemed to be an upper urinary tract infection. ### Children To make the diagnosis of a urinary tract infection in children, a positive urinary culture is required. Contamination poses a frequent challenge depending on the method of collection used, thus a cutoff of 10<sup>5</sup> CFU/mL is used for a "clean-catch" mid stream sample, 10<sup>4</sup> CFU/mL is used for catheter-obtained specimens, and 10<sup>2</sup> CFU/mL is used for suprapubic aspirations (a sample drawn directly from the bladder with a needle). The use of "urine bags" to collect samples is discouraged by the World Health Organization due to the high rate of contamination when cultured, and catheterization is preferred in those not toilet trained. Some, such as the American Academy of Pediatrics recommends renal ultrasound and voiding cystourethrogram (watching a person's urethra and urinary bladder with real time x-rays while they urinate) in all children less than two years old who have had a urinary tract infection. However, because there is a lack of effective treatment if problems are found, others such as the National Institute for Health and Care Excellence only recommends routine imaging in those less than six months old or who have unusual findings. ### Differential diagnosis In women with cervicitis (inflammation of the cervix) or vaginitis (inflammation of the vagina) and in young men with UTI symptoms, a Chlamydia trachomatis or Neisseria gonorrhoeae infection may be the cause. These infections are typically classified as a urethritis rather than a urinary tract infection. Vaginitis may also be due to a yeast infection. Interstitial cystitis (chronic pain in the bladder) may be considered for people who experience multiple episodes of UTI symptoms but urine cultures remain negative and not improved with antibiotics. Prostatitis (inflammation of the prostate) may also be considered in the differential diagnosis. Hemorrhagic cystitis, characterized by blood in the urine, can occur secondary to a number of causes including: infections, radiation therapy, underlying cancer, medications and toxins. Medications that commonly cause this problem include the chemotherapeutic agent cyclophosphamide with rates of 2–40%. Eosinophilic cystitis is a rare condition where eosinophiles are present in the bladder wall. Signs and symptoms are similar to a bladder infection. Its cause is not entirely clear; however, it may be linked to food allergies, infections, and medications among others. ## Prevention A number of measures have not been confirmed to affect UTI frequency including: urinating immediately after intercourse, the type of underwear used, personal hygiene methods used after urinating or defecating, or whether a person typically bathes or showers. There is similarly a lack of evidence surrounding the effect of holding one's urine, tampon use, and douching. In those with frequent urinary tract infections who use spermicide or a diaphragm as a method of contraception, they are advised to use alternative methods. In those with benign prostatic hyperplasia urinating in a sitting position appears to improve bladder emptying which might decrease urinary tract infections in this group. Using urinary catheters as little and as short of time as possible and appropriate care of the catheter when used prevents catheter-associated urinary tract infections. They should be inserted using sterile technique in hospital however non-sterile technique may be appropriate in those who self catheterize. The urinary catheter set up should also be kept sealed. Evidence does not support a significant decrease in risk when silver-alloy catheters are used. ### Medications For those with recurrent infections, taking a short course of antibiotics when each infection occurs is associated with the lowest antibiotic use. A prolonged course of daily antibiotics is also effective. Medications frequently used include nitrofurantoin and trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole. Some recommend against prolonged use due to concerns of antibiotic resistance. Methenamine is another agent used for this purpose as in the bladder where the acidity is low it produces formaldehyde to which resistance does not develop. A UK study showed that methenamine is as effective daily low-dose antibiotics at preventing UTIs among women who experience recurrent UTIs. As methenamine is an antiseptic, it may avoid the issue of antibiotic resistance. In cases where infections are related to intercourse, taking antibiotics afterwards may be useful. In post-menopausal women, topical vaginal estrogen has been found to reduce recurrence. As opposed to topical creams, the use of vaginal estrogen from pessaries has not been as useful as low dose antibiotics. Antibiotics following short term urinary catheterization decreases the subsequent risk of a bladder infection. A number of vaccines are in development as of 2018. ### Children The evidence that preventive antibiotics decrease urinary tract infections in children is poor. However recurrent UTIs are a rare cause of further kidney problems if there are no underlying abnormalities of the kidneys, resulting in less than a third of a percent (0.33%) of chronic kidney disease in adults. Whether routine circumcision prevents UTIs has not been well studied as of 2011. ### Alternative medicine Some research suggests that cranberry (juice or capsules) may decrease the number of UTIs in those with frequent infections. A Cochrane review, updated in 2023 with 50 studies and over 8800 participants concluded that cranberry products can reduce the risk of UTIs in certain groups (women with reoccurring UTIs, children and those at risk post-interventions) but not the elderly or those with bladder emptying problems. Gastrointestinal upset can occur in more than 30% of female users. As of 2015, probiotics require further study to determine if they are beneficial. The role of the urinary microbiome in maintaining urinary tract health is not well understood as of 2015. As of 2022, one review found that taking mannose was as effective as antibiotics to prevent UTIs, while another review found that clinical trial quality was too low to allow any conclusion about using D‐mannose to prevent or treat UTIs. ## Treatment The mainstay of treatment is antibiotics. Phenazopyridine is occasionally prescribed during the first few days in addition to antibiotics to help with the burning and urgency sometimes felt during a bladder infection. However, it is not routinely recommended due to safety concerns with its use, specifically an elevated risk of methemoglobinemia (higher than normal level of methemoglobin in the blood). Paracetamol may be used for fevers. There is no good evidence for the use of cranberry products for treating current infections. Fosfomycin can be used as an effective treatment for both UTIs and complicated UTIs including acute pyelonephritis. The standard regimen for complicated UTIs is an oral 3g dose administered once every 48 or 72 hours for a total of 3 doses or a 6 grams every 8 hours for 7 days to 14 days when fosfomycin is given in IV form. ### Uncomplicated Uncomplicated infections can be diagnosed and treated based on symptoms alone. Antibiotics taken by mouth such as trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole, nitrofurantoin, or fosfomycin are typically first line. Cephalosporins, amoxicillin/clavulanic acid, or a fluoroquinolone may also be used. However, antibiotic resistance to fluoroquinolones among the bacteria that cause urinary infections has been increasing. The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) recommends against the use of fluoroquinolones, including a Boxed Warning, when other options are available due to higher risks of serious side effects, such as tendinitis, tendon rupture and worsening of myasthenia gravis. These medications substantially shorten the time to recovery with all being equally effective. A three-day treatment with trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole, or a fluoroquinolone is usually sufficient, whereas nitrofurantoin requires 5–7 days. Fosfomycin may be used as a single dose but is not as effective. Fluoroquinolones are not recommended as a first treatment. The Infectious Diseases Society of America states this due to the concern of generating resistance to this class of medication. Amoxicillin-clavulanate appears less effective than other options. Despite this precaution, some resistance has developed to all of these medications related to their widespread use. Trimethoprim alone is deemed to be equivalent to trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole in some countries. For simple UTIs, children often respond to a three-day course of antibiotics. Women with recurrent simple UTIs are over 90% accurate in identifying new infections. They may benefit from self-treatment upon occurrence of symptoms with medical follow-up only if the initial treatment fails. ### Complicated Complicated UTIs are more difficult to treat and usually requires more aggressive evaluation, treatment, and follow-up. It may require identifying and addressing the underlying complication. Increasing antibiotic resistance is causing concern about the future of treating those with complicated and recurrent UTI. ### Asymptomatic bacteriuria Those who have bacteria in the urine but no symptoms should not generally be treated with antibiotics. This includes those who are old, those with spinal cord injuries, and those who have urinary catheters. Pregnancy is an exception and it is recommended that women take seven days of antibiotics. If not treated it causes up to 30% of mothers to develop pyelonephritis and increases risk of low birth weight and preterm birth. Some also support treatment of those with diabetes mellitus and treatment before urinary tract procedures which will likely cause bleeding. ### Pregnant women Urinary tract infections, even asymptomatic presence of bacteria in the urine, are more concerning in pregnancy due to the increased risk of kidney infections. During pregnancy, high progesterone levels elevate the risk of decreased muscle tone of the ureters and bladder, which leads to a greater likelihood of reflux, where urine flows back up the ureters and towards the kidneys. While pregnant women do not have an increased risk of asymptomatic bacteriuria, if bacteriuria is present they do have a 25–40% risk of a kidney infection. Thus if urine testing shows signs of an infection—even in the absence of symptoms—treatment is recommended. Cephalexin or nitrofurantoin are typically used because they are generally considered safe in pregnancy. A kidney infection during pregnancy may result in preterm birth or pre-eclampsia (a state of high blood pressure and kidney dysfunction during pregnancy that can lead to seizures). Some women have UTIs that keep coming back in pregnancy. There is insufficient research on how to best treat these recurrent infections. ### Pyelonephritis Pyelonephritis is treated more aggressively than a simple bladder infection using either a longer course of oral antibiotics or intravenous antibiotics. Seven days of the oral fluoroquinolone ciprofloxacin is typically used in areas where the resistance rate is less than 10%. If the local antibiotic resistance rates are greater than 10%, a dose of intravenous ceftriaxone is often prescribed. Trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole or amoxicillin/clavulanate orally for 14 days is another reasonable option. In those who exhibit more severe symptoms, admission to a hospital for ongoing antibiotics may be needed. Complications such as ureteral obstruction from a kidney stone may be considered if symptoms do not improve following two or three days of treatment. ## Prognosis With treatment, symptoms generally improve within 36 hours. Up to 42% of uncomplicated infections may resolve on their own within a few days or weeks. 15–25% of adults and children have chronic symptomatic UTIs including recurrent infections, persistent infections (infection with the same pathogen), a re-infection (new pathogen), or a relapsed infection (the same pathogen causes a new infection after it was completely gone). Recurrent urinary tract infections are defined as at least two infections (episodes) in a six-month time period or three infections in twelve months, can occur in adults and in children. Cystitis refers to a urinary tract infection that involves the lower urinary tract (bladder). An upper urinary tract infection which involves the kidney is called pyelonephritis. About 10–20% of pyelonephritis will go on and develop scarring of the affected kidney. Then, 10–20% of those develop scarring will have increased risk of hypertension in later life. ## Epidemiology Urinary tract infections are the most frequent bacterial infection in women. They occur most frequently between the ages of 16 and 35 years, with 10% of women getting an infection yearly and more than 40–60% having an infection at some point in their lives. Recurrences are common, with nearly half of people getting a second infection within a year. Urinary tract infections occur four times more frequently in females than males. Pyelonephritis occurs between 20 and 30 times less frequently. They are the most common cause of hospital-acquired infections accounting for approximately 40%. Rates of asymptomatic bacteria in the urine increase with age from two to seven percent in women of child-bearing age to as high as 50% in elderly women in care homes. Rates of asymptomatic bacteria in the urine among men over 75 are between 7–10%. 2–10% of pregnant women have asymptomatic bacteria in the urine and higher rates are reported in women who live in some underdeveloped countries. Urinary tract infections may affect 10% of people during childhood. Among children, urinary tract infections are most common in uncircumcised males less than three months of age, followed by females less than one year. Estimates of frequency among children, however, vary widely. In a group of children with a fever, ranging in age between birth and two years, 2–20% were diagnosed with a UTI. ## History Urinary tract infections have been described since ancient times with the first documented description in the Ebers Papyrus dated to c. 1550 BC. It was described by the Egyptians as "sending forth heat from the bladder". Effective treatment did not occur until the development and availability of antibiotics in the 1930s before which time herbs, bloodletting and rest were recommended.
306,063	Kulintang	1,170,574,252	Southeast Asian traditional instrument	[ "Bruneian musical instruments", "Gongs", "Indonesian musical instruments", "Indonesian styles of music", "Kulintang", "Malaysian musical instruments", "Moro people", "Philippine musical instruments", "Pitched percussion instruments" ]	Kulintang (Indonesian: kolintang, Malay: kulintangan) is a modern term for an ancient instrumental form of music composed on a row of small, horizontally laid gongs that function melodically, accompanied by larger, suspended gongs and drums. As part of the larger gong-chime culture of Southeast Asia, kulintang music ensembles have been playing for many centuries in regions of the Southern Philippines, Eastern Malaysia, Eastern Indonesia, Brunei and Timor, Kulintang evolved from a simple native signaling tradition, and developed into its present form with the incorporation of knobbed gongs from Sundanese people in Java Island, Indonesia. Its importance stems from its association with the indigenous cultures that inhabited these islands prior to the influences of Hinduism, Buddhism, Islam, Christianity or the West, making kulintang the most developed tradition of Southeast Asian archaic gong-chime ensembles. Technically, kulintang is the Maguindanaon, Lumad Ternate, Mollucas, and Timor term for the idiophone of metal gong kettles which are laid horizontally upon a rack to create an entire kulintang set. It is played by striking the bosses of the gongs with two wooden beaters. Due to its use across a wide variety groups and languages, the kulintang is also called kolintang by the people of Maranao and Sulawesi, totobuang by those in central Maluku, kulintangan and gulintangan by those in Brunei, Sabah, North Kalimantan and the Sulu Archipelago. Gulintangan or gulingtangan literally means rolling hands in Brunei, Sabah and Sulu By the twentieth century, the term kulintang had a come to denote an entire Maguindanao ensemble of five to six instruments. Traditionally the Maguindanao term for the entire ensemble is basalen or palabunibunyan, the latter term meaning “an ensemble of loud instruments” or “music-making” or in this case “music-making using a kulintang.” ## Geographic extent Kulintang belongs to the larger unit/stratum of “knobbed gong-chime culture” prevalent in Southeast Asia. It is considered one of the region's three major gong ensembles, alongside the gamelan of western Indonesia and piphat of Thailand, Burma, Cambodia and Laos, which use gongs and not wind or string instruments to carry the melodic part of the ensemble. Like the other two, kulintang music is primarily orchestral with several rhythmic parts orderly stacked one upon another. It is also based upon the pentatonic scale. However, kulintang music differs in many aspects from gamelan music, primarily in the way the latter constructs melodies within a framework of skeletal tones and prescribed time interval of entry for each instruments. The framework of kulintang music is more flexible and time intervals are nonexistent, allowing for such things as improvisations to be more prevalent. Because kulintang-like ensembles extended over various groups with various languages, the term used for the horizontal set of gongs varied widely. Along with it begin called kulintang, it is also called kolintang, kolintan, kulintangan, kwintangan, k’lintang, gong sembilan, gong duablas, momo, totobuang, nekara, engkromong, kromong/enkromong and recently kakula/kakula nuada. Kulintang-like instruments are played by the Maguindanaon; the Maranao, Iranun, Kalagan, Kalibugan, Tboli, Blaan, Subanon, and other Lumad tribes of Mindanao, the Tausug, Sama-Bajau, Yakan and the Sangir/Sangil of the Sulu archipelago; the Ambon, Banda, Seram, Ternate, Tidore, and Kei of Maluku; and the Bajau, Suluk, Murut, Kadazan-Dusun, Kadayah and Paitanic Peoples of Sabah, the Malays of Brunei, the Bidayuh and Iban/Sea Dayak of Sarawak, the Bolaang Mongondow and Kailinese/Toli-Toli of Sulawesi and other groups in Banjarmasin and Tanjung in Kalimantan and Timor. ## History Kulintang music is considered an ancient tradition that predates the influences of Hinduism, Buddhism, Islam, Christianity, and the West. In the Philippines, it represents the highest form of gong music attained by Filipinos and in North Maluku, it is said to have existed for centuries. As ancient as this music is, there has never been substantial data recorded regarding the kulintang's origins. The earliest historical accounts of instruments resembling those of the present day kulintang are in the writings of various European explorers from the 16th century who would have seen such instruments used in passing. Because of limited data concerning gong music prior to European exploration, theories abound as to when the prototypes of what is now the kulintang came to be. One theory suggest that the bronze gong had an ancient history in Southeast Asia, arriving in the Indonesian archipelago two or even three thousand years ago, making its way to the Philippines from China in the third century AD. Another theory lays doubt to the former claim, suggesting the kulintang could not have existed prior to the 15th century due to the belief that Javanese (Indonesian) gong tradition, which is what the kulintang was believed to be derived from, developed only by the 15th century. In Borneo, the kulintang was originally played during the harvest festival and the Bruneian court. With the expansion of Bruneian empire which at some point encompassed the island of Borneo and souther Philippine, the tradition of kulintang was adopted by the inland Dayak tribes. With that, the tradition of kulintang was expanded to include various tribe ceremonies such as before and after head-hunting expeditions and silat. Though different theories abound as to the exact centuries the kulintang was finally realized, there is a consensus that kulintang music developed from a foreign musical tradition which was borrowed and adapted to the indigenous music tradition already present in the area. It's likely the earliest gongs used among the indigenous populace had no recreational value but were simply used for making signals and sending messages. Kulintang music likely evolved from this simple signaling tradition, transitioning into a period consisting of one player, one-gong type ensembles (like those found among the Ifugao of Luzon or Tiruray of Mindanao), developing into a multi-gong, multiplayer ensemble with the incorporation of concepts originating from Sunda (Indonesian) and finally transforming into the present day kulintang ensemble, with the addition of the dabakan, babandil and musical concepts of Islam via Islam traders. ## Instrument ### Description The instrument called the “kulintang” (or its other derivative terms) consist of a row/set of 5 to 9 graduated pot gongs, horizontally laid upon a frame arranged in order of pitch with the lowest gong found on the players’ left. The gongs are laid in the instrument face side up atop two cords/strings running parallel to the entire length of the frame, with bamboo/wooden sticks/bars resting perpendicular across the frame, creating an entire kulintang set called a "pasangan". The gongs weigh roughly from two pounds to three pounds each, and have dimensions of 6 to 10 inches for their diameters and 3 to 5 inches for their height. Traditionally they were made from bronze but due to the disruption and loss of trade routes between the islands of Borneo and Mindanao during World War II, resulting in loss of access to necessary metal ores, and the subsequent post-war use of scrap metal, brass gongs with shorter decaying tones are now commonplace. The kulintang frame is known as an "antangan" by the Maguindanao (which means to “arrange”) and "langkonga" by the Maranao. The frame can be crude, made from simple bamboo/wooden poles, or it can be highly decorated and rich with traditional okil/okir motifs or arabesque designs. The frame is a necessary part of the instrument, and functions as a resonator. It is considered taboo to step or cross over the antangan while the kulintang gongs are placed on it. ### Technique The kulintang is played by striking the bosses of the gongs with two wooden beaters. When playing the kulintang, the Maguindanao and Maranao would always sit on chairs while for the Tausug/Suluk and other groups that who play the kulintangan, they would commonly sit on the floor. Modern techniques include twirling the beaters, juggling them in midair, changing the arrangement of the gongs either before or while playing, crossings hands during play or adding very rapid fire strokes all in an effort to show off a player's grace and virtuosity. ### Casting Kulintang gongs are made using the cire perdue method, a lost-wax process used for casting the individual gongs. The first phase is the creation of wax molds of the gongs. In the past, before the availability of standardized wax sheets made specifically for foundry use, the molds were made out of either beeswax (talo) or candle wax (kandilà). The wax mold is covered with a special mixture of finely powdered coal/mud, which is applied on the wax surface using a brush. The layers are then left to dry under the sun, after which the entire mold is heated in a furnace to melt away the wax and hardening the coal/mud mixture, leaving behind a hollowed shell. With this hardened mold, molten bronze is poured down the mold's mouth cavity, cooled to a certain degree, then the coal/mud is broken apart, revealing a new gong. The gong is then refined, cleaned, and properly identified by the blacksmith (pandáy). Finally, the gongs are refined using the tongkol process, tuning these either by hammering the boss from the inside to slightly raise its pitch, or by hammering the boss from the outside to lower the pitch. The correct tuning is found by ear, with players striking a sequence of gongs, looking for a melodic contour they are familiar with. ### Tuning Unlike westernized instrumentation, there is no set tuning for kulintang sets throughout the Philippines. Great variation exist between each set due to differences in make, size and shape, alloy used giving each kulintang set a unique pitch level, intervals and timbre. Though the tuning varies greatly, there does exist some uniformity to contour when same melody heard on different kulintang sets. This common counter results in similar interval relationships of more or less equidistant steps between each of the gongs. This tuning system, not based upon equal temperament or upon a system of standard pitches but on a similar/certain pattern of large and small intervals, could also be found among the gamelan orchestras of western Indonesia. In fact, though the Maguindanao, Maranao and Tausug artists technically have no concept of scale (because emphasis placed on the concept of “rhythmic modes”), the Pelog and Slendro scales of Java were found to be most satisfactory to their own varying pentatonic/heptatonic scales. ### Notation system Kulintang repertory lacked an indigenous notation system. Compositions were passed down orally from generation to generation negating the need for notation for the pieces. Recent attempts have been made to transcribe the music using cipher notation, with gongs indicated by a numbering system for example, starting from 1 to 8 with the lowest gong starting at number 1 for an eight gong kulintang set. ### Feminine instrument The kulintang is traditionally considered a women's instrument by many groups: the Maguindanao, Maranao, Tausūg/Suluk, Samal, Badjao/Sama, Iranun, Kadazan, Murut, Bidayuh and Iban. Traditionally, the playing of the kulintang was associated with graceful, slow, frail and relaxed movements that showed elegance and decorum common among females. Nowadays, the traditional view of kulintang as strictly for women has waned as both women and men play all five instruments, with some of the more renowned kulintang players being men. ## Performance The main purpose for kulintang music in the community is to function as social entertainment at a professional, folk level. This music is unique in that it is considered a public music in the sense everyone is allowed to participate. Not only do the players play, but audience members are also expected to participate. These performances are important in that they bring people in the community and adjacent regions together, helping unify communities that otherwise may not have interacted with one another. Traditionally, when performers play kulintang music, their participation is voluntary. Musicians see performances as an opportunity to receive recognition, prestige and respect from the community and nothing more. Generally, performances can be classified as either formal ones or informal. During formal performances adherents follow a traditional set of rules that would govern playing and it usually involved people from outside the home. Informal performances are quite the opposite. The strict rules that normally govern play are often ignored and the performers are usually between people well acquainted with one another, usually close family members. These performances usually were times when amateurs practiced on the instruments, young boys and girls gathered the instruments, substituting the kulintang with the saronay and inubab. Ensembles didn't necessary have to have five instruments like formal performances: they could be composed of only four instruments (three gandingan gongs, a kulintang, an agung, and a dabakan), three instruments (a kulintang, a dabakan, and either an agung or three gandingan gongs) or simply just one instrument (kulintang solo). ## Social functions Kulintang music generally could be found as the social entertainment at a host of different occasions. It is used during large feasts, festive/harvest gatherings, for entertainment of visiting friends and relatives, and at parades. Kulintang music also accompanies ceremonies marking significant life events, such as weddings and returnees from the Hajj. Kulintang music also plays a significant role during state functions, used during official celebrations, entertaining of foreign dignitaries and important visitors of distant lands, court ceremonies of either the sultanate or village chieftains, enthroning/coronations of a new leader and the transferral of a sultanate from one family to another. Kulintang music is prohibited from being played inside mosques and during Islamic rites/observances/holidays, such as the fasting month of Ramadan, where playing is only allowed at night when people are allowed to eat after Iftar. It is also prohibited during the mourning period of the death of an important person, during funerals, and during the peak times of the planting and harvest season. ### Other uses Kulintang instrument has uses other than public performances. It also is used to accompany healing ceremonies/rituals (pagipat)/animistic religious ceremonies. Though this practice has died out among the Maranao due to its non-Islamic nature, some areas in Mindanao, Sabah and Maluku still practice this ancient tradition. Kulintang music can be used for communicating long distance messages from one village or longhouse to another. Called apad, these renditions mimic the normal speaking tones of the Maguindanao language, creating a specific message or, through the use of double entendre, a social commentary understood by nearly any adult native Maguindanao speaker. However, apad is falling into disuse because times have changed, and the necessity of its use for long-distance communication purposes has faded away. Anun as a music without a message, is used instead to express sentiments and feelings, and has come more and more into use due to its compatibility with the musical elaborations and idiosyncratic styles of the times. Kulintang music was also crucial in relation to courtships due to the very nature of Islamic custom, which did not allow for unmarried men and women to intermingle. Traditionally, unmarried daughters were kept in a special chamber in the attic called a lamin, off-limits to visitors and suitors. It was only when she was allowed to play during kulintang performances that suitors were allowed to view her. Because of this, kulintang music was one of the rare socially approved vehicles for interaction among the sexes. Musical contest, particularly among the Maguindanao, have become a unique feature of these kulintang performances. They occur at almost all the formal occasions mentioned above, particularly weddings. What has made the Maguindanao stand out from the other groups is that they practice solo gong contest – with individual players showcasing their skill on the various ensemble instruments – the agung, gandingan and the kulintang – as opposed to only group contest, where performers from one town and another town are pitted against each other. ## Compositions ### Rhythmic modes Kulintang music has no set compositions due to its concept of rhythmic modes. A rhythmic mode (or designation or genre or pattern) is defined as a musical unit that binds together the entire five instrument ensemble. By adding together the various rhythms of each instrument, one could create music and by changing one of the rhythms, one could create different music. This is the basis of the rhythmic mode. ### Improvisation The kulintang player's ability to improvise within the parameters of a rhythmic mode is a must. As with gamelan orchestras, each kulintang mode has a kind of theme the kulintang player “dresses up” by variations of ornamentation, manipulating segments by inserting repetitions, extensions, insertions, suspensions, variations and transpositions. This occurs at the discretion of the kulintang player. Therefore, the kulintang player functions not only as the one carrying the melody, but also as the conductor of the entire ensemble. She determines the length of each rendition and could change the rhythm at any time, speeding up or slowing down, accord to her personal taste and the composition she plays. This emphasis on improvisation was essential due traditional role of the music as entertainment for the entire community. Listeners in the audience expected players to surprise and astound them by playing in their own unique style, and by incorporating improvisation to make newer versions of the piece. If a player simply imitated a preceding player, playing patterns without any improvisation, the audience members would believe she/he to be repetitious and mundane. This also explains why set performance pieces for musical productions are different in some respect—young men/women would be practicing before an event, therefore rarely relying on improvisations. ### Maguindanaon and Maranao compositions Though allowing such a variety of rhythms would lead to innumerable patterns, generally one could categorize these rhythmic modes on the basis on various criteria such as the number of beats in a recurring musical phrase, differences in the melodic and rhythmic groups with the musical phrase, differences in the rhythmic emphasis, and differences in the opening formulas and cadential patterns. For the Maguindanao, three to five typical genres can be distinguished: Duyug, Sinulog, Tidtu, Binalig and Tagonggo. The Maranao on the other hand have only three typical genres—Kapromayas/Romayas, Kapagonor/Onor, and Katitik Pandai/Kapaginandang. These general genres could be further grouped among each other into styles/subcategories/stylistic modifiers, which are differentiated from one another based on instrumentation, playing techniques, function and the average age and gender of the musicians as well. Generally, these styles are differentiated by what is considered traditional or “old,” and more contemporary or “new.” Old styles are considered slow, well-pronounced and dignified like the Maguindanao's kamamatuan and the Maranao's andung. Genres classified under this style have moderate tempos, are rhythmically oriented, balanced, lack many improvisations and are usually played by the older folks and are therefore always played first, to give due respect to the older generation. New styles such as the Maguindanao's kagungudan and the Maranao's bago, are considered fast, rhythmic and showy. Generally genres under this classification have faster tempos with an emphasis on power and speed, are highly rhythmic and pulsating, and are highly improvised with musicians employing different rhythmic/melodic formulae not used with old patterns. “Young” musicians, specifically young men, gravitate toward this style because of its emphasis on virtuosity and one's individualism. Generally played after all kamamatuan pieces have been played to give younger musicians the opportunity to participate. Tagunggo cannot be easily classified under one of these styles, being more ritualistic than recreational in nature. Tagunggo is a rhythmic mode often used to accompany trance and dance rituals such as sagayan. During the playing of these pieces, a ritual specialist would dance in rhythm with the music calling on the help of ancestral spirits (tunong). ### Sulu-type kulintangan compositions Sulu-type compositions on the kulintangan are found among the Tausug, Samal, Yakan, Sama/Badjao, Iranun and Kadazan-Dusun. Though there exist no identifiable rhythmic or melodic differences between patterns with names such as the Maguindanao, each group has their own music compositions. For instance, the Tausug have three identifiable compositions—Kuriri, Sinug, and Lubak-Lubak—the Yakan have two—Tini-id and Kuriri—and the Dusun have three—Ayas, Kudidi and Tidung. Though these melodies vary even within groups like the Maguindanao and Maranao, one theme which characterizes the Sulu-type is the exchange of short melodic phrases between the kulintangan and the Agungs, where both instruments imitate and duplicate each other's rhythms very quickly. This is clearly seen in the Tausug Sinug and Yakan Tini-id and Kuriri compositions where this sort of jousting becomes a game of skill and virtuoso playing. ### Composition titles The kulintang repertoire has no fixed labels because the music itself is not considered a fixed entity. Due to the fact it is orally transmitted, the repertoire itself is considered something always in a state of flux due to two primary reasons. First, standardized titles weren't considered a priority. Though to the musicians themselves the melodies would sound similar, the labels they would place on a particular rhythmic mode or style could vary even from household to household within that same village. For the musicians, the emphasis is on the excitement and pleasure of playing the music without much regard to what the piece was referred to as. Secondly, because musicians improvised their pieces regularly, modes and styles were continually revised and changed as they were passed on to a newer generation of musicians, making the pieces and therefore the labels attached to them relevant only during a certain frame of time. Such issues made attempts to codify the compositions in a uniform manner impossible. An example of this could be found among the Maguindanao where the word binalig is used by contemporary musicians as a name for one of the rhythmic modes associated with kangungudan but it has also been used as a term designating a “new” style. Another example concerns the discrepancy among “old” and “new” genres. With “new pieces” continuously proliferating even up till now, pieces only created decades ago are now considered “old” even though this is considered a tradition spanning many centuries. These differences could sometimes make discussing this repertoire and the modes and styles within it a bit confounding. ### Origin of the gong The kulintang gong itself is believed to have been one of those foreign musical elements incorporated into kulintang music, derived from the Sundanese kolenang due to its striking similarities. Along with the fact that they play important roles in their respectively ensembles, both the kulintang and kolenang show striking homogeneity in tapered rims (as opposed to pronouncedly tapered Javanese bonang and non-tapered Laotian khong vong gongs). Even the word kulintang is believed to be just an altered form of the Sundanese word kolenang. It was these similarities that lead theorists to conclude that the kulintang was originally imported to the Philippines during the migration of the kolenang through the Malay Archipelago. Based on the etymology, two routes have been proposed as the route for the kulintang to Mindanao: One from Sunda, through Banjermasin, Brunei and the Sulu Archipelago, a route where the word “kulintangan” is commonly used for the horizontal row of gongs; The other from Sunda, thru, Timor, Sulawesi, Moluccas and Mindanao where the word kolintang/kulintang is commonly seen. ### Future The tradition of kulintang music has been waning throughout the Eastern Malay Archipelago, and has become extinct in some places. Sets of five bronze gong-chimes and a gong making up the totobuang ensembles of Buru island in Central Maluku have also come to disuse. Kolintang sets of bossed kettle gongs were once played in Gorontalo, North Sulawesi long ago but that has all but disappeared, replaced by what locals are presently familiar with—a slab-key instrument known as a kolintang. The extent of past kulintang tradition in the Philippines, particularly in the Northern and Central islands of Luzon and the Visayas, will never be fully known due to the harsh realities of three hundred years of Spanish colonization. The fact that there are areas which were able to keep kulintang tradition alive during European colonization has caused some observers to aptly term this music “the music of resistance.” In 1968, at the University of the Philippines, eminent ethnomusicologist Professor José Maceda ushered in a new interest in kulintang music with the kulintang Master, Aga Mayo Butocan. The latter devised a notation system and wrote Palabunibunyan, a collection of kulintang music pieces from Maguindanao—which made its study more accessible. Further, she emphasized the improvisational aspect of performing on the kulintang. This enhanced its popularity among students from all over the country. Today, the existence of kulintang music is threatened by the influence of globalization, and the introduction of Western and foreign ideals into the region. Younger generations would rather listen to American music, or bike in the streets with other children than spend time practicing and imitating on the traditional instruments of their parents. Philippine kulintang music has had a revival of sorts due to the work of Philippine-born, U.S.-educated musicians/ethnomusicologists Master Danongan "Danny" Kalanduyan and Usopay Cadar, as well as their predecessor Professor José Maceda. Through the work of Professor Robert Garfias, both Cadar and Kalanduyan began teaching and performing traditional kulintang music in the United States during the late 20th century; quite unexpectedly, the music became a bridge between contemporary Filipino American culture and ancient Philippine tribal traditions. Both Kalanduyan and Cadar have been impressed that so many people lacking Maguindanaon or Maranao background, and some who are not even Filipino, have become dedicated students and supporters of their cultural heritage. An additional surprise came after a decade-long series of American-based kulintang students traveled to Mindanao to perform, sparking a kulintang renaissance in the Philippines. The groundwork for this Renaissance originated as early as 1978 through the work of one of the early cultural pioneers and activists amongst Filipino Americans, Robert Kikuchi-Yngojo. It was his dedication in the early 80's that created the cultural awareness in the Fil-Am community of San Franccisco that sparked a cultural movement. The knowledge of outsiders playing traditional kulintang has encouraged the younger generation of musicians in the Philippines, both in Mindanao and in Taguig, Metro Manila. Enthusiastic appreciation by foreigners has given life to a dying tradition, and the music has become a unifying force in the Philippine diaspora. For the first time in history, kulintang music is now formally taught to music students at several universities located throughout Metro Manila. ## Composition of various ensembles The makeup of kulintang ensembles throughout the region varies between the various cultural groups. Generally, they consist of five to six instruments dominated of course by a melody-playing gong row that functions as a lead/central melodic instrument for the entire ensemble. ## Gallery ## See also - Gamelan - Piphat - Gong
14,750	Iodine	1,172,358,694	null	[ "Chemical elements", "Chemical elements with primitive orthorhombic structure", "Diatomic nonmetals", "Dietary minerals", "Gases with color", "Halogens", "Iodine", "Oxidizing agents", "Reactive nonmetals" ]	Iodine is a chemical element with the symbol I and atomic number 53. The heaviest of the stable halogens, it exists as a semi-lustrous, non-metallic solid at standard conditions that melts to form a deep violet liquid at 114 °C (237 °F), and boils to a violet gas at 184 °C (363 °F). The element was discovered by the French chemist Bernard Courtois in 1811 and was named two years later by Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac, after the Ancient Greek Ιώδης 'violet-coloured'. Iodine occurs in many oxidation states, including iodide (I<sup>−</sup>), iodate (IO<sup>−</sup> <sub>3</sub>), and the various periodate anions. It is the least abundant of the stable halogens, being the sixty-first most abundant element. As the heaviest essential mineral nutrient, iodine is required for the synthesis of thyroid hormones. Iodine deficiency affects about two billion people and is the leading preventable cause of intellectual disabilities. The dominant producers of iodine today are Chile and Japan. Due to its high atomic number and ease of attachment to organic compounds, it has also found favour as a non-toxic radiocontrast material. Because of the specificity of its uptake by the human body, radioactive isotopes of iodine can also be used to treat thyroid cancer. Iodine is also used as a catalyst in the industrial production of acetic acid and some polymers. It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines. ## History In 1811, iodine was discovered by French chemist Bernard Courtois, who was born to a manufacturer of saltpetre (an essential component of gunpowder). At the time of the Napoleonic Wars, saltpetre was in great demand in France. Saltpetre produced from French nitre beds required sodium carbonate, which could be isolated from seaweed collected on the coasts of Normandy and Brittany. To isolate the sodium carbonate, seaweed was burned and the ash washed with water. The remaining waste was destroyed by adding sulfuric acid. Courtois once added excessive sulfuric acid and a cloud of purple vapour rose. He noted that the vapour crystallised on cold surfaces, making dark crystals. Courtois suspected that this material was a new element but lacked funding to pursue it further. Courtois gave samples to his friends, Charles Bernard Desormes (1777–1838) and Nicolas Clément (1779–1841), to continue research. He also gave some of the substance to chemist Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac (1778–1850), and to physicist André-Marie Ampère (1775–1836). On 29 November 1813, Desormes and Clément made Courtois' discovery public. They described the substance to a meeting of the Imperial Institute of France. On 6 December, Gay-Lussac announced that the new substance was either an element or a compound of oxygen. Gay-Lussac suggested the name "iode", from the Ancient Greek ἰοειδής (ioeidēs, "violet"), because of the colour of iodine vapor. Ampère had given some of his sample to English chemist Humphry Davy (1778–1829), who experimented on the substance and noted its similarity to chlorine. Davy sent a letter dated 10 December to the Royal Society of London stating that he had identified a new element. Arguments erupted between Davy and Gay-Lussac over who identified iodine first, but both scientists acknowledged Courtois as the first to isolate the element. In 1873 the French medical researcher Casimir Joseph Davaine (1812–1882) discovered the antiseptic action of iodine. Antonio Grossich (1849–1926), an Istrian-born surgeon, was among the first to use sterilisation of the operative field. In 1908, he introduced tincture of iodine as a way to rapidly sterilise the human skin in the surgical field. In early periodic tables, iodine was often given the symbol J, for Jod, its name in German. ## Properties Iodine is the fourth halogen, being a member of group 17 in the periodic table, below fluorine, chlorine, and bromine; it is the heaviest stable member of its group. (The fifth and sixth halogens, the radioactive astatine and tennessine, are not well-studied due to their expense and inaccessibility in large quantities, but appear to show various unusual properties for the group due to relativistic effects.) Iodine has an electron configuration of [Kr]4d<sup>10</sup>5s<sup>2</sup>5p<sup>5</sup>, with the seven electrons in the fifth and outermost shell being its valence electrons. Like the other halogens, it is one electron short of a full octet and is hence an oxidising agent, reacting with many elements in order to complete its outer shell, although in keeping with periodic trends, it is the weakest oxidising agent among the stable halogens: it has the lowest electronegativity among them, just 2.66 on the Pauling scale (compare fluorine, chlorine, and bromine at 3.98, 3.16, and 2.96 respectively; astatine continues the trend with an electronegativity of 2.2). Elemental iodine hence forms diatomic molecules with chemical formula I<sub>2</sub>, where two iodine atoms share a pair of electrons in order to each achieve a stable octet for themselves; at high temperatures, these diatomic molecules reversibly dissociate a pair of iodine atoms. Similarly, the iodide anion, I<sup>−</sup>, is the strongest reducing agent among the stable halogens, being the most easily oxidised back to diatomic I<sub>2</sub>. (Astatine goes further, being indeed unstable as At<sup>−</sup> and readily oxidised to At<sup>0</sup> or At<sup>+</sup>.) The halogens darken in colour as the group is descended: fluorine is a very pale yellow, chlorine is greenish-yellow, bromine is reddish-brown, and iodine is violet. Elemental iodine is slightly soluble in water, with one gram dissolving in 3450 mL at 20 °C and 1280 ml at 50 °C; potassium iodide may be added to increase solubility via formation of triiodide ions, among other polyiodides. Nonpolar solvents such as hexane and carbon tetrachloride provide a higher solubility. Polar solutions, such as aqueous solutions, are brown, reflecting the role of these solvents as Lewis bases; on the other hand, nonpolar solutions are violet, the color of iodine vapour. Charge-transfer complexes form when iodine is dissolved in polar solvents, hence changing the colour. Iodine is violet when dissolved in carbon tetrachloride and saturated hydrocarbons but deep brown in alcohols and amines, solvents that form charge-transfer adducts. The melting and boiling points of iodine are the highest among the halogens, conforming to the increasing trend down the group, since iodine has the largest electron cloud among them that is the most easily polarised, resulting in its molecules having the strongest van der Waals interactions among the halogens. Similarly, iodine is the least volatile of the halogens, though the solid still can be observed to give off purple vapor. Due to this property iodine is commonly used to demonstrate sublimation directly from solid to gas, which gives rise to a misconception that it does not melt in atmospheric pressure. Because it has the largest atomic radius among the halogens, iodine has the lowest first ionisation energy, lowest electron affinity, lowest electronegativity and lowest reactivity of the halogens. The interhalogen bond in diiodine is the weakest of all the halogens. As such, 1% of a sample of gaseous iodine at atmospheric pressure is dissociated into iodine atoms at 575 °C. Temperatures greater than 750 °C are required for fluorine, chlorine, and bromine to dissociate to a similar extent. Most bonds to iodine are weaker than the analogous bonds to the lighter halogens. Gaseous iodine is composed of I<sub>2</sub> molecules with an I–I bond length of 266.6 pm. The I–I bond is one of the longest single bonds known. It is even longer (271.5 pm) in solid orthorhombic crystalline iodine, which has the same crystal structure as chlorine and bromine. (The record is held by iodine's neighbour xenon: the Xe–Xe bond length is 308.71 pm.) As such, within the iodine molecule, significant electronic interactions occur with the two next-nearest neighbours of each atom, and these interactions give rise, in bulk iodine, to a shiny appearance and semiconducting properties. Iodine is a two-dimensional semiconductor with a band gap of 1.3 eV (125 kJ/mol): it is a semiconductor in the plane of its crystalline layers and an insulator in the perpendicular direction. ### Isotopes Of the thirty-seven known isotopes of iodine, only one occurs in nature, iodine-127. The others are radioactive and have half-lives too short to be primordial. As such, iodine is both monoisotopic and mononuclidic and its atomic weight is known to great precision, as it is a constant of nature. The longest-lived of the radioactive isotopes of iodine is iodine-129, which has a half-life of 15.7 million years, decaying via beta decay to stable xenon-129. Some iodine-129 was formed along with iodine-127 before the formation of the Solar System, but it has by now completely decayed away, making it an extinct radionuclide that is nevertheless still useful in dating the history of the early Solar System or very old groundwaters, due to its mobility in the environment. Its former presence may be determined from an excess of its daughter xenon-129. Traces of iodine-129 still exist today, as it is also a cosmogenic nuclide, formed from cosmic ray spallation of atmospheric xenon: these traces make up 10<sup>−14</sup> to 10<sup>−10</sup> of all terrestrial iodine. It also occurs from open-air nuclear testing, and is not hazardous because of its very long half-life, the longest of all fission products. At the peak of thermonuclear testing in the 1960s and 1970s, iodine-129 still made up only about 10<sup>−7</sup> of all terrestrial iodine. Excited states of iodine-127 and iodine-129 are often used in Mössbauer spectroscopy. The other iodine radioisotopes have much shorter half-lives, no longer than days. Some of them have medical applications involving the thyroid gland, where the iodine that enters the body is stored and concentrated. Iodine-123 has a half-life of thirteen hours and decays by electron capture to tellurium-123, emitting gamma radiation; it is used in nuclear medicine imaging, including single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) and X-ray computed tomography (X-Ray CT) scans. Iodine-125 has a half-life of fifty-nine days, decaying by electron capture to tellurium-125 and emitting low-energy gamma radiation; the second-longest-lived iodine radioisotope, it has uses in biological assays, nuclear medicine imaging and in radiation therapy as brachytherapy to treat a number of conditions, including prostate cancer, uveal melanomas, and brain tumours. Finally, iodine-131, with a half-life of eight days, beta decays to an excited state of stable xenon-131 that then converts to the ground state by emitting gamma radiation. It is a common fission product and thus is present in high levels in radioactive fallout. It may then be absorbed through contaminated food, and will also accumulate in the thyroid. As it decays, it may cause damage to the thyroid. The primary risk from exposure to high levels of iodine-131 is the chance occurrence of radiogenic thyroid cancer in later life. Other risks include the possibility of non-cancerous growths and thyroiditis. The usual means of protection against the negative effects of iodine-131 is by saturating the thyroid gland with stable iodine-127 in the form of potassium iodide tablets, taken daily for optimal prophylaxis. However, iodine-131 may also be used for medicinal purposes in radiation therapy for this very reason, when tissue destruction is desired after iodine uptake by the tissue. Iodine-131 is also used as a radioactive tracer. ## Chemistry and compounds Iodine is quite reactive, but it is much less reactive than the other halogens. For example, while chlorine gas will halogenate carbon monoxide, nitric oxide, and sulfur dioxide (to phosgene, nitrosyl chloride, and sulfuryl chloride respectively), iodine will not do so. Furthermore, iodination of metals tends to result in lower oxidation states than chlorination or bromination; for example, rhenium metal reacts with chlorine to form rhenium hexachloride, but with bromine it forms only rhenium pentabromide and iodine can achieve only rhenium tetraiodide. By the same token, however, since iodine has the lowest ionisation energy among the halogens and is the most easily oxidised of them, it has a more significant cationic chemistry and its higher oxidation states are rather more stable than those of bromine and chlorine, for example in iodine heptafluoride. ### Charge-transfer complexes The iodine molecule, I<sub>2</sub>, dissolves in CCl<sub>4</sub> and aliphatic hydrocarbons to give bright violet solutions. In these solvents the absorption band maximum occurs in the 520 – 540 nm region and is assigned to a π<sup>\</sup> to σ<sup>\</sup> transition. When I<sub>2</sub> reacts with Lewis bases in these solvents a blue shift in I<sub>2</sub> peak is seen and the new peak (230 – 330 nm) arises that is due to the formation of adducts, which are referred to as charge-transfer complexes. ### Hydrogen iodide The simplest compound of iodine is hydrogen iodide, HI. It is a colourless gas that reacts with oxygen to give water and iodine. Although it is useful in iodination reactions in the laboratory, it does not have large-scale industrial uses, unlike the other hydrogen halides. Commercially, it is usually made by reacting iodine with hydrogen sulfide or hydrazine: 2 I<sub>2</sub> + N<sub>2</sub>H<sub>4</sub> 4 HI + N<sub>2</sub> At room temperature, it is a colourless gas, like all of the hydrogen halides except hydrogen fluoride, since hydrogen cannot form strong hydrogen bonds to the large and only mildly electronegative iodine atom. It melts at −51.0 °C and boils at −35.1 °C. It is an endothermic compound that can exothermically dissociate at room temperature, although the process is very slow unless a catalyst is present: the reaction between hydrogen and iodine at room temperature to give hydrogen iodide does not proceed to completion. The H–I bond dissociation energy is likewise the smallest of the hydrogen halides, at 295 kJ/mol. Aqueous hydrogen iodide is known as hydroiodic acid, which is a strong acid. Hydrogen iodide is exceptionally soluble in water: one litre of water will dissolve 425 litres of hydrogen iodide, and the saturated solution has only four water molecules per molecule of hydrogen iodide. Commercial so-called "concentrated" hydroiodic acid usually contains 48–57% HI by mass; the solution forms an azeotrope with boiling point 126.7 °C at 56.7 g HI per 100 g solution. Hence hydroiodic acid cannot be concentrated past this point by evaporation of water. Unlike gaseous hydrogen iodide, hydroiodic acid has major industrial use in the manufacture of acetic acid by the Cativa process. Unlike hydrogen fluoride, anhydrous liquid hydrogen iodide is difficult to work with as a solvent, because its boiling point is low, it has a small liquid range, its permittivity is low and it does not dissociate appreciably into H<sub>2</sub>I<sup>+</sup> and HI<sup>−</sup> <sub>2</sub> ions – the latter, in any case, are much less stable than the bifluoride ions (HF<sup>−</sup> <sub>2</sub>) due to the very weak hydrogen bonding between hydrogen and iodine, though its salts with very large and weakly polarising cations such as Cs<sup>+</sup> and NR<sup>+</sup> <sub>4</sub> (R = Me, Et, Bu<sup>n</sup>) may still be isolated. Anhydrous hydrogen iodide is a poor solvent, able to dissolve only small molecular compounds such as nitrosyl chloride and phenol, or salts with very low lattice energies such as tetraalkylammonium halides. ### Other binary iodine compounds With the exception of the noble gases, nearly all elements on the periodic table up to einsteinium (EsI<sub>3</sub> is known) are known to form binary compounds with iodine. Until 1990, nitrogen triiodide was only known as an ammonia adduct. Ammonia-free NI<sub>3</sub> was found to be isolable at –196 °C but spontaneously decomposes at 0 °C. For thermodynamic reasons related to electronegativity of the elements, neutral sulfur and selenium iodides that are stable at room temperature are also nonexistent, although S<sub>2</sub>I<sub>2</sub> and SI<sub>2</sub> are stable up to 183 and 9 K, respectively. As of 2022, no neutral binary selenium iodide has been unambiguously identified (at any temperature). Sulfur- and selenium-iodine polyatomic cations (e.g., [S<sub>2</sub>I<sub>4</sub><sup>2+</sup>][AsF<sub>6</sub><sup>–</sup>]<sub>2</sub> and [Se<sub>2</sub>I<sub>4</sub><sup>2+</sup>][Sb<sub>2</sub>F<sub>11</sub><sup>–</sup>]<sub>2</sub>) have been prepared and characterized crystallographically. Given the large size of the iodide anion and iodine's weak oxidising power, high oxidation states are difficult to achieve in binary iodides, the maximum known being in the pentaiodides of niobium, tantalum, and protactinium. Iodides can be made by reaction of an element or its oxide, hydroxide, or carbonate with hydroiodic acid, and then dehydrated by mildly high temperatures combined with either low pressure or anhydrous hydrogen iodide gas. These methods work best when the iodide product is stable to hydrolysis. Other syntheses include high-temperature oxidative iodination of the element with iodine or hydrogen iodide, high-temperature iodination of a metal oxide or other halide by iodine, a volatile metal halide, carbon tetraiodide, or an organic iodide. For example, molybdenum(IV) oxide reacts with aluminium(III) iodide at 230 °C to give molybdenum(II) iodide. An example involving halogen exchange is given below, involving the reaction of tantalum(V) chloride with excess aluminium(III) iodide at 400 °C to give tantalum(V) iodide: 3TaCl5 + \underset{(excess)}{5AlI3} -\> 3TaI5 + 5AlCl3 Lower iodides may be produced either through thermal decomposition or disproportionation, or by reducing the higher iodide with hydrogen or a metal, for example: TaI5{} + Ta -\>[\text{thermal gradient}] [\ce{630^\circ C\\ -\>\\ 575^\circ C}] Ta6I14 Most metal iodides with the metal in low oxidation states (+1 to +3) are ionic. Nonmetals tend to form covalent molecular iodides, as do metals in high oxidation states from +3 and above. Both ionic and covalent iodides are known for metals in oxidation state +3 (e.g. scandium iodide is mostly ionic, but aluminium iodide is not). Ionic iodides MI<sub>n</sub> tend to have the lowest melting and boiling points among the halides MX<sub>n</sub> of the same element, because the electrostatic forces of attraction between the cations and anions are weakest for the large iodide anion. In contrast, covalent iodides tend to instead have the highest melting and boiling points among the halides of the same element, since iodine is the most polarisable of the halogens and, having the most electrons among them, can contribute the most to van der Waals forces. Naturally, exceptions abound in intermediate iodides where one trend gives way to the other. Similarly, solubilities in water of predominantly ionic iodides (e.g. potassium and calcium) are the greatest among ionic halides of that element, while those of covalent iodides (e.g. silver) are the lowest of that element. In particular, silver iodide is very insoluble in water and its formation is often used as a qualitative test for iodine. ### Iodine halides The halogens form many binary, diamagnetic interhalogen compounds with stoichiometries XY, XY<sub>3</sub>, XY<sub>5</sub>, and XY<sub>7</sub> (where X is heavier than Y), and iodine is no exception. Iodine forms all three possible diatomic interhalogens, a trifluoride and trichloride, as well as a pentafluoride and, exceptionally among the halogens, a heptafluoride. Numerous cationic and anionic derivatives are also characterised, such as the wine-red or bright orange compounds of ICl<sup>+</sup> <sub>2</sub> and the dark brown or purplish black compounds of I<sub>2</sub>Cl<sup>+</sup>. Apart from these, some pseudohalides are also known, such as cyanogen iodide (ICN), iodine thiocyanate (ISCN), and iodine azide (IN<sub>3</sub>). Iodine monofluoride (IF) is unstable at room temperature and disproportionates very readily and irreversibly to iodine and iodine pentafluoride, and thus cannot be obtained pure. It can be synthesised from the reaction of iodine with fluorine gas in trichlorofluoromethane at −45 °C, with iodine trifluoride in trichlorofluoromethane at −78 °C, or with silver(I) fluoride at 0 °C. Iodine monochloride (ICl) and iodine monobromide (IBr), on the other hand, are moderately stable. The former, a volatile red-brown compound, was discovered independently by Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac and Humphry Davy in 1813–1814 not long after the discoveries of chlorine and iodine, and it mimics the intermediate halogen bromine so well that Justus von Liebig was misled into mistaking bromine (which he had found) for iodine monochloride. Iodine monochloride and iodine monobromide may be prepared simply by reacting iodine with chlorine or bromine at room temperature and purified by fractional crystallisation. Both are quite reactive and attack even platinum and gold, though not boron, carbon, cadmium, lead, zirconium, niobium, molybdenum, and tungsten. Their reaction with organic compounds depends on conditions. Iodine chloride vapour tends to chlorinate phenol and salicylic acid, since when iodine chloride undergoes homolytic dissociation, chlorine and iodine are produced and the former is more reactive. However, iodine chloride in carbon tetrachloride solution results in iodination being the main reaction, since now heterolytic fission of the I–Cl bond occurs and I<sup>+</sup> attacks phenol as an electrophile. However, iodine monobromide tends to brominate phenol even in carbon tetrachloride solution because it tends to dissociate into its elements in solution, and bromine is more reactive than iodine. When liquid, iodine monochloride and iodine monobromide dissociate into I <sub>2</sub>X<sup>+</sup> and IX<sup>−</sup> <sub>2</sub> ions (X = Cl, Br); thus they are significant conductors of electricity and can be used as ionising solvents. Iodine trifluoride (IF<sub>3</sub>) is an unstable yellow solid that decomposes above −28 °C. It is thus little-known. It is difficult to produce because fluorine gas would tend to oxidise iodine all the way to the pentafluoride; reaction at low temperature with xenon difluoride is necessary. Iodine trichloride, which exists in the solid state as the planar dimer I<sub>2</sub>Cl<sub>6</sub>, is a bright yellow solid, synthesised by reacting iodine with liquid chlorine at −80 °C; caution is necessary during purification because it easily dissociates to iodine monochloride and chlorine and hence can act as a strong chlorinating agent. Liquid iodine trichloride conducts electricity, possibly indicating dissociation to ICl<sup>+</sup> <sub>2</sub> and ICl<sup>−</sup> <sub>4</sub> ions. Iodine pentafluoride (IF<sub>5</sub>), a colourless, volatile liquid, is the most thermodynamically stable iodine fluoride, and can be made by reacting iodine with fluorine gas at room temperature. It is a fluorinating agent, but is mild enough to store in glass apparatus. Again, slight electrical conductivity is present in the liquid state because of dissociation to IF<sup>+</sup> <sub>4</sub> and IF<sup>−</sup> <sub>6</sub>. The pentagonal bipyramidal iodine heptafluoride (IF<sub>7</sub>) is an extremely powerful fluorinating agent, behind only chlorine trifluoride, chlorine pentafluoride, and bromine pentafluoride among the interhalogens: it reacts with almost all the elements even at low temperatures, fluorinates Pyrex glass to form iodine(VII) oxyfluoride (IOF<sub>5</sub>), and sets carbon monoxide on fire. ### Iodine oxides and oxoacids Iodine oxides are the most stable of all the halogen oxides, because of the strong I–O bonds resulting from the large electronegativity difference between iodine and oxygen, and they have been known for the longest time. The stable, white, hygroscopic iodine pentoxide (I<sub>2</sub>O<sub>5</sub>) has been known since its formation in 1813 by Gay-Lussac and Davy. It is most easily made by the dehydration of iodic acid (HIO<sub>3</sub>), of which it is the anhydride. It will quickly oxidise carbon monoxide completely to carbon dioxide at room temperature, and is thus a useful reagent in determining carbon monoxide concentration. It also oxidises nitrogen oxide, ethylene, and hydrogen sulfide. It reacts with sulfur trioxide and peroxydisulfuryl difluoride (S<sub>2</sub>O<sub>6</sub>F<sub>2</sub>) to form salts of the iodyl cation, [IO<sub>2</sub>]<sup>+</sup>, and is reduced by concentrated sulfuric acid to iodosyl salts involving [IO]<sup>+</sup>. It may be fluorinated by fluorine, bromine trifluoride, sulfur tetrafluoride, or chloryl fluoride, resulting iodine pentafluoride, which also reacts with iodine pentoxide, giving iodine(V) oxyfluoride, IOF<sub>3</sub>. A few other less stable oxides are known, notably I<sub>4</sub>O<sub>9</sub> and I<sub>2</sub>O<sub>4</sub>; their structures have not been determined, but reasonable guesses are I<sup>III</sup>(I<sup>V</sup>O<sub>3</sub>)<sub>3</sub> and [IO]<sup>+</sup>[IO<sub>3</sub>]<sup>−</sup> respectively. More important are the four oxoacids: hypoiodous acid (HIO), iodous acid (HIO<sub>2</sub>), iodic acid (HIO<sub>3</sub>), and periodic acid (HIO<sub>4</sub> or H<sub>5</sub>IO<sub>6</sub>). When iodine dissolves in aqueous solution, the following reactions occur: {\\| \\|- \\| I<sub>2</sub> + H<sub>2</sub>O \\|\\| HIO + H<sup>+</sup> + I<sup>−</sup> \\|\\| K<sub>ac</sub> = 2.0 × 10<sup>−13</sup> mol<sup>2</sup> L<sup>−2</sup> \\|- \\| I<sub>2</sub> + 2 OH<sup>−</sup> \\|\\| IO<sup>−</sup> + H<sub>2</sub>O + I<sup>−</sup> \\|\\| K<sub>alk</sub> = 30 mol<sup>2</sup> L<sup>−2</sup> Hypoiodous acid is unstable to disproportionation. The hypoiodite ions thus formed disproportionate immediately to give iodide and iodate: {\\| \\|- \\| 3 IO<sup>−</sup> 2 I<sup>−</sup> + IO<sup>−</sup> <sub>3</sub> \\|\\| K = 10<sup>20</sup> Iodous acid and iodite are even less stable and exist only as a fleeting intermediate in the oxidation of iodide to iodate, if at all. Iodates are by far the most important of these compounds, which can be made by oxidising alkali metal iodides with oxygen at 600 °C and high pressure, or by oxidising iodine with chlorates. Unlike chlorates, which disproportionate very slowly to form chloride and perchlorate, iodates are stable to disproportionation in both acidic and alkaline solutions. From these, salts of most metals can be obtained. Iodic acid is most easily made by oxidation of an aqueous iodine suspension by electrolysis or fuming nitric acid. Iodate has the weakest oxidising power of the halates, but reacts the quickest. Many periodates are known, including not only the expected tetrahedral IO<sup>−</sup> <sub>4</sub>, but also square-pyramidal IO<sup>3−</sup> <sub>5</sub>, octahedral orthoperiodate IO<sup>5−</sup> <sub>6</sub>, [IO<sub>3</sub>(OH)<sub>3</sub>]<sup>2−</sup>, [I<sub>2</sub>O<sub>8</sub>(OH<sub>2</sub>)]<sup>4−</sup>, and I <sub>2</sub>O<sup>4−</sup> <sub>9</sub>. They are usually made by oxidising alkaline sodium iodate electrochemically (with lead(IV) oxide as the anode) or by chlorine gas: IO<sup>−</sup> <sub>3</sub> + 6 OH<sup>−</sup> → IO<sup>5−</sup> <sub>6</sub> + 3 H<sub>2</sub>O + 2 e<sup>−</sup> IO<sup>−</sup> <sub>3</sub> + 6 OH<sup>−</sup> + Cl<sub>2</sub> → IO<sup>5−</sup> <sub>6</sub> + 2 Cl<sup>−</sup> + 3 H<sub>2</sub>O They are thermodymically and kinetically powerful oxidising agents, quickly oxidising Mn<sup>2+</sup> to MnO<sup>−</sup> <sub>4</sub>, and cleaving glycols, α-diketones, α-ketols, α-aminoalcohols, and α-diamines. Orthoperiodate especially stabilises high oxidation states among metals because of its very high negative charge of −5. Orthoperiodic acid, H<sub>5</sub>IO<sub>6</sub>, is stable, and dehydrates at 100 °C in a vacuum to metaperiodic acid, HIO<sub>4</sub>. Attempting to go further does not result in the nonexistent iodine heptoxide (I<sub>2</sub>O<sub>7</sub>), but rather iodine pentoxide and oxygen. Periodic acid may be protonated by sulfuric acid to give the I(OH)<sup>+</sup> <sub>6</sub> cation, isoelectronic to Te(OH)<sub>6</sub> and Sb(OH)<sup>−</sup> <sub>6</sub>, and giving salts with bisulfate and sulfate. ### Polyiodine compounds When iodine dissolves in strong acids, such as fuming sulfuric acid, a bright blue paramagnetic solution including I<sup>+</sup> <sub>2</sub> cations is formed. A solid salt of the diiodine cation may be obtained by oxidising iodine with antimony pentafluoride: 2 I<sub>2</sub> + 5 SbF<sub>5</sub> 2 I<sub>2</sub>Sb<sub>2</sub>F<sub>11</sub> + SbF<sub>3</sub> The salt I<sub>2</sub>Sb<sub>2</sub>F<sub>11</sub> is dark blue, and the blue tantalum analogue I<sub>2</sub>Ta<sub>2</sub>F<sub>11</sub> is also known. Whereas the I–I bond length in I<sub>2</sub> is 267 pm, that in I<sup>+</sup> <sub>2</sub> is only 256 pm as the missing electron in the latter has been removed from an antibonding orbital, making the bond stronger and hence shorter. In fluorosulfuric acid solution, deep-blue I<sup>+</sup> <sub>2</sub> reversibly dimerises below −60 °C, forming red rectangular diamagnetic I<sup>2+</sup> <sub>4</sub>. Other polyiodine cations are not as well-characterised, including bent dark-brown or black I<sup>+</sup> <sub>3</sub> and centrosymmetric C<sub>2h</sub> green or black I<sup>+</sup> <sub>5</sub>, known in the AsF<sup>−</sup> <sub>6</sub> and AlCl<sup>−</sup> <sub>4</sub> salts among others. The only important polyiodide anion in aqueous solution is linear triiodide, I<sup>−</sup> <sub>3</sub>. Its formation explains why the solubility of iodine in water may be increased by the addition of potassium iodide solution: I<sub>2</sub> + I<sup>−</sup> I<sup>−</sup> <sub>3</sub> (K<sub>eq</sub> = \~700 at 20 °C) Many other polyiodides may be found when solutions containing iodine and iodide crystallise, such as I<sup>−</sup> <sub>5</sub>, I<sup>−</sup> <sub>9</sub>, I<sup>2−</sup> <sub>4</sub>, and I<sup>2−</sup> <sub>8</sub>, whose salts with large, weakly polarising cations such as Cs<sup>+</sup> may be isolated. ### Organoiodine compounds Organoiodine compounds have been fundamental in the development of organic synthesis, such as in the Hofmann elimination of amines, the Williamson ether synthesis, the Wurtz coupling reaction, and in Grignard reagents. The carbon–iodine bond is a common functional group that forms part of core organic chemistry; formally, these compounds may be thought of as organic derivatives of the iodide anion. The simplest organoiodine compounds, alkyl iodides, may be synthesised by the reaction of alcohols with phosphorus triiodide; these may then be used in nucleophilic substitution reactions, or for preparing Grignard reagents. The C–I bond is the weakest of all the carbon–halogen bonds due to the minuscule difference in electronegativity between carbon (2.55) and iodine (2.66). As such, iodide is the best leaving group among the halogens, to such an extent that many organoiodine compounds turn yellow when stored over time due to decomposition into elemental iodine; as such, they are commonly used in organic synthesis, because of the easy formation and cleavage of the C–I bond. They are also significantly denser than the other organohalogen compounds thanks to the high atomic weight of iodine. A few organic oxidising agents like the iodanes contain iodine in a higher oxidation state than −1, such as 2-iodoxybenzoic acid, a common reagent for the oxidation of alcohols to aldehydes, and iodobenzene dichloride (PhICl<sub>2</sub>), used for the selective chlorination of alkenes and alkynes. One of the more well-known uses of organoiodine compounds is the so-called iodoform test, where iodoform (CHI<sub>3</sub>) is produced by the exhaustive iodination of a methyl ketone (or another compound capable of being oxidised to a methyl ketone), as follows: Some drawbacks of using organoiodine compounds as compared to organochlorine or organobromine compounds is the greater expense and toxicity of the iodine derivatives, since iodine is expensive and organoiodine compounds are stronger alkylating agents. For example, iodoacetamide and iodoacetic acid denature proteins by irreversibly alkylating cysteine residues and preventing the reformation of disulfide linkages. Halogen exchange to produce iodoalkanes by the Finkelstein reaction is slightly complicated by the fact that iodide is a better leaving group than chloride or bromide. The difference is nevertheless small enough that the reaction can be driven to completion by exploiting the differential solubility of halide salts, or by using a large excess of the halide salt. In the classic Finkelstein reaction, an alkyl chloride or an alkyl bromide is converted to an alkyl iodide by treatment with a solution of sodium iodide in acetone. Sodium iodide is soluble in acetone and sodium chloride and sodium bromide are not. The reaction is driven toward products by mass action due to the precipitation of the insoluble salt. ## Occurrence and production Iodine is the least abundant of the stable halogens, comprising only 0.46 parts per million of Earth's crustal rocks (compare: fluorine 544 ppm, chlorine 126 ppm, bromine 2.5 ppm). Among the 83 elements which occur in significant quantities (elements 1–42, 44–60, 62–83, 90 and 92), it ranks 61st in abundance. Iodide minerals are rare, and most deposits that are concentrated enough for economical extraction are iodate minerals instead. Examples include lautarite, Ca(IO<sub>3</sub>)<sub>2</sub>, and dietzeite, 7Ca(IO<sub>3</sub>)<sub>2</sub>·8CaCrO<sub>4</sub>. These are the minerals that occur as trace impurities in the caliche, found in Chile, whose main product is sodium nitrate. In total, they can contain at least 0.02% and at most 1% iodine by mass. Sodium iodate is extracted from the caliche and reduced to iodide by sodium bisulfite. This solution is then reacted with freshly extracted iodate, resulting in comproportionation to iodine, which may be filtered off. The caliche was the main source of iodine in the 19th century and continues to be important today, replacing kelp (which is no longer an economically viable source), but in the late 20th century brines emerged as a comparable source. The Japanese Minami Kanto gas field east of Tokyo and the American Anadarko Basin gas field in northwest Oklahoma are the two largest such sources. The brine is hotter than 60 °C from the depth of the source. The brine is first purified and acidified using sulfuric acid, then the iodide present is oxidised to iodine with chlorine. An iodine solution is produced, but is dilute and must be concentrated. Air is blown into the solution to evaporate the iodine, which is passed into an absorbing tower, where sulfur dioxide reduces the iodine. The hydrogen iodide (HI) is reacted with chlorine to precipitate the iodine. After filtering and purification the iodine is packed. 2 HI + Cl<sub>2</sub> → I<sub>2</sub>↑ + 2 HCl I<sub>2</sub> + 2 H<sub>2</sub>O + SO<sub>2</sub> → 2 HI + H<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>4</sub> 2 HI + Cl<sub>2</sub> → I<sub>2</sub>↓ + 2 HCl These sources ensure that Chile and Japan are the largest producers of iodine today. Alternatively, the brine may be treated with silver nitrate to precipitate out iodine as silver iodide, which is then decomposed by reaction with iron to form metallic silver and a solution of iron(II) iodide. The iodine may then be liberated by displacement with chlorine. ## Applications About half of all produced iodine goes into various organoiodine compounds, another 15% remains as the pure element, another 15% is used to form potassium iodide, and another 15% for other inorganic iodine compounds. Among the major uses of iodine compounds are catalysts, animal feed supplements, stabilisers, dyes, colourants and pigments, pharmaceutical, sanitation (from tincture of iodine), and photography; minor uses include smog inhibition, cloud seeding, and various uses in analytical chemistry. ### Chemical analysis The iodide and iodate anions are often used for quantitative volumetric analysis, for example in iodometry. Iodine and starch form a blue complex, and this reaction is often used to test for either starch or iodine and as an indicator in iodometry. The iodine test for starch is still used to detect counterfeit banknotes printed on starch-containing paper. The iodine value is the mass of iodine in grams that is consumed by 100 grams of a chemical substance typically fats or oils. Iodine numbers are often used to determine the amount of unsaturation in fatty acids. This unsaturation is in the form of double bonds, which react with iodine compounds. Potassium tetraiodomercurate(II), K<sub>2</sub>HgI<sub>4</sub>, is also known as Nessler's reagent. It is often used as a sensitive spot test for ammonia. Similarly, Mayer's reagent (potassium tetraiodomercurate(II) solution) is used as a precipitating reagent to test for alkaloids. Aqueous alkaline iodine solution is used in the iodoform test for methyl ketones. ### Spectroscopy The spectrum of the iodine molecule, I<sub>2</sub>, consists of (not exclusively) tens of thousands of sharp spectral lines in the wavelength range 500–700 nm. It is therefore a commonly used wavelength reference (secondary standard). By measuring with a spectroscopic Doppler-free technique while focusing on one of these lines, the hyperfine structure of the iodine molecule reveals itself. A line is now resolved such that either 15 components (from even rotational quantum numbers, J<sub>even</sub>), or 21 components (from odd rotational quantum numbers, J<sub>odd</sub>) are measurable. Caesium iodide and thallium-doped sodium iodide are used in crystal scintillators for the detection of gamma rays. The efficiency is high and energy dispersive spectroscopy is possible, but the resolution is rather poor. ### Spacecraft propulsion Propulsion systems employing iodine as the propellant can be built more compactly, with less mass (and cost), and operate more efficiently than the gridded ion thrusters that were utilized to propel previous spacecraft, such as Japan's Hayabusa probes, ESA's GOCE satellite, or NASA's DART mission, all of which used xenon as the reaction mass. Iodine's atomic weight is only 3.3% less than that of xenon, while its first two ionisation energies average 12% less; together, these make iodine ions a promising substitute. Use of iodine should allow more widespread application of ion-thrust technology, particularly with smaller-scale space vehicles. According to the European Space Agency, "This small but potentially disruptive innovation could help to clear the skies of space junk, by enabling tiny satellites to self-destruct cheaply and easily at the end of their missions, by steering themselves into the atmosphere where they would burn up." In early 2021, the French group ThrustMe performed an in-orbit demonstration of an electric-powered ion thruster for spacecraft, where iodine was used in lieu of xenon as the source of plasma, in order to generate thrust by accelerating ions with an electrostatic field. ### Medicine #### Elemental iodine Elemental iodine is used as an antiseptic either as the element, or as the water-soluble triiodide anion I<sub>3</sub><sup>−</sup> generated in situ by adding iodide to poorly water-soluble elemental iodine (the reverse chemical reaction makes some free elemental iodine available for antisepsis). Elemental iodine may also be used to treat iodine deficiency. In the alternative, iodine may be produced from iodophors, which contain iodine complexed with a solubilizing agent (the iodide ion may be thought of loosely as the iodophor in triiodide water solutions). Examples of such preparations include: - Tincture of iodine: iodine in ethanol, or iodine and sodium iodide in a mixture of ethanol and water. - Lugol's iodine: iodine and iodide in water alone, forming mostly triiodide. Unlike tincture of iodine, Lugol's iodine has a minimised amount of the free iodine (I<sub>2</sub>) component. - Povidone iodine (an iodophor). - Iodine-V: iodine (I<sub>2</sub>) and fulvic acid form a clathrate compound (iodine molecules are "caged" by fulvic acid in this host-guest complex). A water-soluble, solid, stable, crystalline complex. Unlike other iodophors, Iodine-V only contains iodine in molecular (I<sub>2</sub>) form. The antimicrobial action of iodine is quick and works at low concentrations, and thus it is used in operating theatres. Its specific mode of action is unknown. It penetrates into microorganisms and attacks particular amino acids (such as cysteine and methionine), nucleotides, and fatty acids, ultimately resulting in cell death. It also has an antiviral action, but nonlipid viruses and parvoviruses are less sensitive than lipid enveloped viruses. Iodine probably attacks surface proteins of enveloped viruses, and it may also destabilise membrane fatty acids by reacting with unsaturated carbon bonds. #### Other formulations Before the advent of organic chelating agents, salts of iodide were given orally in the treatment of lead or mercury poisoning, such as heavily popularized by Louis Melsens and many nineteenth and early twentieth century doctors. In medicine, a saturated solution of potassium iodide is used to treat acute thyrotoxicosis. It is also used to block uptake of iodine-131 in the thyroid gland (see isotopes section above), when this isotope is used as part of radiopharmaceuticals (such as iobenguane) that are not targeted to the thyroid or thyroid-type tissues. Iodine-131 (usually as iodide) is a component of nuclear fallout, and is particularly dangerous owing to the thyroid gland's propensity to concentrate ingested iodine and retain it for periods longer than this isotope's radiological half-life of eight days. For this reason, people at risk of exposure to environmental radioactive iodine (iodine-131) in fallout may be instructed to take non-radioactive potassium iodide tablets. The typical adult dose is one 130 mg tablet per 24 hours, supplying 100 mg (100,000 micrograms) of ionic iodine. (The typical daily dose of iodine for normal health is of order 100 micrograms; see "Dietary Intake" below.) Ingestion of this large dose of non-radioactive iodine minimises the uptake of radioactive iodine by the thyroid gland. As an element with high electron density and atomic number, iodine absorbs X-rays weaker than 33.3 keV due to the photoelectric effect of the innermost electrons. Organoiodine compounds are used with intravenous injection as X-ray radiocontrast agents. This application is often in conjunction with advanced X-ray techniques such as angiography and CT scanning. At present, all water-soluble radiocontrast agents rely on iodine-containing compounds. ### Others The production of ethylenediamine dihydroiodide, provided as a nutritional supplement for livestock, consumes a large portion of available iodine. Another significant use is a catalyst for the production of acetic acid by the Monsanto and Cativa processes. In these technologies, which support the world's demand for acetic acid, hydroiodic acid converts the methanol feedstock into methyl iodide, which undergoes carbonylation. Hydrolysis of the resulting acetyl iodide regenerates hydroiodic acid and gives acetic acid. Inorganic iodides find specialised uses. Titanium, zirconium, hafnium, and thorium are purified by the van Arkel–de Boer process, which involves the reversible formation of the tetraiodides of these elements. Silver iodide is a major ingredient to traditional photographic film. Thousands of kilograms of silver iodide are used annually for cloud seeding to induce rain. The organoiodine compound erythrosine is an important food coloring agent. Perfluoroalkyl iodides are precursors to important surfactants, such as perfluorooctanesulfonic acid. The iodine clock reaction (in which iodine also serves as a test for starch, forming a dark blue complex), is a popular educational demonstration experiment and example of a seemingly oscillating reaction (it is only the concentration of an intermediate product that oscillates). Although iodine has widespread roles in many species, agents containing it can exert a differential effect upon different species in an agricultural system. The growth of all strains of Fusarium verticillioides is significantly inhibited by an iodine-containing fungistatic (AJ1629-34EC) at concentrations that do not harm the crop. This might be a less toxic anti-fungal agricultural treatment due to its relatively natural chemistry. <sup>125</sup>I is used as the radiolabel in investigating which ligands go to which plant pattern recognition receptors (PRRs). ## Biological role Iodine is an essential element for life and, at atomic number Z = 53, is the heaviest element commonly needed by living organisms. (Lanthanum and the other lanthanides, as well as tungsten with Z = 74 and uranium with Z = 92, are used by a few microorganisms.) It is required for the synthesis of the growth-regulating thyroid hormones thyroxine and triiodothyronine (T<sub>4</sub> and T<sub>3</sub> respectively, named after their number of iodine atoms). A deficiency of iodine leads to decreased production of T<sub>3</sub> and T<sub>4</sub> and a concomitant enlargement of the thyroid tissue in an attempt to obtain more iodine, causing the disease known as simple goitre. The major form of thyroid hormone in the blood is thyroxine (T<sub>4</sub>), which has a longer half-life than T<sub>3</sub>. In humans, the ratio of T<sub>4</sub> to T<sub>3</sub> released into the blood is between 14:1 and 20:1. T<sub>4</sub> is converted to the active T<sub>3</sub> (three to four times more potent than T<sub>4</sub>) within cells by deiodinases (5'-iodinase). These are further processed by decarboxylation and deiodination to produce iodothyronamine (T<sub>1</sub>a) and thyronamine (T<sub>0</sub>a'). All three isoforms of the deiodinases are selenium-containing enzymes; thus dietary selenium is essential for T<sub>3</sub> production. Iodine accounts for 65% of the molecular weight of T<sub>4</sub> and 59% of T<sub>3</sub>. Fifteen to 20 mg of iodine is concentrated in thyroid tissue and hormones, but 70% of all iodine in the body is found in other tissues, including mammary glands, eyes, gastric mucosa, fetal thymus, cerebro-spinal fluid and choroid plexus, arterial walls, the cervix, and salivary glands. During pregnancy, the placenta is able to store and accumulate iodine. In the cells of those tissues, iodide enters directly by sodium-iodide symporter (NIS). The action of iodine in mammary tissue is related to fetal and neonatal development, but in the other tissues, it is (at least) partially unknown. ### Dietary intake The daily levels of intake recommended by the United States National Academy of Medicine are between 110 and 130 μg for infants up to 12 months, 90 μg for children up to eight years, 130 μg for children up to 13 years, 150 μg for adults, 220 μg for pregnant women and 290 μg for lactation. The Tolerable Upper Intake Level (UL) for adults is 1,100 μg/day. This upper limit was assessed by analyzing the effect of supplementation on thyroid-stimulating hormone. The thyroid gland needs no more than 70 μg/day to synthesise the requisite daily amounts of T4 and T3. The higher recommended daily allowance levels of iodine seem necessary for optimal function of a number of body systems, including lactation, gastric mucosa, salivary glands, brain cells, choroid plexus, thymus, and arterial walls. Natural sources of dietary iodine include seafood, such as fish, seaweeds (such as kelp) and shellfish, dairy products and eggs so long as the animals received enough iodine, and plants grown on iodine-rich soil. Iodised salt is fortified with iodine in the form of sodium iodide or potassium iodate. As of 2000, the median intake of iodine from food in the United States was 240 to 300 μg/day for men and 190 to 210 μg/day for women. The general US population has adequate iodine nutrition, with women of childbearing age and pregnant women having a possible mild risk of deficiency. In Japan, consumption was considered much higher, ranging between 5,280 μg/day to 13,800 μg/day from dietary seaweed or kombu kelp, often in the form of kombu umami extracts for soup stock and potato chips. However, new studies suggest that Japan's consumption is closer to 1,000–3,000 μg/day. The adult UL in Japan was last revised to 3,000 μg/day in 2015. After iodine fortification programs such as iodisation of salt have been implemented, some cases of iodine-induced hyperthyroidism have been observed (so-called Jod-Basedow phenomenon). The condition seems to occur mainly in people over forty, and the risk appears higher when iodine deficiency is severe and the initial rise in iodine intake is high. ### Deficiency In areas where there is little iodine in the diet, typically remote inland areas and semi-arid equatorial climates where no marine foods are eaten, iodine deficiency gives rise to hypothyroidism, symptoms of which are extreme fatigue, goitre, mental slowing, depression, weight gain, and low basal body temperatures. Iodine deficiency is the leading cause of preventable intellectual disability, a result that occurs primarily when babies or small children are rendered hypothyroidic by a lack of the element. The addition of iodine to table salt has largely eliminated this problem in wealthier nations, but iodine deficiency remains a serious public health problem in the developing world today. Iodine deficiency is also a problem in certain areas of Europe. Information processing, fine motor skills, and visual problem solving are improved by iodine repletion in moderately iodine-deficient children. ## Precautions ### Toxicity Elemental iodine (I<sub>2</sub>) is toxic if taken orally undiluted. The lethal dose for an adult human is 30 mg/kg, which is about 2.1–2.4 grams for a human weighing 70 to 80 kg (even if experiments on rats demonstrated that these animals could survive after eating a 14000 mg/kg dose). Excess iodine can be more cytotoxic in the presence of selenium deficiency. Iodine supplementation in selenium-deficient populations is, in theory, problematic, partly for this reason. The toxicity derives from its oxidizing properties, through which it denaturates proteins (including enzymes). Elemental iodine is also a skin irritant. Direct contact with skin can cause damage, and solid iodine crystals should be handled with care. Solutions with high elemental iodine concentration, such as tincture of iodine and Lugol's solution, are capable of causing tissue damage if used in prolonged cleaning or antisepsis; similarly, liquid Povidone-iodine (Betadine) trapped against the skin resulted in chemical burns in some reported cases. #### Occupational exposure People can be exposed to iodine in the workplace by inhalation, ingestion, skin contact, and eye contact. The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has set the legal limit (Permissible exposure limit) for iodine exposure in the workplace at 0.1 ppm (1 mg/m<sup>3</sup>) during an 8-hour workday. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) has set a Recommended exposure limit (REL) of 0.1 ppm (1 mg/m<sup>3</sup>) during an 8-hour workday. At levels of 2 ppm, iodine is immediately dangerous to life and health. #### Allergic reactions Some people develop a hypersensitivity to products and foods containing iodine. Applications of tincture of iodine or Betadine can cause rashes, sometimes severe. Parenteral use of iodine-based contrast agents (see above) can cause reactions ranging from a mild rash to fatal anaphylaxis. Such reactions have led to the misconception (widely held, even among physicians) that some people are allergic to iodine itself; even allergies to iodine-rich seafood have been so construed. In fact, there has never been a confirmed report of a true iodine allergy, and an allergy to elemental iodine or simple iodide salts is theoretically impossible. Hypersensitivity reactions to products and foods containing iodine are apparently related to their other molecular components; thus, a person who has demonstrated an allergy to one food or product containing iodine may not have an allergic reaction to another. Patients with various food allergies (shellfish, egg, milk, etc.) do not have an increased risk for a contrast medium hypersensitivity. As with all medications, the patient's allergy history should be questioned and consulted before any containing iodine are administered. ### US DEA List I status Phosphorus can reduce elemental iodine to hydroiodic acid, which is a reagent effective for reducing ephedrine or pseudoephedrine to methamphetamine. For this reason, iodine was designated by the United States Drug Enforcement Administration as a List I precursor chemical under 21 CFR 1310.02.
34,268,996	Millepora alcicornis	1,151,414,650	Species of hydrozoan	[ "Cnidarians of the Atlantic Ocean", "Corals described in 1758", "Milleporidae", "Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus" ]	Millepora alcicornis, or sea ginger, is a species of colonial fire coral with a calcareous skeleton. It is found on shallow water coral reefs in the tropical west Atlantic Ocean. It shows a variety of different morphologies depending on its location. It feeds on plankton and derives part of its energy requirements from microalgae found within its tissues. It is an important member of the reef building community and subject to the same threats as other corals. It can cause painful stings to unwary divers. ## Taxonomy Millepora alcicornis is not a true coral in class Anthozoa but is in class Hydrozoa, and is more closely related to jellyfish than stony corals. Because of the variability in growth habit that this coral exhibits, it has been the subject of much confusion as to its taxonomy, being described under a number of different names from different localities. In 1898, Hickson decided that the variations in morphology were due to environmental factors and that Millepora alcicornis was the valid name for all these species. This conclusion has since been questioned. The species was first described by Carl Linnaeus in his landmark 1758 10th edition of Systema Naturae, but his type locality is unknown. The scientific name comes from the Latin with Millepora meaning "thousand-pored" and alcicornis meaning "elk-horned". It seems likely that the type locality is in fact the West Indies. Explaining this in 1941 Crossland wrote "I cannot resist the remark that the one thing quite certain about the many forms of Millepora is that none of them have any resemblance to an elk's horn, except perhaps that from the West Indies". ## Description The morphology of Millepora alcicornis is very variable. Most colonies probably start as encrusting forms and adopt a branching structure as they grow. The encrustations can become established on a variety of structures, not only on coral reefs and rocks but also on dead corals and the hulls of wrecked ships. Later development is in the form of plates or blades in habitats with much water movement such as the surf-pounded outer edges of reefs. In calmer waters, such as in deep lagoons or more sheltered parts of the reef, a more upright, leafy or branched structure develops which can grow to 50 centimetres (20 in) tall. The habit of growth is also influenced by the inclination of the surface on which the fire coral grows. On vertical surfaces, the encrusting bases are larger with longer perimeters and the density of branching is lower than it is on horizontal surfaces. The cylindrical branches usually grow in a single plane and span a range of hues from brown to pale, cream-like yellow, while branch tips are white. Embedded in the calcareous skeleton are numerous microscopic polyps. They are connected internally by a system of canals and are concealed behind pores in the skeleton, the surface of which is smooth and lacks the corallites of true stony corals. The polyps have specialist functions, the gastrozooids processing and digesting the food caught by the dactylozooids which are grouped around them. The gastrozooids are small and plump and extend four to six tentacle stubs through their pores but are otherwise invisible. The dactylozooids have hairlike tentacles covered in cnidoblasts. Stings from the cnidocysts immobilize an item of prey and the tentacles thrust it through the mouth of an adjacent gastrozooid, from where it passes into the stomach for digestion. The polyps also extrude the coenosteum, the calcareous material of which the skeleton is composed. The coenosteum contains certain symbiotic microalgae called zooxanthellae. These are photosynthetic organisms which provide their hosts with energy and in return benefit from a protective environment in a well lit position. About 75% of the fire coral's energy requirements are provided by the zooxanthellae. ## Distribution Millepora alcicornis is found in the Caribbean Sea, the Gulf of Mexico, Florida, the Cape Verde Islands and along the coast of Central and South America as far south as Brazil. It has also been found in Bermuda, but the morphology at that location is so different from that in the rest of its range that it may be a distinct species. It grows at depths of up to 40 metres (130 ft) and is the only fire coral that often grows at depths greater than 10 metres (33 ft). ## Biology Millepora alcicornis feeds on plankton. The tentacles of the dactylzooids are normally extended all the time. If an object is waved about above the coral, it will cause the tentacles to retract and then the coral can be handled without experiencing the painful stings caused by the cnidocytes. Reproduction is by either asexual or sexual means. Parts of the coral may get detached from the colony by a storm or other means, and some of these fragments may end up in suitable locations to grow into new colonies which will be genetically identical to the parent colony. This fragmentation is probably the most frequent method of reproduction. Alternatively, certain pores called ampullae contain polyps that bud off short-lived, jellyfish-like medusae, which separate from the colony. They produce gametes which, after fertilisation, develop into planula larvae. These drift with the currents as part of the zooplankton before settling out and developing into new colonies. ## Ecology A number of species of shrimp and fish take refuge among the branches of Millepora alcicornis, seemingly immune to the venom. Hawkfish in particular often perch on top of the fire coral, perhaps protected by their skinless pectoral fins. Perhaps unsurprisingly, Millepora alcicornis has few predators. The fireworm (Hermodice carunculata) sometimes grazes on it, but prefers other corals. Certain nudibranchs in the genus Phyllidia eat it as do filefish in the family Monacanthidae. It has been found that when Millepora alcicornis grows in close proximity to an arborescent gorgonian sea fan, the fire coral becomes aggressive. It produces "attack" branches which grow out sideways towards the sea fan, develop into hand-like structures and encircle and smother it. The fire coral then uses it as a substrate for new growth. Sometimes this new growth gets separated from the parent colony, and a new colony of fire coral is formed, genetically identical to the original one. This aggressive action is specific to gorgonians and does not happen in response to the close presence of other live or dead corals, other sessile invertebrates or open water. The fire coral seems to be able to detect the gorgonian's presence as a result of water flowing over the surfaces of both. ## Threats Although not a true coral, Millepora alcicornis is subject to the same general threats that corals and coral reefs are facing. The greatest of these is global warming and the consequent rise in sea temperatures. Millepora alcicornis is one of the first corals to show bleaching as the symbiont zooxanthellae are killed. However, it is also more resilient than most and becomes re-established by recruitment earlier than the scleractinian corals. Other general threats to reefs include ocean acidification, pollution, sedimentation, invasive species and other changes in species dynamics, coral diseases, fisheries, leisure activities and tourism. Small quantities of Millepora alcicornis are gathered for sale to collectors. ## Human interactions The cnidocytes of Millepora alcicornis are powerful enough to sting human skin. They can inject a venom that causes a painful burning sensation, skin eruptions, blisters and scarring. The toxin has been investigated and is a water-soluble protein, 40 μg of which provides a median lethal dose to mice weighing 20 grams (0.71 oz). Millepora alcicornis has no commercial uses but is sometimes kept in reef aquaria. It requires high water movement and bright light to flourish and its health can be judged by its colour, a yellow hue showing health whereas a darker brown colour can indicate too little light. It can be difficult to control because it grows fast and spreads over other objects in the tank.
60,225,160	Mississippi Highway 496	1,134,121,285	State highway in Eastern Mississippi	[ "State highways in Mississippi" ]	Mississippi Highway 496 (MS 496) is a 13.2-mile-long (21.24 km) east–west state highway in eastern Mississippi. The route starts at MS 19 near Meridian and travels eastwards through rural Lauderdale County. The road crosses the Alabama–Mississippi state line east of Alamucha, and it continues on as a county highway. The road that became part of the route was constructed in the 1920s, and it was designated as a state highway by 1957. Two projects in 1964 and 1974 resulted in the route being fully paved. ## Route description All of MS 496 is located within Lauderdale County, and the route is maintained by the Mississippi Department of Transportation (MDOT) as part of the Mississippi State Highway System. MS 496 is legally defined in Mississippi Code § 65-3-3. MS 496 starts at a three-way intersection with MS 19 near Meridian, and the route travels eastward through rural, forested Lauderdale County. The road begins to turn northeast past Old Wire Road and Whitaker Road, and it crosses Cokers Branch near Harper Road. At KOA Campground Road, MS 496 begins traveling southeastward. The route then intersects Russell–Mount Gilead Road and Linton Road, which travel to Russell and Vimville respectively. MS 496 enters the unincorporated area of Alamucha near Alamucha–Whynot Road, and starts traveling northeastwards again east of Greenhill Road. Near the Alabama–Mississippi state line, the road intersects T.K. Culpepper Road, a county-maintained state highway with the designation of MS 897. MS 496 crosses the state line past Salem Church Road, and it continues as Sumter County Route 1, which continues northeastwards towards the town of Cuba. ## History The road that became part of MS 496 was built in the 1920s, following telegraph lines that were completed in 1849. By 1957, it became part of MS 496, starting at MS 19 near Meridian and ending at the Alabama state line. The route was paved in asphalt near the western terminus, and the remaining had a gravel surface. A project to pave and improve 3.9 miles (6.3 km) of MS 496 from Meridian to Alamucha began in 1964, and it was completed one year later. Another project to pave the route to the Alabama state line started in 1973, and it was completed by 1974, resulting in MS 496 being fully paved in asphalt though both termini. ## Major intersections
7,535,297	Ontario Highway 37	1,155,136,751	Ontario provincial highway	[ "Ontario provincial highways", "Transport in Belleville, Ontario" ]	King's Highway 37, commonly referred to as Highway 37, is a provincially maintained highway in the Canadian province of Ontario. It begins at Highway 401 in Belleville and travels 44.2 km (27.5 mi) north to Highway 7 in Actinolite. The route once continued south through Belleville to Highway 62, but was truncated in 1998. Prior to the re-routing, Highway 37 was 47.2 km (29.3 mi) long. Highway 37 was established in 1932 to provide one of several connections with the extension of Highway 7 between Peterborough and Ottawa that opened that year. Aside from several diversions around communities along its length, the route of Highway 37 has remained relatively unchanged since then. The only major settlement on the route between its termini is the village of Tweed, located in the Municipality of Tweed (the latter henceforth referred to as Tweed in this article). ## Route description Highway 37 is a 44.2 km (27.5 mi) road between Highway 401 at Belleville and Highway 7 at Actinolite that serves as a shortcut between Toronto and Ottawa. Lying entirely within Hastings County, the route travels parallel to the Moira River throughout its length. Outside of the communities that it cuts through, the majority of surrounding land use is agricultural, though forest is dominant near the Moira River. Traffic levels along Highway 37 taper gradually from south to north, and increase by approximately 144% in the summer months compared to winter months. On an average day, 9,150 vehicles travel the route immediately north of Highway 401, and 3,150 vehicles travel the route north of the village of Tweed. These represent the heaviest and lightest travelled portions of the route, respectively. Highway 37 begins at an interchange with Highway 401 (Exit 544), south of which it continues as Cannifton Road into downtown Belleville. North of Highway 401, the route curves to the northeast, bypassing the communities of Cannifton and Corbyville. After travelling past Honeywell Corners and Thrasher's Corners, it crosses the Moira River on O'Brien's Bridge and curves east then north, bypassing the communities of Plainfield and Latta. At Roslin, the highway exits Belleville and briefly crosses into Centre Hastings, before straddling the boundary with Tweed north to Thomasburg. Bypassing east of the village, the route fully enters Tweed. Highway 37 meanders northeasterly, bypassing the hamlet of Chapman. It approaches Stoco Lake and turns north into the village of Tweed, where it is locally known as Victoria Street. A 2.1 km (1.3 mi) segment through the village, between Jane Street and Hastings County Road 39 (Sulphide Road), is maintained under a Connecting Link agreement. Crossing the Moira River once more and becoming Moira Street, the highway continues north out of the village alongside the river. After venturing through farmland for several kilometres, Highway 37 parallels the Skootamatta River into Actinolite, ending at Highway 7. ## History Prior to the early 1930s, transportation between Toronto and Ottawa was limited due to the few roads that permeated the Canadian Shield between Lake Ontario and the Ottawa River; at that time the only option was via Highway 2 and Highway 16. The Ontario Department of Highways (DHO) set out to remedy this situation by extending Highway 7 east of Peterborough to Perth. As part of the ensuing depression-relief project, over 2700 men blasted rock, dredged muskeg and endured a constant barrage of blood-sucking insects in order to construct the new highway, which was opened to traffic on August 23, 1932. During this timeframe, the DHO assumed ownership of several north–south routes to connect Highway 7 with Highway 2. On January 6, 1932, the Belleville–Actinolite Road was designated as Highway 37. The new route followed existing Hastings County roads. Originally, Highway 37 began at Highway 14 (Front Street) in downtown Belleville, and followed Station Street and Cannifton Road north through the communities of Cannifton and Corbyville. While this section was paved, the remainder of the highway was gravel-surfaced. It was paved from Corbyville to Roslin between 1942 and 1946, and from Tweed to Actinolite in 1945. The remainder of Highway 37, from Roslin to Tweed, was paved between 1951 and 1953. Within Tweed, Highway 37 originally followed Bridge Street and Moira Street until Victoria Street was extended north across the river in 1937. O'Brien's Bridge over Moira River south of Plainfield collapsed in spring of 1945 when a truck struck it. Construction of a new bridge to the west of the old bridge as well as a 1.1 km (0.68 mi) diversion to connect with it began that summer, and was completed the following year. The adjacent communities of Cannifton and Corbyville were bypassed by a new alignment that opened in October 1960. In 1968, a diversion around Plainfield and Latta was opened. The interchange with Highway 401 was built beginning in 1955 as a cloverleaf, and opened along with the section of that highway between Trenton and Marysville on October 7, 1958. The interchange was rebuilt in 1991 as a parclo AB, with the ramps on the west side of Highway 37 being removed. ## Major intersections
1,015,657	Dragon Age: Origins	1,172,822,953	2009 video game	[ "2009 video games", "Action role-playing video games", "BioWare games", "D.I.C.E. Award for Role-Playing Game of the Year winners", "Dark fantasy role-playing video games", "Dragon Age", "Dwarves in popular culture", "Electronic Arts games", "Elves in popular culture", "Fantasy video games", "LGBT-related video games", "MacOS games", "PlayStation 3 games", "Single-player video games", "Spike Video Game Award winners", "Video games about demons", "Video games about witchcraft", "Video games developed in Canada", "Video games scored by Inon Zur", "Video games with expansion packs", "Video games with gender-selectable protagonists", "Video games with user-generated gameplay content", "Windows games", "Xbox 360 games" ]	Dragon Age: Origins is a 2009 role-playing video game developed by BioWare and published by Electronic Arts. It is the first game in the Dragon Age franchise. Set in the fictional kingdom of Ferelden during a period of civil strife, the game puts the player in the role of a warrior, mage, or rogue coming from an elven, human, or dwarven background. The player character is recruited into the Grey Wardens, an ancient order that stands against monstrous forces known as "Darkspawn", and is tasked with defeating the Archdemon that commands them and ending their invasion. The game is played from a third-person perspective that can be shifted to a top-down perspective. Throughout the game, players encounter various companions, who play major roles in the game's plot and gameplay. BioWare described Dragon Age: Origins as a "dark heroic fantasy" set in a unique world, and a spiritual successor to their previous Baldur's Gate and Neverwinter Nights franchises. Its setting was inspired by The Lord of the Rings and A Song of Ice & Fire, and was described by BioWare as a mix between high fantasy and low fantasy. Development of the game began in 2002 and BioWare employed more than 144 voice-actors, and hired Inon Zur to compose the game's music. The development of the game's console versions was outsourced to Edge of Reality. Origins was released for Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 3, and Xbox 360 in November 2009, and for Mac OS X in December 2009. Origins received critical acclaim upon release, with praise mostly directed at its story, setting, characters, music and combat system. It sold more than 3.2 million copies and 1 million pieces of downloadable content. It won multiple year-end accolades including Game of the Year and Best Role-playing awards from several gaming publications, and has widely been considered to be one of the greatest video games ever made. BioWare released several instances of downloadable content after the game's initial launch, an expansion pack for the game titled Awakening in March 2010, and two sequels, Dragon Age II and Dragon Age: Inquisition, were released in 2011 and 2014 respectively. ## Gameplay Dragon Age: Origins is a role-playing game played from a third-person perspective. The player is a Grey Warden, part of an order of elite fighters, whose task is to defeat the Archdemon and save the world from a disastrous event called the Blight. Players create their own Grey Warden character, customizing gender and appearance as well as choosing a race and class. The available classes are warriors, who perform strong physical attacks and protect their allies; rogues, who carry out stealth attacks and steal items from other characters; and mages, who cast spells on enemies, create combo spells, and support other party members. The three choices of race are human, elf, and dwarf. The combination of class and race determines which of six different origin stories the player experiences: Dalish Elf, Dwarf Commoner, City Elf, Mage, Human Noble, or Dwarf Noble. This affects the way other in-game characters perceive the player's character; for instance, a Dwarven Commoner would receive hatred and discrimination from other dwarves. However, all classes follow the same plot after the completion of the origin story. During gameplay, the player encounters a variety of enemies, including giant spiders, Darkspawn, ghosts, walking trees, and dragons. They also recruit companions, who accompany them and provide assistance in battle. These companions are normally controlled by artificial intelligence, with behaviour that the player can adjust through the "Tactics" menu, but the player also has the option to switch between characters and is able to issue orders to them in real-time or pause the game to queue up actions. The player and any companions in their party engage in combat with the weapons they have equipped when the player targets or is noticed by a hostile enemy. Players can swap weapons and perform special attacks during combat, but most of these attacks have a recharge time. The point of view can be shifted from the third-person view to a top-down view, where friendly and hostile units are labelled with different colours to distinguish them. At the end of a battle the characters' health and stamina, which powers a character's skills, are automatically refilled. When an enemy is defeated, the player collects any items or loot from its corpse. Companions who are not in the player's active party stay in the base camp, a hub where the player can talk to their party members as well as purchase new weapons, armour, and gear. In addition to the main story, the player can learn more about the world of Thedas by collecting the codices scattered throughout the game. The player can level up their Warden character by earning experience points through exploring new areas, completing quests, and defeating enemies. Each time the player levels up, they receive three points to spend on the character's six attributes. Strength inflicts more damage, Dexterity helps evade attacks more often, Willpower increases stamina (or mana for Mages), Magic increases spell damage and magic defence, Cunning improves combat tactics, and Constitution increases the character's health. Special skills, which are divided into four different aspects for each class, and specialization options, which offer class-specific skills, can also be unlocked by levelling up. The player can talk and interact with both party members and other non-playable characters. A dialogue tree offers several dialogue options for the player to select. Through conversation, the player can unlock unique quests and dialogue revealing the lore of Dragon Age. It can also be used to persuade or intimidate other characters. The player often must choose between morally ambiguous options, which result in consequences that affect the game's world and progression and can even lead to the death of a potential companion. Companions react to the player's choices through an "approval system". When they dislike or object to the player's decisions, their approval drops, which can result in a companion leaving the party or even attacking the Warden. Approval points can also be influenced by gifts, which will improve any companion's approval but are each intended for a specific companion. Some gifts, if given to the right character, start a cutscene and can even unlock a quest. A high approval rating improves a companion's morale and gives bonuses to their combat abilities. A significant approval rating also makes it possible for the Warden to pursue a romantic relationship with certain companions. The game's "interaction reactivity" system means that the way a player treats one companion affects the approval rating of other companions as well. ## Synopsis ### Setting The game is set in Ferelden, one of several countries in the fictional world of Thedas. Savage creatures called the Darkspawn dwell within the Deep Roads, an underground highway system created by the dwarves long ago, deep beneath the surface of Thedas. Every few hundred years, the Darkspawn swarm the surface world in a movement known as a Blight. Ever since the first Blight, Thedas has relied on the legendary order of warriors known as the Grey Wardens to drive the Darkspawn back. Dragon Age: Origins begins on the eve of Thedas's fifth Blight. Thedas is a world in which race and class combine to determine social class and political dynamics. Elves are often viewed as second-class citizens by humans, while human nobles are treated with respect. Mages, on the other hand, are cloistered by the Chantry: they have access to the Fade, the unconscious realm that is the home of spirits, and a single lapse in vigilance could cause them to be possessed by demons. Apostate mages, who live outside the Chantry's control, are considered extremely dangerous, and the Chantry has a military wing, the Templars, to seek out and subdue them by any means necessary. Dwarves live in the Deep Roads; their kingdom a shadow of what it once was before the first Blight, and their society is rooted in tradition and a rigid caste system. Dalish Elves live a nomadic lifestyle away from most cities, proudly attempting to preserve and reclaim the ancient Elven heritage that was mostly wiped out long ago when the Elven empire that ruled most of the lands mysteriously collapsed. Two prequel novels released in 2009, Dragon Age: The Stolen Throne and its direct sequel Dragon Age: The Calling, provide context for the game's lore as well as the backstories of several characters and their relevant conflicts in Origins. ### Characters The chief protagonist of Dragon Age: Origins is the player-controlled character, whose biography and combat specialization are determined by the race and class chosen at the start of the game. While the player can choose his or her avatar's first name, the character is usually referred to as "The Warden" by other characters and the game's narration. Many of the game's non-player characters (NPCs) are companion characters, who appear throughout the game and may volunteer their services. Companions include Alistair, a reluctantly heroic Grey Warden with a sarcastic wit; Morrigan, a spiteful apostate mage who has little regard for authority or social mores; Leliana, a lay sister of the Ferelden Chantry whose optimistic and virtuous demeanor belies an aptitude for espionage and combat; Sten, a proud but stoic warrior of the deeply regimented Qunari people who often questions the ways of other races; Oghren, an unkempt dwarven warrior whose love of alcohol is only matched by his penchant for physical violence and loyalty to his friends; Wynne, a senior member of the Ferelden Circle of Magi, a maternal figure to the party and a powerful healer; Zevran, a rakish elven assassin who is fond of treasures, sex and innuendo; and a loyal Mabari War Hound, which the player can name and use for scouting and combat. With the DLC The Stone Prisoner installed, Shale, a sarcastic Golem with a mild ornithophobia who was a female dwarf in her prior life, is also available as an optional companion. Outside of companion characters, NPCs significant to the Origins plot include Duncan, the Grey Warden who recruits the player; Arl Eamon Guerrin of Redcliffe, the uncle of Ferelden's naive but courageous King Cailan Theirin; Bann Teagan Guerrin, the brother of Arl Eamon; Queen Anora, Cailan's politically savvy wife, with a commanding personality that is somewhat offset by her ambition and ruthlessness; and Flemeth, Morrigan's mother, who appears to be a harmless old woman, but in truth is an infamous dark witch of Fereldan legend. The rampaging Darkspawn horde is led by the Archdemon Urthemiel, supposedly one of the Old Gods of the Tevinter Imperium incarnated in the form of a powerful and corrupted dragon with total control over the Darkspawn. The game's other main antagonists are Loghain Mac Tir, Teyrn of Gwaren and father of Queen Anora, a once-respected war hero gone mad with ambition and paranoia; and Rendon Howe, the amoral and corrupt Arl of Amaranthine who allies with Loghain to further his own ambitions. ### Plot One of six predetermined origin stories begins the game, depending on the player character's race and class. Each story ends with the player leaving with Duncan, the commander of Ferelden's Grey Wardens who is seeking new recruits and selects the player as a candidate. The two journey to Ferelden's southern fortress, Ostagar, to join Cailan, the King of Ferelden, and his father-in-law Loghain, a legendary general and close friend of Cailan's late father, King Maric. The three leaders plan to attack the encroaching Darkspawn to stop a new Blight from overwhelming Ferelden. Duncan senses the influence of an Archdemon, a god-like Dragon that commands the Darkspawn, and emphasizes the importance of defeating the Blight before it can threaten the rest of Thedas. Duncan initiates the player into the Grey Wardens via a ritual called the Joining, which involves imbibing Darkspawn blood. The recipient, if they survive, is granted the Taint, a connection into the Darkspawn hive mind to sense them. After surviving, the player (now nicknamed "The Warden") and fellow Grey Warden Alistair are tasked with lighting a beacon at the top of the fortress to signal Loghain's men into charging the Darkspawn horde flank. However, upon arriving, Loghain abandons the battlefield, leaving Cailan, Duncan, and their army to be slain by the Darkspawn, who seize control of Ostagar and begin advancing into southern Ferelden. The Warden and Alistair are saved by Flemeth, a powerful witch who lives in seclusion. Flemeth sends her daughter Morrigan to accompany the Warden and Alistair in gathering a new army to combat the Archdemon and stop the Blight. Using ancient Grey Warden treaties, the Warden travels across Ferelden to enlist the aid of the Circle of Magi, the Dalish Elves, the Dwarves of Orzammar, and soldiers in Redcliffe loyal to Arl Eamon. In addition, Alistair reveals that he is a bastard son of King Maric, making him a contender for the now vacant throne. Meanwhile, Loghain returns to Ferelden's capital city, Denerim, to inform his daughter, Queen Anora, of Cailan's death. Loghain scapegoats the Grey Wardens for the defeat at Ostagar and demands the deaths of any survivors. While Anora inherits her husband's authority, Loghain declares himself her regent and seizes control of the kingdom, becoming a tyrannical ruler determined to retain power. Ferelden's nobility rebel against him, igniting a civil war which ends in an inconclusive stalemate and allows the Darkspawn to advance further into Ferelden unopposed. Eamon then calls a Landsmeet among the nobles of Ferelden to rally the kingdom against the Darkspawn, where the Warden or a party member defeats Loghain in a duel. If Alistair defeats Loghain, he will then execute him. Otherwise, the Warden can either have Loghain executed or recruited into the Grey Wardens and the party in place of Alistair (who quits both in turn). Dependent on this and other past decisions, the Warden then settles who assumes Ferelden's throne (Alistair and/or Anora), with the option of marrying the one of opposite gender if a Human Noble. Before the final battle, the Warden learns that a Grey Warden must slay the Archdemon to prevent it from releasing a demonic essence which finds a new host in the nearest Darkspawn. The essence will be drawn to the Taint, killing the Warden in the process. Morrigan meets with the Warden and proposes a ritual that will see her conceive a child with a Warden. The Archdemon, upon death, will instead be drawn to the child, born as a demigod with the Taint, sparing the Warden who slays it. Morrigan agrees to conceive the child on the condition that she raise it alone. The Warden can accept Morrigan's offer (if male), convince Alistair/Loghain to take part instead, or refuse the proposal (which causes Morrigan to leave the party). The next day, the Warden and the newly assembled army gather in Denerim. They repel the Darkspawn horde and vanquish the Archdemon. If Morrigan's ritual was performed, the Warden slays the Archdemon. If not, they must decide whether they or Alistair/Loghain does so and perishes in the process. The remaining Darkspawn retreat from Denerim, marking the end of the Fifth Blight. The story ends with a ceremony attended by Ferelden citizens, where the Warden and their companions are honoured for saving the kingdom. An epilogue details the ramifications of the Warden's choices, including the future of Ferelden, any rumours, and the fates of his or her companions. ## Development ### Design Dragon Age: Origins was created by the Edmonton studio of BioWare, the developer of Neverwinter Nights and Jade Empire. Development of the game's first demo began in November 2002. It was officially revealed at E3 2004 as simply Dragon Age and was re-revealed as Dragon Age: Origins in July 2008, alongside a new trailer for the game. According to BioWare, they kept any information about the game hidden from the public, to further the game's design and technology. More than 180 people worked on the game, and full-scale production began three years after the game's initial development. The subtitle "Origins" was chosen to represent the six origins storyline, BioWare's return to PC role-playing games, and the beginning of a new franchise. Origins is a spiritual successor to Baldur's Gate and Neverwinter Nights, as an attempt to build a similar fantasy RPG without any licensing restrictions or issues. The similarities are mostly present in gameplay elements, such as real-time tactical combat; the game does not share the Dungeons & Dragons setting of the Baldur's Gate series and is instead set in a period where dragons are prevalent. While the game was initially built with the engine that powered Neverwinter Nights, the team switched to use the Eclipse Engine midway during the game's development. The shift in engine slowed down the game's development significantly. David Gaider, the lead writer for Origins, built the game's world first before writing the plot. The team chose a "fantasy" setting because Dan Tudge, the game's director, thought that BioWare was at its best in the fantasy genre. In the first draft, there were no Darkspawn or Grey Wardens, and mages were not allowed to use magic in cities. There were twelve different origin stories, including Human Commoner and Avvar, a barbarian origin. However, most of them were scrapped for being "ridiculous", leading to six stories being finalized. Loghain was the first character to be created, while an Ogre, nicknamed "Fluffy", and a human with medium armour were the first enemies designed. The concepts of Alistair and Morrigan were the next to be created, as they play the largest role in the game's plot. Their creation also took far longer than other characters. Morrigan was originally conceived to be similar to Flemeth, speaking whimsically. However, Gaider was not satisfied and decided to completely rewrite her personality. As a result, she was designed as a "blunt" person who always resists her mother. Finding a suitable voice actor for Morrigan took the most time of any character. The game's final version features 68,260 lines of dialogue; the quality assurance testers for the game enabled a cheat to automatically skip these cutscenes and dialogues during test runs. Dragons were added into the game after its title was created using a random name generator. Ray Muzyka, co-founder of BioWare, said that the team wanted to try something that would be new but familiar to most players. They hoped that Origins would redefine the genre to become The Lord of the Rings of video game franchises. Greg Zeschuk, another co-founder of BioWare, described the fantasy of Dragon Age as in between the high fantasy of J. R. R. Tolkien's works and the low fantasy of works by George R.R. Martin. The goal was a "dark heroic fantasy" that would suit the taste of any fan of the genre. Thus, while the game has the typical races of human, elf, and dwarf, they are slightly altered from the usual nature of the three races, and a new race called the Qunari was introduced. Some of the alterations they made included flipping how certain races, like elves, are treated in other fictional worlds. While elves are often described as a race of high prestige in fiction, Dragon Age: Origins presents them as slaves of humans, labelled as second-class citizens who resent the human race. This extended to the gameplay, where the player can choose to discriminate against other races and can experience discrimination from others based on their choices. BioWare recognized that non-linear choices are an element unique to video games in the entertainment industry. Zeschuk called the sheer number of choices in the game "big" and "impactful", and the team designed many of those to be emotional and create a more personal experience for the player. They intentionally avoided adding a karma system, as the choices are designed to be ambiguous, with only the player to judge whether they are good or bad. According to Muzyka, their goal was to make players sympathize with events and characters, connecting with them to feel true emotions. This vision challenged the team to balance many key aspects, such as the amount of dialogue and animation in each cutscene, to create a believable scenario for players. The team also hoped to handle romance in a more "mature" and "complicated" way, with a true reflection on human relationships and reactions rather than "adolescent titillation". The game has sex scenes, but no nudity. Muzyka added that it was an artistic choice and a decision made by the team, not the publisher Electronic Arts. While Origins is a single-player-only game, Muzyka described it as a "social experience", considering the narrative and its variety of paths as an integral part of the gameplay. The characters a player meets, items they collect, and quests they receive and complete may be different, leading to a completely different experience. He also considered the ways a player explores the world and discovers new areas as an exploration narrative. As each player had a different experience, they hoped that those players would collaborate to expand upon their knowledge of the world. To that effect, the team built a community site as an online social environment for players to communicate. Players could share stats and automatically generated screenshots with the community. ### Sound The game features an orchestral soundtrack with a choir, used both in-game and during cutscenes. The soundtrack was recorded by the performance of a 44-piece orchestra, recorded twice and merged to sound like an 88-piece orchestra. The soundtrack was described by a press release issued by Electronic Arts as a collaboration between composer Inon Zur, vocalist Aubrey Ashburn, and BioWare Audio Director Simon Pressey, and performed by the Northwest Sinfonia. According to Zur, he intentionally made most of the soundtrack feel "dark", combining low brass and bass string instruments with ancient drums to express a feeling that is both heroic and demonic. The soundtrack was presented at a panel in the Hollywood Music in Media Interactive Conference in 2009 and was performed as part of the September 26 "A Night in Fantasia 2009" concert in Sydney, Australia, by the Eminence Symphony Orchestra. The song "I Am The One", written by Inon Zur and Aubrey Ashburn and performed by Aubrey Ashburn, won "Best Original Song – Video Game" in the Hollywood Music in Media Awards & Conference show held on November 19, 2009. Pressey also won the 2009 Hollywood Music in Media Award for "Outstanding Music Supervision - Video Game". Origins contains a large amount of voice acting recorded in the US and the UK. Actors include Tim Russ, Steve Valentine, Kate Mulgrew, Simon Templeman, Mark Rolston, Tim Curry, Adam Howden, Nicola Bertram, and Claudia Black. In total, 144 voice actors worked on the game. A large part of these recordings became the ambient dialogue that takes place between non-player characters in the adventuring party, adding to their backstories and lending more credibility to the characters. Mark Darrah, the executive producer of BioWare, described the cast of characters the largest of any of their games at that time and hoped that using celebrities would add a layer of depth and complexity to the characters. The main protagonist is not voice-acted, as the team hoped that players would "reflect their own inner voice" when making decisions. ## Marketing and release While the game was originally intended for PC, a console version was announced in 2008 by gaming magazine Game Informer. Prior to the announcement, Zeschuk suggested that the entire franchise has a "console future". The decision was made to bring the game to consoles to introduce it to a wider audience. Mike Laidlaw, the game's lead designer, considered creating the console versions' interface a challenge, as they had to convert the long and complex quickbar from the PC version to a more streamlined interface that could use the same actions with only few button presses. To that end, the team decided to map six different actions together, and allow players to customize the arrangement. Also, the console version does not allow the top-down view possible in the PC version. The game was originally set to be released in early 2009 for Microsoft Windows, and later for PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360. The team partnered with Edge of Reality to develop the console versions of the game. However, its release date was pushed to the latter half of that year in order to have a simultaneous launch. BioWare announced that the game would be released on October 20, 2009, but pushed it back again to November 6, 2009, as the team wanted additional time to finalize some last-minute decisions. The PlayStation 3 version was at one point delayed to November 17 but did end up launching alongside the other versions. A Mac version of the game, developed by TransGaming, was released on December 21, 2009. The Dragon Age Character Creator was released on October 13, 2009, allowing players to create a character in advance and import it into the full game upon release. BioWare also released a "developer-grade" toolset to allow extensive modification and customization of the game's PC version. Players can use these tools to craft new campaigns, quests, cinematics, and lip-syncing. On November 26, 2009, Electronic Arts announced a competition called Dragon Age: Warden's Quest. Contestants formed groups of four people and competed to adventure through the game's world, with the winning group receiving \$12,500. The representatives from Hungary won the contest. The December 2009 issue of PC Gamer was bundled with a DVD copy of A Tale of Orzammar, a promotional campaign module for Origins. It explores the actions of a mercenary, the player character of the module, who is contracted by a dwarven nobleman to retrieve a valuable artifact from a ruined thaig within the Deep Roads. In addition to the standard version, other editions of Origins were made available for purchase. The Collector's Edition came in a SteelBook with different artwork. Like the standard edition, the Collector's Edition included a redemption code to obtain the Stone Prisoner and Blood Dragon Armor downloadable content (DLC) for free, but also featured three additional exclusive in-game items, a bonus disc containing a making-of documentary, concept art, trailers, the game's original soundtrack, and a cloth map of Ferelden. Dragon Age: Origins supports released several DLC packs for the game. The content ranged from single in-game item packs to entirely new plot-related campaigns, which include The Stone Prisoner, Warden's Keep, Return to Ostagar, The Darkspawn Chronicles, Leliana's Song, The Golems of Amgarrak, and Witch Hunt. An expansion, titled Awakening, which is set in a new area called Amaranthine and introduces five new party members, was released on March 16, 2010. The "Ultimate Edition", which includes the base game, the Awakening expansion pack, and all 9 DLC packs, was released on October 26, 2010. On March 9, 2011, Electronic Arts announced that players who pre-ordered Darkspore would receive a free copy of Origins. In 2012, to celebrate the first anniversary of Electronic Arts' own digital distribution software Origin, the game was made free to download alongside Battlefield: Bad Company 2 and Spore for a limited time. On October 8, 2015, it became free to download again for a limited time as part of Origin's On the House program. ## Reception ### Critical reception Dragon Age: Origins received critical acclaim from major video game critics upon its release. While the game is considered to be virtually identical across all platforms, differences in user interface, graphical performance, and online content delivery have led the PC version to be reviewed more favorably than the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 versions; Metacritic ranks the PC, PlayStation 3, and Xbox 360 versions of the game with scores of 91, 87, and 86, respectively. The game's setting was well received by critics. Dave Snider from Giant Bomb thought that the setting felt traditional due to the presence of dwarves and elves, but that the world was beautifully executed. He also appreciated the small touches BioWare added to the world, noting the "French-tinged accent" of the Orlesian Empire humans. He added that the six origin stories and their unique dialogue and referencing throughout the game make the world feel cohesive. Kevin VanOrd from GameSpot made similar comments, stating that the new ideas added to a familiar world make it feel original and new. However, Jeff Haynes from IGN said that the origin stories were inconsistent, with missteps that make the world, while "rich and vivid", feel less believable. Joe Juba from Game Informer wrote that the world was well-realized with a deep history, which makes the game addicting, as players can sense their Warden's importance in the world. The game's story and characters also received praise. Snider said that the story is driven by the characters and that the choices presented in the game were difficult, making him regret some choices for weeks after completing the game. He added that the game's main quest was well written, and its quality boosted by excellent voice acting; he called the performance of Claudia Black as Morrigan one of the best in the game. VanOrd commended the game's story, saying that it was memorable and crafted with care, successfully making players care about the game's world and characters. He added that the deep character development made every choice "momentous". GamesRadar thought that the story and the Warden's appearance felt generic, but that the story became more and more engrossing as it progressed. Nick Tan from Game Revolution liked the banter between companions as a humorous change of pace within the game. Gerald Villoria from GameSpy praised the exclusion of the moral system for making the characters feel more complex. Juba wrote that the story was good but predictable, not straying far from standard fantasy stories. Wesley Yin-Poole from VideoGamer.com called the story memorable, saying that it "leaves an itch in your mind", and has attracted players to return to the game "like an addict seeking a hit of relief." In commemoration of the 10th anniversary of Origins, Eric Van Allen of USGamer observed that companion relationships are more tense in Origins, and that most of the companions do not follow the Warden out of blind loyalty. Van Allen notes that the underlying tensions resulted in a game that "reveled in the moral grays", encouraging players to make decisions that aligns with their own feelings, unlike in Mass Effect. As for the game's combat, Snider called it streamlined but said that players who do not want to use the pause mechanic would not be able to appreciate the game, as the combat requires both patience and strategy. He liked the game's third-person view more than the top-down view, saying that being able to view the sky made environments feel more complicated, and praised the high difficulty of boss battles, which task players to manage their stamina carefully. His conclusion was that Origins "feels like a real throwback to the good old days of PC role-playing epics." VanOrd said that the combat system was easily recognizable for players who have played other RPGs developed by BioWare. He added that players can have a lot of fun switching between characters, and agreed that the game had created thrilling boss battles. He praised the choice to have health and stamina replenish immediately after battles, as it sped up combat pace and flow. Tan also commended the combat, finding it a better system than other BioWare RPGs, but disliked the fact that characters can't step into water. Juba praised the amount of space for players to experiment with new skills and abilities, adding that the required focus and attention make combat very satisfying. The game's graphics received mixed reviews. VanOrd was not impressed, stating that the environments do not look as good viewed from a top-down perspective, but he praised the art style and some of the game's "eye-catching" landmarks. Tan liked that the environments were varied and unique, saying that each level felt "vast" and filled with details. Villoria found its visual quality lacking when compared with that of Mass Effect 2, adding that the facial animation can feel wooden at times. However, he found the combat animation rewarding and satisfying. He further criticized the sex sequences as "off-putting". Yin-Poole said that the game's graphics were boring and generic, and called the sex scenes "anticlimactic" and poorly-executed. Both Villoria and Yin-Poole felt that the six-year development time was too long, considering the game's mediocre graphics. GamesRadar estimated that there are more than 80 hours of content available in the game. Villoria called the world engaging, and its replay value very high, as players can play the story over and over again with a different origin. Juba agreed, as did Yin-Poole, who added that the way companions react to the player's decisions, as well as the six origin stories, significantly expand the game's longevity. John Walker, writing for Eurogamer, notes that the game's most frequent theme is the line between acculturation and enculturation. He praised the level of depth on display in Origins, calling it one of the most extraordinary gaming achievements he had seen up to that point. ### Sales Dragon Age: Origins topped Steam's sales chart on November 10, 2009. The Digital Deluxe version of the game was ranked first place, with the standard edition ranked second. The Xbox 360 version of the game was the ninth-best-selling game in the US according to the NPD Group, selling approximately 362,100 copies. According to John Riccitiello, CEO of Electronic Arts, the company is very satisfied with the sales of Origins; more than 1 million DLC packs for the game were sold before the end of 2009. In February 2010, Electronic Arts announced that more than 3.2 million copies of the game had been sold. ### Accolades Origins gained recognition from several gaming publications for its achievements. At the 13th Annual AIAS Interactive Achievement Awards (now known as the D.I.C.E. Awards), the game was named 2009's "Role-Playing/Massively Multiplayer Game of the Year", as well as being nominated for 2009's "Game of the Year". At the 2009 Spike Video Game Awards, Dragon Age: Origins received the Best PC Game and Best RPG awards. It was chosen as the PC Game of the Year, Best Xbox 360 RPG of the Year, Best Story of the Year, and Best PC Role-Playing Game of the Year by IGN. The game also received Giant Bomb's Best PC Game of 2009 award and Game of the Year 2009 and RPG of the Year awards from U.S. PC Gamer. In 2010, the game was included as one of the titles in the book 1001 Video Games You Must Play Before You Die. ## Legacy Although the name "Origins" hinted that the game would be a beginning of a new franchise, the team did not expect the game to become successful and had never planned for sequels. Nonetheless, Origins spawned a franchise consisting of video games, comics, and novels. The game's sequel, Dragon Age II, which features a new protagonist and is set in the city of Kirkwall, was released in 2011. Players are able to transfer save data from Origins into the sequel; decisions that the player made during the course of Origins may impact the narrative of Dragon Age II. The third installment of the series, Dragon Age: Inquisition, was released in November 2014. Decisions made in Origins are also referenced in Inquisition; players may revisit the plot points from Origins by selecting their choices on the Tapestry feature on the online application Dragon Age Keep. According to Eurogamer's Richard Cobbett, Origins marked the point at which western RPGs properly moved into the spotlight. He stated that the success of Origins proved that "a hardcore, older-fashioned game could still find a devoted audience", and that it "established a new baseline for the genre in much the same way as the original Baldur's Gate back in 1998".
841,560	Gordon Bennett (general)	1,169,054,152	Australian Army general	[ "1887 births", "1962 deaths", "Australian Army personnel of World War II", "Australian Companions of the Distinguished Service Order", "Australian Companions of the Order of St Michael and St George", "Australian Companions of the Order of the Bath", "Australian generals", "Australian military personnel of World War I", "Australian orchardists", "Australian people of South African descent", "Military of Singapore under British rule", "Military personnel from Melbourne", "People from Balwyn, Victoria", "Volunteer Defence Corps officers" ]	Lieutenant General Henry Gordon Bennett, (15 April 1887 – 1 August 1962) was a senior Australian Army officer who served in both World War I and World War II. Despite highly decorated achievements during World War I, during which he commanded at both battalion and brigade level and became the youngest general in the Australian Army, Bennett is best remembered for his role during the fall of Singapore in February 1942. As commander of the 8th Australian Division, he escaped while his men became prisoners of the Imperial Japanese Army. After this, Bennett's military career waned and, although he rose to command a corps, he never again commanded troops in battle. In 1945, his escape caused controversy and resulted in a Royal Commission and military enquiry. Both found that he had been unjustified in relinquishing his command. A citizen soldier, before World War I Bennett had worked in the insurance industry and at the conclusion of hostilities pursued his commercial interests while continuing to serve in the military in a part-time capacity, commanding at brigade and divisional level. He retired from the Army after World War II and turned to farming in the Hills District. He remained active in the world of business and as a military commentator, before dying in 1962 at the age of 75 ## Early life Bennett (who was always known as Gordon) was born in Balwyn, Melbourne, on 15 April 1887, to George Bennett, a South African-born school teacher, and his Australian-born wife, Harriet. He was the sixth of nine children and attended Balwyn State School, where his father taught, and then Hawthorn College as a teenager having been given a three-year scholarship. While at Hawthorn, he did well at mathematics and in 1903, as a 16-year-old, after completing a competitive examination he was accepted into the AMP Society to train as an actuary. In May 1908, just after he turned 21, Bennett volunteered to serve in the Militia, Australia's reserve military force, joining the 5th Australian Infantry Regiment as a "recruit officer". After completing a six-month part-time course, he was appointed as a provisional second lieutenant, and posted to the regiment's 'B' Company, in Carlton, Victoria. He continued to work at AMP during this time, but devoted most of his spare time to his military duties and rose in rank quickly, reaching major in 1912, at the age of 25, when he became adjutant of his regiment. At the outbreak of World War I in 1914, Bennett volunteered to serve with the Australian Imperial Force (AIF) and, after securing his release from AMP on full pay, was appointed second-in-command of the 6th Battalion, which was part of the 2nd (Victorian) Infantry Brigade, assigned to the 1st Division. After a short period of training, the 1st Division began to embark for Europe. Just prior to his departure overseas, Bennett became engaged to Bess Agnes Buchanan, whom he had met at a dance in Canterbury. As an engagement gift, Bess bought her betrothed a miniature photo of herself, set in a gold frame. Bennett carried the picture in his jacket pocket while serving overseas and it later saved his life on the Western Front, deflecting a German bullet. ## Gallipoli While in transit, as a result of overcrowding in training camps in the United Kingdom, the 1st Division was diverted to Egypt with the intention that it would complete its training there before moving to the Western Front at a later date. The decision by the Allies to force a passage through the Dardanelles interrupted this process, as the 1st Division was allocated to take part in the Gallipoli Campaign. During the landing at Anzac Cove on 25 April 1915, Bennett fought on the southern flank of the Anzac beachhead. He led 300 men of his battalion to an advanced position on Pine Ridge, south of Lone Pine. While directing the defence of this position, Bennett was wounded in the shoulder and wrist and forced to retire to the beach for treatment. When the Turkish forces counter-attacked in the evening, the 6th Battalion force on Pine Ridge was isolated and killed to the last man, including Bennett's younger brother, Godfrey. Instead of accepting evacuation on a hospital ship, after having his wounds treated, Bennett returned to his battalion. In early May, the 2nd Brigade was selected to move to Cape Helles to reinforce the British forces for the Second Battle of Krithia. After being transferred by boat, on 8 May, Bennett advanced with his battalion in impossible conditions. Bennett was the only officer of the 6th, and one of few in the 2nd Brigade, to survive the advance unscathed, although he was lucky do so; as he led the charge, a Turkish bullet hit the ammunition pouch he wore, exploding the ammunition in it. He was knocked off his feet, but otherwise unharmed. With a handful of men, he achieved the furthest advance of the attack. He became commander of the 6th Battalion the next day. The battalion was then returned to Anzac by a trawler, and shortly afterwards, Bennett's command of the battalion was confirmed and he was promoted to lieutenant colonel. Throughout June and July, Bennett's battalion occupied the front line during a period of reduced tempo fighting as a stalemate developed. On 7 August, when the Allies launched their August Offensive to break the stalemate, the 6th Battalion was involved in one of the supporting attacks at the start of the Battle of Sari Bair. While the best known attack was made by the 3rd Light Horse Brigade at the Nek, the 6th was required to make a similar attack against a neighbouring Turkish position known as German Officers' Trench from which machine guns enfiladed the Australian positions as far north as the Nek. Two attempts to capture the trench failed. A third attempt was organised and Bennett resolved to lead it himself but the commander of the 1st Division, Major General Harold Walker, after consulting with the corps commander, Lieutenant General William Birdwood, agreed to abandon the attack. The 6th Battalion's losses totalled 80 killed and 66 wounded. Following the attack on the German Officers' Trench, Bennett's battalion was withdrawn from the front line briefly, before relieving the 1st Brigade, which had successfully captured Lone Pine. The August Offensive failed and a further lull in the fighting occurred. The following month, as reinforcements in the shape of the 2nd Division arrived at Anzac, the original Australian units were relieved on a rotational basis, including the 6th Battalion, which was sent back to Lemnos. While there, Bennett was hospitalised with paratyphoid and during his stay in hospital, he received word that he had been appointed a Companion of the Order of St Michael and St George (CMG). When the 6th Battalion was returned to Gallipoli, Bennett sought to return with them, but was ordered to sail to England aboard the transport Aquitania for further treatment. As well as his CMG, Bennett was also mentioned in despatches twice for his service at Gallipoli. ## Western Front Bennett spent Christmas in Southampton, before returning to Egypt early in January 1916. There, he rejoined his battalion, which was stationed around Gebel Habeita, defending the Suez Canal. He arrived just as the AIF began a period of reorganisation and expansion, which saw the experienced units of the 1st Division being split to provide cadres to the newly formed 5th Division; as a part of this, the 6th Battalion was split to help form the 58th Battalion in late February. In March 1916, the 1st Division moved to France as part of the transfer of the AIF's infantry formations to the Western Front. Bennett subsequently led the 6th Battalion through the Battle of Pozières. After the 1st and 3rd Brigades had captured the town on 24 July 1916, the 6th and 8th Battalions of the 2nd Brigade moved in to occupy the ruins where they had to endure a prolonged artillery bombardment. Bennett's battalion headquarters was in a log hut. The hut received six direct hits from shells but survived due to the debris that had accumulated around it. Shortly after Bennett relocated his HQ the hut was finally demolished. On 26 July Bennett protested at the conditions his men had to endure, reporting: "My men are being unmercifully shelled. They cannot hold out if an attack is launched. The firing line and my headquarters are being plastered with heavy guns and the town is being swept by shrapnel. I myself am O.K. but the front line is being buried." In the capture of Pozières, Bennett's 6th Battalion suffered 190 casualties, the least by a considerable margin of the 12 battalions in the 1st Division. After this, Bennett continued to serve as the commanding officer of the 6th Battalion, as well as acting as the 3rd Brigade commander. In mid-November, Bennett took a brief leave in London, where he was reunited with his fiancée, Bess, who had sailed from Melbourne with her father to meet him. On 16 November, they were married in Chelsea, and after a short honeymoon in Scotland, Bennett returned to the front. On 3 December 1916, he was given command of the 3rd Infantry Brigade and promoted to brigadier general, becoming at 29 the youngest general in the Australian Army. He commanded the brigade for the remainder of the war on the Western Front, leading the brigade through several notable actions, including at Bullecourt, Menin Road, and Passchendaele during 1917, and several actions against the Hindenburg Line in 1918. While Bennett was serving at the front, his wife remained in England; he returned to her briefly in November 1917 and again in July 1918. Just after the war ended, Bess returned to Australia with the couple's 10-month-old daughter, while Bennett remained in Europe until June 1919, briefly touring the Rhine and then viewing the London victory parade, where he escorted Lady Birdwood while her husband, Lord Birdwood, the former commander of the Australian Corps, marched. For his service on the Western Front, Bennett received many awards. He received the Order of Danilo from Montenegro in 1917, was appointed a Companion of the Order of the Bath in 1918, received a Distinguished Service Order in 1919 and mentioned in despatches a further six times. His attitude towards regular officers and temperament, as well as his tendency to act without clearing his actions with superiors, though, resulted in criticism from senior officers. ## Between the wars Upon his return to Australia, Bennett lived at Canterbury with his wife and daughter, while he sought to return to civilian life after his appointment to the AIF was terminated. He was offered his old position at AMP back, having been on full-time leave with pay while serving overseas, but was unhappy with this. He was eventually offered a position in the Commonwealth Bank in Sydney and he moved there with his family. Later, he purchased a textile factory and worked as a clothing manufacturer and public accountant before being appointed chairman of the New South Wales Repatriation Board in 1922, in which role he was able to help returned soldiers. In 1928, he was appointed as an administrator of the City of Sydney, along with two other commissioners. He was president of the Chamber of Manufactures of New South Wales between 1931 and 1933 and the Associated Chambers of Manufactures of Australia between 1933 and 1934, and was involved in several conservative political groups such as the All for Australia League and the Defence of Australia League. Bennett remained active in the military, continuing to serve as part of the Militia, which was reorganised in 1921 following the conclusion of the demobilisation process. From then until 1926, he served as commander of the 9th Infantry Brigade, before being appointed to command the 2nd Division. In 1930, he was promoted to the rank of major general and over the ensuing years became increasingly parochial against the small permanent Staff Corps. He was transferred to the unattached list in 1932. In 1937, amidst increasing tensions in Europe, he came into conflict with the Military Board after he wrote a number of newspaper articles expressing his concerns about complacent defence policy and the efficiency of regular officers. ## World War II When World War II broke out in 1939, although only 52, Bennett was passed over for command of the Second Australian Imperial Force, the position going to General Thomas Blamey. The Chief of the General Staff, General Sir Brudenell White, seems to have been opposed to Bennett being given an active command. A. B. Lodge, Bennett's biographer, comments in the Australian Dictionary of Biography (ADB): "Because of his temperament, he was considered unsuitable for a semi-diplomatic command, and one that involved subordination to British generals. Bennett was as scathing of British officers as he was of Australian regulars." Bennett was instead given a command in the Volunteer Defence Corps, the Australian version of the British Home Guard. In July 1940, he took over command of the Eastern Command Training Depot. After White's death in the Canberra air disaster in August 1940, Bennett was appointed commander of the newly formed 8th Division, replacing Vernon Sturdee, who was promoted to White's former role. In February 1941, the 8th Division's headquarters, along with one of its brigades – the 22nd – was posted to Malaya after a request from the British for Australia to contribute troops to bolster the garrison there, amid growing concerns of war with the Japanese, and as part of the plans that had been formulated as the pre-war Singapore strategy. The 27th Brigade was also dispatched in August, but the division's third brigade, the 23rd Brigade remained in Australia. Relations between Bennett and his superiors, and also his subordinate brigade commander, Brigadier Harold Taylor, were not good. Lodge comments: "Bennett's dealings with British senior officers, especially with the general officer commanding, Malaya, Lieutenant General A.E. Percival, were devoid of harmony." In December 1941, the Japanese invasion of Malaya began. Bennett found himself in command of an ad hoc force known as "Westforce", which included the Australian 27th Brigade – but not the 22nd, which had been transferred to III Indian Corps – and several Indian units. Bennett's command was not engaged in the early stages of the fighting as the initial Japanese attacks fell on British and Indian units around Kota Bharu and the Thai–Malay border; but as the Japanese pushed the defenders back and advanced into Johore, the Australians fought several actions throughout January. The most significant of these came around Gemas and Muar, where the Australians experienced some local success before being forced to withdraw to Singapore along with the rest of the Allied forces at the end of the month. On Singapore, Bennett's command once again included the two Australian brigades – the 22nd and 27th – which were allocated the task of defending the north-western sector of the island. On 8 February 1942, the Japanese launched an assault across the Johore Strait, concentrating upon the sector held by Bennett's troops. The weight fell on the 22nd Brigade's area, and as they fought to fend off two Japanese divisions, they were eventually forced to withdraw towards the centre of the island. The 27th Brigade initially managed to hold its sector, but it was subjected to a follow-up assault on 10 February and as the 22nd fell back, it was also forced to withdraw. Heavy fighting followed over the next week, but eventually the Allied troops were pushed across the island to Singapore's urban areas. On 15 February, Percival began surrender negotiations with the Japanese. That night, Bennett decided that it was his duty to escape from Singapore rather than surrender. He handed over command of the 8th Division to Brigadier Cecil Callaghan. With a few junior officers and some local Europeans, Bennett commandeered a sampan and crossed the Strait of Malacca to the east coast of Sumatra, where they transferred to a launch in which they sailed up the Batang Hari River. They then proceeded by car to Padang, on the west coast of Sumatra. From there Bennett flew to Java and then to Australia, arriving in Melbourne on 2 March 1942. The fall of Singapore – the largest capitulation in British military history – shocked Australians, resulting in the capture of almost 15,000 Australians and many more Indian and British soldiers. Nevertheless, Bennett's escape was initially regarded as praiseworthy, at least publicly. Prime Minister John Curtin issued a statement that read: > I desire to inform the nation that we are proud to pay tribute to the efficiency, gallantry and devotion of our forces throughout the struggle. We have expressed to Major General Bennett our confidence in him. His leadership and conduct were in complete conformity with his duty to the men under his command and to his country. He remained with his men until the end, completed all formalities in connection with the surrender, and then took the opportunity and risk of escaping. Within the military, particularly its senior echelons, Bennett was criticised for leaving his troops. In April 1942, he was promoted to lieutenant general and given command of III Corps in Perth. At the time, this was an important post, but by 1943, as the possibility of a Japanese invasion of Australia faded, it became a backwater. Bennett was told by Blamey that he would not be given another active command, and he transferred to the Reserve of Officers in May 1944. He soon published his account of the Malayan campaign, Why Singapore Fell, which was critical of Percival and other British officers, although his opinions were later challenged by several Australian officers, including Callaghan. Blamey unsuccessfully tried to prevent the book's publication. Upon retirement from active service, Bennett began writing for a Sydney newspaper and as a correspondent for the Australian Broadcasting Commission. He remained concerned about his soldiers, though, and met the first group of recently freed 8th Division prisoners of war when they arrived in Sydney on the transport Manunda''. For their part, the majority of his former soldiers welcomed him, some even hung a sign over the side of the ship, which read: "We want Bennett". They later put it in his car as a gesture of their support. ## Postwar inquiries The controversy over Bennett's actions became public in mid-1945, when the war ended and Percival and Callaghan were released from Japanese captivity. Percival, who had never got on with Bennett, wrote a letter accusing him of relinquishing his command without permission. Callaghan delivered the letter to Blamey upon his release and Blamey convened a court of enquiry under Lieutenant General Leslie Morshead, and Major Generals Victor Stantke and George Wootten, which found that Bennett was not justified in handing over his command, or in leaving Singapore. Veterans of the 8th Division, who were generally loyal to Bennett, protested against this finding. In November 1945, Prime Minister Ben Chifley appointed a Royal Commission under Justice G. C. Ligertwood. The Commission concluded that Bennett had disobeyed Percival's order to surrender. Lodge wrote: > While never questioning Bennett's personal courage, Ligertwood concluded that his action had been unjustified. Bennett's stated reason for leaving Singapore was that he had learned how to defeat the Japanese (but had been let down by British and Indian troops) and he was obliged to communicate his knowledge to military authorities. Yet, he had proved no more proficient than other commanders in Malaya and his tactics were outdated. Just as important to him was his wish to lead the Australian army, a consuming aspiration which had been sharpened by not being given an early command. His prejudice against regular officers and his ambition clouded his professional judgement at the most important point in his career. When his most cherished goals were in tatters, he convinced himself that blame for his failure lay with others. In 1948, Lieutenant Colonel Thomas Fry, a military lawyer, published the opinion: "The Royal Commissioner based his report on an interpretation of international law, and did not discuss General Bennett's action from the standpoint of Australian military law, which placed him under no inflexible obligation to remain on Singapore Island." ## Post military and retirement Bennett later became an orchardist, purchasing a property and living at Glenorie in the Hills district on Sydney's North Western fringe, until 1955 when, due to deteriorating health following a coronary occlusion, he sold his orchard and moved to Dural, New South Wales. He travelled to Singapore in 1957 with his wife to attend the opening of the Kranji War Memorial and then in 1960, travelled to Japan to meet with officers who had fought in Malaya. He wrote a number of articles on military topics and served on the board of a number of companies. From 1960 to 1962, he was Chairman of Directors of MMI Insurance. He died on 1 August 1962 at Dural, survived by his wife and daughter. After a state funeral at St Andrew's Cathedral, his body was cremated. The diary that Bennett kept while serving in Malaya is held at the State Library of New South Wales.
64,186,422	Zuby	1,172,968,528	British rapper	[ "1986 births", "Alumni of St Edmund Hall, Oxford", "Black British male rappers", "British people of Nigerian descent", "English Christians", "English male rappers", "English podcasters", "Living people", "Musicians from Bournemouth", "Musicians from Southampton" ]	Nzube Olisaebuka Udezue (born 19 August 1986), better known by his stage name Zuby, is a British rapper, podcaster and author. Born to Nigerian parents in Luton, Udezue was raised in Saudi Arabia and educated at St Edmund Hall, Oxford. He began rapping at university and has since self-released three albums. In July 2008, Udezue was misidentified and arrested by police at gunpoint at Bournemouth railway station. The incident received media coverage and the police apologized for the incident, which was compared to the shooting of Jean Charles de Menezes. In March 2019, Udezue received media attention after posting a video on Twitter of himself performing a deadlift of 238 kg (525 lb), with a statement saying he had broken the British women's deadlift record while "identifying as a woman". Udezue stated that he published the video to criticize arguments that support allowing transgender women to compete in women's sports, which he believes are flawed. ## Early life and education Nzube Olisaebuka Udezue was born to parents of Nigerian descent in Luton, Bedfordshire, England, on 19 August 1986. His father is a doctor and a fellow of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, and his mother a journalist. He has two brothers and two sisters. When Udezue was a year old, his parents moved to Saudi Arabia, where they worked for two decades, and he attended an international school. From the age of 11, Udezue attended a boarding school in the UK and frequently travelled between the two countries. Between 2004 and 2007, he studied at St Edmund Hall, Oxford, and graduated with a first-class honours degree in computer science. As a child, Udezue played trombone, which he played in a band, and piano. Later, during his teenage years, he became interested in hip-hop music. ## Career In 2006, while at university, Udezue started rapping under the name Zuby and independently released his debut album Commercial Underground, which he says sold over 3,000 copies. He self-released his second album, entitled The Unknown Celebrity, in December 2007. After graduating, he moved to London, and in August 2008 he worked there as a management consultant for Accenture while continuing to make music. In October 2011, Udezue self-released his third album, Commercial Underground 2, and then pursued music full time. In February 2013, an extended play (EP) entitled Zubstep was self-released. By August 2016, Udezue claimed that he had sold over 20,000 albums. That year, he released the EP Seven. In 2019, Udezue started a podcast, Real Talk with Zuby. In 2022, he published a children's book that shows the benefits of self-control and good nutrition. Earlier in 2022, he spoke at a Mises Caucus event at the Libertarian Party convention in Reno, Nevada, where he "talk[ed] about freedom, liberty, and all of that good stuff." Udezue has appeared on The Joe Rogan Experience podcast. ## Police incident On 5 July 2008, at 3:49 pm, a man displayed an imitation firearm at an indoor shopping centre in Basingstoke; afterwards, Hampshire Constabulary distributed a description of him. At 5:24 pm the same day, Udezue boarded a train from Southampton to Bournemouth, which is about 30 miles (48 km) from Basingstoke. Shortly thereafter, British Transport Police (BTP), after being notified by Hampshire Police, believed Udezue may have been involved in the Basingstoke incident. Throughout this time, miscommunication about the colour of Udezue's T-shirt occurred; the BTP initially described his shirt as "brown" but it was later described as "dark". About ten officers then blocked off the exits as the train approached Bournemouth railway station. The train arrived at 6:09 pm. Udezue was arrested at gunpoint, forced to lie prone, and handcuffed by Dorset Police. He was briefly detained at Bournemouth police station before being released. Dorset Police later issued an apology for the arrest. He was arrested because he was a black man wearing a black t-shirt, which matched the description of the actual suspect. Udezue quipped: "And to think I was going to wear a blue T-shirt this morning". Udezue, who had no criminal record, later described the incident as a "really bad dream" and said he had "never been so traumatised" in his life. Rather than conducting a full investigation themselves, the Independent Police Complaints Commission (IPCC) asked Dorset Police's Professional Standards Department to investigate the three forces involved. In a statement, the IPCC said the actions of Dorset Police were "appropriate and proportionate to the circumstances". On 14 July, Udezue's solicitor filed an official complaint to the IPCC over the incident and requested a full and independent investigation into the incident. A few days after the incident, Udezue's social media accounts received many supportive messages from the public. Udezue's local Member of Parliament, Tobias Ellwood of the Conservative Party, stated he backed the actions of the police, saying they do a "very difficult job", and that it is important "police don't fear stepping in for fear of reprisals if they get the wrong person". The arrest was compared to the shooting of Jean Charles de Menezes. Entertainment Weekly's Simon Vozick-Levinson described the incident as "something of a cause célèbre". The Guardian's Paul Lewis and Vozick-Levinson said the incident may be an example of racial profiling. Udezue, who is of Nigerian heritage, thought his race was not pivotal to the incident, but should still be considered a part of any investigation. ## Views According to Reason, Udezue is "known for an engaging mix of personal uplift and political provocation". ### Race In 2019, Udezue was interviewed by the CBC in response to Detroit's "AfroFuture Fest" music festival's ticket pricing scheme, in which whites were charged \$20, and all other ethnicities \$10 per ticket. Udezue criticized the event's organizers, commenting: "Well done intersectional radicals. You've become the very racists you claim to stand against." ### Transgender people In March 2019, Udezue received media attention after posting on Twitter a video of himself performing a deadlift of 238 kg (525 lb), and subsequently stating he had broken the British women's deadlift record while "identifying as a woman". Shortly thereafter, he made similar comments about the British women's bench press record. The tweets added to the ongoing debate about transgender people in sports. Udezue has said he does not think trans women should be allowed to compete in women's sport. Udezue went on to say he posted the tweets to demonstrate the "fallacies of the arguments on the other side" and commented: "I have seen people saying there is no inherent biological strength difference between men and women. I posted it being a bit tongue-in-cheek, showing what I think is the obvious absurdity of their argument." After he expressed these views, Rosamund Urwin of The Times described Udezue as an "unlikely feminist icon". Outsports criticized an article about the tweet on WQAD-TV's website as "one-sided" and "transphobic"; in response, WQAD rewrote parts of its article, changing "informally breaks female dead-lift record" to "declares he broke female deadlift record" in the headline, describing the tweet as "trolling the debate of transgender people competing in athletic events", and adding a quote from Outsports' managing editor: "Just deciding on a whim that Zuby says he's identifying as a woman, that's not how it works". In February 2020, after Udezue posted a tweet advising women on "how to land a great guy", transgender activist Emily Gorcenski, who is a trans woman, replied: "I'm like 95% sure I'm sleeping with more women than you and this is terrible advice". Udezue responded with "Ok dude...", which according to The Washington Examiner, resulted in his Twitter account being temporarily suspended for "hateful conduct". Udezue said that he deleted the tweet after his appeal was denied; his account was then restored. In September 2020, Udezue, together with other notable figures, signed a letter in support of author J. K. Rowling's views on transgender people. Despite being against transgender women participating in women's sports, Udezue says that he supports the rights of transgender people. ### Other Udezue is a critic of identity politics. He has also argued that the United States "is not a racist country." ## Personal life In 2008, Udezue lived in Bournemouth, Dorset, with his parents, and since 2019, he has lived in Southampton. He frequently spends time in the United States. Udezue is a Christian. He was also the cousin of the deceased Nigerian rapper Lotanna Udezue, better known as Biglo. ## Discography ### Studio albums - Commercial Underground (2006) - The Unknown Celebrity (2007) - Commercial Underground 2 (2011) ### Extended plays - Zubstep (2013) - Seven (2016) ## Filmography The Tuttle Twins \\| Season 1, Episode 6 - "The Inflation Monster" \\| Associate Producer
28,016,107	Miniopterus mahafaliensis	1,008,751,829	A bat in the genus Miniopterus that occurs in southwestern Madagascar	[ "Mammals described in 2009", "Miniopteridae" ]	Miniopterus mahafaliensis is a bat in the genus Miniopterus that occurs in southwestern Madagascar. Populations of this species have historically been included in Miniopterus manavi, but molecular data published in 2008 and 2009 indicate that this supposed species in fact consists of five separate species, including the newly described M. mahafaliensis. The species has been found in dry, spiny, and gallery forest, as well as more open habitats, in southwestern Madagascar. Miniopterus mahafaliensis is a small, brown Miniopterus; its forearm length is 35 to 40 mm (1.4 to 1.6 in). The hairs of the underparts have gray tips. The tragus (a projection in the outer ear) is thick and blunt-tipped. The uropatagium (tail membrane) is well-furred and the palate is concave. ## Taxonomy During the 2000s, molecular studies have revealed that the widely distributed African, Eurasian, and Australian genus Miniopterus is much more species-rich than previously thought. In a 1995 contribution to Faune de Madagascar on Malagasy bats, Randolph Peterson and colleagues listed four species of Miniopterus on Madagascar and the nearby Comoros, including the small Miniopterus manavi with a broad distribution on both Madagascar and the Comoros. In 2008 and 2009, however, Steven Goodman and colleagues presented evidence that the former concept of M. manavi in fact encompassed five morphologically and molecularly distinct species of small Miniopterus. These included M. manavi itself in the Central Highlands, M. griveaudi and M. aelleni in the Comoros and northern and western Madagascar, M. brachytragos in northern and western Madagascar only, and M. mahafaliensis in southwestern Madagascar. The five recognized species of M. manavi-like bats are not each other's closest relatives, but apparently acquired their similarities through convergent evolution. Miniopterus mahafaliensis was described as a new species in the second 2009 paper by Goodman and colleagues. The specific name is derived from the Malagasy word Mahafaly, which refers to the Mahafaly Plateau, where the specimen has been recorded, and to the Mahafaly ethnic group of the region. Analysis of sequences of the mitochondrial cytochrome b gene suggested that M. brachytragos is most closely related to another Malagasy species, M. sororculus. Although samples of M. mahafaliensis differed from each other by a maximum of 2.2% in their cytochrome b, Goodman and colleagues could not discern any phylogeographic structure within the species. ## Description Miniopterus mahafaliensis is a small, short-tailed Miniopterus with long and dense fur. The fur of the upperparts is brown and the hairs on the underparts have gray tips. Miniopterus brachytragos is similar in color, but other small Malagasy Miniopterus are darker. The ears are partially haired above, but virtually naked below and end in a rounded tip. The tragus (a projection on the inner side of the outer ear) is relatively thick, has the sides mostly parallel, and ends in a curved, rounded tip. The wing membrane is also brown, but the uropatagium (tail membrane) is lighter. The wing membrane and uropatagium are attached to the upper leg at the same level, above the ankle. The uropatagium is relatively densely covered with hairs, particularly on the upper side. M. manavi and M. brachytragos also have a densely haired uropatagium, but in M. aelleni and M. griveaudi it is only sparsely haired or even mostly naked. In 66 to 74 specimens measured by Goodman and colleagues, total length was 87 to 96 mm (3.4 to 3.8 in), averaging 91.1 mm (3.59 in); tail length was 38 to 48 mm (1.5 to 1.9 in), averaging 42.4 mm (1.67 in); hindfoot length is 6 to 7 mm (0.2 to 0.3 in), averaging 6.3 mm (0.25 in); tragus length was 5 to 6 mm (0.2 to 0.2 in), averaging 5.8 mm (0.23 in); ear length was 9 to 11 mm (about 0.4 in), averaging 9.4 mm (0.37 in); forearm length was 35 to 40 mm (1.4 to 1.6 in), averaging 37.4 mm (1.47 in); and body mass was 3.8 to 7.3 g (0.13 to 0.26 oz), averaging 4.9 g (0.17 oz). There is no evidence for substantial size differences between males and females. In the skull, the rostrum (front part) is relatively long and line-shaped. The central groove in the nasal depression is relatively narrow. The frontal bones are slightly rounded and bear a prominent sagittal crest. Further back on the braincase, the lambdoid crest is also prominent. The middle part of the palate is concave, not flat as in M. aelleni and M. manavi. At the palate's back margin is a long, thin posterior palatal spine. Miniopterus mahafaliensis has 36 teeth in the dental formula (three incisors, one canine, three premolars, and two molars in both upper toothrows and two incisors, one canine, two premolars, and three molars in the lower toothrows). As is characteristic of Miniopterus, the first upper premolar (P1) is smaller and more simplified than the second (P2). ## Distribution and ecology The range of Miniopterus mahafaliensis extends through southwestern Madagascar in the spiny forest and dry forest, often but not always near caves; it has been found on the Mahafaly Plateau, in the Forêt des Mikea, and the Kirindy Mitea National Park. Further inland, it has been found in disturbed gallery forest in Isalo National Park, in a cave in savanna habitat near Ihosy, and in unspecified habitat at Betroka. Little is known of the ecology of M. mahafaliensis, but species of Miniopterus generally feed on insects, breed seasonally, and roost in large colonies in caves.
20,070,201	Louis des Balbes de Berton de Crillon, 1st Duke of Mahón	1,171,328,574	18th-century Franco-Spanish general	[ "1717 births", "1796 deaths", "Dukes of Crillon", "Dukes of Mahon", "French military personnel of the Seven Years' War", "French military personnel of the War of the Austrian Succession", "French military personnel of the War of the Polish Succession", "Knights of the Golden Fleece of Spain", "Military personnel from Avignon", "Spanish captain generals", "Spanish military personnel of the American Revolutionary War" ]	Louis des Balbes de Berton de Crillon, 1st Duke of Mahón, 2nd Duke of Crillon (22 February 1717 – June 1796) was a Franco-Spanish military officer who reached the rank of Captain general of the Army. He became a soldier at the age of 16 and served with distinction in the French army before transferring to the army of Spain, which was allied with France for much of the 18th century. A member of a distinguished military family, he was widely admired for his personal courage, courtesy and chivalry. By the end of his life he had risen to the highest military rank in Spain and it was said that he had served in 68 engagements. He participated in many of the major conflicts of the 18th century, including the War of the Polish Succession, the War of the Austrian Succession, the Seven Years' War and the Anglo-Spanish War. His most famous achievement was the successful invasion of Minorca in 1781, in which he defeated a British garrison and returned the island to Spain, although his efforts the following year to recapture Gibraltar from the British were a notable failure. He ended his career in the service of the Spanish Bourbon monarchy, which had been allied with France prior to the French Revolution, and died in Madrid. ## Early life and career Born in Avignon on 22 February 1717, Crillon was a member of a distinguished family that had originated in Chieri, Piedmont. His branch of the family had a long history of military service to the French crown. A descendant of the famous 16th-century general Louis des Balbes de Berton de Crillon ("the brave Crillon"), he was the son of the 1st Duke of Crillon, François Félix de Berton des Balbes, and Marie-Thérèse de Fabry de Moncault. Louis was the first-born of the couple's six children (four boys and two girls). Crillon joined the Régiment du Roi (King's Regiment) in 1734, aged 16, as a lieutenant en second and participated in France's Italian campaign during the War of the Polish Succession. He was soon promoted to lieutenant en premier and took part in a number of notable actions, including the Battle of San Pietro, under the command of the Marshal de Villars. He remained with the regiment until 1738 when he was promoted to the rank of colonel in the Régiment de Bretagne (Regiment of Brittany). ## Service in the War of the Austrian Succession In 1742, he served with distinction in Bavaria under the command of François d'Harcourt, duc d'Harcourt during the War of the Austrian Succession. Crillon won particular renown for his tenacious defence of Landau an der Isar against a 10,000–strong attacking force led by the Grand Duke of Tuscany. When he was asked to surrender, Crillon told the enemy general that he could not as he had a name and a personal reputation to defend. The general is said to have replied, "Sir, we know and believe [this] since the beginning of the campaign; but give up, brave Crillon, you will be taken." He was captured after a thirteen-hour battle but was released eight days later in a prisoner exchange. Crillon served again under d'Harcourt in 1744 when the latter commanded the Army of the Moselle during its campaigns along the Rhine. He participated in the siege of Fribourg and spent the winter in Swabia under the command of Marshal Coigny as colonel of an infantry regiment. In May 1745, he fought in the major Battle of Fontenoy near Tournai in modern-day Belgium and captured nearly 50 pieces of artillery from the Dutch, British, and Hanoverian alliance opposing the French. The following month he was appointed brigadier. On 10 July, he fought in what the French termed the battle of the Mésle at Dendermonde near Ghent, leading 8,000 men to victory against a British, Austrian and Dutch force. He then took part in the captures of Ghent, Ostend and Nieuwpoort. In 1746 Crillon transferred to the command of the duc de Boufflers to serve in the headquarters of the Army of Flanders during the siege of Mons and rejoined the royal army following the city's capture. He brought the king news of the capture of the town and castle of Namur in October of that year, and was appointed to the rank of maréchal de camp, the junior of the two officer general ranks of the French Army. He took part in the 1747 campaign against the Republic of Genoa, serving in the Army of Italy under the Marshal de Belle-Isle, and was present during the captures of Nice, Villefranche, Montalbán and Ventimiglia. ## Service in the Seven Years' War Almost a decade of peace ended with the outbreak of the Seven Years' War in Europe. Crillon resumed active service with the Army of Germany (Reichsarmee) in 1757, when he first served in a separate corps commanded by the Prince of Soubise on the frontiers of Saxony and then joined the French Grand Army. He defended the city of Weißenfels in October 1757, commanding four imperial battalions and 17 companies of French grenadiers. He executed a retreat, but on 5 November he was injured when he had his horse shot out from under him at the Battle of Rossbach. Transferred to the command of the Marshal de Richelieu, he served for a while in the Landgraviate of Hesse-Kassel. He fought at Lutzenburg in October 1758, where he took 400 prisoners, and moved on to take the strategic castle of Spangenberg. Although it was heavily fortified, he took the garrison by surprise on 9 November. Finding that the drawbridge was down, his troops took the garrison prisoner and seized their armoury, including 18 cannon, 307 guns and 44 barrels of powder. He returned to Flanders in May 1759 and was appointed to command French forces in Picardy in 1760. ## Service with Spain In 1762 Crillon moved to Spain, where he served as a lieutenant-general – the highest rank in the Bourbon armies – and was made a Knight of the Order of Charles III in 1780. During the Anglo-Spanish War, when Spain and France allied with the Americans to fight Britain, he was given command of a Spanish army tasked with capturing Minorca from the British. The army landed on the island on 19 August 1781 and laid siege to the British garrison in Fort St. Philip at Mahon. The siege was concluded successfully on 5 February 1782 when the British surrendered, for which Crillon was made a grandee of Spain and took the title of Duke of Crillon-Mahon. He was subsequently put in charge of the joint French and Spanish force that had been besieging Gibraltar since 1779. Despite his efforts, Gibraltar proved impregnable and peace was restored in 1783. Crillon's service with Spain was further rewarded in 1783 with the title of Knight of the Golden Fleece. He was appointed captain-general of the kingdoms of Valencia and Murcia. He remained in Spain during the years of the French Revolutionary Wars, writing his memoirs (Memoires militaires de Louis de Berton des Balbes de Quiers), published in 1791. He took no part in the War of the Pyrenees (1793–95) between Spain and revolutionary France, but played a significant role in agreeing the peace that terminated the conflict. He died in Madrid in June 1796. ## Reputation and family life The courtesy and chivalry of Crillon attracted much admiration during his lifetime and afterwards. As the English anecdotist William Seward put it in 1798, "Courtesy, no less than courage, was always the appenage of the family of Crillon". During the siege of Gibraltar, he sent his English opponent General George Eliott a gift of fruits, vegetables and game, along with some ice, which he presumed "will not be disagreeable in the excessive heat of this climate at this season of the year." He expressed his "pleasure to which I look forward of becoming your friend, after I shall have learned to render myself worthy of the honour, by facing you as an enemy." Five years later, when his old adversary Eliott was promoted to the peerage and became Lord Heathfield, Crillon wrote to his "dear and respectable enemy", whom he now considered a friend, to offer his congratulations. Crillon married three times and had four children. His first wife, whom he married on 1 February 1742, was Françoise-Marie-Elizabeth Couvay, with whom he had two children: Louis-Alexandre-Nolasque-Félix de Balbe Berton, who became the 3rd Duke of Crillon on his father's death and had a distinguished military career in his own right; and François-Félix Dorothée. His second wife, whom he married on 2 August 1764, was Florence-Radagonde-Louise-Eléonore-Julie Bruneau de la Rabatelière, who died without issue. His third wife, Josephe-Anathase-Roman-Garmon Espinosa de los Monteros, bore him two more children: Louis-Antoine-François de Paule, who became the 2nd Duke of Mahon, and Marie-Thérèse-Virginie-Françoise de Paul.
27,935,788	Convoy Faith	1,170,667,710	Small, fast Allied convoy of World War II	[ "1943 in military history", "Naval battles of World War II involving Canada", "Naval battles of World War II involving Germany", "Naval battles of World War II involving the United Kingdom", "Naval battles of World War II involving the United States", "North Atlantic convoys of World War II", "WS (Winston Special) Convoys" ]	Convoy Faith was a small, fast Allied convoy of World War II. It suffered heavy casualties when attacked by German long-range bombers while en route from Britain to West Africa in July 1943. The convoy comprised two large troopships and a freighter, later joined by two destroyers and two frigates as escorts at various dates after it sailed on 7 July 1943. The two troopships, SS California and SS Duchess of York, both former liners, were carrying military personnel to West Africa, where locally recruited troops were to be embarked as reinforcements for the Allied forces in Burma and the Middle East. The freighter MV Port Fairy, carrying ammunition, was ultimately bound for Australia and New Zealand via the Panama canal. On the evening of 11 July, four days after sailing, Convoy Faith was attacked by three Focke-Wulf Fw 200 Condors. Both troopships were severely damaged and over 100 of the personnel aboard the two ships were killed; they were subsequently sunk by torpedoes from the escorts. The freighter escaped unscathed, but was damaged in a second air attack on 12 July en route to Casablanca. The loss of the two troopships delayed the movement of a division of West African soldiers to India until four replacements arrived. The British military was surprised by the attack on Convoy Faith, as it had been believed that the Condors no longer posed a serious threat. In response, the convoy route between Britain and Africa was moved to the west. The German Condor force attempted to repeat its success against Convoy Faith by carrying out similar attacks on other convoys, but sustained heavy losses from Allied anti-aircraft guns and aircraft. ## Background From August 1940 to June 1941, the German Luftwaffe (air force) unit III./KG 40, which was based at Bordeaux–Mérignac Airport in southern France and equipped with Focke-Wulf Fw 200 Condors, attacked Allied shipping travelling in the Atlantic. The unit made a number of successful attacks on convoys and individual ships traveling in the Western Approaches as well as on the route between Britain and Gibraltar. In response, the Allies increased the anti-aircraft armament carried by many merchant ships, and began to deploy CAM ships and escort carriers to provide fighter protection for convoys. During the last six months of 1941 these improved defences inflicted heavy losses on the Condor force, and it ceased attacking shipping in early 1942. In 1942, III./KG 40 mainly operated in the reconnaissance role and reported targets for U-boats to attack. A small number of attacks were made on ships travelling between Britain and Gibraltar from May onwards, but these cost the unit eight Condors destroyed in action and seven in accidents for no sinkings. As a result of the Condor's vulnerability to Allied defences, the commander of the Luftwaffe's Atlantic anti-shipping force (Fliegerführer Atlantik) recommended in December that the aircraft be withdrawn from service. The British military conducted regular convoys to transfer personnel from the United Kingdom to the Middle East and India from mid-1940 until late 1943. This convoy route was assigned the code "WS", which was widely believed to be an abbreviation for "Winston Special" in honor of Prime Minister Winston Churchill. The WS convoys typically comprised several large ocean liners which had been converted to troopships protected by a strong force of warships. As the Mediterranean Sea was a war zone, the convoys normally traveled from the Clyde in Scotland to the Middle East or South Asia via the Cape of Good Hope at the southern tip of Africa. En route, the ships typically stopped at Freetown in West Africa to refuel and embark water, and again at either Cape Town or Durban in South Africa. German aircraft, submarines and surface ships attacked the WS convoys on occasion. ## Prelude Despite its poor performance during most of 1942, III./KG 40's ability to attack Allied shipping was improved late in the year. During the last months of 1942 the unit received 18 C-4 variants of the Fw 200 which were fitted with the Lotfe 7D bombsight. This sight reduced the Condors' vulnerability to anti-aircraft fire by allowing them to bomb targets from medium altitudes; previously they had only been able to attack accurately from low levels. Several of the unit's Condors were also fitted with surface search radar, which improved their ability to locate Allied ships. In early 1943 it was decided to use these aircraft to renew attacks on convoys travelling to Gibraltar in an attempt to disrupt the Allied buildup in the Mediterranean during the Tunisian campaign. These attacks began in early March and were conducted off Portugal between Lisbon and Cape St Vincent; this area was beyond the range of Allied fighter aircraft based in Gibraltar, and few escort carriers were available to protect convoys. III./KG 40 sank five merchant ships and damaged another two between March and the start of July, for the loss of at least five Condors. In response, the British began to use de Havilland Mosquito fighters to patrol the Bay of Biscay, deployed four additional squadrons of patrol aircraft to Gibraltar, and embarked signals intelligence teams on board warships in the Bay of Biscay to monitor KG 40's radio communications. In February 1943 the British Government decided to transfer the recently raised 81st (West Africa) Division from West Africa to India to take part in the Burma campaign. This unit required much more shipping space than other British divisions, as its fighting units were supported by thousands of porters. To facilitate the division's movement, additional troopships were assigned to the regular WS convoys. The 81st Division's advance parties departed Freetown with Convoys WS 29 and WS 30 in April and May, and the 6th (West Africa) Brigade embarked on ships of Convoy WS 31 at Lagos between 2 and 10 July. It was planned to transport the division's two remaining brigades in convoys WS 32 and WS 33. The 5th (West Africa) Brigade was the second of the 81st Division's brigades to be shipped from West Africa. The brigade comprised 12,000 personnel and was scheduled to depart with Convoy WS 32 on 31 July. The liners Britannic, Largs Bay and Tamaroa were available in Freetown to carry 8,528 of these men, and it was decided to sail the troopship SS California directly from the Clyde to provide the remaining berths. California was a liner that had spent the first years of the war as an armed merchant cruiser before being converted to a troopship. She had previously carried troops to Bombay in India as part of convoys WS 22 and 26. She returned to the Clyde from Gibraltar on 4 June as part of Convoy MFK 15 and spent the next month docked in Glasgow undergoing repairs. Once this work was complete, California began to embark 470 personnel bound for West Africa on 4 July. She was to be accompanied on this voyage by SS Duchess of York, which had been tasked with carrying 600 Royal Air Force personnel and civilians to West Africa, but had missed an earlier convoy owing to electrical problems. Like California, Duchess of York was a pre-war liner which had been converted to a troopship. Prior to the ships' departure it was decided to use Duchess of York to transport elements of the 5th (West Africa) Brigade to Bombay after the ships arrived at Freetown, while California would instead carry other West African personnel to the Middle East. ## Attack California and Duchess of York sailed from Greenock on the afternoon of 7 July. They spent the night at anchor in the Clyde; shortly after getting underway early the next day they were joined by the storeship MV Port Fairy, bound for Australia and New Zealand via West Africa and the Panama Canal. The master of the Duchess of York, Captain W.G. Busk-Wood, probably served as the Convoy Commodore. Busk-Wood had been the master of the liner SS Duchess of Bedford prior to the war, and remained in command of this ship until November 1942 when he transferred to Duchess of York. He also held the rank of commander in the Royal Naval Reserve. The merchant ships were escorted by the destroyer HMS Douglas and frigate HMS Moyola from 9 July, and the Canadian destroyer joined the convoy the next day. While Iroquois' commanding officer, Commander W.B.L Holms, was the most senior officer present, he chose to not assume command of the convoy as his destroyer would not remain with the troopships for their entire journey. The route taken by Convoy Faith was similar to that of other recent convoys sailing between Britain and Africa. While the strength of the escort force was much smaller than that assigned to the regular convoys, it was believed that submarines posed the main threat and that three warships would provide adequate protection. Convoy Faith was detected by a German Condor at 8:00 pm on 11 July while about 480 kilometres (300 mi) off the Portuguese coast. This aircraft circled near the ships, broadcasting a homing signal. Two other Condors joined the first aircraft at about 9:00 pm, and they commenced their attack on the convoy shortly thereafter. At this time, Convoy Faith was deployed in a formation intended to protect the ships from submarines. The two troopships and Port Fairy were sailing line abreast (Duchess of York was the westernmost of the three ships, California was in the centre and Port Fairy at the east of this group), Iroquois was located 3,000 yards (2,700 m) ahead and the two other escorts were on each flank of the troopships. Busk-Wood had maintained this formation after the first Condor was spotted in the belief that the aircraft would call in submarines rather than conduct an attack. The three Condors made their attack from an altitude of about 15,000 feet (4,600 m). Despite heavy anti-aircraft fire from the escorts, California was badly damaged by a near miss from the first plane to attack, and was hit by two bombs dropped by the second attacker. The damage caused by these bombs flooded one of the ship's holds and set her on fire. California's passengers were evacuated on board lifeboats while the crew tried to save the ship. This proved unsuccessful, however, and they abandoned ship later that night. Duchess of York also came under attack; several bombs hit the centre of the ship and set her on fire. This fire could not be brought under control, and she too was abandoned, at 10:40 pm on 11 July. Port Fairy was also straddled by two near misses, but did not suffer significant damage. Both troopships were subsequently torpedoed and sunk by their escorts, Duchess of York by Douglas, for fear their blazing hulks would attract German submarines to the area. While there are differing accounts of the casualties on board the two troopships, the official figures state that 89 people were killed on board Duchess of York and 26 on board California. The survivors were rescued by the two destroyers and Moyola, including 660 by Iroquois alone. They were subsequently taken to Casablanca in North Africa by the warships, from where the seamen returned to Britain and military personnel continued to West Africa on board the troopship SS Nea Hellas. The frigate HMS Swale, despatched from Gibraltar to make a scheduled rendezvous, sighted the convoy under attack at 10:10 pm, and was herself attacked by Condors, the bombs falling 20 yards (18 m) astern. After conducting an A/S sweep around the convoy, Swale was ordered to detach and escort Port Fairy to Casablanca. At 6:45 pm the following day, Swale rescued eight survivors from a PBY Catalina, but within an hour the two ships were again attacked by Condors returning from a reconnaissance mission. Despite the intervention of two United States Navy Catalinas sent to their aid, a bomb hit Port Fairy on her starboard quarter, starting a fire next to the magazine and disabling her steering. The Catalinas eventually drove off the Condors with machine gun fire; one of the German aircrew was seriously wounded in this engagement. At 10:05 pm Swale came alongside Port Fairy to aid the extinction of the fire with her hoses. With Port Fairy in danger of exploding, 64 survivors from the two troopships and 8 passengers were transferred to Swale. The blaze was eventually extinguished at 00:41 am, and both ships continued the remaining 500 nautical miles (930 km) to Casablanca without further incident, Port Fairy steering by her engines. Port Fairy did not suffer any casualties in the attack and was repaired on arrival at Casablanca. ## Aftermath The losses suffered by Convoy Faith shocked the British military, as it had been believed that the Condor force no longer posed a significant threat. The decision to use a route which was similar to that used by previous convoys despite Convoy Faith's small escort made it an attractive target. In his assessment of the action Admiral Charles Forbes, the Commander-in-Chief, Plymouth strongly criticised the troopships for not taking evasive action during the attack. He also criticised the captain of Iroquois for not assuming command of the convoy. However, the Canadian official history argues that "it is doubtful whether Holms would have acted differently under the circumstances". In order to prevent a repetition of the attack, the convoy routes between Britain and West Africa were moved further to the west so that they were almost at the limit of the Condors' range. The loss of California and Duchess of York represented a heavy blow to the Allies' already heavily committed fleet of large troopships. Duchess of York's intended role was filled by Nea Hellas after she disembarked Convoy Faith's survivors at Freetown. Nea Hellas embarked the Gold Coast elements of the 5th (West Africa) Brigade at Takoradi from 2 August while Britannic, Tamaroa and Largs Bay loaded the remainder of the unit at other West African ports. Convoy WS 32 sailed from Freetown on 5 August, and Nea Hellas joined it at sea two days later. The liner was left behind at Durban owing to a mechanical fault, but eventually disembarked its soldiers at Bombay in late September after sailing there as part of Convoy CM 45. The West African personnel which were to be transported to the Middle East on board California were embarked on Convoy WS 33 in September and arrived at their destination in early November. The Germans attempted to build on their success against Convoy Faith by carrying out further medium-altitude attacks on convoys. III./KG 40 sank another four ships between July and September 1943, but suffered heavy losses from Allied aircraft and anti-aircraft guns. From October, Heinkel He 177s largely took over the Condors' anti-shipping role, and the last Condor sorties were made over the Atlantic in early 1944.
2,181,291	1909 Atlantic hurricane season	1,168,584,980	Hurricane season in the Atlantic Ocean	[ "1909 Atlantic hurricane season", "Articles which contain graphical timelines" ]	The 1909 Atlantic hurricane season was an average Atlantic hurricane season. The season produced thirteen tropical cyclones, twelve of which became tropical storms; six became hurricanes, and four of those strengthened into major hurricanes. The season's first storm developed on June 15 while the last storm transitioned into an extratropical cyclone on November 14. The most notable storm during the season formed in late August, while east of the Lesser Antilles. The hurricane devastated the Lesser Antilles, the Greater Antilles, and Mexico, leaving around 4,000 fatalities and more than \$50 million (1909 USD) in damage. The 1909 season was very deadly and destructive, featuring at least 4,673 fatalities, and \$77.3 million in damage, mostly due to the sixth and eighth hurricanes of the season. In mid-July, the fourth storm of the season hit Freeport, Texas, as a Category 3 hurricane, killing 41 people, and causing \$2 million in damage. In mid-September, the eighth storm of the season made landfall near Grand Isle, Louisiana, as a Category 3 hurricane, killing at least 350 people and causing \$10 million in damage. The storm's storm surge is responsible for destroying thousands of homes, as it penetrated 2 mi (3.2 km) inland. In mid-October, the eleventh storm of the season developed, and tracked across Cuba, the Florida Keys, and the Bahamas as a Category 3 hurricane. At least \$2 million in damage was caused, and at least 22 deaths were recorded. Lastly, the final storm of the season struck eastern Jamaica and Hispaniola as a hurricane before transitioning into an extratropical cyclone northeast of the Bahamas. The storm killed 198 people, and caused \$7 million in damage. ## Season summary Tropical cyclogenesis began on or shortly before June 15, when the first system was initially detected in the southwestern Caribbean. The month of June featured two other storms. One cyclone formed in July, the Velasco hurricane. August was the most active month, with four tropical storms, including the Monterrey hurricane. There were two systems in September. The former, the Grand Isle hurricane, was the most intense tropical cyclone of the season, peaking with maximum sustained winds of 120 mph (195 km/h) and a minimum barometric pressure of 952 mbar (28.1 inHg). October and November each featured one storm, the Florida Keys hurricane and the Greater Antilles hurricane, respectively. The twelfth and final cyclone of the season, the Greater Antilles hurricane transitioned into an extratropical cyclone over the Atlantic Ocean to the northeast of the Lesser Antilles on November 14. The season had a total of 12 tropical storms, 6 of which intensified into a hurricane. This was the most tropical storms in a season since the total of 13 in 1901. The reanalysis from Christopher Landsea et al. in 2011 resulted in the addition of two tropical storms, which are listed as the first and seventh storms. In 1999, José F. Partagás and Henry F. Diaz uncovered evidence confirming the existence of a tropical system in November, while Landsea et al. upgraded the system from a tropical storm to a Category 2 hurricane on the modern day Saffir–Simpson hurricane wind scale. Additionally, the second storm of the second was also upgraded to a hurricane, increasing the number of landfalling hurricanes in the United States to five, the most in a season since 1893. All of the season's 12 tropical storms made landfall. Collectively, the storms caused over \$77.3 million in damage and at least 4,673 fatalities. The season's activity was reflected with an accumulated cyclone energy (ACE) rating of 93. ACE is a metric used to express the energy used by a tropical cyclone during its lifetime. Therefore, a storm with a longer duration will have high values of ACE. It is only calculated at six-hour increments in which specific tropical and subtropical systems are either at or above sustained wind speeds of 39 mph (63 km/h), which is the threshold for tropical storm intensity. Thus, tropical depressions are not included here. ## Systems ### Tropical Storm One The first tropical cyclone of the season was first identified as a tropical depression near the southeastern Nicaragua coastline on June 15. Tracking due north, the depression intensified into a tropical storm within 12 hours. Operationally, this system was not classified as a tropical storm as there was uncertainty of tropical storm-force winds being measured. Maintaining a slow, northward movement, the system attained peak winds of 45 mph (75 km/h). On June 18, it gradually turned towards the west, leading to the storm making landfall near Puerto Cabezas, Nicaragua, the following morning. Once overland, the storm weakened, first to a tropical depression before dissipating near the Nicaragua-Honduras border during the evening of June 19. Due to the weak nature of the system, little information was recorded on it. Throughout its existence, ships in the region suggested a minimum pressure of 1009 mbar (hPa; 29.80 inHg). ### Hurricane Two In late June, the season's second tropical cyclone developed near the Florida Keys. Its origins are unknown and the first indications of the system were as a tropical storm. After tracking northwest towards Louisiana for about a day. The system sharply changed direction and took a direct path towards the south Texas coastline. By June 29, it was estimated that the storm intensified into a minimal hurricane, attaining winds of 75 mph (120 km/h). However, reanalysis on the storm by Partagás in 1999 indicated that it was only a tropical storm. Shortly before the hurricane made landfall near Brownsville, Texas, it attained its peak intensity as a modern-day Category 2 cyclone with winds of 100 mph (155 km/h). A barometric pressure of 972 mbar (hPa; 28.70 inHg) was recorded as the storm moved inland. By June 30, the system weakened to a tropical storm and crossed into northern Mexico; the cyclone dissipated several hours later. Upon making landfall, the hurricane brought a storm surge exceeding 5 ft (1.5 m), inundating low-lying coastal areas such as Padre Island. Winds up to 48 mph (77 km/h) were recorded as far north as Corpus Christi; however, no known winds were measured where the system made landfall. During a 24‐hour span, 10 in (250 mm) of rain fell in Mercedes, Texas. These heavy rains resulted in substantial flooding along the Rio Grande over the following week. Near Brownsville, a town in Mexico was mostly flooded after the river broke its banks on July 4. Floods persisted in the country through July 10, leaving behind substantial damage. Though no loss of life took place, total losses from the hurricane reached \$1.3 million, almost all of which was attributed to destroyed railroads in Mexico. ### Tropical Storm Three A tropical depression developed near Turks and Caicos Islands on June 26; moving west-northwestward, the depression struck Great Inagua Island in the Bahamas. By 12:00 UTC the following day, the storm curved northwestward and strengthened into a tropical storm. While situated near Andros around 12:00 UTC on June 28, the cyclone peaked with winds of 50 mph (85 km/h). About eight hours later, it made landfall near Fort Lauderdale, Florida. The storm emerged into the Gulf of Mexico near Cedar Key early on June 30, before making landfall near St. Marks close to 14:00 UTC with winds of 40 mph (65 km/h). Although the system quickly weakened to a tropical depression, it remained a tropical cyclone while moving in a semicircular path across the Southeastern United States. Early on July 3, the storm emerged into the Atlantic near Beaufort, South Carolina. Around this time, Charleston observed a barometric pressure of 1,005 mbar (29.7 inHg), the lowest in relation to the system. The storm moved east-southeastward and continued weakening, until dissipating between Bermuda and Grand Bahama late on July 4. In Florida, the storm brought heavy rainfall to some areas. There was standing water on the streets of Bartow and Lakeland. In Tampa, winds exceeding 30 mph (48 km/h) shattered some windows. There was also "considerable" impact to crops and telegraph and telephone wires. Along the coast, several small crafts were damaged. ### Hurricane Four The Velasco Hurricane of 1909 A tropical depression was first noted in close proximity to the Windward Islands on July 13. Remaining weak for the next few days, the system began to intensify after nearing Jamaica on July 17, when it became a tropical storm. Curving towards the northwest, the cyclone reached hurricane strength on July 18 near the western tip of Cuba. Intensification halted as it moved westwards across the Gulf of Mexico, but resumed as the hurricane approached the Texas coast. The storm deepened into a Category 3 hurricane on July 21 and subsequently reached its peak intensity with winds of 115 mph (185 km/h). Shortly thereafter, the hurricane made landfall near Velasco, Texas. Once over land, the system began to quickly weaken, and dissipated near the Rio Grande on July 22. In Cuba, the storm brought rough seas, strong winds, and persistently heavy rainfall over a period of two days, inundating the streets of Batabanó with about 3 ft (0.91 m) of water. A number of vessels also sank, but no fatalities occurred. In Texas, strong waves caused several offshore shipping incidents, and storm surge inundated areas of the Texas coast, though damage in Galveston was mostly mitigated by the Galveston Seawall. In Velasco, one of the hardest hit cities, only eight buildings remained intact after the hurricane. Strong winds forced train closures and destroyed and downed various infrastructure. Heavy rains further inland peaked at 8.5 in (220 mm) in Hallettsville. The hurricane caused 41 deaths and \$2 million in damages in Texas. ### Tropical Storm Five On August 6, a new tropical depression was identified between Jamaica and Honduras. Tracking northwestward, the system gradually intensified, attaining tropical storm status near the Cayman Islands later that day. On August 7, the storm turned towards the west and reached its peak intensity just off the coast of the Yucatán Peninsula with winds of 45 mph (75 km/h) and a pressure of 1004 mbar (hPa; 29.65 inHg). Hours later, the cyclone made landfall near Cancún and weakened to a tropical depression hours later. Continuing westward, the system moved back over water on August 9, over the Bay of Campeche. Within hours of doing so, it re-attained tropical storm status as its forward motion quickly increased. During the afternoon of August 10, the storm made its final landfall near Tampico, Tamaulipas, before rapidly dissipating over the mountainous terrain of Mexico later that day. ### Tropical depression A tropical depression formed southwest of the Capo Verde Islands on August 7. A nearby ship recorded winds of 52 mph (84 km/h) and a barometric pressure of 1,004 mbar (29.6 inHg) later that day. Thus, the depression may have intensified into a tropical storm. However, due to sparse data, it is unclear if the depression remained a tropical cyclone over the next several days as it tracked westward. The presence of a closed circulation on August 14 and August 18 was confirmed by historic weather maps. On the latter date, the depression again may have strengthened into a tropical storm, though data from the ship observing tropical storm-force winds may have been unreliable. No evidence of a closed circulation exists beyond August 18, and thus, the depression likely dissipated. ### Hurricane Six The Monterrey Hurricane of 1909 Originating from a tropical storm east of the Leeward Islands on August 20, the storm tracked west-northwest, entering the Caribbean Sea as a minimal hurricane the next day. After striking Hispaniola on August 23, the hurricane made another landfall in eastern Cuba before reentering the Caribbean. Once back over open water, the storm intensified into a Category 3 hurricane and moved across the northern tip of the Yucatán Peninsula. By August 26, the storm had emerged into the Gulf of Mexico as a weakened but regrouping system. It attained its peak winds of 120 mph (185 km/h) that evening. Maintaining this intensity, the system made landfall in the Mexican state of Tamaulipas late on August 27 and rapidly dissipated the following afternoon. Throughout its existence, the hurricane remained relatively close to land, so consequently it effected many areas of the northern Caribbean Sea. Although the storm impacted several islands, only Haiti reported damage during the hurricane's passage. In northeastern Mexico, catastrophic flooding occurred due to the storm, especially in the city of Monterrey. In that city, more than half of the structures were flooded, hundreds were destroyed, and 20,000 people were left homeless. Throughout Mexico, reports indicated that 4,000 people were killed by the hurricane, making it the tenth deadliest Atlantic hurricane on record. Monetary losses were also estimated to have exceeded \$50 million. ### Tropical Storm Seven A low-pressure area formed over the central Gulf of Mexico between August 19 and August 20. Ships and weather maps indicate that a tropical depression developed from the low to the northwest of the western tip of Cuba at 00:00 UTC on August 22. The system moved northwestward and intensified into a tropical storm about 24 hours later. By 12:00 UTC on August 23, sustained winds were estimated to have peaked at 50 mph (85 km/h). The storm began curving to the west-southwest shortly thereafter. Late on August 24, the cyclone weakened to a tropical depression while approaching the coast of Mexico, with the weakening probably caused by wind shear generated by the sixth storm. The cyclone made landfall in northern Tamaulipas near the United States border early the following day, and promptly dissipated. The highest wind speed observed on land was 36 mph (58 km/h) in New Orleans. ### Tropical Storm Eight A ship first indicated the presence of this storm about 60 mi (95 km) northeast of Samana Cay in the Bahamas on August 28. The cyclone moved west-northwestward and struck the southern end of Abaco Islands later that day. Early on August 9, the storm is estimated to have peaked with maximum sustained winds of 50 mph (85 km/h), based on a minimum barometric pressure of 1,009 mbar (29.8 inHg) observed by a ship. The cyclone made landfall around 09:00 UTC near modern-day Boca Raton, Florida. Moving inland, the system weakened to a tropical depression early on August 30 while just to the west of Lake Okeechobee, where it began curving northwestward. Around midday, the cyclone turned northeastward. Late on August 30, the storm reemerged into the Atlantic Ocean and restrengthened into a tropical storm early the following day. The reintensification was short-lived, with the cyclone weakening to a tropical depression and dissipating about 120 mi (190 km) southeast of Charleston, South Carolina. ### Hurricane Nine The Grand Isle Hurricane of 1909 During early September, a tropical disturbance over the western Atlantic began to strengthen as it moved towards the Lesser Antilles. By September 13, the system had become sufficiently organized to be classified as a tropical depression. Moving west-northwestward, the depression attained tropical storm status near Jamaica on September 15 and hurricane intensity the following day. By September 18, the hurricane had attained winds of 100 mph (155 km/h) as it moved over the western tip of Cuba. After briefly weakening due to its interaction with land, the storm re-intensified over the Gulf of Mexico, attaining winds of 120 mph (185 km/h), becoming the third major hurricane of the season. Maintaining this strength, the storm eventually made landfall near Grand Isle, Louisiana, on September 21. Rapid weakening took place as it quickly moved northward, dissipating the following day over Missouri. In western Cuba, the storm brought strong winds and heavy precipitation to several areas. Numerous buildings suffered severe damage and a large portion of the orange crop was lost. Ships were pushed onshore by the hurricane's large swells. Throughout Pinar del Río Province, damage was estimated at about \$1 million. The steamship Nicholas Castina capsized near Isla de la Juventud, drowning at least 29 people. In the United States, the hurricane killed at least 350 people and wrought \$10 million in damage. Thousands of homes were destroyed by the cyclone's powerful storm surge which penetrated 2 mi (3.2 km) inland. The states of Louisiana, Mississippi, and Alabama sustained the most severe damage, especially from strong winds which covered a large area. ### Tropical Storm Ten Observations from a ship and weather maps indicate that a tropical depression developed near the north coast of Isla de la Juventud on September 24. Moving northward, the depression soon struck the Caribbean coast of modern-day Artemisa Province in Cuba. Heavy rainfall and gusty winds were reported in the now defunct Santa Clara Province. The depression emerged into the Gulf of Mexico and failed to intensify further before making landfall near Naples, Florida late on September 25. Moving northeastward, the cyclone emerged into the Atlantic Ocean and strengthened into a tropical storm around 12:00 UTC on September 26. About 24 hours later, the system peaked with maximum sustained winds of 60 mph (95 km/h). Thereafter, the storm began weakening. However, on September 28, a ship observed a barometric pressure of 1,000 mbar (30 inHg), the lowest known in relation to the storm. Around 00:00 UTC on September 29, the cyclone weakened to a tropical depression just west of Bermuda and dissipated shortly thereafter. ### Hurricane Eleven Key West Hurricane of 1909 The storm was first detected in the Caribbean about 35 mi (55 km) northwest of Cartagena, Colombia, on October 6. Initially a tropical depression, the system became a tropical storm early on the next day while heading northwestward. By October 8, the storm became a Category 1 hurricane to the southwest of Jamaica. The hurricane curved west-northwestward and intensified throughout the next day, becoming Category 3 intensity late on October 9. The cyclone peaked with winds of 120 mph (195 km/h) early on October 10. Later that day, it turned to the north and made landfall in Sandino, Pinar del Río Province. After traversing the western extremity of Cuba, the storm entered the Straights of Florida and turned northeastward. The hurricane made landfall near Marathon, Florida, late on October 11 with winds of 115 mph (185 km/h). Thereafter, the system weakened quickly while crossing the northwestern Bahamas and the western Atlantic, falling to tropical storm intensity late on October 12. About 24 hours later, it weakened to a tropical depression and then dissipated 200 mi (320 km) northeast of Bermuda. In western Cuba, strong winds and large waves left severe damage. The cities of Cayuco and La Fe in Pinar del Río Province were completely destroyed, while Guane experienced considerable devastation and every house in Puerto Esperanza suffered damage due to strong winds. In Havana alone, the storm caused five fatalities and about \$1 million in damage. The large waves reached the coast of Mexico's Yucatán Peninsula, causing many fishermen and their families to drown. In Key West, the streets became a "mess of wreckage", with at least 500 homes were destroyed and at least 400 buildings throughout the city being damaged or demolished. Overall, damage in Key West reached approximately \$2 million and there were two fatal injuries. Worst damage in Key West since 1870 hurricanes. Damage to Keys railroad not as great as the similar 1906 hurricane storm. At several locations in the Florida Keys, the Florida East Coast Railway was damaged. Twelve deaths occurred at Bahia Honda Key after the tugboat Sybil wrecked there. In Marathon, the timekeeper drowned. In Miami, a number of structures were deroofed, while the newly built hotel suffered severe damage, but impact otherwise primarily limited to downed trees. Along its path, the storm killed 34 people. ### Hurricane Twelve The final storm of the season formed from a large weather system over the southwestern Caribbean Sea on November 8. Tracking northwestward, the system gradually intensified. On November 11, the storm brushed the eastern tip of Jamaica before attaining hurricane-status several hours later. During the afternoon of November 12, the hurricane made landfall in northeastern Haiti with winds of 85 mph (140 km/h) before entering the Atlantic Ocean. Once in the Atlantic, the storm further intensified to attain peak winds of 105 mph (165 km/h) on November 13 as it accelerated eastward. The system rapidly transitioned into an extratropical cyclone the following day before being absorbed by a frontal system northeast of the Lesser Antilles. In Jamaica, torrential rains from the storm, peaking at 114.50 in (2,908 mm) at Silver Hill Plantation, wrought widespread damage. Throughout the country, roughly 500,000 banana plants were lost as a result of the floods, about 20% of the entire country's yield. The storm left 30 people dead and \$7 million in damage. Nearby Haiti suffered more severe losses from the storm, with 166 people confirmed to have died and hundreds other presumed dead. Additionally, damage reached at least \$3 million. Widespread flooding and landslides destroyed entire villages and ruined transportation. ## Season effects ## See also - 1900–1940 South Pacific cyclone seasons - 1900–1950 South-West Indian Ocean cyclone seasons - 1900s Australian region cyclone seasons
49,776,555	I går såg jag ditt barn, min Fröja	1,094,394,626	Song by the 18th century Swedish bard Carl Michael Bellman	[ "1790 compositions", "Fredmans epistlar", "Swedish songs" ]	I går såg jag ditt barn, min Fröja (Yesterday saw I your child, my Freya), is a ballad from the Swedish poet and performer Carl Michael Bellman's 1790 collection, Fredman's Epistles, where it is No. 28. The epistle is subtitled "Om et anstäldt försåt emot Ulla Winblad." (About an ambush of Ulla Winblad). It describes an attempt to arrest the "nymph" Ulla Winblad, based on a real event. The lyrics create a rococo picture of life, blending classical allusion and pastoral description with harsh reality. ## Context ## Song ### Music and verse form The song has five verses, each of 8 lines. The verses have the alternating rhyming pattern ABAB-CDCD. The music is in time, and is marked Andante. The melody was reworked by Joseph Martin Kraus from a Languedoc folk tune; it is accompanied throughout by rapid, nervous quavers (eighth notes), giving the Epistle in Edward Matz's view a cinematic slow motion effect. The melody was used by "several parodists" in the 18th century; it had timbres (named melodies) including "Quoi–" and "Ah! ma voisine, es-tu fâchée?" which the musicologist James Massengale suggests Bellman may have had in mind. ### Lyrics The song is dated 17 August 1771. The epistle is subtitled "Om et anstäldt försåt emot Ulla Winblad" ("About an attempted ambush of Ulla Winblad"), which Bellman's biographer Lars Lönnroth describes as relatively vague, compared for instance to that of epistle 31, which gives exact co-ordinates in time and space. The story is at least loosely based on a real event, although the real Ulla Winblad, Maria Kristina Kiellström, was neither a prostitute nor a barmaid, and never prosecuted for wearing unauthorised finery in the form of silk dresses. ## Reception Bellman's biographer, Paul Britten Austin, describes the Epistle as rococo, along with No. 25: Blåsen nu alla (All blow now). In it, Ulla Winblad, "a luxuriant Venus, incarnation of love and beauty" is almost caught by the bailiffs in Yxsmedsgränd, a narrow street in Stockholm's Gamla stan, where Bellman himself lived from 1770 to 1774. Carina Burman, in her biography of Bellman, wonders whether Bellman found it slightly amusing to move into the street where the bailiffs had pursued Ulla sixteen years earlier. The epistle describes how she just manages to escape. Bellman simultaneously uses classical and contemporary imagery. He calls Ulla a nymph; she has been given a "myrtle" (crown of leaves) by Freya, the Nordic goddess of love; the Bonde Palace (visible from the corner of Yxsmedsgränd) is called the temple of Themis, classical goddess of justice; and Freya is to be worshipped in Paphos' land, equating her with Venus/Aphrodite. Paphos in Cyprus was where, in the myth, Aphrodite rose naked from the foaming sea, and her temple is nearby. But, non-mythologically, Ulla wears "a black embroider'd bodice" and petticoats with "frills and laces", and she loses her watch in the struggle. Britten Austin translates the entire Epistle. Burman notes that the cheerful last stanza of the Epistle was one of the Bellman songs used in 19th century student celebrations. Epistle 28 has been recorded by Cornelis Vreeswijk, a noted Bellman interpreter, on his 1971 studio album Spring mot Ulla, spring! Cornelis sjunger Bellman, among others.
26,192,952	February 2010 Australian cyberattacks	1,172,286,975	DoS attack against Australian government by the Anonymous group	[ "2010s internet outages", "Anonymous (hacker group)", "Censorship in Australia", "Denial-of-service attacks", "February 2010 events in Australia", "Internet in Australia" ]	The February 2010 Australian cyberattacks were a series of denial-of-service attacks conducted by the Anonymous online community against the Australian government in response to proposed web censorship regulations. Operation Titstorm was the name given to the cyber attacks by the perpetrators. They resulted in lapses of access to government websites on 10 and 11 February 2010. This was accompanied by emails, faxes, and phone calls harassing government offices. The actual size of the attack and number of perpetrators involved is unknown but it was estimated that the number of systems involved ranged from the hundreds to the thousands. The amount of traffic caused disruption on multiple government websites. Australian Telecommunications Minister Stephen Conroy proposed the regulations that would mainly filter sites with pornographic content. Various groups advocating uncensored access to the Internet, along with companies like Google and Yahoo!, object to the proposed filter. A spokesperson for Conroy said that the actions were not a legitimate form of protest and called it irresponsible. The attacks also drew criticism from other filter protest groups. The initial stage was followed by small in-person protests on 20 February that were called "Project Freeweb". ## Background The attack began as a protest responding to a plan by Australian Telecommunications Minister Stephen Conroy that would require internet service providers to block Australian users from accessing illegal and what the government deemed as "unwanted" content. Websites to be blocked feature pornography showing rape, bestiality, child sex abuse, small-breasted women (who may appear under the legal age), and female ejaculation. Drawn depictions of such acts are included in the proposal. The proposed filter also includes gambling sites along with others showing drug use. A leaked version of the proposed blacklist (also referred to as the "refused classification" or "RC" list) also showed sites that did not include adult content. The name "Operation Titstorm" was in reference to the material that would be censored. Google has questioned the proposal, saying the prohibitions would be too broad. It is strongly opposed by free speech groups. A poll conducted by McNair Ingenuity Research for the Hungry Beast television program found that 80% of their 1,000 respondents were in favour of the concept of the plan. The survey also found that 91% were concerned about the government's intent to keep the list of filtered websites a secret. The Department of Defence's Cyber Security Operations Centre discovered the attack was coming on 5 February. A statement released by Anonymous to the press two days before the attack said, "No government should have the right to refuse its citizens access to information solely because they perceive it to be 'unwanted'." It went on to read, "The Australian Government will learn that one does not mess with our porn. No one messes with our access to perfectly legal (or illegal) content for any reason". Anonymous had previously garnered media attention with protests against Church of Scientology (Project Chanology) and the Iranian government. In September 2009, Prime Minister Kevin Rudd's website was hacked in a similar protest to proposed web censorship reforms. ## Attacks Flyers distributed to recruit participants said the attack was to begin at 8 pm AEST on 10 February. On that day, government websites were targeted by denial-of-service attacks. The Communications Department said the hackers had not infiltrated government security, but had instead swamped government computer servers. Sites were left unavailable for sporadic periods throughout the attack. At one point, the Australian Parliament's website was offline for about two days due to the high volume of requests. Rudd's government site was also inaccessible for some time. As a primary target, the Communications Department also received a large amount of traffic. Government offices were also flooded with e-mail spam, junk faxes, and prank phone calls. The Prime Minister's homepage was vandalized with pornographic images. The flyer released before the attack called for the faxes to focus on cartoon pornography, female ejaculation, and small-breasted pornography. Reports of the actual size of the attack have varied. One cyber security expert described the attacks as "the equivalent of parking a truck across the driveway of a shopping centre". A firm marketing security technology said that the peak of the attack was a relatively low 16.84 megabits per second. One writer described the 7.5 million requests per second that initially brought down the Parliament website as "massive". The site usually only receives a few hundred per second. It appears that botnets made up of compromised computers were not used. Estimates of the number of attacking systems involved have ranged from hundreds to thousands. ## Response A spokeswoman for Conroy said such attacks were not a legitimate political protest. According to her, they were "totally irresponsible and potentially deny services to the Australian public". The Systems Administrators Guild of Australia said that it "condemned DDoS attacks as the wrong way to express disagreement with the proposed law". Anti-censorship groups criticised the attacks, saying they hurt their cause. A purported spokesperson for the attackers recommended that the wider Australian public protest the filter by signing the petition of Electronic Frontiers Australia. Anonymous coordinated a second phase with small protests outside the Parliament House in Canberra and in major cities throughout Australia on 20 February. Additional demonstrations were held at some of the country's embassies overseas. The organizers called the follow-up protests "Project Freeweb" to differentiate them from the criticised cyber attacks. Several supporters of the attack later said on a messageboard that taking down websites was not enough to convince the government to back down on the web filtering policy and called for violence. Others disagreed with such actions and proposed launching an additional attack on a popular government site. A spokesman for Electronic Frontiers Australia said he believed there was no real intention or capacity to follow through with any of the violent threats. The attack also resulted in criticism of Australia's terrorism laws from The University of New South Wales Law Journal. One writer wrote that the provisions leave "no place for legitimate acts of online protest, or at least sets the penalty far too high for relatively minor cyber-vandalism". An Australian teenager was charged with four counts of inciting other hackers to impair electronic communications and two of unauthorised access to restricted data for his role in the attack. He was ordered to pay a bond instead of being convicted after pleading guilty and showing good behaviour. In July 2010, Conroy delayed implementing the plan pending a 12-month review into how refused classification content was rated. The proposal is not expected to go forward due to the opposition from The Coalition and the Greens. Internet service providers Telstra and Optus have both agreed to voluntarily block some content. ## See also - Internet censorship in Australia - Operation Payback
27,914,955	Battle of Katia	1,140,476,324	Battle during the Defence of the Suez Canal Campaign of World War I	[ "1916 in Egypt", "April 1916 events", "Battles of World War I involving Australia", "Battles of World War I involving the Ottoman Empire", "Conflicts in 1916", "Egypt in World War I" ]	The Battle of Katia, also known as the Affair of Qatia by the British, was an engagement fought east of the Suez Canal and north of El Ferdan Station, in the vicinity of Katia and Oghratina, on 23 April 1916 during the Defence of the Suez Canal Campaign of World War I. An Ottoman force led by the German General Friedrich Freiherr Kress von Kressenstein made a surprise attack on three and a half squadrons of the British 5th Mounted Brigade, which was widely scattered to the east of Romani. The mounted brigade had been ordered to the area to protect the new railway and water pipeline being built from Kantara on the Suez Canal, as this infrastructure extended out past the Canal's zone of defences into the Sinai Peninsula towards Romani. Kress Von Kressenstein's attack was completely successful, decimating the equivalent of little more than a regiment. On the same day, an associated Ottoman attack on Duidar, very close to the Suez Canal, failed when it met with strong British opposition. Kress von Kressenstein's force had been active in the area since the First Suez Offensive of early 1915, when three columns attacked the Canal along the northern, central, and southern routes across the Sinai Peninsula. The growing Imperial strength made attacks on the Suez Canal difficult, and ended the dominance of the Ottoman force in the area. The Ottoman Empire's attacks on 23 April demonstrated their intention to continue opposing the British Empire in the region. However, the Imperial reaction to these attacks was to double the strength of their forces. The 2nd Light Horse Brigade, and the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade, were sent to Katia and Romani and established a strong Imperial presence over the contested ground. Soon after, the Australian 1st Light Horse Brigade was also sent forward, and the 52nd (Lowland) Division arrived at Romani not long after. At the beginning of August, the Battle of Romani was fought over much of the same ground as that at Katia. ## Background In 1915, Sir Archibald Murray, the Imperial Commander in Chief of Egypt, partially addressed the threat of von Kressenstein's forces to the Suez Canal by organising the defences into three sectors. No. 1 (Southern) sector, with its headquarters at Suez, covered the area from Suez to Kabrit, No. 2 (Central) sector, with its headquarters at Ismailia, covered the area from Kabrit to Ferdan, and No. 3 (Northern) sector, with its headquarters at Port Said, covered the area from Ferdan to Port Said. The No. 3 sector also had an advanced headquarters at Kantara. To support these forward defences, the British Empire improved their lines of communication by doubling the single railway line that ran from Cairo to the Suez Canal, and also pumped water from the River Nile along the Sweet Water Canal to supply the troops and the towns on the Suez Canal. After the conclusion of the Gallipoli Campaign, both sides had large numbers of troops available for redeployment, and the British decided to move their Suez Canal defences from positions on the canal eastwards into the Sinai desert. Murray aimed to extend the railway and water pipeline to Katia, so that a permanent forward Imperial base of 50,000 men could be established. In February 1916, he requested permission from the War Office in London to extend this infrastructure further across the Sinai to El Arish. He considered that such an advance along the northern route, combined with the destruction of the central route's water sources and regular patrols from a base at El Arish, would permanently secure the Suez Canal. An advance to Katia was agreed by the War Office, but no decision was made regarding an advance to El Arish. The first shipload of rails and sleepers arrived at Kantara on 10 March and, four weeks later, 16 miles (26 km) of track stretching towards Katia had been laid by the Egyptian Labour Corps and Royal Engineers. There were also two new appointments: Brigadier General Edgar Askin Wiggin took command of the Katia district on 6 April and, three days later, Major General H. A. Lawrence became responsible for No. 3 Sector of the canal defences, which covered the northern section. Meanwhile, several raids were undertaken by the Australian Light Horse and the Bikaner Camel Corps, accompanied by the Egyptian Camel Transport Corps carrying supplies, rations and ammunition. The purpose of these raids was to destroy water sources on the central inland route, which had been used by the Ottomans during the First Suez Offensive in late January and early February 1915. To provide forward protection for the railway construction workers and the infrastructure, the 5th Mounted Brigade was ordered to move to Katia. By early April, however, signs of renewed Ottoman activity in the area were detected and, as a result, the 5th Light Horse Regiment was ordered to reinforce the 5th Mounted Brigade; it was due to arrive at Katia on 24 April. ## Prelude ### Ottoman forces Kress von Kressenstein moved to challenge the growing Imperial presence with a force of ninety-five officers 3,560 other ranks comprising 1st and 2nd Battalions and one company of the 3rd Battalion, 32nd Regiment, a regiment of Arab irregulars on camels, and six mountain guns, a 75-mm battery of the 8th F. A. Regiment and two guns of the 9th F. A. Regiment (one and a half batteries), two field ambulances and an ammunition column. The Ottoman and Arab force travelled across the Sinai Peninsula on the northern route, which runs not far from the coast of the Mediterranean Sea and nearly parallel with it. A series of oases with date palms and reliable water stretch for 15 miles (24 km) from Bir el Abd in the east to Oghratina, Katia and Romani near the Suez Canal. These oases make the northern route from the Ottoman-Egyptian Frontier at Rafa to El Arish and Romani viable, and British strategists thought it possible that 250,000 Ottoman troops could cross the Sinai, and 80,000 be based permanently in this fertile area. Whoever could hold the contested ground in the area of Katia and Romani would be in a position to protect the Canal, or within striking distance. The area was patrolled almost daily by Ottoman aircraft, which bombed the recently established Katia camp on 20 April, and both Katia and Romani the next day. ### Imperial deployments 23 April 1916 was St George's Day and also Easter Sunday, and dawn found the 5th Mounted Brigade, dispersed over a wide area. The brigade was made up of the Warwickshire Yeomanry, the Royal Gloucestershire Hussars, and the Queen's Own Worcestershire Hussars (Worcestershire Yeomanry). These regiments were deployed as follows: At Oghrantina was two squadrons of Worcestershire Hussars (less one troop), with four officers and 60 other ranks of the 2/2nd Lowland Field Company[Royal Engineers. At Katia was one squadron and a machine gun subsection of the Gloucestershire Hussars, along with 40 dismounted men of the Worcestershire Hussars, and a detail from the Royal Army Medical Corps, Army Veterinary Corps and camel transport. At Bir el Hamisah were the Warwickshire Yeomanry (less one squadron), and one squadron and one troop from the Worcestershire Hussars. At Romani, near Pelusium, were the Gloucestershire Hussars (less one squadron), and a machine gun subsection in reserve. At the small oasis of Dueidar 13 miles (21 km) south south west of Katia were 156 men; 120 from the 5th Battalion, Royal Scots Fusiliers and thirty-six from the Bikanir Camel Corps, including a few Yeomanry. The 4th Battalion, Royal Scots Fusiliers of the 52nd (Lowland) Division, were holding Hill 70, 5 miles (8.0 km) behind Dueidar. On 22 April Wiggin and his brigade headquarters, with one squadron and one troop of Worcestershire Hussars, had arrived at Bir el Hamisah from Katia. Wiggin moved there in response to an intelligence report that an Ottoman force was at Bir el Mageibra some distance to the south and, with the agreement of his commander H. A. Lawrence, he prepared to launch a surprise attack. At dawn on 23 April, Wiggin found and destroyed a large but almost empty camp at Bir el Mageibra, capturing six prisoners. He was back at Bir el Hamisah by 09:00, having covered a distance of 16 miles (26 km), when he heard news of Ottoman attacks. ## Battle ### Oghratina The oasis at Oghratina had been occupied by a squadron from the Worcestershire Hussars and a dismounted detachment of Royal Engineers thirty-six hours before the Ottoman attack; a second squadron arrived just twelve hours before the attack, so defensive works had not been extensive. These squadrons stood to at 04:00 in dense sea-fog, which was common at that time of year. They heard the sound of pumps operating at wells 500 yards (460 m) to their south west, and an officer who investigated found about sixty Ottoman soldiers. The yeomanry completely surprised this small Ottoman force, opening fire and causing heavy casualties, but in following up their retreat, the yeomanry were met with very heavy rifle fire from a much larger force. Soon afterwards, British squadrons on the right were attacked, and by 05:15 the whole camp was being assaulted from north, east and south east in overwhelming strength at a range of 50 yards (46 m) or less. The Ottoman attack began with heavy fire from light guns, machine guns and rifles. Although the commander of the yeomanry detachment had orders to retire if attacked in force, he could not leave the dismounted engineers. The Ottoman attack was resisted for two hours, but by 07:45 eleven yeomanry officers and 135 other ranks were casualties. The survivors, four officers and forty-two other ranks, surrendered. ### Katia At 03:30 "A" Squadron Gloucestershire Hussars, under Captain Lloyd Baker, stood to arms and saddled up; a patrol was sent out and returned to report all clear. Soon afterwards a small Ottoman patrol fired on the yeomanry and retired. About 05:30 heavy fire was heard from Oghratina, and a message was received half an hour later that an attack had been repulsed. At 06:30 another message reported that the attack had been renewed, and a message from Romani reported that Dueidar had also been attacked. At 07:45 another Ottoman attack at Katia was driven off. At 08:45 a patrol sent out towards Oghratina saw 600 Ottoman soldiers marching towards Katia in open order in two long lines about 1.5 miles (2.4 km) away, followed by more troops in a formed body, and cavalry advancing to the south west to surround Katia. At 09:45 a battery of mountain guns near Er Rabah opened fire on Katia from the north east, which killed or maimed some of the horses within a few minutes. Rather than retiring to Romani or to Bir el Hamisah, Captain Lloyd Baker decided to stay at Katia and protect his party of Royal Engineers, hoping for support from Romani. The Gloucestershire squadron maintained rapid fire against the increasing numbers of Ottoman attackers, and just before 10:00 British reinforcements from Romani (Gloucestershire Hussars) and Bir el Hamisah (Worcestershire Hussars) converged on Katia and fought their way through to the garrison. Lieutenant Colonel Charles Coventry of the Worcestershire Hussars now took command of the garrison. Heavy fire from Ottoman rifles and machine guns continued for several hours at Katia, and the Ottomans gradually pressed in on the yeomanry's front and flanks. Eventually working their way to within 50 yards (46 m), the Ottomans rushed the garrison shortly before 15:00. The flank held by the Gloucestershire Hussars collapsed and Coventry then ordered a general surrender. At about 13:30 Coventry had asked Captain W.H. Wiggin (brother of Brigadier General Wiggin) to bring up the horses to allow as many men as possible the chance of escape, but the captain fainted from the effects of a wound before he reached them. When he came to, he saw the camp had been captured, and galloped with the surviving horses and horse holders to meet escaping yeomanry. A total of eighty men escaped, with Wiggin being the only officer to get away from Oghratina or Katia. The Gloucestershire Hussars lost 4 officers and 16 other ranks killed, 15 other ranks were wounded and 64 were taken prisoner. The casualties of the Worcestershire Hussars at Oghratina and Katia were even worse with a loss of 9 officers and 101 other ranks killed and 235 men taken prisoner. The regiment was almost wiped out – they mustered after the battle with just 54 NCOs and men. ### Dueidar At Dueidar the garrison of 156 men defended an area of just 450 by 150 yards (410 by 140 m) containing six small redoubts. At 04:00 a linesman was sent out to investigate a loss of communication with Katia; the commander of the garrison visited the posts under his command and sent out a patrol to the south east, ordering his troops to stand to arms. The patrol saw nothing in the mist, but at 05:17 a sentry saw a large group of Ottoman soldiers and opened fire on them. This alerted the nearest redoubt garrison armed with fifty men and a Lewis gun which swept the Ottoman ranks. So effective was the fire that the attackers soon fell back leaving twenty dead and wounded, while an Ottoman mountain gun battery was unable to find the British positions. At 07:00 Ottoman forces attempted to outflank the British position to the south, but were stopped by fire from a small defensive works on that flank containing one non-commissioned officer (NCO) and six men. Shortly afterwards Ottoman soldiers repeated their attack on the south eastern redoubt. Some of them got to within 20 yards (18 m) of the defensive barbed wire, but were again routed by steady fire. ### British and Australian reinforcements Brigadier General Wiggin ordered the Worcestershire Yeomanry to water at Bir el Hamisah and then advance on Katia, but before watering was complete they saw shells bursting at Katia, and moved off at 09:50 to reinforce the line of the Gloucester squadron on the left. The remaining squadrons of Warwickshire Yeomanry, after watering at Bir el Hamisah, moved at 10:30 to attack the Hod um Ugba, which was north east of Katia and halfway between Bir el Hamisah and Katia. Wiggin moved off an hour later to attack the same place, and this force became engaged with Ottoman flanking troops. By 13:45 Wiggin had advanced about 1 mile (1.6 km) against very strong opposition, but soon afterwards he saw a commotion among the camels at Katia; the tents in the camp were burning and he decided that the best option was to fall back to Bir el Hamisah. Reinforcements from Romani, commanded by Lieutenant Colonel R. M. Yorke, attacked the Ottoman force to the north of Katia, but were driven off. These five troops and a machine gun section of Gloucestershire Hussars moved out from Romani at 10:15 to intercept a column of 500 Ottoman soldiers retiring south-east from Dueidar. Shortly after leaving Romani, firing was heard from Katia, and from some high ground they could see the Ottoman artillery north of Er Rabah shelling the camp. When the Gloucestershire Hussars advanced towards the Ottoman artillery, it ceased fire, and fifteen minutes later was seen to withdraw some distance. The Gloucestershire Hussars pushed some Ottoman soldiers back to the high ground south of the Hod um Ugba, where Ottoman reinforcements stopped their advance. The strength of the Ottoman attacks made a gradual withdrawal necessary, but long halts were made to enable the wounded at Romani to retire also. Unfortunately the Gloucestershire Hussars from Romani were not aware of Wiggin and his reinforcements on the other flank until it was too late, finally coming in sight of them at about 15:00. Wiggin had seen Yorke's force an hour earlier, but had not been able to communicate with it. Dueidar was reinforced by two companies of 4th Battalion Royal Scots Fusiliers from Hill 70 on the railway 5 miles (8.0 km) to the rear. On approaching Dueidar, a small detachment of reinforcements was sent to the south eastern redoubt. The Ottoman firing line was found to be south of the Dueidar to Katia track and 200 yards (180 m) from the principal redoubt. Shortly after the mist cleared, a British aircraft dropped a message that the main Ottoman force was in retreat and that there were only about 150 rifles still attacking. A squadron of the Australian 5th Light Horse Regiment arrived at midday from Kantara, and moved off south east in pursuit of the main Ottoman force, while the garrison at Dueidar attacked the Ottoman rearguard which broke and fled, leaving behind seventeen unwounded troops who were taken prisoner. The remainder of 5th Light Horse Regiment arrived at Duidar at 13:30 and took up the pursuit. They captured one officer and thirty-one other ranks, and killed seventy-five men; there were fifty-five British casualties. ## Aftermath The commander of 5th Mounted Brigade decided to retire towards the Suez Canal, and the two squadrons from Romani joined him, abandoning much equipment to ride overnight to Bir el Nuss. Wiggin arrived at Dueidar at 09:00 on 24 April with two squadrons. The 5th Mounted Brigade had been completely surprised; its commander and his important reserve force had been out of position at a critical time following false intelligence, and could not support his regiments. The three and a half squadrons at Oghratina and Katia were decimated—almost all were killed, wounded or captured. The overwhelming success of the Ottoman Army's operations during the Battle of Katia demonstrated the attacking strength and determination of Kress von Kressenstein's force in 1916, and their efficient implementation of appropriate tactics, particularly timing and false intelligence. This success was underpinned by the Ottoman infantry's ability to make the gruelling march across the Sinai Peninsula and be fit enough to then launch attacks with force and determination. On 24 April Romani was reoccupied and the commander of the Australian and New Zealand Mounted Division (Anzac Mounted Division), Major General Harry Chauvel, took command of the advance positions. The 2nd Light Horse Brigade and the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade of the mounted division were ordered to Romani and reoccupied the area unopposed by any Ottoman force. The 52nd (Lowland) Division reinforced the garrison at Dueidar and also came under Chauvel's command. After the battle the area was held by British forces with their main bases at Romani and Kantara. Regular patrols and reconnaissances were carried out over the oases area, until the issue was resolved at the Battle of Romani in August 1916 when British Empire forces won a decisive victory.
326,026	Results May Vary	1,171,509,226	null	[ "2003 albums", "Albums produced by Fred Durst", "Albums produced by Rick Rubin", "Albums produced by Terry Date", "Alternative rock albums by American artists", "Flip Records (1994) albums", "Limp Bizkit albums", "Rap rock albums by American artists" ]	Results May Vary is the fourth studio album by American rap rock band Limp Bizkit, released on September 23, 2003, through Flip and Interscope Records. It is the band's only release under the sole-leadership of vocalist Fred Durst after the temporary departure of guitarist Wes Borland, who left in 2001. Guitarist Mike Smith of Snot was brought in to replace Borland, although his time with the band was brief, and Durst along with a number of guests ended up handling the majority of the album's guitar work. The album differed from Limp Bizkit's established sound up until that point; although the album still featured elements of hip hop and nu metal, it also branched out into other musical styles, including alternative rock, acoustic, funk, jazz, and emo. It also featured less rapping and more introspective lyrics related to heartbreak, bullying, and self-pity. An alleged affair with Britney Spears by Durst (denied by Spears) during collaborating sessions for her 2003 album In the Zone and resulting rejection by Spears was also cited as an inspiration for some of the album's material. To promote the album, music videos featuring high-profile actors were created for "Eat You Alive" and a cover of The Who's "Behind Blue Eyes"; the former featuring Thora Birch and Bill Paxton and the latter featuring Halle Berry. Upon its release, Results May Vary peaked at number 3 on the US Billboard 200, selling at least 325,000 copies in its first week of sales. While the album still eventually went platinum, both the debut and lifetime sales were still well below prior albums Significant Other (1999) and Chocolate Starfish and the Hot Dog Flavored Water (2000). Results May Vary sold at least 1.3 million copies in the United States, and received mainly negative critical reception as well. Results May Vary was Limp Bizkit's last studio album released before they went on hiatus for three years, starting from 2006 to 2009. ## Background and recording In October 2001, Fred Durst posted on the band's website: "Limp Bizkit and Wes Borland have amicably decided to part ways. Both Limp Bizkit and Borland will continue to pursue their respective musical careers. Both wish each other the best of luck in all future endeavors." Borland explained why he left Limp Bizkit; he said: "I could have probably gone on and still played the part of the guitar player of Limp Bizkit, but musically I was kind of bored. If I was to continue, it would have been about the money and not about the true music, and I don't want to lie to myself, or to them or to fans of Limp Bizkit." According to Durst, Limp Bizkit would "comb the world for the illest guitar player known to man" to replace Borland. After holding a nationwide audition for a new guitarist, "Put Your Guitar Where Your Mouth Is", the band recorded with Snot guitarist Mike Smith. "Mike brought in a breath of fresh air," Durst said. "Creatively, it fit like a glove. It made life easier and more positive. It made us look forward to getting together as a band so much more. The positive effect he had on me just made the whole experience of Limp Bizkit feel like a brand-new entity." Before Smith replaced Borland, Durst originally attempted to write and play a great deal of the guitar tracks before resorting to hire session musician; Elvis Baskette to help with writing and recording the majority of the album. Jon Wiederhorn of MTV wrote, "Limp Bizkit jammed with four finalists after their much-publicized guitarist audition tour, but now it looks like Fred Durst might be taking a cue from his Puddle of Mudd pal Wes Scantlin and handling both vocal and guitar duties himself." After a later falling-out with Smith, Durst told a fansite: "We are the type of people that stay true to our family and our instincts and at any moment will act on intuition as a whole. Mike wasn't the guy. We had fun playing with him but always knew, in the back of our minds, that he wasn't where we needed him to be mentally." Limp Bizkit scrapped many of Smith's sessions, recording another album that was also scrapped. Before the introduction of Results May Vary's track listing, Page Hamilton of Helmet and Rivers Cuomo of Weezer recorded songs with Limp Bizkit for the album; Al Jourgensen of Ministry also joined the band in the studio. The contributions of all three were omitted from the finished album for unknown reasons. Bubba Sparxxx joined Durst in a Los Angeles studio, but his contributions also did not make the album. Durst wrote over 30 songs with Limp Bizkit drummer John Otto and the band's bassist, Sam Rivers. During production of Results May Vary, Durst listened to the Cure, Patsy Cline, Mazzy Star and classical music. ### Title During production, the album's title changed from Bipolar to Panty Sniffer, and then to Results May Vary. Other working titles were Less Is More, Fetus More, Surrender and The Search for Teddy Swoes. The finished product assembled songs from a number of sessions. On August 20, 2003, Fred Durst posted on the Limp Bizkit website: "The album title is Results May Vary. Like a prescription drug, each persons reaction to the ingredients will be different." ## Music and lyrics Results May Vary was recorded under the leadership of Durst, who influenced a direction differing from Limp Bizkit's established sound. Although the album features elements of nu metal, rap metal and rap rock, it is noted for music experimenting with other genres: psychedelia, alternative rock, hard rock, jazz, acoustic and funk. Results May Vary, more melodic than previous Limp Bizkit albums, has been compared to John Mayer, Bon Jovi, Primus, Linkin Park, Staind and Jane's Addiction (including the Jane's Addiction's album Nothing's Shocking). With a change in the band's sound, Results May Vary has less rapping, more singing and more melody (including power ballads) than previous Limp Bizkit albums. The Observer called the album Limp Bizkit's "safest, most pedestrian-sounding record yet", and Joe D'Angelo of MTV described the album as the band's "most personal album by far". According to D'Angelo, a third of the album's content shows Durst "having actual feelings other than rage, angst and conceit under his omnipresent ball cap." Durst described Results May Vary as "more sad, more deep, drone-y", and the album demonstrates his "milder, more sensitive streak". Although the songs on Results May Vary are emotional and expressive, screaming is largely absent from most of the songs. Durst's controversy with Britney Spears provided lyrical inspiration for Results May Vary. There were rumors that Durst and Spears were in a relationship. Durst wrote three songs for Spears' 2003 album In the Zone. Durst and Spears worked on those songs in a studio. After Spears denied the relationship, Durst refused to allow those three songs to appear on Spears' 2003 album In the Zone. Results May Vary features a cover of The Who's "Behind Blue Eyes" with a Speak & Spell during the song's bridge. "Gimme the Mic" includes lyrics from the Beastie Boys' "Pass the Mic" and Eric B. & Rakim's "Microphone Fiend", and "Let Me Down" samples Steve Miller's "Take the Money and Run". "Head for the Barricade" borrows from the song "Stick 'Em" by the Fat Boys. "Phenomenon" borrows the line, "Once again back it's the incredible", from "Bring the Noise" by Public Enemy. The album demonstrates Limp Bizkit's gloomy side, with more-serious, less-confident lyrics than previous songs. Lyrical topics include bullying, Durst's past, self-pity, betrayal, childhood pain, heartbreak, feeling misunderstood, love and Durst's views on MTV and radio. About "Down Another Day", Joe D'Angelo of MTV found it difficult to believe that lyrics that were similar to Mayer's could come from Durst, whom, according to D'Angelo, had recently "likened himself to a chainsaw and threatened to skin your ass raw". "Eat You Alive" was reportedly about Britney Spears (rumored to be involved with Durst) or Angelina Jolie (whom Durst admired). According to Durst, "The scream in 'Eat You Alive' is like an animalistic, sexual, crazy, primitive roar", and the desire which came with this behavior. Durst claimed that "Just Drop Dead" was not (as had been speculated) about Britney Spears, but was inspired by his experience with her and other women. Also, Durst said that "Just Drop Dead" is "about a girl who acts like a whore". According to Durst, "'Underneath the Gun' is about suicide and the struggle you can have when ending your life becomes an option". ## Commercial performance ### Promotion Durst filmed music videos for "Eat You Alive" and "Behind Blue Eyes" featuring Thora Birch and Halle Berry, respectively. The video for "Eat You Alive" appeared on MTV before Results May Vary was released, and the album was featured on Total Request Live. Limp Bizkit were going to record a music video for Results May Vary's song "Build a Bridge". However, no music video for "Build a Bridge" was recorded. Limp Bizkit performed "Crack Addict" and "Rollin'" during WrestleMania XIX with guitarists Mike Smith and Brian Welch, and "Crack Addict" was played on television commercials for the event. Although "Crack Addict" was the planned first single from Results May Vary, the song was omitted from the album. Released on September 23, 2003, Results May Vary peaked at number three on the Billboard 200 with sales of at least 325,000 copies in its first week of being released, ending Limp Bizkit's number-one streak on the chart. This would also be Limp Bizkit's 3rd and final album to enter the Top 10 of the Billboard 200. In three weeks of being released, the album had sold at least 500,000 copies. After thirteen weeks, Results May Vary sold at least 1,000,000 copies. Results May Vary was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) on June 3, 2008 and was certified gold by the British Phonographic Industry (BPI) on October 10, 2003. Results May Vary had sales of 1,337,356 copies in the United States. The album's cover of "Behind Blue Eyes" peaked at number 71 on the Billboard Hot 100, peaked at number 25 on the Mainstream Top 40 chart, and was certified gold by the RIAA on January 26, 2005. "Eat You Alive" peaked at number 16 on the Mainstream Rock chart and number 20 on the Modern Rock Tracks chart, and "Almost Over" peaked at number 33 on the Mainstream Rock chart, despite not receiving a single release. Results May Vary had far less mainstream success than previous Limp Bizkit albums such as Significant Other and Chocolate Starfish and the Hot Dog Flavored Water. Numerous media outlets described the reception of the album as a possible "career killer" for Durst and the band. ### Touring After the release of Results May Vary, Limp Bizkit joined the band Korn on a tour called the Back 2 Basics Tour. The Back 2 Basics Tour, which was sponsored by Xbox, was scheduled for November 2003. However, during a concert at New York's Hammerstein Ballroom, Durst was hit by an object thrown from the crowd. Durst finished the remaining two songs of Limp Bizkit's set and after the concert, Durst had seven stitches administered by a private physician. During the end of 2003, Limp Bizkit cancelled their tour dates in Southeast Asia after there was a United States Department of State warning of increased security threats abroad. Limp Bizkit planned to play shows in Bali, Bangkok and Manila. However, after a terrorist bombing in Istanbul, Turkey occurred, the United States Department of State issued a travel advisory, and Limp Bizkit cancelled the shows in Southeast Asia. Although they did not perform in Southeast Asia, Limp Bizkit did perform in South Korea and Japan. In January 2004, there were rumors that Limp Bizkit were going to tour with the rock band Kiss, although the band was unable to, citing scheduling conflicts. Wes Borland later rejoined the band in the Spring of 2004, but rumors of tensions arising within the band were still present as American tour dates proved to be unprofitable; leading the band to take an extended European tour through most of 2004. ## Critical reception Critical reception of Results May Vary was mainly negative. The album holds a score of 33 out of 100 on Metacritic, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews". This is the third lowest score on Metacritic, above The Bloodhound Gang's Hefty Fine and Kevin Federline's album Playing with Fire. According to AllMusic reviewer Stephen Thomas Erlewine, "the music has no melody, hooks, or energy, [and] all attention is focused on the clown jumping up and down and screaming in front, and long before the record is over, you're left wondering, how the hell did he ever get to put this mess out?". In a review of Limp Bizkit's Greatest Hitz compilation, Erlewine called "Behind Blue Eyes" the worst in the band's "never-ending series of embarrassing covers". Caroline Sullivan of The Guardian wrote, "Durst's problems are ever-present - and does anybody still care?". Stylus criticized Results May Vary, calling it "an album that can only be described as abysmal". Rob O'Connor of Yahoo! Launch also criticized Results May Vary: "No, Fred, the results don't vary. The results are consistent throughout your new album—consistently crappy." Kitty Empire of The Guardian wrote, "Limp Bizkit have decided to expose their tender side. They really shouldn't have bothered [...] having seen Limp Bizkit's 'other side', you want the old, unapologetic, meathead version back". Scott Mervis of the Pittsburgh Post-Gazette also criticized Results May Vary: "Results May Vary has a few highlights — 'Almost Over' (very Everlast) and 'Phenomenon' (very Primus) — but way too few to justify all the time and energy spent". Although Results May Vary received primarily negative reviews, according to Spin, the album "isn't all that horrible". Some others were not so negative towards Results May Vary. Tom Day of MusicOMH wrote, "Ultimately, this album is neither crap nor blindingly good, and results do indeed vary". The Sun-Sentinel gave Results May Vary a positive review, calling Lethal's work "phenomenal", and praising "Behind Blue Eyes" and the soft-to-heavy progression of "Build a Bridge". Steve Appleford of the Chicago Tribune gave Results May Vary a mixed review, writing: "The music achieves some surprising sophistication with new textures both acoustic and electronic. Durst also is not so obnoxious nearly so often; at the same time, his songs too often lack the harsh melodic spark that once turned his ravings into pop hits". ## Track listing Notes - Red Light-Green Light ends at 3:54, while Behind Blue Eyes ends at 4:26. ## Personnel Limp Bizkit - DJ Lethal – turntables, keyboards, samples, programming, sound development - Fred Durst – vocals, concept, art direction, cover design, guitar, photography, producer, composer, lyrics - John Otto – drums, percussion, beats - Sam Rivers – bass, guitar - Mike Smith – guitar Tracks 1-3, 14 Artwork - Cory Durst – photography - Jim Marshall – photography Composers and additional musicians - Michael "Elvis" Baskette – guitar Tracks 4-13 - Snoop Dogg – vocals on "Red Light–Green Light", lyrics - Randy Pereira – guitar on "Behind Blue Eyes" - Arthur Baker – composer - Roger Ball – composer - Eric Barrier – composer - Molly Duncan – composer - William Griffin – composer - Prince Markie Dee – composer - John Robie – composer - Pete Townshend – composer - Ellis Williams – composer Production and assistance - J.D. Andrew – assistant - Michael "Elvis" Baskette – engineer - Billy Bowers – engineer - Jason Carson – engineer - Sergio Chavez – assistant - Jason Dale – engineer - Terry Date – engineer, producer - Cory Durst – photography - Neal Ferrazzani – assistant - Dave Holdredge – digital editing, engineer - Brian Humphrey – assistant - Jun Ishizeki – assistant - Aaron Lepley – assistant - Stephen Marcussen – mastering - John Morrical – assistant - Brendan O'Brien – mixing - Zack Odom – assistant - Michael Patterson – mixing - Steve Robillard – assistant - Rick Rubin – producer - Andrew Scheps – engineer - Jordan Schur – executive producer - Jason Spears – assistant - Mark Valentine – assistant - Stewart Whitmore – digital editing - Ulrich Wild – engineer ## Charts ### Weekly charts ### Year-end charts ## Certifications
62,261,723	Grahame Farr	1,105,435,172	British maritime historian	[ "1912 births", "1983 deaths", "British Army personnel of World War II", "British maritime historians", "People from Clifton, Bristol", "Royal Army Service Corps officers" ]	Grahame Edgar Farr (27 October 1912 – 22 November 1983) was a maritime historian, specialising in the history of ships and shipping in the south-west of England from the eighteenth century onwards. He also wrote about the history of the lifeboat. Farr was born, educated, lived and worked in Bristol; his interest in ships and shipping came from his father, and his upbringing in Bristol. Farr worked for a printing firm; his research and writing therefore had to be conducted in his spare time. Farr wrote many books on maritime history; the most notable being Records of Bristol Ships, 1800-1838; Somerset Harbours, including the Port of Bristol; and West Country passenger steamers. He archives are held by the National Maritime Museum and the Friends of Purton. ## Personal life Farr was born in Clifton, Bristol on 27 October 1912. His father was Edgar James Farr, who worked for the Bristol Steam Navigation Company for 50 years, starting as an office boy and finishing as an accountant. The Western Daily Press described Edgar Farr as "A well-known figure in Bristol shipping circles". Farr's interest in ships and shipping came from his father, and his upbringing in Bristol. Farr was educated in his hometown at Clifton College. Prior to the Second World War, Farr married a governess named Elsie. Their son Michael was born in Bristol on 18 November 1938. Before Michael's first birthday, Farr enlisted in the British army. While Farr served in the military, his wife and son lived in a house near the Avonmouth Docks in Bristol. To protect themselves when Germans bombed their town, Elsie and Michael stayed in a steel shelter in their dining room. In 1942, Elsie and Michael moved to a cottage owned by her employers in the village of Temple Cloud, where there was less likelihood of being bombed. In 1945, they visited family in Scotland. The family—Grahame, Elsie, and Michael—returned to their home in Bristol in July 1945. ## Career On leaving Clifton College, Farr worked for a printing firm in Bristol, where he stayed for the whole of his professional life, apart from his war service. Farr's research and writing had to be conducted in his spare time. During the Second World War, Farr served with the Royal Army Service Corps (RASC), being made Second Lieutenant on 23 November 1940. By 1944 he was a War Substantive Lieutenant. His war service took him to Kenya, Madagascar and Ceylon. Farr was an early member of the Bristol Shiplovers Society (founded in 1931); he became its Honorary Secretary before the war. An objective of the society was to "collect data, past and present, of ships and sailors, chiefly relating to the Port of Bristol. These facts are entered into the log-books of the society and due course recorded in the archives of Bristol". During the war, his father, Edgar Farr, acted as secretary to Bristol Shiplovers Society on his son's behalf. Farr also became a member of the Society for Nautical Research, continuing as a member for nearly 50 years. His earliest article for the Society's journal, The Mariner's Mirror, was about Brunel's Great Western, built in Bristol. It was published in 1938. Farr's earliest book was The Somersetshire Life-Boats (1935). Following the war, Farr wrote many books on maritime history, specialising in the history of ships and shipping in the West Country from the eighteenth century onwards. He wrote several monographs for the National Maritime Museum. Farr also contributed articles to journals, including The Mariner's Mirror. He was the first maritime historian to make intensive use of the Statutory Registers of Merchant Ships. Farr was the archivist of the Lifeboat Enthusiasts' Society. The Society was formed in 1964, with the active co-operation of the Royal National Lifeboat Institution, "to facilitate communication between persons interested in the technical and historical aspects of life-boat work". Farr was also the honorary editor of the International Lifeboat Journal between 1974 and 1983. ## Death and legacy Farr died on 22 November 1983, after a long struggle against deteriorating health and eyesight. His obituary in The Mariner's Mirror described him as "a remarkable man, assiduous and painstaking in his research, and yet ever-ready to share his knowledge with others". > A marine historian of distinction and authority, he wrote a number of books on wrecks and rescue in the West Country as well as compiling papers on early classes of lifeboats and amassing detailed aids to lifeboat history. His meticulous work provided invaluable sources of reference for other researchers, his contribution to the understanding of lifeboat history being both unique and generous. ## Works Works by Farr are variously catalogued under the names Grahame Edgar Farr, Grahame E. Farr, Grahame Farr, and G. E. Farr. The following lists are largely derived from the catalogue of the British Library. ### Wreck and rescue series - Wreck and rescue round the Cornish coast. 1. The Story of the north coast Lifeboats. (With Cyril Noall.) Truro: D. Bradford Barton, 1964. - Wreck and rescue round the Cornish coast. 2. The Story of the Land's End lifeboats. (With Cyril Noall.) Truro: D. Bradford Barton, 1965. - Wreck and rescue round the Cornish coast. 3. The Story of the south coast lifeboats. (With Cyril Noall.) Truro: D. Bradford Barton, 1965. - Wreck and rescue in the Bristol Channel. 1. The Story of the English Lifeboats. Truro: D. Bradford Barton, 1966. - Wreck and rescue in the Bristol Channel. 2. The story of the Welsh lifeboats. Truro: D. Bradford Barton, 1967. - Wreck and rescue on the coast of Devon. The Story of the South Devon Lifeboats. Truro: D. Bradford Barton, 1968. - Wreck and rescue on the Dorset coast. The story of the Dorset lifeboats. Truro: D. Bradford Barton, 1971. ### Papers on life-boat history - No. 1: William Plenty's life boats, 1817-29: and James and Edward Pellew Plenty's life boat model, 1851. Portishead, 1975. - No. 2: George Palmer's life-boats, 1828-47: with allied types and variants. Portishead, 1975. - No. 3: Life-boats of the Shipwrecked Fishermen and Mariners' Royal Benevolent Society, 1851-4. Portishead, 1976. - No. 4: The tubular life-boats, 1850-1939. Portishead, 1977. - No. 5: The steam life-boats: with notes on earlier projects, and overseas steam life-boats. Portishead, 1981. - No. 6: The Lincolnshire Coast Shipwreck Association 1827-1864. Portishead, 1981. ### Aids to life-boat history - No. 1: Hand-list of R.N.L.I. official numbers: and operational numbers. Portishead, 1978. 5th edition, 1993. - No. 2: British life-boat stations: a historical and geographical list. Portishead, 1979. 4th edition, 1993. ### Maritime monographs and reports - No. 20: The ship registers of the Port of Hayle, 1864-1882. Greenwich: National Maritime Museum, 1975. - No. 22: Shipbuilding in North Devon: containing a list of the vessels known to have been built on the North Devon coast and rivers, with an introduction, notes on the builders, appendices, tables and a map. Greenwich: National Maritime Museum, 1976. ### Other books - The Somersetshire Life-Boats. A brief history of rescue work on the Somersetshire coast. Bristol, 1935. - Records of Bristol Ships, 1800-1838. Vessels over 150 tons. Bristol, 1950. Bristol, 1985 edition. - Somerset Harbours, including the Port of Bristol. London, 1954. - Chepstow Ships. Chepstow, 1954. - West Country Passenger Steamers. London, 1956. Second edition, 1967. - The Bristol Shiplovers' Society, 1931-1956. Bristol, 1957. - The Steamship Great Western: the first Atlantic liner. Bristol, 1963. Bristol, 1974 edition. - The Steamship Great Britain. Bristol, 1965. - West Country passenger steamers. Second edition. Prescot, 1967. - Cornish shipwrecks. (With Cyril Noall.) Truro, 1969. - Ships and Harbours of Exmoor (Microstudy). Dulverton, 1970. Second edition, 1974. - Bristol shipbuilding in the nineteenth century. Bristol, 1971. Paperback, 1996. - Penlee Lifeboat: History of the Penlee and Penzance Branch of the R.N.L.I. (With John Corin.) Penzance, 1983. ## Archives National Maritime Museum holds Farr's card index system for ships entering the Bristol Channel (between Milford, Gloucester and the Scilly Isles). Information in the cards ‘include the name of the vessel; port of registry and date which includes ports UK wide; an abbreviation description of the vessel; dimensions; tonnage; builders; engines; the first owners and if any changes were made to the vessel’. The Friends of Purton acquired Farr's photographic collection in 2007. Started in the 1930s, the collection consists of several thousand black and white images of local coasters, lighters, paddle steamers, schooners, trows and related subjects. The Exmoor Society's archives include extensive material relating to the commissioning and publication of Farr's microstudy on the ‘’Ships and Harbours of Exmoor’’ (1970).
9,724,186	Marcus Annius Verus Caesar	1,155,553,973	Caesar of the Roman Empire (c.162-169)	[ "160s births", "169 deaths", "2nd-century Romans", "Annii", "Caesars (heirs apparent)", "Deaths from surgical complications", "Heirs apparent who never acceded", "Nerva–Antonine dynasty", "Royalty who died as children", "Sons of Roman emperors" ]	Marcus Annius Verus Caesar (born 162 or 163 – 10 September 169) was a son of Roman Emperor Marcus Aurelius and Empress Faustina the Younger. Annius was made caesar on 12 October 166 AD, alongside his brother Commodus, designating them co-heirs of the Roman Empire. Annius died on 10 September 169, at age seven, due to complications from a surgery to remove a tumor from under his ear. His death left Commodus as the sole heir. ## Life Marcus Annius Verus was born in late 162 or 163 AD, the son of Marcus Aurelius and Faustina the Younger. He was given the name of Marcus Annius Verus because it was the original name of his father, Marcus Aurelius. On 12 October 166 AD, during a triumph celebrating the victory of the Romans in the Parthian War of Lucius Verus, Annius and his elder brother Commodus were both made caesars, designating them as co-heirs to the Roman Empire. At the time, Annius was three, and Commodus was five. This was the first time such an explicit declaration of heirship had been made at such a young age, and showed a marked shift from the traditional cursus honorum, in which a presumed heir would be gradually raised through offices of increasing importance, in order to learn the skills of all positions, to a new system of imperial succession, wherein dynastic hereditary descent was the path to the throne, with heirs being instructed in how to be an emperor. Annius died on 10 September 169 AD, at seven years of age, due to complications in removing a tumor from under his ear. This left Commodus as the sole heir. His father, Marcus Aurelius, mourned his death for just five days, while still continuing public work. Aurelius argued that because the games of Jupiter Optimus Maximus were ongoing, he should not interrupt them with his mourning. His lack of mourning was likely influenced by his Stoic philosophy, which taught of the dangers of emotion, and Roman cultural norms which treated hysterical grief at the loss of loved ones as unmanly and unnatural. Aurelius ordered statues to be made in his honor, and a golden image of him to be carried during the procession of the games. Aurelius also had his name inserted into the Carmen Saliare, the ritual songs sung by the Salii, a group of 12 priests. ## Family Annius Verus was the son of Marcus Aurelius and Faustina the Younger. Annius was the younger brother of, in order of birth: Domitia Faustina, Titus Aurelius Antoninus, Titus Aelius Aurelius, Annia Aurelia Galeria Lucilla, Annia Galeria Aurelia Faustina, Titus Aelius Antoninus, an unnamed son, Annia Aurelia Fadilla, Annia Cornificia Faustina Minor, Titus Aurelius Fulvus Antoninus and Lucius Aurelius Commodus Antoninus (Commodus). Annius was the older brother of Hadrianus and Vibia Aurelia Sabina.
3,308,056	4th Armoured Brigade (Australia)	1,106,153,462	1943-1946 combat formation of the Australian Army	[ "1946 disestablishments in Australia", "Armoured brigades of Australia", "Military units and formations disestablished in 1946", "Military units and formations established in 1943" ]	The 4th Armoured Brigade was an armoured formation of the Australian Army established during the Second World War. It was formed in February 1943 to provide armoured support for infantry units operating in the South West Pacific Area. Its composition varied over time, but usually comprised several armoured regiments equipped with Matilda II or M3 Grant tanks as well as some support units. The brigade's main role throughout its existence was to provide a pool of armoured units and sub-units that could be deployed to augment infantry forces. It was also responsible for developing specialised variants of armoured vehicles. Elements of the 4th Armoured Brigade were detached to support most of the Australian Army's major operations from 1943 until the end of the war, and from September 1944 it was the Army's only armoured brigade. The formation was disbanded, after the war, in February 1946. ## History ### Establishment The 4th Armoured Brigade was established in February 1943 as part of a reorganisation of the Australian Army's armoured units. As there was no longer any threat of Japanese forces invading Australia, the 2nd Armoured Division was disbanded to free up manpower for other purposes. However, it was decided to retain the headquarters of that division's 6th Armoured Brigade to command armoured units that were intended to take part in offensive operations in New Guinea and other locations in the South West Pacific. This specialised formation was designated the 4th Armoured Brigade. The need for armoured support of infantry forces had been demonstrated by the Army's experiences in the New Guinea Campaign during 1942 and early 1943. The main role of the 4th Armoured Brigade was to provide detachments of tanks to support infantry units. As it was not practical or necessary to deploy large armoured units in the jungle terrain common across the South West Pacific, the brigade was organised into several self-supporting regimental groups. These regimental groups could in turn provide sub-units with the necessary logistics support to form the armoured component of other units during combat operations. This held in practice; during combat deployments regiments from the 4th Armoured Brigade were attached to infantry divisions or brigades, and their squadrons and troops generally operated independently as part of combined arms forces. Upon formation, the main units of the 4th Armoured Brigade were the 1st Army Tank Battalion, 2/6th Armoured Regiment and 2/9th Armoured Regiment. The 1st Army Tank Battalion was equipped with Matilda II infantry tanks and had previously formed part of the 3rd Army Tank Brigade. The 2/6th Armoured Regiment had formed part of the 1st Armoured Division until August 1942 when it and its M3 Stuart light tanks were transferred to New Guinea. Elements of the regiment saw combat in the Battle of Buna–Gona, where the Stuart tanks were too lightly armoured to be effective. The 2/9th Armoured Regiment was transferred from the 3rd Armoured Division and equipped with M3 Grant medium tanks. The brigade also had several supporting engineer, medical, signals and services units. As the brigade was not intended to operate as a single unit, it lacked the armoured reconnaissance, artillery, combat engineer and infantry units which were standard elements of other Australian Army armoured brigades. The 4th Armoured Brigade's commander from its establishment until its disbandment was Brigadier Denzil Macarthur-Onslow. ### Combat operations The units of the 4th Armoured Brigade were concentrated at Singleton, New South Wales, on 10 March 1943. As of April that year, the brigade formed part of the Land Headquarters Reserve. The 1st Army Tank Battalion was subsequently transferred to Caboolture in southern Queensland and reorganised as a self-supporting battalion group while remaining part of the 4th Armoured Brigade. The unit was redesignated the 1st Tank Battalion on 10 June 1943, and in August that year was shipped to Milne Bay in New Guinea. It subsequently supported the 9th Division during the Landing at Lae and Huon Peninsula campaign. The 1st Tank Battalion returned to Australia in June 1944 and was redesignated again to become the 1st Armoured Regiment. In the meantime the 2/4th Armoured Regiment was added to the 4th Armoured Brigade in October 1943; this unit had previously formed part of the 3rd Armoured Division and was re-equipped with Matilda II tanks. Also in October 1943, a party from the 4th Armoured Brigade armed with pistols was sent to Grovely Camp near Brisbane to put down a riot by soldiers being held under detention there, but did not need to use force. During March 1944 the 2/6th Armoured Regiment was transferred to the 1st Armoured Brigade Group, and the 2/5th Armoured Regiment was transferred from that formation to the 4th Armoured Brigade. By mid-1944 the 4th Armoured Brigade was located in Southport, Queensland. As of 1 June, the brigade had a strength of 4,719 men and was scheduled to be ready for offensive operations by October that year. During June it also established a training area at Nerang in Queensland, where armoured units could practice operating in tropical conditions. In September 1944 the brigade gained the 2/1st Armoured Brigade Reconnaissance Squadron when the 1st Armoured Brigade Group was disbanded; this unit was reorganised to become the Armoured Squadron (Special Equipment) in January 1945. The 2/6th Armoured Regiment was also reassigned to the 4th Armoured Brigade, but was stationed in the Sydney area. Following the disbandment of the 1st Armoured Brigade Group the 4th Armoured Brigade was the last remaining armoured brigade in the Australian Army. The 4th Armoured Brigade's structure continued to change during late 1944 and 1945. The 2/1st Armoured Amphibious Squadron was authorised to be raised as part of the brigade in October 1944, but not established until May the next year. This squadron was to operate troop-carrying Landing Vehicles Tracked, but they did not arrive in time for the unit to see action before the end of the war. In January 1945 the 2/6th Armoured Regiment was transferred to the direct control of Land Headquarters, and moved to Puckapunyal in Victoria the next month. This change proved short-lived though, as the 2/6th Armoured Regiment rejoined the 4th Armoured Brigade at Southport during July; B Squadron of this regiment had been transferred to the brigade in April ahead of the remainder of the regiment moving from Victoria to Queensland. One of the 4th Armoured Brigade's regimental groups supported Australian Army offensive operations in New Guinea and Bougainville during 1944 and 1945. The 2/4th Armoured Regiment was transferred to New Guinea in August 1944, and came under the command of the First Australian Army. From January 1945 until the end of the war, C Squadron of the 2/4th Armoured Regiment supported the 6th Division during the Aitape–Wewak campaign. The regimental headquarters and two other squadrons took part in the Bougainville Campaign from October 1944 until the end of the war as part of II Corps. During 1945 two 4th Armoured Brigade regimental groups saw action in the Borneo campaign. C Squadron of the 2/9th Armoured Regiment was attached to the 26th Brigade Group during the invasion of Tarakan in May 1945. The remainder of this regiment subsequently supported the 9th Division during the early stages of the Battle of North Borneo from 10 June. The 1st Armoured Regiment and Armoured Squadron (Special Equipment) were attached to the 7th Division, and took part in the Battle of Balikpapan from 1 July. ### Trials and development work Along with its combat role, the 4th Armoured Brigade was responsible for developing and deploying specialised types of tanks. Macarthur-Onslow played an important role in guiding these processes, including by helping his subordinates to overcome institutional barriers. Variants of the Matilda II trialled or developed by the brigade included the "Frog" flame throwing tank, Matilda dozer and the bomb-throwing Matilda Hedgehog. The 2/5th Armoured Regiment also trialled a bulldozer variant of the Grant in 1945. The Frog and Matilda dozer were used in combat by the Armoured Squadron (Special Equipment) during the Borneo Campaign. The 2/4th Armoured Regiment was issued six Matilda Hedgehogs, but they did not arrive in Bougainville until after the end of the war. The 4th Armoured Brigade also trialled modifications to the Matilda II and Grant that sought to waterproof the tanks so they could travel through rivers and coastal waters. As well as trialling new tank variants, the Brigade developed an ammunition and fuel trailer which could be towed by Matilda II tanks. These trailers were used in combat zones by the 2/4th and 2/9th Armoured Regiments. During 1944 the 4th Armoured Brigade provided crews for comparative trials of the American M4 Sherman and British Churchill tank in New Guinea conditions that were conducted by the Australian Army in response to a request from the British War Office. Macarthur-Onslow proposed including other tanks in these trials, including a British Cromwell that had been shipped to Australia in 1943, but this did not occur. Before the tanks were sent to New Guinea, the 4th Armoured Brigade trialled two Sherman tanks alongside Grants and Matilda IIs in Queensland during mid-1944. The Churchills and Shermans were subsequently trialled in the Madang region of New Guinea; the Churchill proved better suited to jungle conditions. The Australian Army later ordered 510 Churchills, but none were delivered before the end of the war. ### Disbandment By July 1945 the only elements of the 4th Armoured Brigade in Australia were the unit's headquarters, the 2/5th and 2/6th Armoured Regiments and the 2/1st Armoured Amphibious Squadron. The two regiments were preparing for offensive operations, including a planned but later cancelled invasion of Java, and did not leave Australia. Most of the 4th Armoured Brigade's units were rapidly disbanded following the war. The 2/1st Armoured Amphibious Squadron was dissolved in August 1945, and the Armoured Squadron (Special Equipment) followed in October that year. The 4th Armoured Brigade headquarters and 2/5th and 2/6th Armoured Regiments were disbanded in February 1946, and the 2/9th Armoured Regiment during the early part of the year. Only the 1st Armoured Regiment remained an active unit, and returned to its pre-war designation of the 1st Royal New South Wales Lancers in 1949. Volunteers from the 4th Armoured Brigade manned the 1st Armoured Car Squadron, which was established in 1946 for service with the British Commonwealth Occupation Force in Japan; in 1949 this squadron was expanded to form the 1st Armoured Regiment, which remains an active part of the Australian Army. A memorial to the 4th Armoured Brigade was dedicated at Caboolture in 1993. ## See also - Australian armoured units of World War II - Tanks in the Australian Army ## Works consulted [Armoured brigades of Australia](Category:Armoured_brigades_of_Australia "wikilink") [Military units and formations established in 1943](Category:Military_units_and_formations_established_in_1943 "wikilink") [Military units and formations disestablished in 1946](Category:Military_units_and_formations_disestablished_in_1946 "wikilink") [1946 disestablishments in Australia](Category:1946_disestablishments_in_Australia "wikilink")
4,217,073	Operation Trio	1,157,363,390	Axis military operation of World War II	[ "1942 in Bosnia and Herzegovina", "1942 in Yugoslavia", "Anti-partisan operations of World War II", "April 1942 events", "Battles and operations of World War II", "Battles and operations of World War II involving Italy", "Battles involving the Independent State of Croatia", "Battles involving the Yugoslav Partisans", "Battles of World War II involving Chetniks", "Conflicts in 1942", "May 1942 events", "Military operations of World War II involving Germany", "Seven Enemy Offensives", "Yugoslavia in World War II" ]	Operation Trio (Serbo-Croatian Latin: Operacija Trio) was the first large-scale joint German-Italian counter-insurgency operation of World War II conducted in the Independent State of Croatia (NDH), which included modern-day Bosnia and Herzegovina. It was carried out in two phases within eastern Bosnia from 20 April to 13 May 1942, with Ustaše militia and Croatian Home Guard forces taking part on the Axis side. The aim of the operation was to target all insurgents between Sarajevo and the Drina river in eastern Bosnia. These included the communist-led Yugoslav Partisans and Serb nationalist Chetniks. Differentiating between the rank and file of the two insurgent factions was difficult, as even the communist-led insurgent groups consisted mainly of Serb peasants who had little understanding of the political aims of their leaders. Operation Trio consisted of two parts, Trio I and Trio II. Together they comprised one element of the Axis effort known as the Third Enemy Offensive (Serbo-Croatian Latin: Treća neprijateljska ofenziva) in post-war Yugoslav historiography. The joint Italian-Chetnik offensive in Montenegro and eastern Herzegovina formed the other element. The Third Enemy Offensive forms part of the Seven Enemy Offensives framework in Yugoslav historiography. The operation was of limited effectiveness due to several factors, including preemptive action by the Ustaše militia and Italian delays. The area of operations straddled the demarcation line between the German and Italian zones of occupation within the NDH, which led to mutual suspicion and lack of coordination. Both insurgent factions avoided fighting the Axis and NDH forces, instead focusing on fighting each other. After Operation Trio, the Partisan leader Josip Broz Tito, his Supreme Headquarters and the Partisan main force, consisting of the 1st and 2nd Proletarian Brigades, withdrew from their base of operations around Foča. After briefly reorganising around Zelengora mountain south-east of Foča, they moved their operations to western Bosnia for the remainder of 1942. Operation Trio coincided with and contributed to the polarisation of the almost exclusively Serb rebels in eastern Bosnia into two groups: the Serb-chauvinist Chetniks and the multi-ethnic and communist-led Partisans. Encouraged by Chetnik propaganda against Croats and Bosnian Muslims and repelled by the sectarian left-wing policies and actions of the communists, many Serb peasant fighters were swayed to the Chetnik cause. Violent coups occurred against the communist leadership of all but one of the Partisan detachments in eastern Bosnia, and these detachments effectively defected to the Chetniks. Most of the surviving communist fighters from these detachments rejoined the Partisan forces, and many withdrew with Tito to western Bosnia during the Partisan Long March. Within a few weeks of the end of Operation Trio only 600 Partisan fighters were left in eastern Bosnia, comprising the Group of Shock Battalions and the Birač Partisan Detachment. All these forces sought refuge in the Birač region. The Chetnik movement in eastern Bosnia, at best a confederacy of local warlords, was strengthened by mass defections from the Partisans. For a time they ruled large parts of the region, after making accommodations with the Ustaše regime in May and June 1942. ## Background ### Foča Republic During Operation Southeast Croatia, Josip Broz Tito, his Supreme Headquarters and the 1st Proletarian Brigade commanded by Spanish Civil War veteran Konstantin "Koča" Popović, had withdrawn south to Foča, on the boundary between eastern Bosnia and Herzegovina. With the help of Montenegrin Partisans, they established a liberated area around Foča and Goražde. This area, known as the "Foča Republic", was expanded by subsequent military operations. By late March, People's Liberation Councils had been established to govern 10 towns and 92 villages in the liberated area, but communist organisation in the area was limited and of poor quality. ### Insurgent forces At the end of 1941, there were six Partisan detachments in eastern Bosnia, with about 7,300 fighters operating in the Majevica, Ozren, Birač, Romanija, Zvijezda and Kalinovik areas. In January 1942, the Romanija detachment had borne the brunt of Operation Southeast Croatia and had been effectively destroyed. Many Partisan fighters were Serb peasants who took to the forests and mountains to defend their families and villages against the Ustaše; few were ideologically committed to the Partisan cause. The Chetnik forces in eastern Bosnia had not opposed the Axis offensive. Many had withdrawn across the Drina river into the Territory of the Military Commander in Serbia to avoid engagement with German and NDH forces. Both the Partisan Supreme Headquarters and the Partisan General Staff of Bosnia-Herzegovina were based in the area of operations, with Tito's Supreme Headquarters directly controlling the 1st Proletarian Brigade, and the General Staff, commanded by Svetozar Vukmanović-Tempo, controlling the Partisan detachments in East Bosnia under the overall direction of the Supreme Headquarters. In early January 1942, the Partisan Supreme Headquarters decided to permit fighters who were not willing to formally become Partisans to fight alongside Partisan units. These "volunteer detachments" were under the control of the Supreme Headquarters of the renamed People's Liberation Partisan and Volunteer Army of Yugoslavia, and were established from former Chetnik-aligned fighters as the Jahorina, Foča, Vlasenica, Srebrenica and Krajina Volunteer Detachments. The Krajina Volunteer Detachment consisted of refugees from that region who had fled to German-occupied Serbia to escape the Ustaše terror. Volunteer battalions and companies were also placed under the staff of the original Partisan detachments, with many of them absorbed as whole units with the addition of a communist cadre. Some volunteer detachments fought under their own leaders, and all volunteer detachments fought under the Serbian tri-colour flag. In February 1942, Major Jezdimir Dangić and other former Royal Yugoslav Army officers (many of whom had allegiance to the Serbian puppet regime of Milan Nedić and/or Draža Mihailović) entered eastern Bosnia from occupied Serbia, where some of them had withdrawn to avoid Operation Southeast Croatia. They started to re-form Chetnik units in eastern Bosnia and began agitating against the Partisans on a "conservative, Serb-nationalist and anti-Muslim basis". Other Chetnik units crossed into eastern Bosnia from occupied Serbia and attacked the Partisans. They included the "Chetnik Proletarian Shock Brigade", a unit of 200 fighters under Captain Dragoslav Račić, and another group under Captain Milorad Momčilović. The Partisan forces in eastern Bosnia and Herzegovina initially consisted almost entirely of Serb peasants, and this made much of the rank and file of both Partisan and volunteer detachments highly susceptible to pro-Chetnik agitation, accommodations with Chetnik forces in the local area and hostility towards non-Serbs. The Partisan moves towards multi-ethnic recruiting, imposition of extreme left-wing policies and use of terror against "class enemies" made all the Partisan and volunteer detachments vulnerable to such agitation. Chetnik infiltrators were able to join detachments and turn the rank and file against their communist cadres. An example of this occurred in the Majevica Partisan Detachment on 20 February, when the communist staff were massacred by Chetniks at Vukosavci near Lopare. The 2nd Proletarian Brigade was formed at Čajniče on 1 March from Partisan forces that had withdrawn from occupied Serbia after Operation Uzice. In early March the Partisans began collecting the most loyal fighters from each Partisan detachment into "Shock Companies" and established structures for the development of "Shock Battalions" and "Shock Brigades". At the same time, Partisan forces that had been dispersed by Operation Southeast Croatia were threatening the Tuzla-Doboj railway line. In mid-March the 1st East Bosnian Shock Battalion was established at Srednje (outside Sarajevo), and by the end of the month the 2nd East Bosnian Shock Battalion had been established in Drinjača (near Zvornik); it incorporated the remaining 240 fighters of the Majevica Partisan Detachment. The concentration of the most reliable fighters into proletarian brigades, shock battalions and shock companies weakened the integrity of the four remaining Partisan detachments in eastern Bosnia, but enabled the Partisan Supreme Headquarters to concentrate its best forces in mobile units to undertake successful offensive operations against the Chetniks. They captured several towns in March, including Vlasenica and Srebrenica. Partisan operations were threatening the railway network throughout eastern Bosnia, including around Sarajevo, by the end of March. Many Bosnian Chetniks deserted to the Partisans, often joining as complete units under their previous Chetnik commanders. These former Chetnik units became units of the "Volunteer Army", which reached a strength of around 7,000–8,000 fighters by the end of March. Their loyalty and military value to the Partisans was very limited. On 25 March the Partisan General Staff of Serbia advised the Partisan Supreme Headquarters that the Serbian Partisan movement had been "extinguished", largely as a result of Operation Uzice and subsequent operations by the German occupation forces and their Serb collaborators. This was a significant setback for the Partisan cause, as Tito had always considered that a return to Serbia was a necessary ingredient for a successful revolution. ## Planning Planning for Operation Trio and the associated Operation West-Bosnien in the Bosanska Krajina occurred during two Axis conferences in March 1942. During the initial conference at Opatija on 2–3 March, the NDH Chief of the General Staff Vladimir Laxa objected to an Italian proposal to involve the Bosnian and Herzegovinian Chetniks in the planned operations, and with the support of the Germans, this idea was initially shelved. Operation Trio was to be one of a series of counter-insurgency operations planned for eastern Bosnia, Herzegovina, Sandžak, Montenegro, western Bosnia and Lika. Despite this, the only operations that were actually conducted between March and June 1942 were Operation Trio, and a combined Italian-Montenegrin Chetnik offensive in Montenegro and eastern Herzegovina which is also associated with the Third Enemy Offensive in Yugoslav historiography. Detailed planning and orders for Operation Trio were finalised at a conference in Ljubljana on 28–29 March 1942. Laxa, General Mario Roatta (the commander of the Italian Second Army), and General der Artillerie Paul Bader (the commander of German forces in the NDH) negotiated a compromise permitting temporary non-political agreements to be concluded with the Herzegovinian Chetniks, led by Dobroslav Jevđević, but not with any of the Bosnian Chetnik groups, whose leaders were Petar Baćović in the area of Foča and Jezdimir Dangić, who was aligned with the Serb collaborationist Milan Nedić. Significant delays in finalising arrangements for Operation Trio were caused by disagreements regarding where it would commence, who would be in command, the involvement of Chetniks and NDH forces, how to deal with the demarcation line between the German and Italian zones of occupation, and what local authorities would be put in place as localities were cleared of insurgents. The NDH contributed to the mutual suspicion between the Germans and Italians. The Italian demands prevailed, because they were committing larger forces to the operation. The decision was ultimately made to target all insurgents in eastern Bosnia between Sarajevo and the Drina. Throughout the preparation for Operation Trio, the Italians looked for opportunities to cross over the demarcation line and expand their sphere of influence into eastern Bosnia to take advantage of German weakness in the NDH. Bader's final orders for the operation granted several key Italian demands, including military control over civil affairs in the area of operations, fair treatment of the local population, and treating non-resisting Chetniks as prisoners of war. Bader was named tactical commander of the combined forces (known as Kampfgruppe Bader) committed to Operation Trio, but to appease the Italians the force was formally under the overall command of the Italian Second Army, commanded by Roatta. Kampfgruppe Bader consisted of the 718th Infantry Division (the only German division stationed in the NDH at the time), the Italian 22nd Infantry Division, 1st Alpine Division, 5th Alpine Division and 28 NDH battalions. Since 18 February, the 718th Infantry Division had been responsible for an area of operations bounded by the Sava and Bosna in the north, the Drina to the east and the German-Italian demarcation line to the south. Mainly because of lack of transport and firepower, the division had only conducted limited offensive operations against the Partisans between mid-February and mid-April. The original planned start date of 15 April was pushed back when the Italians had problems moving to their start positions and later had trouble providing transport to establish lines of communication across the Adriatic. The operation was rescheduled to 25 April. Prior to the Ljubljana conference, the Ustaše authorities were concerned about negotiations between the German and Italian commanders and Dangić, and were particularly worried that the Germans would permit the Italians and Chetniks to use Sarajevo as a base. On 31 March the commander of the Ustaše Black Legion, Jure Francetić, launched a pre-emptive offensive primarily against Dangić's Chetniks. Francetić captured Vlasenica, Bratunac and Srebrenica, meeting limited resistance from the Partisans, and then scattered the more numerous Chetniks while inflicting significant losses. In early April, Dangić travelled to Belgrade for discussions with representatives of Nedić and Chetnik leaders. He was arrested by the German authorities and sent to a prisoner-of-war camp in occupied Poland. Dangić was replaced by Stevan Botić. On 15 April 1942 the Wehrmacht commander in south-east Europe, Generalfeldmarschall (Field Marshal) Wilhelm List, issued an order forbidding Wehrmacht units to negotiate with any rebel groups. Only Abwehr (military intelligence) and police units were to maintain surveillance of such groups through informants and undercover agents. After several months of increasing tension between the factions struggling for power within the insurgency, the first of the pro-Chetnik coups occurred, in the Ozren Partisan Detachment. It was sparked by the arrest and execution on 18 April of pro-Chetnik agitator Bogdan Jovićić by Vukmanović-Tempo and the newly formed 1st East Bosnian Shock Battalion. Fighting ensued between pro-Chetnik members of the detachment and the Shock Battalion. Vukmanović-Tempo then abandoned the Ozren Partisan Detachment, taking the detachment staff and remaining loyal Partisans with him. ## Operation On 18 April, Bader informed Roatta of the need to take action immediately to relieve the besieged Croatian garrison at Rogatica, and by 20 April was advising his superiors that the joint German-Italian operation had miscarried due to Italian inaction. In the wake of Francetić's offensive, the Germans pre-emptively moved to clear the area north of the demarcation line before the formal start of the operation. This advance towards the Drina from 20 to 30 April, coordinated with NDH forces, was the first phase of Operation Trio (Trio I). The 718th Infantry Division advanced from assembly areas in Sarajevo, Olovo and Tuzla, with the aim of relieving Rogatica and clearing the surrounding area of Partisans. The fighting became very confused, with the Chetniks, who were under attack from the Black Legion, avoiding the German units, who went past them to attack the Partisans. The Partisan main force avoided fighting the Black Legion, instead attacking the Chetniks from the rear while they were engaged against Francetić's troops. The Italian 5th Alpine Division Pusteria utilised Chetnik troops from the Sandžak as auxiliaries during their advance on Čajniče which coincided with the German-NDH advance towards the Drina. Rogatica was relieved without fighting on 27 April, and the combined force reached the Drina three days later. More pro-Chetnik coups occurred in the second half of April. The first was in one of the remaining battalions of the Romanija Partisan Detachment, followed by all three battalions of the Zvijezda Partisan Detachment. The political commissars of every company were killed. By the start of May, coups had also occurred in battalions of the Kalinovik Partisan Detachment and the Foča Volunteer Detachment. On 8–9 May 1942, another pro-Chetnik coup occurred in the recently created Zenica Partisan Detachment, and about 30 communists and their supporters were killed. About 100 remaining Partisan fighters from the Ozren and Zenica detachments were incorporated into the 3rd East Bosnian Shock Battalion. The Italians believed the German-NDH preliminary operation had been designed to avoid the need to involve the Italians in clearing eastern Bosnia, thereby preventing them from expanding their sphere of influence. The second phase of the operation (known as Trio II or "Operation Foča") commenced on 7 May, and was a fairly minor joint operation to capture Foča and Kalinovik, but by then the Partisan Supreme Headquarters and main force had already evacuated Foča, which was captured on 10 May. After Italian complaints and political manoeuvrings, Roatta took over direct control of the operation on that day, but the fighting was already over. Despite their attempts to avoid fighting, the Partisans suffered significant losses. ## Aftermath After clearing the larger towns of the Birač region of Partisans and Chetniks, the Black Legion committed large-scale atrocities against Serbs and Jews in the region, including massacring about 890 people from Vlasenica after raping the women and girls. Along with the three East Bosnian Shock Battalions, the Partisan General Staff of Bosnia-Herzegovina first attempted to cross the Bosna to follow the Partisan Supreme Headquarters and main force to western Bosnia, but instead retreated to Birač, where they joined forces with the Birač Detachment at the end of May. The Birač Partisan Detachment was the only Partisan or volunteer detachment in East Bosnia not to suffer a pro-Chetnik coup in March–May 1942. By June–July 1942, the Partisans in eastern Bosnia had been reduced to a strength of around 600 fighters. In mid-May, Operation Trio was followed by the joint Italian-Chetnik offensive against Partisan detachments within the Italian zone of occupation in eastern Herzegovina and Montenegro, with similar effects: the Partisans lost almost all of the liberated territory in these areas. This offensive is also considered part of the Third Enemy Offensive in Yugoslav historiography. After Operation Trio, NDH forces remained south of the demarcation line between the German and Italian zones of occupation, in spite of protests from the Italians. After Operation Trio and the joint Italian-Chetnik offensive, the Partisans formed three more Proletarian Brigades, consisting mainly of Montenegrins. Operation Trio contributed to the decision of the Partisan Supreme Headquarters to withdraw to western Bosnia in the Partisan Long March, which commenced in late June 1942. While incurring significant casualties fighting the Black Legion, the Chetnik movement in eastern Bosnia benefited from the mass desertion of Partisans and the many pro-Chetnik coups in Partisan and volunteer detachments. Despite their lack of unity, the Chetnik movement thrived in eastern Bosnia for the remainder of 1942 because some Chetnik leaders made accommodations with the Ustaše regime and as many Chetniks and Partisans were unwilling to kill fellow Bosnian Serbs of the opposing faction. ## See also - Resistance during World War II - Anti-partisan operations in World War II
7,118,363	Dan Meyer (first baseman)	1,168,724,759	American baseball player (born 1952)	[ "1952 births", "American expatriate baseball players in Mexico", "Arizona Wildcats baseball players", "Baseball players from Ohio", "Bradenton Explorers players", "Bristol Tigers players", "Detroit Tigers players", "Diablos Rojos del México players", "Evansville Triplets players", "Lakeland Tigers players", "Living people", "Major League Baseball first basemen", "Major League Baseball left fielders", "Major League Baseball third basemen", "Mater Dei High School (Santa Ana, California) alumni", "Nashville Sounds players", "Oakland Athletics players", "San Jose Bees players", "Santa Ana College alumni", "Santa Ana Dons baseball players", "Seattle Mariners players", "Sportspeople from Hamilton, Ohio", "Tacoma Tigers players" ]	Daniel Thomas Meyer (born August 3, 1952) is an American retired professional baseball player whose career spanned 17 seasons, 12 of which were played in Major League Baseball (MLB) with the Detroit Tigers (1974–76), the Seattle Mariners (1977–81), and the Oakland Athletics (1982–85). Meyer primarily played first base, but also played left field, third base, and right field. He batted left-handed while throwing right-handed. During his playing career, Meyer was listed at 5 feet 11 inches (180 cm) and weighed 180 pounds (82 kg). After attending the University of Arizona and Santa Ana College, Meyer was drafted by the Detroit Tigers during the 1972 Major League Baseball draft. He began his career in the minor leagues with the Bristol Tigers. Meyer made his major league debut in 1974. Over his career in the majors, Meyer compiled a .253 batting average with 411 runs scored, 944 hits, 153 doubles, 31 triples, 86 home runs, and 459 runs batted in (RBIs) in 1,118 games played. ## Early life Meyer was born on August 3, 1952, in Hamilton, Ohio. He attended Mater Dei High School in Santa Ana, California. In 1970, Meyer was inducted into the school's baseball hall of fame. Meyer spent one year (1971) at the University of Arizona. In 1972, Meyer enrolled in Santa Ana College where he played second base on the school's baseball team. He was selected by the Detroit Tigers during the fourth round of the 1972 Major League Baseball draft. ## Professional career ### Detroit Tigers In 1972, at the age of 19, Meyer made his professional baseball debut in the Detroit Tigers minor league organization. He was assigned to play with the Bristol Tigers of the rookie-level Appalachian League, where he batted .396 with 93 hits, 11 doubles, six triples, and 14 home runs in 65 games played. On defense, he played second and third base. He led the league in batting average, hits, and total bases (158) that season. During his second professional season in 1973, Meyer was assigned to the Lakeland Tigers of the Class-A Florida State League. With Lakeland, he batted .241 with 114 hits, 17 doubles, six triples, and 10 home runs in 133 games played. In the field, Meyer only played second base. It would later prove to be his last professional season playing at that position. Meyer began the 1974 season in the minor leagues with the Evansville Triplets of the Triple-A American Association. In 129 games with the Triplets, he batted .302 with 75 runs scored, 146 hits, 26 doubles, seven triples, nine home runs, 57 RBIs, and 10 stolen bases. Meyer was a September call-up for the Detroit Tigers that year. On September 14, 1974, he made his MLB debut with the Tigers in a game against the New York Yankees, where in one at bat he went hitless. He registered his first hit on September 20, in a game against the Milwaukee Brewers. Meyer also hit two home runs in that game, the first coming in the third inning off of Brewers' starter Bill Champion, and the second coming off of Brewers' reliever Bill Travers in the seventh inning. In 13 games with Detroit that year, Meyer batted .200 with five runs scored, 10 hits, one double, one triple, three home runs, seven RBIs, and one stolen base. All of his 12 defensive games were played in left field. In 1975, Meyer played his first full season at the major league level. He played left field and first base in the field. During the fifth inning of a game against the Boston Red Sox on April 25, Meyer hit a home run to break up Luis Tiant's perfect game bid. One day after hitting the game-winning home run for the Tigers against the Milwaukee Brewers on May 7, Meyer committed a throwing error that let the deciding Texas Rangers' run score. He batted .236 with 56 runs scored, 111 hits, 17 doubles, three triples, eight home runs, 47 RBIs, and eight stolen bases in 122 games played during the 1975 season. Meyer led the American League that year in plate appearances per strikeout with 18.8, which was over four points more than Mickey Rivers, who was second in the league in that statistic. Meyer played 105 games in 1976 for the Tigers. On the year, he batted .252 with 37 runs scored, 74 hits, eight doubles, four triples, two home runs, 16 RBIs, and 10 stolen bases. His batting average was the highest it would ever be as a Tigers player, despite the decline in at-bats (470 in 1975, 294 in 1976). During the season, Meyer played 47 games in left field, 19 at first base, and one in the designated hitter spot. ### Seattle Mariners During the 1976 Major League Baseball expansion draft, Meyer was selected by the Seattle Mariners, who chose him ninth overall. On June 9, 1977, in a game against the Minnesota Twins, Meyer hit two home runs. In his first season with the Mariners, Meyer batted .273 with 75 runs scored, 159 hits, 24 doubles, four triples, 22 home runs, 90 RBIs, and 11 stolen bases in 159 games played. He led the American League with 159 defensive games at first base. During the Mariners inaugural season, he led the team in hits and RBIs. Meyer also set multiple career highs in 1977 that would stand until the end of his professional tenure in games played, plate appearances (639), at bats (582), runs scored, hits, home runs, RBIs, walks (43), strikeouts (51), on-base percentage (.320), and total bases (257). In 1978, Meyer saw his offensive statistics decline. In 123 games played, he batted .227 with 38 runs scored, 101 hits, 18 doubles, one triple, eight home runs, 56 RBIs, and seven stolen bases. Defensively, he played 121 games at first base and two games in left field. Meyer was moved back to third base during the 1979 season, while also playing limited time at left field and first base. In June, while Meyer was having success at the plate, he attributed it to switching positions. On the season, Meyer batted .278 with 72 runs scored, 146 hits, 21 doubles, seven triples, 20 home runs, 74 RBIs, and 11 stolen bases in 144 games played. During the 1980 season, Meyer batted .275 with 56 runs scored, 146 hits, 25 doubles, six triples, 11 home runs, 71 RBIs, and eight stolen bases in 146 games played for Seattle. Meyer spent his final season as a Mariners player in 1981, batting .262 with 26 runs scored, 66 hits, 10 doubles, one triple, three home runs, and 22 RBIs in 83 games played. Meyer saw his playing time decrease that season due to strained abdominal muscles, which had him on the disabled list from the start of the season to April 15. ### Oakland Athletics and later career In December 1981, the Seattle Mariners traded Meyer to the Oakland Athletics in exchange for Rich Bordi. In his first season with the Athletics, Meyer batted .240 with 28 runs scored, 92 hits, 17 doubles, three triples, eight home runs, and 59 RBIs in 120 games played. With Oakland that year, Meyer was primarily used as a first baseman in the field, but did see limited time in right field, and left field. He was also the designated hitter during 38 games. During the 1983 season, Meyer batted .189 with runs scored, 32 hits, nine doubles, one home run, and 13 RBIs in 69 games played. In 1984, Meyer found himself starting the season in the minor league for the first time in ten years. With the Tacoma Tigers of the Triple-A Pacific Coast League, Meyer batted .293 with 134 hits, 19 doubles, two triples, and seven home runs in 124 games played. Meyer was called up to the majors in September. As a member of the Athletics, Meyer batted .318 with one run scored, seven hits, three doubles, one triple, and four RBIs in 20 games played. After the season, he filed for free agency. On January 15, 1985, Meyer re-signed with the Athletics. With Oakland that year, Meyer went hitless in 12 at-bats. He was released by the team on May 26. For the duration of the 1985 season, Meyer played with the Triple-A Nashville Sounds, who were the minor league affiliates of the Detroit Tigers. With the Sounds that year, Meyer batted .225 with 36 hits, 13 doubles, one triple, and one home run in 51 games played. During the 1986 season, Meyer played for the Mexico City Reds in the Triple-A Mexican League, although his statistics are not available. He resurfaced in 1987, playing three games with the Class-A San Jose Bees of the California League. Meyer played in the inaugural season of the Senior Professional Baseball Association in 1989–1990 as a member of the Bradenton Explorers.
2,423,662	Billy Beldham	1,156,699,908	English cricketer (1766–1862)	[ "1766 births", "1862 deaths", "Brighton cricketers", "Colonel C. Lennox's XI cricketers", "Cricketers from Surrey", "E. H. Budd's XI cricketers", "English cricketers", "English cricketers of 1701 to 1786", "English cricketers of 1787 to 1825", "Epsom cricketers", "Gentlemen cricketers", "George Osbaldeston's XI cricketers", "Godalming Cricket Club cricketers", "Hambledon cricketers", "Hampshire cricketers", "Kent cricketers", "Left-Handed v Right-Handed cricketers", "Lord Frederick Beauclerk's XI cricketers", "Marylebone Cricket Club cricketers", "Middlesex cricketers", "Non-international England cricketers", "People from Farnham", "People from the Borough of Waverley", "Players cricketers", "R. Leigh's XI cricketers", "St John's Wood cricketers", "Surrey and Marylebone Cricket Club cricketers", "Surrey cricketers", "T. Mellish's XI cricketers", "The Bs cricketers", "West Kent cricketers", "William Ward's XI cricketers" ]	William "Silver Billy" Beldham (5 February 1766 – 26 February 1862) was an English professional cricketer who played for numerous teams between 1782 and 1821. He was born at Wrecclesham, near Farnham in Surrey, and died at Tilford, Surrey. In some sources, his name has been given as "Beldam" or "Beldum". A right-handed batting all-rounder, he is widely recognised as one of the greatest batsmen of cricket's underarm era. Using an underarm action, he bowled pitched deliveries at a fast medium pace. He generally fielded in close catching positions, mostly at slip and sometimes played as wicket-keeper. Beldham began his career locally with Farnham Cricket Club. He was soon invited to join the Hambledon Club and became mainly associated with the county teams of Hampshire and Surrey. He regularly played for England teams from 1787 until 1820 and also in many matches for Marylebone Cricket Club (MCC). ## Early life Beldham was born on 5 February 1766 in the village of Wrecclesham, near Farnham in Surrey, where his family had a farm. His exact birthplace has not been precisely identified but may have been Yew Tree Cottage (built in the early 16th century) as in 1820 – the year before his retirement and move to Tilford – the house was surrendered by a William Beldham to a John Wells (the significance being that Beldham's brother-in-law was fellow cricketer "Honest" John Wells): additionally, there is a strong local tradition that this was his birthplace. Beldham was the fourth of six children (and the third son) of George Beldham (1728–1811) and Ann Benfil (or Bonfil) (1728–1793), and his ancestry in the area can be traced back at least seven generations to Allen Beldham (born mid-16th century). Nothing is known of his schooling but, as he was able to sign his name on his first marriage certificate as opposed to making a witnessed mark, it is likely he had a basic grounding. Much that is known about Beldham (and, indeed, about cricket in the late eighteenth century) is based on discussions he had with the Reverend James Pycroft in 1837 when Beldham was 71 years old. Beldham's reminiscences, and those of his friend William Fennex, provide the basis of Pycroft's The Cricket Field (1854) and Oxford memories: a retrospect after fifty years (1886). Beldham's earliest recollection of cricket is a match in 1780 when his local team, Farnham Cricket Club, defeated the Hambledon Club. He would have been 14 at the time but he told Pycroft that he overheard a remark by the Reverend Charles Powlett who said: "Here I have been thirty years raising our club, and are we to be beaten by a mere parish?" This statement suggests that the Hambledon Club was founded c.1750 but that is doubtful and David Underdown warns against "relying too much on Beldham's memory". ## Cricket career Beldham's recorded career spanned the 1782 to 1821 seasons and is one of the longest on record by a top-class player. The number of matches he played in cannot be computed because of missing or incomplete match scorecards but even a conservative estimate is well over 250; the CricketArchive database, for example, lists 224 but their list is limited to those matches from which they have a scorecard on the database and there are many more matches without scorecards in which he is known to have played. Using CricketArchive's 224 matches, Beldham scored 8,112 runs in these with a highest score of 144, and took 275 wickets with a best performance of seven in one innings. He held 406 catches and completed 52 stumpings. ### Farnham and Odiham (c.1782–c.1786) The earliest mention of Billy Beldham seems to be in a reference to two players called Beldum (sic) who represented Farnham Cricket Club in its earliest known match at Odiham on 13 August 1782. Farnham, who won, included J. Wells (probably James Wells), G. Beldum (almost certainly Beldham's elder brother George) and Beldum (no initial), who scored 1 and 16. If the latter was Billy Beldham, he would have been sixteen years old. In October 1782, there was a Beldham (unspecified) in the Odiham team for two matches against Berkshire, and again in May the following year against Maidenhead. No Farnham matches are recorded in 1783, and only one in 1784. That was against Odiham & Alton at the Holt Pound Oval, in which both Billy & George played. This was a new ground in 1784. The Beldhams were commissioned to lay out the pitch by local landowner Lord Stawell (1757–1820), who was a Hambledon Club member and a Farnham player. The match against Odiham & Alton was arranged for 30 July 1784, following a postponement because of bad weather. The teams are known but not the result. The Farnham team included Stawell and the Beldham brothers. A return match was arranged at Odiham Down on 4 August but, again, there is no report of it being played. In 1785, Farnham had a more extensive fixture list comprising matches with Alresford, a home-and-away series with Petworth – or, more accurately, Petworth, Northchapel & Tillington with six of Hambledon – which led to three matches against the Hambledon Club itself for a purse of . Farnham were outclassed in the first match at home, losing by an innings and 119 runs: the scores of the second and third games at Windmill Down have been lost, but Beldham's comments when interviewed by Pycroft some 50 years later indicate that Farnham won at least one of them, and quite possibly both for, in June 1786, Hambledon declined a challenge from Farnham. On 28 July 1786, Farnham were scheduled to play against "seven of Hambledon with four picked men from Sussex" on Northchapel Green, near Chichester. However, the result of this match has not been found. In other matches in 1786, Farnham were pitted against such varied opposition as Berkshire, Warfield (twice), a Guildford & Godalming XXII, and a Godalming XII with four of Hambledon. Given his absence from the Hambledon scorecards that year, it is possible that Beldham played in some of the Farnham matches. ### Hambledon/Hampshire (1785–1807) In his reminiscences to Pycroft, Beldham said that, when he was eighteen years old (i.e., in the 1784 season), he had played for Farnham against Hambledon and scored 43 facing an attack that included David Harris. He was watched by George Finch, 9th Earl of Winchilsea who was cricket's most influential patron at the time. Next spring, Winchilsea visited Beldham at the farm where he worked and arranged with his employer, Mr Hilton, for him to have time off for playing cricket. Beldham was invited to play for Hampshire in June 1785 against England at White Conduit Fields and that was the start of his career in top-class cricket. It was also the beginning of his contract with the Hambledon Club, which continued through the latter years of the club's golden era until c.1794. In the minutes of the weekly club meeting of 26 July 1785, it was "order'd that John & James Wells, Wm. and George Beldham be considered as Players belonging to this Club and be paid their Expences when they come to play at the discretion of the stewards". He and his brother George and their brothers-in-law, John and James Wells travelled 27 miles each way between Farnham and Hambledon, usually on the day of the match. Saddle-soreness made them consider building a cart for their journeys but the government introduced a tax on vehicles and they abandoned the idea. Beldham recalled that he was paid five guineas a game in the 1780s if his team won and three guineas if they lost, plus two guineas for Tuesday's practise. Twenty years later the figures were six and four. This was a pittance compared with the money that the gentry could make from their wagers (e.g., Lord Frederick Beauclerk remarked that he made some £630 a year from cricket), but it was a good income compared with those of artisans and labourers: at the time the weekly wage of a farm labourer was something like seven shillings and sixpence. Thus, to take the 1788 season as an example, Beldham played in 10 known matches, his side winning six of them, for which he was paid 42 guineas (£44.2s.0d), equating to slightly over two and a quarter years' wages for a farm worker. There is no other mention in surviving sources of the June 1785 match between England and Hampshire; Beldham does not confirm that it was actually played, only planned. He may have played for Farnham in 1785 and 1786, or in Hambledon matches without surviving reports. There are several mentions of him in 1787, when he was 21, and his top-class career was certainly underway by the end of that season, which is best remembered for the foundation of Marylebone Cricket Club (MCC) following the opening of the original Lord's ground. The first Hambledon match in which Beldham is definitely recorded was not until 7–10 August 1787 when he played against Kent at the Star Inn Ground on Coxheath Common. In his summary, Haygarth said another account had called the match "Kent v England". Haygarth used Hambledon in his title because, as he said, all eleven players were "members of the Hambledon Club". Kent batted first and were all out for 140. Hambledon replied with 256 and Beldham, although he was number 10 in the order, made the second-highest score with 42 before he was again bowled by Clifford. Kent were all out for 194 in their second innings and Beldham held three catches. Hambledon finished the match with 79/8 to win by 2 wickets, Beldham scoring 14 before being caught by Clifford. One of Beldham's finest performances was for Hambledon in a 1789 match at Lord's Old Ground against an England XIII. England batted first and scored 118, Beldham holding three catches. Hambledon struggled against the bowling of Robert Clifford and John Boorman. They were all out for 150 and nine of the batsmen, plus extras, scored only 17 between them. The other 133 were scored by Richard Purchase with 39 and Beldham with 94. He held two more catches as England were dismissed for 73 in their second innings. Hambledon needed 42 to win and Beldham scored 16 not out to see them through with 6 wickets in hand. ### England (1787–1820) Beldham's first match at Lord's was his known debut for England. Arthur Haygarth presents his biography of Beldham, and that of his brother-in-law John Wells, after the summary of this match. Haygarth says of both players that it was their "first recorded match", but earlier ones have been discovered by later researchers. The match was against the White Conduit Club, the Islington-based forerunner of MCC, on 20–22 June 1787. England batted first and scored 247. Beldham was number 8 in the batting order and scored 17 before he was bowled by Robert Clifford. White Conduit Club had six given men who were all leading Hampshire and Kent professionals. Beldham took two wickets, bowling Winchilsea for 3 and Edward Hussey for 21, as the club were dismissed for 112. With a first innings deficit of 135, White Conduit would normally have batted again but England took the third innings and scored 197. Beldham made the top score with 63 before he was run out. White Conduit were all out for 93, Beldham holding one catch and bowling both Joey Ring and Tom Walker. Beldham played for England teams for over thirty years until his last at the current Lord's ground on 3–5 July 1820. His performances have been recorded in 41 of these matches. His highest score for England was 91 against Hampshire at Perriam Downs on 25–28 July 1791, a four-day match that England won by an innings and 67 runs. Hampshire were all out for 79 and 129 either side of England scoring 275. Beldham, third in the order, was caught by George Leycester. As late as June 1819, when he was 53, Beldham could still justify selection for England. There were two England v Hampshire matches that month, both at Lord's. England won the first, which was a twelve-a-side match, by an innings and 5 runs. Hampshire, batting first, were all out for 113. Beldham played as wicket-keeper and dismissed three batsman: two caught, one stumped. England scored 245 and Beldham, fifth in the order, made top score with 79. He dismissed two more batsmen in the Hampshire second innings as they were all out for 127. Haygarth's comment about Beldham's performance was: "considering he was now fifty-three years of age, very wonderful". Three weeks later, the teams met again in an eleven-a-side match which England won by 7 wickets. Hampshire were all out for 95 and England replied with 177. Beldham was number three and scored 72. In the second innings, Hampshire were all out for 141 and England scored 60/3 to win the match with a day to spare. Haygarth again commented on a "wonderful performance" by Beldham. A report of the match said Beldham was punishing the fast bowling of George Brown so much that "Brown was afraid to bowl at him". ### Surrey (1788–1817) Despite his long association with Hampshire, Beldham was a Surrey man and he played for his county's team on many occasions, 52 matches being documented. His first appearance was in June 1788 against Hampshire, his last in June 1817 against England. Beldham's known Surrey debut was in a low-scoring match at Moulsey Hurst on 9–10 June 1788. Hampshire batted first and were all out for 59, Beldham taking two catches. Surrey scored 90 (Beldham 10) and then Hampshire were all out for 63 in their second innings. Surrey scored 33/1 to win by 9 wickets; Beldham did not bat. A few weeks later, on 3–5 July, Beldham played for Surrey against Hampshire on Perriam Downs in a match that featured a remarkable turnaround. Surrey opened with 203, Beldham scoring 59 and sharing in a large 3rd wicket stand with Harry Walker who made 78. Hampshire were all out for 110; Beldham bowled two and caught two. With a lead of 93, Surrey looked well set but they collapsed in the second innings and were all out for 44 (Beldham 8). Hampshire still needed 138 to win in conditions that did not favour batting, but they made it with four wickets to spare. There were matches between Surrey and England every year from 1793 to 1810. The strength of Surrey in some seasons meant England playing as a XIII against Surrey's XI. In the match at Dartford Brent on 22–24 July 1793, Beldham opened the innings for Surrey and carried his bat with a score of 106 not out in a total of 171; the second highest score was 18 by his opening partner Harry Walker. England were all out for 113, Beldham holding two catches. He scored only 5 in the second innings, when he was bowled by Thomas Boxall. Surrey scored 83 but then bowled England out for 88, Beldham again holding two catches, to win by 53 runs. Beldham produced one of his greatest performances in the England v Surrey match at Lord's Old Ground on 9–11 June 1794. He opened the first innings and top-scored with 72, leading Surrey to a total of 223. England were all out for 88, Beldham bowling two and catching one. In Surrey's second innings, Beldham and Harry Walker both scored centuries. Beldham was bowled by Fennex for 102; Walker was 115 not out when Surrey apparently declared at 259/5. England could not have hoped to reach their target of 395 and were all out for 197 which meant Surrey won by 197 runs. Harry Altham mentioned this match in his history, saying that Beldham was "at his zenith". The Surrey v England matches ended after 1810 as the latter years of the Napoleonic Wars demanded more of British manpower and resources. Beldham was 49 at the time of Waterloo in 1815 when cricket began its recovery from the impact of the war. He continued his career but is known to have made only one more appearance for Surrey. This was in the England v Surrey match at Lord's (the current ground) on 10–17 June 1817. Surrey batted first and were all out for 114 but Beldham made the top score with 27. England replied with 136 to take the lead. Surrey lost four wickets cheaply but then Beldham was joined by George Osbaldeston and they rescued the innings. Beldham was bowled by Beauclerk for 41 and Osbaldeston made 60; the total was 168. England scored 147/5 to win by 5 wickets. ### Marylebone Cricket Club (1790–1818) As a professional, Beldham made occasional appearances for Marylebone Cricket Club (MCC) on an individual match basis as a given man. He is known to have played in 42 matches involving MCC but 13 of them were for the opposition. The club was still fairly new when Beldham made his earliest known appearance for them in August 1790, and he made at least 29 to his last in August 1818 when he was 52 years old. His first two matches were against Middlesex between 16 and 20 August 1790. The first was at Lord's Old Ground and the return on Uxbridge New Ground. In both, Beldham and Robert Clifford were named as given men for MCC and they shared most of the workload by opening the batting and doing most if not all of the bowling. MCC won the Lord's match by 2 wickets. Beldham scored 24 and 16 in totals of 145 and 142/8. He made a significant contribution in the field as he was involved in at least nine dismissals: five bowled and four caught. At Uxbridge, MCC batted first and were in difficulty against William Fennex and Thomas Lord. Beldham scored only 3 and was bowled by Fennex. MCC's total was 110 but Beldham and Clifford had the Middlesex batsmen in trouble too and dismissed them for 89, of which Fennex scored 41 and was out hit wicket. In MCC's second innings, Beldham played well to score 46 out of 101 before he was again bowled by Fennex. Middlesex needed 123 to win but were all out for 66, Beldham bowling three and holding one catch, so MCC won by 56 runs. Beldham was often on the winning side but, even when his team lost, he tended to play well in adversity. There was an example of that in May 1791 when he and Richard Purchase were MCC's given men for two matches against Middlesex, both at Lord's Old Ground. The first match was on 16–18 May and Beldham bowled five Middlesex batsmen in their first innings of 110. As bowlers were only credited with a wicket when the batsman was bowled out, there are few recorded instances of five wickets in an innings. It happened twice in this match as Fennex emulated Beldham with five MCC men bowled. Beldham made the top score of 44 not out in a total of 145, a first innings lead of 35. Middlesex scored 166 in the second innings to set a target of 132. This time, Beldham could not deliver and he was bowled by Fennex for 1. Apart from 44 by Purchase, the other professional in the team, MCC collapsed to 101 and Middlesex won by 30 runs. The second match was a week later on 23–25 May. MCC opened and Beldham scored 62 in their total of 190. Middlesex lost their first five wickets cheaply but then Fennex and George T. Boult made a stand. Fennex scored 61 and Boult 89. William Bedster added 53 and there were good scores by two of the tail-enders so, despite their poor start, Middlesex totalled 284 – anything well over 200 was a high score in 18th century pitch conditions. Beldham had bowled two batsmen. MCC started their second innings 94 behind and were all out for 150. Beldham with 43 was again their top scorer and that gave him a match total of 105. He held two catches as Middlesex reached 57/4 to win by 6 wickets. Beldham made three known top-class centuries in his career. His highest score was 144 for MCC against Middlesex at Lord's Old Ground. The match was played 7–9 May 1792. Beldham and Tom Walker were MCC's given men. MCC batted first and Walker scored 107 in a total of 193. Beldham was out for 13. The two professionals then combined as bowlers to dismiss Middlesex for 111. MCC batted again and, after Walker was out for 0, Beldham led them to the very high (for the time) total of 306. He had useful support from three of the MCC amateurs and had made 144 when he was bowled by Bedster. At the time, the highest score by any batsman on record was 167 by James Aylward in 1777. Middlesex were all out for 114 and MCC won by a massive 274 runs. To Haygarth, a match total of 724 was very high. Beldham was frequently selected by MCC until 1809 when he took part in two matches against England but there was then a gap of seven years until he played for them again in 1816. Cricket as a whole suffered badly during the later years of the Napoleonic Wars and there was a considerable reduction in the number of matches played, especially in the 1810 to 1814 seasons. Beldham played for MCC twice more in 1818 when he was 52 years old. In these last three MCC matches, he made scores of 36 out of 100, 49 of 127 and 31 of 112. ### Gentlemen v Players (1806–1821) In 1806, Beldham had the unusual record of playing for both the Gentlemen and the Players in the inaugural and second Gentlemen v Players matches. He and William Lambert played as given men for the Gentlemen in the first match at the original Lord's ground on 7–9 July 1806. Beldham scored 16, held three catches and bowled William Fennex. Lambert made the top score of the match with 57. The Players were dismissed for 69 and 112, the Gentlemen scored 195 to win by an innings and 14 runs. For the second match on 21 and 25 July (there was an unscheduled break), Beldham was in the Players team but the Gentlemen retained Lambert. Beldham contributed little, scoring 0 and 1; also, he is not known to have been involved in any dismissals. The Gentlemen scored 96 and 132, the Players 65 and 81. The Gentlemen won by 82 runs. Beldham made three further appearances in the fixture after it was resurrected in 1819, when he was 53 years old. In 1819, on the present Lord's ground, the Players recorded their first victory over the Gentlemen. Beldham scored 15 in the first innings as the Players made 199 to gain a first innings lead of one run. The Gentlemen were all out for 60 in their second innings and the Players replied with 60/4 to win by 6 wickets. Beldham did not bat. Fast medium bowler Thomas Howard had an outstanding match for the Players, being involved in at least nine dismissals including eight bowled. In 1820, Howard was again the matchwinner but this time as a given man for the Gentlemen. He was involved in nine dismissals as they won by 70 runs. Beldham scored 16 and 2. ### Other teams and matches There were no organised competitions in the 18th century and all matches were arranged on a more or less ad hoc basis, so prolific players like Beldham appeared for a wide variety of teams. As described above, Beldham was mainly associated with Hambledon and Surrey while he was frequently invited to represent MCC and England teams. Among other teams he played for were counties like Berkshire, Kent (eight times) and Middlesex, always as a given man. MCC at the time was in some respects a town club and Beldham played in matches for other local clubs such as Godalming and Homerton. Many matches were arranged by patrons for the purpose of gambling and, as there were no restrictions on nomenclature, some are known by curious titles such as "Right-handed v Left-handed" (Beldham was right-handed) and "A to M v N to Z". There are five of the latter, all played between August 1787 and June 1789. In one of these, played at Bourne Paddock on 26–29 August 1788, Beldham scored 45 out of 94 in the first innings and 51 of 141 in the second. N to Z were dismissed for 100 and 60, so Beldham's team won by 75 runs. Teams were often named after their patrons with titles such as Earl of Winchilsea's XI or Lord F. Beauclerk's XI. Beldham appeared in over 60 matches for occasional teams of that type, including six for Winchilsea's XI and five for Winchilsea's opponents. Another curiosity team was "The Bs", formed on occasion between 1805 and 1832. Beldham played for the Bs four times. One of these was the famous match at Lord's Old Ground on 12–14 June 1810 when the Bs played an England XI. The Bs included Beldham, Beauclerk and E. H. Budd but, on this occasion, they had only nine players whose name began with B. Needing two more players, they were joined by John Wells and James Lawrell as given men. According to Haygarth, Lawrell could only have played for the Bs because he had backed them: "certainly not for his excellence as a cricketer, as in the case of Wells". The Bs batted first and struggled to make 137. Beldham was bowled by William Lambert for 0. Beauclerk with 41 and Budd with 27 were the top scorers. England's batsmen also battled to score and Beldham held four catches as they were dismissed for 100. With a lead of 37 in very difficult conditions, the Bs were in a relatively good position and a second innings total of over 100 might have won the match. That did not happen because the Bs were all out for 6. Five of their runs were scored by Wells (4) and Lawrell (1); only one B, Samuel Bridger, scored a run, though John Bentley was the not out batsman. There were only three scoring shots because Wells hit a boundary. Beldham and Beauclerk were both bowled by John Hammond and Budd was absent injured. Hammond dismissed at least six of the nine batsmen who were out, including five bowled. There can have been no certainty that England would score the 44 runs needed to win, and they soon lost their first four wickets, but Robert Robinson scored 23 not out to see them through. The Bs total of 6 is sometimes referenced as the world record for the lowest innings total in first-class cricket, although the match was played long before the official commencement of first-class cricket and is not recognised by Wisden among others. It was the sixth and last time that Beldham was, as far as is known, dismissed for a pair. ### End of career The 1821 edition of Gentlemen v Players, at Lord's on 23–24 July, was Beldham's last recorded top-class match. He was then 55 years old and had a bizarre finale. The Gentlemen batted first and were all out for 60, Beldham taking one catch to dismiss the innings' top scorer Henry J. Lloyd for 22. The Players began well as openers John Sparks and John Thumwood equalled the Gentlemen's total without loss. Sparks had another partnership with Thomas Beagley and the score advanced to over 200. Sparks was sixth man out for 63 and Beagley was joined by Beldham, batting at number eight. Beagley completed the first century in the Gentlemen v Players series. Sometime on the 24th, the Players reached 278/6, a lead of 218 with four wickets in hand. Beagley was 113 not out, Beldham 23 not out. It was at this point that the Gentlemen, captained by Beauclerk, threw in the towel and left the field. As it happens, the match had been billed as the "Coronation Match" to celebrate the accession of George IV and, in the words of Derek Birley, "it was a suitably murky affair". Beldham later recalled that he had been injured during the match and needed a runner while batting. He said the professionals disliked the fixture and called it a waste of their time. He may have departed from top-class cricket but there is strong anecdotal evidence that Beldham continued to play to a very advanced age, for in his Oxford Memories, Pycroft stated: "Beldham's was a green old age. Even when between sixty and seventy [1826–1836] he was barred in county matches". ## Style and technique In The Cricketers of My Time, John Nyren eulogised Beldham's batting prowess: > ...(he was) safer than the Bank; ...he would get at the balls and hit them away in gallant style. But when he could cut them at the point of his bat, he was in all his glory; and, upon my life, their speed was as the speed of thought; ...one of the most beautiful sights that can be imagined, and which would have delighted an artist, was to see him make himself up to hit a ball. It was the beau ideal (sic) of grace, animation, and concentrated energy. Beldham is remembered primarily as a fine attacking batsman who was "an excellent judge of a short run, had a good knowledge of the game and was a very fine field". He was also highly effective as a change bowler, good enough to be termed a batting all-rounder. Using the standard underarm action and pitching the ball, his delivery was "high and well, pace moderate, yet bordering on the fast and getting up quick". Considered a "safe pair of hands" in the field, available evidence indicates that his preferred position was in the slips. Beldham has also been credited with many stumpings, although as the person catching the ball was credited with the stumping, this means he wasn't necessarily a wicket-keeper as we understand it today. His best performance as a fielder was holding seven catches in a single match. He did this twice: for Kent v England in June 1792 and for MCC v Kent in June 1793. He held six catches in a match six times and completed three stumpings in an innings three times. Along with other greats such as John Small and Tom Walker, Beldham did much to lay the foundations of what can now be recognised as modern batting technique. He had a sound defence, like Small and Walker, but was also a fluent stroke maker like Small and the later Fuller Pilch. It is said that his brother-in-law John Wells impressed upon Beldham the importance of the high left elbow, although a Farnham gingerbread maker and coach, Harry Hall, has also been credited with this. This was a novelty at the time but has since become a standard part of technique for a right-handed batsman. When he was interviewed by Pycroft, Beldham claimed that he, Fennex and Harry Walker had revolutionised batting by introducing the cut (Walker) and forward play (Beldham and Fennex). However, this is contradicted by Nyren who says that the earlier Hambledon batsman Tom Sueter was noted for his cut shot and probably invented forward play, being the first player known to leave his crease and play the drive. Beldham was in his nineties when his photograph was taken (see infobox) and he is the earliest cricketer for whom a photograph exists. His legacy has lived on and he is still widely recognised as the outstanding batsman of the late 18th and early 19th centuries. In 1997, in an article in The Times, former Wisden editor John Woodcock named Beldham in his 100 Greatest Cricketers of All Time. ## Personality Beldham was described by Nyren, who knew him personally, as "a close-set, active man, standing about five feet eight inches and a half". He was called "Silver Billy" because of his light-coloured hair and fair complexion. Beldham was noted for his integrity and fair play. It was said of him that the only blot on his playing career was that he once biased a ball he bowled against Lord Frederick Beauclerk, during a single wicket match at Lords in June 1806, with a lump of mud and sawdust. It had the desired effect. During a period of the game's history when betting and match-fixing was rife, even Beldham was not immune to the lure of easy money. When interviewed by Pycroft in 1837, he said: "You may hear that I sold matches. I will confess I once was sold myself by two men, one of whom would not bowl, and the other would not bat, his best, and lost ten pounds. The next match, at Nottingham, I joined in selling, and got my money back. But for this once, I could say I never was bought in my life ; and this was not for want of offers from C and other turfmen, though often I must have been accused. For where it was worth while to buy, no man could keep a character; because to be out without runs or to miss a catch was, by the disappointed betting-men, deemed proof as strong as Holy Writ". ## Family and personal life Beldham retired to Tilford, where he was initially the landlord for some years of a public house, The Barley Mow, and spent his last 41 years there. He married twice. By his first wife Ann Smith (1765–1800) he had one daughter, also Ann, born (and died) 1800. His second wife, another Ann (1779–1869), bore him eight children between 1804 and 1819 and eventually outlived him by some seven years. Beldham and his second wife are buried in the Tilford churchyard, just up the road from the green: their graves are unmarked, but are thought to be in the north-west corner. Beldham's cottage still sits by the side of the pub, albeit with the later addition of an upper floor. Beldham's sister Hannah (1786–1842) married another leading cricketer of the day, John Wells. As late as 1861, forty years after his last important game and while he was still living, a wall of The Cricketers pub in Wrecclesham still bore the legend "Rendezvous of those Famous Cricketers Beldham & Wells" (another version has the sign as "Good Beer as drunk by those Famous Men Beldham & Wells"). That an early landlord of this pub may well have been one of Beldham's brothers may have something to do with this early example of celebrity endorsement. Beldham died at Tilford on 26 February 1862. His fame was not quickly forgotten after his playing career ended, for the July 1862 edition of London Society magazine reported that "Old Beldham died last winter (February) near Farnham, aged ninety-six. Not long before, the old man was invited to Lord's, and received with all honours in the pavilion: he was also advertised as expected at The Oval, to increase the attraction of a match between the old players and the young".
72,568,310	Mercedes-Benz Vision EQXX	1,172,574,650	2022 battery electric vehicle concept	[ "Battery electric vehicles", "Cars introduced in 2022", "Mercedes-Benz concept vehicles" ]	The Mercedes-Benz Vision EQXX is a battery electric vehicle concept car by German carmaker Mercedes-Benz. Unveiled at the 2022 edition of the Consumer Electronics Show, the EQXX is a proof of concept, with Mercedes-Benz's primary goal being a target of below 10 kWh per 100 km (alternatively, greater than 10 km per kWh) in real-life conditions. The exterior of the EQXX features various stylistic cues that help maximise its aerodynamic efficiency, and various eco-friendly materials also adorn the interior of the EQXX. The car's name refers to Mercedes' vision for the future of automobile manufacturing, with Mercedes chairman Ola Källenius stating that the EQXX is "how we imagine the future of electric cars", and that the EQXX "underlines where our entire company is headed". ## Background Mercedes' entrance into the [[battery electric market began in 2016, with the introduction of the EQ concept car at the 2016 Paris Motor Show, where several other electric cars such as the Volkswagen ID. and Renault Zoe also made their debut. The EQ concept went into production at the end of 2019, and like its later EQA and EQB siblings, it was constructed on a platform designed for internal combustion engines rather than a battery electric vehicle. In October 2020, Mercedes introduced two dedicated electric vehicle platforms as part of a weekly strategy meeting–the Electric Vehicle Architecture (EVA) and the Mercedes-Benz Modular Architecture (MMA). The former platform is aimed towards larger vehicles such as full-size saloons and SUVs, with the latter aimed towards smaller vehicles such as compact cars. Alongside the announcement of the platforms was also the revelation that Mercedes would build an electric vehicle with an extensive all-electric range, targeting a range of over 1,200 km (746 mi) with a 100 kWh (360 MJ) battery pack. This target was later revised to 1,000 km (621 mi). The structure of EQXX is said to incorporate several aspects of the upcoming MMA architecture, although it sits on its own bespoke rear-wheel drive platform. The first teaser of the EQXX was revealed at the end of November 2021. Mercedes-Benz Chief Operating Officer Markus Schäfer also announced alongside the teaser the reveal date of the EQXX, which was to be 5 January 2022 at the Consumer Electronics Show. However, the car digitally debuted two days earlier on 3 January. ## Overview Initial design on the EQXX began in June 2020, after a request from the company board for an electric vehicle with 1,000 km (621 mi) of range. In order to fulfill the request, Mercedes selected a team of specialised engineers from various departments. This team would also collaborate with Mercedes' Formula One engine manufacturing subsidiary, Mercedes AMG High Performance Powertrains. The latter had a significant role in the design of the EQXX's powertrain and packaging of the battery pack, incorporating their Formula One expertise. The primary design goals for the EQXX were weight reduction and aerodynamic efficiency, both of which would work in conjunction to give the EQXX 1,000 km (621 mi) of range. This meant that with a 100 kWh (360 MJ) battery, the car had to travel more than 10 km (6 mi) per kWh. Various smart features are also included in the interior of the EQXX to further reduce accessory power consumption. ### Battery and powertrain The EQXX's lithium-ion battery pack and drivetrain were largely developed in partnership with Mercedes AMG High Performance Powertrains. Several changes were made to optimise the efficiency of the powertrain, starting off with redesigning the inverter, now incorporating Onsemi's silicon carbide anodes, along with the engine control unit being almost identical to the one utilised in the Mercedes-AMG ONE. In order to increase energy density, Mercedes also introduced a new method of packing the individual cells in the battery pack called cell-to-pack. Cell-to-pack creates tighter packaging because the cells themselves are not separated into modules, but instead are directly placed into the battery pack itself without any sort of physical partition. A sugar cane-carbon fibre composite forms the lid of the 'OneBox', a structure which compartmentalises the electrical components and is said to weigh 495 kg (1,091 lb). The cell-to-pack method of packaging is often found in Formula One, including Mercedes' own cars. Mercedes worked together with their suppliers to reduce the battery pack's weight by 30%, reduce the size by half compared to a contemporary Mercedes-Benz EQS, and increase cell energy density by 20%. Lightweight brake discs fashioned from aluminium possess regenerative braking capabilities to further extend the EQXX's range. A single-speed direct-drive transmission transfers power from the battery pack to the radial flux motor located at the rear axle, which produces 150 kW (204 PS; 201 hp). A cooling plate situated below the car provides a passive method of heat transfer, with shutters that can be adjusted to control airflow. A radiator is still present should there be a need for extreme heat or intense climate control. The EQXX also uses a 900-volt architecture, which allows for a lower electric current. A lower current reduces Joule heating caused by copper loss, despite the EQXX's relatively thinner cabling. As a result of the powertrain optimisations, the EQXX is said to have parasitic loss of only 5%, i.e. 95% of the energy from the battery is transferred to the wheels, with 5% lost during the energy transfer to things such as the gearbox. The EQXX features DC fast charging, with Mercedes claiming the ability to add 300 km (186 mi) of range within 15 minutes. Despite this capability, the charging port was sealed during the EQXX's long-range demonstration runs to prevent tampering. ### Interior The EQXX features neuromorphic computer systems designed in partnership with Australian firm BrainChip which help to drastically reduce the power consumption of interior components such as the infotainment system. The EQXX's neuromorphic computer systems run spiking neural networks, which simulate the structure of natural neural networks and assist features such as the voice user interface. A 1,206 mm (47.5 in) 8K resolution screen spanning the entire front dashboard contains the controls for the infotainment, along with other information about car vitals. The interior features various eco-friendly materials, the carpet is woven from bamboo fibres, and the seats are adorned with faux leather made from mycelium. Instead of door handles, the EQXX features straps to open the doors that are fashioned from a vegan silk material produced in collaboration with German textile firm AMSilk. A cactus fibre-based material also upholsters the seats. ### Exterior Another area where Mercedes extracted significantly more range was the refinement of the EQXX's aerodynamic profile. The rear features Kammback styling and has an axle track 50 mm (2.0 in) narrower than the front, in order to create the ideal "teardrop" shape. The teardrop shape, first popularised in 1937 by Talbot-Lago, is considered to be the ideal shape for an automobile to have the least amount of aerodynamic drag. The Kamm styling aims to reduce the air vortex formed behind the rear of the car. The teardrop profile of the EQXX contributes greatly to lowering its drag coefficient, the lowest of any battery electric vehicle at 0.17. The EQXX also has semi-transparent wheel covers, which have miniature vents that help reduce turbulence surrounding the wheel wells. A lightweight forged magnesium rim construction helps to reduce the rolling resistance of the bespoke Bridgestone 185/65 R20 tyres, which themselves have been designed specifically with the goal of reducing rolling resistance. The EQXX also has wing mirrors, instead of using cameras like the ones found in the Honda e, although the mirrors are said to be much more aerodynamic than regular wing mirrors. The decision to retain wing mirrors was made on the basis that an electronic camera system would draw too much power and negatively affect the range of the car. 117 solar panels developed in partnership with the Fraunhofer Institute for Solar Energy Systems adorn the roof of the EQXX, which power the ancillary systems such as the infotainment system, and are connected to a lithium iron phosphate battery separate from the main lithium-ion battery. Illumination of the front and rear is provided by LEDs and a full light bar, and instead of the traditional Mercedes-Benz star bonnet ornament, the star is incorporated into the front bumper as a sticker. As with the rear wheels, the front wheels sit completely flush with the bodywork. This gives the EQXX a frontal area of 2.12 m<sup>2</sup> (22.8 sq ft), 0.39 m<sup>2</sup> (4.2 sq ft) less than Mercedes' most aerodynamically efficient production car, the EQS450+. In order to further reduce weight, the EQXX's body in white was constructed from a blend of high-tensile steel and steel recycled from scrap. Fibreglass and carbon fibre doors reinforced with aluminium help keep passengers safe in the event of a side collision. ## Demonstration runs The EQXX has done two demonstration runs in which it surpassed the initial kilometrage target of 1,000 km (621 mi). The first of the two runs was a trip from Sindelfingen, Germany to Cassis, France on a full charge, where it covered 1,008 km (626 mi) whilst maintaining an average energy consumption of 8.7 kWh (31 MJ) per 100 km (62 mi), or just over 10 km (6 mi) per kWh. The second of which was a trip from Stuttgart, Germany to Silverstone, Northamptonshire, in which it surpassed the first trip's record, travelling 1,202 km (747 mi) on a full charge. Average energy consumption was also lower, at 8.3 kWh (30 MJ) per 100 km (62 mi), or 12.1 km (7.5 mi) per kWh. The EQXX also participated in the 2022 Goodwood Festival of Speed. Although the EQXX has travelled beyond 1,000 km (621 mi) in real-life conditions, Eva Grenier, chief engineer of the EQXX's drive system, claimed that the EQXX should score even higher on the Worldwide Harmonised Light Vehicles Test Procedure, or WLTP. ## In production vehicles Although the EQXX itself remains as a one-off concept, several of the EQXX's features such as powertrain components and other smart features will feature in production models, the first of which is set to be the upcoming electrified version of the 2025 model year of the Mercedes-Benz CLA.
13,188,400	New York State Route 20SY	1,068,695,923	Former highway in New York	[ "Former state highways in New York (state)", "Transportation in Madison County, New York", "Transportation in Onondaga County, New York", "Transportation in Syracuse, New York", "U.S. Route 20" ]	New York State Route 20SY (NY 20SY) was a state highway in the vicinity of the city of Syracuse, New York, in the United States. It connected U.S. Route 20 (US 20) to downtown Syracuse via Skaneateles, Camillus, Manlius, and Cazenovia in Onondaga County and Madison County. The highway began at an intersection with US 20 and NY 321 in the village of Skaneateles and ended at a junction with US 20, NY 20N, and NY 92 near the village of Cazenovia. Most of NY 20SY overlapped another route; however, two sections of NY 20SY—one in the town of Camillus and another near the village of Fayetteville—were not concurrent with another highway. NY 20SY was assigned in 1951, overlapping parts of the pre-existing NY 321, NY 5, NY 92, and NY 20N, a more southerly alternate route of US 20 in the Syracuse area. Both NY 20N and NY 20SY were removed in 1961. The two independent sections of NY 20SY near Camillus and Fayetteville eventually became part of NY 321 and NY 92, respectively. ## Route description ### West of Syracuse NY 20SY began at an intersection with US 20 (East Genesee Street) and NY 321 (State Street) in the village of Skaneateles. The route proceeded northward, overlapping NY 321 through the lakeside village and into the surrounding town of Skaneateles, where it became State Street Road. Once in Skaneateles, the surroundings became mostly rural ahead of an intersection with the Old Seneca Turnpike. The highway continued on, turning to the northeast as the highway entered the town of Elbridge. In Elbridge, NY 20SY and NY 321 followed a more east–west routing as it passed through the town and intersected NY 368. The route progressed eastward, intersecting with Limeledge Road (County Route 236A or CR 236A) as it passed into the town of Camillus. Just east of the town line, NY 20SY and NY 321 split at an intersection with Forward Road, with NY 321 following Forward Road eastward and NY 20SY proceeding north on modern NY 321 to an intersection with NY 5 (West Genesee Street). NY 20SY turned eastward here, joining NY 5 as both highways headed toward the village of Camillus. West of Camillus, NY 5 and NY 20SY passed to the north of the West Hill Golf and Croquet Club before veering to the southeast as the highway approached the village of Camillus and the edge of a valley surrounding Ninemile Creek that contains the village. Upon reaching the lip of the valley, NY 5 and NY 20SY descended northeastward into both the valley and the village. Here, NY 5 and NY 20SY met the northern terminus of NY 174 and NY 321 before exiting the valley and entering an area of Camillus known as Fairmount. ### Syracuse Routes 5 and 20SY proceeded eastward through the primarily residential neighborhood of Fairmount to an intersection with NY 173 (South Onondaga Road) in eastern Fairmount. The routes continued on, passing through the town of Geddes before entering the city of Syracuse. In Syracuse, the two routes followed West Genesee Street and West Erie Boulevard into the downtown district, where NY 5 and NY 20SY intersected NY 48 at the intersection of West Erie Boulevard and West Genesee Street and US 11 at the junction of Erie Boulevard and State Street. East of State, NY 20SY continued to follow NY 5 through the eastern part of Syracuse. The two routes met the southern terminus of NY 433 at Midler Avenue before passing north of LeMoyne College and exiting the city of Syracuse. Upon crossing into the town of DeWitt, Routes 5 and 20SY curved southward toward the hamlet of DeWitt, situated at the junction of NY 5 and NY 92. Both NY 5 and NY 20SY turned east onto NY 92, joining the route for just over 1 mile (1.6 km) to the vicinity of Fayetteville. While NY 5 and NY 92 continued east into Fayetteville, NY 20SY turned southeast onto High Bridge Road. ### East of Syracuse The High Bridge Road portion of NY 20SY largely served as a southwestern bypass of Fayetteville. NY 20SY proceeded southeast from NY 5 and NY 92, crossing into the town of Manlius and passing over Limestone Creek at a point known as High Bridge. Just northwest of the village of Manlius, NY 20SY intersected NY 92 at what is now the junction of NY 92 and NY 257. The two routes converged once more, following Fayette Street into the village of Manlius. In the village center, NY 20SY and NY 92 intersected Seneca Street, which carried the overlapping routes of NY 20N and NY 173. NY 20SY and NY 92 joined NY 20N and NY 173 here, creating a four-route overlap that lasted for two blocks through the village's business district to the junction of Washington and Seneca Streets. Here, NY 173 split from the overlap, following Seneca Street (the old Seneca Turnpike) eastward while the other three highways veered southeast onto Washington Street. NY 20N, NY 20SY, and NY 92 exited the village, paralleling Limestone Creek as the highway headed southeastward through rural portions of the towns of Manlius and Pompey. As Cazenovia Road, the route served Buellville and Oran, two small creekside hamlets in the town of Pompey. Roughly 4 miles (6.4 km) southeast of Manlius, Limestone Creek and the three-route overlap split, with the creek proceeding south through a valley known as Pompey Hollow and the highway continuing into Madison County and the town of Cazenovia within. In Cazenovia, the road became known as Syracuse Road and began to follow a more southerly alignment as it turned ahead of Cazenovia Lake. NY 20N, NY 20SY, and NY 92 gradually approached the lake and ultimately followed the western lakeshore as the roadway approached the village of Cazenovia. The three routes never actually reached the village, however, as all three designations ended at an intersection with US 20 (the Cherry Valley Turnpike) 0.25 miles (0.40 km) west of the village limits and 1 mile (1.6 km) west of the village center. ## History NY 20SY was assigned in 1951 as an alternate route of US 20 in the Syracuse area. While US 20 bypassed the city of Syracuse to the south, NY 20SY veered north to serve Downtown Syracuse and the eastern and western suburbs of the city. It was the second alternate route of US 20 near Syracuse; the first, NY 20N, was also a northern alternate route of US 20 but it followed a more southerly routing than NY 20SY. Most of NY 20SY was concurrent to other, pre-existing state highways in the Syracuse area, namely NY 321, NY 5, NY 92, NY 173, and NY 20N. NY 5 was assigned in 1924; NY 92, NY 173, and NY 321 were assigned as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York; and NY 20N was assigned c. 1938. While most of NY 20SY was concurrent with at least one other state highway, there were two segments where NY 20SY followed an independent routing. One was in the town of Camillus, where NY 20SY followed a previously unnumbered highway between NY 321 and NY 5; the other was southwest of the village of Fayetteville, where NY 20SY used a previously unnumbered highway to bypass the village while NY 92 passed through it. When NY 20SY was first assigned, it entered downtown Syracuse on NY 5 and followed NY 5 and US 11 through downtown before leaving the area on NY 92. It was realigned by 1954 to follow only NY 5 through downtown. The route left its original alignment at the junction of US 11 and NY 5 in downtown Syracuse and rejoined it at the western terminus of the NY 5 / NY 92 overlap in DeWitt. Both NY 20N and NY 20SY were removed in 1961. The independent section of NY 20SY that bypassed Fayetteville became a realignment of NY 92 upon the removal of NY 20SY. The other independent section in Camillus became a realignment of NY 321 in the late 1980s. ## Major intersections ## See also
58,028,328	SMS Freya (1874)	1,163,544,292	Screw corvette of the Prussian and German Imperial Navy	[ "1874 ships", "Ariadne-class corvettes", "Ships built in Danzig" ]	SMS Freya was a steam corvette of the German Kaiserliche Marine (Imperial Navy). She was the third member of the Ariadne class, which included two other ships, Ariadne and Luise. Ordered as part of a large naval expansion program after the Austro-Prussian War, she was laid down in 1872 after the Franco-Prussian War. She was launched in December 1874 and completed in October 1876. Freya was built to a different design than her sisters, being longer and carrying a heavier battery of twelve guns. The ship went on two major overseas cruises in her career, the first from 1877 to 1879, and the second immediately after from 1879 to 1881, both of which were fairly uneventful. On the first cruise, she went to the eastern Mediterranean Sea and then to China as part of the East Asia Squadron. The second voyage began with a deployment to Chilean waters to protect German interests during the War of the Pacific, after which she returned to Chinese waters. After returning to Germany in 1881, she was converted into a training ship and returned to service in that capacity in 1883. She went on only one major training cruise, which lasted from mid-1883 to late 1884; she toured ports in the Americas and helped to protect civilians during a period of civil unrest in Haiti in late 1883. She was thereafter decommissioned and remained out of service for the rest of her existence, seeing no further use. She was stricken from the naval register in 1896 and sold to ship breakers the following year. ## Design The three Ariadne-class corvettes were ordered as part of the fleet plan of 1867, an expansion program aimed at strengthening the Prussian Navy in the wake of the Austro-Prussian War. The plan called for a total of twenty screw corvettes. The design for Freya was prepared in 1871 as a lengthened version of her half-sisters; the increased size of the ship was used to improve coal storage (and thus her cruising range) and strengthen her armament. Freya was 85.35 meters (280 ft 0 in) long overall, with a beam of 10.8 m (35 ft 5 in) and a draft of 4.6 m (15 ft 1 in) forward. She displaced 2,406 metric tons (2,368 long tons) at full load. The ship's crew consisted of 12 officers and 220 enlisted men. She was powered by a single marine steam engine that drove one 4-bladed screw propeller, with steam provided by four coal-fired fire-tube boilers, which gave her a top speed of 15.2 knots (28.2 km/h; 17.5 mph) at 2,801 metric horsepower (2,763 ihp). She had a cruising radius of 2,500 nautical miles (4,600 km; 2,900 mi) at a speed of 10 knots (19 km/h; 12 mph). As built, Freya was equipped with a full ship rig, but this was later reduced to a barque rig. Freya was armed with a battery of eight 15 cm (5.9 in) 22-caliber (cal.) breech-loading guns, one of which was later removed. She temporarily also carried four 17 cm (6.7 in) 25-cal. guns. In 1886, she had six 37 mm (1.5 in) Hotchkiss revolver cannon installed. ## Service history The keel for Freya was laid down in January 1872 at the Kaiserliche Werft (Imperial Shipyard) in Danzig. She was launched on 29 December 1874 and she was transferred to Kiel on 21 August 1876, mostly complete. There, she received her final fitting-out, before being commissioned into the fleet on 1 October 1876. She thereafter began sea trials, which lasted until 15 November, when she was decommissioned in Kiel. Freya was assigned to I Reserve of the North Sea Naval Station and based in Wilhelmshaven on 15 January 1877, and she was moved to the base over the course of 19 July – 4 August. The voyage was delayed significantly because she was driven ashore by bad weather and had to be pulled free by a merchant vessel. ### First overseas deployment On 1 November 1877, Freya was commissioned for an overseas cruise to the Mediterranean Sea, which she began on 15 November. Severe storms in the English Channel forced the ship to take shelter in Falmouth, and she arrived in Smyrna in the Ottoman Empire on 12 December. There, she came under command of the German squadron in the Mediterranean, along with the frigate Hertha. Freya visited Piraeus, Greece on 7 February 1878, where she was later joined by Hertha. The two ships remained there until mid-March, when they returned to Smyrna. In July, the squadron was disbanded and Freya initially remained in the Aegean Sea. On 12 August, she received the order to proceed to East Asia, where she was to replace her sister Luise as a station ship in Chinese waters. Freya reached Hong Kong on 6 October where she rendezvoused with the corvette Leipzig, which was the flagship of the East Asia Squadron. After arriving in Hong Kong, Freya went into the dry dock for repairs and periodic maintenance after her long voyage from Europe. This work lasted until 9 December, and two days later the ship moved to Shantou and then to Amoy to observe an episode of domestic unrest, and to be prepared to intervene if the situation devolved into attacks against Germans in Fujian province. She remained in Amoy from 17 December to 7 January 1879, though the riots did not threaten Germans in the city, and Freya was able to embark on a tour of ports in Formosa and the city of Fuzhou in Fujian. She went to Shanghai on 4 February, where she remained until 4 April. While there, she received the order to return to Germany, so she sailed to Hong Kong to await her replacement, Luise, and to prepare for the voyage back home. Freya remained there from 9 April to 3 May, when Luise arrived, allowing her to depart the station. While on the way back, she had a serious accident where one of her boilers overheated and burst, throwing boiling water into one of the crew spaces, badly burning several sailors and killing four, who were buried in Batavia in the Dutch East Indies. She stopped in Cape Town, South Africa, where the British forces were waging the Anglo-Zulu War, where the colonial governor gave captured Zulu trophies to the ship as gifts to the German crown princess, Victoria, who was the daughter of British Queen Victoria. After much of the crew began to suffer from scurvy, Freya was forced to stop in Faial Island in the Azores to pick up fresh food to alleviate the condition. The ship arrived in Wilhelmshaven on 17 September, and she was decommissioned there ten days later. ### Second overseas deployment Freya was still in good condition, and so a lengthy overhaul was not necessary, allowing the ship to begin another cruise abroad immediately. She was recommissioned on 3 October; she was ordered to return to East Asia by way of the western coast of South America, where she was to assist the ironclad Hansa in protecting German interests during the War of the Pacific between Chile, Peru, and Bolivia. Freya left Germany on 26 October, and she met the frigate Vineta several times on the trip to South America. While in the Strait of Magellan, Freya encountered the stranded British steamer SS Maranhence and she towed her to Punta Arenas. On 3 March 1880, Freya arrived in Valparaiso, Chile, where she rendezvoused with Hansa. From 8 March to 14 April, Freya went to the Chilean port of Arica, which was under a Peruvian blockade. The pressing need for warships in Chinese waters forced Freya to end her operations off South America on 14 April, and she steamed north to Panama to take on provisions for the lengthy voyage across the Pacific Ocean. She left Panama on 8 May and sailed to Honolulu (in what was then the Sandwich Islands), where she was visited by King Kalākaua. From there, Freya proceeded to Spanish Guam, where she took on additional fresh food from 4 to 5 August. She arrived in Hong Kong on 21 August, where she joined the East Asia Squadron, which also included Vineta and the gunboats Cyclop and Wolf. Freya steamed to Yantai on 9 September to rest her crew after their long voyage across the Pacific. She remained there until 28 October, and during that period she was joined by other members of the squadron. She then left for Shanghai, where she began a six-week period of maintenance on 1 November. On 22 December, she returned to Hong Kong, and on 15 February 1881, the ship's new commander, Kapitän zur See (KzS—Captain at Sea) Kupfer, arrived. During the stay in Hong Kong, Freya conducted shooting drills in Mirs Bay, and from 30 March to 11 April, she made two trips to the Paracel Islands to conduct hydrographic surveys of the area. On 30 April, the German consul in China requested that Freya go to the Ninepin Group, where Chinese pirates had attacked the German barque Occident. She was unable to locate the pirates, however, and so returned to Hong Kong. On 24 May, Vineta left the squadron, making Kupfer the squadron commander, but on 18 June, he died of typhoid fever; the first officer, Korvettenkapitän (KK—Corvette Captain) Lepel-Gnitz, took command of the vessel. Freya began the voyage back to Germany on 30 June, and while in Batavia in mid-July, she met her replacement, the corvette Stosch, where Lepel-Gnitz turned over command of the squadron. Freya then proceeded across the Indian Ocean, through the Suez Canal and the Mediterranean, arriving in Wilhelmshaven on 6 October, where she was decommissioned on 21 October. ### Later career Having already had success using Luise and Ariadne as training ships for Schiffsjungen (apprentice seamen), the Kaiserliche Admiralität (Imperial Admiralty) decided to convert Freya into a training vessel as well. The work lasted from late 1881 to early 1883, and she was recommissioned for training duties on 3 March 1883. She went to Kiel on 7 May, and then proceeded into the North Sea for trials. She then embarked a contingent of trainees and began a short training cruise to Danzig and Karlskrona, Sweden on 12 July, which ended in Kiel. On 25 July, a longer-distance cruise to South America and the Caribbean Sea began. During the voyage, she stopped in Bahía Blanca, Argentina on 24 September. She went to Port-au-Prince, Haiti, in response to domestic unrest there. She arrived on 29 October and remained until 16 November, when she left to go to Jacmel, where she picked up 250 civilians and carried them to Kingston, Jamaica. Freya returned to Port-au-Prince on 16 December, and since the government had by then suppressed the rebels, Freya was able to continue her cruise in January 1884. She visited Puerto Cabello, Venezuela, Bermuda, and Hampton Roads, United States. On arriving back in German waters, she joined the annual fleet maneuvers on 1 September, which were conducted in the North and Baltic Seas. After the maneuvers ended, Freya returned to Kiel on 21 September and continued on to Danzig six days later, where she disembarked the trainees. The ship was decommissioned for an overhaul on 11 October, which lasted until late 1887. During this period, her rigging was reduced to that of a barque. The ship was recommissioned on 23 October 1887 for trials, after which she went to Kiel and then Wilhelmshaven, where she arrived on 22 December. On 17 January 1888 she was decommissioned there; she did not see further active use, which was unusual given that she had just been overhauled. The naval historians Hans Hildebrand, Albert Röhr, and Hans-Otto Steinmetz speculated that because the corvette Nixe, which had been built specifically as a training ship, had entered service by that time, the Admiralität decided that Freya was redundant. In late 1893, Freya was transferred to the list of harbor ships, and she was stricken from the naval register altogether on 14 December 1896. She was thereafter broken up in Kiel.
589,853	Skathi (moon)	1,173,496,121	Satellite of Saturn	[ "Astronomical objects discovered in 2000", "Discoveries by Brett J. Gladman", "Discoveries by John J. Kavelaars", "Irregular satellites", "Moons of Saturn", "Moons with a retrograde orbit", "Norse group" ]	Skathi /ˈskɑːði/, also named Saturn XXVII and originally spelled Skadi, is a natural satellite of the planet Saturn. Skathi is one of Saturn's irregular moons, in its Norse group of satellites. It was discovered on September 23, 2000, by a team of astronomers led by Brett Gladman. The team announced their discovery on December 7, 2000, along with seven other satellites of Saturn, namely; Tarvos, Ijiraq, Thrymr, Siarnaq, Mundilfari, Erriapus, and Suttungr. The moon was named after Skaði, a figure in Norse mythology, as part of an effort to diversify the largely Greek and Roman names of astronomical objects. Skathi takes just over 725 days to complete an orbit of Saturn and it is estimated to take 11.1±0.02 hours to rotate on its axis. It orbits at a greater distance from Saturn than many of the planet's other satellites, with a large orbital inclination and eccentricity, and it moves in a retrograde direction. Not much is known about Skathi, because it is a dim object. Other than Earth-based observations, it has only been observed by the Cassini probe, and even those measurements were taken at a distance of nearly 9.7 million kilometres (6 million miles). Skathi's origin remains an open question. One possibility is that it was originally an asteroid that formed elsewhere, and was captured by Saturn's gravity as it flew by the planet. Another possibility is that it was originally a portion of one of Saturn's moons, like Phoebe, that split off during a collision and became an independent satellite. Its physical composition has not been determined, but it is known to be about 8 kilometres (5 mi) across, and to have an irregular shape. ## Discovery Skathi was discovered on September 23, 2000, by Brett J. Gladman, John J. Kavelaars, Jean-Marc Petit, Hans Scholl, Matthew J. Holman, Brian G. Marsden, Phil Nicholson, and Joseph A. Burns. The team used images taken by the Canada–France–Hawaii Telescope at the Mauna Kea Observatories. At first, Skathi was given the temporary name "S/2000 S 8": the first "S" denotes that Skathi is a satellite (as opposed to, say, a planetary ring), "2000" specifies that it was discovered in the year 2000, the second "S" is assigned because it orbits the planet Saturn, and the number 8 means that it was the eighth such object discovered in that year. Skathi's name was specifically chosen to diversify the origins of names given to astronomical objects. Most English names for planets are derived from the Roman names for planets, and scientists who have named satellites have tended to follow this pattern. Given this context, the historian Jürgen Blunck wrote that Kavelaars "attempted to help astronomical nomenclature to find its way out of its Greco-Romano-Renaissance rut", attempting to assign the newly discovered satellites names "that were both multicultural and Canadian". For Skathi he selected a name from Norse mythology, in which Skaði is a giantess who traveled to Asgard to avenge the death of her father. Several of Saturn's other satellites (Ijiraq, Kiviuq, Paaliaq, Siarnaq, and Tarqeq) were given names from Inuit mythology. When the name of the moon was announced in 2003, it was given as "Skadi", using as a graphical approximation of the Icelandic letter (eth). In 2005, the IAU Working Group on Planetary System Nomenclature instead decided to use the transliteration . When Skathi was given its permanent name, it was also assigned the Roman numeral designation Saturn XXVII. ## Orbit and rotation All of the members of Saturn's Norse group of satellites, which includes Skathi, share roughly the same orbital characteristics. Skathi has a retrograde orbit, meaning that it orbits in the opposite direction as Saturn's orbit. It takes more than 725 days to complete one orbit around Saturn, and it does so at an average distance of 15,576,000 kilometres (9,678,000 mi). An orbital period of just over two years is fast for an irregular satellite of Saturn, and Skathi completes an orbit faster than any other named retrograde moon of Saturn except Phoebe. Its orbital inclination, which represents how slanted its orbit is compared to the plane on which most objects orbit the Sun, is 149° compared to the ecliptic and 150° compared to Saturn's equator. This means that it orbits at a sharp angle compared to most objects in the Solar System. Skathi also has an orbital eccentricity of 0.246. A circular orbit has a value of zero; Skathi's orbit is more elliptical than the orbit of many objects in the Solar System, such as Earth's, which has an eccentricity of 0.017. Skathi's rotation period was initially estimated to be between 11 and 12 hours. As of 2019, the most precise measurements were those taken by the Cassini probe, which identified the time taken for Skathi to revolve around its axis of rotation at 11.10±0.02 hours. ## Physical characteristics Skathi was first identified by Earth-based observations, and much of the information about Skathi's features and composition comes from observations taken from Earth. The Cassini probe also observed Skathi on eight occasions between March 2011 and August 2016. However, these observations were conducted during a flyby at a distance of nearly 9.7 million kilometres (6 million miles); even in these observations, Skathi was just a dim point of light. It has an apparent optical magnitude of 23.6 from Earth, and an absolute visual magnitude of about 14, so it is much less bright from Earth than many hundreds of thousands of objects outside the Solar System. From Earth, it appears close to the much brighter object that it orbits, Saturn, and is assumed to have a low surface albedo of about 0.06. Observations by Cassini suggest that Skathi is about 8 kilometres (5 miles) in diameter. The amount of light that Skathi reflects varies substantially as it rotates, which implies that it is an irregularly shaped object. Its spectral slope of +5.2%/100 nm indicates a reddish surface, similar to the Gallic group moons Erriapus and Tarvos. Many of Saturn's moons are composed of water ice and rock, but Skathi's chemical composition has not been determined, and it may have different physical composition than Saturn's other moons (particularly because it may not have originated in the vicinity of Saturn). The density of Skathi is also not known, but Saturnian irregular satellites are typically not dense, below 1 gram per cubic centimetre, and low densities are thought to characterize most of these objects. ## Origin There has been active debate on the origin of Skathi and Saturn's other irregular satellites, prompted by how different their orbits are compared to other satellites of Saturn and of the sun. The planets and satellites of a planetary system are thought to usually form by accreting together out of objects in a protoplanetary disk. Because the particles in any part of a protoplanetary disk usually move in similar directions and at similar speeds, a moon that formed from a merger of these particles should have a fairly circular, prograde orbit, approximately on the plane of the protoplanetary disk. But Skathi's irregular orbit, like the other natural satellites of Saturn that share similarly irregular orbits, has prompted alternative speculations about its origin. One possibility is that Skathi originally formed somewhere other than in the vicinity of Saturn, and then began to travel through space before being captured by the planet. However, it is also possible that Skathi is a piece of debris that was knocked off of one of Saturn's other moons, during a collision with another object. Because orbits can be extremely chaotic and sensitive to initial conditions, it is possible that some types of collisions could produce an extremely irregular orbit like Skathi's, although these orbits are usually not stable over very long timescales. ## See also - Norse group - Stats of planets in the Solar System
1,801,336	Adam Mitchell (Doctor Who)	1,173,777,919	Fictional character in the Dr Who TV series	[ "British male characters in television", "Doctor Who companions", "Fictional English people", "Fictional characters from the 21st century", "Recurring characters in Doctor Who", "Television characters introduced in 2005" ]	Adam Mitchell is a fictional character in the British science fiction television series Doctor Who, played by Bruno Langley. Adam is introduced in the first series of the programme's revival as the second television companion of the Ninth Doctor (Christopher Eccleston). However, unlike the Ninth Doctor's primary companion, Rose Tyler (Billie Piper), who provided an effective human contrast to the Doctor's centuries-old alien, Adam was created to provide an example of an inept time traveller. The character is introduced as a boy genius from the year 2012 who attracts the attention of the Doctor's traveling companion Rose after she and the Doctor meet him in his place of work. Despite Rose's willingness to accept Adam as a fellow traveller, the Doctor is sceptical. After Adam attempts to use information from the future for his own gain, the Doctor throws Adam out of the TARDIS and sends him home. This was the first example of the Doctor forcing a companion to leave because of negative behaviour. Adam was created during executive producer Russell T Davies' original pitch to the BBC as part of his plans to revive Doctor Who for the channel. Though established early in the series' planning, Adam was always intended to be a short-term character. Though reviewers generally reacted negatively to the character, Adam's role as a foil to the stock companion figure has been praised alongside the moral lessons of his departure. ## Appearances Adam first appears in the first series episode "Dalek" as a young researcher under the employ of Henry van Statten (Corey Johnson), who is the owner of a museum of extraterrestrial artefacts in an underground bunker in Utah. Adam mentions that he is a genius, having successfully hacked into the United States Department of Defense computers when he was eight years old. He quickly forms a mutual attraction with Rose and informs her of his desire to see the stars. When a live Dalek manages to break free and slaughter its way through the base, Adam finds himself fleeing along with Rose. At the end of the episode, when van Statten's museum is closed down, Rose asks the Doctor to take Adam along with them in the TARDIS. The Doctor is reluctant, but Rose convinces him to let Adam travel with them in the TARDIS. In the following episode, "The Long Game", the Doctor, Rose, and Adam arrive on a space station in the year 200,000, and Adam is overwhelmed by culture shock. Tempted by the wealth of information and technology available to him, he has an advanced computer interface port, activated by a click of the fingers, installed in his head that allows him to access the future's computer system. He attempts to transmit information back to 21st-century Earth using Rose's modified mobile phone to leave the data on his parents' answering machine. This backfires when the villains running the station attempt to extract information on the Doctor directly from Adam's brain via his new interface port. As punishment for Adam's breach of trust, the Doctor returns him home and destroys his answering machine and the data transmitted to it. When Adam's mother (Judy Holt) returns home, she reacts with shock and horror after inadvertently activating the implant installed in his forehead. In the 2013 comic book series Prisoners of Time, released to celebrate the 50th anniversary, Adam is the main antagonist. After his mother dies he acquires a Vortex Manipulator and plans to kidnap the Doctor's companions for revenge due to the Doctor preventing him from acquiring technology that could have saved her, tracking down all eleven Doctors and abducting their companions at various points in their lives. At the end of the story, Adam is revealed to have allied himself with a past version of the Master as the two confront the Eleventh Doctor, Adam offering to spare one companion of the Doctor's choice while killing the others. However, the Doctor turns the tables on Adam by summoning his past selves to aid him, as well as arranging for Frobisher to be captured while posing as Peri, allowing him to escape captivity and sabotage Adam's equipment to release the rest of the companions. When the Master reveals his true goal of channeling chronal energy through the TARDIS to destroy the universe, Adam is given a unique chance at redemption as he sacrifices himself to destroy the Master's equipment. In his last moments, he is reconciled with the Ninth, Tenth and Eleventh Doctors, and Rose, and acknowledged as a "companion true" on his gravestone, receiving posthumous validation by the eleven Doctors and his fellow companions. Mitchell appears in The Ninth Doctor Chronicles which was released in May 2017. ## Conceptual history The character of Adam Mitchell was first conceived, along with Henry van Statten, during Russell T Davies' 2003 pitch to the BBC, in a story heavily based on Robert Shearman's audio play Jubilee, which would later form the base for the episode "Dalek". It was always the intention of the production team for Adam to join the TARDIS after Rose developed a liking for him. To play this role Langley was chosen, mostly because of his role on Coronation Street as Todd Grimshaw. He had auditioned for the role on the same day as doing publicity for his leaving storyline in Coronation Street. Reacting to his casting, Langley remarked that "I couldn't have asked for a better next role because Doctor Who is another great institution." Langley describes Adam as "a bit nerdy" and states of his character's attraction to Rose that "she's a very pretty girl and Adam hasn't seen any girls for a long time." Since 1963, the perennial companion figure in Doctor Who generally serves to remind the Doctor of his "moral duty". However, Adam was never meant to be a long-term companion. In the behind-the-scenes book Doctor Who: The Inside Story Davies explains that he "always wanted to do a show with someone who was a rubbish companion" and dubs Adam "the companion that couldn't". In an episode of Doctor Who Confidential he characterised Adam as "a little bit ambitious" and "a little bit too clever for his own good." Langley added that the character ends up "on the wrong side of the tracks" because he likes "meddling with things" and that "him thinking he's a genius gets him into bother". Explaining Adam's downfall, Davies states that he "doesn't realize he's out for his own good until he's put in a situation of temptation, where knowledge, information and power are put in front of him." Davies felt that Adam's story provided "a chance to see someone starting on that path" before the Doctor cuts his ambitions short. Originally, there were several aspects of the character that were cut before appearing on screen: in early drafts, he was the son of Henry van Statten. In the DVD commentary for "The Long Game" director Brian Grant and actor Bruno Langley discuss Adam's scripted motive of bringing future medical knowledge back home to cure his father, who was suffering from ill health, though this motive did not remain in the final episode. To promote the character during the week "The Long Game" was first broadcast, the in-universe tie-in website "Who is Doctor Who?" announced that "14 year-old Adam Mitchell from Nottingham" had won a competition arranged by van Statten the previous week. Adam's winning essay on "Why I Want To Meet An Alien" mentions a desire to acquire advanced knowledge from them with the explanation "I don't think it's cheating, really. It's just a shortcut". ## Reception Dek Hogan of Digital Spy reacted negatively to Adam's introduction in "Dalek", stating that he "didn't really see the point of Todd Grimshaw out of Corrie popping up". He suggested it would have been more entertaining had the episode featured Langley's screen mother from Coronation Street instead. Ian Hyland of the Sunday Mirror also disliked Adam's introduction, describing "the introduction of a puppy-love sequence between Rose and a cute English boy" as "very, very irritating". SFX Magazine commented on the similarity between Adam's introduction to the future and that of Rose in "The End of the World", stating "it was clearly a deliberate parallel on Russell's part, as part of his scheme to contrast and compare the reactions of Rose and Adam". Their website reviewer observed that Adam's "comedy faint" marked him out as an unsuitable traveller. Marc Edward DiPaulo of the University of Oklahoma notes that Adam's role in "The Long Game" is to provide satire on the media and to function as "a condemnation of those who cannot stop immersing themselves in television, the Internet, iPods, and other nonstop broadcasters of what the Doctor calls 'useless information.'" Fraser McAlpine, reviewing Adam's appearances as companion for BBC America's Anglophenia blog, describes him as a "craven meddler" and a "social climber". By virtue of his failures, Adam becomes "the companion that proves the worth of all of the other companions". In their book Who is the Doctor, Graeme Burk and Robert Smith described Adam in "Dalek" as "somewhat annoying". Burk referred to him in "The Long Game" as "arrogant and narcissistic", which made Rose appear shallow for insisting he travel with them, but felt that Langley did "a superb job" conveying the character's flaws. He stated that it was "a shame" that the backstory of Adam's motivations were cut from the script, as it would have made his character more believable. The two found a logical flaw in the Doctor's decision to drop Adam off, as it was a possibility that someone could get their hands on the future technology. Radio Times reviewer Patrick Mulkern gave a positive overview of Adam, describing the character as "bumptious yet likeable" and his departure as "literary precision". He commented that Adam "adds an interesting dynamic, subtly different" from Mickey Smith and Captain Jack Harkness, who also worked with Rose and the Ninth Doctor. Instead of threatening the Doctor and Rose's relationship, Adam "serves to strengthen it". In 2010 Mark Harrison of Den of Geek listed the character's exit from the TARDIS as the tenth greatest companion farewell scene stating that it was "great to get a glimpse of the Doctor outright booting someone out." He felt that the character "struck out in spectacular fashion" by attempting to steal future technology and that his eventual fate was an example of poetic justice. Charlie Jane Anders also praised the concept of Adam's story arc positioning his departure as the seventh most depressing exit from a companion in Doctor Who's history. She felt that to have "a companion who flunks out" was one of Davies' "cleverest ideas" as executive producer of the series and that Adam's human flaws made him relatable. In 2010 readers of the Radio Times voted Adam the 45th most popular companion, out of forty-eight viable options.
6,699,718	Jessica Mauboy	1,173,105,857	Australian singer, songwriter and actress (born 4 August 1989)	[ "1989 births", "21st-century Australian singers", "21st-century Australian women singers", "APRA Award winners", "ARIA Award winners", "Actresses from the Northern Territory", "Australian Idol participants", "Australian child singers", "Australian contemporary R&B singers", "Australian film actresses", "Australian people of Indonesian descent", "Australian singer-songwriters", "Australian women pop singers", "Australian women singer-songwriters", "Best Supporting Actress AACTA Award winners", "Eurovision Song Contest entrants for Australia", "Eurovision Song Contest entrants of 2018", "Indigenous Australian actresses", "Indigenous Australian musicians", "Jessica Mauboy", "Living people", "Musicians from the Northern Territory", "People from Darwin, Northern Territory", "Sony Music Australia artists", "Young Divas members" ]	Jessica Hilda Mauboy (born 4 August 1989) is an Australian singer, songwriter and actress. Born and raised in Darwin, Northern Territory, she rose to fame in 2006 on the fourth season of Australian Idol, where she was runner-up and subsequently signed a recording contract with Sony Music Australia. After releasing a live album of her Idol performances and briefly being a member of the girl group Young Divas in 2007, Mauboy released her debut studio album, Been Waiting, the following year. It included her first number-one single, "Burn", and became the second highest-selling Australian album of 2009, certified double platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA). Her second studio album, Get 'Em Girls (2010), showcased a harder-edged R&B sound, and produced four platinum singles. Her third studio album, Beautiful (2013), a mixture of dance-oriented tracks, R&B and pop, included the top-ten hits "Pop a Bottle (Fill Me Up)", "Never Be the Same" and "Can I Get a Moment?". Aside from her music career, Mauboy has ventured into acting, with starring roles in the films Bran Nue Dae (2010), and The Sapphires (2012), which earned her the AACTA Award for Best Actress in a Supporting Role. She returned to acting in 2016 in the lead role in the television drama series The Secret Daughter for two seasons. It was her first major TV role and was written especially for her. She released two soundtrack albums from the show, the first of which made her the first Indigenous artist with a number-one album on the ARIA Albums Chart. Her fourth studio album, Hilda (October 2019), debuted at number one. Mauboy is one of Australia's most successful female artists. She has achieved six top-ten albums (including two number-ones) and 16 top-twenty singles (including 9 top-ten hits). She has won two ARIA Music Awards from 25 nominations, and was ranked sixteenth on the Herald Sun's list of the "100 Greatest Australian Singers of All Time". She has collaborated with international artists such as Flo Rida, Snoop Dogg, Ludacris, Jay Sean, Pitbull and Jason Derulo. She has also toured with Beyoncé and Chris Brown, and performed at many notable events, including the Australian visits for Oprah Winfrey, Ellen DeGeneres, and US President Barack Obama. She was a guest performer at the second semifinal of the Eurovision Song Contest in 2014. She competed for Australia at the 2018 Eurovision Song Contest and reached 20th place. Since 2021, she has been a coach on The Voice Australia. ## Early life Mauboy was born in 1989 and raised in Darwin, Northern Territory. Her father, Ferdy, is an Indonesian-born electrician from West Timor. Her mother, Therese, is an Indigenous Australian from the Kuku Yalanji people of the rainforest regions of Far North Queensland. Mauboy has three older sisters, Sandra, Jenny and Catherine; and a younger sister, Sophia. From an early age, she was involved in the local church choir with her grandmother Harriett. Her home was described as the "noisiest house on the block", with her mother often singing, her father playing guitar and the rest of the family displaying their passion for music. She attended Wulagi Primary School and Sanderson High School in Darwin. Jessica dropped out of school in year 11 to pursue her passion for music. At age fourteen, Mauboy's talents were exposed through the Telstra Road to Tamworth competition at the 2004 Tamworth Country Music Festival in Tamworth, New South Wales. As the first winner of the competition, she travelled to Sydney to perform and scored a recording deal with Sony Music Australia. She released a country-inspired rendition of the Cyndi Lauper hit "Girls Just Wanna Have Fun". A video of the song was produced and released, but the song was unsuccessful and Mauboy returned to Darwin. ## Music career ### 2006: Australian Idol In 2006, Mauboy auditioned for the fourth season of Australian Idol in Alice Springs, Northern Territory, singing Whitney Houston's "I Have Nothing". Her audition impressed all three judges, and she progressed to the semifinals, then to the top twelve. The media cited her previous Sony contract as grounds for dismissal, but since it had expired, the producers refused to remove her from the show. In the final eleven week, following her rendition of Kelly Clarkson's "Walk Away", judge Kyle Sandilands commented on Mauboy's weight, and said that if she wanted to succeed in the music industry, she should "lose the jelly belly". Mauboy appeared stunned by the comment. In an interview with Who magazine's Alicia Neil, two years after the comment, Mauboy said, "I kind of took it as a joke... I look back on it as a positive thing–it made me a stronger person." In the final ten-week, Mauboy received the first touchdown of the season from judge Mark Holden for her rendition of Christina Aguilera's hit "Beautiful". During the final nine-week, she had a sore throat that resulted in a mediocre rendition of Phil Collins' "Another Day in Paradise" and near-elimination, landing her in the bottom three. She never landed in the bottom three again, and ended up progressing to the final show with Damien Leith. At the grand finale on 27 November at the Sydney Opera House, Mauboy was voted runner-up to Leith. In December 2006, she signed a recording contract with Sony Music Australia, two weeks after Idol ended. ### 2007–2009: The Journey, Young Divas and Been Waiting Mauboy released her debut live album The Journey on 24 February 2007, which contained two discs. Disc one contained re-recorded covers of the selected songs Mauboy performed as part of the top twelve on Australian Idol, while disc two included a DVD of her performances on the series. The Journey debuted at number four on the ARIA Albums Chart and was certified gold by the Australian Recording Industry Association for shipments of 35,000 units. In September 2007, Mauboy joined as the new member of the girl group Young Divas, replacing one of the group's original members, Ricki-Lee Coulter, who had left in June to resume her solo career. Their second studio album New Attitude was released on 24 November 2007, and debuted at number 10 and was certified gold. The album was preceded by the lead single "Turn Me Loose", which peaked at number 15 on the ARIA Singles Chart. In March 2008, Mauboy signed on to the Australian Government In2Oz program, designed to promote closer ties with Indonesia. As a part of the program, she travelled to Indonesia for a three-day trip performing around the country, including an appearance on Indonesian Idol. It was during this time that Mauboy had begun to work on her first solo studio album. In August 2008, Mauboy announced that after a year with the Young Divas, she had decided to quit in order to concentrate on her solo career. Founding member Paulini had also decided to depart, leaving Kate DeAraugo and Emily Williams as the only remaining members. However, both DeAraugo and Williams resumed their solo careers, and the group officially disbanded. Mauboy's debut studio album Been Waiting was released on 22 November 2008; it peaked at number 11 and was certified double platinum for shipments of 140,000 units. Mauboy co-wrote eleven of the album's songs, which were produced by Audius Mtawarira, Israel Cruz, Jonas Jeberg, Cutfather, Adam Reily, Fingaz and Kwamé. The album received positive reviews from critics. Davey Boy of Sputnikmusic gave the album three out of five stars and wrote that it was an "impressive debut which suggests that there could indeed be quality music to look forward to in the future, as she matures and gains experience". The lead single "Running Back", featuring American rapper Flo Rida, peaked at number three and was certified double platinum. The second single, "Burn", became Mauboy's first number-one single, and was certified platinum. It also reached number 92 on the Japan Hot 100 and became Mauboy's first single to chart internationally. The album's third single and title track peaked at number 12 and was certified gold. The following singles, "Because" and "Up/Down", peaked at numbers nine and 11, respectively, and both were certified gold. In February 2009, Mauboy signed with UK record label Ministry of Sound. Been Waiting was released in Japan on 22 April 2009, and reached number 138 on the Japanese Albums Chart. At the 2009 Deadly Awards, Mauboy won three awards in the categories of Female Artist of the Year, Album of the Year for Been Waiting, and Single Release of the Year for "Burn". Along with Flo Rida, Mauboy served as a support act for Beyoncé on the Australian leg of her I Am... World Tour in September 2009. At the 2009 ARIA Music Awards, Mauboy earned seven nominations for Been Waiting and its singles; she was nominated for Highest Selling Album, Best Pop Release, Breakthrough Artist Album, Best Female Artist, Breakthrough Artist Single for "Running Back", and Highest Selling Single for "Running Back" and "Burn". Eventually, Mauboy won Highest Selling Single for "Running Back". ### 2010–2012: Get 'Em Girls and The Sapphires soundtrack In January 2010, Mauboy signed to Universal Music for an exclusive worldwide long-term publishing agreement. In May 2010, Mauboy collaborated with four other international artists representing their continents—Sean Kingston representing America, Jody Williams representing Africa, Tabitha Nauser (Asia), Steve Appleton (Europe), with Mauboy representing Oceania—on the theme song for the 2010 Summer Youth Olympics titled "Everyone". Mauboy, Williams, Nauser and Appleton performed "Everyone" at the opening of the Youth Olympics held in Singapore on 14 August 2010. Kingston was unable to attend the performance, due to a passport mix-up. Mauboy released her second studio album Get 'Em Girls on 5 November 2010; it debuted at number six and was certified gold. She had travelled to the United States in February of that year to work on the album in Los Angeles, New York, and Atlanta with American songwriters and producers, most of whom she had not worked with previously. Mauboy co-wrote eight of the album's songs. Get 'Em Girls received mixed reviews from critics. Majhid Heath of ABC Online Indigenous gave the album two-and-a-half out of five stars, writing that it's a "non-cohesive mess of similar sounding, auto-tuned ravaged pop/R&B that diminishes the talent of this brilliant young songstress". The album's title track, featuring American rapper Snoop Dogg, peaked at number 19. Mauboy performed "Get 'Em Girls" at the 2010 Nickelodeon Australian Kids' Choice Awards, where she co-hosted the award ceremony with Liam Hemsworth and Jerry Trainor, and won the award for Fave Aussie Muso. The following singles, "Saturday Night" featuring American rapper Ludacris and "What Happened to Us" featuring English singer Jay Sean, peaked at numbers seven and 14, respectively. The former single was certified double platinum while the latter was only certified platinum. At the 2010 Australian of the Year Awards, Mauboy received her first nomination for Young Australian of the Year. On 10 December 2010, she performed in front of an audience of 92,000 at the Federation Square in Melbourne, ahead of Oprah Winfrey's visit to the place. Mauboy's performance was shown in the first of the four Australian specials of The Oprah Winfrey Show on 18 January 2011. In April 2011, she served as a support act for Chris Brown's Australian leg of his F.A.M.E. Tour. Get 'Em Girls was re-released as a deluxe edition on 12 August 2011, which included the singles "Inescapable" and "Galaxy" featuring Stan Walker. The former single peaked at number four and was certified double platinum, while the latter peaked at number 13 and was certified platinum. "Galaxy" also reached number 36 on the New Zealand Singles Chart and became Mauboy's first single to chart in that country. On 17 November 2011, Mauboy performed for the Australian troops at RAAF Base Darwin, ahead of US President Barack Obama's visit to the place. In January 2012, Mauboy and Walker embarked on their Galaxy Tour across Australia, which served as her first headlining tour. Mauboy recorded 15 songs for The Sapphires soundtrack album, which was released on 27 July 2012. The album debuted at number one and was certified platinum. Mauboy released "Gotcha" as the album's lead single, which peaked at number 43 and was certified gold. At the 2012 ARIA Music Awards, she was nominated for Best Female Artist, Best Pop Release for "Gotcha", and Song of the Year for "Galaxy". ### 2013–2014: Beautiful, Eurovision and iTunes Session EP Mauboy received two nominations at the 2013 Australian of the Year Awards for Young Australian of the Year and Northern Territory Young Australian of the Year; she won the latter award. In March 2013, she participated in a singing quiz segment for Ellen DeGeneres' two Australian shows in Sydney and Melbourne. In September 2013, she performed at the 65th Primetime Emmy Awards Governors Ball in Los Angeles. Mauboy's third studio album Beautiful was released on 4 October 2013; it debuted at number three and was certified platinum. The lead single "To the End of the Earth" peaked at number 21 and was certified gold, while the second single "Pop a Bottle (Fill Me Up)" debuted at number two and was certified platinum. "Pop a Bottle (Fill Me Up)" also reached number 33 in New Zealand and became Mauboy's third single to chart internationally. The following singles, "Beautiful" and "Never Be the Same", peaked at numbers 46 and six, respectively, with the latter single being certified platinum. At the 2013 NRL Grand Final on 6 October 2013, Mauboy performed the Australian national anthem, "Livin' la Vida Loca", with Ricky Martin, and a medley of "Something's Got a Hold on Me" and "Pop a Bottle (Fill Me Up)". At the 2013 ARIA Music Awards, Mauboy won Best Female Artist for "To the End of the Earth". She embarked on the To the End of the Earth Tour, her second headlining tour, from November 2013 to January 2014. To coincide with the 2014 Australia Day celebrations, Mauboy along with Dami Im, Justice Crew, Nathaniel Willemse, Samantha Jade and Taylor Henderson released a cover of "I Am Australian" which peaked at number 51. She appeared in an episode of Sesame Street on 20 March 2014, singing "Count the Kangaroos" in a clip which was filmed in Alice Springs with children from Yipirinya State Primary School. Mauboy was chosen by SBS to perform at the 2014 Eurovision Song Contest, in recognition of Australia's love affair with the annual event. She performed the single "Sea of Flags" during the second semi-final in Denmark. SBS screened the documentary, Jessica Mauboy's Road to Eurovision on 10 May 2014 before their coverage of the second semi-final. Mauboy's first extended play iTunes Session was released on 18 July 2014, and debuted at number 25. On 3 August 2014, she performed during the 2014 Commonwealth Games Flag Handover Ceremony at Hampden Park Stadium in Glasgow, Scotland, to mark the official handover of the Commonwealth Games from Glasgow to the Gold Coast in 2018. Beautiful was re-released as a platinum edition on 21 November 2014, which included the singles "Can I Get a Moment?" and "The Day Before I Met You". The former single debuted at number five and was certified platinum. Mauboy received three nominations at the 2014 ARIA Music Awards, including Album of the Year and Best Female Artist for Beautiful, and Best Video for "Never Be the Same". ### 2015–2018: The Secret Daughter soundtracks and Eurovision Mauboy performed at the ICC Cricket World Cup opening ceremony held on 12 February 2015 at the Sidney Myer Music Bowl in Melbourne. On 3 May 2015, she appeared on the US Today show in a segment that was filmed live at the Sydney Opera House with host Savannah Guthrie. In an interview with the Australian Associated Press that same month, Mauboy revealed that she had already begun writing songs for her upcoming fourth studio album. She said, "This time around with the album I would like to...just take risks in terms of the sound and identifying who I am as a woman. It's more of a rhythmic pop so it's not going to be extreme pop. It's going to be a little bit more soul." "This Ain't Love", released in September 2015, was originally intended to be the album's lead single; it peaked at number five and was certified gold. Mauboy along with The Veronicas and Tina Arena performed Arena's 1994 single "Chains" at the 2015 ARIA Music Awards, where Arena was inducted into the ARIA Hall of Fame. Their version was released as a single following the performance, and peaked at number 14. In March 2016, Mauboy released the single "Where I'll Stay", which was used to promote the Seven Network's coverage of the 2016 Rio Olympics. Plans for Mauboy's upcoming fourth studio album were put on hold when she released her first individual soundtrack album, The Secret Daughter: Songs from the Original TV Series, on 14 October 2016. The album featured music used in the television series of the same name, in which Mauboy plays the lead role of Billie Carter. The album included five original songs and twelve cover versions of songs by Cold Chisel, Crowded House, The Clash, Roxette, Ed Sheeran and Alex Lloyd, among others. One of the original tracks, "Risk It", was released as the lead single from the soundtrack album. The Secret Daughter: Songs from the Original TV Series became Mauboy's first individual number-one album and also made her the first Indigenous artist to reach number one on the ARIA Albums Chart. Mauboy embarked on her third headlining tour, All the Hits Live – The Australian Tour, in March and April 2017, where she performed songs from the last 10 years of her career. Mauboy's second individual soundtrack album, The Secret Daughter Season Two: Songs from the Original 7 Series, was released on 6 October 2017. The album included two original songs and sixteen covers of songs by The Church, Crowded House, Thirsty Merc, Paul Kelly, Lighthouse Family and Aretha Franklin, among others. Original track "Fallin'" was released as the album's lead single; it peaked at number 11, became Mauboy's sixteenth top-twenty hit, and was certified platinum. The Secret Daughter Season Two: Songs from the Original 7 Series debuted at number two and became Mauboy's fifth top-ten album. She received six nominations at the 2017 ARIA Music Awards, including Best Female Artist and Best Original Soundtrack, Cast or Show Album for The Secret Daughter, Best Australian Live Act, and Song of the Year, Best Pop Release and Best Video for "Fallin'". On 11 December 2017, Mauboy was announced as the Australian representative for the 2018 Eurovision Song Contest in Portugal; becoming the fourth artist to compete for Australia. In May 2018, Mauboy performed the song "We Got Love" which finished in 20th position in the final. ### 2019–2020: Hilda and Sony depart On 11 April 2019, Mauboy released her new single "Sunday" from her upcoming fourth studio album, Hilda (October 2019). A video for the song was released on 30 April 2019, directed by Nick Waterman and produced by Jo Austin. The album's second single "Little Things" was released on 21 June along with the pre-order for the album. Hilda debuted at number one on the ARIA Albums Chart. In October 2019 "Little Things" was certified as an ARIA platinum single. The same month, "Selfish" impacted Australian radio as the third official single from Hilda. In December 2020, Mauboy left Sony after fourteen years and signed a new record deal with Warner Music Australia, with new music to be released in 2021. ### 2021–present: Signing with Warner Music and Yours Forever On 12 November 2021, Mauboy released "Glow", the first release on Warner Music Australia. On 27 April 2022, she announced the release of her second single "Automatic", stating "It's happening! My brand new single AUTOMATIC is out May 8th!". The music video for the track was also released on May 8, 2022, on her YouTube channel. On 24 February 2023, Mauboy performed "Right Here Right Now" at Sydney World Pride 2023. It was released on 17 March 2023. On 11 August 2023, Mauboy released "Give You Love" featuring Jason Derulo, as the lead single from her fifth studio album Yours Forever scheduled for release in February 2024. ## Personal life In late 2008, Mauboy moved from Darwin to Sydney, ahead of the release of her debut studio album Been Waiting. In January 2009, she began a long-distance relationship with Themeli "Magoo" Magripilis, a soccer player and council worker of Greek descent, who was born and raised in Darwin. Magripilis played for the Darwin soccer league's club Hellenic Athletic, the same club that Mauboy's younger sister Sophia played for. After seven years of long distance dating, Magripilis relocated from Darwin to Sydney in September 2016 and moved in with Mauboy. The couple wed in Darwin on 9 July 2022. When she is not working, Mauboy returns to Darwin to spend time with her family. She is an avid fan of NRL side North Queensland Cowboys. ## Artistry ### Music and songwriting Mauboy's music is generally R&B and pop, but she also incorporates dance, funk, soul and hip hop into some of her songs. Mauboy's debut studio album Been Waiting (2008) was described as "a blend of electro beats, heartfelt pop tunes and R&B bass lines." Most of the themes on the album dealt with boys, love and break-ups, everyday life, family issues, and friendship. Alasdair Duncan from Rave magazine described Mauboy's second studio album Get 'Em Girls (2010) as "a more hard-edged take on R&B and pop than her debut, pumped full of hip hop beats, jagged synths and futuristic vocal effects." Mauboy said that she wanted each song on the album to talk about a "woman's needs", and that the album's theme was "very much about the empowerment of women and the domination of women." Kylie Northover of The Sydney Morning Herald noted that Mauboy's third studio album Beautiful (2013) featured "a mix of more dance-oriented tunes and her usual R&B sound". Mauboy has also incorporated her Aboriginal heritage into her music, including songs on the soundtrack album for The Sapphires and in the single "Sea of Flags". Aside from her vocals work, Mauboy can also play the piano and has co-written some of her material. She co-wrote eleven songs on her first studio album, nine on her second studio album, and fourteen on her third studio album. In 2010, Mauboy was nominated for Breakthrough Songwriter of the Year at the APRA Awards. Mauboy stated in an interview that while working with American producer Harvey Mason, Jr., they came up with the melodies and hooks for the songs "Fight for You" and "Here for Me" on the album Get 'Em Girls. She also experimented with an operatic-type voice on her song "Scariest Part". ### Influences Mauboy grew up listening to country singers Patsy Cline, Dolly Parton and Slim Dusty; she credits country music as her first love of music, saying the genre "is who I really, really am deeply." Mauboy also grew up listening to hip-hop rappers Tupac Shakur, Dr. Dre and Snoop Dogg. Mauboy cites Mariah Carey as her main influence and inspiration, stating that she has "drawn a lot of inspiration from watching and listening to her live performances". She grew up listening to many of Carey's songs and was inspired by her vocal style and songwriting, "I loved 'Dreamlover' and 'Fantasy' – and picked up loads of tips from her style of singing. She taught me that the lyrics you write have to come from personal experiences – I really felt her music. Now I aspire to writing honest lyrics with real feelings that people can relate to." Mauboy also names Whitney Houston as another influence, stating that she looks up to her and Carey "for their outstanding vocal performances". Her other musical influences are John Farnham and Beyoncé. Mauboy is also inspired by fellow Indigenous Australian women such as Olympic gold medalist Cathy Freeman and actress Deborah Mailman. ### Public image Mauboy is known for her good girl image and is considered a role model to young girls and Indigenous communities in Australia. Ed Gibbs of The Sydney Morning Herald described her as a "wholesome girl-next-door", while Holly Richards of New Idea noted that she "is renowned for her squeaky-clean image and family values." Genevieve Rosen of The Vine wrote that Mauboy's "flawless public image is no farce. Humble, genuinely engaging and passionate about public service, Mauboy, put simply, is really nice." Anna Byrne of the Herald Sun observed, "It's clear this endearing unpretentiousness is not a fame facade. In every respect, the pint-sized pop star embodies one of the most elusive qualities of stardom: relatability. It's this genuineness that has seen her star ascend to where she actually is." Fashion has influenced Mauboy's music career and image. Byrne noted that her "fashion choices have mirrored her rise in fame, with her style evolving from shy schoolgirl to confident diva, set to steal the sartorial spotlight." Mauboy cites Jennifer Lopez as her style icon. She has worn dresses designed by Dolce & Gabbana, J'Aton, Steven Khalil and Toni Matičevski, and has appeared on the covers of fashion magazines in Australia, including Elle, InStyle, and Marie Claire. She has also appeared on the cover of Who magazine's Sexiest People issue twice; first in 2012 and again in 2016. Mauboy's weight has been the subject of media interest, ever since her rise to fame on Australian Idol when judge Kyle Sandilands publicly told her to "lose the jelly belly". Mauboy told Women's Health magazine that she was proud of her curvy figure, saying "having curves is one of my favourite things". In 2014, she received media attention for her weight loss transformation from a size 12 to 8. Mauboy has an alter ego named J Malley, who she described as her "fearless side" and "sort of like Beyoncé's Sasha Fierce". Mauboy is often referred to as Australia's answer to Beyoncé. However, she does not agree with the comparisons, saying "I totally disagree with that one. I've...watched her documentary [Life Is But a Dream] and was just blown away by how magnificent she really is and it's so inspiring for me. I just think she's fantastic and I'm completely nowhere near where she is, but I aspire to that." With the release of Mauboy's second studio album Get 'Em Girls, some critics felt that she was becoming an "R&B sexpot". Both the album and its title track also received negative reviews from critics. The music video for the title track was heavily criticised by fans who felt that Mauboy had become too sexy and moved away from her good girl image. Speaking of Mauboy's image for R&B music, Fairfax Media journalist Bernard Zuel said: "It's a problem, matching the personality to a formula. The formula with young women singing modern R&B is that they have to be out there sexually, thrusting physically and vocally. But that's just not who she is." Following the release of her single "Gotcha" in 2012, Miranda Cashin of Sunshine Coast Daily noted that it was "a return to the Mauboy [we knew] before the infamous 2010 sexed-up fist-pumping album, Get 'Em Girls". ## Other ventures ### Acting career In January 2010, Mauboy made her acting debut in the film adaptation of the 1990 Aboriginal musical Bran Nue Dae. The film was directed by Rachel Perkins and also starred Ernie Dingo, Geoffrey Rush, Missy Higgins, and Deborah Mailman. In the film, Mauboy played the role of Rosie, a local church singer who has a love interest for a school boy named Willie (played by Rocky McKenzie). Her performance in the film earned her a nomination for Female Actress of the Year at the 2010 Deadly Awards. In November 2010, Mauboy made a guest appearance in the final episode of the mini-series Underbelly: Razor, and played the role of a nightclub singer named Gloria Starr. In 2012, Mauboy had a lead role in The Sapphires, a film based on the stage show of the same name. It was directed by Wayne Blair and also starred Deborah Mailman, Shari Sebbens, and Miranda Tapsell. Mauboy played the role of Julie McCrae, one of the four Indigenous Australian women who travel to Vietnam to sing for the American troops. Mauboy and the cast attended the film's premiere at the 65th Annual Cannes Film Festival in Cannes, France, on 20 May 2012. Upon its release in the US, Mauboy appeared on The Ellen DeGeneres Show on 18 April 2013. Her performance in The Sapphires earned her the AACTA Award for Best Actress in a Supporting Role and the Australian Film Critics Association Award for Best Supporting Actress. In September 2013, Mauboy made a guest appearance as herself in the third and final season of the teen drama Dance Academy. In 2016, Mauboy was cast in the lead role of the television drama series The Secret Daughter, which premiered on the Seven Network on 3 October. It was Mauboy's first major TV role and was written especially for her. She portrayed the role of Billie Carter, a part-time country pub singer whose life changes after coming in contact with a rich hotelier. The role earned Mauboy her first Logie Award nomination for Best Actress, and the show was renewed for a second and final season in 2017. Mauboy guest starred in the 2016 season finale of Home and Away as herself, where she performed at the Summer Bay Groove Festival. ### Endorsements In 2007, Mauboy appeared in advertisements for the shampoo product, Head & Shoulders. In April 2009, she teamed up with Bloom Cosmetics to create two designer collection nail polishes, which included shades of sangria red and metallic green. Mauboy became the new face of the video game Nintendogs + Cats 3DS in October 2010, and joined forces with RSPCA and Nintendo to help promote the game. She teamed up with clothing label KuKu in December 2010 to launch her five-dress fashion range, which were made available to buy at Myer stores across Australia. In February 2013, Mauboy was announced as the ambassador for the National Rugby League (NRL) and featured in their television advertising campaign singing her cover version of Etta James' "Something's Got a Hold on Me", the theme song for the 2013 NRL season. The following month, Mauboy became the ambassador of the 2013 Woolworths Earn & Learn program, which enables primary and secondary schools in Australia as well as early learning centres to earn educational resources through the school community shopping at Woolworths. She appeared in two television commercials for the program, featuring students from Wulagi Primary School in Darwin. In 2014, Mauboy became the ambassador for the health and wellness company Swisse and appeared in a television commercial for Telstra's commitment to its customers campaign. In May 2015, she became the new face for Target Australia's Womenswear and represented the brand for a year. Mauboy's first fragrance, Be Beautiful, was released on 30 October 2015. The fragrance was developed by Mauboy in partnership with BrandPoint and was inspired by her hometown of Darwin. In February 2017, Mauboy became the ambassador for Foxtel's new Fox League channel dedicated to screening rugby league, and appeared in a television commercial to help launch the channel. ### Philanthropy Throughout her career, Mauboy has supported various charities in Australia. She is an ambassador for the Sony Foundation, which raises funds for youth-related causes. As an ambassador for the Foundation, Mauboy has made several hospital visits and performed at many of their annual fundraising events such as Wharf4Ward, which raises funds to build specialised youth cancer centres across Australia. In April 2009, sales from the nail polish bottles Mauboy created with Bloom Cosmetics were donated to Children's Hospital Foundations Australia to support the research into childhood illness. Mauboy has performed at several other fundraising events including charity balls, charity dinners, Christmas carols events, and telethons. For many years, Mauboy has performed at the annual Channel Seven Perth Telethon. In December 2011, she performed free acoustic concerts across Australia as part of the Indian Pacific Outback Christmas train journey, an annual fund-raiser for the Royal Flying Doctor Service. On 14 December 2012, she performed a free pop up show at Federation Square in Melbourne, as part of the Optus Carols for a Cause event, which raised funds for Kids Helpline and The Smith Family. Mauboy headlined the Come Together charity concert in Ulverstone, Tasmania on 19 May 2013, in aid of two boys who were burnt in an explosion. All proceeds from the concert went into a trust fund for the boys' ongoing treatment. Mauboy has also contributed to Indigenous organisations aimed at improving children's education. In 2009, she became a spokesperson for the Indigenous Literacy Project (ILP), which aims to provide "books and learning materials to schools, libraries and women's centres in remote areas." As spokesperson for the charity, Mauboy visited schools across Australia and talked to students about the importance of education. In 2011, she worked with the Yalari organisation "that offers children from regional, rural and remote communities and towns across Australia the opportunity to get a first-class secondary education." In 2013, Mauboy was appointed as the ambassador of the independent Aboriginal Yipirinya School in Alice Springs. Along with making several visits to the school, Mauboy has helped promote the school and assist with its fundraisings. In August 2015, she became an ambassador for the Indigenous Literacy Foundation, which raises support and awareness of literacy in remote indigenous communities. Her songs have been included on charity compilation albums such as Bushfire Aid: Artists for the Bushfire Appeal (2009), Spirit of Christmas (2009), and Flood Relief – Artists for the Flood Appeal (2011). Mauboy along with Guy Sebastian, Sheppard, Jon Stevens, Shannon Noll and Megan Washington were featured on Lee Kernaghan's 2015 charity single "Spirit of the Anzacs", which raised funds for Legacy and Soldier On. ### Television In December 2020, Mauboy was announced to have joined the judging panel of The Voice Australia for its tenth season to replace Boy George. ## Discography - Been Waiting (2008) - Get 'Em Girls (2010) - Beautiful (2013) - Hilda (2019) - Yours Forever (2024) ## Filmography ### Film - Bran Nue Dae (2010) - The Sapphires (2012) ### Television - Australian Idol (2006) - The Secret Daughter (2016–17) - The Voice Australia (2021–Present) - The Voice: Generations Australia (2022) ### Music videos and other videography ## Tours Headlining - Galaxy Tour (with Stan Walker) (2012) - To the End of the Earth Tour (2013–14) - All the Hits Live – The Australian Tour (2017) - The Boss Lady Tour (2022) - Yours Forever Tour (2024) Supporting act' - Beyoncé's I Am... World Tour: Australian leg (2009) - Chris Brown's F.A.M.E. Tour: Australian leg (2011) ## See also - List of awards and nominations received by Jessica Mauboy
56,165,816	1972 New Zealand eight	1,133,269,054	Rowing team	[ "1971 in New Zealand sport", "1971 in rowing", "1972 in New Zealand sport", "1972 in rowing", "Rowing crews", "Rowing in New Zealand" ]	The 1972 New Zealand eight was a team of Olympic gold medallists in rowing from New Zealand, having previously won the 1971 European Rowing Championships. At the time, the eight was regarded as the blue ribbon class of rowing, and the sport still had amateur-status in New Zealand, unlike many other nations competing in rowing. After a disappointing Olympic performance at the 1968 Summer Olympics by the New Zealand eight, national selectors Rusty Robertson, Don Rowlands, and Fred Strachan were tasked with assembling a new crew. Robertson was also the team's coach. The next time a New Zealand eight competed was at the 1970 World Rowing Championships, where they came third. The team was once again significantly changed for the next rowing season, with the 1971 edition of the European Rowing Championships and other international regattas beforehand seen as the ultimate test for the 1972 Summer Olympics. The team put up an impressive performance, beat the highly favoured East German eight, and became European champion; at the time the win was regarded to hold world championship status. No further changes were made to the team, not even their seating position, for the 1972 season. Despite a shoe-string budget, financial constraints, and all rowers working part-time, the 1971 success was repeated and the team won Olympic gold in Munich. The president of the International Olympic Committee (IOC), Avery Brundage, was a zealous advocate of amateurism; he was so impressed by the New Zealand performance that he insisted on handing out the gold medals himself. During the medal ceremony, much to almost everybody's surprise, "God Defend New Zealand" was played instead of the national anthem, "God Save the Queen". It was the impetus for a campaign to make "God Defend New Zealand" the New Zealand anthem, and in 1977 it was gazetted as having equal status to the traditional anthem. The team won some significant awards and recognition for its successes. The rules of the "Sportsman of the Year Award" had to be changed so that a team could win the supreme award; this was awarded after their European championship win. Brundage also awarded the Taher Pacha Trophy to the team for distinction in amateur sport in 1971. After the Olympic success, the team was again awarded "Sportsman of the Year"; the first time a back-to-back award had been handed out. Rowlands, their manager, was appointed a Member of the Order of the British Empire (MBE) in the 1973 New Year Honours. Over time, coach Robertson, manager Rowlands, and then the team as a whole were inducted into the New Zealand Sports Hall of Fame. ## Background There were expectations for the New Zealand eight to win a medal at the 1968 Summer Olympics in Mexico City, but the team came fourth and this was regarded as a failure. The situation was the opposite for the other New Zealand boat in Mexico. The coxed four was technically a spare, the crew had travelled to be available as a reserve for the eight team. The coxed four won an unexpected gold medal. Getting the amateur rowers to Mexico had required a massive fund-raising exercise and the New Zealand rowing association was in no position to send rowers to any international regattas in 1969, but targeted the 1970 World Rowing Championships in St. Catharines, Ontario, Canada. At the time, the eight was seen as the most important boat class, and three from the Mexico eight trained for the 1970 world championships: Wybo Veldman, John Hunter, and Gil Cawood. Most of the crew of the 1968 coxed four made another four members: Warren Cole, Dick Joyce, Dudley Storey, and cox Simon Dickie. The team was complemented by experienced sculler Murray Watkinson and a young Gary Robertson. Ross Collinge from the Mexico coxed four had attended the trials but missed selection. After having won both its heat and the semifinal in Canada (beating the Soviet Union and West Germany in the latter), the boat came third. East Germany dominated, and the Soviet Union was a mere 0.2 seconds ahead the New Zealand boat. The team did not gel, and Watkinson's selection became regarded as a mistake; as a single sculler, he had become used to "doing his thing in his own time". The officials at the time were Rusty Robertson as coach, Don Rowlands as manager, fund-raiser and organiser, and Fred Strachan as strategist. The coach was the uncle of the youngest crew member, Gary Robertson. Robertson had been appointed coach in 1967 and it was then that the national training centre relocated from Auckland to Christchurch, under great controversy. Kerrs Reach on Christchurch's Avon River was more convenient to reach for Dunedin-based Strachan than Auckland, and coach Robertson embarked on a daily drive from Oamaru—a 500 kilometres (310 mi) return journey–after work whenever there was a training day. ## 1971 European Rowing Championships The 1971 European Rowing Championships were seen as an important stepping stone in the preparation for the 1972 Olympic Games at Munich. The intention was to select a crew and then make minimal changes prior to Munich. At the time, both the World Rowing Championships and the Summer Olympic Games were held at four-year intervals, and the annual European Rowing Championships in the in-between years were regarded as having quasi-world championship status. Rowing officials decided Watkinson would revert to single sculls, and for Storey to return to the coxed four. Cawood was no longer available. The three were replaced by three developing rowers—Lindsay Wilson, Joe Earl, and Trevor Coker—and they were teamed with the other young rower, Gary Robertson, to form the bow of the boat. The biggest selection surprise was Earl, as he had just turned 18. Although coached by Strachan at St. Andrew's College in Christchurch and known to all but one of the selectors, Earl himself doubted that he would have been chosen ahead of more experienced oarsmen. The experienced rowers chosen for the stern—Cole, Veldman, Joyce, and Hunter—were kept from the 1970 crew. The day before the team was to assemble in Christchurch for their first training, Cole pulled out for family reasons. Tony Hurt from Auckland was chosen to replace him. Joyce was the initial stroke, but this did not work out. He was replaced by Hurt who, although from a sculling background and, at 183 centimetres (6 ft 0 in) and 83 kilograms (13.1 st) small for a rower, worked out well for the team. Veldman called him "a brilliant stroke". On Sunday afternoon, the four stern rowers and their bow counterparts would race each other in coxless fours. Dickie recalls that the experienced rowers in the stern had a slight edge, but they did not win every time, and there was great rivalry. The crew arrived in Europe to find that both their new four and eight Italian Donoratico boats were unsatisfactory. Joyce applied his engineering skills and moved all seats backwards, and that improved the boats' performances. Regattas were rowed in Duisburg and Klagenfurt, and the New Zealanders set new course records at both venues. At the European Rowing Championships, held at the Danish Lake Bagsværd north of Copenhagen, the favoured East Germans, but also the West Germans, also set new course records in their heat, only to be bettered by the New Zealanders in their heat. In the semi-final, New Zealand faced the Soviet Union, the team that had narrowly beaten them for second place at the 1970 World Championships. Both New Zealand and East Germany won their semi-finals in convincing style. The East Germans were the favourites, being the incumbent European and World champions, and they had not been beaten in five years since they came together in age-group competitions. They were full-time athletes, nominally employed by the Police. Veldman described them as being like clones, as their rowers were well matched in height and arm length. There were also rumours of doping, something that would not be confirmed in its full effect across all sports until 1993. The race strategy for the Danish final, where the New Zealand eight would meet the favourites East Germany for the first time, was simple: sprint for the first 500 metres and then somehow hang on to win. Joyce later explained that they all knew that if the East Germans would get in front, they would never get past them again. Throughout the race, the New Zealanders were always ahead. They won with a time of 5:33.92, closely followed by East Germany in 5:34.32, and the Soviet Union in 5:39.74 well back. Rowlands saw Thomas Keller, the president of the international rowing organisation FISA, shed tears of delight. Avery Brundage, the president of the International Olympic Committee (IOC), awarded the team the Taher Pacha Trophy (also known as the Mohammed Taher Trophy) for distinction in amateur sport. In November 1971, the team won the "Sportsman of the Year Award"; it is now known as the "Supreme Award" at the Halberg Awards. The rules had to be altered so that the award could be given to a team. It was the first time that the award was won for rowing. ## 1972 Summer Olympics For the next rowing season, Strachan became manager in place of Rowlands. Trials were held in March 1972 in Wanganui, the traditional location for national trials, with the Whanganui River offering good rowing opportunities. Whilst there was an expectation that the crew would stay together, Gary Robertson was personally uncertain of his place and believed that Storey would take his seat. Cole tried to get back into the team but was unsuccessful. Ultimately the team remained unchanged from the previous season. One of Strachan's first tasks was to unite the rowing fraternity at their annual general meeting behind the plan to send an eight to the Olympics. He was given support, but it was mostly left to the team and their organisers to raise the approximately \$25,000 needed for the seven weeks in Europe. To keep costs down, Strachan organised for the rowers to stay in the Bavarian town of Lenggries, about an hour's drive away from the Munich regatta course. Whilst there were no dedicated rowing facilities in Lenggries, the Sylvenstein Reservoir provided good training opportunities. Beyond that, the locals were brilliant hosts and many friendships formed at the time. The team management had again ordered a shell from Donoratico, and they delivered them two boats; one built exactly as ordered, but a second that the manufacturer thought would finally address all the teams' desires. In addition, they had a Karlisch shell built by Empacher available to them, but it was not well liked. The team preferred the second Donoratico but their coach thought the Karlisch was superior. Again, Joyce was asked to use his engineering skills to make some modifications. A day after he had finished, one of the seats in the Donoratico collapsed and left that boat unusable. From then on, the Karlisch was used. The first regatta in Germany was a warm-up event at the Olympic rowing course. The New Zealanders, still using their Donoratico, were beaten by the American team. At the next regatta in Hanover, the Americans were beaten by a two–second margin, and the next day the New Zealanders beat the Australian team (second at the 1968 Olympics). A few days out from the Olympics, Earl received news that his father had died on his way to Munich. Whilst doctors had advised against travel due to a weak heart, his parents went nonetheless and his father died when they were in Italy. Earl still went ahead with the competition, and Strachan remarked later that "he still performed". The funeral had to wait until the rowers had returned to New Zealand. When the Olympic racing started, the New Zealanders won their heat comfortably. There was a false start caused by one of the officials, for which the New Zealanders received an official apology – unlike the other crews, they had not heard the recall bell and started racing in earnest. In the real heat, they eased off after the first 1000 metres but still won by 11 seconds. The semi-final was more of a challenge, with a long delay due to wind that was affecting different lanes with varying intensity. The West German crew, the 1968 Olympic champions, had a more sheltered lane and overtook the New Zealand crew at half-way point when the boat was hit by a gust of wind. Robertson, the coach, was livid about the conditions they had to row in, and he decided to knock the other teams' confidence through some mind games. It was announced to the media that the New Zealanders would do some 500 metre sprints on the regatta course. It worked, and between 50 and 60 people with stop watches turned up to measure the performance. Robertson explained his strategy in his usual straightforward manner: > We're bloody good and they [the opposition] had better know they [the New Zealand eight] are bloody good, because it's too late for them to do anything about it. The rowers themselves played their own game. Their apartment in the Olympic Village was near the entrance and other teams had to walk past. The New Zealanders were on a one-can-of-beer-a-day ration and timed drinking those when others teams went past, stacking the empties, and—in typical New Zealand fashion—they went around the village barefoot. The German media soon wrote about the partying New Zealanders, and this evoked a discussion in West Germany how it could be possible for those larrikins to "beat our boys?" The final was rowed on 2 September; an hour earlier, the New Zealand coxless four had won silver. The New Zealand eight dominated its race to the extent that the interesting part was who would take silver and bronze. Four countries battled for the lower medals: East Germany, West Germany, the USA and the Soviet Union. In the end, it came to a photo finish, with the United States declared silver medallist, 0.06 seconds ahead of East Germany. For the New Zealanders, everybody was in sync. Veldman later commented that he had had harder races at club level; it was like having "created a big flywheel". Some of the team later said that their 1971 gold medal win was the "finer display" of their skill. The outgoing IOC president, Brundage, was not scheduled to present the medals but insisted on doing so. And the most memorable moment was yet to come – the crew standing on the victory dais overcome with emotion and "bawling like babies" is one of New Zealand's most memorable sporting moments. The occasion was made more poignant by "God Defend New Zealand" being played rather than the traditional "God Save the Queen". This was not yet the New Zealand anthem and it thus contravened Olympic rules. The New Zealand Olympic liaison officer, Hans Lennarz, is credited with having organised this, and it contributed to the emotion of the occasion. Collinge was the only one who knew that the new anthem would be played, as he had by chance been in the main stadium when the German army band rehearsed it, but he had chosen not to tell anyone about it. It is often reported that this was the first time that "God Defend New Zealand" was played at the Olympics, even by the book written about the new anthem, but this is incorrect. For reasons unknown, both anthems had been performed 20 years earlier—one after the other—in Helsinki at the medal ceremony for Yvette Williams' victory in the 1952 long jump. The two rowing medals won in Munich made up a large part of the New Zealand team's medal haul. There was only one other medal won in Munich across the 14 sports in which the country competed with 89 athletes, and that was an athletics bronze by Rod Dixon in the men's 1500 metres. It was the last time an Olympic rowing race was won in a wooden boat. Whilst the previous year, the New Zealanders had left Denmark the day after the competition, this time they stayed on as their competition had been held in the first week of the Olympics. This provided the opportunity to get to know other rowers on a social basis, and the East Germans invited the other medallists to a garden party at their apartment in the Olympic Village. Dickie, a "larger-than-life personality", was the life of the party and organised drinking games for the three teams. ## Aftermath The team never rowed competitively together after Munich, but they again won the "Sportsman of the Year Award"; it was the first time that the award had been won twice in a row. Hurt retired from competitive rowing, and the others were broken up for different boats. New Zealand did not enter an eight at the 1973 European Rowing Championships in Moscow, but had a coxed four (which included Robertson and Earl) and a coxless pair (including Veldman, who returned with a silver medal). An eight was next compiled for the 1974 World Rowing Championships in Lucerne, Switzerland. Four of the 1971–72 team were included: Hurt, Wilson, Coker, and Earl. The boat won a bronze medal, beaten by the United States and Great Britain. Hurt's recollection of the race is that they were the last boat out, as they weren't ready and still trying to straighten the boat. They never settled properly and thus couldn't catch the leading teams. Subsequent to the 1972 Olympics, a campaign started to make "God Defend New Zealand" the national anthem. It was gazetted as the country's second national anthem on 21 November 1977, on equal standing with "God Save the Queen". Rowlands, the manager for the 1972 team, was appointed a Member of the Order of the British Empire (MBE) in the 1973 New Year Honours for services to rowing. In 1990, the team was inducted into the New Zealand Sports Hall of Fame. The citation reads in part: > Their win, their manner in achieving it and their laid-bare emotion on the victory dais when God Defend New Zealand was played at their Olympic victory ceremony was a seminal moment in New Zealand sport, one of those moments which for years later people can recall as if it was yesterday. Their coach, Rusty Robertson, and their manager, Don Rowlands, were also inducted into the Hall of Fame. The original intention was to sell the New Zealand boats in Europe before leaving for home, but the historical significance of the Karlisch hull was recognised and the boat returned to New Zealand. It was used by the Auckland Rowing Club as a training boat for many years. In 1996, the Karlisch was bought by the Stevenson family and donated to the New Zealand Maritime Museum. After the boat was owned by the museum, the team members went out for a row on Waitematā Harbour. Only Coker was missing—he had died in 1981 from a brain tumour—but his son took his place. The eight surviving members of the 1972 team carried the Commonwealth Games flag into Mount Smart Stadium at the opening ceremony of the 1990 Commonwealth Games in Auckland. When the 2007 World Rowing Championships were again held in Munich, Chris Nilsson—who in 1972 had been a member of the coxed four but was by then a rowing coach—arranged for the New Zealand team to stay at Lenggries once more, rekindling old friendships. In 1980, the German publishing house Rowohlt Verlag published a book of lists—Rowohlts Bunte Liste—modelled on the 1977 American bestseller The Book of Lists. The German sports journalist Karl-Heinrich von Groddeck, himself a rower at three Olympic Games, was asked to compile a list of the ten best coxed eight crews of all times. He put the Deutschland-Achter [de] of 1960, with which he himself won an Olympic gold medal, in second place, but put the 1972 New Zealand eight in top spot. In 2008, New Zealand sports journalist Joseph Romanos picked the 1972 gold medal win as New Zealand's best ever team performance at the Olympic Games. ## Individuals The table below shows the individuals who were involved in the 1971 and 1972 campaigns either as athletes or officials. Two of the officials and two of the rowers have since died. The most recent to die was Dickie in December 2017 amidst the team organising a reunion in conjunction with the next Halberg Awards presentation. ## See also - 1982 New Zealand eight
51,410,763	Cyprus at the 2016 Summer Paralympics	1,170,292,791	null	[ "2016 in Cypriot sport", "Cyprus at the Paralympics", "Nations at the 2016 Summer Paralympics" ]	Cyprus sent a delegation to compete at the 2016 Summer Paralympics in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, from 7 to 18 September 2016. This was the island country's eighth consecutive appearance in a Summer Paralympiad having made its debut at the 1988 Summer Paralympics. The Cypriot delegation to Rio de Janeiro consisted of two athletes: sprinter Antonis Aresti and short-distance swimmer Karolina Pelendritou. Aresti placed sixth overall in the men's 400 metres T47 event and Pelendritou came fourth in the 100 metres breaststroke SB13 competition after losing the bronze medal by 20 cm (7.9 in) in the final. ## Background Cyprus' debut in Paralympic competition was the 1988 Seoul Summer Paralympics. The island country has entered every Summer Paralympic Games since, making Rio de Janeiro their eighth appearance at a Summer Paralympiad. At the close of the Rio Games, the nation had won a total of six medals in their history in the Paralympic movement. The 2016 Summer Paralympics were held from 7–18 September 2016 with a total of 4,328 athletes representing 159 National Paralympic Committees taking part. Two athletes were sent by Cyprus to Rio de Janeiro: sprinter Antonis Aresti and short-distance swimmer Karolina Pelendritou. They were accompanied by the team's chef de mission Aristides Evripides, the president of the Cyprus National Paralympic Committee Andreas Kamarliggos, coaches Christos Constantinou and Stylianos Kakavogiannis, a team doctor and a trainer-physiotherapist. Pelendritou was chosen to be the flag bearer for the parade of nations at the opening ceremony and Aresti performed these duties at the closing ceremony. ## Disability classifications Every participant at the Paralympics has their disability grouped into one of five disability categories; amputation, the condition may be congenital or sustained through injury or illness; cerebral palsy; wheelchair athletes, there is often overlap between this and other categories; visual impairment, including blindness; Les autres, any physical disability that does not fall strictly under one of the other categories, for example dwarfism or multiple sclerosis. Each Paralympic sport then has its own classifications, dependent upon the specific physical demands of competition. Events are given a code, made of numbers and letters, describing the type of event and classification of the athletes competing. Some sports, such as athletics, divide athletes by both the category and severity of their disabilities, other sports, for example swimming, group competitors from different categories together, the only separation being based on the severity of the disability. ## Athletics Antonis Aresti was born on 15 February 1983. At the age of three, he lost the full use of his left arm when he was struck by a car while crossing the road in Cyprus and was left with three severed nerves. This led Aresti to take up sprinting and made his international debut at the 2006 Dutch World Track and Field Championship. These Rio Paralympics were his third consecutive appearance in the Paralympic movement after representing Cyprus at the 2008 Summer Paralympics (two silver medals) and the 2012 London Paralympics. Aresti is classified as T47. He qualified for the Games since his 2015 IPC Athletics World Championships performance of 50.55 seconds in the men's 400 metres T47 was 0.25 seconds faster than the "A" qualifying standard for that discipline. Aresti stated to the Cyprus News Agency that his goal was to reach the final of his event and then win another Paralympic medal. On 16 September, he competed in the heats of the men's 400 metres T47 event. Aresti was drawn into heat one, finishing in a time of 50.42 seconds, third out of eight athletes. His time was eighth fastest overall and this allowed him to proceed to the next day's final. There, Aresti finished in sixth position out of eight sprinters in a time of 50.07 seconds. Men's Track ## Swimming Born on 25 August 1986, Karolina Pelendritou has lost 97 per cent of her central vision in her retina, rendering her unable to see details from a long distance. She is classified as SB12 but the International Paralympic Committee and the Rio 2016 Organising Committee for the Olympic and Paralympic Games assigned her to compete in the SB13 category because there were no other swimmers in her classification who qualified for the Games. Pelendritou was competing in the Summer Paralympic Games for the fourth time in her career, having represented Cyprus at the previous three Summer Paralympics. She said before the Games, "First of all I do not know in advance whether the upcoming Paralympic Games of my career will be equally important as the three previous ones. In Athens, Beijing and London I climbed the podium. Now; I want it, I believe, I expect it." Pelendritou took part in the heats of the women's 100 metre breaststroke SB13 on 11 September, where she was assigned heat one, which she finished in one minute and 20.72 seconds, in sixth place out of eight swimmers overall, advancing her to the final. In the final, she overtook two competitors in the second half of the race, but lost the bronze medal to Colleen Young of the United States by around 20 cm (7.9 in) and two-hundredths of a second to finish fourth with a new personal best Paralympic time of one minute and 17.22 seconds. Women ## See also - Cyprus at the 2016 Summer Olympics
5,315,297	Buck Herzog	1,153,717,012	American baseball player and manager (1885-1953)	[ "1885 births", "1953 deaths", "20th-century deaths from tuberculosis", "Baseball players from Baltimore", "Boston Braves players", "Boston Doves players", "Boston Rustlers players", "Chicago Cubs players", "Cincinnati Reds managers", "Cincinnati Reds players", "Columbus Senators players", "Louisville Colonels (minor league) players", "Major League Baseball player-managers", "Major League Baseball second basemen", "Major League Baseball shortstops", "Major League Baseball third basemen", "Maryland Terrapins baseball players", "Minor league baseball managers", "New York Giants (NL) players", "People from Caroline County, Maryland", "Reading Pretzels players", "Tuberculosis deaths in Maryland", "York White Roses players" ]	Charles Lincoln "Buck" Herzog (July 9, 1885 – September 4, 1953) was an American infielder and manager in Major League Baseball who played for four National League clubs between 1908 and 1920: the New York Giants, the Boston Braves, the Cincinnati Reds, and the Chicago Cubs. His flexibility sets him apart from other major leaguers, as he demonstrated great skill as a second baseman, shortstop, and third baseman. Born in Baltimore, Maryland, Herzog grew up on a farm in nearby Ridgely. After attending the Maryland Agricultural College, he played one season in the minor leagues before the Giants selected him in the Rule 5 Draft. Herzog batted .300 as a rookie but struggled in 1909 and was traded to Boston before 1910. He cemented himself as an everyday player over the next two years, then was reacquired by the Giants in 1911, with whom he would reach three straight World Series. He struggled to hit in the 1911 World Series but set a record that would stand for over 50 years with 12 hits in the 1912 World Series, though the Giants lost all three of the series. Traded to the Reds before the 1914 season, he served as a player-manager for the Reds through the first half of the 1916 season, though the team had a losing record in each of those years. The Giants reacquired him halfway through 1916, naming him the team captain. After a famous fight with Ty Cobb during 1917 spring training, he played in his fourth and final World Series, though he made a key error in Game 5 as the Giants were defeated in six games. Herzog spent 1918 with Boston, was traded to Chicago in the middle of 1919, and played one last year with the Cubs in 1920, a season that saw his reputation tarnished by unsubstantiated accusations of gambling on baseball games. Following his playing career, Herzog managed the minor league Easton Farmers and coached the United States Naval Academy baseball team. Then, he worked for the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad and later at a race track. Penniless by the early 1950s, he died of tuberculosis in 1953. ## Early life Charles Lincoln "Buck" Herzog was born on July 9, 1885, in Baltimore, Maryland. He was the descendant of German Presbyterians, though his facial features and last name would later cause people to think he was Jewish. During his childhood, his family moved to a farm in Ridgely, Maryland, where Herzog would spend much of his formative years. He attended the Maryland Agricultural College, where he played shortstop on the school's baseball team. He was a teammate of third baseman Home Run Baker, who would later be elected to the Baseball Hall of Fame. ## Professional career ### Minor leagues (1907) Herzog began his professional career in 1907 when he joined the York White Roses of the Class B Tri-State League. Popular with their local fans, they nonetheless wound up moving to Reading, Pennsylvania, during the year. Herzog spent the whole season with the club, his strong play at shortstop and third base starting to build his reputation for versatility. In 120 games (431 at bats), he batted a mere .204, with 88 hits, 20 doubles, eight triples, and six home runs. ### New York Giants (first stint) (1908–1909) On September 1, 1907, the New York Giants selected Herzog in the Rule 5 Draft. He got along well with manager John McGraw the next March and made the team out of spring training. Making his major league debut on April 17, 1908, against the Philadelphia Phillies, Herzog played shortstop for part of the game, recording a hit in his only at bat and scoring a run in the team's 14–2 victory. During the year, Herzog displayed "good form" according to McGraw, though there was still a "lot to learn" for the player. In 64 games, he batted .300 with 38 runs scored, 48 hits, six doubles, two triples, no home runs, 11 runs batted in (RBI), and 16 stolen bases. He played 42 games as a second baseman, 12 as a shortstop, four as a third baseman, and one as an outfielder. Herzog took what baseball historian Frank Russo called "a gigantic step back" in 1909, as he struggled to hit all season. Not used much, he constantly pestered McGraw for more playing time, which irritated his manager. In 42 games (130 at bats), he batted .185 with 16 runs scored and 24 hits, only two of which, both doubles, went for extra bases. He also had eight RBI, and despite the limited playing time, he stole 10 bases. ### Boston Doves/Rustlers (first stint) (1910–1911) Although Herzog spent spring training with the Giants in 1910, McGraw was tired of listening to him begging for playing time. On April 4, the Giants traded him and Bill Collins to the Boston Doves in exchange for Beals Becker. Now in his third season, he finally hit his first major league home run on May 9 against Vic Willis, the only run of the game for Boston as the St. Louis Cardinals defeated them 2–1. With the Doves, Herzog received regular playing time. He was the starting third baseman until July 6, after which he was suspended for insubordination. Seeking to replace Fred Lake as the team's manager, Herzog phoned McGraw and asked whether he should accept an offer for a two-year, \$5,000 contract to manage Boston. McGraw felt this was underhanded and tipped Lake off as to what was going on. Braves vice president John Harris told Lake to handle the situation how he thought best, and Lake suspended Herzog. Returning to action August 2, Herzog resumed the everyday third base job. In 106 games (380 at bats), he batted .250 with 51 runs scored, 95 hits, 20 doubles, three triples, three home runs, 32 RBI, and 13 stolen bases. Herzog returned to the Boston club, now known as the Rustlers, for the 1911 season. This time the primary shortstop, Herzog got off to a strong start to the season, leading the team in hitting with a .310 average through July 15. Nevertheless, he got in trouble with manager Fred Tenney, who fined both Herzog and teammate Doc Miller for "laying down" during games. This led Herzog to go on strike for three games from July 16 through 18, and though he returned to the lineup on July 19, he was traded to the Giants on July 22 for Al Bridwell and Hank Gowdy. In 79 games (356 at bats) for the Rustlers, he had recorded 53 runs scored, 91 hits, 19 doubles, five triples, five home runs, 41 RBI, and 26 stolen bases. ### New York Giants (second stint) (1911–1913) Though Herzog and McGraw had parted ways uncomfortably last time, the Giants' manager made it clear upon Herzog's return that all he cared about was winning the pennant, and he was willing to overlook any dislike he might have for the infielder. Herzog assumed the third base job, bringing a great deal of energy to the position as the Giants won the NL pennant by five games. In 69 games (247 at bats) for New York, Herzog batted .267 with 37 runs scored, 66 hits, 14 doubles, four triples, one home run, 26 RBI, and 22 stolen bases. His combined totals between Boston and New York were a .290 average, 90 runs scored, 157 hits, nine triples, six home runs, and 67 RBI. Herzog's 33 doubles tied with Bill Sweeney for fourth in the NL, and his 48 stolen bases tied with Red Murray for fifth. Facing the Philadelphia Athletics in the World Series, the Giants struggled to hit, and Herzog was no exception. He batted only .190 as the Giants were defeated in six games. In 1912, Herzog remained New York's primary third baseman, used exclusively at the position. Contemporary sportswriter Ring Lardner said he "was more peppery than Captain [Larry] Doyle himself and looked like an electric battery compared with [Art] Fletcher and [Fred] Merkle. He played rings around any other man on the rival infields. He is a human illustration of the value of energy and application." In 140 games (482 at bats), he batted .263 with 72 runs scored, 127 hits, 20 doubles, nine triples, two home runs, and 51 RBI. He stole 37 bases, tied with Merkle for fifth in the NL. In fact, five of the top 10 base stealers in the league were Giants. The Giants won the pennant again, facing the Boston Red Sox in the World Series. In Game 2, Herzog had three hits and three RBI in a game that ended in a 6–6 tie when it became too dark to play. He just missed a home run in the second inning when a hit to deep right field bounced and hit a railing on the top of the fence. Under the rules of the time, the hit would have been a home run had the ball bounced into the stands. At the beginning of the 11th inning, Tris Speaker accused Herzog of blocking his progress on the base paths in the previous inning. The two argued and had to be dragged apart by teammates. Herzog's leadoff double in the fifth inning of Game 3 led to him scoring the Giants' second run in an eventual 2–1 victory. Herzog batted .400 and set a record with 12 hits in the series, though the Giants were defeated in eight games. His record would last until 1964, when Bobby Richardson had 13 hits against the Pittsburgh Pirates. Injured early in the 1913 season, Herzog played sparingly in June and platooned at third base with Tillie Shafer for the rest of the season. His batting average was as high as .300 on July 4, and he batted .286 for the season. In 96 games (290 at bats), he recorded 46 runs scored, 83 hits, 15 doubles, three triples, three home runs, 31 RBI, and 23 stolen bases. For the second time in three years, the Giants faced Philadelphia in the World Series. Again, the team struggled offensively; Herzog had only one hit in 19 at bats as the Giants were defeated in five games. He insisted that, come 1914, he would play better than ever. On December 12, 1913, the Giants traded Herzog and Grover Hartley to the Cincinnati Reds for Bob Bescher. Giants owner Harry Hempstead supervised the deal, thinking that McGraw, who was on an international vacation, would be thrilled to get the speedy Bescher. Instead, McGraw rebuked Hempstead upon learning of the deal, informing the owner, "I'll do the thinking around here. The next time a deal is made on this ball club, I'll make it." ### Cincinnati Reds (1914–1916) Around the same time as they acquired Herzog, the Reds traded Joe Tinker, who had managed them the previous season. Herzog was delighted to be named the replacement, assuming player-manager duties. Jimmy Sheckard, who retired after the 1913 season, warned that the ballclub would be difficult to manage. "The new manager will have to get rid of the 'knockers' on that club before he can hope to succeed. There is no chance to win with players who think more of their own records than they do of the success of the club." Herzog butted heads with both the players and the front office. On the field, he moved back over to shortstop, playing 138 games in 1914. Only hitting .200 over his first 16 games, Herzog batted .316 thereafter, raising his average to .316 by June 16. His lone home run of the season came against Dan Griner on May 8, when he had two RBI in a 3–0 victory over the Cardinals. In 138 games, he batted .281 with 54 runs scored, 140 hits, 14 doubles, eight triples, and 40 RBI. His 46 stolen bases were topped in the NL only by George Burns's 62. Cincinnati did not do so well, finishing last in the NL with a 60–94 record. Herzog again played primarily shortstop in 1915. He recorded his only home run of the season on May 1, in a 9–5 loss to the Cardinals. From July 4 through July 6, he played six games, as the Reds had a doubleheader scheduled on each of those dates. Herzog had three hits in the first game of each of the doubleheaders, though he had 14 innings to do so in the July 6 one. In 155 games (579 at bats), he batted .264 with 61 runs scored, 153 hits, one home run, and 42 RBI. For the second year in a row, he was second in the NL in stolen bases, as his 35 were topped only by Max Carey's 36. With a 71–83 record, the Reds finished seventh in the NL this year, with the Giants the only team that was worse than them. The Reds again got off to a poor start in 1916, going 34–49 in their first 83 games under Herzog. Meanwhile, the Giants were again interested in his services. McGraw sent a telegram to Reds president Garry Herrmann, offering to journey personally to Cincinnati to make a trade for his ex-player. On July 20, the Giants acquired Herzog for the third time, sending future Hall of Famers Christy Mathewson, Bill McKechnie, and Edd Roush to the Reds along with \$40,000 for Herzog and Bill Killefer. In 79 games (281 at bats) with the Reds, Herzog had hit .267 with 30 runs scored, 75 hits, one home run, 24 RBI, and 15 stolen bases. Under Herzog's managing, the Reds had gone 165–226 in three seasons, with 10 ties as well. ### New York Giants (third stint) (1916–1917) Herzog was used primarily at second base upon rejoining the Giants. Though not used as manager in New York, Herzog became the team captain by McGraw's choice. After he rejoined the ballclub, the Giants set a record by winning 26 games in a row. In 77 games (280 at bats) with the Giants, Herzog batted .261 with 40 runs scored, 73 hits, zero home runs, 25 RBI, and 19 stolen bases. His combined totals between Cincinnati and New York were a .264 average, 70 runs scored, 148 hits, one home run, and 49 RBI. He ranked fifth in the NL with 34 stolen bases but led the league in times caught stealing with 28. Herzog set an unusual record by playing 98 home games in one season: 50 of his 79 games for the Reds were at home, and 48 of his 77 with the Giants were at home. During 1917 spring training, Herzog had his most famous fight when he battled Ty Cobb. After the Tiger outfielder showed up late for a Dallas spring training doubleheader because of a golf outing, Herzog and several of his teammates called him names from the Giant bench. Cobb retaliated by sliding into Herzog feetfirst and making contact with his spikes during the second game, prompting a bench-clearing brawl in which Cobb shoved Herzog's face into the dirt. The Dallas Police Department had to help stop the brawl, and Cobb was thrown out of the game. Both teams were staying at the Oriental Hotel, and at dinner that evening, Herzog walked up to Cobb and challenged him to a fight. The two met an hour later in Cobb's room, where the Tiger outfielder had prepared for the fight by moving furniture out of the way and pouring water on the floor. Cobb's leather-soled shoes enabled him to get better footing than Herzog, who wore tennis shoes. The fight lasted for 30 minutes, over the course of which Cobb knocked down Herzog about six times while Herzog only knocked Cobb down once. The scuffle left Herzog's face bloodied and his eyes nearly shut. "I got hell kicked out of me, but I knocked the bum down, and you know that swell head, he’ll never get over the fact that a little guy like me had him on the floor," Herzog declared afterwards. With McGraw vowing revenge, Cobb skipped the rest of the exhibition series against the Giants, heading to Cincinnati to train with the Reds, who were managed by Cobb's friend Mathewson. However, Cobb later expressed the deepest respect for Herzog because of the way the infielder had conducted himself in the fight. The Giants' second baseman once again, Herzog had a "statistically subpar" season, according to biographer Gabriel Schechter. In 114 games (417 at bats), he batted .235 with 69 runs scored, 98 hits, two home runs, and 31 RBI. His 12 stolen bases were the least by him in a season since 1909. However, the ballclub had another successful season, winning the NL pennant and facing the Chicago White Sox in the 1917 World Series. Playing all six of the games, Herzog batted .250 with one triple and two RBI. With the series tied at two games apiece, the Giants held a 5–2 lead entering the seventh inning of Game 5, but the White Sox scored two runs and had runners on first and third with two outs. Both of them attempted to steal a base, and catcher Bill Rariden threw to pitcher Slim Sallee, who threw to Herzog. The infielder missed the ball, and his error allowed the tying run to score. The White Sox went on to win Games 5 and 6 to clinch the series victory. Falling out of favor with McGraw again after the blunder, Herzog was traded back to the Boston NL team (now known as the Braves) on January 8, 1918, for Doyle and Jesse Barnes. ### Boston Braves (second stint) (1918–1919) In 1918, Herzog's primary position was at second base, though he also saw significant time at first base. His batting average was a low .228 in 118 games (473 at bats), as he recorded 57 runs scored, 108 hits, no home runs, 26 RBI, and 10 stolen bases. In 1919, he was used at second base with Boston once again until he was traded to the Chicago Cubs on August 2 for Les Mann and Charlie Pick. He had batted .280 with 27 runs scored, 77 hits, one home run, 25 RBI, and 16 stolen bases in 73 games for the Braves. ### Chicago Cubs (1919–1920) With the Cubs, Herzog played exclusively at second base for the rest of 1919. In 52 games (193 at bats), he batted .275 with 15 runs scored, 53 hits, no home runs, 17 RBI, and 12 stolen bases. His combined totals between Boston and Chicago were a .278 average, 42 runs scored, 130 hits, one home run, and 42 RBI in 125 games (468 at bats). He and Greasy Neale tied for fifth in the NL with 28 stolen bases. Herzog played second base for the Cubs in 1920 except for June and early July, when he was used mainly at third base. He became embroiled in controversy that August when he was one of a group of Cubs players accused of deliberately helping the team lose a game to the Phillies. No firm evidence connecting Herzog to the scandal was found, but he was seldom used after that. His only game in September was against the Giants on September 9. Herzog would later be accused by former Giants teammate Rube Benton of attempting a bribe, though that claim has not been verified. Released in January 1921, Herzog would never play in the major leagues again. In 91 games (305 at bats) in 1920, Herzog batted .193 with 39 runs scored, 59 hits, no home runs, and 19 RBI. ### Final season (1921) and minor league manager (1924–1926) After his release from the Cubs, Herzog played one final season of professional baseball, splitting the year between the Columbus Senators and the Louisville Colonels of the Class AA American Association. His \$12,000 minor league contract was a record at the time, but Herzog stopped playing the next season when it was not renewed. The Newark Bears of the Class AA International League hired him as their manager in 1924, but they dismissed him before the start of the season. Returning to Maryland, Herzog managed the Easton Farmers of the Class D Eastern Shore League in 1925 and 1926, his final two seasons in professional baseball. ## Legacy and career statistics Herzog set himself apart from other utility players in baseball history by his ability to play second base, shortstop, and third base equally well. According to Russo, "he is generally regarded as one of the most versatile infielders in the history of baseball." A very fast baserunner, he stole 10 or more bases in a season all but the final year of his playing, with a career-high of 46 in 1914. He was also an excellent bunter, and he displayed a good knowledge for the game, figuring out small things he could do that would help the team win. In 1,493 career games played, Herzog batted .259 (1,370 hits in 5,284 at bats) with 705 runs scored, 20 home runs, 449 RBI, and 320 stolen bases in 13 seasons. ## Later life Continuing to live in Ridgely during his playing career, Herzog was well-known among the baseball players for his skill at growing cantaloupes. He took on a variety of careers following his playing days. First, he coached the United States Naval Academy baseball team. Then, he worked for the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad for many years before eventually working at a Maryland racetrack. In 1952, Herzog was hit by a car in downtown Baltimore, suffering "multiple lacerations", according to The New York Times. On January 14, 1953, he was discovered in the lobby of a Baltimore hotel, without any money and suffering from advanced tuberculosis. Baseball commissioner Ford Frick helped pay for Herzog to receive treatment at a Baltimore hospital, and several more of his old baseball friends contributed too. Herzog spent eight months battling the disease before dying of it on September 4, 1953. His final resting place was Denton Cemetery in Denton, Maryland, where he was buried next to his wife, Mattie, who had died 11 years before. In 2008, a carriage house Herzog built in the early 1900s was saved from demolition and moved to the center of Ridgely. ## See also - List of Major League Baseball career stolen bases leaders - List of Major League Baseball player-managers
15,791,801	Emigrant Trail in Wyoming	1,135,609,884	19th century pioneer route in western United States	[ "California Trail", "Mormon Trail", "Oregon Trail", "Pre-statehood history of Wyoming", "Trails and roads in the American Old West" ]	The Emigrant Trail in Wyoming, which is the path followed by Western pioneers using the Oregon, California, and Mormon Trails (collectively referred to as the Emigrant Trails), spans 400 miles (640 km) through the U.S. state of Wyoming. The trail entered from Nebraska on the eastern border of the state near the present day town of Torrington and exited on the western border near the towns of Cokeville and Afton. An estimated 350,000 to 400,000 settlers traveled on the trail through Wyoming between 1841 and 1868. All three trails follow the same path through most of the state. The Mormon Trail splits at Fort Bridger and enters Utah, while the Oregon and California Trails continue to Idaho. ## North Platte River In the eastern plains, the Emigrant Trail follows the North Platte River into Wyoming. The trail follows the river upstream to Fort Laramie, a prominent military and trading post in the region. Prior to 1850 the northern side of the river was thought to be impassable beyond Fort Laramie, so the wagon trains that were traveling on the northern side of the river through Nebraska had to undertake a dangerous crossing at the fort. After crossing, trains on the main trail to the south of the river had to cross the North Platte again 100 miles (160 km) upstream. In 1850 several wagon trains successfully blazed a path along the northern side of the river. This new route, which reduced the risk and expense of crossing the river twice, was preferred for all subsequent traffic on the northern side of the river. The northern route is sometimes called Child's Route after Andrew Child who describe it in a guide book published in 1852. Above Fort Laramie, Child's Route follows the North Platte River through the present day town of Douglas, and near the site of Fort Fetterman which was built in 1867. This is the point at which the Wyoming section of the Bozeman Trail turned north to the gold fields of Montana in the 1860s. The southern route also follows the river along the edge of the Laramie Mountains to an area near the current towns of Casper and Glenrock. In 1847, during the first Mormon emigration, Brigham Young established a ferry near present-day Casper known as Mormon Ferry. The next year the ferry was moved a few miles downriver. The ferry was free for Latter Day Saints, but charged a toll for other users. The ferry was manned by groups of Mormons every summer from 1848 until 1852. In 1853 John Baptiste Richard built a toll bridge near the ferry site, which would eventually put all ferries on the North Platte out of business. In 1859, Louis Guinard built the Platte Bridge near the site of the original Mormon Ferry. Guinard also built a trading post at one end of the bridge which eventually became Fort Caspar. Famous landmarks along the southern route included Ayres Natural Bridge and Register Cliff, one of a number of locations along the trail in Wyoming where settlers carved their names. ## Sweetwater River Continuing upstream from Casper, the North Platte bends to the south. The original trail proceeded several miles along the river to Red Buttes, where a bend in the river formed a natural amphitheater dominated by red cliffs on the hill above. The river was easier to ford here for those who were unwilling or unable to pay to cross at one of the ferries downstream. This was the last good camp spot before leaving the river and entering the waterless stretch between the North Platte and the Sweetwater River. From here the settlers entered a difficult portion called Rock Avenue which moved from spring to spring across mostly alkaline soil and steep hills until it reached the Sweetwater River. Later settlers who had crossed to the northern side of the river at Casper would come to favor a route through a small valley called Emigrant Gap which headed directly to Rock Avenue, bypassing Red Buttes. Upon arrival in the Sweetwater valley, the trail encounters one of the most important landmarks on the trail, Independence Rock. Independence Rock was named because settlers tried to reach it by July 4 (Independence Day in the United States) in order to help ensure that they will be at their destinations in California or Oregon before the winter snows come. Many of the travelers left their names on the rock, either carved or painted on with axle grease. It is estimated that more than 50,000 signatures were inscribed on Independence Rock. Other notable landmarks along the Sweetwater valley include Split Rock, Devil's Gate and Martin's Cove, where, in November 1856, the Martin Handcart Company was stranded by heavy snow until a rescue party from Salt Lake City arrived. The trail continues west along the Sweetwater River eventually crossing the meandering river nine times, including three times within a 2 miles (3.2 km) section through a narrow canyon in the Rattlesnake Hills. Prior to the 6th crossing, the trail crossed an unusual location known as Ice Slough. A covering of peat like vegetation grew over a small stream. The stream froze in winter and did not thaw until early summer due to the insulating layer of vegetation. The ice was a welcome treat for settlers who were enduring temperatures over 90 °F (32 °C) in July. The trail crosses the Sweetwater three more times and encounters a large hill known as Rocky Ridge on the northern side of the river. This barren and rocky section lasted almost 12 miles (19 km), and was considered a major obstacle in the trail. The same storm in November 1856 that debilitated the Martin Handcart Company also stranded the Willie Handcart Company on the eastern side of the ridge. Before rescuers could arrive, 21 people died in freezing temperatures. Following Rocky Ridge, the trail descends one more time into the Sweetwater valley to the ninth and final crossing of the Sweetwater at Burnt Ranch. In 1853, a new route named the Seminoe Cutoff was established on the southern side of the river. It was named after trapper Basil LaJeunesse who was referred to as Seminoe by the Shoshone Indians. The Seminoe Cutoff split from the main trail at the 6th crossing and rejoined it at Burnt Ranch, bypassing both Rocky Ridge and four of the river crossings, which was an advantage in the early spring and summer during high runoff. The route was used extensively in the 1850s, especially by the Mormon companies. Immediately after crossing the Sweetwater at Burnt Ranch the trail crosses the continental divide at South Pass, unarguably the most important landmark on the entire trail. South Pass itself is an unimpressive open saddle between the Wind River Range to the north and the Antelope Hills to the south, but it represented a major milestone in the trip. In 1848, Congress created the Oregon Territory which included all the territory in Wyoming west of the Continental Divide. Crossing South Pass meant that the settlers had truly arrived in the Oregon Territory, though their ultimate destination was still a great distance away. Nearby Pacific Springs offered the first water since the trail had left the Sweetwater River and marked the beginning of a relatively dry stretch of trail until the settlers reached the Green River more than 40 miles (64 km) away. ## Sandy River Leaving Pacific Springs, the trail moves southwest alongside Pacific Creek for a short distance until it swoops to the west to intersect Dry Sandy creek, a small stream that is a tributary of the Little Sandy River which in turn flows into the Big Sandy River. True to its name, the water level on the Dry Sandy varied depending on the time of year and was often dry. South of the Dry Sandy ford, the trail split into two major sections, the main route which continues south to Fort Bridger, and the Sublette Cutoff, which proceeds west directly to the Green River and Bear River valleys, bypassing Fort Bridger. The point at which the trails diverge is known as Parting of the Ways. 11 miles (18 km) south the main trail fords the Little Sandy. Here, a secondary path to the Sublette Cutoff leads from the Little Sandy Pony Express station that was based here during the emigration period. The main trail goes on to ford the Big Sandy near the present day town of Farson. The trail proceeds along the northern side of the Big Sandy to its confluence with the Green River. Fording the Green River was very risky, so most travelers used one of a number of ferries operating on the Green River, including the Lombard Ferry and the Robinson Ferry. ## Fort Bridger Continuing toward Fort Bridger from the Green River, the main trail crosses Hams Fork near Granger and followed Blacks Fork to Fort Bridger. Established in 1842 by legendary frontiersman Jim Bridger and his partner Louis Vasquez, Fort Bridger was a vital refueling post and a welcome rest after the particularly difficult journey from South Pass. Even after the Sublette Cutoff was established, settlers destined for Oregon who were low on livestock and supplies would bypass the cutoffs and make the longer trip to Fort Bridger to restock. Fort Bridger is the point at which the Mormon Trail splits from the Oregon Trail and California Trail for good. The Mormon Trail continues southwest, fording the Bear River and crossing into Utah south of the current town of Evanston. The other trails turn and proceed northwest, crossing the Bear River Divide and into the Bear River valley on the western side of the state. The trail meets the Sublette Cutoff near Cokeville and the rejoined trails follow the Bear River upstream and into Idaho, heading for Fort Hall. ## Sublette-Greenwood Cutoff The Sublette-Greenwood Cutoff was opened in 1844 by the Stephens-Townsend-Murphy Party led by mountain men Caleb Greenwood and Isaac Hitchcock. Hitchcock, an old trapper and one of the first of his kind to have been in California in 1832, recommended that the wagon trail go due west from the Little Sandy and cross 40 miles (64 km) of desert territory to the Green River and from there cross the ridge into the Bear River Valley, completely bypassing Fort Bridger and the crossing of Bear River Ridge. The route shaved about 85 miles (137 km) and 7 days off the main route, but the decision to cross nearly 45 waterless miles before reaching the Green River was not one to be taken lightly. Settlers had to decide between time and the health of their livestock. A traveler in 1846 wrote: > We lay by preparing to Crossing the Cut off to Green river a distance of 40 miles without Wood or Water set out on the Journey at 3AM and landed on Green river the distance aforesaid at 3'Oclock of the 19th it being 24 hours drive The route reached the height of popularity during the California Gold Rush of the 1850s when a desire to speed to the California gold fields outweighed the risks. The route was named the Sublette Cutoff by Joseph Ware in his popular 1849 guide book to the trail after an individual named Solomon Sublette (youngest brother of William Sublette) who told him about the route. The popularity of the guide book during the 1850s cemented the name, though most scholars today call it the Sublette-Greenwood Cutoff after its original discoverer. As on the main route, several ferries operated where the cutoff crossed the Green River near the present day town of La Barge. Early settlers crossed the Names Hill Ford, which was barely passable when the water was low. Later The Names Hill Ferry offered a safer alternative. The nearby Mormon Ferry was located a mile upstream, and the Mountain Man Ferry operated during the Gold Rush days. West of the ford is its namesake, Names Hill, which is a prominent emigrant "recording area" with signatures and other carvings. One notable signature is James Bridger, 1844, Trapper. It is unclear if the signature is authentic, since Bridger was known to be illiterate. The hill also features Native American pictographs. A secondary cutoff named the Slate Creek or Kinney Cutoff breaks from the main trail near the Lombard Ferry on the Green River, and meets the Sublette Cutoff on Slate Creek Ridge at Emigrant Springs. This route was slightly longer than the Sublette, but had the advantage of only 10 waterless miles rather than the 45 endured on the Sublette trail. ## Lander Cutoff The Lander Road, located further north than the main trail to Fort Hall, also bypassed Fort Bridger and was about 85 miles (137 km) shorter to Fort Hall. It was built under the supervision of Frederick W. Lander by federal contractors in 1858—one of the first federally sponsored roads in the west. Lander's Road officially was called the Fort Kearney, South Pass and Honey Lake Road and was a federally funded attempt to improve the Oregon and California trails. The little used Honey Lake part of the proposed route near the present states of Nevada and California border was improved in 1859 under Lander's direction but did not go much beyond improving some watering holes—work ceased in 1860. The "Lander Road" was the first section of the federally funded road through the future states of Wyoming and Idaho. Expeditions under the command of Frederick W. Lander surveyed a new route starting at Burnt Ranch following the last crossing of the Sweetwater River before it turned west over South Pass. The Lander Road followed the Sweetwater River further north, skirting the Wind River Range before turning west and crossing the continental divide north of South Pass. The road crossed the Green River (Colorado River) near the present town of Big Piney, Wyoming and then passing over 8,800 feet (2,700 m) Thompson Pass in the Wyoming Range near the head of the Grey's River and then crosses another high pass across the Salt River Range before descending into Star Valley (Wyoming). The trail entered Star Valley about 6 miles (9.7 km) south of the present town of Smoot, Wyoming. From Smoot, the road then continued north about 20 miles (32 km) down Star Valley west of the Salt River before turning almost due west at Stump Creek near the present town of Auburn, Wyoming and passing into the present state of Idaho and following the Stump Creek valley about ten miles (16 km) northwest over the Caribou Mountains (Idaho) (this section of the trail is now accessible only by US Forest Service path as the main road (Wyoming Highway 34) now goes through Tincup canyon to get across the Caribous.) After crossing the Caribou Range the road split, turning almost ninety degrees and progressing southwest to Soda Springs, Idaho or alternately heading almost due west and passing south of Grays Lake (now part of the Grays Lake National Wildlife Refuge) to Fort Hall Idaho. The Lander Road had good grass, fishing, water and wood but was high, rough and steep in many places. Later, after 1869, it was mostly used by ranchers moving their stock to and from summer grazing and/or markets. For maps of the Lander road in Wyoming and Idaho see NPS National Trail Map For more information visit Afton, Wyoming to see its Lander and Pioneer Museum. By crossing the lush Wyoming and Salt River Ranges instead of circling via the deserts to the south, the route provided ample wood, grass and water for the travelers, and cut nearly 7 days off the total travel time for wagon trains going to Fort Hall. Despite the better conditions for livestock, the mountainous terrain and unpredictable weather made passage sometimes difficult and required continuing federally funded maintenance on the mountainous road—not a sure thing just before, during and after the American Civil War. Funds were appropriated in 1858 and 115 men (hired in Utah) completed the road in Wyoming and Idaho in 90 days, clearing timber and moving about 62,000 cubic yards (47,000 m<sup>3</sup>) of earth. The Lander's road or cutoff opened in 1859 when it was extensively used. Records after 1859 are lacking and its use after that period are assumed to sharply decrease since the Sublette Cutoff, the Central Overland Route and other cutoffs were just about as fast or faster and were much less strenuous. Today the Lander Cutoff road(s) are roughly followed by a series of county and Forest Service roads.
16,160,439	Bill Steele (baseball)	1,153,716,832	American baseball player (1885-1949)	[ "1885 births", "1949 deaths", "Altoona Mountaineers players", "Altoona Rams players", "Baseball players from Pennsylvania", "Brooklyn Robins players", "Gettysburg Ponies players", "Major League Baseball pitchers", "Pedestrian road incident deaths", "People from Milford, Pennsylvania", "Road incident deaths in Missouri", "Sportspeople from the New York metropolitan area", "St. Louis Cardinals players", "Syracuse Stars (minor league baseball) players" ]	William Mitchell Steele (October 5, 1885 – October 19, 1949) was a pitcher in Major League Baseball (MLB). He pitched from 1910 to 1914 with the St. Louis Cardinals and Brooklyn Robins. Nicknamed "Big Bill", at 5 feet 11 inches (1.80 m), he was one of the larger players of his era. His main pitch was a spitball. Steele grew up in Milford, Pennsylvania. He began pitching at the professional level in 1909, and after winning 25 games for the Altoona Rams in 1910, he was signed by the Cardinals. Steele appeared in nine games with the team that year, then pitched a career-high 287+1⁄3 innings in 1911. He led the National League (NL) with 19 losses while posting a 3.73 earned run average (ERA). In 1912, Steele posted the worst ERA (4.69) among pitchers with enough innings to qualify for the MLB ERA title. He claimed in 1913 that he had purposefully not been trying as hard as he could have in 1912, and this impaired his relationship with the front office. Bothered by rheumatism the next couple of seasons, Steele found himself used mainly as a mopup reliever by 1914. Sold to the Robins later that year, he finished his MLB career with eight appearances in a Brooklyn uniform. Steele then played minor league baseball for a couple more seasons. A few years after he retired, he and his family moved to the St. Louis area, where he worked as a mechanic for Swift and Company and later as a maintenance man at an A&P warehouse. He was killed on October 19, 1949, when a streetcar ran into him. ## Early life William Mitchell Steele was born on October 5, 1885, in Milford, Pennsylvania. His parents, Maurice and Caroline ("Carrie"), were the children of Germans who had immigrated to New York. Maurice worked at an ice business, a sawmill, and a watch-case factory, also serving at times as a constable. On top of this, the Steeles owned a farm. Growing up, Bill helped tend the farm along with three of his siblings (a fourth died at birth). Steele started playing baseball in rural pastures around Milford. He played the positions of pitcher and outfielder for Milford's local team, which held games against local and semipro teams, including competition as notable as the New York Cuban Giants. A 1907 article in the Pike County Dispatch reported that Steele's pitches were "more of a puzzle than ever with his shoots, drops and the ‘spit ball’ which he has thoroughly mastered." ## Baseball career ### Altoona (1909-10) By 1909, Steele was pitching professionally for the Altoona Mountaineers of the Class B Tri-State League, though his career nearly came to a premature end. Early in the year, Steele was riding a streetcar and grabbed a sand lever on the vehicle. Not properly insulated, the lever ""shocked [Steele] almost to insensibility," and he "narrowly escaped being electrocuted" according to a local newspaper. Steele won his first eight starts for Altoona and completed 37 of 39 games he started for the Mountaineers. In July, he started both games of a doubleheader against the Trenton Tigers, throwing shutouts in both and driving in the winning run in the 10th inning of the second game. He finished the year tied for the league lead in losses (21), but his 19 wins were tied for fourth in the league. Steele pitched 359+1⁄3 innings. Altoona became the Rams in 1910, and Steele became the best pitcher in their league. Major League Baseball (MLB) teams began scouting him, and in August, Steele's contract was purchased for \$3,000 by the St. Louis Cardinals of the National League (NL). Roger Bresnahan, the team's manager, and Stanley Robison, the team's owner, had both been impressed when they came to watch him pitch. Steele completed 29 of 30 starts for Altoona, led the league with 25 wins, and helped the Rams become league champions. The "big ranky side-armer ... looks like a finished product," opined Jim Nasium, a Philadelphia reporter. ### St. Louis Cardinals (1910-14) #### 1910 After the minor league season, Steele joined the Cardinals in September. St. Louis was in the midst of a losing season; the ballclub would finish with a 63–90 record. In his September 10 debut, facing the Cincinnati Reds at the Palace of the Fans, Steele allowed five runs in the first inning but settled down after that, allowing seven runs in a complete game and contributing three hits, one of which was a triple, in St. Louis's 14–7 victory. He completed all eight of his starts that year and won four of his first five games, giving Cardinal fans something to cheer about in the midst of a seventh-place season. In nine games (eight starts) his rookie year, Steele had a 4–4 record, a 3.27 ERA, 25 strikeouts, 24 walks, and 71 hits allowed in 71+2⁄3 innings pitched. #### 1911 Deciding that the Cardinals needed a change of personnel, Bresnahan got rid of five of the Cardinal pitchers from the 1910 season; Steele was one of the only ones who remained on the roster through 1911. The St. Louis Post-Dispatch said "[I]f Bresnahan’s team is to climb this year, it will be because the pitching is improved over the 1910 brand..." citing Steele as an important factor in the club's 1911 fortunes. Steele struggled in his first two starts of the season, then had a ball hit off of his pitching arm during batting practice and missed two weeks of the season. He had just a 3–9 record through June 7, and St. Louis reporters noted that a lack of Cardinal scoring, occasional poor innings, and late-game struggles led to his lack of wins. June 11 marked a turning point in Steele's season. After giving up four runs in the first inning to the Boston Rustlers, Steele pitched scoreless ball for the rest of the game. The Cardinals won 5–4, a victory that moved them into fourth place in the league after a rough start to the season. The victory was the first in a span of 10 decisions lasting through July 19, where Steele would lose only once. Teammate Miller Huggins thought he did "excellent work" on the mound during this time. He gave up six runs but got the win in a complete game, 8–6 victory over the Rustlers on July 13 that left the Cardinals just two games out of first place in the NL. After July 19, his pitching became less consistent, and he won only two of his final nine decisions. His victory over the Philadelphia Phillies on August 17 is notable for being the only shutout of his career; Steele gave up just five hits in the game. Steele finished the season having appeared in 43 games, 34 of which were starts, 23 of which he completed. He posted a 3.73 ERA in a career-high 287+1⁄3 innings and had an 18–19 record, tying Earl Moore of the Phillies for the NL lead in losses. With a 75–74 record, the Cardinals finished in fifth place in the NL. #### 1912 An arm injury suffered during 1912 spring training contributed to early-season struggles by Steele. With a 3–7 record and an ERA of almost 6.00 in late June, Steele was moved to the bullpen after a June 18 start. He also served poorly in this role and was given the chance to start again on June 29. Facing the Reds, he "rose heroic, like some grand old monolith by the River Nile" according to the St. Louis Star and Times as he held Cincinnati to seven hits and contributed a triple with the bases loaded in the 7–2 victory. This instigated the best set of games Steele ever pitched, as he won six of seven decisions and posted a 1.95 ERA through August 3. In the last of those, on August 3, Steele held the Phillies to five runs (three earned) in a complete-game, 7–5 victory, improving his record for the season to 9–8. However, he did not win another game all season, going 0–5 the rest of the way. In 40 games (25 starts), he had a 9–13 record, 67 strikeouts, 66 walks, and 245 hits allowed in 194 innings pitched, getting "hit hard" according to baseball historian Frank Russo. Steele's 4.69 ERA, as well as his 11.4 hits allowed per nine innings pitched, were the worst totals among pitchers who threw enough innings to qualify for the MLB ERA title. #### 1913 In late February 1913, Steele criticized Bresnahan, who had been fired as manager the previous August. Steele accused him of not treating the players fairly, going on to say that he deliberately tried not to pitch as well because of this. The St. Louis Globe-Democrat in response suggested that Bresnahan kept Steele with the team when the pitcher did not deserve it, adding "Steele is not deserving of the least bit of sympathy from anyone." Unpopular with the Cardinals' front office as a result, Steele's troubles increased when he came down with rheumatism in his right hip during spring training. He left the team in the middle of March, and the Cardinals did not know where he was when the season began. They kept him officially on the roster, however, because they needed pitchers. Steele rejoined the team a week into the season and "prolonged his big-league career," according to the Post-Dispatch, by holding Pittsburgh to one run and three hits on April 23 in a 3–1 victory. Despite the win, Steele was bothered by his rheumatism, as he limped on the field and had difficulty running to first base. In May, he was removed from games before the end of the third inning in half of his six starts. After that, he was mainly used as a mopup reliever. His last game of 1913 came on July 9, after which he did not pitch again, due either to complications with the rheumatism or a dislocated hip. He left the team (with its permission) in July to return to Milford and get married. In 12 games (nine starts), he had a 4–4 record, a 5.00 ERA, 10 strikeouts, 18 walks, and 58 hits allowed in 54 innings. The Post-Dispatch labelled his season a "complete failure." He was not the only Cardinal to struggle, as last-place St. Louis had the highest team ERA in the NL. #### 1914 At spring training in 1914, Steele said that he believed he could win at least 25 games, but he again served in a mopup role once the regular season began. He did not get along with Huggins, who had succeeded Bresnahan as manager. On August 7, Steele's contract was sold to the Brooklyn Robins. Steele had only appeared in 17 games (two starts) thus far, posting a 1–2 record, a 2.70 ERA, 16 strikeouts, seven walks, and 55 hits allowed in 53+1⁄3 innings. ### Brooklyn Robins (1914) With Brooklyn, Steele made eight appearances, only one of which was a start. He won one game for the Robins, giving up one run in 3+2⁄3 innings in a 9–6 triumph over Cincinnati in the first game of a doubleheader. In his last game of the year, on October 1, he entered in the ninth inning with Brooklyn leading the Phillies 7–6 and gave up three runs, taking the loss as Philadelphia triumphed 9–7. Those were his only decisions with Brooklyn; he had a 5.51 ERA, struck out three batters, walked seven, and gave up 17 hits in 16+1⁄3 innings. In 25 games (three starts) between both teams, he had a 2–3 record, a 3.36 ERA, 19 strikeouts, 14 walks, and 72 hits allowed in 69+2⁄3 innings. ### Later career The Robins optioned Steele to the Newark Indians of the Class AA International League after the 1914 season, but he was released without having played a game for them. The Syracuse Stars of the Class B New York State League picked him up for 1915. He made six appearances for the franchise, posting a 1–3 record. The team released him after two weeks because he was not in as good physical shape as they had hoped he would be. Steele then played for the Gettysburg Ponies of the Class D Blue Ridge League in 1916, also playing some local and semipro baseball around Milford before retiring. In 129 major league games (79 starts), he had a 37–43 record, a 4.02 ERA, 236 strikeouts, 235 walks, and 733 hits allowed in 676+2⁄3 innings. ## Description and pitching style When Steele made his debut on September 10, 1910, reporter Jack Ryder called him a "large and ferocious gentleman, with baleful ire in his amps and a curveball in his capacious mitt." His eyes were blue, his hair was black, and he had a very squarish jaw. High cheekbones accented how long his face was. At 5 feet 11 inches (1.80 m), he was one of the bigger players at that time. His nickname was "Big Bill". He often weighed nearly 200 pounds (91 kg), but this could change during the summer. According to the St. Louis Post-Dispatch, "[T]he hot weather during the middle of the season sets him back a great deal and peels off too much flesh making him go stale and weakening him." He relied mainly on the spitball but also threw a fastball and curveball. According to the Altoona Tribune in 1910, Steele could "make the spitter break any old way he pleases. Some times it goes over with a slide shoot; other times it drops a foot." ## Personal life Steele met Ann Farr Doyle, a St. Louis resident, in early 1912. They were married in 1913 and had one son, Bernard, who would be born six years later. Bernard played three years of minor league baseball in the 1940s, interrupted by a four-year service in the military during World War II. A first baseman, he batted over .300 in his career, though he never played above the Class B level. The Steeles lived in Milford until several years after Bill had retired; they then moved to 8275 Albin Street in Overland, Missouri, a St. Louis suburb. Swift and Company employed him as a mechanic, and he later worked for A&P as a maintenance man at one of their warehouses. As a side business, he raised New Zealand rabbits, which he sold to local hospitals so they could use them for experiments. Ann was the owner of a confectionery store until her death in 1945. ## Death On October 19, 1949, a rainy evening, Steele was hit by a streetcar in Overland, just two blocks from his house. Taken to St. Louis County Hospital, he was declared dead when the ambulance arrived. Initially, the coroner declared that Steele's death was a homicide. Walter F. Hibler, the streetcar operator, refused to testify, and no other witnesses to the death were found. Thus, Hibler was never charged with any wrongdoing. Steele was buried in St. Louis's Memorial Park Cemetery, Section 1, Lot 373.
1,136,192	The Black Mages	1,149,878,007	Japanese instrumental rock band	[ "2002 establishments in Japan", "2010 disestablishments in Japan", "Final Fantasy music", "Instrumental rock musical groups", "Japanese hard rock musical groups", "Japanese instrumental musical groups", "Japanese musical trios", "Japanese progressive metal musical groups", "Musical groups disestablished in 2010", "Musical groups established in 2002", "Musical groups from Tokyo", "Sextets", "Symphonic rock groups", "Video game music cover bands", "Video game musicians" ]	The Black Mages were a Japanese instrumental rock band formed in 2002 by Nobuo Uematsu, Kenichiro Fukui and Tsuyoshi Sekito, who were three video game composers for Square and Square Enix. The band arranged Uematsu's Final Fantasy video game series-based compositions in a hard rock style often similar to progressive metal, achieved with the additional use of synthesizers. A year later the band expanded to six members with the addition of Keiji Kawamori, Michio Okamiya and Arata Hanyuda. In August 2010, Uematsu announced the band had been disbanded, but he would continue to perform rock arrangements of his music as a part of another similar band, known as the Earthbound Papas. The band released three studio albums. Their first was released eponymously as The Black Mages in 2003, and contained arrangements of Final Fantasy battle themes. The second album, The Black Mages II: The Skies Above, was released in 2004 and featured additional pieces besides battle themes including the group's first original song, "Blue Blast \~Winning the Rainbow", which was created for Japanese K-1 fighter Takehiro Murahama. The third album, The Black Mages III: Darkness and Starlight, was released in 2008. Music from the group has also appeared in other albums, including one track in Dark Chronicle Premium Arrange, an album of arranged music from the video game Dark Chronicle, a piece in the animated film Final Fantasy VII Advent Children and its corresponding soundtrack album, and one track on Final Fantasy III Original Soundtrack, the soundtrack album for the Nintendo DS version of Final Fantasy III. The Black Mages did not tour as a band, but performed several concerts to promote their album releases. For their first album they performed in Shibuya and Kanagawa, Japan in 2003 and later released a live video of the first concert on DVD exclusively to Uematsu fanclub members. They repeated this for the release of their second album, performing in Kawasaki and Osaka, Japan in 2005 and similarly released on DVD to fanclub members. The third album saw a performance in Yokohama, Japan in 2008; a DVD of the show was released commercially in March 2009. In addition to these concerts, The Black Mages made live appearances at two Final Fantasy concerts, More Friends: Music from Final Fantasy and Voices - Music from Final Fantasy, as well as another video game music event, Extra: Hyper Game Music Event 2007. ## History In 2000, Square Enix employees Kenichiro Fukui and Tsuyoshi Sekito formed an experimental partnership to compose music for the video game All Star Pro-Wrestling in a rock style. After the game's success, the two continued to compose in the same style. In 2002, Fukui and Sekito decided to arrange some of the compositions of Nobuo Uematsu, the primary composer for the music of the Final Fantasy series. Uematsu, a fan of rock music, enjoyed these arrangements, and Fukui and Sekito asked him to join them in making a rock band. Declining at first due to feeling too busy with his composing duties and attempts to become a music producer with his Smile Please label, Uematsu agreed to join them in a single live performance as a keyboardist. At the performance, Uematsu felt a "mix of stage fright and excitement, [with] all the crowds cheering, the audience paying full attention", and decided to join the two in making a band; Fukui and Sekito had refused to start one if Uematsu was not involved as one of the musicians. The group has said they were "nervous" about forming a rock band, as they were all "middle-aged", but decided after the performance it would not be a problem. The name "The Black Mages" was chosen by an employee at Square Enix, Mr. Matsushita, and was decided to be in English because it "wouldn't stand out" in Japanese. Square Enix owns the name "The Black Mages", which means while using that name the band was essentially limited to playing Final Fantasy music and original pieces rather than arranging music from other game series that were not owned by the company. In 2003, Uematsu decided the band should produce an album of Final Fantasy arrangements. The trio arranged, interpreted, and sequenced ten battle themes from various Final Fantasy titles, with Uematsu as producer; the album was released eponymously on February 19, 2003. To celebrate the success, Uematsu decided to organize a concert in tribute to the album; Uematsu and Fukui served as the keyboardists, while Sekito was the guitarist. They needed more people to perform the arrangements live, however, and as such, several other members from Square Enix joined. Keiji Kawamori joined to play the bass guitar, Michio Okamiya to play the guitar, and Arata Hanyuda to play the drums. Since then, The Black Mages have released two additional albums, with all six members participating. The group performed concerts to promote both of these albums, and also participated in video game music-themed concerts. On August 7, 2010, Uematsu announced the band had formally disbanded. He did not directly state the reason for the decision, though in previous interviews he had noted the band was increasingly finding it difficult to find time to rehearse together. In an April 2011 interview he said the main reason was because The Black Mages had been formed as a "Square Enix" band, they were unable to perform arrangements of work he had composed after leaving Square Enix or to focus on original pieces. Uematsu continues to play rock arrangements of his music as a part of the band the Earthbound Papas, which performed at the Distant Worlds II concert in 2010. He has been joined by fellow Black Mages bandmates Michio Okamiya and Arata Hanyuda, both continuing on guitar and drums, respectively. They had also left Square Enix; Uematsu built the new band to not include any current Square Enix employees so as to avoid the trademark and licensing problems of The Black Mages. ## Discography ### The Black Mages The Black Mages is an arranged soundtrack album of video game music from the Final Fantasy series of role-playing video games. The album contains a selection of musical tracks from the games, arranged and performed in a hybrid of hard rock and progressive metal by The Black Mages. All the selected tracks are "battle themes" from the games. The pieces have been described as "hard-rock" with "blazing synthesizers and guitars". It was first released on February 19, 2003, by DigiCube, and subsequently re-released on May 10, 2004, by Square Enix. It spans ten tracks and covers a duration of 51:29. The album reached No. 43 on the Japan Oricon charts. It was well received by critics like Andy Byus of RPGFan, who termed it "addicting" and "powerful". He criticized the overuse of synthesizer as opposed to live instruments in some tracks, and that some of the arrangements stayed too close to the original tracks, especially "Dancing Mad". Tetra of Square Enix Music Online also enjoyed the album, saying "all of the members are strong musicians, and Sekito and Fukui were equally strong arrangers". His primary complaint with the album was he felt many of the songs followed the same general pattern in their arrangements. ### The Black Mages II: The Skies Above The Black Mages II: The Skies Above is an arranged soundtrack album of video game music from the Final Fantasy series of role-playing video games. Like the previous album, it contains a selection of musical tracks from the games, arranged and performed in a hybrid of hard rock and progressive metal by The Black Mages. Unlike their first album, The Skies Above includes other pieces besides battle themes; the album also features songs, which were performed by Kazco Hamano, credited as "KAZCO", and Tomoaki Watanabe, or "Mr. Goo". It also includes a non-Final Fantasy track, "Blue Blast — Winning the Rainbow", an original piece that was created for Japanese K-1 fighter Takehiro Murahama. The Skies Above, as opposed to the first album, features real drums rather than sequenced drums, as the band had expanded from its original three members, none of whom played drums. The line "Maybe I'm a Lion" in the track of the same name was spoken by Alexander O. Smith, a translator for Square Enix and close friend of Okamiya, one of the new members. It was released on December 22, 2004, by Universal Music Group. The album spans eleven tracks, and covers a duration of 50:56. The album received mixed reviews from critics; Jesse Jones of RPGFan said that he was "simply amazed" by the album, though it was not without flaws. While terming the music overall as "excellent", he disliked the vocal arrangements in "Otherworld" and "The Skies Above", finding that the voices of the singers did not match with the songs' instrumentals. Zane of Square Enix Music Online was less approving of the album, calling it "passable" and saying that the new arrangements gave "mixed results". He blamed the "intolerable vocals" and occasional poor choices in instruments as the problems with the album, concluding that the second Black Mages album was inferior to the first. ### The Black Mages III: Darkness and Starlight The Black Mages III: Darkness and Starlight is the third arranged soundtrack album of video game music from the Final Fantasy series of role-playing video games. The album contains a selection of musical tracks from the games, arranged and performed in a hybrid of hard rock and progressive metal by The Black Mages in a similar manner to their previous albums. It was released on March 19, 2008, by Uematsu's Dog Ear Records, spanning ten tracks and a duration of 60:40. The Black Mages sing the chorus for the song "Darkness and Starlight", the only vocal track on the album. The album has been described as being composed of a mix of "intense" symphonic metal pieces and rock opera. Like the previous album, Darkness and Starlight features an original piece, "Life \~ in memory of KEITEN \~", which was composed by Uematsu for Yoshitaka Tagawa, a boy he had met who died of leukemia. The album was well received by websites like RPGFan, which said the album was "very much worth the over three year wait" and described the tracks as "enjoyable" and "inspiring". He had few complaints with the album, only describing "Opening \~ Bombing Mission" and "Assault of the Silver Dragons" as "bland", but still worth listening to. Square Enix Music Online was even more positive in its review of the album, calling it "a masterpiece" and "The Black Mages' finest effort to date", wishing only the album had been longer. ### Other appearances In addition to their own albums, pieces from The Black Mages have appeared on several other albums. The first of these was "Flame Demon Monster Gaspard" on Dark Chronicle Premium Arrange, an album of arranged music from the video game Dark Chronicle originally composed by Tomohito Nishiura. The album was released on April 21, 2004, by Team Entertainment. Their next appearance was in the animated film Final Fantasy VII Advent Children and its corresponding soundtrack album, where they played—together with orchestration conducted by Koji Haijima—"Advent: One-Winged Angel", an arrangement of "One-Winged Angel" from Final Fantasy VII originally composed by Uematsu and arranged by Shirō Hamaguchi. Their third appearance was on the soundtrack album for the Nintendo DS version of Final Fantasy III, entitled Final Fantasy III Original Soundtrack, with one track then titled "Last Battle -THE BLACK MAGES Ver.-", but later re-titled "KURAYAMINOKUMO" (Cloud of Darkness) on the Darkness and Starlight album. ## Concerts While The Black Mages never toured as a band, they participated in several concert events. These include promotional concerts for the release of their three albums and appearances at orchestral concerts devoted to Final Fantasy music. ### Promotional concerts The Black Mages held a concert to promote their first album on April 26, 2003, in the Shibuya-AX concert hall in Shibuya, Tokyo, Japan. This overnight concert featured the full setlist from the album, and introduced the track "Matoya's Cave", which would be featured in their next album. While the band members were being introduced, Okamiya performed the Chocobo theme and Uematsu performed the intro to Deep Purple's "Smoke on the Water." A DVD recording of the show was made and given to Uematsu fanclub members that year. The concert was repeated on November 3, 2003, at Kanagawa University in Kanagawa, Japan. This free concert was part of the Kanagawa Jindai Festa. As Uematsu graduated from Kanagawa University, The Black Mages all wore the school's student uniform. For their second album, The Black Mages performed two promotional concerts. They performed all the songs from their second album, along with "The Decisive Battle", "Those Who Fight Further" and "Clash on the Big Bridge" from their first album. These concerts featured Kenji Ito, who performed piano renditions of pieces from the SaGa series. Also featured were muZik, a group who performed seven techno and pop-style Final Fantasy arrangements. The first concert set was at Club Citta in Kawasaki, Japan on January 22 and January 23, 2005, and the second one at Namba Hatch in Osaka, Japan on January 28, 2005. A DVD recording of the Kawasaki show was made and given to Uematsu fanclub members on February 1, 2006. A live concert was performed for the release of The Black Mages' third album as for their previous albums. Performed at the Yokohama Blitz in Yokohama, Japan, on August 9, 2008, the concert featured all the pieces from the album with the exception of "Life \~ in memory of KEITEN \~" and with the addition of "Maybe I'm a Lion" and "Clash on the Big Bridge". A DVD recording of the show was made and released commercially in 2009, a first for the band. ### Other concerts In addition to their own concerts, The Black Mages made appearances at official Final Fantasy concerts. The first of these was the More Friends: Music from Final Fantasy event, held in the Gibson Amphitheatre in Los Angeles, California, on May 16, 2005; the concert was The Black Mages' first appearance in North America. The band performed "The Rocking Grounds" and "Maybe I'm a Lion" from their second album, and joined with the orchestra for "Advent: One-Winged Angel" as an encore to the concert. A recorded album was released on February 15, 2006, by Square Enix, and included the pieces by The Black Mages. The second Final Fantasy concert The Black Mages performed at was the Voices - Music from Final Fantasy concert held in Yokohama, Japan on February 18, 2006. This concert featured performances of various Final Fantasy songs. The Black Mages played "Advent: One-Winged Angel" at the end of the concert along with the Prima Vista Philharmonic Orchestra; the song was played a second time as an encore. A DVD of the concert was released on June 21, 2006, and included an interview with Uematsu. On July 7, 2007, The Black Mages appeared at the Extra: Hyper Game Music Event at Shinkiba Studio Coast in Tokyo. They were the last of thirteen artists and groups to play at the six-hour event, and performed "Last Battle", "Those Who Fight Further", "Maybe I'm a Lion" and "Clash on the Big Bridge". The music performed by The Black Mages did not appear on the official album for the concert. ## Band members - Nobuo Uematsu – keyboards (2002–2010) - Kenichiro Fukui – keyboards (2002–2010) - Tsuyoshi Sekito – guitar (2002–2010) - Keiji Kawamori – bass guitar (2003–2010) - Arata Hanyuda – drums (2003–2010) - Michio Okamiya – guitar (2003–2010)
44,206,605	Miodrag Tomić	1,169,731,325	Serbian pilot	[ "1888 births", "1962 deaths", "Burials at the Saint Sava Serbian Orthodox Monastery in Libertyville, Illinois", "Military personnel from Kragujevac", "Serbian aviators" ]	Miodrag Tomić (Serbian Cyrillic: Миодраг Томић; – 20 February 1962) was a Serbian and Yugoslav military pilot who flew during the Balkan Wars and World War I. Tomić belonged to the first class of six Serbian pilots trained in France in 1912. In August 1914, he participated in the first aerial dogfight of the war, when he exchanged gunfire with an Austro-Hungarian plane over western Serbia. In the winter of 1915, during the Serbian Army's retreat across Albania to the Greek island of Corfu, he evacuated General Petar Bojović from Scutari by plane, delivered mail by air and transported the Serbian Government's gold and hard currency reserves from Niš to keep them from falling into enemy hands. Following the occupation of Serbia by the Central Powers, Tomić went to France and flew over the Western Front, where he had one confirmed kill. He returned to the Balkans in late 1916, conducted combat missions over Bulgarian-occupied Macedonia and shot down one enemy plane. Tomić continued flying after the war and became head of the Royal Yugoslav Air Force's pursuit squadron in Novi Sad. During World War II, he was captured by the Germans and detained as a prisoner of war. Tomić left Yugoslavia following the war and settled in the United States with his wife. He died in Chicago in 1962. ## Early life, education and the Balkan Wars Miodrag Tomić was born on in the village of Stragari, near Kragujevac. Matrilineally, he was a descendant of Serbian warlord Tanasko Rajić, who was killed fighting the Ottomans during the First Serbian Uprising. Tomić finished primary school and gymnasium in Kragujevac. In 1905, he enrolled into non-commissioned officers' school. He graduated successfully and became a member of King Peter's Royal Guard. Serbia had been the first country in the Balkans to take interest in aerial warfare. Shortly after Austria-Hungary's annexation of Bosnia-Herzegovina in 1908, Serbia purchased two German reconnaissance balloons. In 1912, prior to the First Balkan War, it sent six soldiers to France to receive pilots' training and ordered 11 French planes. On 29 April 1912, Tomić was sent to France to attend Louis Blériot's flying school in Étampes, near Paris. He graduated on 1 October 1912, after four months of training, and was issued diploma \#1026. This made him one of Serbia's first military pilots. By the time Tomić had returned home, Serbia was embroiled in the Balkan Wars. On 24 December 1912, the Serbian Aviation Command was established in Niš. Tomić was actively involved in the siege of Scutari. On 29 March 1913, Sergeant Tomić and Lieutenant Živojin Stanković spent 45 minutes flying over Scutari at a height of 2,200 metres (7,200 ft) and spying on Ottoman positions. In July 1913, Tomić flew several flights over Bulgaria, conducting reconnaissance missions and dropping small bombs. At the end of the Balkan Wars, the Royal Serbian Army promoted Tomić to the rank of second lieutenant. ## World War I At the outbreak of World War I, the Royal Serbian Army had only three planes, one of which was piloted by Tomić. His plane was quite primitive even for 1914. Misha Glenny, a journalist who has written extensively on the Balkans, likens it to "a box kite on perambulator wheels". At the beginning of the war, Tomić was attached to the 1st Danube Division. On the afternoon of 12 August 1914, he flew a reconnaissance mission over Šabac, and disclosed to the Serbian High Command that, contrary to initial reports, the Austro-Hungarians had not set up pontoon bridges on the Sava and were attempting to cross the river with boats. On 15 August, Tomić encountered an enemy plane while conducting a reconnaissance flight over Austria-Hungary. The Austro-Hungarian aviator initially waved at Tomić, who waved back. The enemy pilot then took a revolver and began shooting at Tomić's plane. Tomić produced a pistol of his own and fired back. He swerved away from the Austro-Hungarian plane and the two aircraft eventually parted ways. This incident is considered the first recorded dogfight of the war. Within weeks, all Serbian and Austro-Hungarian aircraft were armed. The Serbians equipped their planes with 8-millimetre (0.31 in) Schwarzlose MG M.07/12 machine guns, six 100-round boxes of ammunition and several bombs. The first armed Serbian plane was given the name OЛУЈ (Oluj), or "storm". It was mostly flown by Tomić. Tomić was ordered to form an aerial unit of the Šumadija Division on 16 August. On 22 October, he became the first Serbian pilot to face enemy anti-aircraft fire when his Blériot XI was targeted by Austro-Hungarian field batteries. The first Serbian escadrille was formed in Belgrade the same day. Tomić went on to participate in multiple combat missions, dropping explosive ordnance on Austro-Hungarian military positions and supply lines. In May 1915, a number of French pilots came to Serbia to help the country's war effort. Tomić was assigned to Požarevac airfield following the arrival of the French and flew missions over the Banat. A soldier named Milutin Mihailović was assigned to fly with him as a military observer. On 9 June, Tomić downed one German plane. Six days later, he was promoted to the rank of lieutenant. He shot down another German plane on 23 June. In total, Tomić and Mihailović flew nineteen combat missions over the Banat between early May and late August 1915. In October 1915, Serbia was invaded by a combined Austro-Hungarian, Bulgarian and German force. The Serbian Army was overwhelmed within weeks and forced to retreat across Albania to the Greek island of Corfu. The small Serbian Air Force withdrew from its headquarters in Banjica to Kruševac via Mladenovac, Smederevska Palanka and Jagodina. In Kruševac, Tomić and lieutenant Živojin Stanković were tasked with destroying four obsolete planes to keep them from falling into enemy hands. Upon completing the task, Tomić and Stanković manned two small biplanes and headed for Peć. Tomić successfully reached Kosovo, but Stanković did not. His plane crashed near the town of Kuršumlija, leaving him seriously injured. Tomić continued south, successfully transporting the Serbian Government's gold reserves out of Niš and ensuring they did not fall into the hands of the Central Powers. He also flew important mail in and out of Serbia, and evacuated the country's hard currency reserves. In Kosovo, Tomić contracted typhus. On 19 November, he and aerial mechanic Miloje Milekić landed in Prizren. They spent the next two days wandering the countryside and walking through knee-deep snow. During the day, the air temperature reached −40 °C (−40 °F). The two stayed near their plane, waiting for orders from the Serbian High Command. On 21 November, Tomić and Milekić received orders to destroy their plane and go to Albania on foot. They decided against destroying the Blériot XI and took off the following morning, headed for Durrës. The Blériot XI was designed to fly for a maximum of four hours, but Tomić managed to keep it flying for the duration of the four-and-a-half hour flight to Durrës and landed safely on a field near the town. Locals soon discovered the plane and escorted Tomić and Milekić to Serbian envoy Panta Gavrilović. Tomić recovered from his ordeal and later evacuated General Petar Bojović from Scutari to Lezhë. Heavy winds over the town caused Tomić's plane to crash on 23 January 1916. He escaped unharmed. While the Serbian Army recovered on Corfu, Tomić was assigned to the Western Front and flew with a French escadrille—Escadrille 389. During his time in France, he successfully downed one German plane. Colonel Dushé, the C.O. of the Serbian Air Force, commended Tomić on 16 November 1916. Tomić soon returned to the Balkans, ready to conduct aerial missions on the Salonika front. He flew a Nieuport 23 fighter on a number of combat missions over Bulgarian-occupied Macedonia as part of Escadrille 387. At about 10 a.m. on 17 April 1917, Tomić and his escadrille attacked a group of 14 Bulgarian planes conducting a bombing raid against the Serbian rear. His plane sustained serious damage during the encounter; it was struck by a number of incendiary bullets and its fuel line was severed. Unable to continue flying, Tomić was forced to land near Demir Kapija. In another aerial confrontation on 8 July, he successfully shot down a Bulgarian plane. This was Tomić's first recorded kill in Salonika, and his fourth overall. He was commended for this feat on 12 July, by order of the Serbian High Command. Following the Allied breakthrough in Macedonia, Tomić and his escadrille landed at Novi Sad, after which he was promoted to the rank of captain. ## World War II, emigration and death Tomić remained in the armed forces after the war, serving with the Royal Yugoslav Air Force and becoming the commander of the Novi Sad pursuit squadron. In the 1920s, he achieved the rank of colonel. He married a woman named Danica, who later also became a pilot. In April 1941, Tomić was captured as a prisoner of war during the German-led Axis invasion of Yugoslavia. Following World War II, he and his wife emigrated to the United States. Tomić died in Chicago on 20 February 1962, and was survived by his sister in Yugoslavia. He is buried in Libertyville, Illinois. ## See also - Jovan Jugović - Mihajlo Petrović (pilot)
23,481,965	Report about Case Srebrenica	1,169,564,812	Report denying Srebrenica massacre	[ "2002 controversies", "2002 documents", "2002 in Bosnia and Herzegovina", "Bosnian genocide denial", "Government reports", "Historical negationism", "Historical revisionism", "History of Republika Srpska", "Political scandals in Bosnia and Herzegovina", "Srebrenica massacre" ]	Report about Case Srebrenica (the first part) was a controversial official report on the July 1995 Srebrenica massacre in eastern Bosnia and Herzegovina. It was prepared by Darko Trifunović and published by the Republika Srpska Government Bureau for Relations with the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia (ICTY). The report denied that there had been a massacre at Srebrenica and accused the International Committee of the Red Cross of having "fabricated" its findings on the killings. Its claims were strongly criticised by the international community and the Bosniaks and were eventually disowned by the Republika Srpska government. In a judgment against Miroslav Deronjić, the Hague Tribunal judges described the report as "one of the worst examples of revisionism." No "second part" has ever been published. ## Background In July 1995, forces of the Army of the Republika Srpska (VRS) captured the town of Srebrenica in eastern Bosnia, which had been cut off and surrounded despite the presence of soldiers from the United Nations Protection Force (UNPROFOR). Thousands of refugees had crowded into the town to escape the Serb advance. Following the Serb takeover of Srebrenica, an estimated 8,000 Bosniak men and boys were systematically massacred by Serb forces between 11–15 July and another 25,000–30,000 were subjected to ethnic cleansing. It was the largest act of mass murder in Europe since World War II. Successive governments of Republika Srpska (and, for a while, Serbia) sought to deny the massacre and other war crimes committed by the VRS during the war. It was against this background that, as the former United Nations trial attorney Mark B. Harmon commented, "the campaign of misinformation and deceit reached its apotheosis seven years after the crimes were committed with the publication of the Report About Case Srebrenica (the first part)." ## Contents of the report The report was promoted as an effort "to present the whole truth about crimes committed in Srebrenica region regardless nationality of perpetrators of crimes and time when they were committed [sic]." It asserted that no more than 2,000 Bosniaks (Bosnian Muslims) had died at Srebrenica – all armed soldiers, not civilians – and that 1,600 of them had died in combat or while trying to escape the enclave. It consistently referred to the "alleged massacre", attributed the deaths of about 100 Bosniaks to "exhaustion" and concluded: "the number of Muslim soldiers who were executed by Bosnian Serb forces for personal revenge or for simple ignorance of international law [...] would probably stand less than 100." The report dismissed as "mentally disturbed" a Bosnian Serb soldier who had admitted participating in the killings, and claimed that the survivors' stories were a product of their imaginations: "To walk for almost 20 days in an area that might be full of landmines, without any food and water, under the fear of being shot from any direction was such a trauma that soldiers sometimes mixed reality with illusions. Having looked at dead bodies under such psychological [pressure], some Muslim soldiers could have believed what they imagined." It asserted that "this combat might have looked like a mass killing in the eyes of frightened Muslim soldiers, although they carried weapons and shot at Bosnian Serb soldiers randomly." The report also asserted that the findings of the International Committee of the Red Cross and other humanitarian organisations had been "manipulated" and "fabricated". It characterised Serbs as the victims of Bosniak war crimes around Srebrenica, asserting that in 1992 and 1993 alone 1300 Serb civilians were killed. This figure has been shown to be inaccurate, and the true number "three to nine times smaller", by the Research and Documentation Center in Sarajevo, a non-partisan institution with a multi-ethnic staff, whose data have been collected, processed, checked, compared and evaluated by an international team of experts. The instigator of the massacre, General Ratko Mladić, was mentioned only in the context of demanding the surrender of the town and evacuating civilians; the report asserted that he had tried "discouraging Serbs to take their wild revenge." The report claimed that "the Muslims inflated the number [of deaths] in order to accomplish what they wanted from the very beginning – to involve the international community in the conflict with Serbs." According to Dejan Miletić, whom Paddy Ashdown, the High Representative for Bosnia and Herzegovina, removed in April 2004 from his post as Head of the Republika Srpska Secretariat for Relations with the International Criminal Tribunal in The Hague and Research of War Crimes, the report "had based its conclusions on publications found on the Internet, reports from the United Nations and other sources." It was intended to be sent to lawyers defending Bosnian Serbs on trial for war crimes. ## ICTY verdict The ICTY reviewed the "Report About Case Srebrenica" and concluded the following: > The Trial Chamber admitted into evidence a document which represents one of the worst examples of revisionism in relation to the mass executions of Bosnian Muslims committed in Srebrenica in July 1995. This document, titled “Report about Case Srebrenica (the First Part)” was prepared by the Documentation Centre of Republika Srpska, Bureau of Government of Republika Srpska for Relation with ICTY on 1 September 2002. Throughout this report reference is made to the “alleged massacre” and this misrepresentation of the historical events culminates in the final conclusion of this report, which reads: [...] the number of Muslim soldiers who were executed by Bosnian Serb forces for personal revenge or for simple ignorance of international law [...] would probably stand less than 100. ## Reactions After the report was published on 3 September 2002, it was condemned by a wide variety of Bosnian and international figures. A spokesman for the ICTY told Radio Free Europe that "any claim that the number of victims after the fall of the Srebrenica enclave was around the 2,000 mark, and most of those killed in battle, is an absolutely outrageous claim. It's utterly false, and it flies in the face of all of the evidence painstakingly collected in the investigation into the tragedy." He described the effort to minimise the number of victims as "frankly, disgusting." Carla del Ponte, the chief prosecutor of the ICTY, described the report's authors as "totally blind, profoundly insensitive and clearly willing to obstruct all efforts to find reconciliation, truth and justice." Del Ponte's legal adviser, Jean-Jacques Joris, criticised the report as "a saddening example of revisionism and an element which certainly stands in the way of reconciliation in the region." The ICTY prosecutors subsequently used the report as evidence in the trial in 2004 of Miroslav Deronjić; in their verdict, the judges called it "one of the worst examples of revisionism in relation to [the massacre]". Paddy Ashdown, the High Representative for Bosnia and Herzegovina, condemned it as "tendentious, preposterous and inflammatory" and "so far from the truth as to be almost not worth dignifying with a response." His office issued a statement calling the report "an irresponsible attempt to deceive voters and to abuse the trauma of massacre survivors". Ashdown's spokesman, Julian Braithwaite, noted the report's publication just before elections in the Republika Srpska: "The question for the RS government is why are they publishing this report now, at the time when it could be easily interpreted as irresponsible electioneering. If they are playing down the fact that civilians were massacred and that children are being exhumed from mass graves with their hands tied behind their backs, then that it is outrageous." The European Union issued a statement calling on "all responsible people and institutions" to reject the study. The International Commission on Missing Persons issued a strongly worded statement calling the report a gross distortion of the facts: > Manipulation of the issue of the missing for political purposes, including the manipulation of numbers of missing, has been an ongoing practice within Bosnia and Herzegovina that only serves to cause further pain and suffering in a society that has already suffered so much. The study regarding the numbers of missing from the 1995 fall of Srebrenica made by the Republika Srpska's Government Bureau for Relations with the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) contains what ICMP believes to be serious inaccuracies. The British Foreign Office minister Denis MacShane condemned the report as "an insult to the memory of those who died. The authors of this report belong in the same category as those who deny the Holocaust took place." The United States embassy in Bosnia and Herzegovina urged the Republika Srpska government to withdraw the report, calling it "an attempt to manipulate and divide the public in this country." Bosnian media, political parties and Srebrenica survivors were likewise strongly critical. The Sarajevo-based newspaper Dnevni Avaz described the report as an attempt by the Bosnian Serb government to deny that genocide had taken place. The Srebrenica and Zepa Mothers Association condemned the report as "false, shameful and utterly amoral." The Party for Bosnia and Herzegovina denounced it as "yet another attempt by the Serb Republic authorities in an unscrupulous and brutal way to negate what probably is the worst crime in Europe after WW2." Alija Behmen, the Prime Minister of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, called it "a surprising forgery which is trying to delude the public and especially the Serbs in BiH. I honestly believe that this is the last attempt to enliven the policy which marked the tragic past of BiH. Negating the genocide cannot be a part of the election campaign." On the Bosnian Serb side, opinions of the report were initially favourable. The Bosnian Serb media largely supported the report, and Republika Srpska president Mirko Šarović (who in October 2002 became the Serb member of the collective presidency) said that the report "should not be dismissed out of hand but merits careful study". A number of Bosnian Serb political figures made public statements denying that war crimes had happened and a government spokesman called the report a bid to promote "truth and reconciliation". The Republika Srpska Socialist Party leader, Lazar Ristić, welcomed the report and accused the Bosniak side of having "hitherto presented only false reports, in which names were listed of persons who are still alive today." Nikola Špirić, the speaker of the National Assembly of Republika Srpska, called it "the worst election campaigning I have ever seen." Milorad Dodik, who was later to become prime minister of Republika Srpska, castigated the report as having been "written by an amateur for the purpose of manipulating public opinion" in advance of the elections and said: > It is a political gaffe of the government, since one can see that the report was written several years ago by one man. The report had been written in 1996 and 1997, which goes to show that it does not mention the report by the Netherlands Institute for War Documentation. [...] The government shouldn't have allowed itself to draft such a superficial, amateurish report which put Republika Srpska into such a difficult situation. Responsibility for the consequences of the report's publication must be borne by those who produced it in such a superficial and amateurish way. The Republika Srpska government was, however, more equivocal. Its prime minister, Mladen Ivanić, accused the media in the Federation entity of having "made [a] fuss over the report for their own purposes." Nonetheless, the outcry from the international community forced the government of Republika Srpska to distance itself from the report, saying that it had not been fully analysed and endorsed: > The two studies, which the RS Government's Bureau for Cooperation with the ICTY compiled, are not made by the RS Government. They are part of the report that the RS Government’s Bureau for Cooperation with the ICTY submits to the RS Government every three months. The fact that the Srebrenica report had been condemned by the Office of the High Representative before the Bureau's news conference was held comes as a surprise. The Bureau representatives clearly said at the news conference that both reports are to be submitted to the RS Government, which tells us that the OHR based its condemnation on news reports from the BiH Federation media, which said that the Bureau reports are RS Government's report. It also comes as a surprise the fact that the OHR representatives commented on a document, which they have not read. This is another confirmation that the OHR gives in to the pressures coming from the Sarajevo media and that the OHR creates its views by using their [the Sarajevo media's] information and press releases, thus bringing its own [the OHR's] impartiality in question. The Republika Srpska government subsequently disowned the report with Prime Minister Ivanić saying that it was an "unfinished version" and "not an attitude of the government of Republika Srpska." Two years later, after further pressure from the international community, the Bosnian Serb government issued an official apology for the massacre and admitted that "enormous crimes" had been "committed in the area of Srebrenica in July 1995."
527,090	Oregon Supreme Court	1,171,964,821	Highest court in the U.S. state of Oregon	[ "1841 establishments in Oregon", "Courts and tribunals established in 1841", "Oregon Supreme Court", "State supreme courts of the United States" ]	The Oregon Supreme Court (OSC) is the highest state court in the U.S. state of Oregon. The only court that may reverse or modify a decision of the Oregon Supreme Court is the Supreme Court of the United States. The OSC holds court at the Oregon Supreme Court Building in Salem, Oregon, near the capitol building on State Street. The building was finished in 1914 and also houses the state's law library, while the courtroom is also used by the Oregon Court of Appeals. Tracing its heritage to 1841 when Oregon pioneers selected a Supreme Judge with probate powers, the court has grown from a single judge to its current make up of seven justices. Justices of the court serve six-year terms upon election, however vacancies are filled by appointments of the Governor of Oregon until the next general election when any qualified candidate may run for the position, including the appointee. These seven justices then select one member to serve a six-year term as Chief Justice. The court's Chief Justice is not only responsible for assigning cases to the other justices to write the court's opinions, but is also the chief executive of the Oregon Judicial Department. Primarily an appeals court, the Oregon Supreme Court is also the court of last resort in Oregon. Although most oral arguments before the court are held in the Oregon Supreme Court Building, the court does travel around the state holding sessions in various schools. All cases are heard en banc by the court. It receives appeals from the Oregon Tax Court, the Oregon Court of Appeals, and some select cases such as death penalty appeals. Decisions of the court are published in the Oregon Reporter published by the Oregon Judicial Department. The Territorial Supreme Court was created in 1848 when the Oregon Territory was formed out of the old Oregon Country region, followed by the creation of the State Supreme Court in 1859 when Oregon was admitted to the Union on February 14. ## Selection The court is composed of seven elected justices, each of whom serves a six-year term after winning a nonpartisan election. Justices, like other Oregon state court judges, must be United States citizens, Oregon residents for at least three years, and lawyers admitted to practice in the state of Oregon. The newest justice receives the smallest office (nicknamed "the broom closet") and is responsible for opening the door when a conference is interrupted. When a state court judge retires, resigns, or dies before completing a term, the Governor may appoint another qualified person to the position. To retain that position, the appointed person must run for election for a full six-year term at the next general election. On occasion, a judge will leave office at the end of a term, in which case a general election determines their replacement. If the Supreme Court needs an additional judge on a temporary basis due to illness, an unfilled position, or a justice is disqualified from sitting on a case due to a conflict of interest, the court can appoint a senior judge to serve as a judge pro tempore. Senior judges are all former, qualified judges (a minimum of 12 years on the bench) that have retired from a state court. Only former Supreme Court justices, elected Oregon circuit court judges, or elected Oregon Court of Appeals judges can be assigned to temporary service on the Supreme Court. ## Administrative The court can appoint retired judges, lawyers, and other judges to serve temporarily as judges at any level in Oregon. They can also appoint senior judges to serve on any state court at or below the highest level of court that judge had served on before retirement or resignation. The state supreme court is responsible for admitting new lawyers to practice in Oregon, disciplining attorneys, and appointing members to the Board of Bar Examiners. This board of a minimum of fourteen members is responsible for administering the bar exam and screening prospective lawyers before admitting applicants to practice law in Oregon. Oversight of state judges is also in the hands of the Supreme Court. The Commission on Judicial Fitness and Disability investigates all reports of abuses and makes recommendations to the Supreme Court on any actions that may need to occur. The Supreme Court can then suspend judges, censure them, remove them from office, or take no action. ### Chief justice One justice of the court is elected by the court to serve a six-year term as chief justice. The chief justice is then responsible for all administration of the Supreme Court. Under a law enacted in 1981, the chief justice is not only the titular head of the Supreme Court but also the chief executive officer of the Oregon Judicial Department. In that role, the chief justice supervises all of the Oregon courts, appoints the chief judge of the Oregon Court of Appeals, assigns presiding judges for the trial level state courts, makes court rules, and is in charge of the department's budget. As administrator the chief justice is also the recipient of many reports from the court system including non-legal employees of the department. The first chief justice of the Oregon Supreme Court was William P. Bryant, while the longest serving chief was Wallace P. Carson, Jr. who held the position for 15 years. ### Oregon Reports Beginning in 1853, the official court reporter for the publication of all Supreme Court decisions was the Oregon Reports, abbreviated Or. or Ore. in case citations. These bound editions are published under the authority of the Oregon Supreme Court as authorized by state law. Joseph G. Wilson started in 1853 as the clerk for the court and was responsible for the Oregon Reports until 1870, though he also served as a justice of the court from 1862 to 1870. Later federal judge Charles B. Bellinger then took over editing the reports, and served as clerk until 1880. He was followed by T. B. Odeneal, J. A. Stratton, and W. H. Holmes, until 1889 when a law was passed that included a provision that the chief justice take over this responsibility. This arrangement only lasted a few years, as in 1891 a new law allowed the court to hire an official reporter, with later chief justice George H. Burnett serving as the first official reporter. The first reported opinion in the Oregon Reports was Thompson v. Backenstos, involving a case about trespassing. In the case, Justice George Henry Williams wrote the opinion, Justice Thomas Nelson had served as the judge at the trial level due to circuit riding, while future justice Reuben P. Boise served as counsel for the defense, and fellow future justice Aaron E. Waite provided counsel for the plaintiff. ## Powers and jurisdiction The powers of the OSC derive from the Oregon Constitution's Article VII. Like other supreme courts in the United States, the Oregon Supreme Court acts primarily as a court of appeals. They choose cases that are of legal significance or to unify lower court decisions. In this aspect the court has discretionary review over many of the cases appealed to the high court. Discretionary review allows the court to choose which cases it will hear on appeal. With those cases that are denied an appeal to the Supreme Court, the decision of the lower court becomes final and binding. As of 1995, the court only accepted one in eight appeals that were discretionary. The justices meet once per week in a formal conference in which only the justices are involved to determine rulings. Once a case is accepted, the court hears the case en banc. That is the court is not divided into panels, and instead all justices participate in all the cases, unless a justice recuses themselves due to a conflict of interest or other concern. The court also reviews death penalty cases, state tax court appeals, and items regarding legal discipline on direct review. Direct review means that the Supreme Court hears cases directly upon appeal without the case first going to the Court of Appeals. Other direct review items include state agency decisions such as the placement of prisons, placement of energy production facilities, locations of sites for solid waste disposal, and some labor law injunctions. Additionally, the court has original jurisdiction in, writs of mandamus, writs quo warranto, writs of habeas corpus, reapportionment of state legislative districts, and challenges to ballot measures such as their titles, the fiscal impact statement, and the explanatory statement as listed in the Voter's Pamphlet. Oregon's state courts are courts of general jurisdiction, unlike federal courts. That is, the state courts can hear all cases regardless of whether the dispute is based on state law, federal law, or a combination of both, with a few exceptions. Thus the Oregon Supreme Court can hear appeals for cases based on both federal and state law. Although the U.S. Supreme Court is the only court that can overturn decisions of the Oregon court, Oregon Supreme Court decisions as to federal law are only binding on other Oregon state level courts. Federal courts are not required to follow the decisions of the Oregon Supreme Court for decisions based on federal law, regardless as to if the federal court is located within the state. However, federal courts are bound to follow Oregon law and decisions of the Oregon Supreme Court for cases that involve disputes based on Oregon law, even when those federal courts are not based in Oregon, per the Erie Doctrine developed by the U.S. Supreme Court. For this reason federal courts, and courts from other states, can certify questions about Oregon law to the Oregon Supreme Court in order to clarify what the law in Oregon is in regards to the specific fact pattern that the federal court has before it in their case (see ORS 28.200 to 28.255 and ORAP 12.20). Although only the United States Supreme Court can overturn the decisions of the Oregon Supreme Court, they cannot overturn decisions exclusively based on the Oregon law, though other mechanisms exist that effectively overturn decisions of the Oregon Supreme Court. The U.S. Supreme Court can only accept cases from the Oregon Supreme Court if the decision involves issues of federal law and interpretation of federal law might change the outcome of the case. The Oregon Supreme Court is the final authority on Oregon law, and absent extraordinary circumstances the U.S. Supreme Court cannot overrule its interpretation of Oregon law (see adequate and independent state ground). Although only the U.S. Supreme Court can reverse or overturn decisions of the Oregon Supreme Court, decisions of the court can be effectively overturned by changing the law. Thus later outcomes of the court can be affected by legislation passed by the Oregon Legislative Assembly or through the initiative and referendum process. Also, in most criminal decisions Oregon's Governor or the President of the United States may issue a pardon (some crimes require the Oregon Legislature to concur). ## History Following the journey of the Lewis and Clark Expedition in 1805, the region known as Oregon Country experienced increased activity and exploration by Europeans and Americans. Beginning with the fur trade, settlement by Euro-Americans began as early as 1811 with the founding of Fort Astoria and slowly increased until the 1830s. In the 1830s additional settlement occurred, agricultural production increased, and missionaries started religious missions in the region. In 1835, the first trial in the region was held with John Kirk Townsend presiding as magistrate over a murder charge. Pioneer settlers continued to immigrate to the region, with larger wagon trains crossing the Oregon Trail in the 1840s bringing more immigrants and a need for courts. ### Pre-statehood The Oregon Supreme Court traces its roots back to the early settlement period of Oregon Country. In 1841, pioneer Ewing Young died without an heir or will in the unorganized lands of what are now the states of Idaho, Washington, and Oregon. In February of that year, settlers met at Champoeg to discuss the creation of a government, including a judiciary to deal with the execution of Young's estate. Although the overall government plans fell through, the group of pioneers and mountain men did elect a Supreme Judge to exercise probate powers. The first judge was Dr. Ira L. Babcock, serving from February 18, 1841, to May 1, 1843. In 1843, a later set of meetings at Champoeg created the Provisional Government of Oregon with a judiciary consisting of a Supreme Judge and two justices of the peace for trial level courts. Albert E. Wilson was the first judge chosen as the Supreme Judge under this new government, but never served. Other judges were appointed or elected during this pre-territory period over the next six years. Until 1846 with the settlement of the Oregon boundary dispute, the region was not under the jurisdiction of any foreign power. With the resolution of the boundary issue, Britain retained the territory north of the 49th degree of latitude, with the United States taking the land south to the border of Mexican control California. In 1848, when the Oregon Territory was created by the United States Congress, William P. Bryant was appointed as the first judge of the Oregon Supreme Court. Justices in the territorial period were appointed by the President of the United States. In those early days of the court, the justices would "ride circuit" in addition to their appellate court functions. Riding circuit involved acting as appeals court judges around the state in addition to the supreme court functions of ultimate appeal, a common practice in early American courts. ### Oregon State Supreme Court Beginning with statehood in 1859, the court had just four justices, one for each judicial district in the state. The constitution created by the Oregon Constitutional Convention in 1857 called for these justices to serve as both circuit court judges and supreme court justices. This was set to remain until the population of the state reached 100,000 people. Each justice was assigned one district, and then all justices would gather at set intervals to confer on appeals, which would occur at least once per year and were authorized to meet more frequently if needed. On appeals, the justice who presided over the lower court case would not participate in the proceedings. Then in 1862 the court was expanded to five justices with the addition of a fifth judicial district. Also that year the Court hired its first clerk after the legislature authorized that position. In 1878, the legislature passed an act to separate the circuit and supreme courts after the population reached 100,000. With the creation of a separate Circuit Court and Supreme Court, riding circuit was abandoned and the Supreme Court was reduced to three members, with members of each court elected separately. Governor Thayer then appointed James K. Kelly, Reuben P. Boise, and Paine Page Prim to the court as temporary justices until elections could be held. During these early years of the court the selection of the Chief Justice was governed by the Oregon Constitution, with the senior justice or the justice with their term was next to expire was designated as the Chief Justice. This meant that a new chief would be selected at least every two years, and in general meant someone elected would serve their first four years on the bench as an associate justice and the last two years as the Chief Justice. Mary Leonard became the first woman admitted to the state bar on April 13, 1886, when the court admitted her after a year-long battle that included the state legislature passing a new law to allow women to be admitted. In 1906, the Oregon court upheld a maximum hour law for women in State v. Muller, 48 Or. 252, 85 P. 855 (1906). Due partly to a brief by future U.S. Supreme Court justice Louis Brandeis, the U.S. Supreme Court upheld the Oregon law in Muller v. Oregon, 208 U.S. 412 (1908) despite ruling in 1905 in Lochner v. New York that a maximum hour law for bakers was unconstitutional. Then in 1910, the state legislature expanded the court back to five justices, and lastly, in 1913 the court expanded to the current seven justices. The next important case came in 1935 when the state's top court ruled in State v. De Jonge, 152 Or. 315, 51 P.2d 674 (1935) that the 14th Amendment did not protect Communist Party organizers from prosecution under Oregon's criminal syndicate law. However, the U.S. Supreme Court would overturn this decision in De Jonge v. Oregon, 299 U.S. 353 (1937). Another important case came in 1960 as the Oregon court ruled against the United States government in State Land Board v. United States, 222 Or. 40, 352 P.2d 539 (1960). In that case the court ruled that state estate laws trumped a federal statute concerning the property of U.S. Veterans who died at Veterans Administration hospitals without a valid will. The U.S. Supreme Court then overturned the Oregon Supreme Court's decision in United States v. Oregon, 366 U. S. 643 (1961). On the administrative end of the court, the Oregon Court of Appeals was created in 1969 as an intermediate appellate court in Oregon. With this change, the Supreme Court now generally does not hear appeals directly from the trial level courts of the state, with some exceptions such as death penalty cases. Other changes came in 1981 when the Oregon Legislature and justice Arno Denecke reformed the chief justice position from a simple head of the court in title only, to the administrative head of the entire Oregon judicial system. The following year, 1982, the court received its first female member when Governor Vic Atiyeh appointed Betty Roberts as an associate justice. Then from 1991 to 2005 Wallace P. Carson, Jr. served as chief justice of the court for a record 14 years. The next landmark decision of the U.S. Supreme Court involving the Oregon Supreme Court was Dolan v. City of Tigard, 512 U.S. 374 (1994). In that land use case the Oregon court found the requirements placed on the business owner as conditions to approve an expansion were not a taking under the United States Constitution's takings clause. However, the U.S. Supreme Court disagreed and overturned the Oregon court. Then the Oregon court ruled in February 2006 that Oregon's land use law, Measure 37, was constitutional. Macpherson v. Department of Administrative Services, 340 Or. 117, 130 P.3d 308 (2006) allowed people to make claims against the government forcing the government to either pay compensation when land use regulations reduced the value of a property owners land or waive the regulation. ### Location In the early years of the Supreme Court, business was conducted at a variety of locations in downtown Salem. The first public building to house the court was the Territorial Capitol Building in Salem that was built between 1854 and 1855. In that building the courtroom was in a chamber measuring 20 feet by 27 feet on the first floor. On December 29, 1855, after the building was partially occupied, it burned to the ground. In 1876, the state finished construction on a second capitol building where the court was located on the third floor. This courtroom measured 54 feet by 46 feet, while the state law library was 75 feet by 70 feet. A separate building was built by the state in 1914 to house the Supreme Court, and this is now the oldest building on the Capitol Mall after the second capitol building burned down on April 25, 1935. In addition to holding court in the Supreme Court Building's third floor courtroom, the court also travels around the state to hold sessions. This includes sessions at colleges, high schools, and the state's three law schools. These three law schools, Willamette University College of Law, University of Oregon Law School, and Lewis & Clark Law School, use the visits as educational tools. ## Current justices The court has had a total of 106 individuals serve on the court since its creation during the territorial period. This has ranged from a membership of three justices to seven justices. Since 1913, the number of positions on the bench has been seven. Of the current membership, three are women and two are men. Overall, the court has had nine women compared to ninety-seven men serve on the court. The newest members of the court are Stephen Bushong and Bronson James, who joined in 2023. All of the seven current justices first joined the court as appointees of the governor of Oregon to fill mid-term vacancies. ### Vacancies and pending nominations ## Notable Supreme Court cases Over the course of its history the Oregon Supreme Court has made a number of decisions as the highest court in Oregon. These cases cover a wide range of topics from the constitutionality of various ballot measures to contract law to torts and even to the location of the capital when Oregon was still a territory. Although small in comparison to the total number of cases the court has decided, some cases have been appealed to the United States Supreme Court. Below are some of the cases that have had scholarly discussion, some of which were later decided by the U.S. Supreme Court. ## See also - Holmes v. Ford - United States District Court for the District of Oregon
13,287,128	Friskies	1,166,263,532	American brand of cat food and treats	[ "Cat food brands", "Dog food brands", "Nestlé brands", "Products introduced in 1930", "Products introduced in 1958", "Ralston Purina products" ]	Friskies is an American brand of wet and dry cat food and treats owned by Nestlé Purina PetCare Company, a subsidiary of Nestlé global. Friskies was initially introduced by Carnation Company in the 1930s as a dog food brand. When Friskies cat food was introduced in the 1950s, it was the first dry pet food product specifically for cats. The brand was acquired by Nestlé in 1985. From the 1970s to the 2000s, variations in Friskies cat food proliferated as the competition for consumer spending intensified. ## Corporate Friskies is produced and marketed by Nestlé Purina PetCare, a subsidiary of Nestlé. Friskies was first introduced in the 1930s by Carnation through its subsidiary, Albers Company. By 1973, Friskies was one of five companies that controlled two-thirds of the \$1.75 billion pet food market. At the time Carnation was known for dry milk products, but also had operations processing animal feed for farms. It experimented with dry food products for 3.5 years at Carnation Farms, initially with stray dogs in improvised cages, and later with pure-breds in a formal kennel. Carnation International was formed in 1966 to market Carnation's pet food products internationally in Japan, Spain, France, England and Italy, among others. Carnation was acquired by Nestlé in 1985 for \$3 billion. After the acquisition, it was renamed Nestlé/Carnation Food Company, before becoming a Nestlé subsidiary in 1992, under the name Friskies PetCare Company. The Friskies brand had a market-share of 28.2% by 1992. Friskies was merged with Nestlé subsidiary Nestlé Purina Petcare in 2001, during the merger with former competitor Ralston Purina. ## History Friskies was first introduced as a dry dog food brand in 1934. It introduced "Friskies Cubes" that year, which was followed by pellets called "Friskies Meal," eight years later. Friskies sold well as a dry dog food on the west coast of the United States; then was increasingly distributed on the east coast. Only dry food was initially produced, because consumers preferred less expensive products during the Great Depression and World War II led to the rationing of tin for canned pet foods, in order to preserve metal for the war effort. The rationing of tin led to a growth in sales of Friskies dry food products, as competitors that sold canned foods were forced to limit production. The first Friskies brand canned dog food was released in 1951 and nine Friskies products were released from 1958 to 1963. When Friskies cat food was introduced in the 1950s, cats were becoming more popular as pets, but dry food for cats had not been introduced yet. In the early 1950s, a series of specialty dog food products were introduced under the Friskies brand, including one for puppies and cats. According to The Encyclopedia of Consumer Brands, "it was soon discovered that cats disliked the new 'puppy food'." A sales manager named Henry Arnest was considered "eccentric" for advocating that Friskies make a pet food specifically for cats. According to Arnest, the company thought it was "a nutty idea." He convinced Friskies executives to do a market trial for cat food, which was conducted on the west coast of the United States in 1956. The cat food was made of mackerel byproducts, cereals, vegetables and vitamins. The trial surprised Friskies executives when the cat food sold successfully. The cat food product was named "Little Friskies for Cats." A cartoon cat was used as its mascot. It was advertised on television, newspapers, and through Friskies Research Digest, a publication for veterinarians and animal breeders published by Friskies. Canned "treats" for cats were first test-marketed in 1958. They were initially popular on the west coast of the United States, but not in the east. In 1959, Carnation executives considered withdrawing from the east coast market, because its cat food products weren't popular there, but decided to stay. A Carnation report found that consumers preferred more upscale, single-serving food products, so the treats were rebranded as single-serving, canned foods called "Friskies Buffet" in 1967. Buffet became one of Friskies' best-sellers. In the 1970s and 1980s, Friskies-brand food products were introduced in the "gourmet" industry category, such as Bright Eyes and Chef's Blend. A sister brand Mighty Dog was introduced in 1973, and another sister brand Fancy Feast was produced in 1982. By 1985, Friskies' producer was the largest manufacturer of pet food with a 14.5 percent market-share. Dry and wet food products specifically for kittens were introduced in 1988 and 1989 respectively. Fresh Catch, which contained only fish, was introduced in the early 1990s. According to industry analysts, competition in the pet food industry heightened by 1990. According to The Encyclopedia of Consumer Brands, the market was at "a virtual saturation point" with more than 400 pet food products on the market. Friskies was one of six brands that controlled 80 percent of the pet food market and competed intensely with one another. ## Advertising and endorsements Starting in 2011, Friskies has been developing digital games for cats on mobile devices that are played using touch-screens. Some of its early games included Cat Fishing, JitterBug and Pull 'n Play, which each focused on chasing moving targets on the screen. According to Adweek, Friskies "jumped on the cat Internet meme phenomena." The internet celebrity cat, Grumpy Cat (also known as Tardar Sauce), became a Friskies spokescat in 2013 after having been featured in episodes of the Friskies YouTube game show "Will Kitty Play With It?" That same year, Friskies created a series of four Henri, le Chat Noir short films on the subject of "cat food boredom" and several internet celebrity cats were used in a Christmas music video called "It's Hard to Be a Cat at Christmas". In 2014, Friskies created a satire in partnership with The Fine Bros., whereby they filmed reaction videos of cats watching web series' created by Friskies. Later that same year, Friskies started "The Friskies 50", a list of the most influential internet cats. The list is based on the cat's audience and engagement on social media sites, media coverage and other factors. Users can also input a cat name to see how cats that did not make the list compare. At the 2015 South by Southwest Interactive festival, Friskies promoted its bacon-flavored cat food with a bacon/cat-themed art gallery, some of which were constructed using Friskies products and bacon. In 2016, Friskies worked with BuzzFeed to create "Dear Kitten" videos, where an older cat teaches a younger one how to be a house-cat. The series had more than 30 million views. A sixty-second spot based on the series was aired during the Super Bowl, which was the first time Friskies aired a television commercial during the event. ## Products Friskies-brand products currently include dry food, canned wet food and treats for cats. According to the Friskies website, there are more than 50 variations of Friskies cat food. There are five dry food flavors sold in bags, including "Seafood Sensations" and "Grillers." Wet foods are sold in various flavors, such as chicken or seafood, and in vacuum bags or cans. The Tasty Treasures canned wet food has cheese and bacon flavors. SauceSations canned wet food is mixed with sauces. There are also pouches of Friskies Party Mix treats, and "Pull 'n Play" treats that are edible tender strings. In 2003, the Friskies brand was re-launched with new packaging. By this time, Friskies was the largest market-share holder in the cat food segment, with a 60 percent share of the wet food market and 49.3 percent share for dry food.
5,885,714	Goliath (La Ronde)	1,169,749,924	Roller coaster at La Ronde	[ "Hypercoasters manufactured by Bolliger & Mabillard", "La Ronde (amusement park)", "Roller coasters in Quebec", "Roller coasters introduced in 2006", "Roller coasters manufactured by Bolliger & Mabillard", "Roller coasters operated by Six Flags" ]	Goliath is a steel roller coaster at La Ronde amusement park in Montreal, Quebec, Canada. Designed by Bolliger & Mabillard, it reaches a maximum height of 174.8 feet (53.3 m), a speed of 68.4 miles per hour (110.1 km/h) and a track length of 4,038.8 feet (1,231.0 m). Construction commenced in September 2005, and the roller coaster opened to the public on May 13, 2006. Goliath was the tallest and fastest roller coaster in Canada until it was surpassed by Behemoth (another Bolliger & Mabillard roller coaster), at Canada's Wonderland in 2008. Six Flags announced in 2016 that Goliath would be hooked up with Virtual Reality for a New Revolution experience for the 2016 season. ## History Speculation that La Ronde would be building a new roller coaster began in the second half of 2004. Rumors that the roller coaster would be manufactured by Bolliger & Mabillard emerged in September 2005. Construction for the roller coaster by Martin & Vleminckx began in September 2005 with land clearing and foundation pouring. The \$18.7 million Goliath was announced on October 26, 2005. By mid-November, the storage bay was constructed with track pieces for the brake run and station being installed soon after. Construction on the lift hill continued throughout December and was topped off (the highest piece the lift hill) on December 21. The first drop was completed by mid-January 2006 followed by the first camelback hill which was completed by the end of February. After the second and third camelback hills were installed, the turnaround was completed in mid-March. The three camelback hills and banked turns leading back to the station were installed by the end of March marking the completion of installing track. The trains were also delivered in late March. After the cars were put on the track in April, testing began. Once testing was complete, Goliath opened to the public on May 13, 2006. When Goliath opened, it was the tallest and fastest roller coaster in Canada. Two years later, when Behemoth opened at Canada's Wonderland, Goliath lost both records. ## Ride experience After being dispatched from the station, the train immediately begins to climb the 174.8 feet (53.3 m) lift hill. Once at the top, the train drops back down 170.6 feet (52.0 m) at a 70-degree angle. The train then makes a banked right turn leading into the first of three consecutive camelback hills; each at a height of 121.4 feet (37.0 m), 95.2 feet (29.0 m) and 78.8 feet (24.0 m) (every hill is smaller than the previous one). Following the third hill, the train enters a 75.5 feet (23.0 m) left hand turnaround that makes the train face the opposite direction that it came. After dropping back down to the ground, the train goes over another three camelback hills; each at a height of 68.9 feet (21.0 m), 59.1 feet (18.0 m) and 52.5 feet (16.0 m). Then, the train makes an upward 45.9 feet (14.0 m) right banked turn, immediately followed by a downward left banked turn. After another 42.7 feet (13.0 m) left banked turn, the train rises back up and goes over a small bump before entering the final brake run. The train then makes a 180-degree right turn leading back to the station. One cycle of the ride lasts about three minutes. ## Characteristics ### Track The steel track of Goliath is approximately 4,038.8 feet (1,231.0 m) long, and the height of the lift is 174.8 feet (53.3 m) high. It is made up of 150 foundations, 300 pilings, 106 supports and 850 anchor bolts. The roller coasters has no inversions, though it does feature seven camelback hills. The track is painted red with yellow rails, while the supports are painted blue. It was manufactured by Clermont Steel Fabricators located in Batavia, Ohio. Though Goliath is a B&M Hyper Coaster (the model name for this type of B&M roller coaster), the roller coaster is technically not classified as a Hypercoaster. A Hypercoaster is any roller coaster that reaches a height over 200 feet (61 m); Goliath reaches only 175 feet (53 m). ### Trains Goliath operates with two steel and fiberglass trains. Each train has nine cars which can seat four riders in a single row, for a total of 36 riders per train; each seat has its own individual lap-bar restraint. The structure of the trains are colored yellow, red and blue. The seats are blue and the restraints are yellow. ## Awards In Goliath's opening year, it was voted the 37th best steel roller coaster in Amusement Today's Golden Ticket Awards. The roller coaster peaked at position 23 in 2011. It did not place in the top five new roller coasters for 2006.
2,756,485	British protected person	1,154,798,499	A residual class of British nationality	[ "British nationality law" ]	A British protected person (BPP) is a member of a class of British nationality associated with former protectorates, protected states, and territorial mandates and trusts under British control. Individuals with this nationality are British nationals, but are neither British nor Commonwealth citizens. Nationals of this class are subject to immigration controls when entering the United Kingdom and do not have the automatic right of abode there or any other country. This nationality was created to accommodate residents of certain areas that were under British protection or administration but not formally incorporated as Crown dominions. about 1,200 British protected persons currently hold active British passports with this status and enjoy consular protection when travelling abroad. However, individuals who only hold BPP nationality are effectively stateless as they are not guaranteed the right to enter the country in which they are nationals. ## Background Portions of the British Empire were not incorporated as Crown territory proper and instead considered foreign soil under British suzerainty. These included protectorates, protected states, League of Nations mandates, and United Nations trust territories. Because they were foreign lands, birth in one of these areas did not automatically confer British subject status. Instead, most people associated with these territories were designated as British protected persons. In the 19th century, the term referred to any member of the native populations of protectorates or to a subject of protected state rulers. Over time, it became a substantial form of nationality. Eligibility requirements for the status were initially not well defined. The designation was given to anyone who was considered to owe allegiance to a local ruler of a state under British protection or who was indigenous to a protectorate without local government. More substantial requirements were codified in 1934; individuals born in protected territories who had no other nationality at birth or those born abroad who would otherwise be stateless to a BPP father, who was himself born in a protected territory, became British protected persons. The status was granted solely by royal prerogative until it was first statutorily defined in the British Nationality Act 1948. As Britain withdrew from its remaining overseas possessions during decolonisation, some protected persons remained BPPs despite the independence of their territories. After almost all protected territories had become independent, Parliament severely restricted acquisition of BPP status in 1978. The several types of protected territories were differentiated by how their administrative structures were established: - Protected states were territories that had existing organised internal governments and exercised high degrees of autonomy in local governance. Britain was responsible only for external affairs. Subjects of the rulers of these protected states were given BPP status. Former protected states in 1949 that granted statutory BPP status include: Brunei, the Canton and Enderbury Islands, nine Malay states (Johor, Kedah, Kelantan, Negeri Sembilan, Pahang, Perak, Perlis, Selangor, Terengganu), the Maldives, New Hebrides, the Trucial States, and Tonga. - Protectorates had no preexisting government and were territories where the British had administrative jurisdiction as well control over foreign affairs and defence. There was practically no distinction between a colony and protectorate, except that protectorates were not formally governed within British sovereignty. Former protectorates in 1949 include: Aden, Bechuanaland, Gambia, the Gold Coast, Kenya, Nigeria, Northern Rhodesia, Nyasaland, Sierra Leone, the Solomon Islands, Somaliland, Swaziland, Uganda, and Zanzibar. - League of Nations mandates were territories held under custodianship that were granted after the First World War. United Nations trust territories were those mandated territories that continued to be held under British control after the Second World War. Because the areas that became trust territories did not have internal nationality laws, those regions were treated as if they were protectorates for nationality purposes. Former trust territories in 1949 include: Cameroons, Tanganyika, and Togoland. ## Acquisition and loss Becoming a British protected person is effectively no longer possible. Registration as a BPP is currently only permitted for individuals who have always been stateless and were born to at least one BPP parent in the United Kingdom or an overseas territory. Prior to decolonisation, individuals born in a protected territory and held no other nationality at birth were British protected persons. The status was transferable by descent to children of BPP fathers (but not mothers) who did not have any other nationality following independence of their territories until 16 August 1978. BPP status was granted in addition to other British nationality classes; an individual can be both a British citizen and a British protected person. Retaining BPP status past the end of British jurisdiction over a protected territory is dependent on the type of territory it was. Persons connected with former protectorates or trust territories may remain BPPs if they did not acquire citizenship of the relevant countries, while all who were associated with former protected states or mandated territories automatically had the status revoked on independence. For those associated with the British Solomon Islands, BPP retention has the added requirement of never having possessed any other nationality. Additionally, Citizens of the United Kingdom and Colonies who were solely connected with that protectorate lost CUKC status on independence and became BPPs instead. British protected person status is automatically lost if an individual acquires any other nationality or citizenship after 16 August 1978, including other British nationality classes. It can also be voluntarily relinquished by a declaration made to the Home Secretary, provided that an individual already possesses or intends to acquire another nationality. BPP status may be deprived if it was fraudulently acquired. There is no path to restore BPP status once lost. ## Rights and privileges British protected persons are exempted from obtaining a visa or entry certificate when visiting the United Kingdom for less than six months. When travelling in other countries, they may seek British consular protection. BPPs are also eligible to serve in non-reserved Civil Service posts and enlist in the British Armed Forces. BPPs may become British citizens by registration, rather than naturalisation, after residing in the United Kingdom for more than five years and possessing indefinite leave to remain for more than one year. Registration confers citizenship otherwise than by descent, meaning that children born outside of the UK to those successfully registered will be British citizens by descent. Individuals who become British citizens automatically lose their BPP status. BPPs who do not hold and have not lost any other nationality on or after 4 July 2002 are entitled to register as British citizens. ## Restrictions BPPs who hold no other nationality are de facto stateless because they do not have a right to enter the country that claims them as nationals. The Nationality, Immigration and Asylum Act 2002 allowed these individuals to register as British citizens, after which statelessness was generally resolved for people who were solely BPPs. ### United Kingdom Unlike members of other British nationality classes, British protected persons are not Commonwealth citizens. BPPs are subject to immigration control and have neither the right of abode nor the right to work in the United Kingdom. They are required to pay a "health surcharge" to access National Health Service benefits when residing in the UK for longer than six months. They do not have the right to vote in UK elections and are ineligible to stand for election to the House of Commons and local government. They are additionally barred from being sitting members in the House of Lords. ### European Union Before the United Kingdom withdrew from the European Union on 31 January 2020, full British citizens were European Union citizens. British protected persons have never been EU citizens and do not enjoy freedom of movement in other EU countries. They were, and continue to be, exempted from obtaining visas when visiting the Schengen Area.
24,498,742	Typos of Constans	1,138,896,584	648 theological edict issued by Eastern Roman Emperor Constans II	[ "640s in the Byzantine Empire", "648", "650s in the Byzantine Empire", "660s in the Byzantine Empire", "670s in the Byzantine Empire", "680s in the Byzantine Empire", "7th-century Christianity", "Christianity in the Byzantine Empire", "Christology", "Non-Chalcedonianism" ]	The Typos of Constans (also called Type of Constans) was an edict issued by eastern Roman emperor Constans II in 648 in an attempt to defuse the confusion and arguments over the Christological doctrine of Monotheletism. For over two centuries, there had been a bitter debate regarding the nature of Christ: the orthodox Chalcedonian position defined Christ as having two natures in one person, whereas Miaphysite opponents contended that Jesus Christ possessed but a single nature. At the time, the Byzantine Empire had been at near constant war for fifty years and had lost large territories. It was under great pressure to establish domestic unity. This was hampered by the large number of Byzantines who rejected the Council of Chalcedon in favour of Monophysitism. The Typos attempted to dismiss the entire controversy, on pain of dire punishment. This extended to kidnapping the Pope from Rome to try him for high treason and mutilating one of the Typos's main opponents. Constans died in 668. Ten years later his son, Constantine IV, fresh from a triumph over his Arab enemies and with the predominantly Monophysitic provinces irredeemably lost, called the Third Council of Constantinople. It decided with an overwhelming majority to condemn Monophysitism, Monotheletism, the Typos of Constans and its major supporters. Constantine put his seal to the Council's decisions, and reunited such of Christendom as was not under Arab suzerainty. ## Background ### Political background In 628, the Christian Byzantine Empire and the Zoroastrian Sasanian Empire of Iran ended a harrowing twenty-six-year-long war. Both states were completely exhausted. The Byzantines had had the majority of their territory overrun and a large part of it devastated. Consequently, they were vulnerable to the sudden emergence of the Islamic Rashidun Caliphate in Arabia; the Caliphate's forces invaded both empires only a few years after the war. The Muslim, also known as Arab, forces swiftly conquered the entire Sasanian Empire and deprived the Byzantine Empire of its territories in the Levant, the Caucasus, Egypt, and North Africa. By 642, the Muslim armies had conquered all of Syria and Egypt, the richest parts of the Byzantine Empire. For a variety of reasons, the Byzantine population of Syria did not put up much resistance. High taxes, the power of the landowners over the peasants, and the recently ended war with the Persians were some of the reasons why the Syrians welcomed the change. "The people of Homs replied [to the Muslims], 'We like your rule and justice far better than the state of oppression and tyranny in which we were. The army of Heraclius [Byzantium] we shall indeed ... repulse from the city.'" Another key reason for the welcome of the Arabs as rulers by the Christian Syrians and Egyptians, is that they found the strict monotheism of Islam closer to their own Monophysite Christian position than the hated doctrine of Constantinople, which they perceived as bitheism. On 11 February 641 Heraclius, emperor for 31 years, who had pulled the Empire back from the brink of ruin, died. In the following three years, the Empire endured four short-lived emperors or usurpers before seventeen-year-old Constans II, grand-son of Heraclius, established himself on the throne of the diminished realm. In 643–644, Valentinus led a campaign against the Arabs, but his army was routed, he fled, and his treasury was captured. In 644 or 645, Valentinus attempted to usurp his son-in-law's throne. He failed, the populace of the capital lynching his envoy Antoninos before killing Valentinus himself.The Byzantine Empire seemed to be tearing itself apart with internecine strife, while the "human tsunami" of Arab conquest swept on. ### Theological background The Council of Chalcedon, the Fourth Ecumenical Council, was held in 451 and laid the basis of Christological belief; Christ was a single person possessing two natures: a perfect God and a perfect man united "unconfusedly, unchangeably, indivisibly and inseparably". This was viewed as outright heresy by Monophysites who, briefly, believe that Jesus Christ is "one person and one hypostasis in one nature: divine". Monophysite belief was widespread in Egypt and, to a lesser extent, Syria. The Byzantine state had repeatedly attempted to stamp it out. Emperor Heraclius spent the last years of his life attempting to find a compromise theological position between the Monophysites and the Chalcedonians. What he promoted via his Ecthesis was a doctrine which declared that Jesus, whilst he possessed two distinct natures, had only one will; the question of the energy of Christ was not relevant. This approach seemed to be an acceptable compromise, and it secured widespread support throughout the east. Pope Honorius I and the four Patriarchs of the East – Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch and Jerusalem – all gave their approval to the doctrine, referred to as Monothelitism, and so it looked as if Heraclius would finally heal the divisions in the church. The Popes in Rome objected. Pope Honorius I died in 638 and his successor Pope Severinus condemned the Ecthesis outright, and so was forbidden his seat by Constans until 640. His successor Pope John IV also rejected the doctrine completely, leading to a major schism between the eastern and western halves of the Catholic Church. When news of the Pope's condemnation reached Heraclius, he was already old and ill, and the news is said to have hastened his death. Meanwhile, there were problems in the province of Africa. Since the fall of Egypt it was in the front line against Arab expansionism. Nominally a Byzantine province, in practice Africa was all but independent and a hotbed of dissent to Constantinople's Monotheletist policies. The threat of imminent invasion increased the local bishops' antipathy to Monophysitism, knowing that its adherents in Syria and Egypt had welcomed the invading Arabs. The compromise policy of Monotheletism was disliked as giving comfort to those seen theologically as heretics and politically as potential traitors. A monk named Maximus the Confessor had long carried on a furious campaign against Monotheletism, and in 646 convinced an African council of bishops, all resolutely Chalcedonian, to draw up a manifesto against it. This they forwarded to the new pope, Theodore I, who in turn wrote to Patriarch Paul II of Constantinople, outlining the heretical nature of the doctrine. Paul, a devoted Monothelete, replied in a letter directing the Pope to adhere to the doctrine of one will. Theodore in turn excommunicated the Patriarch in 649, declaring Paul a heretic. The divisions in Byzantine society and the open opposition to imperial authority were starkly exposed. ## Constans issues the Typos Constans II was a young man of seventeen, and he was supremely indifferent to the religious debates convulsing the Church. However, he was certainly concerned about the effect the arcane debate was having on his empire. A key reason for the parlous position of the Byzantine Empire was the religious divide. He had just established an uncertain truce with the Arabs, and badly needed to rebuild his forces and to gain the full support of his empire. So he issued an imperial edict, called the Typos (Greek: τύπος, romanized: typos) in 648. This edict made it illegal to discuss the topic of Christ possessing either one or two wills, or one or two energies; or even to acknowledge that such a debate was possible. He declared that the whole controversy was to be forgotten. During the proceedings of the Lateran Council of 649 the text of the Typos was read out in full and so is preserved in the recorded Acts. The first section expresses concern that some subjects of the empire consider Christ to have had one will, and some that he had two. This is discussed, and concluded with the observation that the debate is dividing society and that Constans intends to put a stop to this. The Typos goes on to deny people "the licence to conduct any dispute, contention or controversy", explaining that whole matter has been settled by the five previous ecumenical councils "and the straight forwardly plain statements... of the approved holy fathers". The right of any individual to interpret their findings is explicitly forbidden. "The situation that existed previously... is to be maintained everywhere, as if no quibbling had arisen over them." There is to be an amnesty for any past comments on the topic, and all writings regarding it are to be destroyed. In the third and final section, various penalties were prescribed for anyone who disobeys the imperial decree. Bishops or clerks of the church are to be deposed. Monks are to be excommunicated, while public servants or military officers are to lose their office. Private citizens of senatorial rank would have their property confiscated. Finally, if any of the great mass of the citizenry so much as mentioned the topic, they would face corporal punishment and banishment for life. ## Opposition In Rome and the west, the opposition to Monotheletism was reaching fever pitch, and the Typos of Constans did nothing to defuse the situation; indeed it made it worse by implying that either doctrine was as good as the other. Theodore planned the Lateran Council of 649 to condemn the Ecthesis, but died before he could convene it; his successor, Pope Martin I, did. Not only did the Council condemn the Ecthesis, it condemned the Typos as well. After the synod, Pope Martin wrote to Constans, informing the emperor of its conclusions and requiring him to condemn both the Monothelete doctrine and his own Typos. However, Constans was not the sort of emperor to take such a rebuke of imperial authority lightly. Constans sent a new Exarch of Ravenna, Olympius, who had authority over all Byzantine territory in Italy, which included Rome. He had firm instructions to ensure that the Typos be followed in Italy, and to use whatever means necessary to ensure that the Pope adhere to it. Arriving while the Lateran Synod was sitting, he realised how opposed the west was to the emperor's policy and set up Italy as an independent state; his army joined his rebellion. This made it impractical for Constans to take effective action against Pope Martin, until after Olympius died three years later. Constans appointed a new Exarch, Theodore I Calliopas, who marched on Rome with the newly loyal army, abducted Pope Martin and brought him to Constantinople where he was tried for high treason before the Senate; he was banished to Chersonesus (present-day Crimea) and shortly after died as a result of his mistreatment. In an unusual move, a successor, Pope Eugene I, was elected in 654 by the College of Cardinals while Martin I still lived. The new pope normalized relations with Constantinople, and although he avoided pressing the issues of the Christological controversy, he ceremonially refused to accept a letter from the Patriarch of Constantinople when the imperial emissary attempted to deliver it. Constans viewed settling the dispute as a matter of state security, and persecuted anyone who spoke out against Monotheletism, including Maximus the Confessor and a number of his disciples. Maximus was tortured over several years; he lost his tongue and his right hand as Constans attempted to force him to recant. Constans even personally journeyed to Rome in 663 to meet with the Pope, the first emperor to visit since the fall of the Western Roman Empire. ## Condemnation With Constans' death in 668, the throne passed to his son Constantine IV. Pope Vitalian, who had hosted the visit of Constans II to Rome in 663, almost immediately declared himself in favour of the doctrine of the two wills of Christ, the orthodox Chalcedonian position. In response, Patriarch Theodore I of Constantinople and Macarius, Patriarch of Antioch, both pressed Constantine to take measures against the Pope. Constantine, however, was fully occupied with military matters and saw no profit in reigniting this debate. In 674, the Arabs commenced the great siege of Constantinople which lasted four years before they were defeated. With the pressure from external enemies at least temporarily relieved, Constantine was able to turn to church affairs. With the predominantly Monophysitist provinces permanently lost to the Arabs, he was under less pressure to support any compromise which included their position. He decided to put the Monotheletic question to a Church Council. Constantine suggested this to the Pope in 678, and the proposal was welcomed. This council, the Sixth Ecumenical Council, met for ten months from 680 to 681. It hosted 174 delegates from every corner of Christendom. The Patriarchs of Constantinople and Antioch were present in person, while the Pope and the Patriarchs of Alexandria and Jerusalem sent representatives. It held 18 plenary sessions; Constantine chaired the first 11, carefully expressing no opinion. On 16 September 681, it nearly unanimously condemned the Monotheletic doctrine and the Typos of Constans, with the exception of two delegates. Constantine personally signed the final declaration and was hailed as Destroyer of Heretics. Monotheletism was outlawed, and the non-Arab Christian world was united. One of the patriarchs anathematised (excommunicated) as heretics for their support of the Typos was Pope Honorius. The issue of a Pope being disowned by his own successors has caused difficulty for Catholic theologians ever since, especially when discussing papal infallibility. ## See also - Dyothelitism - Miaphysite ## Notes, citations and sources
51,307,071	Harry's Walls	1,151,793,272	Fort in St Mary's, Isles of Scilly, UK	[ "16th-century forts in England", "Buildings and structures in the Isles of Scilly", "English Heritage sites in the Isles of Scilly", "St Mary's, Isles of Scilly" ]	Harry's Walls are the remains of an unfinished artillery fort, started in 1551 by the government of Edward VI to defend the island of St Mary's in the Isles of Scilly. Constructed to defend the harbour of Hugh Town from possible French attack, the fortification incorporated Italianate-style bastions with protective orillons and would have been the most advanced design in the kingdom at the time. It was not completed, probably due to a shortage of funds and the passing of the invasion threat, and only the south-west side remains. In the 21st century, Harry's Walls are managed by English Heritage and open to visitors. ## History In the 16th century, the Isles of Scilly were ruled by the King of England. They were an important strategic location on the route between mainland Europe, Ireland and Scotland, but threatened by the forces of France and Spain. Under Henry VIII, a sequence of defensive works called the Device programme had been built to protect the English mainland from French attack, but although a garrison was established at Ennor Castle on the island of St Mary's, no actual construction work was carried out in the islands. After Henry's death in 1547, his nine-year-old son, Edward VI, assumed the throne, with the government controlled by Edward Seymour, the Duke of Somerset. His brother, Thomas, inspected Scilly, resulting in new investments in their defences, initially focused on the island of Tresco. The Duke fell from power in 1549 and a fresh survey was conducted by Captain William Tyrrell; work then began on protecting the island of St Mary's. In May 1551, John Killigrew, the captain of Pendennis Castle in Falmouth, was ordered to construct a fort on St Mary's, probably with the intent of guarding the entrance to the new harbour at Hugh Town. His instructions stated that it was to be positioned "upon the little hill betwixt the freshe water and St. Marie Roode", and was accompanied by a promise that lead would be sent for the roofing that summer. A document from the early 1550s noted that a brewhouse and a mill were ready to be sent to St Mary's from South Wales as part of the project, to be installed by the fresh water pond. The name "Harry's Walls" is the result of the defences being popularly, but incorrectly, attributed to Edward's father, Henry. Contemporary plans showed an intention to create a square fortification with four angular, "arrow-head" bastions with protective orillons, with living quarters arranged around a square courtyard for the garrison in the centre. It was intended to develop the Italianate ideas first introduced in Portsmouth and Yarmouth under Henry, and would have been what the historian Andrew Saunders considers to be "the most advanced piece of military engineering for its date to be seen in this country". In 1554, two light artillery guns called sakers were reported installed in the fort. During the reign of Mary I, an unsuccessful attempt was made to create a garrison of 150 men on the island in 1554, partially to provide manpower to complete the project, and in 1591 proposals were again put forward to complete the work. The defences were never completed; instead, new defences were constructed at Star Castle in 1593 and the remains of Harry's Walls were used in the 17th and 18th centuries for the dumping of rubbish. Earlier analysis blamed the poor siting of Harry's Walls for the abandonment of the project. The antiquary William Borlase was critical of the fort during his 1752 visit, noting that it had been "begun injudiciously" in a poor location. The writer John Troutbeck, who visited at the end of the 18th century, argued that if the fortification had been completed, "it would have been of little use, being placed too far within the head lands, and commanding none of the sounds to any effect. During the 20th century, criticism was levied about its position in relation to the anchorage, and about the size of the site, which was felt to be both too small for the proposed design and too difficult to defend. More recent research suggests that that fortification actually commanded the harbour adequately. No single site would have been completely effective due to the rugged coastline, and that Harry's Walls may have been designed to work in concert with another fort. Furthermore, the fort would have fitted easily into its proposed location and have been easy to defend, due to the surrounding water and marshland. Instead, the high costs of England's wider fortification programme - Edward's government spent an unsustainable £35,228 on construction work during the five years of his reign - are blamed for making its completion unviable, particularly once the French invasion threat had passed. The south-west side of the fort, comprising two bastions and a connecting curtain wall made of granite blocks and rubble, is well-preserved. The angular bastions and their orillons are 21 by 5 metres (69 by 16 ft) across and 2.3 metres (7 ft 7 in) high, while the curtain wall is 27 metres (89 ft) long and 1.7 metres (5 ft 7 in) high. The exterior blocks have been robbed in various places, exposing the rubble interior. An unfinished defensive ditch, 25 metres (82 ft) long, 8 metres (26 ft) wide and 1.2 metres (3 ft 11 in) deep runs along the outside. A prehistoric standing stone, later used to help navigation at sea, is positioned just to the north of the fort, with a modern navigational aid positioned alongside it. In the 21st century these remains are managed by English Heritage and open to the public. The remains are protected under UK law as an ancient monument. ## See also - Listed buildings in Tresco, Isles of Scilly
73,377,662	Tolkien and the Celtic	1,171,095,486	Theme in Tolkien's Middle-earth writings	[ "Influences on J. R. R. Tolkien", "Middle-earth themes", "Themes of The Lord of the Rings" ]	J. R. R. Tolkien derived the characters, stories, places, and languages of Middle-earth from many sources. Among these are the Celtic legends and languages, which for Tolkien were principally Irish and Welsh. He gave multiple conflicting reasons for his liking for Welsh. Tolkien stated directly that he had made use of Welsh phonology and grammar for his constructed Elvish language Sindarin. Scholars have identified multiple legends, both Irish and Welsh, as likely sources of some of Tolkien's stories and characters; thus for example the Noldorin Elves resemble the Irish Tuatha Dé Danann, while the tale of Beren and Lúthien parallels that of the Welsh Culhwch and Olwen. Tolkien chose Celtic names for the isolated settlement of Bree-land, to distinguish it from the Shire with its English names. Tolkien denied that he had been influenced by the Celtic Arthurian legends, but scholars have likened several of his characters to Arthurian figures, including Gandalf with Merlin and Galadriel with the Lady of the Lake, and there are close parallels between the hero Aragorn with his magical sword Andúril and King Arthur and his sword Excalibur. Interpreters of Tolkien's Middle-earth, including the film-maker Peter Jackson who made the 2001–2003 The Lord of the Rings film trilogy and the composer Howard Shore who created the music for the films, have chosen to portray the Elves using an otherworldly and ethereal modern conception of the Celtic, of the kind mocked by Tolkien. ## Tolkien and language ### English and Welsh Tolkien's relationship with the Celtic languages is somewhat complex, as he professed to like Welsh but to dislike Old Irish and Scottish Gaelic. He gave several conflicting explanations of why he liked Welsh, and his other favourite languages so much. One of his statements, made while discussing his invented languages, was simply that liking the sound of a language was a matter of personal taste. Further, he said that he liked Welsh because had a "fondness for nasal consonants, especially the much favoured n", along with the frequent "word-patterns ... made with the soft and less sonorous w and the voiced spirants f and dd contrasted with the nasals." In his essay "English and Welsh", delivered as a lecture in 1955, he wrote that the "basic pleasure" lay "in the phonetic elements of a language and in the style of their patterns, and then in a higher dimension, pleasure in the association of these word-forms with meanings." That pleasure was complex, involving phonetics, style, and association with meaning all at once. There was a more specific phonaesthetic pleasure which Tolkien was ashamed to mention, but which influenced his choice of names in Middle-earth. Tolkien believed that the sound of a language somehow conveyed meaning, and in some cases pleasure, even to people who did not know the language: to anyone who heard the sound of, for example, Welsh words. Shippey described that belief as Tolkien's "linguistic heresy", adding that while linguists of his time were largely opposed to it (holding that the association of sound and meaning is wholly arbitrary), evidence has emerged which supports it. Tolkien gave yet another explanation, namely that Welsh was uniquely attractive to people native to Britain. He wrote that "It is the native language to which in unexplored desire we would still go home". He meant that since Welsh was the language of Britain before English arrived, there was a powerful but dormant liking for Welsh among speakers of English: land and language went together. At the same time, Tolkien stated explicitly that he was English, from Worcestershire, a county in what was once the Kingdom of Mercia, and professed a love for its (Germanic) language. Fimi comments that Tolkien was arguing that "history and ancestry or a sense of 'home' and belonging are the main reasons behind personal linguistic tastes." She writes that in that case, Tolkien's Worcestershire roots put him in touch with Middle and Old English as well as Welsh and presumably (since the Romans too had occupied the area) also Latin. ### Sindarin, a constructed language Tolkien based the phonology and some of the grammar of his constructed Elvish language Sindarin on Literary Welsh. This began as what Tolkien called Goldogrin or "Gnomish", for which he wrote a substantial dictionary and a grammar. Tolkien worked not only to construct individual languages, but to develop the systematic patterns of changes from a language to its descendants, forming families of Elvish languages. In Tolkien's words, "The changes worked on Sindarin [from Common Eldarin] very closely (and deliberately) resemble those which produced the modern and medieval Welsh from ancient Celtic, so that in the result Sindarin has a marked Welsh style, and the relations between it and [the supposedly ancestral language] Quenya closely resemble those between Welsh and Latin." Tolkien further stated that he had given Sindarin "a linguistic character very like (though not identical with) British-Welsh ... because it seems to fit the rather 'Celtic' type of legends and stories told of its speakers", i.e. that he envisaged a "fit" between the language, the character of his Sindarin Elves, and the people in Celtic legends. ## Irish ### Tír na nÓg Matthew T. Dickerson, in the J. R. R. Tolkien Encyclopedia, writes that Rivendell consistently represents a sanctuary, a place that felt like home, throughout the legendarium. The journalist Jane Ciabattari writes that a major reason for the popularity of Lord of the Rings was the desire for escape among the Vietnam War generation. She compares the military-industrial complex with Mordor, and suggests that they yearned for a place of peace, just as Frodo Baggins felt an "overwhelming longing to rest and remain at peace... in Rivendell". The medievalist Marjorie Burns writes that Rivendell and the other Elvish realm of Lothlórien parallel the Celtic Otherworld (in Irish, Tír na nÓg) in being hard to find, but if one is admitted and welcomed, one crosses a river, symbolising the spiritual transition from the ordinary realm, and "the weary adventurer is transported into a haven of Elven hospitality and delight". There are multiple markers of the transition: > To enter Rivendell is to leave, for a time, the uplands' bleak, mountainous, northerly terrain. First comes the steep descent ...; pines are replaced by beech and oak; the air grows warmer; the first of the elves greet them with laughter and song, and then comes the inevitable water crossing that divides the rest of Middle-earth from the inner core of every Elven realm. Burns notes that both "Riven" and "dell" suggest a low place into which one must descend; and that a descent is characteristic of Celtic tales of entry into the underground realm of the Tuatha Dé Danann, whose chiefs each rule a burial mound. ### Tuatha Dé Danann The exile of the Noldor Elves in The Silmarillion has parallels with the story of the Tuatha Dé Danann. The Tuatha Dé Danann, semi-divine beings, invaded Ireland from across the sea, burning their ships when they arrived and fighting a fierce battle with the current inhabitants. The Noldor arrived in Middle-earth from Valinor and burned their ships, then turned to fight the Dark Lord Melkor. ### Nuada Airgetlám The loss of a hand by Maedhros, son of Fëanor, parallels the similar mutilation suffered by Nuada Airgetlám (king of the Tuatha Dé Danann) / Llud llaw Ereint ("Silver Hand/Arm") during the battle with the Firbolg. Nuada received a hand made of silver to replace the lost one, and his later appellation has the same meaning as the Elvish name Celebrimbor: "silver fist" or "Hand of silver" in Sindarin (Telperinquar in Quenya). Tolkien's professional work at the Temple of Nodens, Nuada's precursor, with its associations with a hero, Elves, a ring, and Dwarves, may have been a major stimulus in his creation of his Middle-earth mythology. ### Imrama tales The scholar of English literature Paul H. Kocher writes that the Undying Lands of the Uttermost West, including Eldamar and Valinor, are "so far outside our experience that Tolkien can only ask us to take it completely on faith." Kocher comments that these lands have an integral place both geographically and spiritually in Middle-earth, and that their closest literary equivalents are the imrama Celtic tales from the early Middle Ages. The imrama tales describe how Irish adventurers such as Saint Brendan sailed the seas looking for the "Land of Promise". He notes that it is certain that Tolkien knew these stories, since in 1955 he wrote a poem, entitled Imram, about Brendan's voyage. ### Balor of the Evil Eye Balor of the Evil Eye in Irish mythology has been named as a possible source for the Eye of Sauron. Balor's evil eye, in the middle of his forehead, was able to overcome a whole army. He was king of the evil Fomoire, who like Sauron were evil spirits in hideously ugly bodies. Mordor has been compared to "a Celtic hell" where Balor "ruled the dead from a tower of glass", just as the Undying Lands of Aman resemble the Celtic Earthly Paradise of Tír na nÓg in the furthest (Atlantic) West. ## Welsh ### Place-names Scholars have stated that Tolkien chose the placenames of Bree-land carefully, incorporating Celtic elements into the names to indicate that Bree was older than the Shire, whose placenames are English with Old English elements. The name "Bree" means "hill", and the hill beside the village is named "Bree-hill". The name of the village of Brill, in Buckinghamshire, which Tolkien visited when he was at the University of Oxford and which inspired him to create Bree, is constructed exactly the same way: Brill is a modern contraction of Breʒ-hyll. Both syllables are words for the same thing, "hill" – the first is Brythonic (Celtic) and the second Old English. The Tolkien scholar Tom Shippey writes that the name's construction, "hill-hill", is "therefore in a way nonsense, exactly parallel with Chetwode (or 'wood-wood') in Berkshire close by." The first element "Chet" in "Chetwode" derives from the Brythonic ced, meaning "wood". Shippey notes further that Tolkien stated that he had selected Bree-land placenames – Archet, Bree, Chetwood, and Combe – because they "contained non-English elements", which would make them "sound 'queer', to imitate 'a style that we should perhaps vaguely feel to be “Celtic”'." Shippey comments that this was part of Tolkien's "linguistic heresy", his theory that the sound of words conveyed both meaning and beauty. The philologist Christopher Robinson writes that Tolkien chose a name to "fit not only its designee, but also the phonological and morphological style of the nomenclature to which it belongs, as well as the linguistic scheme of his invented world." In Robinson's view, Tolkien intentionally selected "Celtic elements that have survived in the place names of England" – like bree and chet – to mark them as older than the Shire placenames which embody "a hint of the past" with their English and Old English elements. All of this indicates the "remarkable care and sophistication" with which Tolkien constructed the "feigned history and translation from Westron personal and placenames". ### The Mabinogion Authors such as Donald O'Brien, Patrick Wynne, Carl Hostetter and Tom Shippey have pointed out similarities between the tale of Beren and Lúthien in the Silmarillion, and Culhwch and Olwen, a tale in the Welsh Mabinogion. In both, the male heroes make rash promises after having been stricken by the beauty of non-mortal maidens; both enlist the aid of great kings, Arthur and Finrod; both show rings that prove their identities; and both are set impossible tasks that include, directly or indirectly, the hunting and killing of ferocious beasts (the wild boars, Twrch Trwyth and Ysgithrywyn, and the wolf Carcharoth) with the help of a supernatural hound (Cafall and Huan). Both maidens possess such beauty that flowers grow beneath their feet when they come to meet the heroes for the first time, as if they were living embodiments of spring. The Mabinogion was part of the Red Book of Hergest, a source of Welsh Celtic lore, which the Red Book of Westmarch, a supposed source of Hobbit-lore, probably imitates. ### Arthurian legend The Arthurian legends are part of the Welsh cultural heritage. Tolkien denied their influence, but scholars have found multiple parallels. The Wizard Gandalf has been compared with Merlin, Frodo and Aragorn with Arthur, and Galadriel with the Lady of the Lake. Flieger has investigated the correlations and Tolkien's creative methods. She points out visible correspondences such as Avalon with Avallónë, and Brocéliande with Broceliand, the original name of Beleriand. Tolkien himself said that Frodo's and Bilbo's departure to Tol Eressëa (also called "Avallon" in the Legendarium) was an "Arthurian ending". Such correlations are discussed in the posthumously published The Fall of Arthur; a section, "The Connection to the Quenta", explores Tolkien's use of Arthurian material in The Silmarillion. Another parallel is between the tale of Sir Balin and that of Túrin Turambar. Though Balin knows he wields an accursed sword, he continues his quest to regain King Arthur's favour. Fate catches up with him when he unwittingly kills his own brother, who mortally wounds him. Turin accidentally kills his friend Beleg with his sword. Tolkien's use of swords with their own names, magical powers, ancient pedigrees, their own histories, and rituals of passage from one hero to the next, is in line with medieval and Arthurian legend. There are multiple parallels between Aragorn with his magical sword and Arthurian legend. The Sword in the Stone is broken, as Narsil is. Just as Excalibur delimits King Arthur's reign, so Narsil delimits the Third Age, beginning when Isildur cuts the Ring from Sauron's hand, and ending when the sword remade as Andúril helps to end Sauron's power and restore Aragorn as King. Both Kings lead their peoples to victory. The sword's magical scabbard, too, which the Elf-queen Galadriel gives to Aragorn as he leaves Lothlórien with the words "The blade that is drawn from this sheath shall not be stained or broken even in defeat", parallels Excalibur's sheath, which guarantees that its wearer "shall never lose no blood, be ye never so sore wounded". The elven scabbard describes the sword it was made for: "It was overlaid with a tracery of flowers and leaves wrought of silver and gold, and on it were set in elven-runes formed of many gems the name Andúril and the lineage of the sword." ## Modern Celtic ### Ethereal Elves In his 2001–2003 The Lord of the Rings film trilogy, Peter Jackson chose to treat the first group of Elves seen by the Hobbit protagonists in the style of John Duncan's 1911 painting Riders of the Sidhe. The film was accompanied by music which similarly gave a "ethereal" modern Celtic feeling for the Elves. Together, these portrayed the Elves with an "otherworldly" tone, very unlike Tolkien's. The composer responsible for the score, Howard Shore, creates what the folklorist and Tolkien scholar Dimitra Fimi calls the "same 'Celtic' feel'" in the music for the Elves in Rivendell. Shore had approached the Irish "folk-cum-New Age" singer Enya, whose music represents "Celticity as melancholy over a lost tradition." In Fimi's view, the "'Celtic' air and ambience" that Jackson uses for the Elves is reinforced by what the film's conceptual designer Alan Lee called "the use of natural forms ... [and] of flowing graceful lines" and "elements of Art Nouveau and Celtic design". Fimi notes that both Tolkien and the historian Malcolm Chapman wrote "mocking[ly]" about the romantic stereotyping of Celts in this way. Tolkien spoke of "the wild incalculable poetic Celt, full of vague and misty imaginations"; Chapman wrote of "high-flown metaphysical and moral conclusions drawn from 'Celtic' art by its admiring critics". ### Irish peasant Hobbits The Tolkien scholar David Bratman "sharp[ly]" criticized Shore's use of modern Celtic music for the Shire and its Hobbits, stating that the use of instruments like the bodhrán and Celtic harp was inappropriate, given that the Hobbits' homeland was inspired by the English Midlands where Tolkien lived. The Lord of the Rings: The Rings of Power, a series about events in the Second Age of Middle-earth, has been criticized for its handling of race. Commentators have observed that the Hobbit-like harfoots speak in Irish accents, behave as friendly peasants, and are accompanied by Celtic music; and that they resemble the 19th century caricaturist John Leech's "wildly unflattering" depictions of the Irish in Punch magazine. ## See also - Tolkien and the classical world - Tolkien and the Norse - Tolkien's modern sources
28,153,108	Circle the Drain (Katy Perry song)	1,167,192,309	null	[ "2010 songs", "American disco songs", "Gothic rock songs", "Katy Perry songs", "Songs about drugs", "Songs written by Katy Perry", "Songs written by Tricky Stewart" ]	"Circle the Drain" is a song by American singer Katy Perry, from her third studio album, Teenage Dream (2010). It was written by Perry, Christopher "Tricky" Stewart and Monte Neuble. Lyrically, "Circle the Drain" candidly focuses on a former lover's drug-addiction and the strains it put on both of them. Following its release, several media outlets reported it to have been inspired by her former relationship with Travie McCoy. Critics were divided on the track, with some finding Perry to be in a hypocritical position, given the album's other material. Other reviewers found it nice to see a different side to the singer. Capitol Records released the track as a promotional single two weeks before the album's release on August 10. The song achieved modest charting, with its highest peak position being number 30 on the Canadian Hot 100. It charted similarly in New Zealand and managed to enter the US Billboard Hot 100 at number 58. "Circle the Drain" has been performed by Perry on her 2011 world tour, California Dreams Tour. On the tour, she was dressed in a catsuit and the stage was decorated in cartoonish meat. Concert reviewers gave her performances mixed reviews. ## Production and composition Along with Christopher "Tricky" Stewart and Monte Neuble, Perry wrote the song entitled "Circle the Drain" for her third studio album, Teenage Dream. A total of 17 music engineers contributed to the track's composition. Critics suggest the song is about her former relationship with Gym Class Heroes' lead vocalist Travie McCoy. When finally asked about his opinion on the track, McCoy admitted to hearing about "Circle the Drain", but has never actually listened to the song. Nonetheless, he commented: "I heard she put out a song that's about me, or about some old habits or whatever. [And] I look at it like this: I'm just stoked that she finally has a song with some substance on her record. Good job." "Circle the Drain" is a rant song where, lyrically, Perry is telling off a self-destructive drug-addicted ex-boyfriend. Its candid lyrics also discuss the strains his addiction put on both of them. In the track's chorus, she sings about how she wants to be his lover, not someone who has to take care of him, such as a maternal figure. She also sings about how he had ultimately lost large opportunities. Styled in the genres of disco-rock, gothic rock, and hard rock tones, it is an up-tempo song that lasts for four minutes and 32 seconds, and also has influences of techno. The track is composed in the key of E minor and is set in time signature of common time, with a tempo of 135 beats per minute. Perry's vocal range spans over an octave, from A<sub>3</sub> to D<sub>5</sub>. Entertainment Weekly writer Leah Greenblatt stated that Perry's lyrical talent is not her strength, adding: "neither, in fact, is rhyming 'forte' with 'foreplay,' as she does painfully on the druggie-boyfriend takedown 'Circle the Drain'." Billboard journalist Monica Herrera found the song to have been inspired by Pat Benatar's material, while Perry herself said: "It's kind of like my 'You Oughta Know' Alanis Morissette moment." Al Fox of BBC News wrote that the song has "menacing undertones" which unveils a different side to Perry, unlike her current "unsolicited residency in many a showbiz column." ## Release and reception Capitol Records released "Circle the Drain" as a promotional single from Teenage Dream two weeks before the album's release on August 10. The song charted modestly and only remained on music charts for its debut week. The track's highest peak position was on the Canadian Hot 100, where it debuted at number 30; "Circle the Drain" became the biggest jump on that chart (28 places, from number 58) for the week ending on August 28. On the New Zealand Singles Chart, the song performed similarly, peaking at number 36 on August 23. Additionally, "Circle the Drain" managed to enter the US Billboard Hot 100 at number 58. Critical reaction to "Circle the Drain" was mixed. Keri Mason from Billboard believed that tracks like "Circle the Drain" made the Teenage Dream album "get heavier sonically and lyrically, with a boom-boom-pow electro punch". Slant Magazine's Matthew Cole found the singer to be virtually less sympathetic than her former lover. This being because her "put-downs are alternately pedantic" and hypocritical even, as she finds offense to his substance use before foreplay, but was singing about blacking out and hooking up on another of the album's tracks – "Last Friday Night (T.G.I.F.)". Chris Richards of The Washington Post had a similar reaction, finding it impossible to take any of the cautionary advice "Circle the Drain" offered, as Perry had just bragged about being very drunk on the very same record. MTV News reporter James Montgomery, said when discussing several tracks on Teenage Dream, one of which included "Circle the Drain", that "they are all really pretty great" and are "destined to be smash hits." Yahoo! Music journalist Chris Parkin found the song to be the only track on Teenage Dream to offer something deep and dark, citing the lyric "You fall asleep during foreplay because the pills you take are more your forté". In his review of the record for PopMatters, Steve Leftridge stated that tracks such as "Circle the Drain" are not strong, edgy or clever enough "to lend any genuine credibility to Perry as a serious artist with anything to actually say." ## Live performances Perry included the song on the setlist for her 2011 world concert tour entitled California Dreams Tour. For performances of the track, the stage was decorated with cartoonish link sausages and rib-eye steak that dangled from the rafters, while Perry was dressed in a catsuit. Along with Perry's performances of "Teenage Dream" and "E.T.", music blog Idolator staff writer Erika Brooks Adickman cited "Circle the Drain" as being a highlight of the tour. The Patriot Ledger's Jay N. Miller found "Circle the Drain" to be "the most rocking" out of the setlist's line-up at TD Garden. In contrast, The Hollywood Reporter quoted Rolling Stone's Meredith Blake in her concert review saying she found it pointless to have those items onstage given the song's theme. Writing for NME, Emily MacKay did a live review of the singer's tour at the HMV Hammersmith Apollo in London during March 2011. She said that the spiritless "Circle the Drain", "Hummingbird Heartbeat" and "Who Am I Living For?" were enough to make you feel somewhat like that of a "fractious toddler having a series of expensive toys waved in its mottled face by a fretful aunt to keep it from deciding it wants to cry." ## Credits and personnel - Vocals: Katy Perry - Songwriting: Katy Perry, Christopher "Tricky" Stewart, Monte Neuble - Production: Christopher "Tricky" Stewart Credits adapted from Teenage Dream album liner notes. ## Charts
1,919,755	Piracy Funds Terrorism	1,172,266,065	null	[ "2004 mixtape albums", "Albums produced by Diplo", "Albums produced by M.I.A. (rapper)", "Debut mixtape albums", "M.I.A. (rapper) albums", "Self-released mixtape albums" ]	Piracy Funds Terrorism Volume 1, usually referred to simply as Piracy Funds Terrorism, is a mixtape produced by British recording artist M.I.A. and American DJ Diplo featuring vocal tracks intended for M.I.A.'s debut album Arular mashed up with samples of other recordings. The mixtape was produced by the two artists at Diplo's home studio in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. It was not officially released, but was distributed at M.I.A.'s live shows and via the internet to promote the release of her much-delayed debut album. Despite its unofficial status, the mixtape received general acclaim among critics. Several music publications included the mixtape in their listings of the best albums of 2004. ## Recording Recording sessions for Arular, the debut album by M.I.A., took place during 2003 and 2004, and the album was originally scheduled to be released in September 2004. Legal issues relating to the use of samples delayed this release, however, first to December and then into 2005. During the recording process, M.I.A. met DJ Diplo, and expressed an interest in working with him on a track for the album. Although their initial recording sessions together proved fruitless, Diplo conceived the idea of using the existing vocal tracks recorded for the album to produce a mixtape which could be used to promote the delayed full-length album. M.I.A. extended her stay in the United States and the two artists produced the mixtape at his home studio. ## Music and artwork The mixtape includes early mixes of the vocals intended for Arular, mashed up with samples of tracks including "Walk Like an Egyptian" by The Bangles, "Big Pimpin'" by Jay-Z and "Push It" by Salt-n-Pepa. Tunes by Baby, dead Prez, Missy Elliott, Ciara, LL Cool J and Cutty Ranks are also included. Necessary legal clearance for the use of these samples was not obtained, with the result that the mixtape could not be sold in record shops and could only be distributed by word of mouth. In addition to pop and hip hop, global music styles are included in the mix. The track "Galang" incorporates elements of reggaeton, and three tracks consist of Brazilian baile funk. The cover features a photograph of M.I.A. wearing a T-shirt with the slogan "Complaints Department" placed above a picture of a hand grenade. Arranged around the title are a series of smaller pictures depicting dancers, rioters and riot police. According to Diplo, the pressing was handled by a "little storefront-house" which specialises in producing mixtapes. ## Release and reception An initial pressing of 1,000 copies of the mixtape was produced and given to M.I.A.'s record label. The label began sending the copies out as promotional recordings, prompting Diplo to ask for the remaining copies to be returned so that he could distribute them at shows and in clubs, which he felt was a more appropriate method of distribution for the mixtape. He stated that around 2,000 copies of the recording were produced in total. The mixtape received general acclaim among music critics, despite not being an official release. In a review for The Village Voice, Robert Christgau said he was more interested in hearing M.I.A.'s own original music than a mashup: "I find more fascination—and pleasure, if not variety—in M.I.A. juxtaposed against herself than in, for instance, favela funk juxtaposed against 'Walk Like an Egyptian'. Which isn't to deny I also find all these good things in favela funk juxtaposed against 'Walk Like an Egyptian'." Rollie Pemberton from Stylus Magazine called Piracy Funds Terrorism "a genre-bending adventure in shattered preconceptions and club killing beats" and said that, based on the strength of the mixtape, M.I.A.'s first official album had a lot to live up to. Village Voice critic Tom Breihan later expressed relief that M.I.A.'s aesthetic and her debut album did not have much input from Diplo. Piracy Funds Terrorism was voted the 23rd best album of 2004 in the Pazz & Jop, an annual poll of American critics nationwide, published by The Village Voice. Pitchfork ranked it at number 12 on their year-end albums list, and later at number 103 on their decade-end list of top 200 albums from the 2000s. ## Track listing The first pressing of Piracy Funds Terrorism had an incorrect track listing, which was fixed for the second pressing, the track listing for which is as follows: For the third pressing, two tracks featuring beats created by Cavemen were replaced with new material due to legal issues. ## Personnel The only credits on the cover are as follows: - Hollertronix/Wes Gully (Diplo) – executive production - Maya Arul (M.I.A.) – "executive mish mash" - Knox Robinson – worldwide A&R
152,799	Alexis Herman	1,173,469,854	23rd United States Secretary of Labor	[ "1947 births", "20th-century American politicians", "20th-century American women politicians", "21st-century American women", "African-American Catholics", "African-American members of the Cabinet of the United States", "African-American women in politics", "Alabama Democrats", "American social workers", "Clinton administration cabinet members", "Delta Sigma Theta members", "Directors of The Coca-Cola Company", "Living people", "Politicians from Mobile, Alabama", "United States Secretaries of Labor", "Women in Alabama politics", "Women members of the Cabinet of the United States", "Xavier University of Louisiana alumni" ]	Alexis Margaret Herman (born July 16, 1947) is an American politician who served as the 23rd U.S. Secretary of Labor under President Bill Clinton. Herman was the first African-American to hold the position. Prior to serving as Secretary, she was Assistant to the President and Director of the White House Office of Public Engagement. Herman grew up in Mobile, Alabama. After college, she worked to improve employment opportunities for black laborers and women. She then joined the administration of Jimmy Carter, working as director of the Labor Department's Women's Bureau. She became active in the Democratic party, working in the campaigns of Jesse Jackson and then serving as chief of staff for the Democratic National Committee under Ronald H. Brown. Upon the election of Bill Clinton, she joined his cabinet in 1997. Following the defeat of Al Gore in the 2000 presidential election, Herman remained active in Democratic politics, in addition to her participation in the private sector, serving on the boards of corporations such as Coca-Cola and Toyota. ## Early life and education Herman was born on July 16, 1947, in Mobile, Alabama, the daughter of politician Alex Herman and schoolteacher Gloria Caponis, and raised in a Catholic household. Her father became Alabama's first black ward leader. She later recounted how members of the white supremacist group, the Ku Klux Klan, assaulted her father when she was five years old. When Herman was growing up in Mobile, schools remained racially segregated. Her parents opted to send Alexis to parochial school, in part because the teachers included white nuns and priests, and thus would expose her to greater diversity. Herman attended the Heart of Mary High School. As a sophomore, she was suspended for questioning the diocese's exclusion of black students from religious pageants in which white students participated. Following a week of objection from the parents of Herman's fellow black classmates, she was re-admitted. After graduating from high school, Herman attended Edgewood College in Madison, Wisconsin, and Spring Hill College in Mobile. She transferred to Xavier University of Louisiana in New Orleans, where she became an active member of the Gamma Alpha Chapter of the Delta Sigma Theta sorority and graduated with a Bachelor of Arts in Sociology in 1969. ## Career After college, Herman returned to Mobile to help desegregate their parochial schools, including the school she herself attended. She was then a social worker with Catholic charities in Pascagoula, Mississippi, where she advocated for they city's shipyard to offer training to unskilled black laborers. After Pascagoula, Herman moved to Atlanta, Georgia where she worked as a director of the Southern Regional Council's Black Women's Employment Program, a program designed to promote minority women into managerial or technical jobs. Later, working at New York based consulting firm RTP, Herman led programs designed to provide apprenticeships for women in nontraditional jobs. At RTP, she met Ray Marshall. After Jimmy Carter won the Presidency in 1977, he and his incoming Labor Secretary Marshall asked Herman to be director of the Labor Department's Women's Bureau. At age 29, she was the youngest person to hold the position, which required her to work towards improving business opportunities for women. She worked to encourage corporations to hire more minority women, with companies like Coca-Cola, Delta Airlines, and General Motors making increased diversity a priority in their hiring process. In 1981, at the end of the Carter administration, Herman left her job in the Labor Department and founded the consulting firm, A.M. Herman & Associates. Herman and the firm worked with corporations on a variety of marketing and management issues, including how to develop training programs, marketing strategies, and organizational strategies. She managed the convention team for Jesse Jackson in his 1984 and 1988 bids for the Democratic Party's presidential nomination. Her role working for Jackson's campaign led Herman to serve as chief of staff to Democratic National Committee Chairman Ronald H. Brown, and later as vice chair of the 1992 Democratic National Convention. ### Director of the Office of Public Liaison After Bill Clinton's victory in the 1992 Presidential election, Herman became deputy director of the Presidential Transition Office. Clinton then appointed her director of the White House Office of Public Liaison, where she was responsible for the administration's relations with interest groups. In that role, Herman repeatedly organized informal dinners to advance White House initiatives or assuage key groups. She earned the support of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People and the Congressional Black Caucus as part of her outreach efforts. Herman also earned the respect of members of the business community as part of her effort to gain support for the Clinton Administration's trade deal, the North American Free Trade Agreement. Her time as director also included the death of Commerce Secretary, and Herman's former boss at the Democratic National Committee, Ronald Brown in a plane crash. As director, Herman made arrangements for public and private grieving following the death. The tragedy strengthened Herman's bond with Present Clinton, who like Herman had been close to Brown. ### Secretary of Labor In 1996, President Clinton announced his intention to nominate Herman as Secretary of Labor to replace outgoing Secretary Robert Reich. Labor unions publicly supported the nomination, although they had mostly supported other potential nominees such as Harris Wofford, Esteban Edward Torres, and Alan Wheat. Herman's Senate confirmation was delayed twice. The first resulted from questions regarding her role in organizing White House coffees Clinton used as fundraisers. The second was because Senate Republicans refused to allow a vote on her nomination, as part of their opposition to a proposed executive order related to federal construction projects, which Clinton eventually abandoned. With the delays over, the Senate Labor Committee held its hearing on her nomination on March 18, 1997. Then on April 30, 1997, the Senate voted to confirm by a vote of 85–13. Herman was sworn in on May 9, 1997. She became the first African-American, and the fifth woman, to serve in the position. As Secretary of Labor, Herman oversaw the Department of Labor, which at the time employed 17,000 people and operated on a \$39 billion annual budget. The Department of Labor is tasked with enforcing a variety of workplace laws and regulations, including safety issues and anti-discrimination. During Herman's tenure, American unemployment was at its lowest level in decades. She earned praise from her peers for her handling of the 1997 United Parcel Service (UPS) workers strike, the largest strike in the United States in two decades. After the strike began in August, Herman met privately with the Teamsters' president and the UPS chairman to frame the issues. She was an instrumental mediator in the talks, and the strike was settled after 15 days. Herman's role in resolving the strike raised her public profile as she began to pursue her agenda as Secretary. As secretary, Herman supported the 1996 and 1997 raises to the minimum wage, increasing it by \$0.90 to \$5.15 per hour by September 1997. Herman argued the wage hike increased the buying power of workers. She later opposed a 1999 Republican supported plan to raise the minimum wage over three years, instead supporting a two-year time-table for an increase. Herman also opposed the legislation as it included tax cuts without offsets. Among Herman's responsibilities as secretary was the enforcement of child labor laws. During her tenure, the Department of Labor fined toy store chain Toys "R" Us \$200,000 for violating laws restricting the type of work that may be done, and the number of hours that may be worked by underage employees. It found more than 300 teenage employees were working more and later hours than permitted, and Toys "R" Us agreed to stop the practices. Herman supported the United States' participation in the International Labor Organization's Child Labor Convention, a treaty designed to protect children under 18 years old from slavery, trafficking, bondage, and other abuses. She also defended the United States' support of a provision to allow for voluntary military service of those under 18 years old, a practice allowed in the United States, Great Britain, Germany, and the Netherlands. Opponents, including other nations, trade unions, and Amnesty International urged tougher provisions; however, Herman contended the focus of the treaty should be on forced labor, not voluntary military service. Attorney General Janet Reno appointed Independent Council Ralph I. Lancaster Jr., in May 1998, to investigate Herman after businessman Laurent J. Yene alleged she accepted kickbacks while working at the White House. Reno was skeptical of Yene's allegations following a preliminary FBI investigation, but she believed the Independent Council law obligated her to appoint independent council where she could not affirm the claims were without merit. Following a twenty-three month investigation, Independent Council Lancaster concluded that Herman had broken no laws and cleared her of all wrongdoing. She was the fifth Clinton cabinet officer to be investigated by independent counsel, and the fourth cleared of all wrongdoing. The Independent Council investigations of the cabinet members cost \$95 million and did not uncover any felonies, leading Congress to allow the Independent Counsel Act to expire in June 1999 without re-authorization. Herman was active in Al Gore's 2000 campaign for president. During the Florida election recount, Herman was part of the team planning a transition to a Gore Administration. ABC News and The New York Times considered her a likely candidate to remain in Gore's White House if he won. Elaine Chao replaced her as Secretary of Labor in the George W. Bush administration. ### Post-government Herman served as co-chair of Democratic presidential nominee John Kerry's transition team during the 2004 presidential election. In 2005, Howard Dean, serving as Democratic National Committee Chairman, appointed Herman and lawyer James Roosevelt, Jr. co-chairs of its Rules and Bylaws Committee. The position put Herman and Roosevelt at the center of a dispute between the campaigns of democratic primary candidates Barack Obama and Hillary Clinton over whether to seat delegates from Michigan and Florida at the 2008 Democratic National Convention. Herman endorsed Hillary Clinton in the 2016 Democratic Party Presidential primaries and served as Deputy Parliamentarian at the 2016 Democratic National Convention. From 2001 to 2006, Herman was chairwoman of The Coca-Cola Company's Human Resources Task Force. The following year, Coca-Cola made her a director. Herman served on Toyota's Diversity Advisory Board. In 2006, the company appointed her to head a special task force to ensure the company's compliance with anti-discrimination standards following the resignation of Toyota North America's CEO, after being named the defendant in a sexual harassment lawsuit. Herman served on the boards of other major companies, including Cummins, MGM Resorts International, Entergy, Sodexo, and is the chairman and CEO of New Ventures, Inc. In 2010, Herman was appointed to the board of the Clinton Bush Haiti Fund, a charitable organization founded by Bill Clinton and George W. Bush to aid Haiti following a magnitude 7.0 M<sub>w</sub> earthquake in January of that year. Herman has also been involved with civic groups including the National Urban League and the National Epilepsy Foundation. She has been awarded more than 20 honorary doctorate degrees from academic institutions. ## Personal life Herman was Queen of Carnival for the Mobile Area Mardi Gras Association in 1974. Her father had served as King of Carnival in his youth. Herman married physician Charles Franklin Jr. in February 2000 at the Washington National Cathedral. Franklin had three children from previous marriages. He died in 2014 following an extended illness. ## See also - List of African-American firsts - List of African-American United States Cabinet members - List of female United States Cabinet members
52,135,207	The Nabataean Agriculture	1,167,662,235	10th-century Arabic text	[ "10th-century Arabic books", "Agriculture books", "Alchemical documents", "Alchemical works of the medieval Islamic world", "Medieval texts", "Works of uncertain authorship" ]	The Nabataean Agriculture (Arabic: كتاب الفلاحة النبطية, romanized: Kitāb al-Filāḥa al-Nabaṭiyya, lit. 'Book of the Nabataean Agriculture'), also written The Nabatean Agriculture, is a 10th-century text on agronomy by Ibn Wahshiyya (born in Qussīn, present-day Iraq; died c. 930). It contains information on plants and agriculture, as well as on magic and astrology. It was frequently cited by later Arabic writers on these topics. The Nabataean Agriculture was the first book written in Arabic about agriculture, as well as the most influential. Ibn Wahshiyya claimed that he translated it from a 20,000-year-old Mesopotamian text. Though some doubts remain, modern scholars believe that the work may be translated from a Syriac original of the 5th or 6th century AD. In any case, it is clear that the work is ultimately based on Greek and Latin agricultural writings, heavily supplemented with local material. The work consists of some 1500 manuscript pages, principally concerned with agriculture but also containing lengthy digressions on religion, philosophy, magic, astrology, and folklore. Some of the most valuable material on agriculture deals with vineyards, arboriculture, irrigation and soil science. This agricultural information became well known throughout the Arabic-Islamic world from Yemen to Spain. The non-agricultural material in The Nabataean Agriculture paints a vivid picture of rural life in 10th-century Iraq. It describes a pagan religion with connections to ancient Mesopotamian beliefs, tempered by Hellenistic influences. Some of this non-agricultural material was cited by the Andalusian magician and alchemist Maslama al-Qurtubi (died 964) in his Ghayat al-Hakim ("The Goal of the Wise", Latin: Picatrix), while other parts were discussed by the Jewish philosopher Maimonides in his Guide for the Perplexed (c. 1190). The French Orientalist Étienne Quatremère introduced the work to the European scholarly community in 1835. Most 19th-century scholars dismissed it as a forgery, but from the 1960s onward several researchers have shown increased interest in its authenticity and impact. ## 'Nabataean' The word 'Nabataean' (Arabic: Nabaṭī) in the title of the work does not refer to the ancient Nabataeans, the northern Arab people who established a kingdom at Petra during the late Hellenistic period (c. 150 BCE – 106 AD). Rather, 'Nabataean' is a term used by Arabic authors of the early Islamic period to designate the non-Arabic speaking, rural population of various conquered territories. Thus, we hear of "Nabataean" Kurds and Armenians, as well as of "Nabataeans of the Levant" (the term apparently used by Arabic authors for the ancient Nabataeans of Petra) and "Nabataeans of Iraq". Generally speaking, the term 'Nabataean' was strongly associated with a rural, sedentary way of life, which was perceived as backwards and as thoroughly opposed to the noble, nomadic lifestyle of the Arabs. The term 'Nabataeans of Iraq' was used to refer to the rural, Aramaic-speaking, native inhabitants of the Sawād, now central and southern Iraq. However, it was also used by scholars like Ibn Wahshiyya (died c. 930) and the historian al-Mas'udi (died 956) to refer to the inhabitants of ancient Mesopotamia. These scholars believed that the ancient Mesopotamians had spoken Syriac, a prestige form of Eastern Aramaic during the 10th century which in reality goes back no further than the first century AD, and that this supposedly Syriac-speaking people had ruled over Mesopotamia from the legendary times of Nimrod until the advent of the Sasanian Empire in the 3rd century. Unlike the term 'Nabataeans of the Levant' then, the term 'Nabataeans of Iraq' did not refer to a historical people, but to an 'Aramaized' understanding of the Mesopotamian heritage. Given the perceived antiquity of the 'Nabataean' culture of Iraq, Ibn Wahshiyya believed all human knowledge to go back on 'Nabataean' foundations. This idea itself was not exactly a new one: already in the Hellenistic period a secret knowledge was often attributed to the ancient inhabitants of Mesopotamia, referred to in Greek as "Chaldaeans" (compare, for example, the Chaldaean Oracles), a term used (Arabic: Kaldānī) more or less as a synonym of 'Nabataean' by Ibn Wahshiyya and al-Mas'udi. However, in contrast to both earlier Hellenic authors and later Arabic authors such as Sa'id al-Andalusi (1029–1070), Ibn Wahshiyya was in direct contact with a living Mesopotamian tradition, making his "Chaldaeans" or "Nabataeans" more firmly rooted in empirical reality. Ibn Wahshiyya took great pride in his 'Nabataeans', as well as in the nobility of peasants more generally. Written at a time when ancient Mesopotamian culture was in danger of disappearing due to the Arab conquests, his work can be interpreted as part of the shuubiyya, a movement by non-Arab Muslims to reassert their local identities. In this view it is an attempt to celebrate and preserve the 'Nabataean' heritage of Mesopotamia. ## Composition The work purports to have been compiled by a man named Ibn Wahshiyya from Qussīn, a village near Kufa in present-day Iraq. It includes a preface in which he gives an account of its origin. This preface states that he found the book in a collection of books from the Chaldeans, and that the original was a scroll with 1500 parchment sheets. The original bore the lengthy title Kitāb iflāḥ al-arḍ wa-iṣlāḥ al-zar wa-l-shajar wa-l-thimār wa-daf al-āfāt anhā (“Book of Cultivation of the Land, the Care of Cereals, Vegetables and Crops, and their Protection”), which Ibn Wahshiyya abbreviated to Book of the Nabataean Agriculture. Ibn Wahshiyya claimed that he translated the work from an "ancient Syriac" ("al-Suryāniyya al-qadīma") original, written c. 20,000 years ago by the ancient inhabitants of Mesopotamia. In Ibn Wahshiyya's time, Syriac was thought to have been the primordial language used at the time of creation. In reality, however, Syriac is a dialect of Eastern Aramaic that only emerged in the 1st century, although by the 9th century, it had become the carrier of a rich literature, including many works translated from the Greek. Ibn Wahshiyya said that he translated the text to Arabic in 903/4, and then dictated the translation to his student Abu Talib al-Zayyat in 930/1. These dates are probably accurate, because Ibn al-Nadim lists the book in his Kitab al-Fihrist ("The Book Catalogue") of 987, showing that the book was circulating in Iraq by the end of the 10th century. Ibn Wahshiyya said that the book was the product of three "ancient wise Kasdanian men", of whom "one of them began it, the second added other things to that, and the third made it complete." These three compilers were named Saghrith, Yanbushad, and Quthama. Scholarly opinion as to the authenticity of The Nabataean Agriculture has changed over time (see below). While it certainly does not date back to the Babylonian era as Ibn Wahshiyya himself claimed, scholars now believe that the work may actually have been an authentic translation from a pre-Islamic Syriac original. The Finnish scholar Jaakko Hämeen-Anttila proposed a three-stage textual history in 2006: > 1\. Free paraphrases of passages known from Graeco-Roman agricultural works. > 2. Translation into Syriac either by several authors or by a single author (Quthama), probably in the sixth century or soon after... > 3. Translation of the putative Syriac text into Arabic by Ibn Wahshiyya (10th c.), who added his own glosses, usually marked as such in the text. Reconstructing the sources used in the first stage is difficult because the author translated them loosely, added his own material and commentary, and used oral informants to supplement the written sources. However, they must have included a Syriac or Arabic translation of the 4th-century writer Vindonius Anatolius. The author may also have used local sources from outside the Graeco-Roman tradition, such as the lost Rusticatio of Mago the Carthaginian. The Nabataean Agriculture was the first book written in Arabic about agriculture, although it was preceded by several books on botany and translations of foreign works on agriculture. ## Contents The book contains valuable information on agriculture and its associated lore. It is divided into approximately 150 chapters on olive trees, irrigation, flowers, trees, estate management, soils, legumes, and grains. Amidst its extensive agricultural material the text also contains religious, folkloric, and philosophical content. The style is "repetitive" and "not always completely lucid," according to Hämeen-Anttila; at the same time, Hämeen-Anttila notes that the author's attitude towards agriculture is "sober," and that he appears as a "learned and perspicacious observer." The ecologist Karl Butzer described the organization of the work as "perplexing", even "baffling", as when a treatise on corpses washed out of a cemetery interrupts the section on soils. ### Agriculture > Then I translated this book...after I had translated some other books...I gave a complete and unabridged translation of it because I liked it and I saw the great benefits in it and its usefulness in making the earth prosper, caring for the trees and making the orchards and fields thrive and also because of the discussions in it on the special properties of things, countries and times, as well as on the proper times of labors during the seasons, of the differences of the natures of [different] climates, on their wondrous effects, the grafting of trees, their planting and care, on repelling calamities from them, on making use of plants and herbs, on curing with them and keeping back maladies from the bodies of animals and repelling calamities from trees and plants with the help of each of the plants. The overall structure of the agricultural information in The Nabataean Agriculture does not match the agricultural context of Mesopotamia, suggesting that the author modeled the work on texts from a Mediterranean environment. For example, the work provides limited coverage of sugar, rice, and cotton, which were the most important local crops in the 9th and 10th centuries. Sesame oil was more common in the region than olive oil, but Ibn Wahshiyya writes about the olive tree for 32 pages, compared to one page for sesame. Nevertheless, the geographic references and detailed information about weather, planting schedules, soil salinity, and other topics show that the author had firsthand knowledge of local conditions in the central Iraqi lowlands near Kufa. The book describes 106 plants, compared to 70 in the contemporary Geoponica, and offers thorough information on their taxonomic characteristics and medicinal uses. The section on the cultivation of the date palm was an important contribution and wholly original, and the extremely detailed treatment of vineyards goes on for 141 pages. The list of exotic plants, some of which are native only to India or Arabia, may have been based on the botany portions of Pliny's 1st-century Natural History. In soil science, The Nabataean Agriculture was more advanced than its Greek or Roman predecessors, analyzing the different soil types of the Mesopotamian plains (alluvial, natric, and saline), Syria (red clay), and the Zagros Mountains of northern Iraq (mountain soil). It provided accurate and original recommendations on soil fertilizer. In the area of hydrology and irrigation, the text offers "a treasure trove of information, ideas and subtle symbolism." This includes material on how to dig and line wells and canals, and description of norias (water wheels). Finally, there is a section on farm management, which shows evidence of Roman influence. Overall, the agronomic contributions of The Nabataean Agriculture are "substantial and far-ranging, including both agronomic and natural history data unknown in the Classical literature." ### Religion and philosophy > For when we see plants, crops, running water, beautiful flowers, verdant spots and pleasing meadows, our souls are often delighted and pleased by this and are relieved and distracted from the sorrows that came to the souls and covered them, just as drinking wine makes one forget one's sorrows. As this is so, then when the vine climbs up the palm tree in such a soil as we have described before, looking at it is like looking at the higher world, and it acts on the souls in a similar manner as the Universal Soul acts on those particular souls that are in us. In various passages the book describes the religious practices of rural Iraq, where paganism persisted long after the Islamic conquest. Some of the book's descriptions suggest links between these Iraqi pagans, whom Ibn Wahshiyya called 'Sabians', and ancient Mesopotamian religion. The cult recognized seven primary astral deities: the Sun, the Moon, and the five known planets (Jupiter, Saturn, Mercury, Venus, and Mars). Of these Jupiter and Venus were good (the Auspicious Ones), while Saturn and Mars were evil (the Nefarious Ones). The gods are all subordinated to the Sun, the supreme being. There are other gods besides the seven; the text describes the fixed stars such as Sirius as gods, and refers to the Mesopotamian god Tammuz as well as to Nasr, a pre-Islamic Arabian deity. Ibn Washiyya's description of the Tammuz ritual is particularly valuable, as it is more detailed than any other Arabic source. In this ritual, people would weep for Tammuz, who was "killed time after time in horrible ways," during the month of the same name. Ibn Wahshiyya also explains that the Christians of the region had a very similar practice, the Feast of Saint George, and speculates that the Christians may have adapted their custom from the Tammuz ritual. The philosophical views of the author are similar to those of the Syrian Neoplatonist school founded by Iamblichus in the 4th century. The author believed that through the practice of esoteric rituals, one could achieve communion with God. However, the worldview of the text contains contradictions and reflects an author that is philosophically "semi-learned". One of the key philosophical passages is a treatise on the soul, in the section on vineyards, in which the author expresses doctrines very similar to those of Neoplatonism. ### Magic > Why, when oak-headed snakes see pure emeralds, will they shed their eyes in less than the wink of an eye and remain eyeless? Is that caused by the primary qualities or by a special property?...What else could this be than the effects of things through their special properties? What would be the (material) cause for the effect of the special properties? The author often describes magic in a negative light ("All the operations of the magicians are to me odious") and sometimes identifies magicians with a rival religious group, the "followers of Seth". Magic for the author consists of prayers to the gods, the creation of talismans, and manipulation of the special properties of things. These special properties depend on the configuration of the astral bodies and can produce effects such as making someone invisible or attracting goats and pigs to someone. The effects are specific to certain items, so broad beans are capable of curing "agonizing love," while ten dirhams of ground saffron mixed with wine will cause anyone who drinks it to laugh until they die. Some magical procedures rely on sympathetic magic instead of astrology, such as the technique for restoring a spring which is running dry by having young, beautiful women play music and sing near the spring. The most spectacular instance of magic is the case of a Nabataean magician who succeeded in creating an artificial man, in a story similar to the golem traditions of Kabbalistic Judaism. ### Folklore and literature > They say, for example, that a farmer woke up on a moonlit night and started singing, accompanying himself on the lute. Then a big watermelon spoke to him: “You there, you and other cultivators of watermelons strive for the watermelons to be big and sweet and you tire yourselves in all different ways, yet it would be enough for you to play wind instruments and drums and sing in our midst. We are gladdened by this and we become cheerful so that our taste becomes sweet and no diseases infect us.” The author frequently digresses from the main theme to tell folkloric tales, saying that he includes these both to instruct the reader and for entertainment, because "otherwise fatigue would blind [the reader's] soul." Many of the tales concern fantastical concepts such as talking trees or ghouls. Others are about Biblical characters or ancient kings, although the names of the kings are not those of any known historical kings, and the Biblical characters are altered from their customary forms. The tales are often related to agriculture, as when Adam teaches the Chaldeans to cultivate wheat, or King Dhanamluta plants so many water lilies in his castle that "the overabundance of water lilies around him, both their odour and their sight, caused a brain disease which proved fatal to him." There are some references to poetry, and fragments of debate poetry which are among the earliest in Arabic literature. Debate poetry is a genre in which two natural opposites such as day and night dispute their respective virtues. The examples in the text include boasts by olive trees and palm trees, and are similar in style to the Persian Drakht-i Asurig, a debate between a goat and a palm tree. At times, the stories conceal a hidden inner meaning, as in a text purporting that the eggplant will disappear for 3000 years. The author explains that this is a symbolic expression in which the 3000 years signify three months, during which eating eggplant would be unhealthy. ## Influence The Nabataean Agriculture is the most influential book on agriculture in Arabic. Dozens of writers used it as a source, from the Middle Ages until the 18th century. It was the first agronomical work to reach al-Andalus (modern Spain and Portugal), and became an important reference for the writers of the Andalusi agricultural corpus. Ibn al-Awwam in his Kitab al-filaha cited it over 540 times. Others who cited it include Jamāl al-Dīn al-Waṭwāṭ, Ibn Hajjaj, Abu l-Khayr, and al-Tighnari, and it influenced Ibn Bassal. The agricultural history of Yemen is not well known, but The Nabataean Agriculture must have reached Yemen by the era of the Rasulid dynasty, as demonstrated by quotations in the work of al-Malik al-Afdal al-Abbas (d. 1376). The Nabataean Agriculture also had a far-reaching impact on Arabic and Latin occult literature, through the fragments quoted in the Ghayat al-hakim ("The Goal of the Wise") by the Cordoban magician, alchemist and hadith scholar Maslama al-Qurtubi (died 964), an influential work on magic which was later translated into Latin under the title Picatrix. In the 12th century Maimonides quoted The Nabataean Agriculture in his Guide for the Perplexed, as a source on pagan religion. Later translations of Maimonides into Latin mistranslated the name of the work as De agricultura Aegyptiorum ("On Egyptian Agriculture"), which caused readers such as Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz and Samuel Purchas to refer to the book by this erroneous title. According to Ernest Renan, the book was also cited by Thomas Aquinas in the 13th century. In the 14th century, Ibn Khaldun mentioned the work in his Muqaddimah, although he believed that it had been translated from Greek. Traces of Ibn Wahshiyya's influence also appear in Spanish literature. Alfonso X of Castile (1221–1284) commissioned a Spanish translation of an Arabic lapidary (book about gemstones) by someone named Abolays. This lapidary cites The Nabataean Agriculture (calling it The Chaldaean Agriculture), and Abolays claims, like Ibn Wahshiyya, to have translated the lapidary from an ancient language ("Chaldaean"). In the 15th century, Enrique de Villena also knew of The Nabataean Agriculture and referenced it in his Tratado del aojamiento and Tratado de lepra. ## History of modern scholarship 19th century The Nabataean Agriculture was first introduced to European scholarship in 1835 by the French scholar Étienne Quatremère. Daniel Chwolson popularized it in his studies of 1856 and 1859, believing that it provided authentic information about ancient Assyria and Babylonia. He dated the original text to the 14th century BC at the latest. However, his views provoked a "violent reaction" in the scholarly community, and a series of scholars set out to refute him. The first of these was Ernest Renan in 1860, who dated the work to the 3rd or 4th century. He was followed by Alfred von Gutschmid, who showed inconsistencies in the text and declared it a forgery of the Muslim era. In an article published in 1875, the eminent German scholar Theodor Nöldeke agreed with Gutschmid that the work was originally written in Arabic, going as far as to argue that Ibn Wahshiyya himself was a fiction, and that the true author was Abu Talib al-Zayyat. Nöldeke emphasized the Greek influences in the text, the author's knowledge of the calends (a feature of the Roman calendar), and his use of the solar calendar of Edessa and Harran rather than the Islamic lunar calendar. The eventual decipherment of cuneiform showed conclusively that The Nabataean Agriculture was not based on an ancient Mesopotamian source. 20th and 21st centuries Interest in the book was slight for the first half of the 20th century. Martin Plessner was one of the few scholars to devote attention to it, in an article published in 1928. Toufic Fahd began studying the work in the late 1960s, and wrote many articles on it in which he defended the idea that the text was not a forgery by Ibn Wahshiyya, but was rather based on a pre-Islamic original. Fuat Sezgin also defended the work's authenticity as a translation from a 5th- or 6th-century work, and published a facsimile of the manuscript in 1984, while Fahd completed his critical edition of the text between 1993 and 1998. Mohammad El-Faïz supported Fahd's views and studied the work from the standpoint of Mesopotamian agriculture, publishing a monograph on the subject in 1995. Despite the fact that several scholars had now argued for the work's authenticity, Nöldeke's views still had the most currency in the early 21st century. This changed when Jaakko Hämeen-Anttila, in his monograph published in 2006, extensively argued that the work may well have been an authentic translation from the Syriac. The Nabataean Agriculture has not been translated into a European language in full, but Fahd translated parts of it in to French in his articles, and Hämeen-Anttila translated other parts into English. ## See also - Andalusi agricultural corpus - Arab Agricultural Revolution - History of agriculture - History of botany - Islam and magic ## Editions - (3 vols., 1993–1998.)
5,577	Politics of Croatia	1,164,539,810	Political system of the Republic of Croatia	[ "Politics of Croatia" ]	The politics of Croatia are defined by a parliamentary, representative democratic republic framework, where the Prime Minister of Croatia is the head of government in a multi-party system. Executive power is exercised by the Government and the President of Croatia. Legislative power is vested in the Croatian Parliament (Croatian: Sabor). The Judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature. The parliament adopted the current Constitution of Croatia on 22 December 1990 and decided to declare independence from Yugoslavia on 25 May 1991. The Constitutional Decision on the Sovereignty and Independence of the Republic of Croatia came into effect on 8 October 1991. The constitution has since been amended several times. The first modern parties in the country developed in the middle of the 19th century, and their agenda and appeal changed, reflecting major social changes, such as the breakup of Austria-Hungary, the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, dictatorship and social upheavals in the kingdom, World War II, the establishment of Communist rule and the breakup of the SFR Yugoslavia. The President of the Republic (Croatian: Predsjednik/ica Republike) is the head of state and the commander in chief of the Croatian Armed Forces and is directly elected to serve a five-year term. The government (Croatian: Vlada), the main executive power of Croatia, is headed by the prime minister, who has four deputy prime ministers who serve also as government ministers. Twenty ministers are in charge of particular activities. The executive branch is responsible for proposing legislation and a budget, executing the laws, and guiding the foreign and internal policies. The parliament is a unicameral legislative body. The number of Sabor representatives (MPs) ranges from 100 to 160; they are elected by popular vote to serve four-year terms. The powers of the legislature include enactment and amendment of the constitution and laws; adoption of the government budget, declarations of war and peace, defining national boundaries, calling referendums and elections, appointments and relief of officers, supervising the Government of Croatia and other holders of public powers responsible to the Sabor, and granting of amnesties. The Croatian constitution and legislation provides for regular presidential and parliamentary elections, and the election of county prefects (county presidents) and assemblies, and city and municipal mayors and councils. Croatia has a three-tiered, independent judicial system governed by the Constitution of Croatia and national legislation enacted by the Sabor. The Supreme Court (Croatian: Vrhovni sud) is the highest court of appeal in Croatia, while municipal and county courts are courts of general jurisdiction. Specialised courts in Croatia are: commercial courts and the Superior Commercial Court, misdemeanour courts and the Superior Misdemeanour Court, administrative courts and the Superior Administrative Court. Croatian Constitutional Court (Croatian: Ustavni sud) is a court that deals primarily with constitutional law. Its main authority is to rule on whether laws that are challenged are in fact unconstitutional, i.e., whether they conflict with constitutionally established rights and freedoms. The State Attorney's Office represents the state in legal proceedings. ## Legal framework Croatia is a unitary democratic parliamentary republic. Following the collapse of the ruling Communist League, Croatia adopted a new constitution in 1990 – which replaced the 1974 constitution adopted by the Socialist Republic of Croatia – and organised its first multi-party elections. While the 1990 constitution remains in force, it has been amended four times since its adoption—in 1997, 2000, 2001 and 2010. Croatia declared independence from Yugoslavia on 8 October 1991, which led to the breakup of Yugoslavia. Croatia's status as a country was internationally recognised by the United Nations in 1992. Under its 1990 constitution, Croatia operated a semi-presidential system until 2000 when it switched to a parliamentary system. Government powers in Croatia are divided into legislative, executive and judiciary powers. The legal system of Croatia is civil law and, along with the institutional framework, is strongly influenced by the legal heritage of Austria-Hungary. By the time EU accession negotiations were completed on 30 June 2010, Croatian legislation was fully harmonised with the Community acquis. Croatia became a member state of the European Union on 1 July 2013. ## Executive The President of the Republic (Croatian: Predsjednik/ica Republike) is the head of state. The president is directly elected and serves a five-year term. The president is the commander in chief of the armed forces, has the procedural duty of appointing the prime minister with the consent of the Sabor (Parliament) through a majority vote (majority of all MPs), and has some influence on foreign policy. The most recent presidential election was held on 11 January 2015 and was won by Zoran Milanovic. He took the oath of office on ?. The constitution limits holders of the presidential office to a maximum of two terms and prevents the president from being a member of any political party. Consequently, the president-elect withdraws from party membership before inauguration. The government (Croatian: Vlada), the main executive power of Croatia, is headed by the prime minister who has four deputies, who also serve as government ministers. There are 16 other ministers who are appointed by the prime minister with the consent of the Sabor (majority of all MPs); these are in charge of particular sectors of activity. As of 19 October 2016, the Deputy Prime Ministers are Martina Dalić, Davor Ivo Stier, Ivan Kovačić, and Damir Krstičević. Government ministers are from the Croatian Democratic Union (HDZ), and the Bridge of Independent Lists (MOST) with five independent ministers. The executive branch is responsible for proposing legislation and a budget, executing the laws, and guiding the country's foreign and domestic policies. The government's official residence is at Banski dvori. As of 19 October 2016, the prime minister is Andrej Plenković. \\|President \\|Zoran Milanović \\|Social Democratic Party of Croatia \\|19 February 2021 \\|- \\|Prime Minister \\|Andrej Plenković \\|Croatian Democratic Union \\|19 October 2016 ## Legislature The Parliament of Croatia (Croatian: Sabor) is a unicameral legislative body. A second chamber, the Chamber of Counties (Croatian: Županijski dom), was set up in 1993 pursuant to the 1990 Constitution. The Chamber of Counties was originally composed of three deputies from each of the twenty counties and the city of Zagreb. However, as it had no practical power over the Chamber of Representatives, it was abolished in 2001 and its powers were transferred to the county governments. The number of Sabor representatives can vary from 100 to 160; they are all elected by popular vote and serve four-year terms. 140 members are elected in multi-seat constituencies, up to six members are chosen by proportional representation to represent Croatians living abroad and five members represent ethnic and national communities or minorities. The two largest political parties in Croatia are the Croatian Democratic Union (HDZ) and the Social Democratic Party of Croatia (SDP). The last parliamentary election was held on 11 September 2016 in Croatia and on 10 and 11 September 2016 abroad. The Sabor meets in public sessions in two periods; the first from 15 January to 30 June, and the second from 15 September to 15 December. Extra sessions can be called by the President of the Republic, by the president of the parliament or by the government. The powers of the legislature include enactment and amendment of the constitution, enactment of laws, adoption of the state budget, declarations of war and peace, alteration of the country's boundaries, calling and conducting referendums and elections, appointments and relief of office, supervising the work of the Government of Croatia and other holders of public powers responsible to the Sabor, and granting amnesty. Decisions are made based on a majority vote if more than half of the Chamber is present, except in cases of constitutional issues. ## Elections The Croatian constitution and legislation provides for regular elections for the office of the President of the Republic, parliamentary, county prefects, county assemblies, city and municipal mayors and city and municipal councils. The President of the Republic is elected to a five-year term by a direct vote of all citizens of Croatia. A majority vote is required to win. A runoff election round is held in cases where no candidate secures the majority in the first round of voting. The presidential elections are regulated by the constitution and dedicated legislation; the latter defines technical details, appeals and similar issues. 140 members of parliament are elected to a four-year term in ten multi-seat constituencies, which are defined on the basis of the existing county borders, with amendments to achieve a uniform number of eligible voters in each constituency to within 5%. Citizens of Croatia living abroad are counted in an eleventh constituency; however, its number of seats was not fixed for the last parliamentary election. It was instead calculated based on numbers of votes cast in the ten constituencies in Croatia and the votes cast in the eleventh constituency. In the 2007 parliamentary election the eleventh constituency elected five MPs. Constitutional changes first applied in the 2011 parliamentary election have abolished this scheme and permanently assigned three MPs to the eleventh constituency. Additionally, eight members of parliament are elected by voters belonging to twenty-two recognised minorities in Croatia: the Serb minority elects three MPs, Hungarians and Italians elect one MP each, Czech and Slovak minorities elect one MP jointly, while all other minorities elect two more MPs to the parliament. The Standard D'Hondt formula is applied to the vote, with a 5% election threshold. The last parliamentary election, held in 2016, elected 151 MPs. The county prefects and city and municipal mayors are elected to four-year terms by majority of votes cast within applicable local government units. A runoff election is held if no candidate achieves a majority in the first round of voting. Members of county, city, and municipal councils are elected to four-year terms through proportional representation; the entire local government unit forms a single constituency. The number of council members is defined by the councils themselves based on applicable legislation. Electoral committees are then tasked with determining whether the national minorities are represented in the council as required by the constitution. If the minorities are not represented, further members, who belong to the minorities and who have not been elected through the proportional representation system, are selected from electoral candidate lists and added to the council. ### Latest presidential election ### Latest parliamentary election ## Judiciary Croatia has a three-tiered, independent judicial system governed by the constitution and national legislation enacted by the Sabor. The Supreme Court (Croatian: Vrhovni sud) is the highest court of appeal in Croatia; its hearings are open and judgments are made publicly, except in cases where the privacy of the accused is to be protected. Judges are appointed by the National Judicial Council and judicial office is permanent until seventy years of age. The president of the Supreme Court is elected for a four-year term by the Croatian Parliament at the proposal of the President of the Republic. As of 2017, the president of the Supreme Court is Đuro Sessa. The Supreme Court has civil and criminal departments. The lower two levels of the three-tiered judiciary consist of county courts and municipal courts. There are fifteen county courts and sixty-seven municipal courts in the country. There are other specialised courts in Croatia; commercial courts and the Superior Commercial Court, misdemeanour courts that try trivial offences such as traffic violations, the Superior Misdemeanour Court, the Administrative Court and the Croatian Constitutional Court (Croatian: Ustavni sud). The Constitutional Court rules on matters regarding compliance of legislation with the constitution, repeals unconstitutional legislation, reports any breaches of provisions of the constitution to the government and the parliament, declares the speaker of the parliament acting president upon petition from the government in the event the country's president becomes incapacitated, issues consent for commencement of criminal procedures against or arrest of the president, and hears appeals against decisions of the National Judicial Council. The court consists of thirteen judges elected by members of the parliament for an eight-year term. The president of the Constitutional Court is elected by the court judges for a four-year term. As of June 2012, the president of the Constitutional Court is Jasna Omejec. The National Judicial Council (Croatian: Državno Sudbeno Vijeće) consists of eleven members, specifically seven judges, two university professors of law and two parliament members, nominated and elected by the Parliament for four-year terms, and may serve no more than two terms. It appoints all judges and court presidents, except in case of the Supreme Court. As of January 2015, the president of the National Judicial Council is Ranko Marijan, who is also a Supreme Court judge. The State Attorney's Office represents the state in legal procedures. As of April 2018, Dražen Jelenić is the General State Attorney, and there are twenty-three deputies in the central office and lower-ranking State Attorneys at fifteen county and thirty-three municipal State Attorney's Offices. The General State Attorney is appointed by the parliament. A special State Attorney's Office dedicated to combatting corruption and organised crime, USKOK, was set up in late 2001. ## Local government Croatia was first subdivided into counties (Croatian: županija) in the Middle Ages. The divisions changed over time to reflect losses of territory to Ottoman conquest and the subsequent recapture of the same territory, and changes to the political status of Dalmatia, Dubrovnik and Istria. The traditional division of the country into counties was abolished in the 1920s, when the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes and the subsequent Kingdom of Yugoslavia introduced oblasts and banovinas respectively. After 1945 under Communist rule, Croatia, as a constituent part of Yugoslavia, abolished these earlier divisions and introduced municipalities, subdividing Croatia into approximately one hundred municipalities. Counties, significantly altered in terms of territory relative to the pre-1920s subdivisions, were reintroduced in 1992 legislation. In 1918, the Transleithanian part of Croatia was divided into eight counties with their seats in Bjelovar, Gospić, Ogulin, Požega, Vukovar, Varaždin, Osijek and Zagreb; the 1992 legislation established fifteen counties in the same territory. Since the counties were re-established in 1992, Croatia is divided into twenty counties and the capital city of Zagreb, the latter having the authority and legal status of a county and a city at the same time. In some instances, the boundaries of the counties have been changed, with the latest revision taking place in 2006. The counties subdivide into 128 cities and 428 municipalities. The county prefects, city and municipal mayors are elected to four-year terms by a majority of votes cast within applicable local government units. If no candidate achieves a majority in the first round, a runoff election is held. Members of county, city and municipal councils are elected to four-year terms, through proportional representation with the entire local government unit as a single constituency. The number of members of the councils is defined by the councils themselves, based on applicable legislation. Electoral committees are then tasked with determining whether the national ethnic minorities are represented on the council as required by the constitution. Further members who belong to the minorities may be added to the council in no candidate of that minority has been elected through the proportional representation system. Election silence, as in all other types of elections in Croatia, when campaigning is forbidden, is enforced the day before the election and continues until 19:00 hours on the election day when the polling stations close and exit polls may be announced. Eight nationwide local elections have been held in Croatia since 1990, the most recent being the 2017 local elections to elect county prefects and councils, and city and municipal councils and mayors. In 2017, the HDZ-led coalitions won a majority or plurality in fifteen county councils and thirteen county prefect elections. SDP-led coalitions won a majority or plurality in five county councils, including the city of Zagreb council, and the remaining county council election was won by IDS-SDP coalition. The SDP won two county prefect elections, the city of Zagreb mayoral election, the HSS and the HNS won a single county prefect election each. ## History ### Within Austria-Hungary Events of 1848 in Europe and the Austrian Empire brought dramatic changes to Croatian society and politics, provoking the Croatian national revival that strongly influenced and significantly shaped political and social events in Croatia. At the time, the Sabor and Ban Josip Jelačić advocated the severance of ties with the Kingdom of Hungary, emphasising links to other South Slavic lands within the empire. Several prominent Croatian political figures emerged, such as Ante Starčević, Eugen Kvaternik, Franjo Rački and Josip Juraj Strossmayer. A period of neo-absolutism was followed by the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867 and the Croatian–Hungarian Settlement, which granted limited independence to Croatia. This was compounded by Croatian claims of uninterrupted statehood since the early Middle Ages as a basis for a modern state. Two political parties that evolved in the 1860s and contributed significantly to the sentiment were the Party of Rights, led by Starčević and Kvaternik, and the People's Party, led by Janko Drašković, Ivan Kukuljević Sakcinski, Josip Juraj Strossmayer and Ivan Mažuranić. They were opposed by the National Constitutional Party, which was in power for most of the period between the 1860s and the 1918, and advocated closer ties between Croatia and Hungary. Other significant parties formed in the era were the Serb People's Independent Party, which later formed the Croat-Serb Coalition with the Party of Rights and other Croat and Serb parties. The Coalition ruled Croatia between 1903 and 1918. The leaders of the Coalition were Frano Supilo and Svetozar Pribićević. The Croatian Peasant Party (HSS), established in 1904 and led by Stjepan Radić, advocated Croatian autonomy but achieved only moderate gains by 1918. In Dalmatia, the two major parties were the People's Party – a branch of the People's Party active in Croatia-Slavonia – and the Autonomist Party, advocating maintaining autonomy of Dalmatia, opposite to the People's Party demands for unification of Croatia-Slavonia and Dalmatia. The Autonomist Party, most notably led by Antonio Bajamonti, was also linked to Italian irredentism. By 1900, the Party of Rights had made considerable gains in Dalmatia. The Autonomists won the first three elections, but all elections since 1870 were won by the People's Party. In the period 1861–1918 there were seventeen elections in the Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia and ten in the Kingdom of Dalmatia. ### First and Second Yugoslavia After the establishment of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, the HSS established itself as the most popular Croatian political party and was very popular despite efforts to ban it. The 1921 constitution defined the kingdom as a unitary state and abolished the historical administrative divisions, which effectively ended Croatian autonomy; the constitution was opposed by HSS. The political situation deteriorated further as Stjepan Radić of the HSS was assassinated in the Yugoslav Parliament in 1928, leading to the dictatorship of King Alexander in January 1929. The HSS, now led by Vladko Maček, continued to advocate the federalisation of Yugoslavia, resulting in the Cvetković–Maček Agreement of August 1939 and the autonomous Banovina of Croatia. The Yugoslav government retained control of defence, internal security, foreign affairs, trade, and transport while other matters were left to the Croatian Sabor and a crown-appointed Ban. This arrangement was soon made obsolete with the beginning of World War II, when the Independent State of Croatia, which banned all political opposition, was established. Since then, the HSS continues to operate abroad. In the 1945 election, the Communists were unopposed because the other parties abstained. Once in power, the Communists introduced a single-party political system, in which the Communist Party of Yugoslavia was the ruling party and the Communist Party of Croatia was its branch. In 1971, the Croatian national movement, which sought greater civil rights and the decentralisation of the Yugoslav economy, culminated in the Croatian Spring, which was suppressed by the Yugoslav leadership. In January 1990, the Communist Party fragmented along national lines; the Croatian faction demanded a looser federation. ### Modern Croatia In 1989, the government of the Socialist Republic of Croatia decided to tolerate political parties in response to growing demands to allow political activities outside the Communist party. The first political party founded in Croatia since the beginning of the Communist rule was the Croatian Social Liberal Party (HSLS), established on 20 May 1989, followed by the Croatian Democratic Union on 17 June 1989. In December 1989, Ivica Račan became the head of the reformed Communist party. At the same time, the party cancelled political trials, released political prisoners and endorsed a multi-party political system. The Civil Organisations Act was formally amended to allow political parties on 11 January 1990, legalising the parties that were already founded. By the time of the first round of the first multi-party elections, held on 22 April 1990, there were 33 registered parties. The most relevant parties and coalitions were the League of Communists of Croatia – Party of Democratic Changes (the renamed Communist party), the Croatian Democratic Union (HDZ), and the Coalition of People's Accord (KNS), which included the HSLS led by Dražen Budiša, and the HSS, which resumed operating in Croatia in December 1989. The runoff election was held on 6 May 1990. The HDZ, led by Franjo Tuđman, won ahead of the reformed Communists and the KNS. The KNS, led by Savka Dabčević-Kučar and Miko Tripalo – who had led the Croatian Spring – soon splintered into individual parties. The HDZ maintained a parliamentary majority until the 2000 parliamentary election, when it was defeated by the Social Democratic Party of Croatia (SDP), led by Račan. Franjo Gregurić, of the HDZ, was appointed prime minister to head a national unity government in July 1991 as the Croatian War of Independence escalated in intensity. His appointment lasted until August 1992. During his term, Croatia's declaration of independence from Yugoslavia took effect on 8 October 1991. The HDZ returned to power in the 2003 parliamentary election, while the SDP remained the largest opposition party. Franjo Tuđman won the presidential elections in 1992 and 1997. During his terms, the Constitution of Croatia, adopted in 1990, provided for a semi-presidential system. After Tuđman's death in 1999, the constitution was amended and much of the presidential powers were transferred to the parliament and the government. Stjepan Mesić won two consecutive terms in 2000 and 2005 on a Croatian People's Party (HNS) ticket. Ivo Josipović, an SDP candidate, won the presidential elections in December 2009 and January 2010. Kolinda Grabar-Kitarović defeated Josipović in the January 2015 election run-off, becoming the first female president of Croatia. In January 2020, former prime minister Zoran Milanovic of the Social Democrats (SDP) won the presidential election. He defeated center-right incumbent Kolinda Grabar-Kitarovic of the ruling Croatian Democratic Union (HDZ) in the second round of the election. In July 2020, the ruling right-wing HDZ won the parliamentary election. Since 2016 ruled HDZ-led coalition of prime minister Andrej Plenković continued to govern. ## See also - List of political parties in Croatia - Foreign relations of Croatia - Left-wing politics in Croatia - Far-right politics in Croatia
8,802,657	Gethsemane (The X-Files)	1,163,669,487	null	[ "1997 American television episodes", "Television episodes set in Virginia", "Television episodes set in Yukon", "Television episodes written by Chris Carter (screenwriter)", "The X-Files (season 4) episodes" ]	"Gethsemane" is the twenty-fourth and final episode of the fourth season of the American science fiction television series The X-Files. It premiered on the Fox network on May 18, 1997. It was directed by R.W. Goodwin, and written by series creator Chris Carter. "Gethsemane" featured guest appearances by Charles Cioffi, Sheila Larken and Pat Skipper, and introduced John Finn as recurring character Michael Kritschgau. The episode helped to explore the overarching mythology, or fictional history of The X-Files. "Gethsemane" earned a Nielsen household rating of 13.2, being watched by 19.85 million people in its initial broadcast. The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder (David Duchovny) and Dana Scully (Gillian Anderson) who work on cases linked to the paranormal, called X-Files. In the episode, Mulder is shown evidence of alien life which may actually be part of a huge government hoax designed to deflect attention from secret military programs. Meanwhile, Scully struggles with her cancer in the face of hostility from her brother, who believes she should no longer be working. "Gethsemane" was filmed on one of the series' most elaborate and costly sets, replicating an icy mountaintop inside a refrigerated building using real snow and ice. Shooting for exterior scenes took place on Vancouver's Mount Seymour, occurring just a week before Duchovny's wedding. The episode, which has been described by Carter as pondering "the existence of God", has received mixed responses from critics, with its cliffhanger ending frequently being cited as its main failing. ## Plot The episode opens in medias res to police investigating a dead body in the apartment of FBI agent Fox Mulder (David Duchovny). Dana Scully (Gillian Anderson) confirms the unseen body's identity and leaves. She subsequently appears before an FBI panel led by Section Chief Scott Blevins (Charles Cioffi), reviewing her work with Mulder on the X-Files. In Canada's St. Elias Mountains, a frozen extraterrestrial body is discovered by an expedition team. Professor Arlinsky, the team's leader, sends ice core samples containing presumably alien DNA to Mulder. Scully has the samples tested and confirms the DNA's non-terrestrial origin, but is attacked by a man who steals the samples. Scully learns that her attacker is Michael Kritschgau (John Finn), a Defense Department employee. When she tracks down Kritschgau and holds him at gunpoint, he reveals that he might be killed. Meanwhile, Arlinsky returns to the mountains with Mulder, but they find that most of the expedition members have been shot dead. The sole survivor is a man named Babcock, who reveals that he has saved the alien corpse from theft by burying it. Together, the three men bring the corpse to the United States. There, Mulder and Arlinsky perform an autopsy on the corpse, believing it belongs to a genuine extraterrestrial. After Mulder leaves to meet with Scully, a mysterious assassin, Scott Ostelhoff, arrives and kills Arlinsky and Babcock. Scully introduces Mulder to Kritschgau, who claims that everything Mulder thinks he knows about aliens is a lie. He tells him that his sister's abduction was fabricated, that all evidence of alien biology are merely scientific anomalies, and that the alien body he has just examined was fake. Kritschgau claims that the entire alien mythos is a hoax perpetrated by the U.S. government as a cover for the activities of the military–industrial complex. Mulder dismisses these claims. Mulder finds Arlinsky and Babcock dead, with the alien body missing. Scully tells him Kritschgau told her that she was given cancer to make him believe. Mulder, distraught, sits in his apartment watching a conference about extraterrestrial life on television. The narrative returns to the present, where Scully reveals to the panel that Mulder died the previous night of an apparent self-inflicted gunshot wound to the head. ## Production The icy caverns featured in the episode were constructed inside a warehouse which had previously been used for cold storage, and required the use of truckloads of lumber and 10,000 square feet (930 m<sup>2</sup>) of Styrofoam. The set would become one of the most expensive and elaborate built during the series' history. The set required a constant temperature of −21 °F (−29 °C) in order to maintain the real snow and ice used to decorate it. This refrigeration allowed the actors' breath to visibly fog up, and allowed the cast to "have a place that feels real" to aid their acting. The outdoor scenes were filmed around Vancouver's Mount Seymour, with weather conditions making shooting difficult enough to require an extra day of work. The episode's production took place just a week before David Duchovny's wedding, with his fiancée Téa Leoni visiting the set during filming. The first cut of the episode was twelve minutes too long, resulting in some of the scenes in the mountains being removed. Series creator Chris Carter re-edited the entire episode two days before it aired. Carter has described "Gethsemane" as a "big ideas episode", noting that its main concern is debating "the existence of God". The title of the episode is an allusion to the biblical garden of Gethsemane where Jesus was betrayed by Judas Iscariot. The character Michael Kritschgau was named after a former drama teacher of Gillian Anderson. The tagline for this episode is "Believe the lie", changed from the usual "The truth is out there". This episode marks the first appearance of one of Scully's brothers since a flashback in the season two episode "One Breath". Section Chief Scott Blevins makes his first appearance since the fourth episode of the first season, "Conduit". ## Reception ### Ratings "Gethsemane" premiered on the Fox network on May 18, 1997, and was first broadcast in the United Kingdom on Sky One on July 13, 1997, and on free to air BBC One on March 4, 1998. The episode earned a Nielsen household rating of 12.7 with a 19 share, meaning that roughly 12.7 percent of all television-equipped households, and 19 percent of households watching television, were tuned in to the episode. A total of 19.85 million viewers watched this episode during its original airing. ### Reviews "Gethsemane" received mixed to positive reviews from critics. Lon Grahnke of Chicago Sun-Times reacted positively toward the episode, calling it a "stunning" season finale. Paula Vitaris, writing for Cinefantastique, rated "Gethsemane" two stars out of four, noting that it "withholds so much information that it barely qualifies as a complete episode". Vitaris felt that the large degree of ambiguity in the episode's script left the actors' performances "curiously neutral", adding that the cast "struggle manfully" with the material. Writing for The A.V. Club, Zack Handlen rated the episode a B+, noting that "everything here has a ring of familiarity to it". Handlen felt that the episode's premise and ending were poorly executed, as "trying to balance possible truths while maintaining the plausibility of both is incredibly difficult to pull off on a long-running show", adding that the episode "comes down on the only side of the fence it really could" given that "there've been too many scenes of shape-changing bounty hunters and mystical alien healers to really let this idea play out know [sic] in any real way". Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson, in their book Wanting to Believe: A Critical Guide to The X-Files, Millennium & The Lone Gunmen, rated the episode four stars out of five, noting that while it "attempts to do too much", it "has a passion behind it which makes it gripping". Shearman and Pearson felt that the episode's cliffhanger ending, centering on the apparent death of Mulder, was too unbelievable, noting that it would be out of character for him to grow so disillusioned as to take his own life. In the 1999 FX Thanksgiving Marathon, containing fan-selected episodes, "Gethsemane" (along with "Redux" and "Redux II") was presented as the "Best Mythology Episode". The episode created speculation about whether or not Mulder was actually dead. An article in the Wall Street Journal discussed fan theories behind Mulder's madness while a cartoon ran in The New Yorker a few weeks later surrounding Mulder's "death". Series creator Chris Carter noted that "the whole plot line of 'Gethsemane' revolved around a hoax, but there are actually huge revelations in this show. And it's an amazing thing that we could get people to believe that Mulder could actually kill himself because his belief system was stolen from him". UGO Networks listed the episode at number 21 in a countdown of "TV's Best Season Finales", noting that it "rocked the core of the series' entire mythology". Den of Geek's John Moore felt that the episode was "one of the finest season-enders" of the series, noting that it "ended by completely pulling the carpet out from under the fans". Moore listed the character of Michael Kritschgau as the seventh-best villain of the series, adding that he shook "what we knew about the show to its core" by "provid[ing] nourishment to a seed of doubt that had been playing on Mulder's mind for the entire season".
15,383,888	How the Ghosts Stole Christmas	1,170,113,945	null	[ "1998 American television episodes", "American Christmas television episodes", "Television episodes about ghosts", "Television episodes directed by Chris Carter (screenwriter)", "Television episodes set in Maryland", "Television episodes written by Chris Carter (screenwriter)", "The X-Files (season 6) episodes" ]	"How the Ghosts Stole Christmas" is the sixth episode of the sixth season of the science fiction television series The X-Files. It premiered on the Fox network on December 13, 1998. It was written and directed by series creator Chris Carter, and featured guest appearances by Edward Asner and Lily Tomlin. The episode is a "Monster-of-the-Week" story, unconnected to the series' wider mythology. "How the Ghosts Stole Christmas" earned a Nielsen household rating of 10.6, being watched by 17.3 million people in its initial broadcast. The episode received mostly positive reviews from critics, although some reviews criticized the episode for over-simplifying the characters. The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder (David Duchovny) and Dana Scully (Gillian Anderson) who work on cases linked to the paranormal, called X-Files. Mulder is a believer in the paranormal, while the skeptical Scully has been assigned to debunk his work. In this Christmas-themed episode, Mulder and Scully stake out a reputed haunted house. The duo soon discover a pair of lovelorn spectres living inside the house who are determined to prove how lonely the holidays can be. Carter based the episode around an idea he and fellow writer Frank Spotnitz had been working on, set in a haunted house. Featuring the smallest cast of an X-Files episode—with only four actors—and a single set, "How the Ghosts Stole Christmas" was the cheapest sixth season episode. The drastic reduction in the budget, however, put more strain on the main actors. ## Plot Dana Scully (Gillian Anderson) reluctantly responds to Fox Mulder's (David Duchovny) call on Christmas Eve to investigate a haunted house in Maryland. He explains that during Christmas of 1917, a young couple living in the house agreed to a lovers' pact, one killing the other and the remaining one committing suicide. He explains that they could not stand the thought of being alone after the other died and during the afterlife; they wanted to spend all eternity together. Now, Mulder claims, they haunt the house every Christmas Eve. Scully, who doesn't want to abandon her Christmas plans, follows Mulder into the house to retrieve her car keys from him, and the door to the mansion slams shut. Inside the house, the agents experience strange phenomena: creaks are heard in the ceiling from the upper floor, and the shadow in the form of an old woman in a nightgown is seen, among other occurrences. Mulder and Scully reluctantly decide to investigate the floor above them. There, they find a massive library storing two corpses that have the same clothes and hairstyles as the agents, along with two gunshot wounds. They decide to go search other rooms, only to find that every door they walk through is the same library room they first entered. They then decide to split up, hoping to find a way out of the room. While separated, they meet the inhabitants of the mansion—Maurice (Ed Asner) and Lyda (Lily Tomlin). The ghosts soon turn the agents against each other. Scully is told that Mulder will kill her. Scully meets back up with Mulder, only for him to pull out a gun and shoot her. Scully, completely confused, loses consciousness, and the perspective shifts. It is revealed that Lyda is actually the one carrying out these actions and, through her ghostly ability to create apparitions, causes Scully to see Mulder instead. Meanwhile, Mulder comes upon a bleeding Scully lying on the floor. When he leans over her to try to help her, she shoots Mulder in the stomach. Again, the audience sees that it is Lyda pretending to be Scully, manipulating Mulder. Both Mulder and Scully stumble down the stairs in hope of just getting outside to die. They meet up by the door, both crawling on the floor, covered in massive amounts of blood. Scully claims he shot her, while Mulder claims she shot him. Mulder realizes that that could not have happened and stands up. The illusion is broken, and the two leave the house. Maurice and Lyda sit by the fire, holding hands, saying that they almost had the two agents. Meanwhile, at Mulder's apartment, Mulder and Scully exchange gifts, even though they told each other they would not. ## Production ### Conception and writing Writer, director, and series creator Chris Carter based "How the Ghosts Stole Christmas" around a story idea he and fellow writer and executive producer Frank Spotnitz had been working on about a haunted house. The only scene that the two had really developed was what would become the climax of the episode: Mulder and Scully pulling themselves across the floor, bleeding profusely. Carter also wanted to keep all the action on a single set, which led to production designer Corey Kaplan proposing that they base it in Scully's apartment—a set that the crew had not used for a while. However, Carter, wanting to keep the haunted house motif, decided to set the episode in a haunted house and asked Kaplan to design a mansion set that was "bleak, but not too bleak [...] decrepit, but not too decrepit," and "deserted, but not too deserted". ### Casting and filming "How the Ghosts Stole Christmas" featured the smallest cast of any X-Files episode, with only Duchovny, Anderson, and the two guest stars interacting. Lily Tomlin, who played the part of Lyda, had originally approached The X-Files producers several seasons prior and asked to be cast in an episode. Carter agreed to meet her and the two discussed possible ideas for future episodes. Several years later, Carter decided to write "How the Ghosts Stole Christmas" largely as a vehicle for her. Originally, Carter wanted Bob Newhart to play the part of Maurice. However, Newhart was not interested, and so the production team approached Ed Asner, who readily agreed. The production for the episode was bare-bones, making use of only a few sets. Because of this, "How the Ghosts Stole Christmas" was the cheapest sixth season episode; however, the reduction in the budget made writing and directing the episode a challenge, as Carter was forced to work within tighter production constraints. The outside scenes were filmed in front of the Piru Mansion in Piru, California, where the sixth season episode "The Rain King" was filmed. The day before filming at the mansion was slated to begin, a fire erupted behind the building. Luckily, after an hour local firemen were able to bring the blaze under control by digging a fire break, with the fire stopping a mere 300 feet from the house. ### Effects and music Special effects editor Bill Millar was tasked with designing the "bloodless bullet holes" that Scully, and later Mulder, discover on Maurice and Lyda. To create this effect, Millar attached fluorescent cloth to the places that would become the bullet wounds. An ultraviolet light was then added to the set lighting, "invisibly reflect[ing]" the ultraviolet light, which Millar used as tracking data. The cloth was then removed during post-production and computer-generated bullet wounds were pasted in their place. Millar admits that the technique was borrowed from the 1992 movie Death Becomes Her, although he sarcastically admitted that, "we did it better and with less money." Anderson was later critical of the fake blood used for the episode because the sheer quantity quickly coagulated and formed a "gummy mess". Mark Snow, the composer for the episode, admitted to "ripping off" Joseph Haydn's "Toy" Symphony to create the eerie Baroque-inspired harpsichord score. Snow also admits that another major influence for the episode was Johnny Mandel's "brilliant" score for the film Deathtrap (1982). ## Broadcast and reception "How the Ghosts Stole Christmas" first aired in the United States on December 13, 1998. This episode earned a Nielsen rating of 10.6, with a 16 share, meaning that roughly 10.6 percent of all television-equipped households, and 16 percent of households watching television, were tuned in to the episode. It was viewed by 17.30 million viewers. The episode aired in the United Kingdom and Ireland on Sky1 on April 11, 1999 and received 0.70 million viewers and was the fourth most watched episode that week. Fox promoted the episode with the tagline "This holiday season... share the gift of terror." Corey Kaplan later won an award of excellence from the Society of Motion Picture and Television Art Directors for his work on "How the Ghosts Stole Christmas." The episode received mostly positive reviews from critics, with some detractors. Sight on Sound called the episode "one of the best Christmas episodes of any series." The review called “How the Ghosts Stole Christmas,” "an extremely creative, arguably bitter Holiday treat, perfect for [Christmas] with its blend of horror, comedy and hints of romance." Static Mass writer Patrick Samuel awarded the episode five stars and said, "As [Mulder and Scully] gleefully unwrap their presents at the end, this episode is something that really makes my own Christmases feel that little bit more complete." Den of Geek writer Juliette Harrisson, in a review of "Monday," said, "Season six included some more excellent episodes [and] classic comedy episodes including, "How The Ghosts Stole Christmas." DVD.net called "How the Ghosts Stole Christmas" a "classic" standalone episode. SFX named the episode the sixth best "SF [Sci-Fi] & Fantasy Christmas Episodes" and noted that it was full of "classic lines, some neat tricks". Zack Handlen from The A.V. Club gave the episode a largely positive review and awarded it a grade of an A. He noted that the episode was written in a similar manner to the earlier, Carter-penned "The Post-Modern Prometheus". Handlen wrote that both entries "have a gleeful, everybody-gets-out-okay-in-the-end vibe". He, however, concluded that the "episode lives and dies on the strength of its two guest stars" before writing that "Asner and Tomlin are more than up to the task." Earl Cressey from DVD Talk called "How the Ghosts Stole Christmas" one of the "highlights of season six." Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson, in their book Wanting to Believe: A Critical Guide to The X-Files, Millennium & The Lone Gunmen, rated the episode five stars out of five. Tom Kessenich, in his book Examination: An Unauthorized Look at Seasons 6–9 of the X-Files gave the episode more of a mixed to positive review, noting the lack of darkness in the episode. He wrote, "OK, I liked a lot of this episode. [...] But while I've enjoyed the sheer entertainment value of the past three shows, I really am longing for something a bit sinister and darker." Not all reviews were so positive. Paula Vitaris from Cinefantastique gave the episode a largely negative review and awarded it one-and-a-half stars out of four. Vitaris was unhappy with the way Maurice and Lyda were characterized, noting that their method of trying to get Mulder and Scully to kill each other resulted in "endless psychobabble dialogue". Michigan Daily writer Melissa Runstrom, in a review of the sixth season, described "How the Ghosts Stole Christmas" as "hokey" and "over-the-top." She identified it as the weakest episode of the sixth season.
47,878,043	Cliché (Hush Hush) (song)	1,153,285,771	null	[ "2012 songs", "Alexandra Stan songs", "Blanco y Negro Records singles", "Dance-pop songs", "English-language Romanian songs", "Romanian songs" ]	"Cliché (Hush Hush)" is a song recorded by Romanian recording artist Alexandra Stan for her Japan-only reissue of the same name (2013). Written and produced by Marcel Prodan and Andrei Nemirschi, it was first released for digital download on 3 October 2012 in Romania through MediaPro. Described as a dance-pop track that features eurodance elements into its sound, "Cliché (Hush Hush)" discusses different themes of love. An accompanying music video for the single was posted onto YouTube on 27 September 2012, being filmed by Iulian Moga at Palatul Snagov. It was generally praised by music critics, with Los 40 Principales citing it under their list of Stan's best clips. Particularly, a scene of the video was compared to vampire movies for teenagers, while another one to 1970s film works. The track peaked at number 91 in native Romania, as well as at numbers 11 and 28 in Japan and Italy, respectively. It was promoted by several live performances, including a tour throughout the United States and an appearance at French music event Starlooor 2012. ## Composition and reception According to Romanian sources, "Cliché (Hush Hush)" is a "dynamic" dance-pop track that incorporates influences of Eurodance into its sound; its lyrics speak about love. About the message of the song, Stan confessed that it "shows love in different ways and portrays as well relationships between obvious couples, which fall into a certain pattern. Love can transform everyone and everything in the most wonderful and important thing in the universe". Alvaro from Spanish music website Popelera pointed out major differences between the dance style of the track and that of its predecessor, "Lemonade" (2012), while Mia, writing for Romanian portal Info Music, drew comparisons with the Pussycat Dolls' single "Hush Hush; Hush Hush" (2009). Kevin Apaza of Direct Lyrics implied that Stan "[stepped] away from her 'signature' (very saxobeat) sound to test other 'dance' waters", and wrote that the song "ain't very catchy but [he likes] the pre and the main chorus. Plus, the song is super remixable, [he] can already imagine fist-pumping new versions." ## Music video An accompanying music video for the song was uploaded onto the YouTube channel of Stan's label, Maan Studio, on 27 September 2012, after teasing it on 19 September. The clip was filmed by Iulian Moga at Palatul Snagov It commences with Stan entering a party hall in sepia while being pictured by a photographer. Following her flirting with the man, she leaves the room and the video introduces to pool-party in normal color, where Stan dances along with fellow background dancers sporting a pink outfit. Next, the singer is shown in a dark hall, sitting on an old-fashioned couch. Following this, Stan is portrayed in a church, with her body and face being covered by a red robe; fellow black-clothed people surround her. Subsequently, scenes with the singer and her love interest from a hotel room are shown, after which the clip ends with the people from the church scene getting out of disguise and running through the hall in white lingerie, followed by Stan dancing around a fire after letting candles falling down at a date with her boyfriend. Alexandra Necula, writing for music website Info Music, compared the opening scene of the video to 1970s films, while stating that some parts of the clip did not match with the song's message. She went on to compare the church scene to vampire films for teenagers; Necula stated that one of the outfits sported by Stan were inspired by S&M fetish. Apaza from Direct Lyrics stated that "her clip is like a mix of Paulina Rubio, Twilight and J.Lo's 'Dance Again' (the orgy scenes)." Showbiz.ro felt that the "80s vibe of the video coincided with the melodic line". Los 40 Principales cited the video as one of Stan's best clips ever. ## Live performances To promote "Cliché (Hush Hush)", Stan embarked on a tour in the United States. She also provided live performances of the song throughout her concert tours that promoted the Japan-only reissue. Furthermore, Stan sang the song in a medley with "Mr. Saxobeat", "Get Back (ASAP)" and "Lemonade" at French event Starfloor 2012. ## Track listing - Italian remixes EP 1. "Cliché (Hush Hush)" (Raf Marchesini Remix) – 3:35 2. "Cliché (Hush Hush)" (Raf Marchesini Remix Edit) – 6:15 3. "Cliché (Hush Hush)" (Da Brozz Remix) – 3:51 4. "Cliché (Hush Hush)" (Da Brozz Remix Edit) – 5:32 - Romanian digital download 1. "Cliché (Hush Hush)" – 3:23 - Italian digital download 1. "Cliché (Hush Hush)" (Radio Edit) – 3:23 2. "Cliché (Hush Hush)" (Maan Extended Version) – 4:25 - Italian digital download (acoustic version) 1. "Cliché (Hush Hush)" (Acoustic Version) – 3:22 ## Credits and personnel Credits adapted from the liner notes of Cliché (Hush Hush) and The Collection. - Alexandra Stan – lead vocals - Iulian Moga – director - Andrei Nemirschi – songwriter, producer, photography - Maan Studio – recording studio - Marcel Prodan – songwriter, producer - Iliaro Drago – artists and repertoire ## Charts ## Release history
6,446,061	Live and Let Die (film)	1,171,221,364	1973 James Bond film by Guy Hamilton	[ "1970s British films", "1970s English-language films", "1970s action thriller films", "1970s spy films", "1973 films", "Blaxploitation films", "British sequel films", "Eon Productions films", "Films about Voodoo", "Films about the illegal drug trade", "Films about virginity", "Films based on British novels", "Films directed by Guy Hamilton", "Films produced by Albert R. Broccoli", "Films produced by Harry Saltzman", "Films scored by George Martin", "Films set in Harlem", "Films set in New Orleans", "Films set in New York City", "Films set in a fictional country", "Films set in the Caribbean", "Films set on fictional islands", "Films shot at Pinewood Studios", "Films shot in Jamaica", "Films shot in New Orleans", "Films shot in New York City", "Films with screenplays by Tom Mankiewicz", "James Bond films", "Live and Let Die (film)", "United Artists films" ]	Live and Let Die is a 1973 spy film. It is the eighth film in the James Bond series produced by Eon Productions, and the first to star Roger Moore as the fictional MI6 agent James Bond. It was directed by Guy Hamilton and produced by Albert R. Broccoli and Harry Saltzman, while Tom Mankiewicz wrote the script. Although the producers had approached Sean Connery to return after Diamonds Are Forever (1971), he declined and a search for a new actor led to Moore being signed. The film is based on Ian Fleming's 1954 novel of the same name. The storyline involves a Harlem drug lord known as Mr. Big who plans to distribute two tons of heroin for free to put rival drug barons out of business and then become a monopoly supplier. Mr. Big is revealed to be the alter ego of Dr. Kananga, a corrupt Caribbean dictator, who rules San Monique, a fictional island where opium poppies are secretly farmed. Bond is investigating the deaths of three British agents, leading him to Kananga, and he is soon trapped in a world of gangsters and voodoo as he fights to put a stop to the drug baron's scheme. Live and Let Die was released during the height of the blaxploitation era, and many blaxploitation archetypes and clichés are depicted in the film, including derogatory racial epithets ("honky"), black gangsters, and pimpmobiles. It departs from the former plots of the James Bond films about megalomaniac super-villains, and instead focuses on drug trafficking, a common theme of blaxploitation films of the period. It is set in African-American cultural centres such as Harlem and New Orleans, as well as the Caribbean Islands. It was also the first James Bond film featuring an African-American Bond girl romantically involved with 007, Rosie Carver, who was played by Gloria Hendry. The film was a box-office success and received generally positive reviews from critics. Its title song, written by Paul and Linda McCartney and performed by their band Wings, was also nominated for the Academy Award for Best Original Song. ## Plot Three MI6 agents are killed under mysterious circumstances within 24 hours in the United Nations headquarters in New York City, in New Orleans, and the small Caribbean nation of San Monique, while monitoring the operations of the island's dictator, Dr. Kananga. James Bond, Agent 007, is sent to New York to investigate. Kananga is also in New York, visiting the United Nations. After Bond arrives, his driver is shot dead by Whisper, one of Kananga's men, while taking Bond to Felix Leiter of the CIA. Bond is nearly killed in the ensuing car crash. The killer's licence plate leads Bond to Harlem where he meets Mr. Big, a mob boss who runs a chain of restaurants throughout the United States, but Bond and the CIA do not understand why the most powerful black gangster in New York works with an unimportant island's leader. Bond meets Solitaire, a beautiful tarot reader who has the power of the Obeah and can see both the future and remote events in the present. Mr. Big demands that his henchmen kill Bond, but Bond overpowers them and escapes with the help of CIA agent Strutter. Bond flies to San Monique, where he meets Rosie Carver, a local CIA agent. They meet up with Bond's ally, Quarrel Jr., who takes them by boat near Solitaire's home. When Bond suspects Rosie of being a double agent for Kananga, Rosie tries to escape but is killed remotely by Kananga. Bond then uses a stacked deck of tarot cards that show only "The Lovers" to trick Solitaire into thinking that fate is meant for them; Bond then seduces her. Having lost her virginity and thus her ability to foretell the future, Solitaire realizes she would be killed by Kananga, so she agrees to cooperate with Bond. Bond and Solitaire escape by boat and fly to New Orleans. There, Bond is captured by Mr. Big, who removes his prosthetic face and reveals himself to be Kananga. He has been producing heroin and is protecting the poppy fields by exploiting the San Monique locals' fear of voodoo priest Baron Samedi, as well as the occult. As Mr. Big, Kananga plans to distribute the heroin free of charge at his restaurants, which will increase the number of addicts. He intends to bankrupt other drug dealers with his giveaway, then charge high prices for his heroin later in order to capitalise on the huge drug dependencies he has cultivated. Angry at Solitaire for having sex with Bond and losing her ability to read tarot cards, Kananga turns her over to Baron Samedi to be sacrificed. Kananga's henchmen, one-armed Tee Hee and tweed-jacketed Adam, leave Bond to be eaten by crocodilians at his farm in the Deep South backwoods. Bond escapes by running along the animals' backs to safety. After setting the drug laboratory on fire, he steals a speedboat and escapes, pursued by Kananga's men under Adam's order, as well as Sheriff J.W. Pepper and the Louisiana State Police. Most pursuers get wrecked or left behind, and Adam is killed in a boat crash by Bond. Bond travels to San Monique and with the help of Quarrel Jr. sets timed explosives throughout the poppy fields. He rescues Solitaire from the voodoo sacrifice and throws Samedi into a coffin of venomous snakes. Bond and Solitaire escape below ground into Kananga's lair. Kananga captures them both and proceeds to lower them into a shark tank. However, Bond escapes and forces Kananga to swallow a compressed-gas pellet used in shark guns, causing his body to inflate and explode. Leiter puts Bond and Solitaire on a train leaving the country. Tee Hee sneaks aboard and attempts to kill Bond, but Bond cuts the wires of his prosthetic arm and throws him out the window. As the film ends, a laughing Samedi is revealed to be perching at the front of the train. ## Cast - Roger Moore as James Bond – 007, a British MI6 agent who is sent on a mission to investigate the murder of three fellow agents. - Yaphet Kotto as Dr. Kananga / Mr. Big, a corrupt Caribbean Prime Minister who doubles as a drug lord. - Jane Seymour as Solitaire, Kananga's psychic and Bond's love interest. - Clifton James as Sheriff J.W. Pepper, an uncouth Louisiana sheriff. - Julius W. Harris as Tee Hee Johnson, Kananga's primary henchman who wears a pincer-tipped prosthetic arm. - Geoffrey Holder as Baron Samedi, Kananga's henchman who has ties to the Voodoo occult. - David Hedison as Felix Leiter, Bond's CIA colleague who is also investigating Mr. Big. - Gloria Hendry as Rosie Carver, a junior CIA agent in San Monique, secretly working for Kananga. - Bernard Lee as M, the Head of the Secret Intelligence Service - Lois Maxwell as Miss Moneypenny, M's secretary. - Tommy Lane as Adam, one of Dr. Kananga's henchmen who pursues 007 through the Louisiana Bayou. - Earl Jolly Brown as Whisper, Kananga's henchman who only whispers. - Roy Stewart as Quarrel Jr., Bond's ally in San Monique and son of Quarrel from Dr. No. - Lon Satton as Harry Strutter, a CIA agent who assists Bond in New York. - Arnold Williams as Cab Driver 1, a jokey New York taxi driver and one of Kananga's men. - Ruth Kempf as Mrs. Bell, a student pilot who gets caught up in Bond's escaping from Kananga's men. - Joie Chitwood as Charlie, a CIA agent. - Madeline Smith as Miss Caruso ("Beautiful Girl"), an Italian agent whom Bond briefly romances at the beginning of the film. - Michael Ebbin as Dambala, one of Kananga's henchmen in San Monique and a voodoo priest who taunts and kills his victims with a snake. - Kubi Chaza as Sales Girl, a cashier at the Oh Cult Voodoo Shop in New York, and informant for Kananga. - B. J. Arnau as a cabaret singer, who performs a rendition of the movie's theme at a Fillet of Soul restaurant. ## Production ### Writing While filming Diamonds Are Forever, Live and Let Die was chosen as the next Ian Fleming novel to be adapted because screenwriter Tom Mankiewicz had thought it would be daring to use black villains, as the Black Panthers and other racial movements were active at this time. Guy Hamilton was again chosen to direct and, since he was a jazz fan, Mankiewicz suggested he film in New Orleans. Hamilton did not want to use Mardi Gras since Thunderball (1965) featured Junkanoo, a similar festivity, so after more discussions with the writer and location scouting with helicopters, he decided to use two well-known features of the city, the jazz funerals and the canals. To develop a better feel of how Voodoo was practised, Saltzman and Broccoli escorted Hamilton, Mankiewicz, and production designer Syd Cain to scout New Orleans further and then the islands of the West Indies. Haiti was an important destination of the tour and not only did Fleming connect it with the religion, there were many practitioners available to witness. Despite viewing actual demonstrations, due to political unrest in the country at the time, it was decided not to film in Haiti. Instead, they chose to film in Jamaica. While searching for locations in Jamaica, the crew discovered a crocodile farm owned by Ross Kananga, after passing a sign warning that "trespassers will be eaten". The farm was put into the script and also inspired Mankiewicz to name the film's villain after Kananga. Richard Maibaum later claimed he was asked to write the film, but declined, because he was too busy. He disliked the completed film, saying, "to process drugs in the middle of the jungle is not a Bond caper." ### Casting Broccoli and Saltzman tried to convince Sean Connery to return as James Bond, but he declined. At the same time, United Artists considered Steve McQueen and Paul Newman for the role. Hamilton also recommended Burt Reynolds after watching him on television. Broccoli subsequently approached Reynolds for the role, but Reynolds felt Bond should be played by a British actor and turned the offer down. Among the actors to test for the part of Bond were Julian Glover (who would portray Aristotle Kristatos in For Your Eyes Only (1981)), John Gavin, Jeremy Brett, Simon Oates, John Ronane, and William Gaunt. The main frontrunner for the role was Michael Billington. Broccoli met with Anthony Hopkins about playing the role, but Hopkins did not think that he was right for the part. Meanwhile, United Artists was still pushing to cast an American to play Bond, but Broccoli insisted that the part should be played by a British actor and put forward Roger Moore. Moore, who had been considered for the role in Dr. No (1962) and On Her Majesty's Secret Service (1969), was ultimately hired. After Moore was chosen, Billington remained on the top of the list in the event that Moore declined to come back for the next film. Billington played a brief role in the pre-credit sequence of The Spy Who Loved Me (1977). Moore tried not to imitate either Connery's or his own prior performance as Simon Templar in The Saint, and Mankiewicz fitted the screenplay into Moore's persona by giving more comedic scenes and a light-hearted approach to Bond. Mankiewicz had thought of turning Solitaire into a Black woman, and Diana Ross was his first choice. Broccoli and Saltzman decided to stick to Fleming's description of a white woman and, after considering Catherine Deneuve, cast Jane Seymour, who was in the television series The Onedin Line. After Solitaire was cast with a white actress, the character of Rosie Carver was switched to be a Black woman and cast with Gloria Hendry. Yaphet Kotto was cast while doing another movie for United Artists, Across 110th Street (1972). Kotto reported one of the things he liked in the role was Kananga's interest in the occult, "feeling like he can control past, present and future". Mankiewicz created the character Sheriff J. W. Pepper to add comic relief. Portrayed by Clifton James, Pepper reprised the role in The Man with the Golden Gun (1974). Live and Let Die is also the first of two films featuring David Hedison as Felix Leiter, who reprised the role in Licence to Kill (1989). Hedison had said, "I was sure that would be my first and last" appearance as the character, before being cast again. Madeline Smith, who played Miss Caruso, sharing Bond's bed in the film's opening, was recommended for the part by Roger Moore after he had appeared with her on television. Smith said that Moore was polite and pleasant to work with, but she felt very uncomfortable being clad in only blue bikini panties while Moore's wife was on set overseeing the scene. Live and Let Die was the only Bond film until Casino Royale (2006) not to feature the character Q, portrayed by Desmond Llewelyn. He was then appearing in the television series Follyfoot, but was written out of three episodes to appear in the film. By then, Saltzman and Broccoli decided not to include the character, feeling that "too much was being made of the films' gadgets", and decided to downplay this aspect of the series, much to Llewelyn's annoyance. Bernard Lee considered not reprising his role as M due to the death of his wife Gladys Merredew, and was nearly recast with Kenneth More. However, he ultimately returned to the role. Lois Maxwell had only been included in Diamonds Are Forever (1971) during filming as a late addition, as she had asked for a pay increase. For Live and Let Die, she returned for the same fee, but due to a technical error, the filming of her scenes in Bond's home at the start of the movie extended to two days, costing the production more than if they had paid the increase she requested. Moore later wrote that Maxwell celebrated the double-pay-day by purchasing a fur coat. ### Filming Principal photography began on 13 October 1972 in New Orleans, Louisiana. For a while, only the second unit was shooting after Moore was diagnosed with kidney stones. Hamilton initially wanted to film in Haiti, which the fictional San Monique was modeled after, but could not because of the political instability under the regime of François "Papa Doc" Duvalier. In November, the production moved to Jamaica, which represented San Monique. In December, production was divided between interiors in Pinewood Studios in the UK and location shooting in Harlem in New York City. The producers were reportedly required to pay protection money to a local Harlem gang to ensure the crew's safety. When the money ran out, they were forced to leave. Some exteriors were in fact shot in Manhattan's Upper East Side as a result of the difficulties of using real Harlem locations. The street chase was shot at FDR Drive. Ross Kananga suggested the stunt of Bond jumping on crocodiles, and was enlisted by the producers to perform it. The scene took five takes to be completed, including one in which the last crocodile snapped at Kananga's heel, tearing his trousers. The production also had trouble with snakes during the voodoo ceremony scene in Jamaica. The script supervisor was so afraid that she refused to be on set with them, an actor fainted while filming a scene where he is killed by a snake, Jane Seymour became terrified as a snake was held up to her face, and Geoffrey Holder only agreed to fall into the snake-filled casket because Princess Alexandra was visiting the set. Another notable incident was when during filming of this scene a dancer who held a snake was bitten, and he dropped the snake, and this grabbed everyone's attention. Meanwhile Seymour was tied up to a stake for this scene, and the loose snake then set its sights on Seymour, who was saved by the film's snake handler, who grabbed it when it was mere inches from Seymour's feet. The boat chase was filmed in Louisiana around the Irish Bayou area, with some interruption caused by flooding. 26 boats were built by the Glastron boat company for the film. 17 were destroyed during rehearsals. The speedboat jump scene over the bayou, filmed with the assistance of a specially-constructed ramp, unintentionally set a Guinness World Record at the time with 110 feet (34 m) cleared. The waves created by the impact caused the following boat to flip over. The chase involving the double-decker bus was filmed with a former London bus adapted by having a top section removed, and then placed back in situ running on ball bearings to allow it to slide off on impact. The stunts involving the bus were performed by Maurice Patchett, a London Transport bus driving instructor. Salvador Dalí was approached in 1973 to design a Surrealist tarot deck for the film. However, his fee was too expensive for the film budget. At the end, the deck used in the film was designed by Fergus Hall. Dalí kept working at the deck and released it in 1984. ### Music John Barry, who had worked on the previous seven films, was unavailable during production as he was working on the stage musical Billy. Broccoli and Saltzman instead asked Paul McCartney to write the theme song. Saltzman, mindful of his decision not to produce A Hard Day's Night (1964), was especially eager to work with McCartney. Since McCartney's salary was high and another composer could not be hired with the remainder of the music budget, George Martin, who had been McCartney's producer while with The Beatles, was chosen to write the score for the film. "Live and Let Die", written by McCartney along with his wife Linda and performed by their group Wings, was the first true rock and roll song used to open a Bond film, and became a major success in the United Kingdom (where it reached number nine in the charts) and the US (where it reached number 2, for three weeks). It was nominated for an Academy Award, but lost to "The Way We Were". Saltzman and Broccoli hired B. J. Arnau to record and perform the title song, not realising McCartney intended to perform it. Arnau's version was featured in the film, when the singer performs it in a night club that Bond visits. In the pre-titles sequence, the Olympia Brass Band performed a funeral march observed by a MI6 agent. The first musical piece at the beginning of the funeral march is "Just a Closer Walk with Thee". Trumpeter Alvin Alcorn portrayed the knife-wielding assassin. After the agent is fatally stabbed, the band starts playing the more lively "New Second Line" (also known as "Joe Avery's Piece") penned by Milton Batiste. ## Release and reception The film was released in the United States on 27 June 1973. The world premiere was at Odeon Leicester Square in London on 6 July 1973, with general release in the United Kingdom on the same day. From a budget of around \$7 million, (\$ million in dollars) the film grossed \$161.8 million (\$ million in dollars) worldwide. The film holds the record for the most viewed broadcast film on television in the United Kingdom by attracting 23.5 million viewers when premiered on ITV on 20 January 1980. ### Contemporary reviews Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times stated that Moore "has the superficial attributes for the job: The urbanity, the quizzically raised eyebrow, the calm under fire and in bed". However, he felt that Moore wasn't satisfactory in living up to the legacy left by Sean Connery in the preceding films. He rated the villains "a little banal", adding that the film "doesn't have a Bond villain worthy of the Goldfingers, Dr. Nos and Oddjobs of the past." Richard Schickel, reviewing for Time magazine, described the film as "the most vulgar addition to a series that has long since outlived its brief historical moment — if not, alas, its profitability." He also criticized the action sequences as excessive, but noted that "aside an allright speedboat spectacular over land and water, the film is both perfunctory and predictable—leaving the mind free to wander into the question of its overall taste. Or lack of it." Roger Greenspun of The New York Times praised Moore as "a handsome, suave, somewhat phlegmatic James Bond—with a tendency to throw away his throwaway quips as the minor embarrassments that, alas, they usually are." He was critical of Jane Seymour and Yaphet Kotto, the latter of whom he felt "does not project evil." In summary, he remarked the film was "especially well photographed and edited, and it makes clever and extensive use of its good title song, by Paul and Linda McCartney." Charles Champlin of the Los Angeles Times likened Moore as "a handsome and smoothly likable successor to Sean Connery as James Bond." He further noted that the script "uses only the bare bones of Fleming's story about evil doings which link Harlem with a mysterious Caribbean island. The level of invention is high, but now and again you do sense the strain of always having to try harder because you're No. 1. If one menacing viper is good, three or a coffinful full are not inevitably better. But the action never slumps, and the series never seemed more like a real cartoon." Arthur D. Murphy of Variety wrote that Moore was "an okay replacement for Sean Connery. The Tom Mankiewicz script, faced with a real-world crisis in the villain sector, reveals that plot lines have descended further to the level of the old Saturday afternoon serial, and the treatment is more than ever like a cartoon. Unchanged are the always-dubious moral values and the action set pieces. Guy Hamilton's direction is good." ### Retrospective reviews Chris Nashawaty, reviewing for the BBC, argues that Dr. Kananga/Mr. Big is the worst villain of the Roger Moore James Bond films. Also from the BBC, William Mager praised the use of locations, but said that the plot was "convoluted". He stated that "Connery and Lazenby had an air of concealed thuggishness, clenched fists at the ready, but in Moore's case a sardonic quip and a raised eyebrow are his deadliest weapons". Danny Peary, in his book Guide for the Film Fanatic, noted that Jane Seymour portrays "one of the Bond series' most beautiful heroines", but had little praise for Moore, whom he described as making "an unimpressive debut as James Bond in Tom Mankiewicz's unimaginative adaptation of Ian Fleming's second novel ... The movie stumbles along most of the way. It's hard to remember Moore is playing Bond at times — in fact, if he and Seymour were black, the picture could pass as one of the black exploitation films of the day. There are few interesting action sequences — a motorboat chase is trite enough to begin with, but the filmmakers make it worse by throwing in some stupid Louisiana cops, including pot-bellied Sheriff Pepper." Ian Nathan of Empire wrote "This is good quality Bond, managing to reinterpret the classic moves — action, deduction, seduction — for a more modern idiom without breaking the mould. On one side we get the use of alligators as stepping stones and the pompous pitbull of rootin' tootin' Sheriff Pepper caught up in the thrilling boat chase. On the other, the genuine aura of threat through weird voodoo henchman Tee Hee and the leaning toward — what's this? — realism in Mr Big's plot to take over the drug trade from the Mafia." He concluded that "Moore had got his feet under the table." IGN ranked Solitaire as 10th in a Top 10 Bond Babes list. In November 2006, Entertainment Weekly listed Live and Let Die as the third-best Bond film. MSN chose it as the thirteenth best Bond film and IGN listed it as twelfth-best. On the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 65% from 51 reviews, with an average rating of 5.7/10. The website's critical consensus reads: "While not one of the highest-rated Bond films, Live and Let Die finds Roger Moore adding his stamp to the series with flashes of style and an improved sense of humor." On Metacritic, the film has a score of 55 based on 9 reviews, indicating "mixed or average reviews". ### Accolades In 2004, the American Film Institute nominated the title song for AFI's 100 Years...100 Songs. ## See also - List of American films of 1973 - List of drug films - Outline of James Bond
17,191,213	Imperial Bedrooms	1,161,206,467	2010 novel by Bret Easton Ellis	[ "2010 American novels", "2010 LGBT-related literary works", "2010s LGBT novels", "Alfred A. Knopf books", "American LGBT novels", "Books with cover art by Chip Kidd", "Fiction about snuff films", "Hollywood novels", "Metafictional novels", "Novels about rape", "Novels by Bret Easton Ellis", "Novels set in Los Angeles", "Novels with bisexual themes", "Sequel novels" ]	Imperial Bedrooms is a novel by American author Bret Easton Ellis. Released on June 15, 2010, it is the sequel to Less than Zero, Ellis' 1985 bestselling literary debut, which was shortly followed by a film adaptation in 1987. Imperial Bedrooms revisits Less than Zero's self-destructive and disillusioned youths as they approach middle-age in the present day. Like Ellis' earlier novel, which took its name from Elvis Costello's 1977 song of the same name, Imperial Bedrooms is named after Costello's 1982 album. The action of the novel takes place twenty-five years after Less than Zero. Its story follows Clay, a New York-based screenwriter, after he returns to Los Angeles to cast his new film. There he becomes embroiled in the sinister world of his former friends and confronts the darker aspects of his own personality. The novel opens with a literary device which suggests the possibility that the narrator of Imperial Bedrooms may not be the same as the narrator of Less than Zero although both are ostensibly narrated by Clay. In doing this, Ellis is able to comment on the earlier novel's style and on the development of its moralistic film adaptation. In the novel Ellis explores Clay's pathological narcissism, masochistic and sadistic tendencies, and exploitative personality, which had been less explicit in Less than Zero. Ellis chose to do this in part to dispel the sentimental reputation Less than Zero has accrued over the years, that of "an artifact of the 1980s". Imperial Bedrooms retains Ellis' characteristic transgressive style and applies it to the 2000s (decade) and 2010s, covering amongst other things, the impact of new communication technologies on daily lives. Ellis began working on what would become Imperial Bedrooms during the development of his 2005 novel, Lunar Park. As with his previous works, Imperial Bedrooms depicts scenes of sex, extreme violence and hedonism in a minimalist style devoid of emotion. Some commentators have noted however that unlike previous works, Imperial Bedrooms employs more of the conventional devices of popular fiction. Reviews were mixed and frequently polarized. Some reviewers felt the novel was a successful return to themes explored in Less than Zero, Lunar Park and American Psycho (1991), while others derided it as boring or self-indulgent. ## Background The development of Imperial Bedrooms began after Ellis had re-read Less than Zero during the writing of his 2005 pseudo-memoir, Lunar Park. The novel takes its name from Elvis Costello's 1982 album Imperial Bedroom, just as Less than Zero had been named for a Costello single. Upon reading Zero, Ellis began to reflect on how his characters would have developed in the interim. Soon, he found himself "overwhelm[ed]" by the idea of what would become Imperial Bedrooms as it continually returned to him. After gestating the idea, and making "voluminous notes", Ellis realised that his detailed outline had become longer than the finished book. He felt that this process of note-taking limited him to the novels that he genuinely wanted "to stay with for a couple of years". To this, he attributed having "written so few novels". Ellis described the novel as an "autobiographical noir [written] during a midlife crisis". His most significant literary influence was American novelist Raymond Chandler, citing his particular brand of pulpy noir fiction. He found particular inspiration in the opacity of Chandler's fiction, citing the lack of closure in some of the books, which he called "existentialist masterpieces." He also admired the cynical worldview that Chandler created, and his particular sense of style and mood. In terms of his own plotting, however, he opined that "plots really don't matter", nor solutions to mysteries, because it's "the mood that's so enthralling... [a] kind of universal, this idea of a man searching for something or moving through this moral landscape and trying to protect himself from it, and yet he's still forced to investigate it." Part of the "impetus" behind Imperial Bedrooms, which Ellis "wrestled with", was to try and dispel the "sentimental" view of Less than Zero that made it, to some, "an artifact of the 80s" alongside "John Hughes movies and Ray-Bans and Fast Times at Ridgemont High"; he felt he began assessing audience's reactions to his work when working on Lunar Park. On April 14, 2009, MTV News announced that Ellis had nearly finished the novel and it would be published in May 2010. At the time, Ellis revealed that all the novel's main characters would return. Prior to publication, Ellis had been convinced by his persuasive editor to remove some of the more graphic lines from Imperial Bedrooms' torture scenes, which he later regretted. "My most extreme act of self-censoring in Imperial Bedrooms," he said, however, was to omit a three-line description of a silver wall, because he felt that Clay would never have written it. Ellis stated he had no plans to make changes to the book as it stands in a second edition. Months prior to the book's release, Ellis tweeted the first sentence of the novel, "They had made a movie about us." The Random House website later announced the on sale date of June 22, 2010, in both hardback and paperback. With it, they released a picture of the book's cover and a short synopsis, which described the book as focusing on a middle-aged Clay, now a screenwriter, drawn back into his old circle. Amidst this, Clay begins dating a young actress with mysterious ties to Julian, Rip and a recently murdered Hollywood producer; his life begins to spin out of control. In Imperial Bedrooms, Los Angeles returns once again as the book's setting. It is, along with New York, one of the two major locations in Ellis' fiction. ## Plot The action of Imperial Bedrooms depicts Clay, who, after four months in New York, returns to Los Angeles to assist in the casting of his new film. There, he meets up with his old friends who were characters in Less than Zero. Like Clay, they have all become involved in the film industry: his philandering friend Trent Burroughs—who has married Blair—is a manager, while Clay's former classmate at Camden, Daniel Carter, has become a famous director. Julian Wells, who was a male prostitute in Less than Zero, has become an ultra-discreet high-class pimp representing struggling young actors who do not wish to tarnish future careers. Rip Millar, Clay's former drug dealer, now controls his own cartel and has become disfigured through repeated plastic surgeries. Clay attempts to romance Rain Turner, a gorgeous young woman auditioning for a role in his new film, leading her on with the promise of being cast, all the while knowing she will never get the part because of her complete lack of acting skills. His narration reveals he has done this with a number of men and women in the past, and yet often comes out of the relationship hurt and damaged himself. Over the course of their relationship, he is stalked by unknown persons driving a Jeep and is frequently reminded by various individuals of the grisly murder of a young producer whom he knew. As the novel progresses, Clay learns that Rip also had a fling with Rain and is now obsessed with her. When Clay discovers that Julian is currently Rain's boyfriend, he conspires with Rip to hand Julian over to him. When Julian is then found murdered, Rain confronts Clay about his role in the affair and is raped by him in response. He later receives a video of Julian's murder from Rip which has been overdubbed with an angry voicemail from Clay as a means to implicate him in the crime. The novel then depicts sequences of the savage sexual and physical abuse of a beautiful young girl and young boy, perpetrated by Clay. Clay experiences no feelings of remorse or guilt for this, or for exploiting and raping Rain. In the last scenes, it is strongly implied that Blair has been hiring people to follow Clay. In return for his giving her what she wants, she offers to provide Clay with a false alibi that will prevent the police from arresting him as an accomplice to Julian's murder. ## Characters Much critical attention has been given to the development of the characters from the original book, 25 years on. One review opined that "[Ellis'] characters are incapable of growth. They cannot credibly find Jesus or even see a skilled psychologist or take the right medication to fend off despair. They are bound to be American psychos." Their development, some critics have observed, illuminates the ways they have not developed as people; Clay is, for example, "in mind and spirit if not quite in body, destined to remain unchanged, undeveloped, unlikable and unloved." In Less than Zero, though the characters of the novel compose for some "the most hollow and vapid representation of the MTV generation one could possibly imagine", they remained to other reviewers "particularly sympathetic". Like the novel, its characters were equally cultural milestones, described by a reviewer as "seminal characters" (of American fiction). On the subject of the 1987 film, Clay describes that "the parents who ran the studio would[n't] ever expose their children in the same black light the book did". To Bill Eichenberger, this shows how "the children have become the parents, writing scripts and producing movies, still imprisoned by Hollywood's youth and drug cultures – but now looking at things from the outside in." Eisinger comments for the New York Press, that while "they're in careers now and new relationships and different states of mind... their preoccupations are just the same." Clay, the protagonist of Less than Zero, "once a paralyzed observer, is now a more active character and has grown to be a narcissist". The reason behind this shift in character personality was due to Ellis's lack of interest in the other characters—thus the solipsism is mirrored in the fiction. For Ellis, this became "an exploration of intense narcissism." In 2010, Clay is now a "successful screenwriter" with the "occasional producer credit". He returns to LA to help cast The Listeners (reminiscent of Ellis' involvement with the 2009 film adaptation of his short story collection The Informers). Now 45, and no longer a disaffected teen, Clay is described by Details as "arguably worse than American Psychos Patrick Bateman"; Ellis says that he would not disagree with this, citing the ambiguous nature of Bateman's crimes. In terms of Clay's psychology, Ellis notes his preponderance for a "masochistic cycle of control and rejection and seduction and inevitable pain", which "is something he gets off on because he's ...a masochist and not a romantic." The Los Angeles Times notes how Clay "shares biographical details with Ellis", a successful party-boy, who in 1985 was "often conflated with his fictional counterpart." Ellis asserts to the contrary, "I'm not really Clay." As opposed to his portrayal in Less than Zero, Clay is more unambiguously manipulative in Bedrooms; he is, in Ellis' words, "guilty". As in Zero, Clay has stagnated in an impassive and jaded state, abusing alcohol and sedatives such as ambien, "living with a kind of psychic "locked-in" syndrome." As in Zero and Psycho, the novel also poses the question of Clay's perception of reality, The Independent asking "Is Clay really being followed or is he being dogged by a guilty conscience for crimes committed, even when they are crimes of inaction?" Over the novel, "Clay shifts from damaged to depraved"; a "final scene in Imperial Bedrooms of unremitting torture... enacted by Clay on two beautiful teenagers who are bought and systematically abused" demonstrates "Clay's graduation from a passively colluding observer to active perpetrator... who either indulges in torture or fantasizes about it." The novel is written in the first-person, from Clay's perspective. Clay, who "felt betrayed by Less than Zero", uses Imperial Bedrooms to make a stand or a case for himself, though ultimately "reveals himself to be far worse than the author of Less Than Zero ever began to hint at." Clay still bears similarities to the earlier character in Less than Zero; according to one reviewer, "not all that much is changed. Clay is a cipher, an empty shell who is only able to approximate interactions and experiences through acts of sadism and exploitation." He is also, in many ways, a new character, because the opening of the book presents that the Clay of Less than Zero had merely been "just a writer pretending to be him". When asked why he "changed" Clay from "passive" to "guilty", Ellis explained he felt Clay's inaction in the original novel made him equally as guilty; it had "always bothered" Ellis that Clay didn't do anything to save the little girl being raped in the first novel. The Independent notes "his passivity [in Less than Zero] has hardened into something far more culpable, and nefarious." According to Ellis, "In LA, over time, the real person you are ultimately comes out." He also speculates "maybe the fear turned him into a monster". Ellis remarks that he finds the developments in Clay "so exciting". One reviewer summarized the character's development, "The nascent narcissist of Less Than Zero... is now left in a "dead end". The novel is Ellisdeeply pessimistic presentation of human nature as assailable... an unflinching study of evil." Blair and Trent Burroughs share a loveless marriage. Blair remains, according to Janelle Brown, "the moral center of Ellis' work", and Trent has become a Hollywood manager. The Oregonian notes "Although Blair and Trent have children, the children are never described and hardly mentioned; their absence is "even more unsettling than the absence of parents in a story about teenagers, underlining the endlessly narcissistic nature of the characters' world." Julian Wells has gone on to establish a very exclusive escort service of his own in Hollywood. While in Less than Zero, Clay felt protective of Julian, who had fallen into prostitution and drug addiction, in the new novel, he attempts to have him killed. The "grisly" dispatch of Julian late in the book, and Clay's casual mention of it early on, were part of a "rhythm" that Ellis felt suited the book. He speculates whether "the artist looking back" becomes a destructive force. He hadn't planned to kill off the character, just finding that while writing "it felt right". Rip Millar occupies both terrifying and comic relief roles in the novel. Vice describes him, hyperbolically, as "like the supervillain of these two books". Uncertainties about the character's "specifics" originate in Clay, who "doesn't really want to know, which makes it kind of scarier". ## Writing style Writing for The Observer, Alison Kelly of the University of Oxford observed the novel's philosophical qualities, and opined that its "thriller-style hints and foreshadowings... form part of a metaphysical investigation." Kelly describes it as an exposé of the worst depths of human nature, labelling it existentialist' to the extent that it confronts the minimal limits of identity". She further argues that the novel's motif of facial recognitions amounts to the message that people should be read "at face value", and that furthermore, past action is the greatest indicator of future behaviour, leaving no room for "change, growth, [or] self-reinvention". In terms of stylistic literary changes, Ellis also displays more fondness for the Ruskinian pathetic fallacy than in previous works. For the most part, the novel is written in Ellis' trademark writing style; Lawson refers to this as "sexual and narcotic depravities in an emotionless tone." With regard to this style, Ellis cites precursors to himself, particular the work of filmmakers. Ellis feels that the technique itself gives the reader a unique kind of insight into the characters, and comments that "numbness is a feeling too. Emotionality isn't the only feeling there is." In terms of style, Ellis told Vice that he enjoyed his return to minimalism, because of the challenge of "[t]rying to achieve that kind of tension with so few words was enjoyable to do." While some reviewers of popular fiction derided Ellis's style as "flat", others found it unexpectedly moving. ## Literary devices and themes Imperial Bedrooms opens with an acknowledgement from Clay, the main character, that both the Less than Zero novel and its film adaptation are actual representational works within the narrative of his life: "The movie was based on a book by someone we knew... It was labeled fiction but only a few details had been altered and our names weren't changed and there was nothing in it that hadn't happened." The Los Angeles Times described this as a "nifty little trick", as it allows Ellis to establish the newer book "as the primary narrative, one that trumps Ellis as author and the real world." The San Francisco Chronicle calls it a "neat trick of authorial self-abnegation". Another reviewer describes it as Ellis at "his most ambitious", a "Philip Rothian, doppelgänger gambit", making his new narrator "the real Clay" and the other an imposter. This allows Ellis to skilfully, "with writerly jujitsu", acknowledge Robert Downey Jr.'s popular performance as Julian in the moralistic 1987 film, in which he died; Ellis appreciates the adaptation as a "milestone in a lot of ways". The device also allows the novelist to insert self-critique; The Sunday Times reviewer notes that Imperial Bedrooms finds its characters "still a little sore at their depiction as inarticulate zombies". John Crace, in his "digested read" of Imperial Bedrooms, insinuates through parody that "the author" of the metafictional Less than Zero is also meant to be Ellis, describing him in Clay's voice as "too immersed in the passivity of writing and too pleased with his own style to bother with many commas to admit it so he wrote me into the story as the man who was too frightened to love." With regard to the opening narrative conceit, Ellis queries "Is it complication ... or is it clarification?", opining that it certainly is the latter for Clay. Even though Ellis never names himself explicitly in the book, he conceded to Lawson that one can "guess [Bret Easton Ellis] is who the Clay of Imperial Bedrooms is referring to." Ellis did, however, reveal that he had not decided when writing the novel whether Clay was referring to him or not. Eileen Battersby likened Bedrooms to Lunar Park (2005), cited his use of "self-consciousness as a device." This device was picked up on by several other critics—in particular, Vice noted that "the scatological violence of American Psycho" and "the otherworldly terror of Lunar Park" had here been combined. Ellis himself raised the "sequel" question, commenting "... I don't think it is [a sequel]. Well, I mean, it is and it isn't. It's narrated by him, sure. But I guess I could maybe have switched the names around and it could stand alone." Asked about the motif and "casual approach to" bisexual characters in his novels, continued in Imperial Bedrooms, Ellis stated he "really [didn't] know", and that he wished he could provide "an answer – depicting [him] as extremely conscious of those choices". He believes it to be an "interesting aspect of [his] work". Details notes how Ellis' own sexuality, frequently described as bisexual, has been notoriously hard to pin down. Reviewers have long tried to probe Ellis on autobiographical themes in his work. He reiterates to Vice that he is not Clay. Ellis says that other contemporary authors (naming Michael Chabon, Jonathan Franzen, Jonathan Lethem as examples) don't get asked if their novels are autobiographical. (However, Ellis tells one interview, that he "cannot fully" say that "I'm not Clay" because of their emotional "connections".) Vice attributes this streak to Ellis' age when Less than Zero came out, which led to him being seen as a voice-of-the-generation. Ellis feels that the autobiographical truths of his novels lie in their writing processes, which to him are like emotional "exorcisms". Crace's abovementioned parody suggests that Less than Zero Clay was originally a flattering portrayal of Ellis. Ellis discusses lightly the kinds of self-insertion present in the book. While Clay is clearly (parodically) working on the film adaptation of The Informers, he is at the same time fully aware that he has been a character in Less than Zero, and that ostensibly, Ellis is 'the author' whom Clay knew. However, there are clear differences to the characters, as well. For example, Ellis had to omit lines from the book he felt Clay would never have thought of, on subjects he would never have noticed. Ellis himself feels he is adapting to middle-age very well; Clay, however, isn't. Imperial Bedrooms also breaches several new territories. When compared to Less than Zero, its "huge shift" is a technological one. The novel picks up on many aspects of the early 21st-century culture, such as Internet viral videos which depict executions. The novel reflects how technology changes the nature of interpersonal relationships. Additionally, Clay is text-stalked throughout the book; Ellis himself had been "text-stalked" before in real life. Ellis feels this was an unconscious exploration of the dynamics brought on by the new technology. The author also predicts that "fans of Less Than Zero" may "feel betrayed"; Imperial Bedrooms thrust is its "narrative... of exploitation". One reviewer describes the novel's "central theme" as "Hollywood is an industry town running on exploitation", and criticizes this theme for being unoriginal in 2010. An Irish Times review notes positively however that Ellisvision of society is bleak; his dark studies of the human animal as shocking as ever." The new setting poses questions, such as "Is Hollywood intended as a variation of ancient Rome? Is the movie industry a coliseum?" Another review found that the celebrity setting, as visited before in his novel Glamorama (1998), allows Ellis to make a number of observations about contemporary pop culture via Clay, such as when he asserts "that exposure can ensure fame". Ellis comments how in Less than Zero, Clay's passivity worked to protect him from the "bleak moral landscape he was a part of", which he views as Clay's major flaw. Ellis developed this into the more unabashedly 'guilty' Clay of the new novel. Ellis says that "a portrait of narcissism was the big nut that I had. Of entitlement. This imperial idea." The difference he notes between this "portrait of a narcissist" and his earlier ones, such as American Psycho and Lunar Park, come in the form of its more moral bent: "This time", Ellis comments, "the narcissist reaches a dead end." To one reviewer, Clay's world at its most exaggerated, in the scenes of torture, reach Huxleyan heights of dystopian fantasy, comparing Imperial Bedrooms to Brave New World (1932), "where the "command economy" now manifests as rampant, late-capitalist consumerism, where ambien is the new soma and humans are zombies: one character's face is "unnaturally smooth, redone in such a way that the eyes are shocked open with perpetual surprise; it's a face mimicking a face, and it looks agonized." ## Reception The Guardian attempted to aggregate what they found to be polarised reviews of Imperial Bedrooms, noting that one Times reviewer felt the novel was simply dull, "impoverished", and "ghastly", whereas the London Review of Books felt that in spite of its flaws, the book was enjoyable for its "beautiful one-liners" and the fun of "seeing the old Easton Ellis magic applied to the popular culture of our era ... iPhones, Apple stores, internet videos and Lost." The New Statesman compiled reviews from The Independent, The Observer, and The New York Times. The first two reviews are positive, praising Ellis' "modern noir", the book's "atmosphere", and indebtedness to Philip Roth and F. Scott Fitzgerald, with the Observer saying it "ranks with his best in the latter register [of Fitzgerald]." The latter review accused Ellis of falling flat, attracting negative comparison to Martin Amis; both have "a flair for such perfect, surreal description" but "struggle to set it in an effective context." Other writers attempting to gauge the book's reception also describe it as "mixed". The Periscope Press deemed that the novel's reviews were mostly negative, citing Dr. Alison Kelly's article for The Guardian as the only counter-example, while deeming that it "still read more like restrained criticism than outright praise". On the subject of reviews, British critic Mark Lawson notes the tendency for Ellis' reviews to be "unpredictable"; he cited the irony of favour amongst right-wing critics, and the extent to which the liberal media attack his work. Ellis himself, however, states that he "proudly" accepts the label of moralist. He also attributes some of the negative criticism that Imperial Bedrooms and Ellis' earlier works have received in the past to the earlier schools of feminist criticism; today, he observes young girls "reading the works correctly", opining the books shouldn't be read through the lens of "old school feminism." To that end, the author observes that older women reviewing Imperial Bedrooms in the US had issues with it, not least feelings of betrayal. He feels these are ironic because the book is in fact a critique of a certain kind of male perspective and behaviour. Tom Shone, writing for The Sunday Times, praised the novel for its atypical qualities for Ellis, "known for his orgies of violence". Shone asks "Why is a new sequel to Less Than Zero... so moving?", noting the presence of "feelings" in the novel to be starkly different from Ellis' usual style. Touching on its personal qualities, Shone notes "If Lunar Park unspooled the atrocities of American Psycho back to their source, Imperial Bedrooms pulls the thread further and reaches Less Than Zero". The emotive energy in the new book is traced back to the last pages of Lunar Park as well; fellow writer Jay McInerney observes that "The last few pages of [Lunar Park] are among the most moving passages I know in recent American fiction [because]... Bret was coming to terms with his relationship with his father in that book." Vice observes that the "final passages in both Imperial Bedrooms and Lunar Park pack a lot of emotional impact." San Francisco Chronicle hails Imperial Bedrooms as "the very definition of authorly meta: Ellis is either so deeply enmeshed in his own creepy little insular world that he can't write his way out of it, or else he is such a genius that he's created an entire parallel universe that folds and unfolds on itself like some kind of Escher print." Regarding the book's achievement, Shone remarks "He now stands at year zero – creatively, psychologically." However, typical features of Ellis' earlier works remain intact; for example, in its depictions of violence. Commenting on its self-referential aspects, Janelle Brown of the San Francisco Chronicle recommends "for his next endeavor, Ellis should stop worrying and start looking for the exit of his own personal rabbit hole." The Buffalo News awarded the novel its Editor's Choice. Jeff Simon comments that it "brings an excessive Reaganesque flavor to Obama America". With regards to the novel's writing style, he comments "The first-person sentences run on and on, but the individual sections of the book are nothing if not minimal... ghastly narcissism or not, Bret Easton Ellis has a fictional territory all his own and, heaven forbid, a mastery there." The Wall Street Journal on the other hand, described this prose style as "flat and fizzless". Such is the book's violent aesthetic that, for Eileen Battersby of The Irish Times, "the book is closer to his remarkable third novel, American Psycho". She further compliments Ellis as "a bizarrely moral writer who specializes in evoking the amoral." Concerning his writing, she notes its "despair is blunt, factual and seldom approaches the laconic unease of JG Ballard." Following her positive comments, however, Battersby concludes negatively. The book is a "bleak performance... a tired study of the vacuous" with the feeling of an improvised screenplay being performed by an uncommitted cast. She sums that Ellis' novel "consists of too many doors being left slightly ajar, and not enough rooms, or opportunities, being fully explored." Some critics have questioned the book's relevance to a contemporary audience. Dallas News poses the question, whether Imperial Bedrooms is "a story anyone is interested in anymore", because Ellis' "blunt, spare, journal-entry prose" is no longer, in 2010, "the backstage pass" it once was to the lives of "LA's rich and famous". Furthermore, Tom Maurstrad argues that since the 1980s, that decade has become a "go-to bargain bin for retro-trends and ready-made nostalgia, easy to package into fashion lines and TV shows". The review bemoans that the novel's theme, the dark side of Hollywood, is no longer a culture-shocking revelation, and that Ellis fails to capitalize on the narratorial conceit which it opens with. Maurstrad does highlight positive aspects, however. Ellis wisely "appropriates the unblinking brutality [of]... American Psycho, to add some dramatic heft to this anorexic update", making the sequel a "celebrity snuff film" to the earlier "backstage pass". The Wall Street Journal damned the novel as "a dull, stricken, under-medicated nonstory that goes nowhere." The Boston Globe reviewer opined that "Ellis is aiming for noir, for the territory of James Ellroy and Raymond Chandler, but ends up with an XXX-rated episode of Melrose Place." Andrew McCarthy, who played Clay in the 1987 Less than Zero film, described the novel as "an exciting, shocking conclusion... a surprising one." The actor praised Clay's character, citing a "wicked vulnerability" which the character covers up with alcohol, hostility, and its portrayal of a world "full of pain and suffering and unkindness" beneath the "glossy and shimmering and seductive" veneer of Hollywood. McCarthy described his experience of reading the book as like "revisiting an old friend", owing to the consistency of the characters' and Ellis' voices. ## Possible film adaptation In May 2010, when MTV News first announced that Ellis had finished writing Imperial Bedrooms, the writer told them in interview that he had begun looking ahead to the possibility of a film adaptation, and felt that interpreting it as a sequel to the 1987 movie adaptation starring Andrew McCarthy, Robert Downey Jr., James Spader and Jami Gertz "would be a great idea". Two months prior to the book's release, Less than Zero actor Andrew McCarthy stated it was "early days" in thinking about a potential film adaptation; McCarthy felt, however, that the novel would adapt well. Because the characters in Imperial Bedrooms have been owned by 20th Century Fox since Ellis sold the film rights to Less than Zero, prospective film for Imperial Bedrooms rights revert to Fox. Ellis stated to Vice in June 2010 that he would be interested in writing the screenplay. In July 2010 however, the author clarified to California Chronicle, saying "There's no deal, there's no one attached. There's been some vague talk among the cast members... As far as I know right now nothing's happening." Ellis opines that were Robert Downey Jr. to get involved, the film would move straight into production. However, remembering the adaptation process Less than Zero went through, he admits "I've learned to be cautious about saying oh they'll never turn this dark depraved character into any sort of interesting Mulholland Drive, David Lynch kind of movie, but I could be totally wrong about that. I don't know."
33,786,758	Plankton and Karen	1,172,036,502	Fictional animated SpongeBob SquarePants characters	[ "Animated characters introduced in 1999", "Animated duos", "Anthropomorphic arthropods", "Comedy film characters", "Female characters in animated series", "Fictional con artists", "Fictional crustaceans", "Fictional dictators", "Fictional married couples", "Fictional misers", "Fictional undersea characters", "Male characters in animated series", "SpongeBob SquarePants characters", "Television characters introduced in 1999", "Television duos", "Television supervillains", "Video game bosses", "Villains in animated television series" ]	Sheldon J. Plankton and Karen Plankton are a pair of fictional characters and the main antagonists of SpongeBob SquarePants, the Nickelodeon animated television series. They are respectively voiced by Mr. Lawrence and Jill Talley. Their first appearance was in the episode "Plankton!" that premiered on July 31, 1999. They were created and designed by the marine biologist and animator Stephen Hillenburg, the creator of the series. Hillenburg named Karen after his wife, Karen Hillenburg (née Umland). Plankton and Karen are the married owners of the unsuccessful Chum Bucket restaurant. Plankton is an intellectual planktonic copepod and Karen is a waterproof supercomputer. Plankton shares a rivalry with Mr. Krabs, who owns the far more profitable Krusty Krab restaurant and sells a fictional burger called the Krabby Patty. Plankton and Karen often devise schemes to steal the secret Krabby Patty recipe, but their efforts are always thwarted by Krabs and his employees. Critics have praised the characters’ voices and dialogue together. They began as minor characters, but Lawrence developed their personalities throughout the show's early seasons and they eventually became the franchise's main antagonists. The Planktons play central roles in The SpongeBob SquarePants Movie, which promoted them both to main cast members in its credits, and in the 2015 film. They have also been featured in a variety of spin-off media, including tie-in publications, playsets and other merchandise. ## Plankton ### Role in SpongeBob SquarePants Plankton is the nemesis and former best friend of Mr. Krabs. He is the owner of the Chum Bucket, a fast food restaurant located directly across the street from Krabs' restaurant, the Krusty Krab. The Chum Bucket primarily sells chum (bait consisting of fish parts), which is considered mostly inedible by the other characters. As a result, his restaurant is a commercial failure. Plankton's primary goal in the series is to steal the Krabby Patty Secret Formula so he can sell Krabby Patties at the Chum Bucket. His villainous efforts to do this are widely known within the show; fellow character Squidward Tentacles refers to Plankton as "the most hated thing in Bikini Bottom". A running gag throughout the series is the fact that Plankton is smaller than the other regular characters. He is easily stepped on and sent flying back to the Chum Bucket with a mere flick of the finger. His small size has led him to develop a Napoleon complex, which is occasionally manifested as a desire for global domination. He is a skillful inventor and regularly builds machines, both to help him in his plots, and for his own personal gain. Although he uses his intellect for evil, Plankton did not start out as a villainous scientist; he built Karen, his first invention, when he was friends with Mr. Krabs in grade school. Prominent in his earliest appearances, Plankton's catchphrase is "I went to college!" He also has a pet amoeba named Spot who at first was a guard dog, but later became a retriever. Plankton's roles are not exclusively antagonistic. Outside of business, he seems to have a somewhat friendly relationship with SpongeBob. In The SpongeBob Movie: Sponge Out of Water, Plankton allies himself with SpongeBob, initially to protect himself from an angry mob, but gradually warms up to SpongeBob throughout the movie. The movie has been described by The Guardian as a "buddy film" between Plankton and SpongeBob. Series creator Stephen Hillenburg considered Plankton to be "more of a caricature of a villain" than a truly evil character. ### Development When SpongeBob SquarePants premiered, Plankton was not part of the series' main cast. Plankton's voice actor, Mr. Lawrence, has stated that after producing Plankton's debut episode in the late 1990s, creator Stephen Hillenburg was unsure if he would continue to use the character. After recording it, Hillenburg was noncommittal, telling Lawrence: "We'll probably do another [Plankton episode] next year," Lawrence summarized Plankton's origins in 2015, saying that he "was only supposed to be in one or two episodes, but I was a writer on the show and I really liked this character". Following his first voice recording as Plankton, Lawrence drafted some of his own ideas for the character and passed them to Hillenburg. From then on, Plankton began to appear more often. Lawrence considers the third season the first in which Plankton is a main character. During production on SpongeBob's early seasons, Lawrence was the only staff member writing premises and outlines involving Plankton. At the time, he felt he "had to prove Plankton could survive as more than a one-note character". Since then, multiple writers have written for Plankton without Lawrence's involvement, including the teams of writers responsible for Plankton's starring roles in both SpongeBob films. Lawrence continues to write Plankton episodes, having said in 2015, "I'm not just his voice. I get to create how the character is written and how he evolves over time." Preliminary design sketches for Plankton depict him in a robotic suit, with Karen's system built into it; that suit has yet to appear in the series. The suit functioned as a way to increase Plankton's presence, as one of Hillenburg's original intentions was for the character to be too small to see without a magnifying glass. As the series progressed, the animators enlarged Plankton's size, feeling that being microscopic was "not conducive to him interacting with other characters". #### Voice Plankton's voice is provided by show writer and actor Doug Lawrence, normally credited as "Mr. Lawrence". The voice originated as an imitation of one of his deep-voiced high school friends. On television, Lawrence first used this voice for incidental characters on Rocko's Modern Life. Fellow voice actor Tom Kenny found it amusing, leading to Lawrence's decision to use it when auditioning for roles on SpongeBob. Lawrence initially tried out for the role of SpongeBob during the series' pre-production, but Stephen Hillenburg wanted a more innocent voice for the character and turned him down. Lawrence continued to work on the show, voicing minor characters, eventually leading to him being offered the role of Plankton in his debut episode, "Plankton!". He describes Plankton's voice as a "combination of Gregory Peck and Tony the Tiger." When "Plankton!" was pitched to Nickelodeon, Hillenburg had already decided that he wanted Lawrence to play Plankton. However, network executives wanted a guest star to provide his voice since he was set to appear in only one episode. Lawrence mentioned in an interview with fellow SpongeBob actor Thomas F. Wilson that the studio said, in his words, "'we could stunt-cast this. You know, we could have Bruce Willis do this voice.' And Steve [Hillenburg] was just like, 'it's Doug, don't you hear it? This is the character! '" ### Reception #### Critical response The Plankton character has received a generally positive reception. In his review of the fourth season, Paul Mavis of DVD Talk stated that adult viewers would likely find Plankton more amusing than others, praising his "hilariously stentorian" voice. In his review of the season six episode "Clash of Triton," Mavis called Plankton "the only secondary SpongeBob character who can [successfully] anchor his own short". Bettijane Levine of The Los Angeles Times wrote positively of Plankton's portrayal, calling it poignant rather than genuinely immoral, describing him as a "town meanie... but mean is different than evil. There is no evil, not even a sense of menace, in SpongeBob's soggy, safe world." Ann Hagman Cardinal of Blogcritics praised the character, rhetorically asking in a 2007 review, "who isn't tickled by the tight-jawed, Kirk Douglas-voiced Plankton with his silent moviesque evil plans to steal the secret recipe for the Krabby Patty?" Boston.com writer Jamie Loftus had mixed feelings about Plankton in a 2015 article, asserting that while "almost every episode featuring tiny supervillain Plankton is highly formulaic," he never "gets old". James Poniewozik of Time magazine commented on Plankton in a 2001 article. He noted that "no one thinks it's strange that the town villain, the megalomaniacal Plankton, is a one-celled organism" as part of the "colorful, goofy" atmosphere of the program. In an article for The A.V. Club, Zack Handlen stated that "the humor of Plankton comes from how his operative ambitions are constantly thwarted by a naïve, trusting kid". In 2015, Entertainment Weekly's Hillary Busis named Plankton one of the most devious characters on television, adding in her commentary that he is "voiced to wicked perfection by Doug Lawrence". José Antonio Gómez Marín of El Mundo favorably compared Plankton's plans to the stories of Georges Simenon in a 2013 article. In his 2011 book SpongeBob SquarePants and Philosophy, political scientist Joseph J. Foy argues that "Plankton may actually be the unsung hero of the series, and SpongeBob the true villain." He compares the character to the Nietzschean Übermensch, taking note of his mental superiority compared to the other characters in the show, and questions how Plankton is only "judged as bad because, no matter how many great things he accomplishes, his intentions are deemed ignoble". Foy concludes his analysis by criticizing the fact that "SpongeBob is praised as noble for trying to hold Plankton back." ## Karen ### Role in SpongeBob SquarePants Plankton is married to a waterproof computer named Karen, who is also his sidekick and best friend. Karen is Plankton's own invention, assembled from a calculator and a mass of wires. She was Plankton's first invention when he was in grade school, and they dated before he became evil. Her system is built into most of Plankton's machines (including the Chum Bucket itself) so that she and Plankton can communicate while the latter is on a mission. She is a Mark II Surplus UNIVAC with 256 gigabytes of random-access memory. Karen takes on various jobs at the Chum Bucket, including busser, chef and cashier; she rarely has to fulfill them because of the restaurant's unpopularity. She also tends to stay more focused than Plankton on the core mission of stealing Krabs' formula. Karen often reminds him to stay on task and encourages him to keep going when he loses confidence. Since she lacks a heart, Karen is usually unable to feel empathy for the people around her. Her interactions are not limited to helping Plankton, however; she is a friend of Sandy Cheeks, who is also intelligent and interested in science. Karen is more competent than Plankton in formulating plots to steal the Krabby Patty recipe. Most of his effective plans have come from Karen, including "Plan Z"—the only scheme to result in Plankton successfully stealing the formula and using it to his advantage—in The SpongeBob SquarePants Movie. Nonetheless, he tends to take credit for them, much to her dismay. Karen has effortlessly stolen Krabs' formula without Plankton's help on many occasions, but her husband always inadvertently gets in the way. Because of their contrasting behaviors, Plankton and Karen have a tendency to argue. Tom Kenny, SpongeBob's voice actor, has called their marriage "Honeymooners-like," comparing them to the bickering couple from the sitcom The Honeymooners. As a computer on the ocean floor, Karen's ability to operate underwater has not been explained in any of the series' episodes. Tom Kenny addressed this in a 2004 interview with the Associated Press, stating that Karen's functionality is a "don't-ask-why" aspect of SpongeBob and that "logic doesn't have a place" in the series' universe. ### Development Karen was also created by Stephen Hillenburg, who named the character after his wife, Karen Hillenburg (née Umland). Hillenburg initially designed a laboratory for Plankton to convey the character's technological abilities, leading to Karen's development as his lab's central computer system. Like Plankton, she was not initially intended to be a main character; her role in the series grew as Lawrence wrote ideas to give the Planktons more personality. Throughout the series' first and second seasons, Karen is not defined as Plankton's wife; Plankton's official biography from 2000 simply states that he works "with the help of his computer, Karen". In the series' third season opener, 2002's "The Algae's Always Greener," Plankton refers to Karen as his wife for the first time. Aspects of their marriage, like their anniversary and their honeymoon, have become the frequent focus of episodes since then. In early episodes, Karen is always supportive and friendly toward her husband. As the series progresses, she becomes more cynical and sarcastic because of Plankton's relentless obsession with the Krabby Patty formula. However, she remains loving and affectionate toward him. Many episodes written by Lawrence develop and explore the relationship between Karen and her husband. Lawrence has stated that he feels Karen makes Plankton-focused episodes more humorous and that her presence helps portray him as a multidimensional character. In a 2009 interview with Andy Goodman, he said, "I want more Karen on the show ... The married life of an evil genius is the funniest thing to me, so in that regard [Karen] definitely enhances Plankton's stories, making him more than just your typical bad guy." For the first three seasons, Karen was usually depicted as a large, blue monitor in the Chum Bucket's laboratory; at other times, only her voice is heard from within Plankton's robotic creations. When Karen was promoted to a main character in The SpongeBob SquarePants Movie, a mobile unit was introduced to allow her to interact more easily with other characters. Showrunner Vincent Waller stated that the mobile unit was introduced because having Karen able to move was more convenient for storytelling purposes. Karen alternates between her multiple forms in most episodes produced after the film. As of the tenth season, her wall monitor is no longer used and her mobile form is always equipped with a pair of robotic arms. #### Voice Karen is voiced by American actress Jill Talley, who is married to SpongeBob's voice actor, Tom Kenny. Talley, a Chicago native, uses a Midwestern accent for the character. Whenever Karen talks, her voice is mixed over electronic sound effects by the series' audio engineers to create a robotic sound. Her voice, which was more monotonous in earlier episodes, has been described as "deadpan" by the Associated Press. Some of Karen's conversations with Plankton are improvised between Talley and Lawrence. The latter described this improvisation as his "favorite part of the voice over" in 2009. He elaborated in a 2012 interview, saying, "I always enjoy the back-and-forth. [Talley and I] start to actually overlap so much talking to each other that [the voice directors] have to tell us, 'hey, stop doing that, separate what you're saying!'" Lawrence also feels that voicing the characters for so long has built a close relationship between the two actors. On the topic, he said, "This on-TV marriage we have, the whole world knows us being married ... We start becoming a married couple [when recording]." ### Reception #### Critical response Karen has received generally positive reactions from critics. In a 2010 review of SpongeBob's Last Stand, DVD Talk's Paul Mavis wrote highly of Karen and Plankton's dialogue, stating that the two "could have their own sitcom". Sandie Angulo Chen of Common Sense Media praised the amount of screen time given to Karen in Sponge Out of Water, calling her "hilarious". In 2015, Boston.com's Jamie Loftus cited Karen as her reason for naming 2002's "Welcome to the Chum Bucket" one of the sixteen greatest SpongeBob episodes. Gizmodo's Ryan Lufkin wrote in 2016 that SpongeBob's "90s-level weirdness" is proven by characters like Plankton and Karen. The About Group's Nancy Basile commended Jill Talley's portrayal of the character, saying that it is "no surprise she plays [the role] so well" due to her earlier work with Second City and Mr. Show. In an analysis of how the show has changed throughout its run, Channel Frederator argued that the main characters of SpongeBob–specifically Sandy, Patrick, Mr. Krabs, Squidward and Karen–have been reduced from multidimensional to reliant on single traits. According to this view, "Karen is now a full-blown nag" in newer episodes. This aspect of Karen's character has also been criticized by author Joseph J. Foy, in his book SpongeBob SquarePants and Philosophy. He considers this trope one of several harmful stereotypes present on the program, writing that "the motif of the nagging wife is certainly an issue worthy of dissection in dealing with a young audience, along with the spoiled teen daughter [Pearl] and the stupid best friend [Patrick]". Lampooning a controversy surrounding SpongeBob's sexuality, essayist Dennis Hans wrote a 2005 satirical piece for the National Catholic Reporter focusing on the marriage of Plankton and Karen. He remarked, in jest, that SpongeBob's sexual orientation was a lesser issue compared to the positive representation of Plankton's "technosexuality". Hans identified instances where both Planktons were portrayed as a loving couple and joked: "the subliminal message from SpongeBob's insidious creators ... [is that] the technosexual lifestyle means bonding forever with your one true love". ## In other media Plankton and Karen have been featured in various forms of SpongeBob SquarePants merchandise, including video games and action figures. In 2006, Ty Inc.'s Beanie Babies introduced a plush toy based on Plankton. A Lego building set based on the Chum Bucket, including a Plankton minifigure and his laboratory with Karen, was released in 2007. The fourteenth issue of SpongeBob Comics, titled "Plankton Comics," is centered around the Planktons and includes six original stories set at the Chum Bucket. The 2013 video game Plankton's Robotic Revenge is Plankton-themed and features Lawrence and Jill Talley reprising their voice roles from the show as Plankton and Karen. Plankton and Karen appear in several Nickelodeon crossover works, including 2005's Nicktoons Unite! game and one of its sequels, Nicktoons: Globs of Doom. Both games feature the Chum Bucket as a playing location and in the latter, Plankton is a player character. Additionally, Plankton and Karen are both mentioned by Eric Lange (as his character Sikowitz) in "Tori Goes Platinum," an episode of Nickelodeon's sitcom Victorious. Sea World Australia's "SpongeBob ParadePants" event, which opened in December 2011, included a float featuring Karen and a talking Plankton. In 2015, a recreation of Plankton's laboratory was constructed for a SpongeBob event at the Chiang Kai-shek Memorial Hall in Zhongzheng District, Taipei. It included a replica of Karen's monitor, functioning as a television, screening episodes of SpongeBob, and a miniature Plankton statue. The Flaming Lips' song "SpongeBob and Patrick Confront the Psychic Wall of Energy," recorded for The SpongeBob SquarePants Movie, closes with several lines about Plankton and Karen. The song characterizes Plankton as a confused faultfinder who would be much happier if he stopped focusing on his failures and complaining to Karen. Plankton sings a track on the novelty album The Best Day Ever titled "You Will Obey," on which Elvis Presley's former guitarist James Burton played guitar. Of the album, Tom Kenny said "one of our hidden Easter eggs that hopefully more than three people in the world will get is during the guitar solo when Plankton says 'Take it, James', which was what Elvis said in every one of those concert movies". Film composer John Debney produced Plankton's theme music for the second SpongeBob movie, using trombones. The film's score includes several tracks named after Plankton, including "Plankton Rescues Karen," which is used during a scene highlighting Plankton's cooperation with hero SpongeBob. Plankton and Karen are the main antagonists in the show's Broadway adaptation. They were portrayed by Wesley Taylor and Stephanie Hsu. In addition to wearing costumes inspired by the characters, Taylor and Hsu are accompanied by a Plankton puppet and a replica of Karen's mobile form, respectively. The two also sing a musical number titled "When the Going Gets Tough" (composed by T.I.). The plot features them attempting to hypnotize the residents of Bikini Bottom into liking the food they serve at the Chum Bucket.
51,850,799	Corey Moore (safety)	1,159,423,782	American football player (born 1993)	[ "1993 births", "21st-century African-American sportspeople", "African-American players of American football", "American football safeties", "Georgia Bulldogs football players", "Houston Texans players", "Indianapolis Colts players", "Living people", "Ottawa Redblacks players", "Players of American football from Georgia (U.S. state)", "Sportspeople from Griffin, Georgia", "Tampa Bay Vipers players" ]	Corey Moore (born January 28, 1993) is a former American football safety. He lettered in football, basketball and track at Griffin High School in Griffin, Georgia. In football, he earned SuperPrep All-American honors and played in the U.S. Army All-American Bowl. He then played college football at Georgia, where he was a four-year letterman. Moore played in 50 games during his college career, recording 76 tackles, one sack, two interceptions and three pass breakups. He signed with the Houston Texans after going undrafted in the 2015 NFL Draft. He played in one game for the Texans in 2015, started eight games in 2016 and started three games in 2017. ## Early years Moore played high school football at Griffin High School in Griffin, Georgia, where he was a safety. He was named to the 2010 PrepStar Top 150 Dream Team. He was also named to the SuperPrep All-America team and the All-Dixie team. He was selected to play in the 2010 Georgia Athletic Coaches Association (GACA) North-South All-Star Football Classic as part of the South Team, and the 2011 U.S. Army All-American Bowl as part of the East Team. Moore was also backup quarterback during his senior year. He lettered in basketball and track at Griffin High School as well. In March 2010, he was named the top defensive back at the Atlanta National Underclassmen Combine. In the class of 2011, he was rated a four-star recruit by Rivals.com, Scout.com, ESPN.com and 247Sports.com. He was also rated the No. 5 safety in the country by Rivals.com, the No. 6 safety in the country by Scout.com, the No. 15 safety in the country by ESPN.com, and the No. 4 safety in the country by 247Sports.com. He was also rated the No. 6 safety in the country on 247Sports.com's composite rating, which takes into account the ratings of all the other major recruiting services in the country. ## College career Georgia was the first school to offer Moore and he committed to them on January 30, 2010. He later received offers from other schools, some of which included Auburn, Clemson, Memphis, North Carolina, Miami and Tennessee. Moore played safety and was a four-year letterman for the Georgia Bulldogs of the University of Georgia from 2011 to 2014. He received the Erskine "Erk" Russell Football Scholarship each year from 2011 to 2013. He played in 12 games his freshman year in 2011, recording one tackle. He also blocked a punt against Coastal Carolina on September 17, 2011. He appeared in 14 games, starting one, his sophomore season in 2012 and totaled 14 tackles, one of which was a tackle for loss. His one start was on offense against Ole Miss. He was named a team captain for the Vanderbilt game. He also won one of the team's Most Improved Player Awards. Moore played in 12 games, starting seven, in 2013 and accumulated one sack, one interception, one pass breakup and 35 tackles, three of which were tackles for loss. He appeared in 12 games, with six starts, his senior year in 2014 and recorded one interception, two pass breakups and 26 tackles, two of which were tackles for loss. He appeared in 50 games during his college career and finished with totals of two interceptions, three pass breakups, one sack and 76 tackles, six of which were tackles for loss. He majored in communication studies at Georgia. ## Professional career Moore was rated the 23rd best strong safety in the 2015 NFL Draft by NFLDraftScout.com. Lance Zierlein of NFL.com predicted that Moore would go undrafted and be a priority free agent. Zierlein also stated that Moore was a "Box safety who doesn't have the speed, range or cover skills to be a reliable, NFL back-end defender." ### Houston Texans After going undrafted in the 2015 NFL Draft, Moore signed with the Houston Texans on May 11, 2015. He was released by the team on September 5, he was then signed to the Texans' practice squad on September 8 and ultimately promoted to the active roster on December 29, 2015. He made his NFL debut and only appearance of the regular season on January 3, 2016, against the Jacksonville Jaguars, recording one special teams tackle. He also played in the team's AFC Wildcard game against the Kansas City Chiefs on January 9. Due to an injury to strong safety Quintin Demps, Moore made his first start on October 16 against the Indianapolis Colts. Moore then started the next two games at strong safety before Demps returned from injury. Leading up to the Week 13 game against the Green Bay Packers on December 4, starting free safety Andre Hal missed the full week of practice with an illness. During the Packers game, Moore started at free safety in place of Hal, who was active but did not play. Moore then started the final four games of the season at free safety while Hal played in the four games, but did not start any. Moore played in 16 games, starting 8, in 2016 and recorded 25 solo tackles, 7 tackle assists and 3 pass deflections. Hal returned as the starter at free safety for the team's Wildcard round playoff game against the Oakland Raiders on January 7. Moore played in, but did not start, the game against the Raiders and recorded one solo tackle, two pass breakups and a fourth quarter interception as the Texans won by a score of 27–14. Due to strong safety Demps having suffered an injury early in the first half of the Raiders game, Moore started the Divisional round playoff game against the New England Patriots and recorded seven solo tackles, one tackle assist and one pass breakup as the Texans lost by a score of 34–16. Moore started the first three games of the 2017 season. During the third game against the New England Patriots, Moore dropped an interception and gave up the game-winning touchdown as the Texans lost by a score of 36–33. Marcus Gilchrist then replaced him as starter. Moore suffered a concussion during the fifth game of the season, which caused him to miss the team's next game. During the 15th game of the season, Moore suffered an MCL sprain. He was placed on injured reserve on December 27, 2017. He played in 14 games, starting 3, in 2017 and recorded 20 solo tackles, 7 tackle assists and 1 pass breakup. On March 8, 2018, Moore signed a one-year contract with the Texans for \$630,000. He was waived by the Texans on September 1, 2018. ### Indianapolis Colts On September 2, 2018, Moore was claimed off waivers by the Indianapolis Colts. He recorded his first career interception on quarterback Derek Anderson in a 37-5 win over the Buffalo Bills. ### Tampa Bay Vipers Moore signed with the Tampa Bay Vipers of the XFL before the start of the regular season. He was waived on February 25, 2020. ### Ottawa Redblacks Moore signed with the Ottawa Redblacks of the CFL on March 2, 2020. After the 2020 CFL season was cancelled, Moore was placed on the retired list by the Redblacks on January 12, 2021.
13,111,724	Speech-generating device	1,162,204,016	Augmenting speech device	[ "Applications of artificial intelligence", "Augmentative and alternative communication", "Computational linguistics", "Occupational therapy", "Speech and language pathology", "Speech synthesis" ]	Speech-generating devices (SGDs), also known as voice output communication aids, are electronic augmentative and alternative communication (AAC) systems used to supplement or replace speech or writing for individuals with severe speech impairments, enabling them to verbally communicate. SGDs are important for people who have limited means of interacting verbally, as they allow individuals to become active participants in communication interactions. They are particularly helpful for patients with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) but recently have been used for children with predicted speech deficiencies. There are several input and display methods for users of varying abilities to make use of SGDs. Some SGDs have multiple pages of symbols to accommodate a large number of utterances, and thus only a portion of the symbols available are visible at any one time, with the communicator navigating the various pages. Speech-generating devices can produce electronic voice output by using digitized recordings of natural speech or through speech synthesis—which may carry less emotional information but can permit the user to speak novel messages. The content, organization, and updating of the vocabulary on an SGD is influenced by a number of factors, such as the user's needs and the contexts that the device will be used in. The development of techniques to improve the available vocabulary and rate of speech production is an active research area. Vocabulary items should be of high interest to the user, be frequently applicable, have a range of meanings, and be pragmatic in functionality. There are multiple methods of accessing messages on devices: directly or indirectly, or using specialized access devices—although the specific access method will depend on the skills and abilities of the user. SGD output is typically much slower than speech, although rate enhancement strategies can increase the user's rate of output, resulting in enhanced efficiency of communication. The first known SGD was prototyped in the mid-1970s, and rapid progress in hardware and software development has meant that SGD capabilities can now be integrated into devices like smartphones. Notable users of SGDs include Stephen Hawking, Roger Ebert, Tony Proudfoot, and Pete Frates (founder of the ALS Ice Bucket Challenge). Speech-generating systems may be dedicated devices developed solely for AAC, or non-dedicated devices such as computers running additional software to allow them to function as AAC devices. ## History SGDs have their roots in early electronic communication aids. The first such aid was a sip-and-puff typewriter controller named the patient-operated selector mechanism (POSSUM) prototyped by Reg Maling in the United Kingdom in 1960. POSSUM scanned through a set of symbols on an illuminated display. Researchers at Delft University in the Netherlands created the lightspot operated typewriter (LOT) in 1970, which made use of small movements of the head to point a small spot of light at a matrix of characters, each equipped with a photoelectric cell. Although it was commercially unsuccessful, the LOT was well received by its users. In 1966, Barry Romich, a freshman engineering student at Case Western Reserve University, and Ed Prentke, an engineer at Highland View Hospital in Cleveland, Ohio formed a partnership, creating the Prentke Romich Company. In 1969, the company produced its first communication device, a typing system based on a discarded Teletype machine. During the 1970s and early 1980s, several other companies began to emerge that have since become prominent manufacturers of SGDs. Toby Churchill founded Toby Churchill Ltd in 1973, after losing his speech following encephalitis. In the US, Dynavox (then known as Sentient Systems Technology) grew out of a student project at Carnegie-Mellon University, created in 1982 to help a young woman with cerebral palsy to communicate. Beginning in the 1980s, improvements in technology led to a greatly increased number, variety, and performance of commercially available communication devices, and a reduction in their size and price. Alternative methods of access such as Target Scanning (also known as eye pointing) calibrate the movement of a user's eyes to direct an SGD to produce the desired speech phase. Scanning, in which alternatives are presented to the user sequentially, became available on communication devices. Speech output possibilities included both digitized and synthesized speech. Rapid progress in hardware and software development continued, including projects funded by the European Community. The first commercially available dynamic screen speech-generating devices were developed in the 1990s. Software programs were developed that allowed the computer-based production of communication boards. High-tech devices have continued to become smaller and lighter, while increasing accessibility and capability; communication devices can be accessed using eye-tracking systems, perform as a computer for word-processing and Internet use, and as an environmental control device for independent access to other equipment such as TV, radio and telephones. Stephen Hawking came to be associated with the unique voice of his particular synthesis equipment. Hawking was unable to speak due to a combination of disabilities caused by ALS, and an emergency tracheotomy. In the past 20 or so years SGD have gained popularity amongst young children with speech deficiencies, such as autism, Down syndrome, and predicted brain damage due to surgery. Starting in the early 2000s, specialists saw the benefit of using SGDs not only for adults but for children, as well. Neuro-linguists found that SGDs were just as effective in helping children who were at risk for temporary language deficits after undergoing brain surgery as it is for patients with ALS. In particular, digitized SGDs have been used as communication aids for pediatric patients during the recovery process. ## Access methods There are many methods of accessing messages on devices: directly, indirectly, and with specialized access devices. Direct access methods involve physical contact with the system, by using a keyboard or a touch screen. Users accessing SGDs indirectly and through specialized devices must manipulate an object in order to access the system, such as maneuvering a joystick, head mouse, optical head pointer, light pointer, infrared pointer, or switch access scanner. The specific access method will depend on the skills and abilities of the user. With direct selection a body part, pointer, adapted mouse, joystick, or eye tracking could be used, whereas switch access scanning is often used for indirect selection. Unlike direct selection (e.g., typing on a keyboard, touching a screen), users of Target Scanning can only make selections when the scanning indicator (or cursor) of the electronic device is on the desired choice. Those who are unable to point typically calibrate their eyes to use eye gaze as a way to point and blocking as a way to select desired words and phrases. The speed and pattern of scanning, as well as the way items are selected, are individualized to the physical, visual and cognitive capabilities of the user. ## Message construction Augmentative and alternative communication is typically much slower than speech, with users generally producing 8–10 words per minute. Rate enhancement strategies can increase the user's rate of output to around 12–15 words per minute, and as a result enhance the efficiency of communication. In any given SGD there may be a large number of vocal expressions that facilitate efficient and effective communication, including greetings, expressing desires, and asking questions. Some SGDs have multiple pages of symbols to accommodate a large number of vocal expressions, and thus only a portion of the symbols available are visible at any one time, with the communicator navigating the various pages. Speech-generating devices generally display a set of selections either using a dynamically changing screen, or a fixed display. There are two main options for increasing the rate of communication for an SGD: encoding and prediction. Encoding permits a user to produce a word, sentence or phrase using only one or two activations of their SGD. Iconic encoding strategies such as Semantic compaction combine sequences of icons (picture symbols) to produce words or phrases. In numeric, alpha-numeric, and letter encoding (also known as Abbreviation-Expansion), words and sentences are coded as sequences of letters and numbers. For example, typing "HH" or "G1" (for Greeting 1) may retrieve "Hello, how are you?". Prediction is a rate enhancement strategy in which the SGD attempts to reduce the number of keystrokes used by predicting the word or phrase being written by the user. The user can then select the correct prediction without needing to write the entire word. Word prediction software may determine the choices to be offered based on their frequency in language, association with other words, past choices of the user, or grammatical suitability. However, users have been shown to produce more words per minute (using a scanning interface) with a static keyboard layout than with a predictive grid layout, suggesting that the cognitive overhead of reviewing a new arrangement cancels out the benefits of the predictive layout when using a scanning interface. Another approach to rate-enhancement is Dasher, which uses language models and arithmetic coding to present alternative letter targets on the screen with size relative to their likelihood given the history. The rate of words produced can depend greatly on the conceptual level of the system: the TALK system, which allows users to choose between large numbers of sentence-level utterances, demonstrated output rates in excess of 60 wpm. ## Fixed and dynamic display devices ### Fixed display devices Fixed display devices refer to those in which the symbols and items are "fixed" in a particular format; some sources refer to these as "static" displays. Such display devices have a simpler learning curve than some other devices. Fixed display devices replicate the typical arrangement of low-tech AAC devices (low-tech is defined as those devices that do not need batteries, electricity or electronics), like communication boards. They share some of disadvantages; for example they are typically restricted to a limited number of symbols and hence messages. It is important to note that with technological advances made in the twenty-first century, fixed-display SGDs are not commonly used anymore. ### Dynamic display devices Dynamic displays devices are usually also touchscreen devices. They typically generate electronically produced visual symbols that, when pressed, change the set of selections that is displayed. The user can change the symbols available using page links to navigate to appropriate pages of vocabulary and messages. The "home" page of a dynamic display device may show symbols related to many different contexts or conversational topics. Pressing any one of these symbols may open a different screen with messages related to that topic. For example, when watching a volleyball game, a user may press the "sport" symbol to open a page with messages relating to sport, then press the symbol showing a scoreboard to utter the phrase "What's the score?". Advantages of dynamic display devices include the availability of a much larger vocabulary, and the ability to see the sentence under construction A further advantage of dynamic display devices is that the underlying operating system is capable of providing options for multiple communication channels, including cell phone, text messaging and e-mail. Work by Linköping University has shown that such email writing practices allowed children who were SGD users to develop new social skills and increase their social participation. ### Talking Keyboards Low cost systems can also include a keyboard and audio speaker combination without a dynamic display or visual screen. This type of keyboard sends typed text direct to an audio speaker. It can permit any phrase to be spoken without the need for a visual screen that is not always required. One simple benefit is that a talking keyboard, when used with a standard telephone or speakerphone can enable a voice impaired individual have 2 way conversation over a telephone. ## Output The output of a SGD may be digitized and/or synthesized: digitized systems play directly recorded words or phrases while synthesized speech uses text-to-speech software that can carry less emotional information but permits the user to speak novel messages by typing new words. Today, individuals use a combination of recorded messages and text-to-speech techniques on their SGDs. However, some devices are limited to only one type of output. ### Digitized speech Words, phrases or entire messages can be digitised and stored onto the device for playback to be activated by the user. This process is formally known as Voice Banking. Advantages of recorded speech include that it (a) provides natural prosody and speech naturalness for the listener (e.g., person of the same age and gender as the AAC user can be selected to record the messages), and (b) it provides for additional sounds that may be important for the user such as laughing or whistling. Moreover, Digitized SGDs is that they provide a degree of normalcy both for the patient and for their families when they lose their ability to speak on their own. A major disadvantage of using only recorded speech is that users are unable to produce novel messages; they are limited to the messages pre-recorded into the device. Depending on the device, there may be a limit to the length of the recordings. ### Synthesized speech SGDs that use synthesized speech apply the phonetic rules of the language to translate the user's message into voice output (speech synthesis). Users have the freedom to create novel words and messages and are not limited to those that have been pre-recorded on their device by others. Smartphones and computers have increased the use of synthesized speech devices through the creation of apps that allow the user to select from a list of phrases or messages to be spoken in the voice and language that the user has chosen. Apps such as SpeakIt! or Assistive Express for iPhone provide a cheap way to use a speech-generating device without having to visit a doctor's office or learn to use specialized machinery. Synthesized SGDs may allow multiple methods of message creation that can be used individually or in combination: messages can be created from letters, words, phrases, sentences, pictures, or symbols. With synthesized speech there is virtually unlimited storage capacity for messages with few demands on memory space. Synthesized speech engines are available in many languages, and the engine's parameters, such as speech rate, pitch range, gender, stress patterns, pauses, and pronunciation exceptions can be manipulated by the user. ## Selection set and vocabulary The selection set of a SGD is the set of all messages, symbols and codes that are available to a person using that device. The content, organisation, and updating of this selection set are areas of active research and are influenced by a number of factors, including the user's ability, interests and age. The selection set for an AAC system may include words that the user does not know yet – they are included for the user to "grow into". The content installed on any given SGD may include a large number of preset pages provided by the manufacturer, with a number of additional pages produced by the user or the user's care team depending on the user's needs and the contexts that the device will be used in. ### Initial content selection Researchers Beukelman and Mirenda list a number of possible sources (such as family members, friends, teachers, and care staff) for the selection of initial content for a SGD. A range of sources is required because, in general, one individual would not have the knowledge and experience to generate all the vocal expressions needed in any given environment. For example, parents and therapists might not think to add slang terms, such as "innit". Previous work has analyzed both vocabulary use of typically developing speakers and word use of AAC users to generate content for new AAC devices. Such processes work well for generating a core set of utterances or vocal expressions but are less effective in situations where a particular vocabulary is needed (for example, terms related directly to a user's interest in horse riding). The term "fringe vocabulary" refers to vocabulary that is specific or unique to the individual's personal interests or needs. A typical technique to develop fringe vocabulary for a device is to conduct interviews with multiple "informants": siblings, parents, teachers, co-workers and other involved persons. Other researchers, such as Musselwhite and St. Louis suggest that initial vocabulary items should be of high interest to the user, be frequently applicable, have a range of meanings and be pragmatic in functionality. These criteria have been widely used in the AAC field as an ecological check of SGD content. ### Automatic content maintenance Beukelman and Mirenda emphasize that vocabulary selection also involves ongoing vocabulary maintenance; however, a difficulty in AAC is that users or their carers must program in any new utterances manually (e.g. names of new friends or personal stories) and there are no existing commercial solutions for automatically adding content. A number of research approaches have attempted to overcome this difficulty, these range from "inferred input", such as generating content based on a log of conversation with a user's friends and family, to data mined from the Internet to find language materials, such as the Webcrawler Project. Moreover, by making use of Lifelogging based approaches, a device's content can be changed based on events that occur to a user during their day. By accessing more of a user's data, more high-quality messages can be generated at a risk of exposing sensitive user data. For example, by making use of global positioning systems, a device's content can be changed based on geographical location. ### Ethical concerns Many recently developed SGDs include performance measurement and analysis tools to help monitor the content used by an individual. This raises concerns about privacy, and some argue that the device user should be involved in the decision to monitor use in this way. Similar concerns have been raised regarding the proposals for devices with automatic content generation, and privacy is increasingly a factor in design of SGDs. As AAC devices are designed to be used in all areas of a user's life, there are sensitive legal, social, and technical issues centred on a wide family of personal data management problems that can be found in contexts of AAC use. For example, SGDs may have to be designed so that they support the user's right to delete logs of conversations or content that has been added automatically. ## Challenges Programming of Dynamic Speech Generating devices is usually done by augmentative communication specialists. Specialists are required to cater to the needs of the patients because the patients usually choose what kinds of words/ phrases they want. For example, patients use different phrases based on their age, disability, interests, etc. Therefore, content organization is extremely time-consuming. Additionally, SGDs are rarely covered by health insurance companies. As a result, resources are very limited with regards to both funding and staffing. Dr. John Costello of Boston Children's Hospital has been the driving force soliciting donations to keep these program running and well-staffed both within his hospital and in hospitals across the country. ## See also
4,416,037	Averno (wrestler)	1,154,293,318	Mexican professional wrestler (born 1977)	[ "1977 births", "20th-century professional wrestlers", "21st-century professional wrestlers", "AAA World Tag Team Champions", "AAA World Trios Champions", "CMLL World Middleweight Champions", "CMLL World Tag Team Champions", "CMLL World Trios Champions", "Living people", "Masked wrestlers", "Mexican National Trios Champions", "Mexican male professional wrestlers", "NWA World Historic Middleweight Champions", "NWA World Middleweight Champions", "Professional wrestlers from Mexico City" ]	Renato Ruíz Cortes (born May 9, 1977) is a Mexican professional wrestler better known by the ring name Averno (Hell). Ruíz initially worked for Consejo Mundial de Lucha Libre (CMLL) as Rencor Latino in 1995, but did not achieve any significant success until he adopted the ring name Averno in June 2001. Under his new ring name, Ruíz went on to become a one–time CMLL World Middleweight, CMLL World Trios Champion, NWA World Middleweight Champion and NWA World Historic Middleweight Champion and a three–time CMLL World Tag Team Champion. His ring name is most commonly translated as "Hell" in English. For many years Averno's real name was not a matter of public record, as is often the case with masked wrestlers in Mexico where their private lives are kept a secret from the wrestling fans. However, in May 2011, Averno was booked in a Lucha de Apuesta, where he lost his mask and was forced to reveal his true identity. Ruíz left CMLL in April 2014 and joined rival promotion Lucha Libre AAA Worldwide (AAA) the following month. ## Personal life Renato Ruíz Cortes was born on May 9, 1977, in Mexico City, Mexico, son of then-professional wrestler Rodolfo Ruíz. He began training for a professional wrestling career himself at a young age, training under his father, who by then had retired from in-ring competition and instead was working as a referee and trainer. He made his in-ring debut in 1995, around his eighteenth birthday. ## Professional wrestling career ### Consejo Mundial de Lucha Libre (1995-2014) #### Rencor Latino (1995–2001) Ruíz began wrestling in 1995 under the ring name Rencor Latino (Latin Hostility). Working as Rencor Latino he soon started working in the lower ranks of Consejo Mundial de Lucha Libre (CMLL; "World Wrestling Council"). He won his first Lucha de Apuestas, or "bet match", 1998 unmasking Apolo Chino by defeating him after a midcard feud. On August 4, 2002, Rencor Latino was one of twelve wrestlers putting their mask on the line during CMLL's Entre Torre Infernal ("In the Infernal Tower") pay-per-view. The match came down to Rencor Latino and veteran wrestler El Hijo del Gladiador, and ended with Rencor Latino winning the match, taking El Hijo del Gladiador's mask in the process. He continued wrestling in the midcard until he was recruited by El Satánico in the summer of 2001 to be part of a new Los Infernales ("The Infernal Ones") group. #### Averno (2001–2014) During a televised segment Satánico used his supposed "satanic powers" to turn técnico (good guy) Rencor Latino into one of his "minions", a rudo (bad guy) character known as "Averno" ("Hell"). Traditionally when a masked wrestler transitions from one identity to a new identity it is not publicly acknowledged, but in Ruíz' case it was actually part of the storyline. As a result of the transition Averno would on occasion wrestle wearing a special mask that was half Averno, half Rencor Latino. Satánico and Averno were joined by Mephisto who had previously wrestled as Astro Rey Jr. The trio feuded with Último Guerrero, Rey Bucanero, and Tarzan Boy throughout the year with Averno and El Satánico unsuccessfully challenging Guerrero and Bucanero for the CMLL World Tag Team Championship in August 2001. The team lost when Satánico was disqualified for using a low blow. When Tarzan Boy was injured and unable to wrestle Bucanero and Guerrero recruited Máscara Mágica to even the numbers. The storyline between the two factions reaches its high point at the CMLL 68th Anniversary Show where all seven wrestlers faced off in a steel cage match. The stipulation of the match was that the winning side would gain the rights to use the name Los Infernales while the loser on the opposite side would be forced to unmask or have their hair shaved off. In the end El Satánico pinned Máscara Mágica, forcing him to unmask. After losing the match Guerrero, Bucanero and Tarzan Boy became known collectively as Los Guerreros del Infierno (The Infernal Soldiers), while El Satánico, Averno and Mephisto continuing to work as Los Infernales. In 2002, Los Infernales won the Mexican National Trios Championship in Guadalajara, Jalisco and began feuding with La Familia de Tijuana (Nicho el Millonario, Halloween, and Damián 666). The trio lost the championship to La Familia in September 2002 but continued feuding with the group into 2003. Over the summer of 2003 Los Infernales won a tournament to become the number one contenders for the CMLL World Trios Championship but lost champions Black Tiger III, Dr. Wagner Jr., and Universo 2000 on August 1. At the end of the year, Averno and Mephisto turned on El Satánico, but there was no major storyline feud between the three afterwards. In September 2004, Averno defeated Zumbido to win the vacant NWA World Middleweight Championship. Shortly after the championship win Averno was positioned as a rival or foil to the up-and-coming tecnico Místico. Averno and Mephisto also became de facto members of Los Guerreros del Infierno, joining forces with their former rivals. In February 2005, Averno lost the NWA World Middleweight Championship to Místico as part of their long running storyline. Two months later Averno and Mephisto defeated Atlantis and Blue Panther to win the CMLL World Tag Team Championship. When Shinsuke Nakamura and Hiroshi Tanahashi from New Japan Pro-Wrestling came to CMLL, Averno initially teamed up with them, the two turned on him. This led to a trios match with Averno, Último Guerrero and Rey Bucanero defeating Nakamura, Tanahashi, and Shigeo Okumura in one of the featured bouts on the CMLL 72nd Anniversary Show. In early 2006 Averno and Mephisto were the catalyst for one of CMLL's big storylines as they defended their titles against Místico and Black Warrior twice. In the first match, they won by disqualification when Black Warrior interfered in the match after already being eliminated and in the second match Black Warrior turned on Místico, attacking his partner to end the match. In April 2006, they lost the tag team championship to Místico and Negro Casas, ending their 377-day-long reign. In 2008 Averno formed the group Los Hijos del Averno ("The Sons of Hell") alongside Mephisto and Ephesto, followed by Averno and Mephisto defeating Atlantis and Último Guerrero to win the CMLL World Tag Team Championship for a second time. On September 17, 2008, Averno defeated Negro Casas to win the CMLL World Middleweight Championship, becoming a double middleweight champion as he still held the NWA World Middleweight Championship. Their reign lasted only 38 days before Místico and Héctor Garza won the championship from them. The duo became three-time tag team champions by the end of the year as Averno and Mephisto defeated Místico and Garza on December 7, 2008. The duo's third run with the CMLL World Tag Teams Championship ended on January 16, 2009, when they lost to La Sombra and Volador Jr. On July 22, Averno lost one of his middleweight championships, the CMLL World Middleweight Championship, to Hijo del Fantasma. On July 12, 2010, at the Promociones Gutiérrez 1st Anniversary Show Averno participated in a match where 10 men put their mask on the line in a match that featured five pareja incredibles teams, with the losing team being forced to wrestle each other with their mask on the line. His partner in the match was Último Guerrero, facing off against the teams of Atlantis and Olímpico, Místico and El Oriental, Histeria and La Sombra, Volado Jr. and El Alebrije. Averno and Último Guerrero was the third team to escape the match. In mid 2010 CMLL abandoned the NWA World Middleweight Championship after repeated complaints from the National Wrestling Alliance, instead they created the NWA World Historic Middleweight Championship and made Averno the first champion. Averno was one of 14 men putting their masks on the line in a Lucha de Apuestas steel cage match, the main event of the CMLL 77th Anniversary Show. Averno was the first man to leave the steel cage with all three members of Los Hijos del Averno quickly leaving the cage, keeping their masks safe. In April 2011, Averno began feuding with La Máscara, building a storyline that led to a Mask vs. Mask Lucha de Apuesta on June 17. The match announcement came on the heels of a report that Averno had signed a contract with WWE, supposedly following long time in-ring rival Místico who had already signed with WWE. On June 17 at CMLL's Juicio Final ("Final Judgement") show, Averno was defeated by La Máscara two falls to one and thus was forced to unmask. Upon unmasking, Averno revealed that his real name was Renato Ruíz Cortes, that he was 34 years old originally from Mexico City and had been wrestling for 16 years. Afterward, Ruíz and La Máscara continued their rivalry, building up to another singles match on July 4, where Ruíz successfully defended the NWA World Historic Middleweight Championship. Despite rumors Averno never began working for WWE, opting at the time to stay with CMLL. On July 15, Los Hijos del Averno defeated La Generación Dorada (La Máscara, Máscara Dorada and La Sombra) to win the CMLL World Trios Championship. On September 9, 2011, Averno entered CMLL's annual tournament of champions, the Universal Championship tournament. After defeating CMLL World Super Lightweight Champion Virus and old rival, Mexican National Light Heavyweight Champion La Máscara, in his first two matches, Averno defeated CMLL World Tag Team Champion Último Guerrero in the semi-finals. On September 16, Averno was defeated in the Universal Championship finals by La Sombra. On November 22, Averno lost the NWA World Historic Middleweight Championship to La Máscara. On February 19, 2012, Los Hijos del Averno lost the CMLL World Trios Championship to El Bufete del Amor ("The Law of Love"; Marco Corleone, Máximo, and Rush). Averno was forced to team up with constant rival La Mascara, for the 2013 Torneo Nacional de Parejas Increibles, just like he was for the 2012 tournament. The team worked together without too many problems in the first round as they defeated the team of El Hijo de Fantasma and El Felino, but stumbled in the second round as they lost to eventual tournament winners La Sombra and Volador Jr. On April 26, 2013, at the Arena Mexico 57th Anniversary Show Averno defeated Místico La Nueva Era to win the vacant Mexican National Welterweight Championship. On September 13 at CMLL's 80th Anniversary Show, Averno defeated Blue Panther in a submission only Lucha de Apuestas match, which forced Blue Panther to have all his hair shaved off as a result. On December 1, Averno lost the Mexican National Welterweight Championship to Titán. On April 28, 2014, CMLL announced that Averno had parted ways with the company. ### Total Nonstop Action Wrestling (2008) In 2008 Total Nonstop Action Wrestling (TNA) invited Averno, along with Volador Jr.,Último Guerrero and Rey Bucanero to compete in the 2008 TNA World X Cup Tournament, making them that year's "Team Mexico" entrants, with Guerrero serving as the team captain. Averno only wrestled one match in the tournament, participating in a twelve-man three tag team elimination match, at the Victory Road pay-per-view. Averno was the fourth man eliminated from the match at the hands of Team Japan's Masato Yoshino. Later during the same show Volador Jr. won an Ultimate X match, earning enough points for Team Mexico to win the entire tournament, becoming the 2008 World X Cup holders. Volador Jr. would work more matches for TNA, but Averno, Último Guerrero and Rey Bucanero did not. ### Lucha Libre AAA Worldwide (2014–2021) On May 17, 2014, Averno made his debut for Lucha Libre AAA Worldwide (AAA), joining the rudo stable La Sociedad. In a main event six-man tag team match, Averno teamed with Chessman and Pentagón Jr. to defeat Cibernético, Fénix and Psycho Clown, pinning Fénix for the win. After the match, Averno was attacked by an unnamed "mysterious wrestler", portrayed by his old rival Místico. On September 26, Averno and Chessman came together with Cibernético to reform the Los Hell Brothers stable, with Averno replacing former member Charly Manson for this incarnation of Los Hell Brothers. In February 2015, Los Hell Brothers officially joined La Sociedad. On June 14, 2015, at Verano de Escándalo, Averno won his first title in AAA, when Los Hell Brothers captured the AAA World Trios Championship. At Triplemanía XXIII Los Hell Brothers successfully defended the AAA World Trios Championship in a Steel Cage match, defeating the trios of Fénix and Los Güeros del Cielo (Angélico and Jack Evans) and Los Perros del Mal (El Hijo del Fantasma, Pentagón Jr., El Texano Jr.) In late 2015 Cibernético left AAA, which forced AAA to strip Los Hell Brothers the trios championship on January 6, 2016. On January 22 at Guerra de Titanes, Averno and Chessman won the vacant AAA World Tag Team Championship. However, immediately afterwards, La Sociedad turned on the two and expelled them from the group. Los Hell Brothers subsequently made several successful title defenses and began bragging about how there were no challengers left for them to deal with, that "no man" could defeat them. In the spring of 2016 sisters-turned-rivals Mari Apache and Faby Apache reunited as Mari returned to the tecnico side and started to team up with her sister on a regular basis. At that point in time the Apaches challenged Los Hell Brothers, demanding that they put the tag team championship on the line, a challenge that Averno and Chessman turned down, acting very dismissing and sexist in the process. During the July 8 AAA Television taping Averno and Chessman dressed up as a pair of frumpy women as they mocked Los Apaches. At the subsequent taping Los Apaches distracted Averno and Chessman during a title defense against Jack Evans and Angélico, which lead to Averno and Chessman losing the tag team championship. Afterwards it was announced that Averno and Chessman had finally agree to face Los Apaches at Triplemanía XXIV. The match at Triplemanía XXIV ended in a no-contest after Chessman and Averno hit the Apaches with fluorescent light tubes, causing Gran Apache to come to their aid. Averno and Chessman then paired up with Ricky Marvin to form a new trio named OGT, winning the AAA World Trios Championship on November 4. They lost the title to El Apache, Faby Apache and Mary Apache on March 5, 2017, when Marvin was defeated by Faby in a singles match. ## Championships and accomplishments - Consejo Mundial de Lucha Libre - CMLL World Middleweight Championship (1 time) - CMLL World Tag Team Championship (3 times) – with Mephisto - CMLL World Trios Championship (1 time) – with Ephesto and Mephisto - Mexican National Trios Championship (1 time) – with Satánico and Mephisto - Mexican National Welterweight Championship (1 time) - NWA World Middleweight Championship (1 time) - NWA World Historic Middleweight Championship (1 time, inaugural) - Lucha Libre AAA Worldwide - AAA World Tag Team Championship (1 time) – with Chessman - AAA World Trios Championship (3 times) – with Cibernético and Chessman (1), Chessman and Ricky Marvin (1), and Chessman and Super Fly (1) - Pro Wrestling Illustrated - PWI ranked him 48 of the 500 best singles wrestlers of the PWI 500 in 2006 - Total Nonstop Action Wrestling - TNA World X Cup (2008) – with Rey Bucanero, Último Guerrero and Volador Jr. - World Wrestling Association - WWA Middleweight Championship (1 time, current) ## Luchas de Apuestas record
24,226	Plan 9 from Bell Labs	1,170,078,961	Distributed operating system	[ "1992 software", "ARM operating systems", "Computing platforms", "Distributed computing architecture", "Embedded operating systems", "Free software operating systems", "MIPS operating systems", "Operating system distributions bootable from read-only media", "Plan 9 from Bell Labs", "PowerPC operating systems", "Software projects", "X86 operating systems", "X86-64 operating systems" ]	Plan 9 from Bell Labs is a distributed operating system which originated from the Computing Science Research Center (CSRC) at Bell Labs in the mid-1980s and built on UNIX concepts first developed there in the late 1960s. Since 2000, Plan 9 has been free and open-source. The final official release was in early 2015. Under Plan 9, UNIX's everything is a file metaphor is extended via a pervasive network-centric filesystem, and the cursor-addressed, terminal-based I/O at the heart of UNIX-like operating systems is replaced by a windowing system and graphical user interface without cursor addressing, although rc, the Plan 9 shell, is text-based. The name Plan 9 from Bell Labs is a reference to the Ed Wood 1957 cult science fiction Z-movie Plan 9 from Outer Space. The system continues to be used and developed by operating system researchers and hobbyists. ## History Plan 9 from Bell Labs was originally developed, starting in the late 1980s, by members of the Computing Science Research Center at Bell Labs, the same group that originally developed Unix and the C programming language. The Plan 9 team was initially led by Rob Pike, Ken Thompson, Dave Presotto and Phil Winterbottom, with support from Dennis Ritchie as head of the Computing Techniques Research Department. Over the years, many notable developers have contributed to the project, including Brian Kernighan, Tom Duff, Doug McIlroy, Bjarne Stroustrup and Bruce Ellis. Plan 9 replaced Unix as Bell Labs's primary platform for operating systems research. It explored several changes to the original Unix model that facilitate the use and programming of the system, notably in distributed multi-user environments. After several years of development and internal use, Bell Labs shipped the operating system to universities in 1992. Three years later, Plan 9 was made available for commercial parties by AT&T via the book publisher Harcourt Brace. With source licenses costing \$350, AT&T targeted the embedded systems market rather than the computer market at large. Ritchie commented that the developers did not expect to do "much displacement" given how established other operating systems had become. By early 1996, the Plan 9 project had been "put on the back burner" by AT&T in favor of Inferno, intended to be a rival to Sun Microsystems' Java platform. In the late 1990s, Bell Labs' new owner Lucent Technologies dropped commercial support for the project and in 2000, a third release was distributed under an open-source license. A fourth release under a new free software license occurred in 2002. In early 2015, the final official release of Plan 9 occurred. A user and development community, including current and former Bell Labs personnel, produced minor daily releases in the form of ISO images. Bell Labs hosted the development. The development source tree is accessible over the 9P and HTTP protocols and is used to update existing installations. In addition to the official components of the OS included in the ISOs, Bell Labs also hosts a repository of externally developed applications and tools. As Bell Labs has moved on to later projects in recent years, development of the official Plan 9 system had stopped. On March 23, 2021, development resumed following the transfer of copyright from Bell Labs to the Plan 9 Foundation. Unofficial development for the system also continues on the 9front fork, where active contributors provide monthly builds and new functionality. So far, the 9front fork has provided the system Wi-Fi drivers, Audio drivers, USB support and built-in game emulator, along with other features. Other recent Plan 9-inspired operating systems include Harvey OS and Jehanne OS. ## Design concepts Plan 9 is a distributed operating system, designed to make a network of heterogeneous and geographically separated computers function as a single system. In a typical Plan 9 installation, users work at terminals running the window system rio, and they access CPU servers which handle computation-intensive processes. Permanent data storage is provided by additional network hosts acting as file servers and archival storage. Its designers state that, > [t]he foundations of the system are built on two ideas: a per-process name space and a simple message-oriented file system protocol. The first idea (a per-process name space) means that, unlike on most operating systems, processes (running programs) each have their own view of the namespace, corresponding to what other operating systems call the file system; a single path name may refer to different resources for different processes. The potential complexity of this setup is controlled by a set of conventional locations for common resources. The second idea (a message-oriented filesystem) means that processes can offer their services to other processes by providing virtual files that appear in the other processes' namespace. The client process's input/output on such a file becomes inter-process communication between the two processes. This way, Plan 9 generalizes the Unix notion of the filesystem as the central point of access to computing resources. It carries over Unix's idea of device files to provide access to peripheral devices (mice, removable media, etc.) and the possibility to mount filesystems residing on physically distinct filesystems into a hierarchical namespace, but adds the possibility to mount a connection to a server program that speaks a standardized protocol and treat its services as part of the namespace. For example, the original window system, called 81⁄2, exploited these possibilities as follows. Plan 9 represents the user interface on a terminal by means of three pseudo-files: mouse, which can be read by a program to get notification of mouse movements and button clicks, cons, which can be used to perform textual input/output, and bitblt, writing to which enacts graphics operations (see bit blit). The window system multiplexes these devices: when creating a new window to run some program in, it first sets up a new namespace in which mouse, cons and bitblt are connected to itself, hiding the actual device files to which it itself has access. The window system thus receives all input and output commands from the program and handles these appropriately, by sending output to the actual screen device and giving the currently focused program the keyboard and mouse input. The program does not need to know if it is communicating directly with the operating system's device drivers, or with the window system; it only has to assume that its namespace is set up so that these special files provide the kind of input and accept the kind of messages that it expects. Plan 9's distributed operation relies on the per-process namespaces as well, allowing client and server processes to communicate across machines in the way just outlined. For example, the cpu command starts a remote session on a computation server. The command exports part of its local namespace, including the user's terminal's devices (mouse, cons, bitblt), to the server, so that remote programs can perform input/output using the terminal's mouse, keyboard and display, combining the effects of remote login and a shared network filesystem. ### 9P protocol All programs that wish to provide services-as-files to other programs speak a unified protocol, called 9P. Compared to other systems, this reduces the number of custom programming interfaces. 9P is a generic, medium-agnostic, byte-oriented protocol that provides for messages delivered between a server and a client. The protocol is used to refer to and communicate with processes, programs, and data, including both the user interface and the network. With the release of the 4th edition, it was modified and renamed 9P2000. Unlike most other operating systems, Plan 9 does not provide special application programming interfaces (such as Berkeley sockets, X resources or ioctl system calls) to access devices. Instead, Plan 9 device drivers implement their control interface as a file system, so that the hardware can be accessed by the ordinary file input/output operations read and write. Consequently, sharing the device across the network can be accomplished by mounting the corresponding directory tree to the target machine. ### Union directories and namespaces Plan 9 allows the user to collect the files (called names) from different directory trees in a single location. The resulting union directory behaves as the concatenation of the underlying directories (the order of concatenation can be controlled); if the constituent directories contain files having the same name, a listing of the union directory (ls or lc) will simply report duplicate names. Resolution of a single path name is performed top-down: if the directories top and bottom are unioned into u with top first, then u/name denotes top/name if it exists, bottom/name only if it exists and top/name does not exist, and no file if neither exists. No recursive unioning of subdirectories is performed, so if top/subdir exists, the files in bottom/subdir are not accessible through the union. A union directory can be created by using the bind command: ; bind /arm/bin /bin ; bind -a /acme/bin/arm /bin ; bind -b /usr/alice/bin /bin In the example above, /arm/bin is mounted at /bin, the contents of /arm/bin replacing the previous contents of /bin. Acme's bin directory is then union mounted after /bin, and Alice's personal bin directory is union mounted before. When a file is requested from /bin, it is first looked for in /usr/alice/bin, then in /arm/bin, and then finally in /acme/bin/arm. The separate process namespaces thus usually replace the notion of a search path in the shell. A path environment variable () still exists in the rc shell (the shell mainly used in Plan 9); however, rc's path environment variable conventionally only contains the and directories and modifying the variable is discouraged, instead, adding additional commands should be done by binding several directories together as a single . Unlike in Plan 9, the path environment variable of Unix shells should be set to include the additional directories whose executable files need to be added as commands. Furthermore, the kernel can keep separate mount tables for each process, and can thus provide each process with its own file system namespace. Processes' namespaces can be constructed independently, and the user may work simultaneously with programs that have heterogeneous namespaces. Namespaces may be used to create an isolated environment similar to chroot, but in a more secure way. Plan 9's union directory architecture inspired 4.4BSD and Linux union file system implementations, although the developers of the BSD union mounting facility found the non-recursive merging of directories in Plan 9 "too restrictive for general purpose use". ### Special virtual filesystem #### /proc Instead of having system calls specifically for process management, Plan 9 provides the /proc file system. Each process appears as a directory containing information and control files which can be manipulated by the ordinary file IO system calls. The file system approach allows Plan 9 processes to be managed with simple file management tools such as ls and cat; however, the processes cannot be copied and moved as files. #### /net Plan 9 does not have specialised system calls or ioctls for accessing the networking stack or networking hardware. Instead, the /net file system is used. Network connections are controlled by reading and writing control messages to control files. Sub-directories such as /net/tcp and /net/udp are used as an interface to their respective protocols. ### Unicode To reduce the complexity of managing character encodings, Plan 9 uses Unicode throughout the system. The initial Unicode implementation was ISO/IEC 10646-1:1993. Ken Thompson invented UTF-8, which became the native encoding in Plan 9. The entire system was converted to general use in 1992. UTF-8 preserves backwards compatibility with traditional null-terminated strings, enabling more reliable information processing and the chaining of multilingual string data with Unix pipes between multiple processes. Using a single UTF-8 encoding with characters for all cultures and regions eliminates the need for switching between code sets. ### Combining the design concepts Though interesting on their own, the design concepts of Plan 9 were supposed to be most useful when combined. For example, to implement a network address translation (NAT) server, a union directory can be created, overlaying the router's /net directory tree with its own /net. Similarly, a virtual private network (VPN) can be implemented by overlaying in a union directory a /net hierarchy from a remote gateway, using secured 9P over the public Internet. A union directory with the /net hierarchy and filters can be used to sandbox an untrusted application or to implement a firewall. In the same manner, a distributed computing network can be composed with a union directory of /proc hierarchies from remote hosts, which allows interacting with them as if they are local. When used together, these features allow for assembling a complex distributed computing environment by reusing the existing hierarchical name system. ## Software for Plan 9 As a benefit from the system's design, most tasks in Plan 9 can be accomplished by using ls, cat, grep, cp and rm utilities in combination with the rc shell (the default Plan 9 shell). Factotum is an authentication and key management server for Plan 9. It handles authentication on behalf of other programs such that both secret keys and implementation details need only be known to Factotum. ### Graphical programs Unlike Unix, Plan 9 was designed with graphics in mind. After booting, a Plan 9 terminal will run the rio windowing system, in which the user can create new windows displaying rc. Graphical programs invoked from this shell replace it in its window. The plumber provides an inter-process communication mechanism which allows system-wide hyperlinking. Sam and acme are Plan 9's text editors. ### Storage system Plan 9 supports the Kfs, Paq, Cwfs, FAT, and Fossil file systems. The last was designed at Bell Labs specifically for Plan 9 and provides snapshot storage capability. It can be used directly with a hard drive or backed with Venti, an archival file system and permanent data storage system. ### Software development The distribution package for Plan 9 includes special compiler variants and programming languages, and provides a tailored set of libraries along with a windowing user interface system specific to Plan 9. The bulk of the system is written in a dialect of C (ANSI C with some extensions and some other features left out). The compilers for this language were custom built with portability in mind; according to their author, they "compile quickly, load slowly, and produce medium quality object code". A concurrent programming language called Alef was available in the first two editions, but was then dropped for maintenance reasons and replaced by a threading library for C. ### Unix compatibility Though Plan 9 was supposed to be a further development of Unix concepts, compatibility with preexisting Unix software was never the goal for the project. Many command-line utilities of Plan 9 share the names of Unix counterparts, but work differently. Plan 9 can support POSIX applications and can emulate the Berkeley socket interface through the ANSI/POSIX Environment (APE) that implements an interface close to ANSI C and POSIX, with some common extensions (the native Plan 9 C interfaces conform to neither standard). It also includes a POSIX-compatible shell. APE's authors claim to have used it to port the X Window System (X11) to Plan 9, although they do not ship X11 "because supporting it properly is too big a job". Some Linux binaries can be used with the help of a "linuxemu" (Linux emulator) application; however, it is still a work in progress. Vice versa, the vx32 virtual machine allows a slightly modified Plan 9 kernel to run as a user process in Linux, supporting unmodified Plan 9 programs. ## Reception ### Comparison to contemporary operating systems In 1991, Plan 9's designers compared their system to other early nineties operating systems in terms of size, showing that the source code for a minimal ("working, albeit not very useful") version was less than one-fifth the size of a Mach microkernel without any device drivers (5899 or 4622 lines of code for Plan 9, depending on metric, vs. 25530 lines). The complete kernel comprised 18000 lines of code. (According to a 2006 count, the kernel was then some 150,000 lines, but this was compared against more than 4.8 million in Linux.) Within the operating systems research community, as well as the commercial Unix world, other attempts at achieving distributed computing and remote filesystem access were made concurrently with the Plan 9 design effort. These included the Network File System and the associated vnode architecture developed at Sun Microsystems, and more radical departures from the Unix model such as the Sprite OS from UC Berkeley. Sprite developer Brent Welch points out that the SunOS vnode architecture is limited compared to Plan 9's capabilities in that it does not support remote device access and remote inter-process communication cleanly, even though it could have, had the preexisting UNIX domain sockets (which "can essentially be used to name user-level servers") been integrated with the vnode architecture. One critique of the "everything is a file", communication-by-textual-message design of Plan 9 pointed out limitations of this paradigm compared to the typed interfaces of Sun's object-oriented operating system, Spring: > Plan 9 constrains everything to look like a file. In most cases the real interface type comprises the protocol of messages that must be written to, and read from, a file descriptor. This is difficult to specify and document, and prohibits any automatic type checking at all, except for file errors at run time. (...) > > [A] path name relative to a process' implicit root context is the only way to name a service. Binding a name to an object can only be done by giving an existing name for the object, in the same context as the new name. As such, interface references simply cannot be passed between processes, much less across networks. Instead, communication has to rely on conventions, which are prone to error and do not scale. A later retrospective comparison of Plan 9, Sprite and a third contemporary distributed research operating system, Amoeba, found that > the environments they [Amoeba and Sprite] build are tightly coupled within the OS, making communication with external services difficult. Such systems suffer from the radical departure from the UNIX model, which also discourages portability of already existing software to the platform (...). The lack of developers, the very small range of supported hardware and the small, even compared to Plan 9, user base have also significantly slowed the adoption of those systems (...). In retrospect, Plan 9 was the only research distributed OS from that time which managed to attract developers and be used in commercial projects long enough to warrant its survival to this day. ### Impact Plan 9 demonstrated that an integral concept of Unix—that every system interface could be represented as a set of files—could be successfully implemented in a modern distributed system. Some features from Plan 9, like the UTF-8 character encoding of Unicode, have been implemented in other operating systems. Unix-like operating systems such as Linux have implemented 9P2000, Plan 9's protocol for accessing remote files, and have adopted features of rfork, Plan 9's process creation mechanism. Additionally, in Plan 9 from User Space, several of Plan 9's applications and tools, including the sam and acme editors, have been ported to Unix and Linux systems and have achieved some level of popularity. Several projects seek to replace the GNU operating system programs surrounding the Linux kernel with the Plan 9 operating system programs. The 9wm window manager was inspired by 81⁄2, the older windowing system of Plan 9; wmii is also heavily influenced by Plan 9. In computer science research, Plan 9 has been used as a grid computing platform and as a vehicle for research into ubiquitous computing without middleware. In commerce, Plan 9 underlies Coraid storage systems. However, Plan 9 has never approached Unix in popularity, and has been primarily a research tool: > [I]t looks like Plan 9 failed simply because it fell short of being a compelling enough improvement on Unix to displace its ancestor. Compared to Plan 9, Unix creaks and clanks and has obvious rust spots, but it gets the job done well enough to hold its position. There is a lesson here for ambitious system architects: the most dangerous enemy of a better solution is an existing codebase that is just good enough. Other factors that contributed to low adoption of Plan 9 include the lack of commercial backup, the low number of end-user applications, and the lack of device drivers. Plan 9 proponents and developers claim that the problems hindering its adoption have been solved, that its original goals as a distributed system, development environment, and research platform have been met, and that it enjoys moderate but growing popularity. Inferno, through its hosted capabilities, has been a vehicle for bringing Plan 9 technologies to other systems as a hosted part of heterogeneous computing grids. Several projects work to extend Plan 9, including 9atom and 9front. These forks augment Plan 9 with additional hardware drivers and software, including an improved version of the Upas e-mail system, the Go compiler, Mercurial version control system support (and now also a git implementation), and other programs. Plan 9 was ported to the Raspberry Pi single-board computer. The Harvey project attempts to replace the custom Plan 9 C compiler with GCC, to leverage modern development tools such as GitHub and Coverity, and speed up development. Since Windows 10 version 1903, the Windows Subsystem for Linux implements the Plan 9 Filesystem Protocol as a server and the host Windows operating system acts as a client. #### Derivatives and forks - Inferno is a descendant of Plan 9, and shares many design concepts and even source code in the kernel, particularly around devices and the Styx/9P2000 protocol. Inferno shares with Plan 9 the Unix heritage from Bell Labs and the Unix philosophy. Many of the command line tools in Inferno were Plan 9 tools that were translated to Limbo. - 9atom augments the Plan 9 distribution with the addition of a 386 PAE kernel, an amd64 cpu and terminal kernel, nupas, extra pc hardware support, IL and Ken's fs. - 9front is a fork of Plan 9. It was started to remedy a perceived lack of devoted development resources inside Bell Labs, and has accumulated various fixes and improvements. - 9legacy is an alternative distribution. It includes a set of patches based on the current Plan 9 distribution. - Akaros is designed for many-core architectures and large-scale SMP systems. - Harvey OS is an effort to get the Plan 9 code working with gcc and clang. - JehanneOS is an experimental OS derived from Plan 9. Its userland and modules are mostly derived from 9front, its build system from Harvey OS, and its kernel is a fork of the Plan9-9k 64-bit Plan9 kernel. - NIX is a fork of Plan9 aimed at multicore systems and cloud computing. - node9 is a scripted derivative of Plan9/Inferno that replaces the Limbo programming language and DIS virtual machine with the Lua language and LuaJit virtual machine. It also replaces the Inferno per-platform hosted I/O with Node.js' libuv eventing and I/O for consistent, cross-platform hosting. It's a proof-of-concept that demonstrates that a distributed OS can be constructed from per-process namespaces and generic cloud elements to construct a single-system-image of arbitrary size. - Plan B designed to work in distributed environments where the set of available resources is different at different points in time. Originally based on the third edition Plan 9 kernel, Plan B was moved into user space to run on current Plan 9 systems. ## License Starting with the release of Fourth edition in April 2002, the full source code of Plan 9 from Bell Labs is freely available under Lucent Public License 1.02, which is considered to be an open-source license by the Open Source Initiative (OSI), free software license by the Free Software Foundation, and it passes the Debian Free Software Guidelines. In February 2014, the University of California, Berkeley, was authorized by the current Plan 9 copyright holder – Alcatel-Lucent – to release all Plan 9 software previously governed by the Lucent Public License, Version 1.02 under the GPL-2.0-only. On March 23, 2021, ownership of Plan 9 transferred from Bell Labs to the Plan 9 Foundation, and all previous releases have been relicensed to the MIT License. ## See also - Alef (programming language) - Rendezvous (Plan 9) - Inferno (operating system) - Minix - HelenOS
5,600,298	Operation Swath-10	1,158,588,873	Croatian War of Independence battle	[ "1991 in Croatia", "Battles of the Croatian War of Independence", "Conflicts in 1991", "November 1991 events in Europe", "October 1991 events in Europe" ]	Operation Swath-10 (Croatian: Operacija Otkos-10) was a military offensive undertaken by the Croatian Army (Hrvatska vojska, or HV) against the SAO Western Slavonia Territorial Defense Forces on Bilogora Mountain in western Slavonia. Occurring from 31 October to 4 November 1991, during the Croatian War of Independence, the operation was a Croatian victory and its success set the stage for follow-up advances by Croatian forces on Papuk Mountain in Operation Papuk-91 in late November and December. By the end of the year the HV gained control of Papuk, securing transport routes between eastern Slavonia and the rest of Croatia. The offensives were accompanied by the displacement of most of the Croatian Serb population of the area captured by the HV. The refugees initially fled to Bosnia and Herzegovina, but the majority were soon settled in the JNA-held Baranja region of eastern Croatia. The offensive provoked accusations that Croatian troops had committed ethnic cleansing and civil-rights abuses. These accusations were contested by the European Community Monitor Mission (ECMM). A month after the operation, the retreating paramilitary unit known as the White Eagles perpetrated the Voćin massacre, and its war crimes were prosecuted at the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia. ## Background During the 1991 Yugoslav campaign in Croatia, the 5th (Banja Luka) Corps of the Yugoslav People's Army (Jugoslovenska Narodna Armija, or JNA) was tasked with advancing north through western Slavonia from Okučani to Daruvar and Virovitica and with a secondary drive from Okučani towards Kutina. This was essentially consistent with the line expected to be reached by the main thrust of the JNA, advancing from eastern Slavonia in about a week. The link was designed to facilitate a further advance west, to Zagreb and Varaždin. The corps had deployed a battlegroup of the 265th Mechanised Brigade near Okučani, supporting an advance which began on 21 September and reached the Papuk Mountains. The corps received one artillery and two motorised brigades as reinforcements during the advance, but the desertion and morale problems experienced by the JNA elsewhere also existed in the Banja Luka Corps. The JNA was stopped by the Croatian National Guard (Zbor Narodne Garde, or ZNG) between Novska, Nova Gradiška and Pakrac, although SAO Western Slavonia Territorial Defense Forces (Teritorijalna odbrana, or TO) units took up positions on the Bilogora and Papuk north of Pakrac (near Virovitica and Slatina) with no JNA support. The capture of Ivanovo Selo, seven kilometres (4.3 miles) east of Grubišno Polje and eight kilometres (5.0 miles) north of Daruvar, on 21 September marked the territorial peak of the TO-held area on the Bilogora. The village was recaptured by the ZNG the same day, with seven dead and fifteen wounded. On 1 October, the Banja Luka Corps began probing attacks in the region before a major effort with most of the corps three days later. The advance established defensive positions just outside Novska and Nova Gradiška. On 6 October Pakrac was briefly isolated when the JNA captured Batinjani four kilometres (2.5 miles) (northwest of the town), blocking the last road available to supply the town. The ZNG recaptured the village the same day, driving the JNA back six kilometres (3.7 miles) at a cost of 22 killed. The JNA captured Jasenovac on 8 October; Lipik and part of Pakrac were captured four days later. By then, the JNA offensive in western Slavonia had lost momentum and the ZNG made minor advances north of Novska and west of Nova Gradiška on 13 and 16 October. Croatian authorities no longer considered the war situation critical, issuing an order to plan a counter-offensive for 15 October. On 29 October, the ZNG launched Operation Hurricane-91 against positions held by the JNA and the TO near Novska and Nova Gradiška. The TO forces in the Bilogora Mountain region were officially part of the 28th Partisan Division, commanded by Colonel Nikola Marić. In reality, they comprised about 1,750 soldiers, eight armoured vehicles, ten cannons and twelve mortars. The TO force was organised into two battalions, headquartered in the villages of Mali Grđevac and Velika Peratovica and commanded by Rade Čakmak. North of the TO-held area, the ZNG deployed the 127th Infantry Brigade in the Virovitica area. In the Grubišno Polje area south of the Bilogora, the ZNG force was subordinate to the 57th Independent Battalion (later renamed the 77th Independent Battalion). The attacking ZNG force, under Colonel Franjo Kovačević, consisted of 2,647 troops supported by twelve armoured vehicles, eighteen cannons and twenty 120-millimetre (4.7 in) mortars—surpassing the defending TO force in every respect except for the close air support of the TO by the Yugoslav Air Force. The ZNG originally planned to deploy the 105th Infantry Brigade and the Omega special-police company from Bjelovar, but the units were needed elsewhere and unavailable for the offensive. ## Timeline Operation Swath-10 (also known as Bilogora '91) was planned by the Croatians to regain control of the Virovitica–Lončarica–Grubišno Polje road, cutting off and destroying the TO forces deployed in the area of the road (the northernmost part of western Slavonia captured by the TO or the JNA). Those objectives were also designed to deny the Banja Luka Corps support if it attempted to break through towards Virovitica; control the last remaining supply route between Zagreb and Slavonia; shorten the Croatian defensive positions, and improve troop and civilian morale. The offensive was originally scheduled for 15 October, but was postponed for two weeks due to the unavailability of the 105th Infantry Brigade and the special police. The plan of operation called for the ZNG to first cut off the two TO battalions on the Bilogora Mountain within 48 hours, with the second stage of the offensive destroying the trapped TO force. The operation was authorised by Colonel Miroslav Jezerčić, commander of Bjelovar Operational Zone, on 7 October. The offensive was launched at 6 am on 31 October, with a 50-minute artillery bombardment followed by a ZNG advance in three groups: the 57th Independent Battalion from the south, the 127th Infantry Brigade from the north and the 1st Battalion of the 127th Infantry Brigade from the northwest. That day the ZNG captured the villages of Velika Barna, Gornja Kovačica and Zrinska, northwest of the Grubišno Polje–Veliki Grđevac road, securing Grubišno Polje. The ZNG also advanced along the Virovitica–Grubišno Polje road, arriving at the outskirts of Mala Peratovica (four kilometres (2.5 miles) east of Grubišno Polje) and approaching Lončarica (eleven kilometres (6.8 miles) south of Virovitica). The TO forces put up a strong resistance (especially near Lončarica), although the battlefield situation was described as hopeless. The TO requested close air support from the Yugoslav Air Force, and four to six aircraft were deployed in response. On 1 November the ZNG conducted mopping-up operations in the areas northwest of Grubišno Polje, and the following day the TO force began retreating towards Papuk Mountain. Lončarica and Dapčevački Brđani (a village about two kilometres (1.2 miles) northeast of Mala Peratovica, along the Virovitica–Grubišno Polje road) were captured by the Croatian force on 3 November after they overcame strong TO resistance. That day, the ZNG was renamed the Croatian Army (Hrvatska vojska, or HV). After the villages were captured, HV forces advancing from Grubišno Polje and Virovitica met; the HV captured the village of Velika Peratovica, which was isolated by the advances along the Virovitica–Grubišno Polje road and northwest of Grubišno Polje on the first day of the offensive. On 4 November the operation was declared finished, after the HV secured the area. ## Follow-up operations ### Battle of Bastajski Brđani On 10 November the 57th Independent Battalion advanced against the TO in Veliki Miletinac (east of the area captured in Operation Swath-10), capturing the village the same day. The neighbouring Mali Miletinac was captured by the HV the following day, and on 12 November the HV captured the villages of Bastajski Brđani and Rekići. Two days later the TO counterattacked, killing nine HV troops and wounding about ten more, but the HV defence held. Another effort to recapture Bastajski Brđani was made by the TO, reinforced with 50 paramilitary White Eagles. It failed (despite being well prepared and supported by artillery) because the defending HV force was alerted by signals intelligence of the attack and reinforced. The White Eagles lost 46 killed in the battle. ### Operation Papuk-91 Operation Papuk-91 was planned to follow Operation Swath-10, advancing south from the Virovitica–Osijek road and clearing the Papuk and Psunj mountains of TO forces (elements of the 28th Partisan Division). The offensive was approved by Jezerčić at a 23 November meeting in Slatina attended by HV Inspector General Martin Špegelj, Colonel Miljenko Crnjac (commanding officer of the 123rd Infantry Brigade), Colonel Đuro Dečak (commanding officer of the 127th Infantry Brigade), Colonel Josip Černi (commanding officer of the 136th Infantry Brigade) and commanders of other units tasked with its support. The operation was launched on 28 November; the HV advanced across a front spanning Grubišno Polje and Orahovica, nearly 60 kilometres (37 miles) east. On 2 December a detachment of the 123rd Infantry Brigade, en route to relieve troops manning a base on the Papuk, was ambushed with eleven soldiers killed. On 10 December the HV advanced to the Psunj Mountain area north of Nova Gradiška in an offensive, codenamed Gradina, which captured the villages of Šnjegavić, Sinlije, Golobrdac, Vučjak Čečavski, Ruševac, Jeminovac, Čečavac and Opršinac. The advance improved the safety of the Nova Gradiška–Požega road and secured the right flank of the Nova Gradiška axis of Operation Hurricane-91. From 12 to 15 December the HV captured a cluster of villages around Đulovac, southeast of the area captured in Operation Swath-10. The HV units approaching from the east captured Voćin, about ten kilometres (6.2 miles) southeast of Đulovac, on 14–15 December. Voćin and Đulovac were badly damaged by the retreating TO and paramilitary White Eagles, and the latter killed 43 civilians in Voćin on 13 December. The victims' bodies were mutilated and left unburied, presumably as a warning to others. On 16 December the HV (in an operation codenamed Sokolina) captured the villages of Gornji Vrhovci, Kamenski Vučjak and Kamenski Šušnjari, about 15 kilometres (9.3 miles) south of Voćin and 10 kilometres (6.2 miles) west of Velika; this restricted the TO forces to the southwestern slopes of Papuk Mountain and Psunj Mountain further south. The following day, the HV captured Novo Zvečevo and a TO supply depot in the village (halfway between Voćin and Kamenski Vučjak) in an attack codenamed Johanesberg. On 18 December the HV advanced southwest from Kamenski Vučjak (in an advance codenamed Laništa), capturing the villages of Striježevica, Bogdašić, Amatovci and Kamenski Šeovci and coming within one kilometre (0.62 miles) of the village of Kamenska (on the Pakrac–Požega road). Over the following three days, the HV performed mopping-up operations in the area. On 21 December, the HV launched an unsuccessful attack (codenamed Prkos) on Kamenska and the adjacent village of Mijači. The TO withdrew from the area north of Kamenska (including the village of Sažije on 24 December), retreating from Kamenska and Mijači the next day. HV forces deployed in the Pakrac area (west of the Papuk and the Psunj), advanced east to support Operation Papuk-91 (capturing the villages of Dereza, Gornji Grahovljani, Donji Grahovljani, Kusonje and Španovica on 24–25 December) and left less than 15 kilometres (9.3 miles) of the Pakrac–Požega road separating HV units advancing from the west and east. Operation Papuk-91 ended on 26 December, when forces of the 123rd, the 127th and the 136th Brigades met at Bučje; the final day's advance was codenamed Velebit. ## Aftermath Five HV soldiers were killed in the operation and dozens were wounded. Twenty-four JNA personnel and Croatian Serb rebels were also killed, as were 22 Serb civilians. A further 17 Serb civilians were killed in the weeks preceding the operation, in which Croatian forces secured 370 square kilometres (140 square miles) of western Slavonia (including 21 villages). Although the HV secured the Virovitica–Grubišno Polje road, it failed to trap the TO troops deployed to the area. This was later attributed to insufficient manpower: the unavailability of the 105th Infantry Brigade or the 73rd Independent (Garešnica) Battalion, which were deployed in Pakrac. The HV positions set the stage for further advances against the SAO Western Slavonia in Operation Papuk-91. Some sources conflate Operations Swath-10 and Papuk-91, describing the latter as part of Operation Swath-10. Operation Papuk-91 eliminated the threat to the road connecting eastern Slavonia and Zagreb; the TO forces were pushed south, placing the road out of artillery range. In Operation Papuk-91, the HV captured 110 settlements and 1,230 square kilometres (470 square miles) of territory. In 2008, a monument to HV troops participating in the offensive was unveiled in Grubišno Polje. Another monument was erected on Papuk Mountain to the 11 soldiers from the 123rd Infantry Brigade who were ambushed in Operation Papuk-91 on 2 December 1991. Operations Swath-10, Papuk-91 and Hurricane-91 (implemented in western Slavonia in late 1991) are considered the first offensive liberation operations in the Croatian War of Independence. The International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) charged Vojislav Šešelj with a number of war crimes, including the killings by the paramilitary White Eagles in Voćin on 13 December. Although the trial ended in 2012, as of August 2013 the verdict was pending. Slobodan Milošević, the president of Serbia at the time of the killings, was also tried by the ICTY for the crimes in Voćin, but died before his trial ended. ### Refugees About 4,000 Croatian Serb civilians fled the area affected by Operation Swath-10. According to Serbian sources, the population began to evacuate on the first day of the offensive; by the second day, about 800 vehicles had entered Bosnia and Herzegovina. The retreating columns included men of military age who refused to fight. A substantial number of refugees settled in Baranja, in houses owned by displaced Croats. Based on reports of fleeing civilians, the Yugoslav government accused Croatia of ethnic cleansing and other civil-rights violations. Deputy Prime Minister Aleksandar Mitrović wrote to the European Community Monitor Mission (ECMM), accusing Croatia of personal and property damage and the displacement of Serb civilians. Although the accusations were countered by evacuation plans made by SAO Western Slavonia authorities on 25 October and the testimony of civilians remaining in the area (that the TO ordered the population to flee, claiming that "the Ustaše are coming [...] and killing every Serb"), Serbian media extensively reported alleged atrocities. Reports compared the Croatian offensive to the World War II massacres committed by the Independent State of Croatia. On 3 November, the Presidency of Yugoslavia condemned the offensive, citing the destruction of 18 Serb villages, and the following day the National Assembly of Serbia appealed to the international community for help. In response to the situation (and a request from the Presidency of Yugoslavia) an ECMM team toured the area affected by the offensive on 6 November, targeting locations where media reports indicated atrocities; these included Velika Peratovica, Mala Peratovica, Gornja Rašenica, Donja Rašenica and Lončarica. The 6 November ECMM report refuted the accusations; although the team found only one Serb couple remaining in the area, they denied claims that the HV mistreated civilians left behind. The ECMM team reported no systematic destruction of houses, although a number of structures had artillery-bombardment damage and a small number of houses, farms and haystacks were recently torched. The team was unable to determine if the HV was to blame, if the villagers avenged SAO Western Krajina leaders or if the destruction was a result of a scorched earth policy by the retreating force. The HV offensives in western Slavonia conducted in late 1991 (Operations Hurricane-10, Swath-10 and Papuk-91) created a total of 20,000 Serb refugees. They fled the area when the JNA ordered Croatian Serb forces to withdraw, and were settled in the JNA-held Baranja region of eastern Croatia. The refugee resettlement coincided with Croatian Serb efforts to change the ethnic composition of the Danube area seized in late 1991, providing a secondary motive for the expulsion of non-Serb civilians. ### Ceasefire A 3 January 1992 ceasefire allowed the implementation of the Vance plan, which protected civilians in areas designated as UN Protected Areas (UNPAs) and deployed UN peacekeepers in Croatia. One of the UNPAs defined by the plan, UNPA Western Slavonia, encompassed parts of the municipalities of Novska and Nova Gradiška and all of Daruvar, Grubišno Polje and Pakrac. This UNPA covered the area held by the JNA on 3 January, additional territory to the north (recaptured by the HV in late 1991) and towns never under SAO Western Slavonia control (such as Grubišno Polje and Daruvar). The peacekeeping force (United Nations Protection Force, or UNPROFOR), initially expected to be 10,000-strong, began its deployment on 8 March.
27,896,821	Good Time (Inna song)	1,087,307,768	null	[ "2014 singles", "2014 songs", "Atlantic Records singles", "English-language Romanian songs", "Inna songs", "Pitbull (rapper) songs", "Song recordings produced by Steve Mac", "Songs written by Ina Wroldsen", "Songs written by Pitbull (rapper)", "Songs written by Steve Mac" ]	"Good Time" is a song recorded by Romanian recording artist Inna for Body and the Sun (2015)—the Japanese counterpart of her fourth studio album, Inna (2015)—Inna, and Party Never Ends (2013). Featuring the vocals of Cuban-American rapper Pitbull, it was made available for digital download on 15 July 2014 through Atlantic Records. "Good Time"—an uptempo dance-pop track featuring "hedonistic and cheerful" lyrics—was written by Steve Mac, Pitbull and Ina Wroldsen, while being solely produced by Mac. Music critics met "Good Time" with mixed reviews, with some of them calling it "addictive" and a "future hit", but also criticizing it for being a "filler track" on its parent album. An accompanying music video for the recording was uploaded on 28 July 2014 onto Inna's YouTube channel, and was shot by Barna Nemethi in Los Angeles, Miami and Bucharest. The visual portrays the singer performing to the song with fellow backup dancers according to what cameras order them to do by displaying words or phrases. Commercially, "Good Time" didn't experience much success on record charts, with it only reaching the top seventy of the charts in native Romania and Belgium, and peaking at number 201 on Russia's Tophit. In order to promote the track, Inna performed it during several of her concert tours that served to accompany Inna and Body and the Sun, but also at the World Trade Center Mexico. "Good Time" was further used for American sitcom Young & Hungry, and for American film Pitch Perfect 2 (2015). ## Background and release `"Good Time" marks the second time Inna and Pitbull collaborated on a recording; the latter's 2013 extended play Meltdown included her vocals on a track called "All the Things". Prior to the release of "Good Time", Inna stated in an interview with Direct Lyrics on April 14, 2015 that "[the track is] really different from all the songs [she has] released so far. It has a good vibe, it's special, [she has] danced like crazy for 8-9 days with [her] choreographer to learn the routine for [her] lyric video." Following this, the recording was released on 15 July 2014 in multiple countries through Atlantic Records; on iTunes Store, it was made available time-limited for purchase for 69 cents (USD). "Good Time" was subsequently included on the American edition of her third studio album, Party Never Ends (2013), and was later featured on the Japanese counterpart of her fourth record Inna (2015), titled Body and the Sun (2015). The 2020 Complete Edition of Inna, released to SoundCloud, also included the song.` ## Composition "Good Time" was written by Steve Mac, Armando C. Perez and Ina Wroldsen, with Mac solely producing the track. The uptempo recording is of dance-pop genre, featuring the use of trumpets alongside "hedonistic and cheerful" simple lyrics. Pitbull introduces the track by rapping "An international sensation... Inna! Let's have a good time!", while Inna sings "Say he ho he ho he ho, come on everybody" by the pre-chorus. Direct Lyrics described "Good Time" as an "uplifting" song, saying that its sound was a "new territory" for Inna, and a departure from her previous house styles. ## Reception Upon its release, "Good Time" received mixed reviews from music critics. Direct Lyrics praised the collaboration with Pitbull for the song, further labeling its chorus as "addictive" and "bubbly", and expecting it to become a "bona-fide summer hit". Romanian website Romania-Insider stated that they were not "impressed" by the track, likening it to Pitbull's previous solo works. German music website Hitfire criticized Pitbull's vocals on the recording, which they called a "filler track" for her album; they were positive towards its "earwormy" refrain. French publication Jukebox saw "Good Time" as a "future hit", while Japanese website iFlyer called its sound "dinstinctive" and "appropriate to decorate the summer of 2014". French music portal Musique Mag praised the song's "entertaining" lyrics: "Say he ho he ho he ho, come on everybody" interpreted by Inna. Commercially, "Good Time" didn't experience much success on record charts. While the track reached number sixty-seven on the week ending 21 September 2014 on Romania's Airplay 100, it also managed to chart on the Belgian Dance Ultratop Flanders chart and the Ultratip Flanders chart at numbers forty-one and thirty, respectively. ## Music video `The accompanying music video for "Good Time"—directed in the span of two days by Barna Nemethi in Los Angeles, Miami and Bucharest in February 2014—premiered on 28 July 2014 on Inna's YouTube channel. Scenes with Pitbull were filmed separately in Miami, while Inna was on a promotional tour in Mexico City. Prior to this, a lyric video for the song was released on 2 July 2014 through the same means, recalling the concept of the official visual; it was filmed by Bogdan Daragiu and featured her performing choreography accompanied by two fellow background dancers.` The visual opens with a hand inserting a coin into a machine. Subsequently, a space full of cameras is shown, with one of them displaying Pitbull rapping in front of a blue backdrop. Next, Inna makes appearance performing a choreography accompanied by several background dancers; she wears a blonde wig and a white jumpsuit. Over the rest of the visual, the cameras display different words or phrases, to which Inna and the backup dancers are dressed to. The clip portrays them playing baseball, golf, paintball, acting as cheerleaders and being engaged with barbie dolls among other activities. A scene from the visual portrays the crowd leaning over a Fiat car; American singer Jennifer Lopez used the same model for the music video of her 2011 single, "Papi". Direct Lyrics' Kevin Apaza was positive towards the clip, stating that it "isn't probably too high-budget, but it's good enough to put [him] in a good mood and have a good time watching it. Plus, the entire video screams 'summer'." Hitfire criticized the outfits worn by Inna throughout the clip, suggesting that "perhaps is the music video to show her fans how to not dress." The website went on into labeling it as "trashy", but described it as matching with the song. ## Live performances and usage in media "Good Time" was set on the track list of several concert tours that promoted her album Inna and its Japanese counterpart Body and the Sun in Europe and Japan. The singer also provided a live performance of the recording at the World Trade Center Mexico, where she further interpreted a cover version of Justin Bieber's "Love Yourself" (2015), and a stripped-down version of her "Endless" (2011), and opened the Untold Festival in 2016. The song was used for American sitcom Young & Hungry, while also making appearance in American film Pitch Perfect 2. ## Credits and personnel Credits adapted from the liner notes of Body and the Sun. - Inna – lead vocals - Pitbull – featured artist, composer - Steve Mac – composer, producer - Ina Wroldsen – composer ## Track listing ## Charts ### Weekly charts ### Year-end charts ## Release history
32,527,643	HMS Phoenix (N96)	1,170,494,936	British Parthian-class submarine	[ "1929 ships", "Lost submarines of the United Kingdom", "Maritime incidents in July 1940", "Parthian-class submarines", "Ships built on the River Mersey", "Submarines sunk by Italian warships", "World War II shipwrecks in the Mediterranean Sea", "World War II submarines of the United Kingdom" ]	HMS Phoenix was a Parthian-class submarine of the Royal Navy, launched in 1929. She was the eighteenth warship of the Royal Navy to use the name Phoenix. She served on the China Station from her commissioning until the start of the Second World War. Phoenix was then relocated to the Mediterranean Sea and was sunk by the Italian torpedo boat Albatros on 16 July 1940. ## Design The Parthian class was designed as an improvement of the earlier Odin class; the new class was larger, built with a raked stem, and given a shield to cover the 4-inch gun. The class had a design flaw in that the riveted external fuel tanks leaked, leaving an oil trail on the surface. Phoenix was fitted with a four-cycle blast-injection eight-cylinder diesel engine, which provided 4,640 horsepower (3,460 kW); submerged propulsion was provided by a 1,635 horsepower (1,219 kW) electric motor. Phoenix was 289 feet (88.1 m) long with a breadth of 30 feet (9.1 m) and displaced 2,040 long tons (2,070 t) of water while submerged. All submarines of the Parthian-class were outfitted with eight 21-inch torpedo tubes, one QF 4-inch (102 mm) Mk XII deck gun, and two machine guns. The class was the first to be outfitted with the Mark VIII torpedo. Phoenix had six tubes in the bow and two tubes at the stern. Submarines of the Parthian class were designed for a complement of 53 officers and men. Phoenix had a crew of 56. ## History Phoenix was laid down at Cammell Laird shipyard in 1928. The ship was the 18th in a series of British warships named after the mythical phoenix, and had the motto Resurgam (Latin for "I will rise again") Phoenix was originally deployed on the China Station as part of the 4th submarine flotilla. Ships of the China Station were tasked with trade protection and were used as a symbol of British power. In later September 1935, Phoenix, HMS Pandora, HMS Osiris, HMS Oswald, and the depot ship HMS Medway were ordered to travel to the Mediterranean. While in the Mediterranean, the ships participated in naval exercises including the crash dive manoeuvre. Eight months later, the small group was ordered back to Hong Kong. In April 1940, the flotilla, along with Medway, was ordered to the Mediterranean Sea to support naval operations there and the 1st submarine flotilla was established. ### Service in the Second World War Phoenix was stationed in Alexandria and patrolled the Aegean Sea and waters around the Dodecanese from 14 June to July 1940. In July 1940, Phoenix, under the command of Lt Cdr Gilbert Hugh Nowell, and Rorqual were given the task of screening a convoy of British ships bringing supplies from Malta to Alexandria. Phoenix made a contact report on 8 July after sighting the Italian battle fleet. Admiral Andrew Cunningham ordered his ships to cut off the Italian fleet from their base at Taranto, which led to the Battle of Calabria. Phoenix fired torpedoes at two Italian battleships, Giulio Cesare and Conte di Cavour, but missed both targets. While off the coast of Augusta, Sicily, Phoenix fired torpedoes at the Italian torpedo boat Albatros, but missed her. Albatros counter-attacked and sank Phoenix with depth charges. All hands were lost. ## See also - Submarine warfare - List of Allied ships lost to Italian surface vessels in the Mediterranean (1940–43)
28,433,276	Brazilian monitor Alagoas	1,137,423,431	Imperial Brazilian Navy's Pará-class river monitors	[ "1867 ships", "Maritime incidents in February 1868", "Pará-class monitors", "Ships built in Brazil" ]	The Brazilian monitor Alagoas was the third ship of the Pará-class river monitors built for the Imperial Brazilian Navy during the Paraguayan War in the late 1860s. Alagoas participated in the Passage of Humaitá on 19 February 1868 and provided fire support for the army for the rest of the war. The ship was assigned to the Upper Uruguay (Portuguese: Alto Uruguai) flotilla after the war. Alagoas was transferred to Rio de Janeiro in the 1890s and participated in the Navy Revolt of 1893–94. The ship was scrapped in 1900. ## Design and description The Pará-class monitors were designed to meet the need of the Brazilian Navy for small, shallow-draft armored ships capable of withstanding heavy fire. The monitor configuration was chosen as a turreted design did not have the same problems engaging enemy ships and fortifications as did the casemate ironclads already in Brazilian service. The oblong gun turret sat on a circular platform that had a central pivot. It was rotated by four men via a system of gears; 2.25 minutes were required for a full 360° rotation. A bronze ram was fitted to these ships as well. The hull was sheathed with Muntz metal to reduce biofouling. The ships measured 39 meters (127 ft 11 in) long overall, with a beam of 8.54 meters (28 ft 0 in). They had a draft between of 1.51–1.54 meters (4 ft 11 in – 5 ft 1 in) and displaced 500 metric tons (490 long tons). With only 0.3 meters (1 ft 0 in) of freeboard they had to be towed between Rio de Janeiro and their area of operations. Their crew numbered 43 officers and men. ### Propulsion The Pará-class ships had two direct-acting steam engines, each driving a single 1.3-meter (4 ft 3 in) propeller. Their engines were powered by two tubular boilers at a working pressure of 59 psi (407 kPa; 4 kgf/cm<sup>2</sup>). The engines produced a total of 180 indicated horsepower (130 kW) which gave the monitors a maximum speed of 8 knots (15 km/h; 9.2 mph) in calm waters. The ships carried enough coal for one day's steaming. ### Armament Alagoas carried a single 70-pounder Whitworth rifled muzzle loader (RML) in her gun turret. The 70-pounder gun had a maximum elevation of 15°. It had a maximum range of 5,540 meters (6,060 yd). The 70-pounder gun weighed 8,582 pounds (3,892.7 kg) and fired a 5.5-inch (140 mm) shell that weighed 81 pounds (36.7 kg). Most unusually the gun's Brazilian-designed iron carriage was designed to pivot vertically at the muzzle; this was done to minimize the size of the gunport through which splinters and shells could enter. ### Armor The hull of the Pará-class ships was made from three layers of wood that alternated in orientation. It was 457 millimeters (18.0 in) thick and was capped with a 102-millimeter (4 in) layer of peroba hardwood. The ships had a complete wrought iron waterline belt, 0.91 meters (3.0 ft) high. It had a maximum thickness of 102 millimeters amidships, decreasing to 76 millimeters (3 in) and 51 millimeters (2 in) at the ship's ends. The curved deck was armored with 12.7 millimeters (0.5 in) of wrought iron. The gun turret was shaped like a rectangle with rounded corners. It was built much like the hull, but the front of the turret was protected by 152 millimeters (6 in) of armor, the sides by 102 millimeters and the rear by 76 millimeters. Its roof and the exposed portions of the platform it rested upon were protected by 12.7 millimeters of armor. The armored pilothouse was positioned ahead of the turret. ## Service Alagoas was laid down at the Arsenal de Marinha da Corte in Rio de Janeiro on 8 December 1866, during the Paraguayan War, which saw Argentina, Uruguay and the Empire of Brazil allied against Paraguay. She was launched on 29 October 1867 and completed in November 1867. She arrived on the Paraná River in January 1868, although her passage further north was barred by the Paraguayan fortifications at Humaitá. On 19 February 1868, six Brazilian ironclads, including Alagoas, steamed past Humaitá at night. Alagoas and her two sister ships, Rio Grande and Pará were lashed to the larger ironclads in case any engines were disabled by the Paraguayan guns. Barroso led with Rio Grande, followed by Bahia with Alagoas and Tamandaré with Pará. The cable tying Alagoas to Bahia was severed by Paraguayan shells and the monitor drifted down below the guns. The commander of the Alagoas was ordered not to attempt to pass the guns during daylight, but disregarded this order and successfully rendezvoused with the rest of the squadron upstream of the fortifications. Both Alagoas, which had taken an estimated 200 hits, and Pará had to be beached after passing the fortress to prevent them from sinking. Alagoas was under repair at São José do Cerrito until mid-March. Accompanied by Tamandaré, Alagoas bombarded and destroyed the Paraguayan artillery battery at Timbó, upstream of Humaitá, on 23 March. The monitor bombarded artillery positions defending the Tebicuary River in July and again in August. On 15 October she bombarded Angostura Fort, south of Asunción, in company with Brasil, Silvado, Pará and her sister Ceará. After the war Alagoas was assigned to the newly formed Alto Uruguay Flotilla, based at Itaqui. In the 1880s the ship's armament was reinforced with a pair of 11-millimeter (0.43 in) machine guns. Alagoas was transferred to Rio de Janeiro in the 1890s and joined the rebels in the Navy Revolt of 1893–94. Her engines had been removed by this point and she had to be towed into position to fire on the government forts. She was scrapped in 1900. ## See also The article Passage of Humaitá contains contemporaneous descriptions of Alagoas and her sister monitors by captain Richard Burton and colonel George Thompson.
755,970	Fakhr al-Mulk Ridwan	1,171,608,773	Seljuk ruler of Aleppo (1095–1113)	[ "1113 deaths", "11th-century rulers", "12th-century Syrian people", "Muslims of the Crusade of 1101", "Muslims of the First Crusade", "Nizari Ismaili–Seljuk relations", "Order of Assassins", "People of the Nizari–Seljuk wars", "Seljuk rulers", "Sultans of Aleppo", "Year of birth unknown" ]	Ridwan (c. 1077 – 10 December 1113) was a Seljuk emir of Aleppo from 1095 until his death. Ridwan was born to the Seljuk prince Tutush, who had established a principality in Syria after his brother, Sultan Malik-Shah I granted him the region and its adjacent areas as an appanage. After the death of Malik-Shah, Tutush claimed the Seljuk crown, but he was killed by the forces of his nephew Berkyaruq near Ray, Iran. Following this, Ridwan moved to Aleppo and proclaimed himself the new emir. His brother Duqaq's declaration of a new emirate in Damascus split the Syrian Seljuk state in two and started a rivalry between the brothers which continued even after the arrival of the First Crusade in 1097. Ridwan tried to banish the Crusaders with gold, and fought the Principality of Antioch, a Crusader state established after the end of the Siege of Antioch in 1098. Bohemond I of Antioch invaded Ridwan's domain and reached Aleppo's surroundings. Bohemond's successor, Tancred, regent of Antioch, also warred against Ridwan, but the two later allied in a conflict against the emir of Mosul, Jawali Saqawa, supported by Baldwin II of Edessa and Joscelin I, the Lord of Turbessel. Ridwan's personality was shrouded in mystery. He was surrounded by the Shia Arabs of Aleppo and favoured the Nizari Isma'ilis. Ridwan became a patron of the Assassins, giving them the freedom to practice and propagate their religion by letting them establish a "house of propaganda" in Aleppo and use the city as a base for future activities, which allowed the Assassins to establish a foothold in Syria. Ridwan had two of his brothers strangled to death, and had alleged ties to the assassination of several of his rivals, including the atabeg Janah ad-Dawla al-Husain. Ridwan's death in 1113 caused an anti-Isma'ili reaction within Aleppo. The administrative sovereignty of the atabeg Lu'lu' al-Yaya, and the effective elimination of the Assassins in Aleppo, characterized the reign of his successor, Alp Arslan al-Akhras. Seljuk rule in Aleppo soon ended in 1118 with the Artuqid takeover by Ilghazi. ## Background Fakhr al-Mulk Ridwan was born around 1077. He was the eldest of five sons of Taj ad-Dawla Tutush, the brother of the Seljuk Sultan Malik-Shah I, and the mayor of Ganja in Arran. In 1078, Malik-Shah sent Tutush to conquer Syria and the adjacent areas as an appanage, creating a principality there. Tutush besieged and conquered Aleppo the next year, while a Fatimid army simultaneously besieged Damascus. Thereupon, the Turcoman ruler of Damascus, Atsiz ibn Uwaq (r. 1071–1079) asked for help from Tutush. Having heard that Tutush was coming, the Fatimid forces retreated. Even though Atsiz accepted Tutush's suzerainty, Tutush had Atsiz strangled with the bowstring of his bow on the pretext that he was late to greet him and that he was conspiring against him with his brother. Tutush conquered Southern Syria and Palestine, capturing Jerusalem, Damascus, Acre, Tyre, Tripoli, Jaffa, and Arish, as well as the region of Galilee, previously held by Atsiz, and founded the Syrian Seljuk State. Tutush struggled with the Seljuk Sultan of Rum, Suleiman ibn Qutalmish (r. 1077–1086), who had claimed Aleppo. Qutalmish was defeated and killed in a battle that took place near Aleppo on 4 June 1086. Sultan Malik-Shah died in November 1092, though there were no princes of age to inherit the vast Seljuk empire. Tutush claimed the Seljuk throne, as he was the only adult, though he gained little support from the Turkic elite. He then captured Mosul, Aleppo and the Diyar Bakr. One of Malik-Shah's wives, Terken Khatun, who was trying to install her four-year-old son Mahmud to the thrown, then tried to reach out to Tutush but died suddenly in 1094. By 1094, Tutush, accompanied by his son, Shams al-Muluk Duqaq, had invaded the Jazira and western Iran, seizing the city of Ray. However, his nephew Berkyaruq's forces killed him near the same city on 25 February 1095. ## Reign ### Ridwan's rivalry with Duqaq Ridwan learned of his father's death while he was camping in Anah and returned immediately to Aleppo and took over the Syrian Seljuk throne. The Turcoman ruler of Antioch, Yaghi-Siyan, gave his daughter to Ridwan in marriage and recognised Ridwan as his overlord, with coins being struck in his name in the city. Ridwan, fearing that they might gain power and overthrow him, strangled his two brothers, Abu Talib and Behram, while his other brother, Duqaq, accompanied by the atabeg Janah ad-Dawla al-Husain, sneaked out of Aleppo and moved to Damascus, founding a separate state there. Ridwan did not recognise Duqaq's domain and proclaimed himself the sole legitimate ruler of the Syrian Seljuks. Thereupon, Ridwan besieged Damascus but failed to seize it and had to return to Aleppo. Thus, the Syrian Seljuk state was divided into two rival halves, ruled from Aleppo and Damascus. In 1096, Ridwan wished to expand his domain and besieged Suruç, which was ruled at the time by his cousin, Soqman ibn Ortoq. He failed to seize the town. Later, he marched on Edessa and conquered the city. He also planned to capture Harran, but gave up because of unrest among his commanders. Ridwan then captured Turbessel after eliminating Yusuf ibn Abaq, one of the commanders who had disobeyed him. He moved to besiege Damascus again when Duqaq was out of the city, but then lifted the siege when he was informed of Duqaq's approaching army and returned to Aleppo. Ridwan besieged Damascus again in the same year, but was again thwarted. Duqaq then launched raids against the territory of Aleppo, but Ridwan defeated him on 22 March 1097 at Qinnasrin. Taking advantage of the Syrian Seljuk split, the Fatimid vizier, al-Afdal Shahanshah, promised military support to Ridwan against his brother if he pledged allegiance to the Fatimid caliph al-Musta'li by having the Friday sermon read in his name. Ridwan agreed to this on 28 August 1097 but was met with harsh reactions among the Sunni leaders. A month later, Ridwan reverted to having the sermon read on behalf of the Sunni Abbasid caliph and the Seljuk sultan, also apologizing to the Abbasid caliph al-Mustazhir. ### Crusades and Isma'ilism Ridwan prepared to attack Duqaq and Janah ad-Dawla, who had established an independent emirate in Homs. Meanwhile, the Crusaders marched on Antioch, and the city's governor, Yaghi-Siyan, who was disloyal to Ridwan and had openly intrigued with his rivals—his brother Duqaq and Kerbogha, the Turcoman Atabeg of Mosul—asked for help from the Muslim leaders, including the Seljuk Sultan Berkyaruq. Ridwan was not keen to help and sent only a small unit to the aid of the Muslim coalition led by Kerbogha, the Turcoman emir of Mosul. Ridwan did not participate in their expeditions, though his brother Duqaq and the atabeg Janah ad-Dawla did. Yaghi-Siyan left Ridwan's side because of his behaviour, but then was forced to return to him after Duqaq failed him. Duqaq later feared that moving troops into Aleppo's environs would allow Ridwan to strike at his domain. Ridwan, accompanied by Soqman ibn Ortoq, led an army to relieve Antioch. They retook Harem, but as they approached Antioch, the crusaders under the command of Bohemond of Taranto sent out all of their cavalry to lure the larger Turcoman forces to his desired battlefield—a narrow strip of land wedged between the Orontes River and Lake Antioch. Ridwan was defeated in the Battle of the Lake of Antioch, and his forces retreated, while the Crusaders reoccupied Harem. The Crusaders captured Antioch in June 1098 and established a principality there with Bohemond as its ruler. They then seized al-Bara and Ma'arrat al-Nu'man, and captured Zardana, Sarmeen and Kella, surrounding Aleppo. Bohemond defeated Ridwan again on 5 July 1100. While Bohemond was closing on Aleppo, the Armenian ruler of Melitene, Gabriel, asked for his help against the Danishmendid ruler Gazi Gümüshtigin. Ridwan used this opportunity to seize supplies stored by the Crusaders. Meanwhile, Ridwan made peace with Janah ad-Dawla in Nukrah. Despite this, on 1 May 1103, Janah ad-Dawla was stabbed to death in Homs by three Persian Assassins dressed as Sufis, acting on a signal from a sheikh who accompanied them. Janah ad-Dawla's officers and the assassins were killed during the ensuing chaos, and most of Homs' Turkish population fled to Damascus, while the city itself was annexed into Duqaq's domain. Most sources suggest Ridwan initiated the assassination of Janah ad-Dawla. Ridwan, residing in the Citadel of Aleppo, had favoured the Shi'a, who comprised an important part of Aleppo's population, hoping to win their support. Prior to this incident, Ridwan gave freedom to the Assassins to practice and propagate their religion, letting them establish a "house of propaganda" in Aleppo and using the city as a base for future activities. The Assassins thus gained a foothold in Syria. Despite this, Ridwan's adherence to the Assassins' Nizari Isma'ili creed is uncertain, and according to historian Bernard Lewis, was unlikely. ### Conflicts and alliance with Tancred In general, Ridwan tried to banish the Crusaders with gold, despite being characterised as a "rapacious miser" among the Shia and Sunni Muslims in his domain. The regent of Antioch, Tancred, who forcibly collected money from the rural locals, made peace with Ridwan, in return receiving 7000 gold dinars and 10,000 cattle and sheep. Ridwan profited from Soqman ibn Ortoq's victory over the Crusaders in the Battle of Harran in 1104 and took back the cities and fortresses occupied by the Crusaders. Ridwan's brother and rival, Duqaq, died of tuberculosis on 6 June 1104, after which Ridwan moved to Damascus and gave khutbah in his own name, though Duqaq was succeeded by his son, Tutush II. Soon after, Tutush II and his relatives were set aside by his atabeg, Toghtekin, and the Turkish Burid dynasty succeeded the Seljuks in Damascus. In 1105, Ridwan left Aleppo to aid the qadi of Tripoli, Fakhr al-Mulk ibn Ammar, against the Crusaders, but when he learned Tancred had besieged Artah, he turned back to relieve the town. Tancred offered peace to Ridwan. He refused it and was defeated on 20 April 1105 in the Battle of Artah, after which Tancred invaded and plundered the surroundings of Aleppo. Later, the pro-Fatimid emir of Apamea, Khalaf ibn Mula'ib, was assassinated and Ridwan added the town to his domain, though he lost it to Tancred in 1106. These events prompted Ridwan to ally with Ilghazi against, Jikirmish, the emir of Mosul, in besieging Nussaybin. Moreover, the new emir of Mosul, Chavli Saqaveh, joined this alliance against Kilij Arslan I, the Seljuk Sultan of Rûm, who had occupied Mosul. Ridwan and Chavli defeated and killed Kilij Arslan in 1107. While Chavli's behaviour had disturbed Ridwan, the Seljuk Sultan and Ridwan's uncle Muhammad I Tapar, dismissed Chavli. Not accepting this decision, he allied with local emirs and marched towards Syria. Ridwan first seized the ransom sent to Chavli by Baldwin II of Edessa in Siffin, and cooperated with the Numayrids against him, while Chavli occupied Balis. Thereupon, Ridwan allied with Tancred against Chavli, who also sought help from Baldwin and Joscelin I, the Lord of Turbessel. Ridwan's 600-strong cavalry and Tancred's army of 1,500 knights and foot-soldiers engaged Chavli, Baldwin, and Joscelin's force of two thousand men in Turbessel in September 1108, defeating them in a battle in which both sides suffered heavy casualties. As a result, Balis returned to Seljuk control. While Tancred was in Edessa, Ridwan launched raids against Antioch to reclaim the lands surrounding Aleppo but retreated after learning of Tancred's arrival. Ridwan's situation worsened when Tancred attacked east of Aleppo in retaliation. Ridwan gave Tancred 20,000 dinars, and 10,000 horses, as well as two fortresses in the vicinity of Aleppo, and freed the captives he had taken during his raids, in exchange for peace. This agreement caused a famine around Aleppo, and Ridwan had to sell the lands from his own demesne to the locals at low prices. Furthermore, Ibn al-Khashshab, the Shi'a qadi and rais of Aleppo, organised a riot in the city when Tancred forced Ridwan to affix a cross in the Great Mosque of Aleppo. Tancred, who controlled the routes from Aleppo to the Mediterranean, had held Aleppan caravans to ransom, and was plundering Syria, especially Aleppo's environs. Ridwan did not have enough resources to deal with Tancred by himself, so Ibn al-Khashshab proposed to send a delegation of Shia and Sunni notables, merchants and clerics to the Seljuk sultan Muhammad I in Baghdad. Ridwan agreed to do so. Muhammad I started expeditions against the Crusaders with the Emir of Mosul, Mawdud ibn Altuntash, first besieging Harran, and then Turbessel. Ridwan tried to profit from this by engaging in it as little as possible, though he then abandoned the Muslim coalition by buying a pardon from the Crusaders, angering his subjects and the Muslim rulers alike. Meanwhile, Ridwan asked Mawdud to lift his siege of Turbessel and come to his aid in Aleppo. However, Ridwan did not allow the Seljuk army inside the city and imprisoned Ibn al-Khashshab and his major supporters. Yet again, Ridwan did not join the Muslim expeditions, and the Seljuk army left Syria in August 1111 without fighting a single battle. ### Last years Ridwan's financial situation worsened. His attempt to confiscate the goods of a merchant named Abu Harb Isa from Khorasan, in cooperation with the Isma'ilis, greatly damaged his reputation. When the atabeg Toghtekin came to lead the Muslim armies against Sidon or Tripoli, he passed by Damascus, where Ridwan tried to assassinate him, but dropped this plan when he learned Tancred was preparing to invade Azaz, and asked Toghtegin for help. In 1112, they signed a defensive treaty at Aleppo, in return of for recognition of Ridwan's formal sovereignty over Damascus. When Baldwin I of Jerusalem invaded Damascus, Toghtegin asked Ridwan for help, but the latter sent only a small force of 100 horsemen. Toghtegin was angered by this and ended the Friday sermon given in Ridwan's name in Damascus on 16 August 1113. On 2 October 1113, Mawdud, one of the commanders of the Muslim expedition, was assassinated after his prayers in the Umayyad Mosque of Damascus.Toghtegin accused Ridwan and his Assassin allies of the deed, though most of his contemporaries believed that Toghtegin himself was behind the act. ### Death and succession Ridwan died on 10 December 1113 in Aleppo and was buried in Meşhedülmelik. Following Ridwan's death, groups of armed militiamen, instigated by Ibn al-Khashab, flooded the streets of Aleppo, occupied the major buildings and captured many of Ridwan's supporters, notably the members of the Order of Assassins, who were immediately put to death, accused of treachery and collaboration with the Crusaders. Meanwhile, the realm passed to his 16 year-old son, Alp Arslan, who stuttered so severely that he was nicknamed al-Akhras (The Mute). His reign, and the following reign of 6 year-old Sultan Shah ibn Radwan, is generally accepted as being under the de facto rule of the atabeg Lu'lu' al-Yaya. Alp Arslan initially followed his father's pro-Isma'ili policy, giving them a castle outside of Balis. Despite this, the Seljuk sultan Muhammad I, sent a letter to Alp Arslan, warning him of the dangers of the Assassins and urging him to purge them. Forced by Aleppo's population and his patron, Alp Arslan took a series of vigorous measures against the Isma'ilis, putting Abu Tahir al-Sa'igh, the chief Nizari Isma'ili da'i of Syria, and other leading figures to death, and killing or imprisoning about two hundred of the order's members. The massacres of the Isma'ilis effectively eradicated a significant portion of Aleppo's Isma'ili population and eliminated the so-called Assassin threat, though it also deprived Alp Arslan from his only possible support. He also executed two of his brothers, several officers, a few servants, and anyone to whom he took a dislike, which caused discomfort among Aleppans. Alp Arslan then sought Toghtekin's protection, but this caused distrust among Aleppo's Shi'a population. Alp Arslan was killed in 1114 on his own atabeg's initiative, and anarchy ensued, while Ridwan's slaves and Aleppo's nobility each tried to impose their authority among the townsmen. The rule of the Seljuk dynasty in Aleppo soon ended in 1118.
41,938,088	Goat Simulator	1,172,279,083	2014 video game	[ "2014 video games", "Action games", "Android (operating system) games", "Coffee Stain Studios games", "Double Eleven (company) games", "Fiction about goats", "Game jam video games", "IOS games", "Indie games", "Internet memes", "Linux games", "Lucid Games games", "MacOS games", "Multiplayer and single-player video games", "Nintendo Switch games", "Open-world video games", "Parody video games", "PlayStation 3 games", "PlayStation 4 games", "Split-screen multiplayer games", "Unreal Engine games", "Video game memes", "Video games about animals", "Video games developed in Sweden", "Video games scored by Allister Brimble", "Video games with Steam Workshop support", "Windows games", "Xbox 360 Live Arcade games", "Xbox 360 games", "Xbox Cloud Gaming games", "Xbox One games" ]	Goat Simulator is a third-person perspective action video game developed and published by Coffee Stain Studios. It was released for Microsoft Windows in April 2014, and ports for Linux and OS X were released in June 2014. Mobile versions for Android and iOS were released in September 2014. Versions for the Xbox 360 and Xbox One were released in April 2015, and for PlayStation 3 and PlayStation 4 in August 2015; these ports were developed by Double Eleven. A Nintendo Switch version containing the game and downloadable content was released in January 2019. The game has been compared by the developer to skateboarding games, but where the player controls a goat aimed at doing as much damage as possible around an open world map, without any other larger goals. The game, initially developed as a joke prototype from an internal game jam and shown in an early alpha state in YouTube videos, was met with excitement and attention, prompting the studio to build the game into a releasable state while still retaining various non-breaking bugs and glitches to maintain the game's entertainment value. The game received mixed reviews; some reviewers praised the title for providing a humorous sandbox interface to experiment with, while others criticized the game's reliance on social media to popularize what was otherwise a simple and buggy product. A sequel, Goat Simulator 3, was released on 17 November 2022. ## Gameplay Goat Simulator is an open-ended third-person perspective game in which the player controls a goat called Pilgor. The player is free to explore the game's world — a suburban setting — as a goat, and jump, run, bash things, and lick objects. Licking objects attaches the goat's tongue to the object and lets the player drag the object around until they let go. At any time, the player can let the goat drop into a ragdoll model, allowing the game's physics to take over, and another control makes the game run in slow-motion. A number of environmental features allow the player to manipulate the goat into stunts such as bouncing off trampolines or launching the goat into the air through large fans. The game features a scoring system similar to skateboarding games like Tony Hawk's Pro Skater, whereby doing tricks or other actions earns points, while chaining such tricks together in sequence helps build a multiplier that applies to the total score of the tricks done in the sequence. Various in-game goals, such as achieving a certain height, completing flips, or destroying certain objects, are given to the player, but the player is not required to follow these instructions. Small gold goat statues are hidden in the game's world. Mutators are progressively unlocked by obtaining the statues. Mutators are toggleable within the main menu of the game. Each adds a unique mechanic and/or appearance to the standard goat, such as changing the goat model to a demon goat, a giraffe, or an ostrich, or adding a jetpack to the goat that can be activated at any time. Various easter eggs are scattered about the sandbox, such as a castle where one can become the Queen of all Goats, or where the goat character gains a move similar to Sonic the Hedgehog's spin attack. The game's lead developer Armin Ibrisagic noted after release that the game's setting is a parody of the concept of Purgatory, having left references to Heaven and Hell that were later found by fans. Ibrisagic also noted the inclusion of some elements based on the 2014 Ukrainian revolution. ## Development Goat Simulator started as a joke prototype from an internal one-month game jam held by Coffee Stain Studios in January 2014, after completing work for their game Sanctum 2. The game was described by the lead developer Armin Ibrisagic as "an old school skating game, except instead of being a skater, you're a goat, and instead of doing tricks, you wreck stuff". The idea followed after originally pitching the game as a variation of QWOP, where the player would control the individual limbs of the goat separately with various keyboard keys; this concept was rejected in favor of the more Tony Hawk's Pro Skater-type of gameplay the final game presents. Ibrisagic had focused on goats after jokingly trying to convince his coworkers that goats would achieve viral attention on the Internet in much the same way that cats presently do. The prototype used Nvidia PhysX and an Apex physics engine with ragdoll physics for the goat and human models within Unreal Engine 3, a game engine they were familiar with from the Sanctum series. In-game assets were purchased from third-party vendors instead of developed in-house, such as the original goat model which the studio acquired for use for less than \$20. The prototype was meant to be a parody of various other "weirdly successful" Simulation games presently available, such as Euro Truck Simulator. Ibrisagic had no intention of this becoming a full title, instead only offering the prototype for him and other developers to learn the Unreal Engine alongside other developers that were developing prototypes in more earnest. Footage of the game in its alpha state was posted to YouTube by Coffee Stain, where it received more than a million views in two days and a large response from fans requesting a full release of the game in part due to various glitches in the prototype's engine. The appeal of the video was also picked up by the agricultural magazine Modern Farmer. Some journalists suggested that the title be developed into a full game even knowing it was meant as a joking title; GameSpot editor Danny O'Dwyer supported the full release of the game arguing that "games should be dumb once in a while". The large positive response to the alpha footage convinced the studio to develop Goat Simulator as a full title to Steam, putting more people on the title. The team, having no plans for a full release, debated on whether to approach a large publisher to receive funding to help make the title into something like Grand Theft Auto, but decided to stay with a small, inexpensive title that would be truer to the teaser video. Recognizing that the glitching was part of the game's appeal, Ibrisagic only sought to fix software bugs that might cause the game to crash, leaving in the other glitches and bugs associated with the physics engine as the results from these were "really hilarious". They limited themselves to a short development time of four weeks without significant management oversight as to set an urgent but realistic goal to bring the game to a playable state. Ibrisagic felt it was important for the game to be supported on Steam, but initially feared that Valve would not accept the quirky title. He instead found Valve to be welcoming of the title, including a joking response from the company that stated "[Valve's marketing manager DJ Powers] has started wearing a goat costume to work he’s so excited about this game". As part of its release, Coffee Stain added support for Steam Workshop which would let players modify the game, aware that players would likely create levels and scenarios that will glitch and crash the game for humorous results. While the physics engine allows for spectacular rendering of destruction of the game environment, which is a main feature of the game, Coffee Stain acknowledged the downside of this as "it would synchronise terribly in multiplayer". They estimated that adding multiplayer would remove "90 percent of the physics" and many other features, and left the game as a single player title at launch. The studio considered that it only spent a couple of months to complete the Windows version, and opted to outsource versions for OS X and Linux, with Ryan Gordon handling the porting. ### Release and promotion Coffee Stain Studios released Goat Simulator worldwide on 1 April 2014, aware that tying the date with April Fools' Day may raise doubts on the validity of the game. Those that pre-ordered the game through Coffee Stain's website received early access to the title three days ahead of release. The official release trailer for Goat Simulator is a loose parody of the Dead Island announcement trailer showing, among shots of the game, reversed slow-motion footage of the goat crashing through a building after being launched from an exploding gas station. The studio released a free expansion and patch to the game on 3 June 2014, which in addition to fixing game-breaking issues, added new goat models, a new map to explore based on a seaside town with a carnival, more game-breaking issues, and local multiplayer for up to 4 players via split-screen. Ibrisagic believes that adding multiplayer support atop Steam Workshop support will allow creative users to develop new gameplay modes that will extend the title's playability. The patch also adds in additional controls that the player can use to make the goat perform various freestyle tricks comparable to those in Tony Hawk's Pro Skater. The studio released a second free patch to the game on 20 November 2014 called "Goat MMO Simulator", which included a gamemode that parodied massive multiplayer online games like World of Warcraft, while remaining a single player or local multiplayer experience. A paid-content expansion titled "GoatZ" was released on 7 May 2015 as downloadable content for the game on personal computers and a stand-alone application for mobile devices. It was developed by Coffee Stain's partner studio Gone North Games. The expansion's content spoofs zombie-based survival games, such as DayZ, and includes a new map and gameplay aspects such as fighting off zombies and crafting. The title itself plays off DayZ as well as a play on the Internet meme goatse.cx. In a cross-promotional "GoatBread" update with Bossa Studios' I Am Bread to be offered in late 2015, a free update to Goat Simulator will allow the players to select a piece of bread as their avatar, while I Am Bread will add in a "RAMpage" mode based on Goat Simulator. Another add-on, the "Super Secret DLC" package part of a cross-promotion with Overkill Software's Payday 2; the Payday-inspired content for Goat Simulator included additional playable characters including a camel, flamingo, and a dolphin in a wheelchair, while Goat Simulator content will be added to Payday 2. These were released in January 2016. Goat Simulator decorative content was added to Rocket League in a mid-2016 update. Another expansion, "Waste of Space", was again developed by Gone North Games and released on 26 May 2016. The expansion features a new map based on a space colony, and spoofs much of the recent science fiction media genre. The OS X and Linux ports were released on 27 June 2014. Following the game's digital release, Koch Media agreed to distribute the game in UK and EU retail stores starting in May 2014. Similarly, Deep Silver approached Coffee Stain Studios to work out a deal to publish the title in North American retail markets starting in July 2014. At Microsoft's presentation at the 2014 Gamescom convention in August, Goat Simulator was announced as one of several titles to be coming to the Xbox One platform with the help of Double Eleven studios, and later confirmed to be also arriving for the Xbox 360, with both versions released on 17 April 2015. Koch Media also distributed a retail version of the Xbox One version, including all additional downloadable content, across Europe for release on 4 March 2016. Coffee Stain Studios also released ports for iOS and Android in September 2014. Each DLC is a separate app for iOS and Android, and each one (except Goat Simulator: Payday) includes a mobile-exclusive map. PlayStation 3 and PlayStation 4 versions, also ported by Double Eleven, were released on 11 August 2015. With the acquisition of Coffee Stain through THQ Nordic AB on 14 November 2018, it was announced that a Nintendo Switch version of Goat Simulator would be released. Goat Simulator: The GOATY, which includes all expansions to date, was released on 23 January 2019. ## Reception Goat Simulator received "mixed" reviews upon release, according to video game review aggregator Metacritic. Goat Simulator was named as an honorable mention for Excellence in Audio for the 2015 Independent Games Festival. Eurogamer's Dan Whitehead complimented Coffee Stain Studios on building in enough content Goat Simulator and potential expansion through Steam to prove it more than a simple joke title, and instead a brief diversion "in which the player is a willing participant". Dan Stapleton of IGN considered the title a "clever interactive spoof of all the broken game physics we’ve seen in open worlds" and despite being short, was a "hell of a good time". Tim Turi of Game Informer stated that the first hour with the game would be amusing, but due to the lack of more expansive features, he "[does not] recommend it to anyone looking for more than disposable entertainment". Steve Tilley of the Toronto Sun described the game as one where "most players will have a few hours of fun and then file [it] away as an occasional novelty to pull out when they’re especially bored". Rich Stanton of The Guardian was very critical of Goat Simulator, noting how the title is self-aware of its poor quality, and stated that the game's creation and promotion "demonstrates how social media and the internet amplify our supine tendencies". Andy Kelly of PC Gamer was also critical of the title, calling it a "bad, amateurish and boring game", and considered its popularity was only due to word-of-mouth and YouTube videos that enticed players to buy the game themselves. While critical reviews were mixed, the game proved popular with players. The game's alpha footage, as well as Let's Play videos on pre-release copies such as that from PewDiePie and Fernanfloo, drew a great deal of demand for the game prior to release. Ibrisagic stated that Coffee Stain Studios made their money back on the development costs within a few minutes of the game being offered on Steam. As of August 2014, the studio has reported that nearly a million copies of Goat Simulator have been sold, outperforming their other games over the previous four years. The mobile release for iOS and Android systems reached 100,000 downloads within 6 days of launch. By mid-January 2015, over 2.5 million copies of the game were sold across all platforms. During a presentation at the 2016 Game Developers Conference, Ibrisagic revealed that Goat Simulator has made more than \$12 million in revenue, compared to both Sanctum and Sanctum 2 which made under \$2 million each. Goat Simulator was seen as a disruptive title in contrast to typical AAA titles; Paradox CEO Fredrik Wester felt they needed to publish more games like Goat Simulator, stating "You have to have an edge in there, and that's why I say 'more Goat Simulator and less Call of Duty' for Paradox, because we need the edge. It's easier to get out and market, it's easier to show what you're doing" adding that "People are tired of explosions and dubstep music. We've seen it a million times now". With the success of the game, Coffee Stain Studios has worked to license out Goat Simulator-themed properties with third-party vendors. It also enabled the studio to become a video game publisher for smaller studios in 2017. Several games have followed in trying to capture the same goofy style of gameplay with unpredictable physics engines as Goat Simulator, including Bear Simulator and I Am Bread. Goat Simulator as well as 2013's Surgeon Simulator are often considered the first examples of "YouTube bait" games, purposely designed to appeal to an audience watching the game being played but lacking any redeeming gameplay values. ## Sequel A sequel was announced in June 2022 during the Summer Game Fest, for Windows, PlayStation 5 and Xbox Series X/S on 17 November 2022. It is titled Goat Simulator 3, skipping the name Goat Simulator 2. Goat Simulator 3 includes support for four-player online multiplayer, including several mini-games for multiplayer modes. The game is developed by Coffee Stain North, which previously handled some of the expansion packs for the game. The teaser was a parody of the Dead Island 2 teaser.
23,399,213	2010 Giro d'Italia	1,123,653,726	null	[ "2010 Giro d'Italia", "2010 UCI World Ranking", "2010 in Dutch sport", "2010 in Italian sport", "Giro d'Italia by year", "May 2010 sports events in Europe" ]	The 2010 Giro d'Italia was the 93rd edition of the Giro d'Italia, one of cycling's Grand Tours. The race started off in Amsterdam on 8 May and stayed in the Netherlands for three stages, before leaving the country. The route included climbs such as Monte Zoncolan, Plan de Corones, the Passo del Mortirolo and the Passo di Gavia before ending in Verona with an individual time trial. Principal favorites for overall success in the Giro included Ivan Basso of the team, Cadel Evans for , and 's Carlos Sastre. After three weeks of racing, it was Basso who claimed his second Giro d'Italia title, after also winning in 2006. David Arroyo from and Basso's teammate Vincenzo Nibali rounded out the podium. Australian riders won all the lesser jersey awards, with Evans taking the points classification, 's Matthew Lloyd the winner of the mountains classification, and Richie Porte of the Giro's best young rider. The road race stages in the Netherlands were both marred by repeated crashes, which led to some unexpected big time gaps before the transfer to Italy. The overall standings were very turbulent in the first week, with four different riders holding the race leader's pink jersey. The 11th stage greatly re-shaped the overall standings, when several riders, including Sastre, gained almost 13 minutes against the remainder of the field. Porte took the pink jersey after this stage. Two days later, Arroyo took the jersey, and kept it for five days. He eventually lost it to Basso on the first of two very difficult mountain stages to close out the Giro. Success was fairly widespread among the Giro's 22 teams, as 17 of them came away with either a stage win, classification win, or stint in the pink jersey. ## Teams The 22 teams in the race were announced on 22 March. Sixteen teams were guaranteed a place in the race by virtue of a September 2008 agreement between the UCI and the organizers of the season's three Grand Tours. Those guaranteed a place are those who were members of the UCI ProTour at the time of the agreement. Two from this group, and , declined to participate in the race, instead focusing on the Tour de France and the Vuelta a España. Two new teams joined the ProTour for 2010. One, , participated in the race, but the other, , did not wish to participate, since they planned to send their best riders to the partially concurrent Tour of California. Seven UCI Professional Continental teams, two of which ( and ) were part of the September 2008 agreement as they were members of the ProTour at that time, joined the 15 ProTour teams to round out the teams list. Each team entered a squad of nine riders, giving the event a 198-rider peloton at its outset. The race's 22 teams were: ### Non-invitation of Dutch teams The Giro, like the 2009 Vuelta a España before it and the forthcoming Tour de France, began in the Netherlands. The two Dutch Professional Continental teams, and , had both ridden Grand Tours in 2009. Throughout the season, the two teams tried to prove their combativeness in the hopes of securing Grand Tour invites, trying especially to outdo one another. Since the openings to the Giro and the Tour were partly financed by Dutch tax money, Vacansoleil's team manager called for political help to get invites for his team, but neither Dutch team made it into either the Giro or the Tour. Consequently, neither made the Vuelta a España teams selection, either. The teams' disappointment at their non-invitation led to communications with UCI President Pat McQuaid, which may result in reforms to how teams are selected for the Grand Tours. ## Pre-race favorites The Giro was often described as being wide open in terms of who had the best chance to win it. This is because many notable riders, including the past three champions, did not enter. 2007 Giro d'Italia champion Danilo Di Luca, who originally finished second in the 2009 Giro d'Italia, was suspended by his national federation in February for a doping incident in the 2009 Giro. 2008 Giro d'Italia champion Alberto Contador skipped the Giro to better focus on the Tour de France, as he also had in the previous season. After first indicating that he might defend his championship, 2009 champion Denis Menchov also announced that he would not ride the Giro, instead focusing on the Tour de France, in order to complete the career sweep of the Grand Tours. Lance Armstrong and Levi Leipheimer, leaders of the squad in the 2009 Giro, announced in October 2009 that they would ride the partially concurrent Tour of California instead of the Giro, which is why was not selected for the Giro. Just five days before the race began, the UCI announced several riders were under suspicion of doping by virtue of irregular values in their biological passports. Among them was Franco Pellizotti, who had been set to be one of the leaders for the team and had been described as a pre-race favorite. While team firmly stood behind Pellizotti in the case and expressed anger that the UCI unveiled their findings so close to the start of the Giro, they obligingly pulled him from their squad. He was replaced by Vincenzo Nibali, who had been planning to ride the Tour of California as a squad leader. While not an overall favorite, Alessandro Ballan intended to participate in the race, stating in October that it was a certainty he would start, after missing out on the Giro in 2009 when he was world champion. This was an indication well in advance that the was in line for an invite to the race. Ballan was later suspended by his team as a result of an internal doping investigation, meaning he had to miss the Giro. He was later cleared of any wrongdoing. Most pre-race analyses identified Ivan Basso, Cadel Evans, and Carlos Sastre as the major favorites to win the overall classification, with Evans perhaps the consensus pick. Basso and Sastre had both ridden the Giro in 2009 and come away finishing in the top five. Sastre also won two difficult mountain stages in the race's final week, and was noted as a rider who gets stronger as a race goes along, making the Giro's very climbing-intensive third week possibly sit in his favor. Evans had finished on a Grand Tour podium in each of the past three seasons, including in the most recent three-week event, the 2009 Vuelta a España. He also entered the race as the reigning world cycling champion and had had a successful 2010 season to date, with a win in La Flèche Wallonne and a podium finish in the Tirreno–Adriatico. Neither Basso nor Sastre had raced much in the 2010 season prior to the Giro. Other riders named as contenders included Bradley Wiggins, former Giro winners Damiano Cunego and Stefano Garzelli, Alexander Vinokourov, Marzio Bruseghin, Christian Vande Velde, Domenico Pozzovivo, David Moncoutié, and Michele Scarponi. Race director Angelo Zomegnan also named Basso, Evans, and Sastre as his three favorites, and included Wiggins and Linus Gerdemann as possible darkhorses. Mark Cavendish and Daniele Bennati, stage winners in the past two editions of the Giro, were absent from this race, but several top sprinters took the start in Amsterdam. These included Tyler Farrar, André Greipel, and Alessandro Petacchi, all of whom had themselves won Grand Tour stages in 2009 and figured to be top favorites for the Giro's flat stages. Former Tour de France points classification winner Óscar Freire intended to make his Giro debut in this race, but he pulled out due to sinusitis shortly before the race started. Other sprinters in the Giro peloton included Robbie McEwen, Freire's teammate Graeme Brown, Baden Cooke, Leonardo Duque, Sebastian Haedo, Wouter Weylandt, and Greg Henderson. ## Route and stages The Giro's 21 stages were divided into the following classifications by race organizers Gazzetta dello Sport: four time trials (three individual and one team), seven flat stages, five mixed stages, and six mountain stages. The race began in the Netherlands, the ninth time in the Giro's history that the race began outside Italy, and the first since 2006's start in Belgium. A short individual time trial and two flat stages were held there. Starting the race away from Italy meant that an early rest day, coming just three days into the 23-day race, was necessary to transfer to Italy. The first stage upon entering Italy was a team time trial, the fifth consecutive year that discipline had featured in the Giro. Stage 7 visited Tuscany and was raced partly on unpaved roads used yearly in the Italian semi-classic Montepaschi Strade Bianche. The course honored Italian cycling legends Gino Bartali, Fausto Coppi, and Costante Girardengo by passing through their hometowns in the first road race stages in Italy. Five stages ended with climbs, with most coming in the race's last week. The first was stage 8 to Monte Terminillo, a 16.1 km (10.0 mi) long climb gaining 1,672 m (5,486 ft) of vertical elevation for an average gradient of 7.3 percent, one of the most difficult climbs in the Apennine Mountains in the region of Abruzzo. The next was Monte Zoncolan in the Carnic Alps, which at 10.5 km (6.5 mi) in length was shorter than some of the other climbs in the race, but with 1,210 m (3,970 ft) of vertical gain in that time, its 20 percent maximum gradient made it one of the most difficult. The Stage 16 individual time trial went to Plan de Corones, on a course identical to the one used in the 2008 Giro d'Italia. In 12.9 km (8.0 mi), this stage gained over 1,000 m (3,300 ft) and featured a section with 24 percent gradients in the final kilometer. The Giro's last two road race stages were especially climbing-intensive, including the Passo del Mortirolo, rising 1,250 m (4,100 ft) in 12.8 km (8.0 mi) for an average gradient of 10 percent, and the Passo di Gavia, known for being climbed during the 1988 Giro d'Italia in the middle of a driving blizzard. The Gavia was also the Cima Coppi, the race's highest point, and Stage 20, in which it featured, was considered the queen stage. Other climbs during the race included the Passo del Bratello, Monte Grappa, the Passo delle Palade, the Passo di Santa Cristina, the Forcola di Livigno, and the last climb of the race, the Passo del Tonale. Most of these climbs also featured difficult descents. The route was noted to appeal to many types of riders, be they climbers, sprinters, or time trialists. The race had seven flat stages which figured into end in mass sprints, and the hilly mixed stages were inviting for breakaways. Sastre, one of the first riders to announce he would ride the Giro, commented that the route was much harder than that of the 2009 Giro, and would demand a very strong climber to be its champion. Zomegnan concurred that the route favored climbers, noting that the distance spent time trialing was not great and that it would take errors from climbing specialists to allow a rider better suited for time trialing to be Giro champion. ## Race overview The Giro began in Amsterdam with an individual time trial. Favorites for the stage included two British riders, captain Bradley Wiggins and ' David Millar. Several riders in the Giro peloton considered Wiggins the prohibitive favorite. Wiggins won the stage, securing the first pink jersey. A major surprise on the stage was Grand Tour rookie Brent Bookwalter from coming in second, just 2 seconds off Wiggins' winning time. Millar was seventh, 6 seconds back. This set the stage for a turbulent opening to the Giro, as both of the road race stages in the Netherlands featured several crashes. The courses for the road stages in the Netherlands were noted to have a lot of street furniture on them, which combined with the riders' nerves on the first day of a three-week Grand Tour as well as crosswinds from the North Sea to make the first mass-start stages very perilous. Tyler Farrar, Carlos Sastre, Christian Vande Velde, Greg Henderson, Wiggins, Alessandro Petacchi, Domenico Pozzovivo, Marzio Bruseghin, Filippo Pozzato, and Gilberto Simoni all fell from their bikes at some point while the Giro was in the Netherlands. There were also many other crashes that took down so many riders it was difficult to keep track of exactly who was effected. Crashing and, consequently, falling away from the leading group on the road, meant different things for different riders. For sprinters like Farrar and Petacchi, crashing meant they were unlikely to be able to contest the finishes for stage wins, while overall contenders like Wiggins and Sastre lost time in the general classification. For the second year in a row, Vandevelde suffered a broken collarbone as a result of his crash, consequently abandoning the race. Despite crashing during stage 2, Farrar got up and was able to win the stage from a depleted field sprint. The state of the roads in the Netherlands and the sheer quantity of crashes that took place there incurred much criticism and questions over whether they should be included in a Grand Tour. Cadel Evans and Alexander Vinokourov both took the pink jersey while the Giro was in the Netherlands. Vinokourov held it prior to the transfer to Italy, with six riders from three teams within 10 seconds of him, meaning the pink jersey still remained very much in flux. After the transfer, the first stage in Italy was a team time trial, a race where each member of the squad races against the clock together, and the team's time is taken for the fifth rider to cross the finish line. was the winning squad, and had a time gap over Vinokourov's team that was sufficiently large enough for Vincenzo Nibali to become the fourth race leader in as many stages. At last, there was stability in the race leadership, as Nibali comfortably retained over the next two stages, both of which featured breakaways taking the day's honors while the peloton finished together. Stage 7 was a major one, incorporating stretches of gravel roads near the finish. The day on which this stage was run also happened to have very heavy rainfall, making the course muddy and dangerous. Much like had happened in the Netherlands, a great many riders crashed in this stage, perhaps chief among them Wiggins and Sastre, who both lost more than four minutes. Nibali also crashed, and upon seeing this, Alexander Vinokourov, Damiano Cunego, and Cadel Evans broke free of the leading group. Evans won the stage, one of many riders to cross the finish line covered in mud, and Vinokourov took back the race leadership. Through the first mountain stage and two flat stages that followed, the overall standings did not change much, and Vinokourov retained the jersey. Stage 11 into L'Aquila provided for major changes to the overall standings. More than 50 riders formed the day's escape group, and they quickly took 20 minutes advantage. Among them were Sastre, Wiggins, and 's Richie Porte, who was holding the white jersey as best young rider and, at sixth overall, was the best-placed man in the group. Sastre, Wiggins, and Porte all had multiple support riders with them in the breakaway who set strenuous paces to keep the group away. The main field, containing the Giro's top favorites, pulled back a little time but was still nearly 13 minutes behind stage winner Evgeni Petrov at the finish. The day's result massively shuffled the overall classification. Porte was the only rider who had been in the top ten before the stage who remained there afterward, and took the pink jersey. Sastre and Wiggins, who entered the Giro as contenders but had fallen well back in the overall standings before this stage, both moved back into the top ten. Porte kept the pink jersey for two days, conceding it to David Arroyo, a fellow member of the L'Aquila breakaway, on stage 14 when he could not climb Monte Grappa with the leaders on the day. On this stage, the race's overall favorites began to creep back into the top of the overall classification, as previous race leaders Nibali, Vinokourov, and Evans assumed 8th through 10th in the standings. There were again great changes to the overall classification in stage 15, by way of the climb up Monte Zoncolan. Ivan Basso won the stage and greatly reduced his deficit to Arroyo, though the Spaniard still held the pink jersey after this stage. Evans, Scarponi, Vinokourov, and Nibali also finished well-placed and moved up. Wiggins again fell out of contention, this time conclusively so, by losing 25 minutes on the climb. Evans turned in the best ride of the pre-race favorites in the Plan de Corones time trial, closing his deficit to Basso and moving past Sastre in the overall. After this stage, the only riders left in the top ten from the L'Aquila breakaway were Arroyo, Porte, Sastre, and Robert Kišerlovski, who all finished the Giro in the top ten. After a stage each for the breakaway and the sprinters, during which there were no major changes to the overall standings, the riders were faced with the very climbing-intensive final two road stages. The team rode a very hard tempo in stage 19 over the Passo del Mortirolo, which eventually whittled that group down to just Basso, Nibali, and Scarponi. They crossed the Mortirolo more than two minutes ahead of Arroyo, which was nearly enough time to make Basso the virtual race leader. Arroyo, noted as a far better descender than Basso, took very aggressive lines coming down the Mortirolo and caught up with Vinokourov, Sastre, Evans, and John Gadret, who had been between him and the leading trio. Basso's group had only 30 seconds on Arroyo's at the start of the stage-concluding Aprica climb, but they took more and more time as the climb went on and finished three minutes ahead, giving Basso the pink jersey with two days left to race. Arroyo elected not to try to aggressively descend any of the four large climbs on course in the final road race stage, settling for second place by riding with Basso and the other top riders in the peloton most of the day. There were a few changes in time gaps, but the same riders remained in the top ten from the previous day, as Johan Tschopp won the stage from a breakaway. The individual time trial in Verona which closed out the Giro also provided for small changes to the overall, but Basso's 15th place on the stage was easily enough to make him Giro champion. Arroyo and Nibali rounded out the podium. Australian riders won each of the lesser jersey awards. Evans won the points classification, represented in 2010 with a red jersey in a return to the original colour scheme for the three minor classifications that reflected the colours of the Italian flag. Evans's victory came about by way of nine top-ten finishes, including a stage win, over the course of the race. This classification was tightly contested throughout the race; six different riders held the jersey, and it changed hands nine times. Matthew Lloyd of won the green jersey for the mountains classification, taking maximum mountains points during his stage-winning breakaway in stage 6. He made morning breakaways later on in mountain stages to take points on other climbs and consolidate his lead. Porte won the white jersey as best young rider, holding it for all but three stages. Success was widespread among the 22 teams in the race. In sharp contrast to the 2009 Giro, the only rider to win multiple stages in this year's race was Farrar, who took the sprint finishes to stages 2 and 10. , , , , , , , and each won one stage. had two stage wins, first with Wouter Weylandt in a depleted sprint finish to stage 3 in the Netherlands, and two stages later Jérôme Pineau led a winning breakaway across the finish line. 's Chris Anker Sørensen won stage 8 on Monte Terminillo after figuring into a morning breakaway, and their time trial specialist Gustav Larsson won the final race against the clock in Verona. won multiple sprint stages, first with leadout man Matthew Goss when ace sprinter André Greipel missed out on the opportunity, and later Greipel himself took a win. took back-to-back stage wins, first with Petrov in L'Aquila and then with Filippo Pozzato, who won a 10-man sprint after a late breakaway in stage 12. After there had been no Italian stage winners for the first 11 days of racing, Pozzato's stage win was the first of five in a row and six overall for Italian riders. Nibali and Basso were among those stage winners; as they also won the stage 4 team time trial, theirs was the only squad with more than two stage wins. They also won both teams classifications, the time-based Trofeo Fast Team and the points-based Trofeo Super Team. , , and did not win any stages, but Vinokourov's and Arroyo's stints in the pink jersey and Tom Stamsnijder's win in the Traguardo Volante classification meant that they did not come away from the Giro empty-handed. Only , , , , and came away from the Giro with nothing, even though Milram had one of their riders (Paul Voss) wearing the Mountains jersey at some point. ## Classification leadership In the 2010 Giro d'Italia, four different jerseys were awarded. For the general classification, calculated by adding each cyclist's finishing times on each stage, and allowing time bonuses for the first three finishers on mass-start stages, the leader received a pink jersey. This classification was considered the most important of the Giro d'Italia, and the winner was considered the winner of the Giro. Additionally, there was a points classification, which awarded a red jersey. In the points classification, cyclists got points for finishing in the top 15 in a stage. Unlike in the better known points classification in the Tour de France, the type of stage had no effect on what points were on offer – each stage had the same points available on the same scale. The win earned 25 points, second place earned 20 points, third 16, fourth 14, fifth 12, sixth 10, and one point fewer per place down to a single point for 15th. In addition, points could be won in intermediate sprints. There was also a mountains classification, the leadership of which was marked by a green jersey. In the mountains classifications, points were won by reaching the top of a climb before other cyclists. Each climb was categorized as either first, second, or third category, with more points available for the higher-categorized climbs. The Cima Coppi, the race's highest point of elevation, awarded still more points than the other first-category climbs. The fourth jersey represented the young rider classification, marked by a white jersey. This was decided the same way as the general classification, but only riders born after 1 January 1985 were eligible. There were also three classifications for teams. In the Trofeo Fast Team classification, the times of the best three cyclists per team on each stage were added; the leading team was the team with the lowest total time; the Trofeo Super Team was a team points classification, with the top 20 placed riders on each stage earning points (20 for first place, 19 for second place and so on, down to a single point for 20th) for their team; and the Fair Play classification rewarded those teams that best avoided penalty points for minor technical infringements. The rows in the following table correspond to the jerseys awarded after that stage was run. ## Final standings ### General classification ### Points classification ### Mountains classification ### Young rider classification ### Trofeo Fast Team classification ### Trofeo Super Team classification ### Minor classifications Other less well-known classifications, whose leaders did not receive a special jersey, were awarded during the Giro. These awards were based on points earned throughout the three weeks of the tour. Each mass-start stage had one intermediate sprint, the Traguardo Volante, or T.V. The T.V. gave bonus seconds towards the general classification, points towards the regular points classification, and also points towards the T.V. classification. This award was known in previous years as the "Intergiro" and the "Expo Milano 2015" classification. It was won by Tom Stamsnijder of the team. Other awards included the Combativity classification, which was a compilation of points gained for position on crossing intermediate sprints, mountain passes and stage finishes. Mountains classification winner Matthew Lloyd won this award. The Azzurri d'Italia classification was based on finishing order, but points were awarded only to the top three finishers in each stage. It was won, like the closely associated points classification, by Cadel Evans. Additionally, the Premio della Fuga rewarded riders who took part in a breakaway at the head of the field, each rider in an escape of ten or fewer riders getting one point for each kilometre that the group stayed clear. 's Jérôme Pineau was first in this competition. Teams were given penalty points for minor technical infringements. was most successful in avoiding penalties, and so won the Fair Play classification. ### World Rankings points The Giro was one of 26 events throughout the season that contributed points towards the 2010 UCI World Ranking. Points were awarded to the top 20 finishers overall, and to the top five finishers in each stage.
15,772,156	U.S. Route 202 in Delaware	1,163,921,031	Highway in Delaware	[ "Transportation in New Castle County, Delaware", "Turnpikes in Delaware", "U.S. Highways in Delaware", "U.S. Route 202" ]	U.S. Route 202 (US 202) is a US Highway running from New Castle, Delaware, northeast to Bangor, Maine. The southernmost section of the route in the U.S. state of Delaware passes through northern New Castle County. It runs from its southern terminus at an interchange with US 13/US 40 near the Wilmington Airport north to the Pennsylvania state line in Brandywine Hundred. The route passes east of the airport concurrent with Delaware Route 141 (DE 141) before coming to an interchange with Interstate 95 (I-95). At this point, US 202 heads northeast along with I-95 through Wilmington. Just north of Wilmington, US 202 splits from I-95 by running north on Concord Pike through the suburban Brandywine Hundred area to the Pennsylvania state line. US 202 is a multilane divided highway the entire length across Delaware, with the section concurrent with I-95 a freeway. The Concord Pike was originally chartered as the Wilmington and Great Valley Turnpike in 1811, a turnpike that was to connect Wilmington to Great Valley, Pennsylvania. The Concord Pike between US 13 in Wilmington and the Pennsylvania state line became a part of US 122 in 1926. In 1934, US 122 was renumbered to US 202 and the road was realigned to head southwest and end at US 13 and US 40 in State Road. In the 1950s, the Concord Pike north of Wilmington was widened into a divided highway. By 1954, US 202 was realigned to follow US 13 northbound and Washington Street southbound through downtown Wilmington. The southern terminus was cut back to I-295 in Farnhurst in 1964. In 1970, the south end of US 202 was truncated to the I-95 interchange north of Wilmington. DE 202 was designated along Concord Avenue in 1981. US 202 was extended south to its current terminus in 1984. ## Route description US 202 begins at a partial cloverleaf interchange with US 13/US 40 east of the Wilmington Airport, with the road continuing south toward the city of New Castle as DE 141. From the southern terminus, US 202 heads north-northwest concurrent with DE 141 on four-lane divided Basin Road, passing between Wilmington Airport to the west and residential neighborhoods in Wilmington Manor to the east. The road passes between the Delaware Air National Guard's New Castle Air National Guard Base to the west and commercial establishments to the east, coming to a junction with the northern terminus of DE 37. Past this junction, the median of US 202/DE 141 widens as the road intersects Airport Road and becomes a freeway. The road comes to an interchange with I-95 (Delaware Turnpike) and the southern terminus of I-295. Here, US 202 splits from DE 141 and heads to the east along I-95, an eight-lane freeway with a wide median. I-295 splits off to the east before the freeway curves northeast and has an interchange with the southern terminus of I-495. Following this, I-95/US 202 becomes a six-lane freeway and heads through marshland, crossing the Christina River. The freeway comes to bridges over Norfolk Southern's Shellpot Secondary and Little Mill Creek as it continues through more wetlands west of the Russell W. Peterson Urban Wildlife Refuge, with Amtrak's Northeast Corridor running parallel a short distance to the northwest. The road enters the city of Wilmington and curves to the north, passing to the west of Daniel S. Frawley Stadium, which is home of the Wilmington Blue Rocks baseball team, and the Chase Center on the Riverfront convention center as it heads west of the Wilmington Riverfront. I-95/US 202 continues towards downtown Wilmington and crosses onto a viaduct, passing over Norfolk Southern's Wilmington & Northern Running Track and the Northeast Corridor before coming to an interchange with DE 4 and DE 48 that provides access to the downtown area and the Wilmington Riverfront. At this point, the four-lane freeway continues northeast, with one-way northbound North Adams Street to the east and one-way southbound North Jackson Street to the west serving as frontage roads. I-95/US 202 continues through residential areas to the west of downtown Wilmington and passes over DE 9, with a southbound exit. Farther northeast, the freeway heads into an alignment below street level and comes to an interchange with DE 52. Past this interchange, the road continues north and crosses Brandywine Creek, heading through Brandywine Park, which is a part of the Wilmington State Parks complex. The freeway curves northeast again and passes under CSX's Philadelphia Subdivision before reaching a modified cloverleaf interchange with the northern terminus of DE 202 at the northern edge of Wilmington, at which point US 202 splits from I-95. Upon splitting from I-95, US 202 heads north on the six-lane divided Concord Pike into the Brandywine Hundred area, running between Alapocas Run State Park to the west and the Rock Manor Golf Course to the east and passing over East Park Drive before coming to an interchange with the northern terminus of DE 141 and the southern terminus of DE 261 in Blue Ball that also provides access to the Augustine Cut-off. At this interchange, the southbound shoulder becomes a bus lane. Past this interchange, the road enters Fairfax and intersects Powder Mill Road/Murphy Road, where the southbound shoulder bus lane ends. The route passes between AstraZeneca's North American headquarters to the west and businesses to the east. The roadway passes west of a park and ride lot located at a church. The route continues through commercial areas, heading into Talleyville. At this point, the median of the road widens to include businesses in it as it comes to the intersection with Garden of Eden Road/Silverside Road. The median narrows again as the road curves to the north-northeast, crossing Rocky Run. US 202 passes to the west of the Widener University Delaware Law School and the Concord Mall and east of the Brandywine Campus of Wilmington University before it reaches an intersection with DE 92 in Brandywine. Past this intersection, the route runs between business parks to the west and the Brandywine Town Center shopping center to the east. A park and ride lot is located at the Brandywine Town Center. The road narrows to four lanes as it passes farm fields and homes. US 202 reaches the Pennsylvania state line, where it continues into that state as Wilmington-West Chester Pike. US 202 in Delaware has an annual average daily traffic count ranging from a high of 118,720 vehicles at the south end of Wilmington along the I-95 concurrency to a low of 30,643 vehicles at the intersection with Augustine Cut-Off between I-95 and DE 141/DE 261. The entire length of US 202 in Delaware is part of the National Highway System. ## History The Wilmington and Great Valley Turnpike Company was chartered on January 23, 1811 to build a turnpike running north from Wilmington along the Concord road, continuing to West Chester and Great Valley in Pennsylvania. Construction on the turnpike progressed throughout the 1810s. The Wilmington and Great Valley Turnpike was known in Delaware as the Concord Pike. The Concord Pike was taken over by New Castle County in 1911, at which point the tolls were removed. A portion of the Concord Pike near Talleyville was incorporated into the state highway system by 1920, with the remainder of the road proposed to become a state highway. By 1924, the Concord Pike between Blue Ball and Talleyville was a state highway, with the remainder remaining a county road. A year later, what is now US 202 along Basin Road was completed as a state highway. When the US Highway System was established in 1926, US 122 was designated to follow the Concord Pike between US 13 (Philadelphia Pike) in Wilmington and the Pennsylvania state line, heading north into that state and continuing to US 22 at Whitehouse, New Jersey. In 1934, US 122 was redesignated US 202. Also at this time, US 202 was realigned in Wilmington to head southwest from Concord Avenue onto Baynard Boulevard, splitting into a one-way pair following Washington Street southbound and West Street northbound as it passed through downtown Wilmington. In this area, US 202 turned east onto Front Street to an intersection with US 13. From here, US 202 headed south concurrent with US 13 to an intersection with US 13 and US 40 in State Road. On July 1, 1935, the portion of the route between Talleyville and the Pennsylvania state line was taken over by the state. In 1941, the portion of US 202 along Baynard Boulevard and from Talleyville to the Pennsylvania state line was reconstructed. In 1953, the portion of US 202 along the Concord Pike between the Wilmington border and Murphy Road was widened into a four-lane divided highway. In September 1953, construction began to widen the portion of US 202 between Murphy Road and Talleyville into a four-lane divided highway. This widening was completed in October 1954. In 1955, recommendations were made to widen US 202 between Talleyville and the Pennsylvania state line. The divided highway was extended north from Talleyville to the Pennsylvania state line in 1957. By 1954, US 202 was moved onto a new one-way pair through downtown Wilmington, with the southbound direction splitting from Concord Avenue to follow Baynard Boulevard to Washington Street and the northbound direction following US 13 on one-way Walnut Street and two-way Market Street before heading north onto Concord Avenue. In 1964, the southern terminus of US 202 was cut back from State Road to an interchange with I-295/US 40 in Farnhurst; this interchange also served as the northern terminus of US 301, which was extended along US 13/US 40 from its previous terminus at State Road to Farnhurst. By 1966, the portion of I-95 that currently carries US 202 was completed between DE 141 and downtown Wilmington. I-95 was completed between downtown Wilmington and the Concord Pike in 1969. In 1970, the southern terminus of US 202 was truncated to the interchange with I-95 north of Wilmington. By 1981, DE 202 was designated along Concord Avenue between US 13 Bus. and I-95, extending south from the southern terminus of US 202. US 202 was extended south to its current terminus at US 13/US 40 near the Wilmington Airport in 1984, following I-95 through Wilmington before heading south along DE 141. In 1992, plans were made to build an interchange with DE 141 and DE 261 north of I-95; however, plans for the proposed interchange were placed on hold two years later. In 2000, the portion of US 202 between I-95 and DE 141 (Powder Mill Road) was improved, with the alignment shifted to eliminate a few curves, the intersections at DE 261 and DE 141 improved, and a southbound transit lane added. In the 2000s, the Blue Ball Construction Project built an interchange at DE 261 that also relocated the northern terminus of DE 141 from the Powder Mill Road intersection further north. This interchange was constructed as part of the Blue Ball Properties project, a project undertaken to improve roads in this area as part of AstraZeneca locating their North American headquarters to the area. The project took place between 2002 and 2007 and cost \$123 million. In December 2011, a project began to improve the interchange between I-95 and US 202/DE 202 in order to reduce congestion. The project widened the ramp between northbound I-95 and northbound US 202 to two lanes, the ramp between southbound US 202 and southbound I-95 was extended to modern standards, and the ramp between southbound I-95 and southbound DE 202 was relocated from a cloverleaf loop to a directional ramp that intersects DE 202 at a signalized intersection. In addition, the interchange ramps were repaved and bridges were rehabilitated. The project was finished in July 2015, months behind schedule due to the closure of I-495 in 2014. On August 7, 2015, a dedication ceremony to mark the completion of the project was held, with Governor Jack Markell, Senator Tom Carper, and DelDOT secretary Jennifer Cohan in attendance. The project, which cost over \$33 million, was 80-percent funded by the federal government. On September 25, 2017, the section of US 202 along Concord Pike between I-95 and the Pennsylvania state line was dedicated as the Gold Star Highway in honor of families of military members who died in service, with Governor John Carney and DelDOT secretary Cohan in attendance at a dedication ceremony. ## Major intersections ## See also
2,620,541	The Care Bears' Big Wish Movie	1,173,781,417	null	[ "2000s American animated films", "2000s Canadian films", "2000s English-language films", "2000s children's animated films", "2000s children's fantasy films", "2000s musical fantasy films", "2005 animated films", "2005 computer-animated films", "2005 direct-to-video films", "2005 films", "American children's animated fantasy films", "American computer-animated films", "American direct-to-video films", "American musical fantasy films", "Animated films based on animated series", "Canadian animated feature films", "Canadian direct-to-video films", "Canadian musical fantasy films", "Care Bears films", "Direct-to-video animated films", "Direct-to-video sequel films", "Films about wish fulfillment", "Lionsgate animated films", "Lionsgate films", "Nelvana films" ]	The Care Bears' Big Wish Movie is a 2005 computer-animated musical fantasy film, produced by Nelvana Limited and released by Lions Gate Home Entertainment. Directed by Larry Jacobs and Ron Pitts, and written by Jeffrey Alan Schechter, the film is a follow-up to the Care Bears' previous efforts in 2004's Journey to Joke-a-lot. It was the fifth film to feature the Bears, and the second to be computer-animated. The Big Wish Movie centers on Wish Bear, a Care Bear who can make and grant wishes. After some of them do not work, she feels worried that the other bears have overlooked her abilities, and wishes for a few new friends who care more than she does. Those three—Messy Bear, Me Bear and Too Loud Bear—cause further trouble for Wish Bear, her wishing star Twinkers, and all of Care-a-lot. As with Journey to Joke-a-lot, Toronto's Nelvana produced and self-financed the Big Wish Movie; additional work was handled by India's Crest Animation Productions. Production involved various personnel from the previous film, among them Ron Pitts, composer Ian Thomas and various voice actors including Stephanie Beard, Stevie Vallance and Julie Lemieux. The Big Wish Movie was released on DVD by Lions Gate on October 18, 2005; prior to this, it premiered on U.S. and Canadian television, and was accompanied by a tie-in book from Scholastic Press. It subsequently received favourable reviews from Parenting magazine and the Pittsburgh Post-Gazette. This was Nelvana's final production with the Care Bears, before SD Entertainment of California assumed responsibility for future installments in the franchise. ## Plot This movie starts when, atop the roof of an observatory at their cloud-filled home of Care-a-lot, the Care Bears hear Wish Bear's story of how she (as a cub) found her new friend, a wishing star named Twinkers. The Care Bears are touched by this tale, but are a bit worried when she uses Twinkers' inherent power to wish them all some popcorn. Cheer Bear raises concern that this may be a frivolous use of Twinkers' power. Wish Bear, however, assures everyone that she is a trained professional. The next day, Wish Bear uses the wishing power to help her friends. She wishes for plenty of rainbow sap for Share Bear, and for Grumpy Bear's rocket to have "zoom", but the wishes backfire when the sap overflows and the rocket spins out of control. A monthly meeting of Care-a-lot's steering committee (with Champ Bear presiding) reveals a problem with the Caring Meter. The machine, which measures how much caring there is in Care-a-lot, has moved towards the rain-cloud side. Wish Bear suggests using her wishes, but is rejected since not all of them work as intended; they didn't like their wishes ("I Wish"). Disappointed, she decides to wish for other bears who like wishing as much as she does. This causes three new bears to arrive in Care-a-lot: Too Loud Bear, Me Bear, and Messy Bear. Everyone is pleased to welcome the new neighbors at first, but things soon get out of control. The new bears unwittingly make a huge mess of everything (especially when the huge mansion they asked for causes pollution). Then, during another meeting, the bears decide to have a picnic to teach the new bears how thing really work in Care-a-lot. It turns out however they've already got the wrong idea ("Get a Lot") and the picnic in a mess. After confessing that she's the reason there are new bears, Wish Bear confronts them but they don't listen, causing Wish Bear to accidentally wish Twinkers away to them. Once Funshine Bear talks to Wish Bear about how empty she is without Twinkers, the new bears have abused the star's power with a huge noisy motorcycle for Too Loud Bear, an amusement park focusing on Me Bear, and making a mud pie for Messy Bear. Once the new bears finally realize their problem, Messy Bear, being the less caring, tries to fix it with more wishes, but to no avail. Care-a-lot becomes a blank white space (wishing that all of this was gone), the bears begin to glow in color (wishing for everything to be back how it was, but with more color), Grumpy Bear turns black and white (wishing for less color), and Messy turns himself into a cub (wishing for everything to be like it used to be). When he tries to wish Twinkers back to Wish Bear, the star ultimately loses his power from exhaustion (because they had been pushing him much too hard). Wish Bear uses Grumpy Bear's rocket to bring him to the Big Wish, a grandmother star, in the sky with Messy bear joining them. Big Wish restores his power, but not before Wish Bear assures her that she has learned her lesson, which is wishing is fun, but it is far more important to work hard to achieve your dreams. Wish Bear tells them that wishes are not an effective solution any more, and everyone works together to make their home beautiful again ("It Takes You and Me"). At the end, Me Bear, Messy Bear, and Too Loud Bear, having seen the error of their ways, apologize and ask if they can still live in Care-a-lot. The rest of the bears agree and decide to go on a road trip. ## Cast - Sugar Lyn Beard as Wish Bear - Stephen Ouimette as Too Loud Bear - Tracey Hoyt as Me Bear - Ron Rubin as Messy Bear - Scott McCord as Bedtime Bear - Linda Ballantyne as Champ Bear - Sunday Muse as Cheer Bear - Catherine Disher as Friend Bear - Julie Lemieux as Funshine Bear - Susan Roman as Good Luck Bear - Rob Tinkler as Grumpy Bear - Athena Karkanis as Harmony Bear - Angela Maiorano as Love-a-lot Bear - Stevie Vallance as Share Bear - Andrew Sabiston as Tenderheart Bear - Elizabeth Hanna as Big Wish - Richard Binsley as Twinkers - Katie Griffin as Laugh A Lot Bear ## Production As with 2004's Journey to Joke-a-lot, The Care Bears' Big Wish Movie was self-financed by the Nelvana studios in Toronto, Ontario. The second computer-animated production with the Care Bears, it is also the franchise's fifth feature installment. Director Larry Jacobs had previously worked on another Nelvana venture, a public television series entitled Cyberchase. Mike Fallows, the director of Joke-a-lot, served as the supervising director. The film featured various voices from Joke-a-lot, among them Stephanie Beard, Julie Lemieux, Stevie Vallance, Robert Tinkler, Andrew Sabiston and Scott McCord. Animation was handled by Nelvana in Canada, and Crest Animation Productions in India. Big Wish marked the last time Nelvana embarked on a Care Bears project; from 2006 onward, the California-based SD Entertainment was responsible for future animated fare with these characters, starting with Oopsy Does It! in 2007. ## Release The Care Bears' Big Wish Movie first aired on Canadian television on October 3, 2005; in the United States, it premiered on cable television's Disney Channel and Playhouse Disney on October 17.[^1] The day before the U.S. premiere, it became one of Lions Gate Home Entertainment's five direct-to-DVD "marquee" offerings for young viewers; restaurant chain Burger King served as the promotional partner. Twice during 2005, Stephanie Beard (the voice of Wish Bear) promoted the film in the Toronto Star under the alias Suga Baybee; in October, she proclaimed that it "is going to be a classic". The film charted on Video Business''' Top Kids Rentals list for January 23, 2006, where it ranked 20th. On August 11, 2007, it placed seventh on Billboards Top Kid DVD Sales chart. Jeffrey Alan Schechter, the film's writer, was nominated for a Writers Guild of Canada Award. The film is known under two French-language titles: À vos souhaits les Calinours ! (in Canada's Quebec province) and De Nouveaux Arrivants chez les Bisounours (in France). Days before the release of the Big Wish Movie, Scholastic Press published a Care Bears storybook based on the film; it was written by Sonia Sander and illustrated by Jay Johnson. One scene in the book involves Wish Bear and the three new Bears grocery shopping; this does not appear in the film. Later in the book, when Messy Bear wishes for everything to be like it used to be, it causes the Bears to travel back to the age of the dinosaurs; in the film, Twinkers just turns Messy Bear into Messy Cub. Bruce Kluger of Parenting magazine referred to the Big Wish Movie as "Cute stuff, if a tad sticky-sweet: Heart-shaped toothbrushes, toasters, and waffles abound." Cristina Rouvalis of the Pittsburgh Post-Gazette gave it three stars out of four, and said that "Young Care Bear fanatics will wish for more." In April 2010's Journal of Aging Studies, Sylvia Henneberg commented that Big Wish, the grandmother star, served as "a poor substitute for a truly three-dimensional maternal figure". ## Music The music for the Big Wish Movie was composed by Ian Thomas (also from Journey to Joke-a-lot''), and conducted and orchestrated by Peter Cardinali. At his studio, Thomas worked with the Hamilton Children's Choir on the film's opening theme. In February 2005, Stephanie Beard said that "I Wish", a track she performed, "is my favorite cartoon song yet. It's so cute; I can't wait for the world to hear it." ## See also - List of Canadian films of 2005 - List of Nelvana franchises - List of computer-animated films - List of animated feature-length films [^1]: Listed as "FILM 226388" on The New York Times television schedule at the time.
25,249,750	Carcinosomatidae	1,173,431,363	Extinct family of arthropods	[ "Carcinosomatoidea", "Devonian extinctions", "Ordovician first appearances", "Prehistoric arthropod families" ]	Carcinosomatidae (the name deriving from the type genus Carcinosoma, meaning "crab body") is a family of eurypterids, an extinct group of aquatic arthropods. They were members of the superfamily Carcinosomatoidea, also named after Carcinosoma. Fossils of carcinosomatids have been found in North America, Europe and Asia, the family possibly having achieved a worldwide distribution, and range in age from the Late Ordovician to the Early Devonian. They were among the most marine eurypterids, known almost entirely from marine environments. Carcinosomatids varied considerably in size, from species only a few centimetres in length to some of the largest known arthropods. The largest carcinosomatid species, Carcinosoma punctatum, reached lengths of at least 2.2 metres (7.2 ft) and rivalled the largest eurypterid of all, Jaekelopterus, in size. Morphologically, carcinosomatids were highly distinct from other eurypterids, known for their powerful and spiny set of forelimbs, a broad and rounded central body and a slender and tubular tail ending in a telson (the posteriormost division of the body) that was typically curved in some way. With these adaptations, the carcinosomatids were quite similar to scorpions, and the group may have helped contribute to the common name of eurypterids becoming 'sea scorpions'. The family contains four, possibly five, genera: Carcinosoma, Eocarcinosoma, Eusarcana, Rhinocarcinosoma and possibly the problematic genus Holmipterus. It is unlikely that the carcinosomatids were strong and active swimmers, given their non-streamlined shape. It is more probable that they were nektobenthic (swimming near the bottom), possibly being top predators (given their size) or scavengers, digging for food or perhaps even burrowing and lying in wait as ambush predators. ## Description Carcinosomatid eurypterids differed considerably in size depending on the genus and species, though most species were quite large. The largest species was Carcinosoma punctatum at 2.2 metres (7.2 ft), one of the largest eurypterids of all, with some specimens suggesting that it may even have reached lengths of 2.5 metres (8.2 ft), rivalling Jaekelopterus, the largest eurypterid, in size. The smallest carcinosomatid species was Eusarcana obesus, at 4 centimetres (1.5 in) in length. Morphologically, the carcinosomatids were highly distinct among the eurypterids. They were swimming eurypterids (belonging to the suborder Eurypterina), with large swimming paddles, a set of powerful and spiny forelimbs, a broad and rounded preabdomen (central body) and a slender, tubular abdomen, which ended in a telson (the posteriormost division of the body) of variable morphology, often curved. In a sense, the carcinosomatids were rather scorpion-like in appearance, and may have contributed to the common name of eurypterids having become 'sea scorpions'. There was considerable variety in morphology within the group. The carapace was triangular to subtriangular in shape in all members of the group, through the exact shape could vary. In Rhinocarcinosoma, there was a distinctive, shovel-shaped protrusion at the front of the carapace. The preabdomen was wide in all species, but the width also differed from species to species. The widest species, relatively speaking, was Eusarcana obesus, in which the fourth segment was as wide as the first eight segments combined were long. The spinosity (how many spines) and size of the forelimbs also varied from genus to genus, with the forelimbs of Eusarcana for instance being more powerful than those of Rhinocarcinosoma. The telson varied considerably between genera: in Rhinocarcinosoma it was robust and flattened, curving slightly upwards, in Eusarcana it was cylindrical and fashioned into a sharp, scorpion-like tail spike and in Carcinosoma it was flattened, ending in an expanded and segmented structure unseen in other eurypterids. ## History of research The earliest carcinosomatid species to be described was Carcinosoma punctatum, first described under the name Pterygotus punctatus by John William Salter in 1859. The earliest genus later seen as a carcinosomatid to be described was Eusarcus (and its type species E. scorpionis), described by August R. Grote and William Henry Pitt in 1875 based on fossils recovered from the Pridoli-age Buffalo Waterlime of New York State. The description of the genus was lacking and seemingly based only on the outline and shape of the fossil, which led Henry Woodward to refer E. scorpionis to Eurypterus on the grounds that it was similar in shape to Eurypterus punctatus (Pterygotus punctatus having been reclassified as a species of Eurypterus). Unbeknownst to Grote and Pitt, Eusarcus had already been named as a genus of extant (currently living) laniatorid harvestmen of the family Gonyleptidae, in 1833 and as such constituted a preoccupied name. The name being preoccupied went unnoticed until the 1930s. Also described in the late 19th century was the genus Eurysoma, named alongside its type species, E. newlini, by Edward Waller Claypole in 1890. When Claypole discovered later in 1890 that the name was preoccupied by a genus of modern beetles, he replaced the name Eurysoma with the name Carcinosoma. In 1912, John Mason Clarke and Rudolf Ruedemann declared that the differences between Eusarcus and all related forms of eurypterids were so great that it was "entirely evident" that Eusarcus was distinct from other eurypterids. Clarke and Ruedemann referred several new species to Eusarcus, including new species that would later be seen as species of the genus Rhinocarcinosoma, and also concluded that Eusarcus was sufficiently similar to Carcinosoma to be synonymised. Because Eusarcus had been named earlier than Carcinosoma, the taxonomical laws of priority dictated that Eusarcus would be the name of the taxon. Eusarcus was finally recognised as a preoccupied name by Leif Størmer in 1934. Størmer substituted the name for the next oldest available non-preoccupied synonym, Carcinosoma. Størmer also introduced the family Carcinosomatidae, initially under the name 'Carcinosomidae', in 1934, to contain the four genera Carcinosoma, Mixopterus, Echinognathus and Megalograptus. The family was amended by Erik N. Kjellesvig-Waering in Størmer's 1955 Treatise on Invertebrate Paleontology, with the name changed to the correct Carcinosomatidae and the genera other than Carcinosoma transferred to their own families (Mixopterus to the Mixopteridae and Megalograptus and Echinognathus to the Megalograptidae). In 1942, Embrik Strand proposed another replacement name for Eusarcus, Eusarcana, despite the matter having been dealt with by Størmer eight years prior. Rhinocarcinosoma was split off from Carcinosoma in 1962 by Nestor Ivanovich Novozhilov, based on its carapace being different from that of other Carcinosoma. When revising the carcinosomatids in 1964, Kenneth Edward Caster and Erik N. Kjellesvig-Waering recognised Eusarcus and Carcinosoma to be distinct genera, determining the 1912 synonymisation to have been erroneous. Since Eusarcus was preoccupied, Caster and Kjellesvig-Waering, likely unaware of Strand's Eusarcana, coined the replacement name Paracarcinosoma for the species previously referred to Eusarcus. Also in 1964, Caster and Kjellesvig-Waering named the new genus Eocarcinosoma to account for Ordovician specimens of Eusarcus/Paracarcinosoma. Though most of those specimens have since been identified as pseudofossils, the type specimen of Eocarcinosoma is an authentic fossil and the earliest record of the family. The known geographical range of the carcinosomatids was considerably extended with the discovery of Rhinocarcinosoma fossils in Vietnam in the late 20th century, named as the species R. dosonensis in 2002. Though Paracarcinosoma was frequently used by later researchers, Eusarcana, named earlier, was recognised by Jason A. Dunlop and James Lamsdell in 2012 as the valid replacement name of Eusarcus, transferring the species assigned to Paracarcinosoma to that genus and designating Paracarcinosoma as a junior synonym. A 2015 phylogenetic analysis by Lamsdell and colleagues recovered Holmipterus, a problematic eurypterid genus of uncertain affinities, as a basal carcinosomatid. The position of Holmipterus, on account of incomplete fossil material and an apparent combination of traits from different families, is far from certain within the eurypterid family tree and its fossils may even represent two different genera, mistakenly grouped together. ## Classification The carcinosomatids are classified as part of the superfamily Carcinosomatoidea, within the infraorder Diploperculata. The Carcinosomatoidea also contains the families Mixopteridae and Megalograptidae. Carcinosomatidae was previously, from 1989 to the early 2000s, grouped with the family Hughmilleriidae in the superfamily 'Hughmillerioidea', on account of the spined limbs and all limbs, with the exception of the swimming paddles, being of a consistent type. The Hughmilleriidae is today regarded as basal members of the superfamily Pterygotioidea. The internal phylogeny of the Carcinosomatoidea is poorly resolved (unclear). The first cladogram below follows a 2007 study by eurypterid researcher O. Erik Tetlie, which was in turn based on results from various phylogenetic analyses on eurypterids conducted between 2004 and 2007, whereas the second cladogram follows a 2015 study by James Lamsdell and colleagues. Both cladograms have been simplified to only display the Carcinosomatoidea. Tetlie (2007) recovered the Carcinosomatidae as a paraphyletic grouping, accounting for basal members of the Carcinosomatoidea, whereas Lamsdell et al. (2015) recovered the carcinosomatids as a monophyletic group. Tetlie (2007) Lamsdell et al. (2015) ## Palaeoecology Carcinosomatid eurypterids were among the most marine eurypterids, known from deposits that were once reefs, some in lagoonal settings, and deeper waters. This is in sharp contrast to their closest relatives, the mixopterids, which are not known from deeper waters. The only other eurypterid family known from deeper waters are the pterygotids, which had a similar distribution to the carcinosomatids, albeit more successful. Based on the distribution of the pterygotids, it is possible that carcinosomatids ranged worldwide. They are, alongside the pterygotids, the only eurypterid family known from the southern continent of Gondwana in the Silurian and Devonian. The only carcinosomatid genus known from non-marine deposits is Rhinocarcinosoma (though it is also known marine deposits), which has been found in fluvial (river) and lacustrine (lake) settings as well. Because of their bodies not being as streamlined as those of many other swimming eurypterids, and on account of the unique morphologies of their telsons, it is considered likely that the carcinosomatids were not very active swimmers, probably adopting a more nektobenthic (swimming near the bottom) lifestyle. This lifestyle is especially exemplified in Rhinocarcinosoma, where the shovel-like protrusion at the front of its carapace may have been used for digging, or "mud-grubbing", and the swimming paddles were reduced in size compared to those of other carcinosomatids. Given their size, carcinosomatids may have been top predators or scavengers, digging for food or perhaps even burrowing and lying in wait as ambush predators. They may have fed on worms, other arthropods, brachiopods and fish, using their forelimbs to push food into their mouths. ## See also - List of eurypterid genera - Timeline of eurypterid research - Megalograptidae - Mixopteridae

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