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As well as these senior architects , there was a team of Assistant Architects who were actually responsible for many of the cemetery and memorial designs . These architects were younger , and many of them had served in the war . The Assistant Architects were : George Esselmont Gordon Leith , Wilfred Clement von Berg , Charles Henry Holden ( who in 1920 became a Principal Architect ) , William Harrison Cowlishaw , William Bryce Binnie , George Hartley Goldsmith , Frank Higginson , Arthur James Scott Hutton |
, Noel Ackroyd Rew , and John Reginald Truelove . Other architects that worked for the Commission , or won competitions for the Commission memorials , included George Salway Nicol , Harold Chalton Bradshaw , Verner Owen Rees , Gordon H. Holt , and Henry Philip Cart de Lafontaine .
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In January 1944 , Edward Maufe was appointed Principal Architect for the UK . Maufe worked extensively for the Commission for 25 years until 1969 , becoming Chief Architect and also succeeding Kenyon as Artistic Advisor . Together with Maufe , the other Principal Architects appointed during and after the Second World War were Hubert Worthington , Louis de Soissons , Philip Hepworth and Colin St Clair Oakes .
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Leading sculptors that worked on the memorials and cemeteries after the First World War included Eric Henri Kennington , Charles Thomas Wheeler , Gilbert Ledward , and Charles Sargeant Jagger . Other sculptors , both in the inter @-@ war period and after the Second World War , included William Reid Dick , Ernest Gillick , Basil Gotto , Alfred Turner , Laurence A. Turner , Walter Gilbert , Henry Poole , Vernon Hill , Robert Anning Bell , Ferdinand Victor Blundstone , Joseph Armitage , and Gilbert Bayes .
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= = = Cemetery design = = =
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= = = = Common architectural design features = = = =
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Structural design has always played an important part in the Commission 's cemeteries . Apart from a few exceptions , due to local geological conditions , the cemeteries follow the same design and uniform aesthetic all over the world . This makes the cemeteries easily recognisable and distinguishes them from war graves administered by other groups or countries .
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A typical cemetery is surrounded by a low wall or hedge and with a wrought @-@ iron gate entrance . For cemeteries in France and Belgium , a land tablet near the entrance or along a wall identifies the cemetery grounds as having been provided by the French or Belgian governments . All but the smallest cemeteries contain a register with an inventory of the burials , a plan of the plots and rows , and a basic history of the cemetery . The register is located within a metal cupboard that is marked with a cros |
s located in either the wall near the cemetery entrance or in a shelter within the cemetery . More recently , in larger sites , a stainless steel notice gives details of the respective military campaign . The headstones within the cemetery are of a uniform size and design and mark plots of equal size .
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The cemetery grounds are , except in drier climates , grass covered with a floral border around the headstones . There is also an absence of any paving between the headstone rows which is intended to make the cemetery feel like a traditional walled garden where visitors could experience a sense of peace . However , Carter and Jackson argue that the uniform aesthetics are designed to evoke a positive experience which deliberately masks and sanitises the nature of the war deaths .
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= = = = Cross of Sacrifice and Stone of Remembrance = = = =
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Typically , cemeteries of more than 40 graves contain a Cross of Sacrifice designed by architect Reginald Blomfield . This cross was designed to imitate medieval crosses found in churchyards in England with proportions more commonly seen in the Celtic cross . The cross is normally a freestanding four @-@ point limestone Latin cross , mounted on an octagonal base , and ranging in height from 14 to 32 feet . A bronze longsword , blade down , is embedded on the face of the cross . This cross represents the fa |
ith of the majority of the dead and the sword represents the military character of the cemetery , intended to link British soldiers and the Christian concept of self @-@ sacrifice .
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Cemeteries with more than 1000 burials typically have a Stone of Remembrance , designed by Edwin Lutyens with the inscription " Their Name Liveth for Evermore " . The concept of the Stone of Remembrance stone was developed by Rudyard Kipling to commemorate those of all faiths and none respectively . In contrast to the Cross of Sacrifice , the design for the stone deliberately avoided " shapes associated with particular religions " . The geometry of the structure was based on studies of the Parthenon . Each |
stone is 3 @.@ 5 metres ( 11 ft ) long and 1 @.@ 5 metres ( 4 @.@ 9 ft ) high . The shape of the stone has been compared both to that of a sarcophagus and an altar . The feature was designed using the principle of entasis . The subtle curves in the design , if extended , would form a sphere 1 @,@ 801 feet 8 inches ( 549 @.@ 15 m ) in diameter .
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= = = = Headstones = = = =
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Every grave is marked with a headstone . Each headstone contains the national emblem or regimental badge , rank , name , unit , date of death and age of each casualty inscribed above an appropriate religious symbol and a more personal dedication chosen by relatives . The headstones use a standard upper case lettering designed by MacDonald Gill . Individual graves are arranged , where possible , in straight rows and marked by uniform headstones , the vast majority of which are made of Portland stone . The o |
riginal headstone dimensions were 76 centimetres ( 30 in ) tall , 38 cm ( 15 in ) wide , and 7 @.@ 6 cm ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) thick .
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Most headstones are inscribed with a cross , except for those deceased known to be atheist or non @-@ Christian . In the case of burials of Victoria Cross or George Cross recipients , the regimental badge is supplemented by the Victoria Cross or George Cross emblem . Sometimes a soldier employed a pseudonym because they were too young to serve or were sought by law enforcement ; in such cases their primary name is shown along with the notation " served as " . Many headstones are for unidentified casualties |
; they consequently bear only what could be discovered from the body . The epitaph , developed by Rudyard Kipling , that appears on the graves of unidentified soldiers for which no details are known is " A Soldier of the Great War known unto God " . Some headstones bear the text " believed to be buried in this cemetery " when they are believed to be buried in the cemetery but the exact location of the grave is not known . In some cases soldiers were buried in collective graves and distinguishing one body f |
rom another was not possible and thus one headstone covers more than one grave . The headstone does not denote any specific details of the death except for its date , and even then only if it is known , and are deliberately ambiguous about the cause of death .
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Due to local conditions it was sometimes necessary for the Commission to deviate from its standard design . In places prone to extreme weather or earthquakes , such as Thailand and Turkey , stone @-@ faced pedestal markers are used instead of the normal headstones . These measures are intended to prevent masonry being damaged during earthquakes or sinking into sodden ground . In Italy headstones were carved from Chiampo Perla limestone because it was in more plentiful supply . In Struma Military Cemetery , |
in Greece , to avoid risk of earthquake damage , small headstones are laid flat on the ground . The smaller size of the markers mean that they often lack unit insignia .
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= = = = Horticulture = = = =
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Commission cemeteries are distinctive in treating floriculture as an integral part of the cemetery design . Originally , the horticultural concept was to create an environment where visitors could experience a sense of peace in a setting , in contrast to traditionally bleak graveyards . Recommendations given by Arthur William Hill , the Assistant Director of the Royal Botanical Gardens at Kew enabled the Commission to develop cemetery layouts and architectural structures that took into account the placemen |
t of suitable plant life . Combining structural and horticultural elements was not unfamiliar to the Commission 's architects . Sir Edwin Lutyens furthered his long @-@ standing working relationship with horticulturist Gertrude Jekyll , whose devotion to traditional cottage garden plants and roses greatly influenced the appearance of the cemeteries . Where possible , indigenous plants were utilised to enhance sentimental associations with the gardens of home .
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Variety in texture , height and timing of floral display were equally important horticultural considerations . The beds around each headstone are planted with a mixture of floribunda roses and herbaceous perennials . Low @-@ growing plants are chosen for areas immediately in front of headstones , ensuring that inscriptions are not obscured and preventing soil from splashing back during rain . In cemeteries where there are pedestal grave markers , dwarf varieties of plants are used instead .
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The absence of any form of paving between the headstone rows contributes to the simplicity of the cemetery designs . Lawn paths add to the garden ambiance , and are irrigated during the dry season in countries where there is insufficient rain . Where irrigation is inappropriate or impractical , dry landscaping is an ecological alternative favoured by the Commission 's horticulturists , as is the case in Iraq . Drier areas require a different approach not only for lawns , but also to plants and styles of pl |
anting . Similarly , there are separate horticultural considerations in tropical climates . When many cemeteries are concentrated within a limited area , like along the Western Front or Gallipoli peninsula , mobile teams of gardeners operate from a local base . Elsewhere , larger cemeteries have their own dedicated staff while small cemeteries are usually tended by a single gardener working part @-@ time .
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= = Organisation = =
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= = = Commissioners = = =
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The affairs of the CWGC are overseen by a Board of Commissioners . The president of the board is Prince Edward , Duke of Kent , the chairman is United Kingdom Secretary of State for Defence Michael Fallon and the vice @-@ chairman Vice @-@ Admiral Tim Laurence . The members are : the High Commissioner for New Zealand to the United Kingdom Lockwood Smith , the High Commissioners of Australia to the United Kingdom Alexander Downer , the Acting High Commissioner of the Republic of South Africa to the United K |
ingdom Obed Mlaba , the High Commissioner for India to the United Kingdom Ranjan Mathai , the High Commissioner for Canada to the United Kingdom Gordon Campbell , Hew Strachan , Keith Simpson , Kevan Jones , Edward Chaplin , Robert Fox , Ros Kelly and Lieutenant General Bill Rollo . Victoria Wallace is the Director @-@ General of the CWGC and serves as secretary . The board also has an Honorary Artistic Adviser , Peter Inskip .
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= = = Functional structure = = =
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The CWGC is headquartered in Maidenhead , England . Offices or agencies that are each responsible for a specific geographical area manage the worldwide affairs of the organisation . They are :
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France Area is headed by a director and is responsible for France ( including the island of Corsica ) , Monaco and Switzerland .
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Northern Europe Area , headed by a director and responsible for Austria , Belgium , Czech Republic , Denmark , Estonia , Germany , Hungary , Latvia , Lithuania , Luxembourg , Netherlands , Norway , Poland and Sweden .
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United Kingdom Area , headed by a director and responsible for Channel Islands , Faroe Islands , Iceland , Ireland , Isle of Man and the United Kingdom
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Mediterranean Area headed by a director and responsible for Albania , Algeria , Azerbaijan , Azores , Bahrain , Canary Islands , Croatia , Cyprus , Egypt , Gibraltar , Greece , Israel and Palestine , Italy , Jordan , Lebanon , Libya , Macedonia , Madeira , Malta , Mauritania , Morocco , Oman , Portugal , San Marino , Saudi Arabia , Serbia , Spain , Syria , Tunisia , Turkey , United Arab Emirates and Yemen
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Canadian Agency is headed by a secretary @-@ general and responsible for Canada , the entire Americas ( including the Caribbean )
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Australia , managed by the Office of Australian War Graves in the Australian Department of Veterans Affairs on behalf of the CWGC , is responsible for Australia , Norfolk Island , Papua New Guinea and the Solomon Islands
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New Zealand , managed by the New Zealand Ministry of Culture and Heritage on behalf of the CWGC , is responsible for New Zealand , New Caledonia , Samoa , Society Islands , Tonga and Vanuatu
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South Africa Agency is headed by a secretary and is responsible for Republic of South Africa , Namibia , Saint Helena and Ascension Island
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Africa , Asia and Pacific Area is headed by a director and is responsible for areas not covered by any of the other bodies .
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= = = Financing = = =
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The CWGC 's work is funded predominantly by grants from the governments of the six member states . In the fiscal year 2012 / 13 , these grants amounted to £ 58 @.@ 6 million of the organisation 's £ 66 @.@ 5 million of income . This equates to an approximate cost of C $ 85 per commemorated war dead . The contribution from each country is proportionate to the number of graves the CWGC maintains on behalf of that country . The percentage of total annual contributions for which each country is responsible is |
United Kingdom 78 @.@ 4 % , Canada 10 @.@ 1 % , Australia 6 @.@ 1 % , New Zealand 2 @.@ 1 % , South Africa 2 @.@ 1 % and India 1 @.@ 2 % .
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= = Ongoing projects and issues = =
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= = = War Graves Photographic Project = = =
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A project is underway to photograph the graves of and memorials to all service personnel from 1914 to the present day and make the images available to the public . The work is being carried out by The War Graves Photographic Project in conjunction with the CWGC . As of August 2013 , the project has recorded 1 @.@ 7 million photographs for posterity .
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= = = Reburials and identifications = = =
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Immediately following the First World War , the British Army remained responsible for the exhumation of remains . The Western Front was divided into sectors and combed for bodies by 12 @-@ man exhumation units . Between the Armistice and September 1921 , the exhumation units reburied 204 @,@ 695 bodies . After 1921 , no further widespread search for bodies was undertaken and in February 1921 responsibility of the cemeteries was transferred to the Commission . Despite the rigorous searches , bodies continue |
d to be discovered in numbers . In the three years following the conclusion of the general search 38 @,@ 000 bodies were discovered . In the mid 1920s , 20 to 30 bodies were being discovered weekly .
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The discovery of remains of First and Second World War casualties remains a common occurrence with approximately 30 bodies discovered annually . For example , in 2006 eight bodies of Canadian soldiers from the 78th Battalion ( Winnipeg Grenadiers ) , CEF were discovered in a backyard in Hallu , France . In April 2013 , the remains of four British soldiers discovered by a French farmer clearing land with metal detector in 2009 were re @-@ interred at H.A.C. Cemetery near Arras , France . In March 2014 , the |
remains of 20 Commonwealth and 30 German soldiers were discovered in Vendin @-@ le @-@ Vieil , France with the Commonwealth soldiers being subsequently reburied at Loos British Cemetery .
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When the remains of a Commonwealth soldier from the First or Second World War is discovered the Commission is notified and a Commission burial officer tries to collect any associated artifacts that may help in identify the remains . The details are then registered and archived at the Commission 's headquarters. the collection of evidence can include artifacts with the remains , anthropological data and DNA . The archival records of the commission are open to the public to permit individuals to conduct thei |
r own research . Investigation of archival records by members of the public periodically result in the identification of previously buried casualties . In December 2013 , it was discovered that Second Lieutenant Philip Frederick Cormack , who was previously commemorated on the Arras Flying Services Memorial , had in fact been buried in a French military cemetery in Machelen , East @-@ Flanders in Belgium . Sergeant Leonard Maidment was identified in 2013 after a visitor to Marfaux British Cemetery discovere |
d a headstone of an unknown sergeant with the Hampshire Regiment killed on 20 July 1918 and was subsequently able to show that only one sergeant from that regiment had been killed in France on that date .
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= = = Vandalism = = =
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Cemeteries , including those of war dead , are targets for vandalism . The gravestones , cemeteries and buildings of the Commission are no exception . The Commission believes that graffiti and damage to stonework are usually the pursuits partaken by young people , noting the number of incidents increases when schoolchildren are on school holidays . Determined thieves will also steal the bronze swords off the Cross of Sacrifice , which are now replaced with identical ones made in fibreglass .
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The vandalism of Commission cemeteries has also been connected to the participation of Commonwealth countries in contemporary conflicts . In the 1970s , in The Troubles , Commission cemeteries in Ireland experienced vandalism . Vandals defaced the central memorial of the Étaples Military Cemetery in northern France with anti @-@ British and anti @-@ American graffiti on 20 March 2003 immediately after the beginning of the Iraq War . On 9 May 2004 , thirty @-@ three headstones were demolished in the Gaza ce |
metery , which contains 3 @,@ 691 graves , allegedly in retaliation for the Abu Ghraib prisoner abuse scandal . On 24 February 2012 , during the Libyan Civil War , an Islamist militia damaged over 200 headstones in the Benghazi war cemetery as well as the central memorial .
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= Tatwine =
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Tatwine or Tatwin ( Tatuini or Tadwinus ; c . 670 – 734 ) was the tenth Archbishop of Canterbury from 731 to 734 . Prior to becoming archbishop , he was a monk and abbot of a Benedictine monastery . Besides his ecclesiastical career , Tatwine was a writer , and riddles he composed survive . Another work he composed was on the grammar of the Latin language , which was aimed at advanced students of that language . He was subsequently considered a saint .
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= = Biography = =
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Tatwine was a Mercian by birth . His epigraph at Canterbury stated that when he died he was in old age , so perhaps he was born around 670 . He became a monk at the monastery at Breedon @-@ on @-@ the @-@ Hill in the present @-@ day County of Leicestershire , and then abbot of that house . Through the influence of King Æthelbald he was appointed as Archbishop of Canterbury in 731 and was consecrated on 10 June 731 . He was one of a number of Mercians who were appointed to Canterbury during the 730s and 740 |
s . Apart from his consecration of the Bishops of Lindsey and Selsey in 733 , Tatwine 's period as archbishop appears to have been uneventful . He died in office on 30 July 734 . Later considered a saint , his feast day is 30 July .
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= = Writings = =
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Bede 's commentary on Tatwine calls him a " vir religione et Prudentia insignis , sacris quoque literis nobiliter instructus " ( a man notable for his prudence , devotion and learning ) . These qualities were displayed in the two surviving manuscripts of his riddles and four of his Ars Tatuini . The Ars is one of only two surviving 8th @-@ century Latin grammars from England , and was based on the works of Priscian and Consentius . The riddles deal with such diverse topics as philosophy and charity , the f |
ive senses and the alphabet , and a book and a pen . The riddles are formed in acrostics . The grammar is a reworking of Donatus 's Ars Minor with the addition of information drawn from other grammarians . It was not designed for a newcomer to the Latin language , but is designed for more advanced students . It covers the eight parts of speech through illustrations drawn from classical scholars , although not directly but through other grammatical works . There are also some examples drawn from the Psalms . |
The work was completed before he became archbishop , and was used not only in England but also on the continent . A recent edition of his works is Tatuini Opera omnia , published in 1968 with some translations into English and German from the original Latin .
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= German Type UB I submarine =
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The Type UB I was a class of small coastal submarines ( U @-@ boats ) built in Germany at the beginning of the First World War . 20 boats were constructed , most of which went into service with the German Imperial Navy . Boats of this design were also operated by the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy ( Kaiserliche und Königliche Kriegsmarine or K.u.K. Kriegsmarine ) and the Bulgarian Navy . The group is sometimes known as the UB @-@ 1 class after SM UB @-@ 1 , the class leader . In the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy , |
it was called the U @-@ 10 class .
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Built to meet the need for small maneuverable submarines able to operate in the narrow , shallow seas off Flanders , the vessels were intended to be quickly constructed , then shipped by rail and assembled at their port of operation . The design effort began in mid @-@ August 1914 and by mid @-@ October the first 15 boats were ordered from two German shipyards . The German Imperial Navy subsequently ordered an additional pair of boats to replace two sold to Austria @-@ Hungary , who ordered a further three |
boats in April 1915 . A total of 20 UB Is were built . Construction of the first boats for Germany began in early November 1914 ; all 20 were completed by October 1915 . Several of the first boats underwent trials in German home waters , but the rest were assembled and tested at either Antwerp or Pola . The German boats operated primarily in the Flanders , Baltic , and Constantinople Flotillas . The boats were about 28 metres ( 92 ft ) long and displaced 127 tonnes ( 125 long tons ) when surfaced and 142 t |
onnes ( 140 long tons ) while submerged . All had two bow torpedo tubes and two torpedoes , and were equipped with a deck @-@ mounted machine gun .
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In 1918 four of the surviving German boats were converted into coastal minelayers . Of the seventeen boats in German service , two were sold to Austria @-@ Hungary , one was sold to Bulgaria , and nine were lost during the war . One of the five Austro @-@ Hungarian boats was sunk and another mined and not repaired . The five surviving German boats , the four surviving Austro @-@ Hungarian boats , and the Bulgarian boat were all turned over to the Allies after the end of the war and were broken up .
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= = Design = =
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In the earliest stages of the First World War the German Army 's rapid advance along the North Sea coast found the German Imperial Navy without submarines suitable to operate in the narrow and shallow seas off Flanders . By 18 August 1914 , two weeks after the German invasion of Belgium , the planning of a series of small coastal submarines had already begun .
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The German Imperial Navy stipulated that the submarines must be transportable by rail , which imposed a maximum diameter of 3 @.@ 15 metres ( 10 ft 4 in ) . The rushed planning effort — which had been assigned the name " Project 34 " — resulted in the Type UB I design , created specifically for operation from Flanders . The boats were to be about 28 metres ( 92 ft ) long and to displace about 125 tonnes ( 123 long tons ) with two bow torpedo tubes .
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Boats of the Type UB I design were built by two manufacturers , Germaniawerft of Kiel and AG Weser of Bremen , which led to some variations in boats from the two shipyards . The eight Germaniawerft @-@ built boats were slightly longer at 28 @.@ 10 metres ( 92 ft 2 in ) length overall , while the twelve Weser @-@ built boats came in 22 centimetres ( 8 @.@ 7 in ) shorter than their counterparts . All were 3 @.@ 15 metres ( 10 ft 4 in ) abeam and had a draft of 3 @.@ 03 metres ( 9 ft 11 in ) . The boats all d |
isplaced 127 tonnes ( 125 long tons ) while surfaced , but differed slightly in displacement submerged . The slightly longer Germaniawerft boats displaced 142 tonnes ( 140 long tons ) while submerged , as they weighed 1 tonne ( 0 @.@ 98 long tons ) more than the Weser boats .
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The drivetrain of the boats consisted of a single propeller shaft driven by a Daimler ( Germaniawerft ) or Körting ( Weser ) diesel engine on the surface , or a Siemens @-@ Schuckert electric motor for underwater travel . The Weser boats were capable of nearly 7 @.@ 5 knots ( 13 @.@ 9 km / h ; 8 @.@ 6 mph ) on the surface and a little more than 6 knots ( 11 km / h ; 6 @.@ 9 mph ) submerged . The Germaniawerft boats were about 1 knot ( 1 @.@ 9 km / h ; 1 @.@ 2 mph ) slower than their Bremen @-@ made counter |
parts . The boats were equipped with two 45 @-@ centimetre ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) bow torpedo tubes and carried two torpedoes . They were also armed with a single 8 @-@ millimetre ( 0 @.@ 31 in ) machine gun affixed to the deck .
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= = Construction = =
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The German Imperial Navy ordered its first fifteen Type UB I boats on 15 October 1914 . Eight boats — numbered UB @-@ 1 to UB @-@ 8 — were ordered from Germaniawerft of Kiel , and seven boats — numbered UB @-@ 9 to U @-@ 15 — from AG Weser of Bremen . After two of the class , UB @-@ 1 and UB @-@ 15 , were sold in February 1915 to ally Austria @-@ Hungary ( becoming U @-@ 10 and U @-@ 11 in the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy ) , the German Imperial Navy ordered UB @-@ 16 and UB @-@ 17 from Weser . A further thre |
e for Austria @-@ Hungary — U @-@ 15 , U @-@ 16 , and U @-@ 17 — had been ordered from Weser by April , bringing the total number constructed to 20 .
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UB @-@ 1 and UB @-@ 2 were laid down on 1 November 1914 at the Germaniawerft yard at Kiel . UB @-@ 1 was launched on 22 January 1915 , just 75 working days later . UB @-@ 2 's launch followed on 13 February . Among the Weser boats , UB @-@ 9 was laid down first , on 6 November 1914 , and launched on 6 February 1915 , a week ahead of UB @-@ 2 . These first three boats launched underwent trials in home waters , but most of the other members of the class were shipped via rail and underwent trials at their ass |
embly point .
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The process of shipping the submarines by rail involved breaking the submarines down into what was essentially a knock down kit . Each boat was broken into approximately fifteen pieces and loaded on to eight railway flatcars . Type UB I boats destined for service with the Flanders Flotilla made a five @-@ day journey to Antwerp for the two- to three @-@ week assembly process . After assembly at Antwerp the boats were towed by barge to Bruges for trials . Boats selected for service in the Mediterranean were |
sent to the Austro @-@ Hungarian port of Pola for assembly . The total time from departure of the railcars from the shipyard to operational readiness for the boats was about six weeks .
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By July 1915 all seventeen of the German Imperial Navy Type UB Is had been completed .
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= = Service = =
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During their trials the Type UB Is were found to be too small and too slow and had a reputation for being underpowered ; one commander compared his Type UB I to a " sewing machine " . According to authors R. H. Gibson and Maurice Prendergast in their 1931 book The German Submarine War , 1914 – 1918 , the UBs did not have enough power to chase down steamers while surfaced and lacked the endurance to spend any extended amount of time underwater , exhausting their batteries after little over an hour 's runnin |
g . In @-@ service use revealed another problem : with a single propeller shaft / engine combination , if either component failed , the U @-@ boat was almost totally disabled .
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Another reported problem with the Type UB Is was the tendency to break trim after the firing of torpedoes . The boats were equipped with compensating tanks designed to flood and offset the loss of the C / 06 torpedo 's 1 @,@ 700 @-@ pound ( 770 kg ) weight , but this system did not always function properly ; as a result , when firing from periscope depth the boat could broach after firing or , if too much weight was taken on , plunge to the depths . When UB @-@ 15 torpedoed and sank Italian submarine Medus |
a in June 1915 , the tank failed to properly compensate , forcing the entire crew to run to the stern to offset the trim imbalance .
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Despite the problems , the " tin tadpoles " , as the Germans referred to them , were in active service from March 1915 through the end of the war , with half of the 20 boats lost during the war . Boats of the class served in three navies : the German Imperial Navy , the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy , and the Bulgarian Navy . In German service , they served primarily in the Flanders Flotilla , the Baltic Flotilla , and the Constantinople Flotilla .
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= = = German Imperial Navy = = =
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