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[
"Juan de Pareja",
"occupation",
"artist"
] |
Juan de Pareja (c. 1606 in Antequera – 1670 in Madrid) was a Spanish painter born in Antequera, near Málaga, Spain. He is known primarily as a member of the household and workshop of painter Diego Velázquez, who freed him from slavery in 1650. His 1661 work The Calling of Saint Matthew (sometimes also referred to as The Vocation of Saint Matthew) is on display at the Museo del Prado in Madrid, Spain.Biography
Juan de Pareja was a Spaniard born into slavery in Southern Spain, probably in Antequera in Malaga province around 1610. Little is known on his background although Antonio Palomino describes him as a morisco (convert from Islam), being "of mixed parentage and unusual color."The first known reference to Juan Pareja as a painter is in a letter addressed to Pedro Galindo, attorney of the city of Seville, written on 12 May 1630, in which Juan de Pareja requests permission to move to Madrid in order to continue his studies together with his brother Jusepe. The authenticity of this document is questioned since within it he claims to be a free man and does not once mention Velázquez.It is unknown at what time he began serving Diego Velázquez. In 1642 he signed as a witness in a power of attorney for Velázquez in a lawsuit against scribes in the criminal court. He was also a witness in October and December 1647, for two other powers of attorney to manage his assets in Seville granted by Velázquez and his wife Juana Pacheco. He would again sign a similar document in 1653 for Francisca Velázquez, daughter of the painter.In 1649 he accompanied Velázquez on his second trip to Italy. This is where Velázquez painted his famous painting Portrait of Juan de Pareja, currently in the Metropolitan Museum of Art of New York. The painting was exhibited in the Pantheon of Rome in March 1650 during the festivities in honor of the Patron of the Virtuosos of the Pantheon, which Velázquez had recently joined. On 23 November, while still in Rome, Velázquez granted him a letter of freedom, which would come into effect after four years on the condition that he did not escape or commit any criminal act in that period. The document of his manumission, discovered by Jennifer Montagu, is held in the Archivio di Stato in Rome.From then on until his death in Madrid he worked as an independent painter, demonstrating knowledge acquired in Velazquez's workshop, where he likely had wider responsibilities than Palomino suggests, as well as his knowledge of various other Spanish and Italian painters.
| 13 |
[
"Juan de Pareja",
"ethnic group",
"Afro-Spaniard"
] |
Juan de Pareja (c. 1606 in Antequera – 1670 in Madrid) was a Spanish painter born in Antequera, near Málaga, Spain. He is known primarily as a member of the household and workshop of painter Diego Velázquez, who freed him from slavery in 1650. His 1661 work The Calling of Saint Matthew (sometimes also referred to as The Vocation of Saint Matthew) is on display at the Museo del Prado in Madrid, Spain.Biography
Juan de Pareja was a Spaniard born into slavery in Southern Spain, probably in Antequera in Malaga province around 1610. Little is known on his background although Antonio Palomino describes him as a morisco (convert from Islam), being "of mixed parentage and unusual color."The first known reference to Juan Pareja as a painter is in a letter addressed to Pedro Galindo, attorney of the city of Seville, written on 12 May 1630, in which Juan de Pareja requests permission to move to Madrid in order to continue his studies together with his brother Jusepe. The authenticity of this document is questioned since within it he claims to be a free man and does not once mention Velázquez.It is unknown at what time he began serving Diego Velázquez. In 1642 he signed as a witness in a power of attorney for Velázquez in a lawsuit against scribes in the criminal court. He was also a witness in October and December 1647, for two other powers of attorney to manage his assets in Seville granted by Velázquez and his wife Juana Pacheco. He would again sign a similar document in 1653 for Francisca Velázquez, daughter of the painter.In 1649 he accompanied Velázquez on his second trip to Italy. This is where Velázquez painted his famous painting Portrait of Juan de Pareja, currently in the Metropolitan Museum of Art of New York. The painting was exhibited in the Pantheon of Rome in March 1650 during the festivities in honor of the Patron of the Virtuosos of the Pantheon, which Velázquez had recently joined. On 23 November, while still in Rome, Velázquez granted him a letter of freedom, which would come into effect after four years on the condition that he did not escape or commit any criminal act in that period. The document of his manumission, discovered by Jennifer Montagu, is held in the Archivio di Stato in Rome.From then on until his death in Madrid he worked as an independent painter, demonstrating knowledge acquired in Velazquez's workshop, where he likely had wider responsibilities than Palomino suggests, as well as his knowledge of various other Spanish and Italian painters.
| 22 |
[
"Juan de Pareja",
"has works in the collection",
"Museo del Prado"
] |
Juan de Pareja (c. 1606 in Antequera – 1670 in Madrid) was a Spanish painter born in Antequera, near Málaga, Spain. He is known primarily as a member of the household and workshop of painter Diego Velázquez, who freed him from slavery in 1650. His 1661 work The Calling of Saint Matthew (sometimes also referred to as The Vocation of Saint Matthew) is on display at the Museo del Prado in Madrid, Spain.
| 24 |
[
"Juan de Pareja",
"family name",
"Pareja"
] |
Juan de Pareja (c. 1606 in Antequera – 1670 in Madrid) was a Spanish painter born in Antequera, near Málaga, Spain. He is known primarily as a member of the household and workshop of painter Diego Velázquez, who freed him from slavery in 1650. His 1661 work The Calling of Saint Matthew (sometimes also referred to as The Vocation of Saint Matthew) is on display at the Museo del Prado in Madrid, Spain.
| 27 |
[
"Tomas de Aguiar",
"place of death",
"Spain"
] |
Tomás de Aguiar (died c. 1679) was a Spanish painter, active during the Baroque period. He was a pupil of Diego Velázquez, and known for painting portraits.
With little information about his life, the most accurate news is that provided by the 17th-century historian Lazaro Diaz del Valle, and a friend of Velasquez, which included Aguiar in his handwritten notes in the section dedicated to the "Spanish Lords and Noble Knights have been entertaining to paint and draw," where it said :Aguiar died in Madrid, Spain in 1679.
| 2 |
[
"Tomas de Aguiar",
"country of citizenship",
"Spain"
] |
Tomás de Aguiar (died c. 1679) was a Spanish painter, active during the Baroque period. He was a pupil of Diego Velázquez, and known for painting portraits.
With little information about his life, the most accurate news is that provided by the 17th-century historian Lazaro Diaz del Valle, and a friend of Velasquez, which included Aguiar in his handwritten notes in the section dedicated to the "Spanish Lords and Noble Knights have been entertaining to paint and draw," where it said :
| 3 |
[
"Tomas de Aguiar",
"student of",
"Diego Velázquez"
] |
Tomás de Aguiar (died c. 1679) was a Spanish painter, active during the Baroque period. He was a pupil of Diego Velázquez, and known for painting portraits.
With little information about his life, the most accurate news is that provided by the 17th-century historian Lazaro Diaz del Valle, and a friend of Velasquez, which included Aguiar in his handwritten notes in the section dedicated to the "Spanish Lords and Noble Knights have been entertaining to paint and draw," where it said :
| 4 |
[
"Tomas de Aguiar",
"occupation",
"painter"
] |
Tomás de Aguiar (died c. 1679) was a Spanish painter, active during the Baroque period. He was a pupil of Diego Velázquez, and known for painting portraits.
With little information about his life, the most accurate news is that provided by the 17th-century historian Lazaro Diaz del Valle, and a friend of Velasquez, which included Aguiar in his handwritten notes in the section dedicated to the "Spanish Lords and Noble Knights have been entertaining to paint and draw," where it said :
| 7 |
[
"Tomas de Aguiar",
"given name",
"Tomás"
] |
Tomás de Aguiar (died c. 1679) was a Spanish painter, active during the Baroque period. He was a pupil of Diego Velázquez, and known for painting portraits.
With little information about his life, the most accurate news is that provided by the 17th-century historian Lazaro Diaz del Valle, and a friend of Velasquez, which included Aguiar in his handwritten notes in the section dedicated to the "Spanish Lords and Noble Knights have been entertaining to paint and draw," where it said :
| 8 |
[
"Tomas de Aguiar",
"family name",
"Aguiar"
] |
Tomás de Aguiar (died c. 1679) was a Spanish painter, active during the Baroque period. He was a pupil of Diego Velázquez, and known for painting portraits.
With little information about his life, the most accurate news is that provided by the 17th-century historian Lazaro Diaz del Valle, and a friend of Velasquez, which included Aguiar in his handwritten notes in the section dedicated to the "Spanish Lords and Noble Knights have been entertaining to paint and draw," where it said :
| 9 |
[
"Luis Tristán",
"instance of",
"human"
] |
Luis Tristán de Escamilla, also known as Luis de Escamilla or Luis Rodríguez Tristán (c.1585, Toledo - 1624, Toledo), was a Spanish painter in the mannerist style.Life and work
He was born into a family of merchants and artisans. In 1603, he entered the workshop of El Greco, and remained there until 1606. He initially imitated his teacher's style to the extent that many of his works have been attributed to him and vice versa. After El Greco's son, Jorge Manuel Theotocópuli, Tristán is considered to be his principle follower. He then spent seven years in Italy, returning home around 1613.
He would work exclusively in Toledo for the rest of his life. His post-Italian work showed the influence of the Caravaggisti and the general aesthetic approach of the Counter-reformation.
Apart from a few realistic portraits, his work is religious in focus. Although his figures show the distortions typical of his master, he introduced elements from daily life, rendered in a naturalistic style that offsets their lack of realism.
His most important works may be a set of paintings made for the main altarpiece at the church of Saint Benedict of Nursia in Yepes, from approximately 1616, which includes six scenes from the life of Jesus and eight half-figures of various saints. During the Spanish Civil War, the altar was largely destroyed, but the torn canvases were repaired at the Museo del Prado and all but two were returned to the church in 1942.
Other works include "Saint Louis Distributing Alms", currently in the Louvre, and "The Round of Bread and Eggs" at the Museum of Santa Cruz.
One of his best-known students was the still-life painter, Pedro de Camprobín.
| 0 |
[
"Luis Tristán",
"student of",
"El Greco"
] |
Life and work
He was born into a family of merchants and artisans. In 1603, he entered the workshop of El Greco, and remained there until 1606. He initially imitated his teacher's style to the extent that many of his works have been attributed to him and vice versa. After El Greco's son, Jorge Manuel Theotocópuli, Tristán is considered to be his principle follower. He then spent seven years in Italy, returning home around 1613.
He would work exclusively in Toledo for the rest of his life. His post-Italian work showed the influence of the Caravaggisti and the general aesthetic approach of the Counter-reformation.
Apart from a few realistic portraits, his work is religious in focus. Although his figures show the distortions typical of his master, he introduced elements from daily life, rendered in a naturalistic style that offsets their lack of realism.
His most important works may be a set of paintings made for the main altarpiece at the church of Saint Benedict of Nursia in Yepes, from approximately 1616, which includes six scenes from the life of Jesus and eight half-figures of various saints. During the Spanish Civil War, the altar was largely destroyed, but the torn canvases were repaired at the Museo del Prado and all but two were returned to the church in 1942.
Other works include "Saint Louis Distributing Alms", currently in the Louvre, and "The Round of Bread and Eggs" at the Museum of Santa Cruz.
One of his best-known students was the still-life painter, Pedro de Camprobín.
| 1 |
[
"Luis Tristán",
"place of birth",
"Toledo"
] |
Luis Tristán de Escamilla, also known as Luis de Escamilla or Luis Rodríguez Tristán (c.1585, Toledo - 1624, Toledo), was a Spanish painter in the mannerist style.Life and work
He was born into a family of merchants and artisans. In 1603, he entered the workshop of El Greco, and remained there until 1606. He initially imitated his teacher's style to the extent that many of his works have been attributed to him and vice versa. After El Greco's son, Jorge Manuel Theotocópuli, Tristán is considered to be his principle follower. He then spent seven years in Italy, returning home around 1613.
He would work exclusively in Toledo for the rest of his life. His post-Italian work showed the influence of the Caravaggisti and the general aesthetic approach of the Counter-reformation.
Apart from a few realistic portraits, his work is religious in focus. Although his figures show the distortions typical of his master, he introduced elements from daily life, rendered in a naturalistic style that offsets their lack of realism.
His most important works may be a set of paintings made for the main altarpiece at the church of Saint Benedict of Nursia in Yepes, from approximately 1616, which includes six scenes from the life of Jesus and eight half-figures of various saints. During the Spanish Civil War, the altar was largely destroyed, but the torn canvases were repaired at the Museo del Prado and all but two were returned to the church in 1942.
Other works include "Saint Louis Distributing Alms", currently in the Louvre, and "The Round of Bread and Eggs" at the Museum of Santa Cruz.
One of his best-known students was the still-life painter, Pedro de Camprobín.
| 4 |
[
"Luis Tristán",
"place of death",
"Toledo"
] |
Luis Tristán de Escamilla, also known as Luis de Escamilla or Luis Rodríguez Tristán (c.1585, Toledo - 1624, Toledo), was a Spanish painter in the mannerist style.Life and work
He was born into a family of merchants and artisans. In 1603, he entered the workshop of El Greco, and remained there until 1606. He initially imitated his teacher's style to the extent that many of his works have been attributed to him and vice versa. After El Greco's son, Jorge Manuel Theotocópuli, Tristán is considered to be his principle follower. He then spent seven years in Italy, returning home around 1613.
He would work exclusively in Toledo for the rest of his life. His post-Italian work showed the influence of the Caravaggisti and the general aesthetic approach of the Counter-reformation.
Apart from a few realistic portraits, his work is religious in focus. Although his figures show the distortions typical of his master, he introduced elements from daily life, rendered in a naturalistic style that offsets their lack of realism.
His most important works may be a set of paintings made for the main altarpiece at the church of Saint Benedict of Nursia in Yepes, from approximately 1616, which includes six scenes from the life of Jesus and eight half-figures of various saints. During the Spanish Civil War, the altar was largely destroyed, but the torn canvases were repaired at the Museo del Prado and all but two were returned to the church in 1942.
Other works include "Saint Louis Distributing Alms", currently in the Louvre, and "The Round of Bread and Eggs" at the Museum of Santa Cruz.
One of his best-known students was the still-life painter, Pedro de Camprobín.
| 5 |
[
"Luis Tristán",
"occupation",
"painter"
] |
Luis Tristán de Escamilla, also known as Luis de Escamilla or Luis Rodríguez Tristán (c.1585, Toledo - 1624, Toledo), was a Spanish painter in the mannerist style.Life and work
He was born into a family of merchants and artisans. In 1603, he entered the workshop of El Greco, and remained there until 1606. He initially imitated his teacher's style to the extent that many of his works have been attributed to him and vice versa. After El Greco's son, Jorge Manuel Theotocópuli, Tristán is considered to be his principle follower. He then spent seven years in Italy, returning home around 1613.
He would work exclusively in Toledo for the rest of his life. His post-Italian work showed the influence of the Caravaggisti and the general aesthetic approach of the Counter-reformation.
Apart from a few realistic portraits, his work is religious in focus. Although his figures show the distortions typical of his master, he introduced elements from daily life, rendered in a naturalistic style that offsets their lack of realism.
His most important works may be a set of paintings made for the main altarpiece at the church of Saint Benedict of Nursia in Yepes, from approximately 1616, which includes six scenes from the life of Jesus and eight half-figures of various saints. During the Spanish Civil War, the altar was largely destroyed, but the torn canvases were repaired at the Museo del Prado and all but two were returned to the church in 1942.
Other works include "Saint Louis Distributing Alms", currently in the Louvre, and "The Round of Bread and Eggs" at the Museum of Santa Cruz.
One of his best-known students was the still-life painter, Pedro de Camprobín.
| 7 |
[
"Luis Tristán",
"work location",
"Toledo"
] |
Luis Tristán de Escamilla, also known as Luis de Escamilla or Luis Rodríguez Tristán (c.1585, Toledo - 1624, Toledo), was a Spanish painter in the mannerist style.Life and work
He was born into a family of merchants and artisans. In 1603, he entered the workshop of El Greco, and remained there until 1606. He initially imitated his teacher's style to the extent that many of his works have been attributed to him and vice versa. After El Greco's son, Jorge Manuel Theotocópuli, Tristán is considered to be his principle follower. He then spent seven years in Italy, returning home around 1613.
He would work exclusively in Toledo for the rest of his life. His post-Italian work showed the influence of the Caravaggisti and the general aesthetic approach of the Counter-reformation.
Apart from a few realistic portraits, his work is religious in focus. Although his figures show the distortions typical of his master, he introduced elements from daily life, rendered in a naturalistic style that offsets their lack of realism.
His most important works may be a set of paintings made for the main altarpiece at the church of Saint Benedict of Nursia in Yepes, from approximately 1616, which includes six scenes from the life of Jesus and eight half-figures of various saints. During the Spanish Civil War, the altar was largely destroyed, but the torn canvases were repaired at the Museo del Prado and all but two were returned to the church in 1942.
Other works include "Saint Louis Distributing Alms", currently in the Louvre, and "The Round of Bread and Eggs" at the Museum of Santa Cruz.
One of his best-known students was the still-life painter, Pedro de Camprobín.
| 8 |
[
"Luis Tristán",
"given name",
"Luis"
] |
Luis Tristán de Escamilla, also known as Luis de Escamilla or Luis Rodríguez Tristán (c.1585, Toledo - 1624, Toledo), was a Spanish painter in the mannerist style.Life and work
He was born into a family of merchants and artisans. In 1603, he entered the workshop of El Greco, and remained there until 1606. He initially imitated his teacher's style to the extent that many of his works have been attributed to him and vice versa. After El Greco's son, Jorge Manuel Theotocópuli, Tristán is considered to be his principle follower. He then spent seven years in Italy, returning home around 1613.
He would work exclusively in Toledo for the rest of his life. His post-Italian work showed the influence of the Caravaggisti and the general aesthetic approach of the Counter-reformation.
Apart from a few realistic portraits, his work is religious in focus. Although his figures show the distortions typical of his master, he introduced elements from daily life, rendered in a naturalistic style that offsets their lack of realism.
His most important works may be a set of paintings made for the main altarpiece at the church of Saint Benedict of Nursia in Yepes, from approximately 1616, which includes six scenes from the life of Jesus and eight half-figures of various saints. During the Spanish Civil War, the altar was largely destroyed, but the torn canvases were repaired at the Museo del Prado and all but two were returned to the church in 1942.
Other works include "Saint Louis Distributing Alms", currently in the Louvre, and "The Round of Bread and Eggs" at the Museum of Santa Cruz.
One of his best-known students was the still-life painter, Pedro de Camprobín.
| 22 |
[
"Diego de Astor",
"instance of",
"human"
] |
Diego de Astor was a 17th-century Spanish engraver from Toledo. He studied under Domenico Theotocopuli, and in 1606 engraved, under his superintendence, a 'St. Francis,' after Nic. de Vargas. Astor was engraver to the Mint of Segovia, and was also employed to engrave the royal seals. Of his plates we may notice the titlepage to Colmenares' Historia de Segovia (Madrid, 1640), and a series of plates of the first documented manual alphabet for the purpose of deaf education in Bonet's book Reducción de las letras y arte para enseñar a hablar a los mudos ("Summary of the letters and the art of teaching speech to the mute") .
| 0 |
[
"Diego de Astor",
"sex or gender",
"male"
] |
Diego de Astor was a 17th-century Spanish engraver from Toledo. He studied under Domenico Theotocopuli, and in 1606 engraved, under his superintendence, a 'St. Francis,' after Nic. de Vargas. Astor was engraver to the Mint of Segovia, and was also employed to engrave the royal seals. Of his plates we may notice the titlepage to Colmenares' Historia de Segovia (Madrid, 1640), and a series of plates of the first documented manual alphabet for the purpose of deaf education in Bonet's book Reducción de las letras y arte para enseñar a hablar a los mudos ("Summary of the letters and the art of teaching speech to the mute") .
| 7 |
[
"Simon the Zealot",
"position held",
"apostle"
] |
The Zealot
To distinguish him from Simon Peter he is called Kananaios or Kananites, depending on the manuscript (Matthew 10:4 Mark 3:18), and in the list of apostles in Luke 6:15, repeated in Acts 1:13, Zelotes, the "Zealot". Both Kananaios and Kananites derive from the Hebrew word קנאי qanai, meaning zealous, although Jerome and others mistook the word to signify the apostle was from the town of קנה Cana, in which case his epithet would have been "Kanaios", or even from the region of כנען Canaan. As such, the translation of the word as "the Cananite" or "the Canaanite" is without contemporary extra-canonic parallel.Robert Eisenman has argued that contemporary talmudic references to Zealots refer to them as kanna'im "but not really as a group—rather as avenging priests in the Temple". Eisenman's broader conclusions, that the zealot element in the original apostle group was disguised and overwritten to make it support the assimilative Pauline Christianity of the Gentiles, are more controversial. John P. Meier argues that the term "Zealot" is a mistranslation and in the context of the Gospels means "zealous" or "religious" (in this case, for keeping the Law of Moses), as the Zealot movement apparently did not exist until 30 to 40 years after the events of the Gospels. However, neither Brandon nor Hengel support this view.
| 7 |
[
"Simon the Zealot",
"said to be the same as",
"Simeon of Jerusalem"
] |
Is not this the carpenter, the son of Mary and brother of James and Joses and Judas and Simon, and are not his sisters here with us?" And they took offense at him.
The Catholic Encyclopedia suggests that Simon the Zealot may be the same person as Simeon of Jerusalem or Simon the brother of Jesus or both. He would then be the cousin of Jesus or a son of Joseph from a previous marriage. Another tradition holds that this is the Simeon of Jerusalem who became the second bishop of Jerusalem, although he was born in Galilee.
| 14 |
[
"Simon the Zealot",
"part of",
"Twelve Apostles"
] |
The Zealot
To distinguish him from Simon Peter he is called Kananaios or Kananites, depending on the manuscript (Matthew 10:4 Mark 3:18), and in the list of apostles in Luke 6:15, repeated in Acts 1:13, Zelotes, the "Zealot". Both Kananaios and Kananites derive from the Hebrew word קנאי qanai, meaning zealous, although Jerome and others mistook the word to signify the apostle was from the town of קנה Cana, in which case his epithet would have been "Kanaios", or even from the region of כנען Canaan. As such, the translation of the word as "the Cananite" or "the Canaanite" is without contemporary extra-canonic parallel.Robert Eisenman has argued that contemporary talmudic references to Zealots refer to them as kanna'im "but not really as a group—rather as avenging priests in the Temple". Eisenman's broader conclusions, that the zealot element in the original apostle group was disguised and overwritten to make it support the assimilative Pauline Christianity of the Gentiles, are more controversial. John P. Meier argues that the term "Zealot" is a mistranslation and in the context of the Gospels means "zealous" or "religious" (in this case, for keeping the Law of Moses), as the Zealot movement apparently did not exist until 30 to 40 years after the events of the Gospels. However, neither Brandon nor Hengel support this view.
| 17 |
[
"Simon the Zealot",
"manner of death",
"unnatural death"
] |
Later tradition
Isidore of Seville drew together the accumulated anecdotes of Simon in De Vita et Morte.
According to the Golden Legend, which is a collection of hagiographies, compiled by Jacobus de Voragine in the thirteenth century "Simon the Cananaean and Judas Thaddeus were brethren of James the Less and sons of Mary Cleophas, which was married to Alpheus."In the apocryphal Arabic Infancy Gospel a fact related to this apostle is mentioned. A boy named Simon is bitten by a snake in his hand; he is healed by Jesus, who told the child "you shall be my disciple". The mention ends with the phrase "this is Simon the Cananite, of whom mention is made in the Gospel."In later tradition, Simon is often associated with Jude the Apostle as an evangelizing team; in Western Christianity, they share their feast day on 28 October. The most widespread tradition is that after evangelizing in Egypt, Simon joined Jude in Persia and Armenia or Beirut, Lebanon, where both were martyred in 65 AD. This version is the one found in the Golden Legend. He may have suffered crucifixion as the Bishop of Jerusalem. According to an Eastern tradition Simon travelled to Georgia on a missionary trip, died in Abkhazia and was buried in Nicopsia. His remains were later transferred to Anacopia.Another tradition states that he traveled in the Middle East and Africa. Christian Ethiopians claim that he was crucified in Samaria, while Justus Lipsius writes that he was sawn in half at Suanir, Persia. However, Moses of Chorene writes that he was martyred at Weriosphora in Caucasian Iberia. Tradition also claims he died peacefully at Edessa.Yet another tradition says he visited Roman Britain. In this account, in his second mission to Britain, he arrived during the first year of Boadicea's rebellion (60 AD). He was crucified 10 May 61 AD by the Roman Catus Decianus, at Caistor, modern-day Lincolnshire, Britain. According to Caesar Baronius and Hippolytus of Rome, Simon's first arrival in Britain was in the year A.D.44, during the Roman conquest. Nikephoros I of Constantinople writes:
Simon born in Cana of Galilee who for his fervent affection for his Master and great zeal that he showed by all means to the Gospel, was surnamed Zelotes, having received the Holy Ghost from above, travelled through Egypt, and Africa, then through Mauretania and all Libya, preaching the Gospel. And the same doctrine he taught to the Occidental Sea, and the Isles called Britanniae.
Another tradition, doubtless inspired by his title "the Zealot", states that he was involved in the First Jewish–Roman War (66–73 AD).The second century Epistle of the Apostles (Epistula Apostolorum), a polemic against gnostics, lists him among the apostles purported to be writing the letter (who include Thomas) as Judas Zelotes. Certain Old Latin translations of the Gospel of Matthew substitute "Judas the Zealot" for Thaddeus/Lebbaeus in Matthew 10:3. To some readers, this suggests that he may be identical with the "Judas not Iscariot" mentioned in John 14:22: "Judas saith unto him, not Iscariot, Our Lord, how is it that thou wilt manifest thyself unto us, and not unto the world?" As it has been suggested that Jude is identical with the Apostle Thomas (see Jude Thomas), an identification of "Simon Zelotes" with Thomas is also possible. Barbara Thiering identified Simon Zelotes with Simon Magus; however, this view has received no serious acceptance. The New Testament records nothing more of Simon, aside from this multitude of possible but unlikely pseudonyms. He is buried in the same tomb as Jude Thaddeus, in the left transept of the St. Peter's Basilica in Rome, under the altar of St. Joseph.
In Islam, Muslim exegesis and Quran commentary name the twelve apostles and include Simon amongst the disciples. Muslim tradition says that Simon was sent to preach the faith of God to the Berbers, outside North Africa.In art, Simon has the identifying attribute of a saw because according to tradition he was martyred by being sawn in half.
| 18 |
[
"Simon the Zealot",
"said to be the same as",
"Simon, brother of Jesus"
] |
Is not this the carpenter, the son of Mary and brother of James and Joses and Judas and Simon, and are not his sisters here with us?" And they took offense at him.
The Catholic Encyclopedia suggests that Simon the Zealot may be the same person as Simeon of Jerusalem or Simon the brother of Jesus or both. He would then be the cousin of Jesus or a son of Joseph from a previous marriage. Another tradition holds that this is the Simeon of Jerusalem who became the second bishop of Jerusalem, although he was born in Galilee.
| 19 |
[
"Simon the Zealot",
"instance of",
"human biblical figure"
] |
The Zealot
To distinguish him from Simon Peter he is called Kananaios or Kananites, depending on the manuscript (Matthew 10:4 Mark 3:18), and in the list of apostles in Luke 6:15, repeated in Acts 1:13, Zelotes, the "Zealot". Both Kananaios and Kananites derive from the Hebrew word קנאי qanai, meaning zealous, although Jerome and others mistook the word to signify the apostle was from the town of קנה Cana, in which case his epithet would have been "Kanaios", or even from the region of כנען Canaan. As such, the translation of the word as "the Cananite" or "the Canaanite" is without contemporary extra-canonic parallel.Robert Eisenman has argued that contemporary talmudic references to Zealots refer to them as kanna'im "but not really as a group—rather as avenging priests in the Temple". Eisenman's broader conclusions, that the zealot element in the original apostle group was disguised and overwritten to make it support the assimilative Pauline Christianity of the Gentiles, are more controversial. John P. Meier argues that the term "Zealot" is a mistranslation and in the context of the Gospels means "zealous" or "religious" (in this case, for keeping the Law of Moses), as the Zealot movement apparently did not exist until 30 to 40 years after the events of the Gospels. However, neither Brandon nor Hengel support this view.
| 21 |
[
"Simon the Zealot",
"given name",
"Simon"
] |
Identity
The name Simon occurs in all of the Synoptic Gospels and the Book of Acts each time there is a list of apostles, without further details:Simon, (whom he also named Peter,) and Andrew his brother, James and John, Philip and Bartholomew, Matthew and Thomas, James the son of Alphaeus, and Simon called Zelotes, And Judas the brother of James, and Judas Iscariot, which also was the traitor.The Zealot
To distinguish him from Simon Peter he is called Kananaios or Kananites, depending on the manuscript (Matthew 10:4 Mark 3:18), and in the list of apostles in Luke 6:15, repeated in Acts 1:13, Zelotes, the "Zealot". Both Kananaios and Kananites derive from the Hebrew word קנאי qanai, meaning zealous, although Jerome and others mistook the word to signify the apostle was from the town of קנה Cana, in which case his epithet would have been "Kanaios", or even from the region of כנען Canaan. As such, the translation of the word as "the Cananite" or "the Canaanite" is without contemporary extra-canonic parallel.Robert Eisenman has argued that contemporary talmudic references to Zealots refer to them as kanna'im "but not really as a group—rather as avenging priests in the Temple". Eisenman's broader conclusions, that the zealot element in the original apostle group was disguised and overwritten to make it support the assimilative Pauline Christianity of the Gentiles, are more controversial. John P. Meier argues that the term "Zealot" is a mistranslation and in the context of the Gospels means "zealous" or "religious" (in this case, for keeping the Law of Moses), as the Zealot movement apparently did not exist until 30 to 40 years after the events of the Gospels. However, neither Brandon nor Hengel support this view.
| 23 |
[
"Simon the Zealot",
"sex or gender",
"male"
] |
Simon, (whom he also named Peter,) and Andrew his brother, James and John, Philip and Bartholomew, Matthew and Thomas, James the son of Alphaeus, and Simon called Zelotes, And Judas the brother of James, and Judas Iscariot, which also was the traitor.
| 26 |
[
"Matthew the Apostle",
"place of death",
"Ethiopia"
] |
Ministry
The New Testament records that as a disciple, he followed Jesus, and was one of the witnesses of the Ascension of Jesus. Afterwards, the disciples withdrew to an upper room (Acts 1:10–14)(traditionally the Cenacle) in Jerusalem. The disciples remained in and about Jerusalem and proclaimed that Jesus was the promised Messiah.
In the Babylonian Talmud (Sanhedrin 43a), "Mattai" is one of five disciples of "Jeshu".Early Church fathers such as Irenaeus (Against Heresies 3.1.1) and Clement of Alexandria say that Matthew preached the Gospel to the Jewish community in Judea, before going to other countries. Ancient writers are not in agreement as to which other countries these are, but almost all sources mention Ethiopia. The Catholic Church and the Orthodox Church each hold the tradition that Matthew died as a martyr and the Babylonian Talmud appears to report his execution in Sanhedrin 43a.According to Church tradition, while preaching in Ethiopia, Matthew converted and then consecrated to God, Ephigenia of Ethiopia, the virgin daughter of the Aethiopian King Egippus. When King Hirtacus succeeded Egippus, he asked the apostle if he could persuade Ephigenia to marry him. Matthew thus invited King Hirtacus to Mass the following Sunday where he rebuked him for lusting after the girl, as she was a nun and therefore was the bride of Christ. The enraged King thus ordered his bodyguard to kill Matthew who stood at the altar, making him a martyr.
| 0 |
[
"Matthew the Apostle",
"present in work",
"Gospel of Matthew"
] |
Matthew the Apostle (Saint Matthew) is named in the New Testament as one of the twelve apostles of Jesus. According to Christian traditions, he was also one of the four Evangelists as author of the Gospel of Matthew, and thus is also known as Matthew the Evangelist, a claim rejected by most biblical scholars, though the "traditional authorship still has its defenders."The New Testament records that as a disciple, he followed Jesus, and was one of the witnesses of the Ascension of Jesus. Later Church fathers such as Irenaeus and Clement of Alexandria claim that Matthew preached the Gospel to the Jewish community in Judea, before going to other countries.
| 19 |
[
"John the Apostle",
"place of burial",
"Turkey"
] |
John, the disciple of the Lord, going to bathe at Ephesus, and perceiving Cerinthus within, rushed out of the bath-house without bathing, exclaiming, "Let us fly, lest even the bath-house fall down, because Cerinthus, the enemy of the truth, is within."
It is traditionally believed that John was the youngest of the apostles and survived them. He is said to have lived to old age, dying at Ephesus sometime after AD 98, during the reign of Trajan.An alternative account of John's death, ascribed by later Christian writers to the early second-century bishop Papias of Hierapolis, claims that he was slain by the Jews. Most Johannine scholars doubt the reliability of its ascription to Papias, but a minority, including B.W. Bacon, Martin Hengel and Henry Barclay Swete, maintain that these references to Papias are credible. Zahn argues that this reference is actually to John the Baptist. John's traditional tomb is thought to be located in the former basilica of Saint John at Selçuk, a small town in the vicinity of Ephesus.John is also associated with the pseudepigraphal apocryphal text of the Acts of John, which is traditionally viewed as written by John himself or his disciple, Leucius Charinus. It was widely circulated by the second century CE but deemed heretical at the Second Council of Nicaea (787 CE). Varying fragments survived in Greek and Latin within monastic libraries. It contains strong docetic themes, but is not considered in modern scholarship to be Gnostic.
| 1 |
[
"John the Apostle",
"position held",
"apostle"
] |
John the Apostle (Ancient Greek: Ἰωάννης; Latin: Ioannes c. 6 AD – c. 100 AD; Ge'ez: ዮሐንስ;) or Saint John the Beloved was one of the Twelve Apostles of Jesus according to the New Testament. Generally listed as the youngest apostle, he was the son of Zebedee and Salome. His brother James was another of the Twelve Apostles. The Church Fathers identify him as John the Evangelist, John of Patmos, John the Elder, and the Beloved Disciple, and testify that he outlived the remaining apostles and was the only one to die of natural causes, although modern scholars are divided on the veracity of these claims.John the Apostle is traditionally held to be the author of the Gospel of John, and many Christian denominations believe that he authored several other books of the New Testament (the three Johannine epistles and the Book of Revelation, together with the Gospel of John, are called the Johannine works), depending on whether he is distinguished from, or identified with, John the Evangelist, John the Elder, and John of Patmos.
Although the authorship of the Johannine works has traditionally been attributed to John the Apostle, only a minority of contemporary scholars believe he wrote the gospel, and most conclude that he wrote none of them. Regardless of whether or not John the Apostle wrote any of the Johannine works, most scholars agree that all three epistles were written by the same author and that the epistles did not have the same author as the Book of Revelation, although there is widespread disagreement among scholars as to whether the author of the epistles was different from that of the gospel.
| 15 |
[
"John the Apostle",
"father",
"Zebedee"
] |
References to John in the New Testament
John the Apostle was the son of Zebedee and the younger brother of James the Great. According to church tradition, their mother was Salome. Also according to some traditions, Salome was the sister of Mary, Jesus' mother, making Salome Jesus' aunt, and her sons John the Apostle and James were Jesus' cousins.John the Apostle is traditionally believed to be one of two disciples (the other being Andrew) recounted in John 1:35–39, who upon hearing the Baptist point out Jesus as the "Lamb of God," followed Jesus and spent the day with him. Thus, some traditions believe that he was first a disciple of John the Baptist, even though he is not named in this episode.According to the Synoptic Gospels (Matt 4:18–22; Mark 1:16–20; Lk 5:1–11), Zebedee and his sons fished in the Sea of Galilee. Jesus then called Peter, Andrew and the two sons of Zebedee to follow him. James and John are listed among the Twelve Apostles. Jesus referred to the pair as "Boanerges" (translated "sons of thunder"). A Gospel story relates how the brothers wanted to call down heavenly fire on an unhospitable Samaritan town, but Jesus rebuked them.[Lk 9:51-6] John lived on for another generation after the martyrdom of James, who was the first Apostle to die a martyr's death.
| 17 |
[
"John the Apostle",
"mother",
"Salome"
] |
John the Apostle (Ancient Greek: Ἰωάννης; Latin: Ioannes c. 6 AD – c. 100 AD; Ge'ez: ዮሐንስ;) or Saint John the Beloved was one of the Twelve Apostles of Jesus according to the New Testament. Generally listed as the youngest apostle, he was the son of Zebedee and Salome. His brother James was another of the Twelve Apostles. The Church Fathers identify him as John the Evangelist, John of Patmos, John the Elder, and the Beloved Disciple, and testify that he outlived the remaining apostles and was the only one to die of natural causes, although modern scholars are divided on the veracity of these claims.References to John in the New Testament
John the Apostle was the son of Zebedee and the younger brother of James the Great. According to church tradition, their mother was Salome. Also according to some traditions, Salome was the sister of Mary, Jesus' mother, making Salome Jesus' aunt, and her sons John the Apostle and James were Jesus' cousins.John the Apostle is traditionally believed to be one of two disciples (the other being Andrew) recounted in John 1:35–39, who upon hearing the Baptist point out Jesus as the "Lamb of God," followed Jesus and spent the day with him. Thus, some traditions believe that he was first a disciple of John the Baptist, even though he is not named in this episode.According to the Synoptic Gospels (Matt 4:18–22; Mark 1:16–20; Lk 5:1–11), Zebedee and his sons fished in the Sea of Galilee. Jesus then called Peter, Andrew and the two sons of Zebedee to follow him. James and John are listed among the Twelve Apostles. Jesus referred to the pair as "Boanerges" (translated "sons of thunder"). A Gospel story relates how the brothers wanted to call down heavenly fire on an unhospitable Samaritan town, but Jesus rebuked them.[Lk 9:51-6] John lived on for another generation after the martyrdom of James, who was the first Apostle to die a martyr's death.
| 18 |
[
"John the Apostle",
"said to be the same as",
"John the Evangelist"
] |
John the Apostle (Ancient Greek: Ἰωάννης; Latin: Ioannes c. 6 AD – c. 100 AD; Ge'ez: ዮሐንስ;) or Saint John the Beloved was one of the Twelve Apostles of Jesus according to the New Testament. Generally listed as the youngest apostle, he was the son of Zebedee and Salome. His brother James was another of the Twelve Apostles. The Church Fathers identify him as John the Evangelist, John of Patmos, John the Elder, and the Beloved Disciple, and testify that he outlived the remaining apostles and was the only one to die of natural causes, although modern scholars are divided on the veracity of these claims.
| 20 |
[
"John the Apostle",
"present in work",
"Gospel of Matthew"
] |
Other references to John
John, along with his brother James and Peter, formed an informal triumvirate among the Twelve Apostles in the Gospels. Jesus allowed them to be the only apostles present at three particular occasions during his public ministry, the Raising of Jairus' daughter[Mark 5:37], Transfiguration of Jesus [Matthew 17:1] and Agony in the Garden of Gethsemane[Matthew 26:37]. John was the disciple who reported to Jesus that they had 'forbidden' a non-disciple from casting out demons in Jesus' name, prompting Jesus to state that 'he who is not against us is on our side'.Jesus sent only John and Peter into the city to make the preparation for the final Passover meal (the Last Supper).[Lk 22:8]Many traditions identify the "beloved disciple" in the Gospel of John as the Apostle John, but this identification is debated. At the meal itself, the "disciple whom Jesus loved" sat next to Jesus. It was customary to recline on couches at meals, and this disciple leaned on Jesus. Tradition identifies this disciple as John.[Jn 13:23–25] After the arrest of Jesus, Peter and the "other disciple" (according to tradition, John) followed him into the palace of the high-priest. The "beloved disciple" alone, among the Apostles, remained near Jesus at the foot of the cross on Calvary alongside myrrhbearers and numerous other women. Following the instruction of Jesus from the Cross, the beloved disciple took Mary, the mother of Jesus, into his care as the last legacy of Jesus.[Jn 19:25–27]After Jesus' Ascension and the descent of the Holy Spirit at Pentecost, John, together with Peter, took a prominent part in the founding and guidance of the church. He was with Peter at the healing of the lame man at Solomon's Porch in the Temple[Acts 3:1 et seq.] and he was also thrown into prison with Peter.[Acts 4:3] He went with Peter to visit the newly converted believers in Samaria.[Acts 8:14]While he remained in Judea and the surrounding area, the other disciples returned to Jerusalem for the Apostolic Council (c. 48–50 AD). Paul, in opposing his enemies in Galatia, recalls that John explicitly, along with Peter and James the Just, were referred to as the three Pillars of the Church and refers to the recognition that his Apostolic preaching of a gospel free from Jewish Law received from these three, the most prominent men of the messianic community at Jerusalem.
| 21 |
[
"John the Apostle",
"part of",
"Boanerges"
] |
References to John in the New Testament
John the Apostle was the son of Zebedee and the younger brother of James the Great. According to church tradition, their mother was Salome. Also according to some traditions, Salome was the sister of Mary, Jesus' mother, making Salome Jesus' aunt, and her sons John the Apostle and James were Jesus' cousins.John the Apostle is traditionally believed to be one of two disciples (the other being Andrew) recounted in John 1:35–39, who upon hearing the Baptist point out Jesus as the "Lamb of God," followed Jesus and spent the day with him. Thus, some traditions believe that he was first a disciple of John the Baptist, even though he is not named in this episode.According to the Synoptic Gospels (Matt 4:18–22; Mark 1:16–20; Lk 5:1–11), Zebedee and his sons fished in the Sea of Galilee. Jesus then called Peter, Andrew and the two sons of Zebedee to follow him. James and John are listed among the Twelve Apostles. Jesus referred to the pair as "Boanerges" (translated "sons of thunder"). A Gospel story relates how the brothers wanted to call down heavenly fire on an unhospitable Samaritan town, but Jesus rebuked them.[Lk 9:51-6] John lived on for another generation after the martyrdom of James, who was the first Apostle to die a martyr's death.
| 32 |
[
"John the Apostle",
"said to be the same as",
"disciple whom Jesus loved"
] |
John the Apostle (Ancient Greek: Ἰωάννης; Latin: Ioannes c. 6 AD – c. 100 AD; Ge'ez: ዮሐንስ;) or Saint John the Beloved was one of the Twelve Apostles of Jesus according to the New Testament. Generally listed as the youngest apostle, he was the son of Zebedee and Salome. His brother James was another of the Twelve Apostles. The Church Fathers identify him as John the Evangelist, John of Patmos, John the Elder, and the Beloved Disciple, and testify that he outlived the remaining apostles and was the only one to die of natural causes, although modern scholars are divided on the veracity of these claims.
| 33 |
[
"John the Apostle",
"manner of death",
"natural causes"
] |
John the Apostle (Ancient Greek: Ἰωάννης; Latin: Ioannes c. 6 AD – c. 100 AD; Ge'ez: ዮሐንስ;) or Saint John the Beloved was one of the Twelve Apostles of Jesus according to the New Testament. Generally listed as the youngest apostle, he was the son of Zebedee and Salome. His brother James was another of the Twelve Apostles. The Church Fathers identify him as John the Evangelist, John of Patmos, John the Elder, and the Beloved Disciple, and testify that he outlived the remaining apostles and was the only one to die of natural causes, although modern scholars are divided on the veracity of these claims.
| 34 |
[
"John the Apostle",
"part of",
"Twelve Apostles"
] |
References to John in the New Testament
John the Apostle was the son of Zebedee and the younger brother of James the Great. According to church tradition, their mother was Salome. Also according to some traditions, Salome was the sister of Mary, Jesus' mother, making Salome Jesus' aunt, and her sons John the Apostle and James were Jesus' cousins.John the Apostle is traditionally believed to be one of two disciples (the other being Andrew) recounted in John 1:35–39, who upon hearing the Baptist point out Jesus as the "Lamb of God," followed Jesus and spent the day with him. Thus, some traditions believe that he was first a disciple of John the Baptist, even though he is not named in this episode.According to the Synoptic Gospels (Matt 4:18–22; Mark 1:16–20; Lk 5:1–11), Zebedee and his sons fished in the Sea of Galilee. Jesus then called Peter, Andrew and the two sons of Zebedee to follow him. James and John are listed among the Twelve Apostles. Jesus referred to the pair as "Boanerges" (translated "sons of thunder"). A Gospel story relates how the brothers wanted to call down heavenly fire on an unhospitable Samaritan town, but Jesus rebuked them.[Lk 9:51-6] John lived on for another generation after the martyrdom of James, who was the first Apostle to die a martyr's death.Other references to John
John, along with his brother James and Peter, formed an informal triumvirate among the Twelve Apostles in the Gospels. Jesus allowed them to be the only apostles present at three particular occasions during his public ministry, the Raising of Jairus' daughter[Mark 5:37], Transfiguration of Jesus [Matthew 17:1] and Agony in the Garden of Gethsemane[Matthew 26:37]. John was the disciple who reported to Jesus that they had 'forbidden' a non-disciple from casting out demons in Jesus' name, prompting Jesus to state that 'he who is not against us is on our side'.Jesus sent only John and Peter into the city to make the preparation for the final Passover meal (the Last Supper).[Lk 22:8]Many traditions identify the "beloved disciple" in the Gospel of John as the Apostle John, but this identification is debated. At the meal itself, the "disciple whom Jesus loved" sat next to Jesus. It was customary to recline on couches at meals, and this disciple leaned on Jesus. Tradition identifies this disciple as John.[Jn 13:23–25] After the arrest of Jesus, Peter and the "other disciple" (according to tradition, John) followed him into the palace of the high-priest. The "beloved disciple" alone, among the Apostles, remained near Jesus at the foot of the cross on Calvary alongside myrrhbearers and numerous other women. Following the instruction of Jesus from the Cross, the beloved disciple took Mary, the mother of Jesus, into his care as the last legacy of Jesus.[Jn 19:25–27]After Jesus' Ascension and the descent of the Holy Spirit at Pentecost, John, together with Peter, took a prominent part in the founding and guidance of the church. He was with Peter at the healing of the lame man at Solomon's Porch in the Temple[Acts 3:1 et seq.] and he was also thrown into prison with Peter.[Acts 4:3] He went with Peter to visit the newly converted believers in Samaria.[Acts 8:14]While he remained in Judea and the surrounding area, the other disciples returned to Jerusalem for the Apostolic Council (c. 48–50 AD). Paul, in opposing his enemies in Galatia, recalls that John explicitly, along with Peter and James the Just, were referred to as the three Pillars of the Church and refers to the recognition that his Apostolic preaching of a gospel free from Jewish Law received from these three, the most prominent men of the messianic community at Jerusalem.
| 36 |
[
"John the Apostle",
"said to be the same as",
"John of Patmos"
] |
John the Apostle (Ancient Greek: Ἰωάννης; Latin: Ioannes c. 6 AD – c. 100 AD; Ge'ez: ዮሐንስ;) or Saint John the Beloved was one of the Twelve Apostles of Jesus according to the New Testament. Generally listed as the youngest apostle, he was the son of Zebedee and Salome. His brother James was another of the Twelve Apostles. The Church Fathers identify him as John the Evangelist, John of Patmos, John the Elder, and the Beloved Disciple, and testify that he outlived the remaining apostles and was the only one to die of natural causes, although modern scholars are divided on the veracity of these claims.
| 49 |
[
"Mary Magdalene",
"present in work",
"Gospel of Luke"
] |
Life
It is widely accepted among secular historians that, like Jesus, Mary Magdalene was a real historical figure. Nonetheless, very little is known about her life. Unlike Paul the Apostle, Mary Magdalene left behind no known writings of her own. She was never mentioned in any of the Pauline epistles or in any of the general epistles. The earliest and most reliable sources about her life are the three Synoptic Gospels of Mark, Matthew, and Luke, which were all written during the first century AD.During Jesus' ministry
Mary Magdalene's epithet Magdalene (ἡ Μαγδαληνή; literally "the Magdalene") most likely means that she came from Magdala, a village on the western shore of the Sea of Galilee that was primarily known in antiquity as a fishing town. Mary was, by far, the most common Jewish given name for girls and women during the first century, so it was necessary for the authors of the gospels to call her Magdalene in order to distinguish her from the other women named Mary who followed Jesus. Although the Gospel of Mark, reputed by scholars to be the earliest surviving gospel, does not mention Mary Magdalene until Jesus' crucifixion, the Gospel of Luke 8:2–3 provides a brief summary of her role during his ministry:
Soon afterwards he went on through cities and villages, proclaiming and bringing the good news of the kingdom of God. The twelve were with him, as well as some women who had been cured of evil spirits and infirmities: Mary, called Magdalene, from whom seven demons had gone out, and Joanna, the wife of Herod's steward Chuza, and Susanna, and many others, who provided for them out of their resources.According to Gospel of Luke, Jesus exorcised "seven demons" from Mary Magdalene. That seven demons had possessed Mary is repeated in Mark 16:9, part of the "longer ending" of that gospel – this is not found in the earliest manuscripts and is actually a second-century addition to the original text, possibly based on the Gospel of Luke. In the first century, demons were believed widely to cause physical and psychological illness. Bruce Chilton, a scholar of early Christianity, states that the reference to the number of demons being "seven" may mean that Mary had to undergo seven exorcisms, probably over a long period of time, due to the first six being partially or wholly unsuccessful.Bart D. Ehrman, a New Testament scholar and historian of early Christianity, contends that the number seven may be merely symbolic, since, in Jewish tradition, seven was the number of completion, so that Mary was possessed by seven demons may simply mean she was completely overwhelmed by their power. In either case, Mary must have suffered from severe emotional or psychological trauma for an exorcism of this kind to have been perceived as necessary. Consequently, her devotion to Jesus resulting from this healing must have been very strong. The Gospels’ writers normally relish giving dramatic descriptions of Jesus' public exorcisms, with the possessed person wailing, thrashing, and tearing his or her clothes in front of a crowd. By contrast, that Mary's exorcism receives little attention may indicate that either Jesus performed it privately or that the recorders did not perceive it as particularly dramatic.Since Mary is listed as one of the women who supported Jesus' ministry financially, she must have been relatively wealthy. The places where she and the other women are mentioned throughout the gospels indicate strongly that they were vital to Jesus' ministry and that Mary Magdalene always appears first, whenever she is listed in the Synoptic Gospels as a member of a group of women, indicates that she was seen as the most important out of all of them. Carla Ricci notes that, in lists of the disciples, Mary Magdalene occupies a similar position among Jesus' female followers as Simon Peter does among the male apostles.That women played such an active and important role in Jesus' ministry was not entirely radical or even unique; inscriptions from a synagogue in Aphrodisias in Asia Minor from around the same time period reveal that many of the major donors to the synagogue were women. Jesus' ministry did bring women greater liberation than they would typically have held in mainstream Jewish society.
| 4 |
[
"Mary Magdalene",
"given name",
"Mary"
] |
During Jesus' ministry
Mary Magdalene's epithet Magdalene (ἡ Μαγδαληνή; literally "the Magdalene") most likely means that she came from Magdala, a village on the western shore of the Sea of Galilee that was primarily known in antiquity as a fishing town. Mary was, by far, the most common Jewish given name for girls and women during the first century, so it was necessary for the authors of the gospels to call her Magdalene in order to distinguish her from the other women named Mary who followed Jesus. Although the Gospel of Mark, reputed by scholars to be the earliest surviving gospel, does not mention Mary Magdalene until Jesus' crucifixion, the Gospel of Luke 8:2–3 provides a brief summary of her role during his ministry:
Soon afterwards he went on through cities and villages, proclaiming and bringing the good news of the kingdom of God. The twelve were with him, as well as some women who had been cured of evil spirits and infirmities: Mary, called Magdalene, from whom seven demons had gone out, and Joanna, the wife of Herod's steward Chuza, and Susanna, and many others, who provided for them out of their resources.
| 13 |
[
"Mary Magdalene",
"different from",
"Mary of Bethany"
] |
Mary Magdalene (sometimes called Mary of Magdala, or simply the Magdalene or the Madeleine) was a woman who, according to the four canonical gospels, traveled with Jesus as one of his followers and was a witness to his crucifixion and
resurrection. She is mentioned by name twelve times in the canonical gospels, more than most of the apostles and more than any other woman in the gospels, other than Jesus's family. Mary's epithet Magdalene may be a toponymic surname, meaning that she came from the town of Magdala, a fishing town on the western shore of the Sea of Galilee in Roman Judea.
The Gospel of Luke chapter 8 lists Mary Magdalene as one of the women who traveled with Jesus and helped support his ministry "out of their resources", indicating that she was probably wealthy. The same passage also states that seven demons had been driven out of her, a statement which is repeated in Mark 16. In all the four canonical gospels, Mary Magdalene was a witness to the crucifixion of Jesus and, in the Synoptic Gospels, she was also present at his burial. All the four gospels identified her, either alone or as a member of a larger group of women which includes Jesus's mother, as the first to witness the empty tomb, and, either alone or as a member of a group, as the first to witness Jesus's resurrection.For these reasons, Mary Magdalene is known in some Christian traditions as the "apostle to the apostles". She is a central figure in later Gnostic Christian writings, including the Dialogue of the Savior, the Pistis Sophia, the Gospel of Thomas, the Gospel of Philip, and the Gospel of Mary. These texts portray her as an apostle, as Jesus's closest and most beloved disciple and the only one who truly understood his teachings. In the Gnostic texts, or Gnostic gospels, Mary's closeness to Jesus results in tension with another disciple, Peter, due to her sex and Peter's envy of the special teachings given to her. In the Gospel of Philip's text she is described as Jesus's companion, as the disciple Jesus loved the most and the one Jesus kissed on the mouth, which has led some people to conclude that she and Jesus were in a relationship. Some fiction portrays her as the wife of Jesus.
The portrayal of Mary Magdalene as a prostitute began in 591, when Pope Gregory I conflated Mary Magdalene, who was introduced in Luke 8:2, with Mary of Bethany (Luke 10:39) and the unnamed "sinful woman" who anointed Jesus's feet in Luke 7:36–50. Pope Gregory's Easter sermon resulted in a widespread belief that Mary Magdalene was a repentant prostitute or promiscuous woman. Elaborate medieval legends from Western Europe then emerged, which told exaggerated tales of Mary Magdalene's wealth and beauty, as well as of her alleged journey to southern Gaul (modern-day France). The identification of Mary Magdalene with Mary of Bethany and the unnamed "sinful woman" was still a major controversy in the years leading up to the Reformation, and some Protestant leaders rejected it. During the Counter-Reformation, the Catholic Church emphasized Mary Magdalene as a symbol of penance. In 1969, Pope Paul VI removed the identification of Mary Magdalene with Mary of Bethany and the "sinful woman" from the General Roman Calendar, but the view of her as a former prostitute has persisted in popular culture.
Mary Magdalene is considered to be a saint by the Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, Anglican, and Lutheran denominations. In 2016, Pope Francis raised the level of liturgical memory on July 22 from memorial to feast, and for her to be referred to as the "Apostle of the apostles". Other Protestant churches honor her as a heroine of the faith. The Eastern Orthodox churches also commemorate her on the Sunday of the Myrrhbearers, the Orthodox equivalent of one of the Western Three Marys traditions.Legacy
Patristic era
Most of the earliest Church Fathers do not mention Mary Magdalene at all, and those who do mention her usually only discuss her very briefly. In his anti-Christian polemic The True Word, written between 170 and 180, the pagan philosopher Celsus declared that Mary Magdalene was nothing more than "a hysterical female... who either dreamt in a certain state of mind and through wishful thinking had a hallucination due to some mistaken notion (an experience which has happened to thousands), or, which is more likely, wanted to impress others by telling this fantastic tale, and so by this cock-and-bull story to provide a chance for other beggars." The Church Father Origen (c. 184 – c. 253) defended Christianity against this accusation in his apologetic treatise Against Celsus, mentioning Matthew 28:1, which lists Mary Magdalene and "the other Mary" both seeing the resurrected Jesus, thus providing a second witness. Origen also preserves a statement from Celsus that some Christians in his day followed the teachings of a woman named "Mariamme", who is almost certainly Mary Magdalene. Origen merely dismisses this, remarking that Celsus "pours on us a heap of names".Mary Magdalene has the reputation in Western Christianity as being a repentant prostitute or loose woman; however, these statements are not supported by the canonical gospels, which at no point imply that she had ever been a prostitute or in any way notable for a sinful way of life. The misconception likely arose due to a conflation between Mary Magdalene, Mary of Bethany (who anoints Jesus' feet in John 11:1–12), and the unnamed "sinful woman" who anoints Jesus' feet in Luke 7:36–50. As early as the third century, the Church Father Tertullian (c. 160 – 225) references the touch of "the woman which was a sinner" in effort to prove that Jesus "was not a phantom, but really a solid body." This may indicate that Mary Magdalene was already being conflated with the "sinful woman" in Luke 7:36–50, though Tertullian never clearly identifies the woman of whom he speaks as Mary Magdalene. A sermon attributed to Hippolytus of Rome (c. 170 – 235) refers to Mary of Bethany and her sister Martha seeking Jesus in the garden like Mary Magdalene in John 20, indicating a conflation between Mary of Bethany and Mary Magdalene. The sermon describes the conflated woman as a "second Eve" who compensates for the disobedience of the first Eve through her obedience. The sermon also explicitly identifies Mary Magdalene and the other women as "apostles". The first clear identification of Mary Magdalene as a redeemed sinner comes from Ephrem the Syrian (c. 306 – 373). Part of the reason for the identification of Mary Magdalene as a sinner may derive from the reputation of her birthplace, Magdala, which, by the late first century, was infamous for its inhabitants' alleged vice and licentiousness.In one of his preserved sayings, Gregory of Nyssa (c. 330 – 395) identifies Mary Magdalene as "the first witness to the resurrection, that she might set straight again by her faith in the resurrection, what was turned over in her transgression." Ambrose (c. 340 – 397), by contrast, not only rejected the conflation of Mary Magdalene, Mary of Bethany, and the anointing sinner, but even proposed that the authentic Mary Magdalene herself was, in fact, two separate people: one woman named Mary Magdalene who discovered the empty tomb and a different Mary Magdalene who saw the risen Christ. Augustine of Hippo (354 – 430) entertained the possibility that Mary of Bethany and the unnamed sinner from Luke might be the same person, but did not associate Mary Magdalene with either of them. Instead, Augustine praised Mary Magdalene as "unquestionably... surpassingly more ardent in her love than these other women who had administered to the Lord".Religious views
Eastern Orthodox
The Eastern Orthodox Church has never identified Mary Magdalene with Mary of Bethany or the "sinful woman" who anoints Jesus in Luke 7:36–50 and has always taught that Mary was a virtuous woman her entire life, even before her conversion. They have never celebrated her as a penitent. Mary Magdalene's image did not become conflated with other women mentioned in Biblical texts until Pope Gregory the Great's sermon in the sixth century, and even then this only occurred in Western traditions. Instead, she has traditionally been honored as a "Myrrhbearer" (Μυροφόρος; the equivalent of the western Three Marys) and "Equal to the Apostles" (ἰσαπόστολος). For centuries, it has been the custom of many Eastern Orthodox Christians to share dyed and painted eggs, particularly on Easter Sunday. The eggs represent new life, and Christ bursting forth from the tomb. Among Eastern Orthodox Christians this sharing is accompanied by the proclamation "Christ is risen!" One folk tradition concerning Mary Magdalene says that following the death and resurrection of Jesus, she used her position to gain an invitation to a banquet given by the Roman emperor Tiberius in Rome. When she met him, she held a plain egg in her hand and exclaimed, "Christ is risen!" The emperor laughed, and said that Christ rising from the dead was as likely as the egg in her hand turning red while she held it. Before he finished speaking, the egg in her hand turned a bright red and she continued proclaiming the Gospel to the entire imperial house.
| 14 |
[
"Mary Magdalene",
"present in work",
"Gospel of Mark"
] |
Life
It is widely accepted among secular historians that, like Jesus, Mary Magdalene was a real historical figure. Nonetheless, very little is known about her life. Unlike Paul the Apostle, Mary Magdalene left behind no known writings of her own. She was never mentioned in any of the Pauline epistles or in any of the general epistles. The earliest and most reliable sources about her life are the three Synoptic Gospels of Mark, Matthew, and Luke, which were all written during the first century AD.All four canonical gospels, as well as the apocryphal Gospel of Peter, agree that Jesus' body was taken down from the cross and buried by a man named Joseph of Arimathea. Mark 15:47 lists Mary Magdalene and Mary, mother of Jesus as witnesses to the burial of Jesus. Matthew 27:61 lists Mary Magdalene and "the other Mary" as witnesses. Luke 23:55 mentions "the women who had followed him from Galilee", but does not list any of their names. John 19:39–42 does not mention any women present during Joseph's burial of Jesus, but does mention the presence of Nicodemus, a Pharisee with whom Jesus had a conversation near the beginning of the gospel. Ehrman, who previously accepted the story of Jesus' burial as historical, now rejects it as a later invention on the basis that Roman governors almost never allowed for executed criminals to be given any kind of burial and Pontius Pilate in particular was not "the sort of ruler who would break with tradition and policy when kindly asked by a member of the Jewish council to provide a decent burial for a crucified victim." Casey argues that Jesus was given a proper burial by Joseph of Arimathea, noting that, on some very rare occasions, Roman governors did release the bodies of executed prisoners for burial. Nonetheless, he rejects that Jesus could have been interred in an expensive tomb with a stone rolled in front of it like the one described in the gospels, leading him to conclude that Mary and the other women must not have seen the tomb. Sanders affirms Jesus' burial by Joseph of Arimathea in the presence of Mary Magdalene and the other female followers as completely historical.
| 17 |
[
"Mary Magdalene",
"place of birth",
"Magdala"
] |
During Jesus' ministry
Mary Magdalene's epithet Magdalene (ἡ Μαγδαληνή; literally "the Magdalene") most likely means that she came from Magdala, a village on the western shore of the Sea of Galilee that was primarily known in antiquity as a fishing town. Mary was, by far, the most common Jewish given name for girls and women during the first century, so it was necessary for the authors of the gospels to call her Magdalene in order to distinguish her from the other women named Mary who followed Jesus. Although the Gospel of Mark, reputed by scholars to be the earliest surviving gospel, does not mention Mary Magdalene until Jesus' crucifixion, the Gospel of Luke 8:2–3 provides a brief summary of her role during his ministry:
Soon afterwards he went on through cities and villages, proclaiming and bringing the good news of the kingdom of God. The twelve were with him, as well as some women who had been cured of evil spirits and infirmities: Mary, called Magdalene, from whom seven demons had gone out, and Joanna, the wife of Herod's steward Chuza, and Susanna, and many others, who provided for them out of their resources.
| 26 |
[
"Mary Magdalene",
"named after",
"Magdala"
] |
During Jesus' ministry
Mary Magdalene's epithet Magdalene (ἡ Μαγδαληνή; literally "the Magdalene") most likely means that she came from Magdala, a village on the western shore of the Sea of Galilee that was primarily known in antiquity as a fishing town. Mary was, by far, the most common Jewish given name for girls and women during the first century, so it was necessary for the authors of the gospels to call her Magdalene in order to distinguish her from the other women named Mary who followed Jesus. Although the Gospel of Mark, reputed by scholars to be the earliest surviving gospel, does not mention Mary Magdalene until Jesus' crucifixion, the Gospel of Luke 8:2–3 provides a brief summary of her role during his ministry:
Soon afterwards he went on through cities and villages, proclaiming and bringing the good news of the kingdom of God. The twelve were with him, as well as some women who had been cured of evil spirits and infirmities: Mary, called Magdalene, from whom seven demons had gone out, and Joanna, the wife of Herod's steward Chuza, and Susanna, and many others, who provided for them out of their resources.
| 27 |
[
"Judas Iscariot",
"given name",
"Judas"
] |
Life
Name and background
The name "Judas" (Ὶούδας) is a Greek rendering of the Hebrew name Judah (יהודה, Yehûdâh, Hebrew for "God is thanked"), which was an extremely common name for Jewish men during the first century AD, due to the renowned hero Judas Maccabeus. Consequently, numerous other figures with this name are mentioned throughout the New Testament. In the Gospel of Mark 3:13–19, which was written in the mid-60s or early 70s AD, Judas Iscariot is the only apostle named "Judas". Matthew 10:2–4 shares this portrayal. The Gospel of Luke 6:12–19, however, replaces the apostle whom Mark and Matthew call "Thaddeus" with "Judas son of James". Peter Stanford suggests that this renaming may represent an effort by the author of the Gospel of Luke to create a "good Judas" in contrast to the betrayer Judas Iscariot.Judas's epithet "Iscariot" (Ὶσκάριωθ or Ὶσκαριώτης), which distinguishes him from the other people named "Judas" in the gospels, is usually thought to be a Greek rendering of the Hebrew phrase איש־קריות, (Κ-Qrîyôt), meaning "the man from Kerioth". This interpretation is supported by the statement in the Gospel of John 6:71 that Judas was "the son of Simon Iscariot". Nonetheless, this interpretation of the name is not fully accepted by all scholars. One of the most popular alternative explanations holds that "Iscariot" (ܣܟܪܝܘܛܐ, 'Skaryota' in Syriac Aramaic, per the Peshitta text) may be a corruption of the Latin word sicarius, meaning "dagger man", which referred to a member of the Sicarii (סיקריים in Aramaic), a group of Jewish rebels who were known for committing acts of terrorism in the 40s and 50s AD by assassinating people in crowds using long knives hidden under their cloaks. This interpretation is problematic, however, because there is nothing in the gospels to associate Judas with the Sicarii, and there is no evidence that the cadre existed during the 30s AD when Judas was alive.A possibility advanced by Ernst Wilhelm Hengstenberg is that "Iscariot" means "the liar" or "the false one", from the Hebrew איש-שקרים. C. C. Torrey suggested instead the Aramaic form שְׁקַרְיָא or אִשְׁקַרְיָא, with the same meaning. Stanford rejects this, arguing that the gospel-writers follow Judas's name with the statement that he betrayed Jesus, so it would be redundant for them to call him "the false one" before immediately stating that he was a traitor. Some have proposed that the word derives from an Aramaic word meaning "red color", from the root סקר. Another hypothesis holds that the word derives from one of the Aramaic roots סכר or סגר. This would mean "to deliver", based on the LXX rendering of Isaiah 19:4—a theory advanced by J. Alfred Morin. The epithet could also be associated with the manner of Judas's death, hanging. This would mean Iscariot derives from a kind of Greek-Aramaic hybrid: אִסְכַּרְיוּתָא, Iskarioutha, meaning "chokiness" or "constriction". This might indicate that the epithet was applied posthumously by the remaining disciples, but Joan E. Taylor has argued that it was a descriptive name given to Judas by Jesus, since other disciples such as Simon Peter/Cephas (Kephas "rock") were also given such names.
| 24 |
[
"Judas Iscariot",
"part of",
"Twelve Apostles"
] |
Role as an apostle
Although the canonical gospels frequently disagree on the names of some of the minor apostles, all four of them list Judas Iscariot as one of them. The Synoptic Gospels state that Jesus sent out "the twelve" (including Judas) with power over unclean spirits and with a ministry of preaching and healing: Judas clearly played an active part in this apostolic ministry alongside the other eleven. However, in the Gospel of John, Judas's outlook was differentiated—many of Jesus' disciples abandoned him because of the difficulty of accepting his teachings, and Jesus asked the twelve if they would also leave him. Simon Peter spoke for the twelve: "Lord, to whom shall we go? You have the words of eternal life," but Jesus observed then that despite the fact that he himself had chosen the twelve, one of them (unnamed by Jesus, but identified by the narrator) was "a devil" who would betray him.One of the best-attested and most reliable statements made by Jesus in the gospels comes from the Gospel of Matthew 19:28, in which Jesus tells his apostles: "in the new world, when the Son of Man shall sit on his glorious throne, you will also sit on twelve thrones, judging the Twelve Tribes of Israel." New Testament scholar Bart D. Ehrman concludes, "This is not a tradition that was likely to have been made up by a Christian later, after Jesus's death—since one of these twelve had abandoned his cause and betrayed him. No one thought that Judas Iscariot would be seated on a glorious throne in the Kingdom of God. That saying, therefore appears to go back to Jesus, and indicates, then, that he had twelve close disciples, whom he predicted would reign in the coming Kingdom."
| 29 |
[
"Judas Iscariot",
"instance of",
"human biblical figure"
] |
Historicity
Although Judas Iscariot's historical existence is generally widely accepted among secular historians, this relative consensus has not gone entirely unchallenged. The earliest possible allusion to Judas comes from the First Epistle to the Corinthians 11:23–24, in which Paul the Apostle does not mention Judas by name, but uses the passive voice of the Greek word paradídōmi (παραδίδωμι), which most Bible translations render as "was betrayed": "...the Lord Jesus on the night when he was betrayed took a loaf of bread..." Nonetheless, some biblical scholars argue that the word paradídōmi should be translated as "was handed over". This translation could still refer to Judas, but it could also instead refer to God metaphorically "handing Jesus over" to the Romans.In his book Antisemitism and Modernity (2006), the Jewish scholar Hyam Maccoby suggests that, in the New Testament, the name "Judas" was constructed as an attack on the Judaeans or on the Judaean religious establishment held responsible for executing Jesus. In his book The Sins of Scripture (2009), John Shelby Spong concurs with this argument, insisting, "The whole story of Judas has the feeling of being contrived ... The act of betrayal by a member of the twelve disciples is not found in the earliest Christian writings. Judas is first placed into the Christian story by the Gospel of Mark (3:19), who wrote in the early 70s CE."Most scholars reject these arguments for non-historicity, noting that there is nothing in the gospels to associate Judas with Judeans except his name, which was an extremely common one for Jewish men during the first century, and that numerous other figures named "Judas" are mentioned throughout the New Testament, none of whom are portrayed negatively. Positive figures named Judas mentioned in the New Testament include the prophet Judas Barsabbas (Acts 15:22–33), Jesus's brother Jude (Mark 6:3; Matt 13:55; Jude 1), and the apostle Judas the son of James (Luke 6:14–16; Acts 1:13; John 14:22).Life
Name and background
The name "Judas" (Ὶούδας) is a Greek rendering of the Hebrew name Judah (יהודה, Yehûdâh, Hebrew for "God is thanked"), which was an extremely common name for Jewish men during the first century AD, due to the renowned hero Judas Maccabeus. Consequently, numerous other figures with this name are mentioned throughout the New Testament. In the Gospel of Mark 3:13–19, which was written in the mid-60s or early 70s AD, Judas Iscariot is the only apostle named "Judas". Matthew 10:2–4 shares this portrayal. The Gospel of Luke 6:12–19, however, replaces the apostle whom Mark and Matthew call "Thaddeus" with "Judas son of James". Peter Stanford suggests that this renaming may represent an effort by the author of the Gospel of Luke to create a "good Judas" in contrast to the betrayer Judas Iscariot.Judas's epithet "Iscariot" (Ὶσκάριωθ or Ὶσκαριώτης), which distinguishes him from the other people named "Judas" in the gospels, is usually thought to be a Greek rendering of the Hebrew phrase איש־קריות, (Κ-Qrîyôt), meaning "the man from Kerioth". This interpretation is supported by the statement in the Gospel of John 6:71 that Judas was "the son of Simon Iscariot". Nonetheless, this interpretation of the name is not fully accepted by all scholars. One of the most popular alternative explanations holds that "Iscariot" (ܣܟܪܝܘܛܐ, 'Skaryota' in Syriac Aramaic, per the Peshitta text) may be a corruption of the Latin word sicarius, meaning "dagger man", which referred to a member of the Sicarii (סיקריים in Aramaic), a group of Jewish rebels who were known for committing acts of terrorism in the 40s and 50s AD by assassinating people in crowds using long knives hidden under their cloaks. This interpretation is problematic, however, because there is nothing in the gospels to associate Judas with the Sicarii, and there is no evidence that the cadre existed during the 30s AD when Judas was alive.A possibility advanced by Ernst Wilhelm Hengstenberg is that "Iscariot" means "the liar" or "the false one", from the Hebrew איש-שקרים. C. C. Torrey suggested instead the Aramaic form שְׁקַרְיָא or אִשְׁקַרְיָא, with the same meaning. Stanford rejects this, arguing that the gospel-writers follow Judas's name with the statement that he betrayed Jesus, so it would be redundant for them to call him "the false one" before immediately stating that he was a traitor. Some have proposed that the word derives from an Aramaic word meaning "red color", from the root סקר. Another hypothesis holds that the word derives from one of the Aramaic roots סכר or סגר. This would mean "to deliver", based on the LXX rendering of Isaiah 19:4—a theory advanced by J. Alfred Morin. The epithet could also be associated with the manner of Judas's death, hanging. This would mean Iscariot derives from a kind of Greek-Aramaic hybrid: אִסְכַּרְיוּתָא, Iskarioutha, meaning "chokiness" or "constriction". This might indicate that the epithet was applied posthumously by the remaining disciples, but Joan E. Taylor has argued that it was a descriptive name given to Judas by Jesus, since other disciples such as Simon Peter/Cephas (Kephas "rock") were also given such names.
| 32 |
[
"Ananias of Damascus",
"residence",
"Damascus"
] |
Ananias ( AN-ə-NY-əs; Ancient Greek: Ἀνανίας from Hebrew חנניה, Hananiah, "favoured of the LORD") was a disciple of Jesus at Damascus mentioned in the Acts of the Apostles in the Bible, which describes how he was sent by Jesus to restore the sight of Saul of Tarsus (who later was called Paul the Apostle) and provide him with additional instruction in the way of the Lord.New Testament narrative of Ananias
According to Acts 9:10, Ananias was living in Damascus. In Paul's speech in Acts 22, he describes Ananias as "a devout man according to the law, having a good report of all the Jews" that dwelt in Damascus (Acts 22:12). According to F. F. Bruce, this indicates that he was not one of the refugees from the persecution in Jerusalem described in Acts 8:1.
| 4 |
[
"Ananias of Damascus",
"place of death",
"Eleutheropolis"
] |
Biblical status by modern scholars
According to Roderick L. Evans, Ananias was a prophet despite being mentioned as a disciple. In his opinion on New Testament prophets, biblical figures who receive a message from God or reveal future events are considered prophets despite alternative titles such as apostle or disciple.
Anglican priest and theologian Edward Carus Selwyn recognized Ananias as a prophet as well as one of the seventy disciples and the apostles allocated with different tasks. F. F. Bruce suggests that Ananias "has an honoured place in sacred history, and a special claim upon the gratitude of all who in one way or another have entered into the blessing that stems from the life and work of the great apostle." Ananias is also listed by Hippolytus of Rome and others as one of the seventy disciples whose mission is recorded in Luke 10:1-20.According to Catholic tradition, Ananias was martyred in Eleutheropolis. A tomb is located below the Zoravor Church in Yerevan, Armenia.
| 11 |
[
"Ananias of Damascus",
"given name",
"Hananiah"
] |
Ananias ( AN-ə-NY-əs; Ancient Greek: Ἀνανίας from Hebrew חנניה, Hananiah, "favoured of the LORD") was a disciple of Jesus at Damascus mentioned in the Acts of the Apostles in the Bible, which describes how he was sent by Jesus to restore the sight of Saul of Tarsus (who later was called Paul the Apostle) and provide him with additional instruction in the way of the Lord.
| 15 |
[
"Nathanael (follower of Jesus)",
"sex or gender",
"male"
] |
Nathanael (Hebrew נתנאל, Greek: ναθαναηλ, "God has given"), also known as Nathaniel of Cana was a disciple of Jesus, mentioned only in chapters 1 and 21 of the Gospel of John.
He is typically viewed as the same person as Bartholomew.
| 1 |
[
"Nathanael (follower of Jesus)",
"said to be the same as",
"Bartholomew the Apostle"
] |
Nathanael (Hebrew נתנאל, Greek: ναθαναηλ, "God has given"), also known as Nathaniel of Cana was a disciple of Jesus, mentioned only in chapters 1 and 21 of the Gospel of John.
He is typically viewed as the same person as Bartholomew.Identification as Bartholomew
Nathanael is usually identified with Bartholomew the Apostle mentioned in the Synoptic Gospels and Acts 1:13. Notably, the television series The Chosen identifies Nathanael as Bartholomew. The source for this identification is Bartholomew being a surname, and because Nathanael and Philip are always paired together in the synoptic gospels. The earliest known example of this identification is from Ishodad of Merv (c. 850). The earliest known reference in the West is in Rupert of Deutz (d. 1129).
However, some disagree with this identification. Augustine suspected that Nathanael was not one of the twelve at all because he was so versed in the law. The earliest identification of Nathanael with one of the Twelve Disciples is found in the 2nd-century Epistula Apostolorum, where he is identified with or takes the place of James, son of Alphaeus.
| 2 |
[
"Nathanael (follower of Jesus)",
"place of birth",
"Cana"
] |
Nathanael (Hebrew נתנאל, Greek: ναθαναηλ, "God has given"), also known as Nathaniel of Cana was a disciple of Jesus, mentioned only in chapters 1 and 21 of the Gospel of John.
He is typically viewed as the same person as Bartholomew.
| 4 |
[
"Nathanael (follower of Jesus)",
"present in work",
"John 21"
] |
Nathanael (Hebrew נתנאל, Greek: ναθαναηλ, "God has given"), also known as Nathaniel of Cana was a disciple of Jesus, mentioned only in chapters 1 and 21 of the Gospel of John.
He is typically viewed as the same person as Bartholomew.Gospel Account
In the Gospel of John, Nathanael is introduced as a friend of Philip, from Bethsaida (1:43-44). The first disciples who follow Jesus are portrayed as reaching out immediately to family or friends: thus, Philip found Nathanael and said to him, “We have found Him of whom Moses in the law, and also the prophets, wrote — Jesus of Nazareth, the son of Joseph”.Nathanael is described as initially being skeptical about whether the Messiah could come from Nazareth, saying: "Can anything good come out of Nazareth?", but nonetheless, he accepts Philip's invitation to find out. Jesus immediately characterizes him as "an Israelite in whom is no deceit". Some scholars hold that Jesus' quote "Before Philip called you, when you were under the fig tree, I saw you", is based on a Jewish figure of speech, referring to studying the Torah. Nathanael recognizes Jesus as "the Son of God" and "the King of Israel".
He reappears (as "Nathanael of Cana") at the end of John's Gospel, as one of the disciples to whom Jesus appeared at the Sea of Galilee after the Resurrection.
| 7 |
[
"Nathanael (follower of Jesus)",
"present in work",
"John 1"
] |
Gospel Account
In the Gospel of John, Nathanael is introduced as a friend of Philip, from Bethsaida (1:43-44). The first disciples who follow Jesus are portrayed as reaching out immediately to family or friends: thus, Philip found Nathanael and said to him, “We have found Him of whom Moses in the law, and also the prophets, wrote — Jesus of Nazareth, the son of Joseph”.Nathanael is described as initially being skeptical about whether the Messiah could come from Nazareth, saying: "Can anything good come out of Nazareth?", but nonetheless, he accepts Philip's invitation to find out. Jesus immediately characterizes him as "an Israelite in whom is no deceit". Some scholars hold that Jesus' quote "Before Philip called you, when you were under the fig tree, I saw you", is based on a Jewish figure of speech, referring to studying the Torah. Nathanael recognizes Jesus as "the Son of God" and "the King of Israel".
He reappears (as "Nathanael of Cana") at the end of John's Gospel, as one of the disciples to whom Jesus appeared at the Sea of Galilee after the Resurrection.
| 8 |
[
"Vincenzo Viviani",
"instance of",
"human"
] |
Vincenzo Viviani (April 5, 1622 – September 22, 1703) was an Italian mathematician and scientist. He was a pupil of Torricelli and a disciple of Galileo.Biography
Vincenzo Viviani was born in Florence to the nobles Jacopo di Michelangelo Viviani and Maria Alamanno del Nente. While attending a Jesuit school Viviani studied the humanities. Following the study of humanities, Viviani turned to mathematics. He studied geometry under the instruction of Galilean follower Clemente Settimi. It was through Clemente that Viviani would gain recognition and meet Clemente's instructor, Tuscan Court mathematician Famiano Michelini. In 1638, Michelini initiated the Grand Duke Ferdinand II de’ Medici's interest in Viviani and arranged their introduction in Livorno where Viviani would demonstrate his abilities. The Grand Duke offered Viviani a monthly salary to continue his education and introduced him to Galileo, whose deteriorating health required a capable and competent assistant. Later that year, Viviani was able to expand his knowledge over the philosophy of nature while assisting Galileo on Two new sciences, in which Galileo studied the acceleration of free bodies along an inclined plane. Their frequent exchange over the subject inspired Galileo to elaborate on the mathematical theory and complete his demonstration on free bodies that would establish its connection to nature. Viviani would later use similar applications of mathematics in nature during a collaboration with Nicolaus Steno.In 1639, Viviani moved to Galileo's home in Arcetri to assist him in his studies before they were joined by Evangelista Torricelli in 1641. Apart from being Galileo's disciple, Viviani became a pupil of Evangelista Torricelli and worked on physics and geometry. Viviani was the last disciple of Galileo until Galileo's death in 1642.After Torricelli's 1647 death, Viviani was appointed to fill his position at the Accademia dell'Arte del Disegno in Florence. Viviani was also one of the first members of the Grand Duke's experimental academy, the Accademia del Cimento, when it was created a decade later.Apart from his own career and endeavors, Viviani worked throughout his life to preserve the contributions and life of Galileo. In 1654, Cardinal Leopoldo de’ Medici tasked Viviani with gathering material in order to write a biography about Galileo's life and work. Carlo Manolessi also recruited Viviani to assist him and others in creating a compilation of Galileo's work and coordinating the frontispiece for Galileo's publication.From 1655 to 1656, Viviani edited the first edition of Galileo's collected works. Viviani tried to publish an account of the life of Galileo, but claimed that his efforts were halted by the Catholic church although this claim has been challenged.One of the primary interests of Viviani was the study of the mathematics of the ancients. Viviani spent much of his life restoring the works of Aristaeus the Elder and Apollonius.
In 1660, Viviani and Giovanni Alfonso Borelli conducted an experiment to determine the speed of sound. Timing the difference between the seeing the flash and hearing the sound of a cannon shot at a distance, they calculated a value of 350 meters per second (m/s), considerably better than the previous value of 478 m/s obtained by Pierre Gassendi. The currently accepted value is 331.29 m/s at 0 °C or 340.29 m/s at sea level. It has also been claimed that in 1661 he experimented with the rotation of pendulums, 190 years before the famous demonstration by Foucault.By 1666, Viviani started to receive many job offers as his reputation as a mathematician grew. That same year, Louis XIV of France offered him a position at the Académie Royale and John II Casimir of Poland offered Viviani a post as his astronomer. Fearful of losing Viviani, the Grand Duke appointed him First Mathematician of the Tuscan Court. The position was previously held by Galileo, whose death resulted in Torricelli's appointment to the position, followed by Viviani years after Torricelli's death. Viviani accepted this post and turned down his other offers. From 1666 to 1667, Viviani guided Nicolaus Steno on the geometrical propositions of anatomical figures and dissections of shark muscle fibers. The shark dissection figures in Elementorum myologiae specimen, seu musculi descriptio geometri demonstrated the possible functions of anatomical structures by combining anatomy with geometry while observing muscle contractions.In 1687, he published a book on engineering, Discorso intorno al difendersi da' riempimenti e dalle corrosione de' fiumi.Upon his death, Viviani left an almost completed work on the resistance of solids, which was subsequently completed and published by Luigi Guido Grandi.In 1737, the Church finally allowed Galileo to be reburied in a grave with an elaborate monument. The monument that was created in the church of Santa Croce was constructed with the help of funds left by Viviani for that specific purpose. Viviani's own remains were moved to Galileo's new grave as well.The lunar crater Viviani is named after him.
| 0 |
[
"Vincenzo Viviani",
"student of",
"Galileo Galilei"
] |
Vincenzo Viviani (April 5, 1622 – September 22, 1703) was an Italian mathematician and scientist. He was a pupil of Torricelli and a disciple of Galileo.Biography
Vincenzo Viviani was born in Florence to the nobles Jacopo di Michelangelo Viviani and Maria Alamanno del Nente. While attending a Jesuit school Viviani studied the humanities. Following the study of humanities, Viviani turned to mathematics. He studied geometry under the instruction of Galilean follower Clemente Settimi. It was through Clemente that Viviani would gain recognition and meet Clemente's instructor, Tuscan Court mathematician Famiano Michelini. In 1638, Michelini initiated the Grand Duke Ferdinand II de’ Medici's interest in Viviani and arranged their introduction in Livorno where Viviani would demonstrate his abilities. The Grand Duke offered Viviani a monthly salary to continue his education and introduced him to Galileo, whose deteriorating health required a capable and competent assistant. Later that year, Viviani was able to expand his knowledge over the philosophy of nature while assisting Galileo on Two new sciences, in which Galileo studied the acceleration of free bodies along an inclined plane. Their frequent exchange over the subject inspired Galileo to elaborate on the mathematical theory and complete his demonstration on free bodies that would establish its connection to nature. Viviani would later use similar applications of mathematics in nature during a collaboration with Nicolaus Steno.In 1639, Viviani moved to Galileo's home in Arcetri to assist him in his studies before they were joined by Evangelista Torricelli in 1641. Apart from being Galileo's disciple, Viviani became a pupil of Evangelista Torricelli and worked on physics and geometry. Viviani was the last disciple of Galileo until Galileo's death in 1642.After Torricelli's 1647 death, Viviani was appointed to fill his position at the Accademia dell'Arte del Disegno in Florence. Viviani was also one of the first members of the Grand Duke's experimental academy, the Accademia del Cimento, when it was created a decade later.Apart from his own career and endeavors, Viviani worked throughout his life to preserve the contributions and life of Galileo. In 1654, Cardinal Leopoldo de’ Medici tasked Viviani with gathering material in order to write a biography about Galileo's life and work. Carlo Manolessi also recruited Viviani to assist him and others in creating a compilation of Galileo's work and coordinating the frontispiece for Galileo's publication.From 1655 to 1656, Viviani edited the first edition of Galileo's collected works. Viviani tried to publish an account of the life of Galileo, but claimed that his efforts were halted by the Catholic church although this claim has been challenged.One of the primary interests of Viviani was the study of the mathematics of the ancients. Viviani spent much of his life restoring the works of Aristaeus the Elder and Apollonius.
In 1660, Viviani and Giovanni Alfonso Borelli conducted an experiment to determine the speed of sound. Timing the difference between the seeing the flash and hearing the sound of a cannon shot at a distance, they calculated a value of 350 meters per second (m/s), considerably better than the previous value of 478 m/s obtained by Pierre Gassendi. The currently accepted value is 331.29 m/s at 0 °C or 340.29 m/s at sea level. It has also been claimed that in 1661 he experimented with the rotation of pendulums, 190 years before the famous demonstration by Foucault.By 1666, Viviani started to receive many job offers as his reputation as a mathematician grew. That same year, Louis XIV of France offered him a position at the Académie Royale and John II Casimir of Poland offered Viviani a post as his astronomer. Fearful of losing Viviani, the Grand Duke appointed him First Mathematician of the Tuscan Court. The position was previously held by Galileo, whose death resulted in Torricelli's appointment to the position, followed by Viviani years after Torricelli's death. Viviani accepted this post and turned down his other offers. From 1666 to 1667, Viviani guided Nicolaus Steno on the geometrical propositions of anatomical figures and dissections of shark muscle fibers. The shark dissection figures in Elementorum myologiae specimen, seu musculi descriptio geometri demonstrated the possible functions of anatomical structures by combining anatomy with geometry while observing muscle contractions.In 1687, he published a book on engineering, Discorso intorno al difendersi da' riempimenti e dalle corrosione de' fiumi.Upon his death, Viviani left an almost completed work on the resistance of solids, which was subsequently completed and published by Luigi Guido Grandi.In 1737, the Church finally allowed Galileo to be reburied in a grave with an elaborate monument. The monument that was created in the church of Santa Croce was constructed with the help of funds left by Viviani for that specific purpose. Viviani's own remains were moved to Galileo's new grave as well.The lunar crater Viviani is named after him.
| 1 |
[
"Vincenzo Viviani",
"field of work",
"mathematics"
] |
Vincenzo Viviani (April 5, 1622 – September 22, 1703) was an Italian mathematician and scientist. He was a pupil of Torricelli and a disciple of Galileo.Biography
Vincenzo Viviani was born in Florence to the nobles Jacopo di Michelangelo Viviani and Maria Alamanno del Nente. While attending a Jesuit school Viviani studied the humanities. Following the study of humanities, Viviani turned to mathematics. He studied geometry under the instruction of Galilean follower Clemente Settimi. It was through Clemente that Viviani would gain recognition and meet Clemente's instructor, Tuscan Court mathematician Famiano Michelini. In 1638, Michelini initiated the Grand Duke Ferdinand II de’ Medici's interest in Viviani and arranged their introduction in Livorno where Viviani would demonstrate his abilities. The Grand Duke offered Viviani a monthly salary to continue his education and introduced him to Galileo, whose deteriorating health required a capable and competent assistant. Later that year, Viviani was able to expand his knowledge over the philosophy of nature while assisting Galileo on Two new sciences, in which Galileo studied the acceleration of free bodies along an inclined plane. Their frequent exchange over the subject inspired Galileo to elaborate on the mathematical theory and complete his demonstration on free bodies that would establish its connection to nature. Viviani would later use similar applications of mathematics in nature during a collaboration with Nicolaus Steno.In 1639, Viviani moved to Galileo's home in Arcetri to assist him in his studies before they were joined by Evangelista Torricelli in 1641. Apart from being Galileo's disciple, Viviani became a pupil of Evangelista Torricelli and worked on physics and geometry. Viviani was the last disciple of Galileo until Galileo's death in 1642.After Torricelli's 1647 death, Viviani was appointed to fill his position at the Accademia dell'Arte del Disegno in Florence. Viviani was also one of the first members of the Grand Duke's experimental academy, the Accademia del Cimento, when it was created a decade later.Apart from his own career and endeavors, Viviani worked throughout his life to preserve the contributions and life of Galileo. In 1654, Cardinal Leopoldo de’ Medici tasked Viviani with gathering material in order to write a biography about Galileo's life and work. Carlo Manolessi also recruited Viviani to assist him and others in creating a compilation of Galileo's work and coordinating the frontispiece for Galileo's publication.From 1655 to 1656, Viviani edited the first edition of Galileo's collected works. Viviani tried to publish an account of the life of Galileo, but claimed that his efforts were halted by the Catholic church although this claim has been challenged.One of the primary interests of Viviani was the study of the mathematics of the ancients. Viviani spent much of his life restoring the works of Aristaeus the Elder and Apollonius.
In 1660, Viviani and Giovanni Alfonso Borelli conducted an experiment to determine the speed of sound. Timing the difference between the seeing the flash and hearing the sound of a cannon shot at a distance, they calculated a value of 350 meters per second (m/s), considerably better than the previous value of 478 m/s obtained by Pierre Gassendi. The currently accepted value is 331.29 m/s at 0 °C or 340.29 m/s at sea level. It has also been claimed that in 1661 he experimented with the rotation of pendulums, 190 years before the famous demonstration by Foucault.By 1666, Viviani started to receive many job offers as his reputation as a mathematician grew. That same year, Louis XIV of France offered him a position at the Académie Royale and John II Casimir of Poland offered Viviani a post as his astronomer. Fearful of losing Viviani, the Grand Duke appointed him First Mathematician of the Tuscan Court. The position was previously held by Galileo, whose death resulted in Torricelli's appointment to the position, followed by Viviani years after Torricelli's death. Viviani accepted this post and turned down his other offers. From 1666 to 1667, Viviani guided Nicolaus Steno on the geometrical propositions of anatomical figures and dissections of shark muscle fibers. The shark dissection figures in Elementorum myologiae specimen, seu musculi descriptio geometri demonstrated the possible functions of anatomical structures by combining anatomy with geometry while observing muscle contractions.In 1687, he published a book on engineering, Discorso intorno al difendersi da' riempimenti e dalle corrosione de' fiumi.Upon his death, Viviani left an almost completed work on the resistance of solids, which was subsequently completed and published by Luigi Guido Grandi.In 1737, the Church finally allowed Galileo to be reburied in a grave with an elaborate monument. The monument that was created in the church of Santa Croce was constructed with the help of funds left by Viviani for that specific purpose. Viviani's own remains were moved to Galileo's new grave as well.The lunar crater Viviani is named after him.
| 3 |
[
"Vincenzo Viviani",
"languages spoken, written or signed",
"Italian"
] |
Vincenzo Viviani (April 5, 1622 – September 22, 1703) was an Italian mathematician and scientist. He was a pupil of Torricelli and a disciple of Galileo.
| 5 |
[
"Vincenzo Viviani",
"place of birth",
"Florence"
] |
Vincenzo Viviani (April 5, 1622 – September 22, 1703) was an Italian mathematician and scientist. He was a pupil of Torricelli and a disciple of Galileo.Biography
Vincenzo Viviani was born in Florence to the nobles Jacopo di Michelangelo Viviani and Maria Alamanno del Nente. While attending a Jesuit school Viviani studied the humanities. Following the study of humanities, Viviani turned to mathematics. He studied geometry under the instruction of Galilean follower Clemente Settimi. It was through Clemente that Viviani would gain recognition and meet Clemente's instructor, Tuscan Court mathematician Famiano Michelini. In 1638, Michelini initiated the Grand Duke Ferdinand II de’ Medici's interest in Viviani and arranged their introduction in Livorno where Viviani would demonstrate his abilities. The Grand Duke offered Viviani a monthly salary to continue his education and introduced him to Galileo, whose deteriorating health required a capable and competent assistant. Later that year, Viviani was able to expand his knowledge over the philosophy of nature while assisting Galileo on Two new sciences, in which Galileo studied the acceleration of free bodies along an inclined plane. Their frequent exchange over the subject inspired Galileo to elaborate on the mathematical theory and complete his demonstration on free bodies that would establish its connection to nature. Viviani would later use similar applications of mathematics in nature during a collaboration with Nicolaus Steno.In 1639, Viviani moved to Galileo's home in Arcetri to assist him in his studies before they were joined by Evangelista Torricelli in 1641. Apart from being Galileo's disciple, Viviani became a pupil of Evangelista Torricelli and worked on physics and geometry. Viviani was the last disciple of Galileo until Galileo's death in 1642.After Torricelli's 1647 death, Viviani was appointed to fill his position at the Accademia dell'Arte del Disegno in Florence. Viviani was also one of the first members of the Grand Duke's experimental academy, the Accademia del Cimento, when it was created a decade later.Apart from his own career and endeavors, Viviani worked throughout his life to preserve the contributions and life of Galileo. In 1654, Cardinal Leopoldo de’ Medici tasked Viviani with gathering material in order to write a biography about Galileo's life and work. Carlo Manolessi also recruited Viviani to assist him and others in creating a compilation of Galileo's work and coordinating the frontispiece for Galileo's publication.From 1655 to 1656, Viviani edited the first edition of Galileo's collected works. Viviani tried to publish an account of the life of Galileo, but claimed that his efforts were halted by the Catholic church although this claim has been challenged.One of the primary interests of Viviani was the study of the mathematics of the ancients. Viviani spent much of his life restoring the works of Aristaeus the Elder and Apollonius.
In 1660, Viviani and Giovanni Alfonso Borelli conducted an experiment to determine the speed of sound. Timing the difference between the seeing the flash and hearing the sound of a cannon shot at a distance, they calculated a value of 350 meters per second (m/s), considerably better than the previous value of 478 m/s obtained by Pierre Gassendi. The currently accepted value is 331.29 m/s at 0 °C or 340.29 m/s at sea level. It has also been claimed that in 1661 he experimented with the rotation of pendulums, 190 years before the famous demonstration by Foucault.By 1666, Viviani started to receive many job offers as his reputation as a mathematician grew. That same year, Louis XIV of France offered him a position at the Académie Royale and John II Casimir of Poland offered Viviani a post as his astronomer. Fearful of losing Viviani, the Grand Duke appointed him First Mathematician of the Tuscan Court. The position was previously held by Galileo, whose death resulted in Torricelli's appointment to the position, followed by Viviani years after Torricelli's death. Viviani accepted this post and turned down his other offers. From 1666 to 1667, Viviani guided Nicolaus Steno on the geometrical propositions of anatomical figures and dissections of shark muscle fibers. The shark dissection figures in Elementorum myologiae specimen, seu musculi descriptio geometri demonstrated the possible functions of anatomical structures by combining anatomy with geometry while observing muscle contractions.In 1687, he published a book on engineering, Discorso intorno al difendersi da' riempimenti e dalle corrosione de' fiumi.Upon his death, Viviani left an almost completed work on the resistance of solids, which was subsequently completed and published by Luigi Guido Grandi.In 1737, the Church finally allowed Galileo to be reburied in a grave with an elaborate monument. The monument that was created in the church of Santa Croce was constructed with the help of funds left by Viviani for that specific purpose. Viviani's own remains were moved to Galileo's new grave as well.The lunar crater Viviani is named after him.
| 6 |
[
"Vincenzo Viviani",
"place of death",
"Florence"
] |
Vincenzo Viviani (April 5, 1622 – September 22, 1703) was an Italian mathematician and scientist. He was a pupil of Torricelli and a disciple of Galileo.
| 7 |
[
"Vincenzo Viviani",
"field of work",
"physics"
] |
Vincenzo Viviani (April 5, 1622 – September 22, 1703) was an Italian mathematician and scientist. He was a pupil of Torricelli and a disciple of Galileo.Biography
Vincenzo Viviani was born in Florence to the nobles Jacopo di Michelangelo Viviani and Maria Alamanno del Nente. While attending a Jesuit school Viviani studied the humanities. Following the study of humanities, Viviani turned to mathematics. He studied geometry under the instruction of Galilean follower Clemente Settimi. It was through Clemente that Viviani would gain recognition and meet Clemente's instructor, Tuscan Court mathematician Famiano Michelini. In 1638, Michelini initiated the Grand Duke Ferdinand II de’ Medici's interest in Viviani and arranged their introduction in Livorno where Viviani would demonstrate his abilities. The Grand Duke offered Viviani a monthly salary to continue his education and introduced him to Galileo, whose deteriorating health required a capable and competent assistant. Later that year, Viviani was able to expand his knowledge over the philosophy of nature while assisting Galileo on Two new sciences, in which Galileo studied the acceleration of free bodies along an inclined plane. Their frequent exchange over the subject inspired Galileo to elaborate on the mathematical theory and complete his demonstration on free bodies that would establish its connection to nature. Viviani would later use similar applications of mathematics in nature during a collaboration with Nicolaus Steno.In 1639, Viviani moved to Galileo's home in Arcetri to assist him in his studies before they were joined by Evangelista Torricelli in 1641. Apart from being Galileo's disciple, Viviani became a pupil of Evangelista Torricelli and worked on physics and geometry. Viviani was the last disciple of Galileo until Galileo's death in 1642.After Torricelli's 1647 death, Viviani was appointed to fill his position at the Accademia dell'Arte del Disegno in Florence. Viviani was also one of the first members of the Grand Duke's experimental academy, the Accademia del Cimento, when it was created a decade later.Apart from his own career and endeavors, Viviani worked throughout his life to preserve the contributions and life of Galileo. In 1654, Cardinal Leopoldo de’ Medici tasked Viviani with gathering material in order to write a biography about Galileo's life and work. Carlo Manolessi also recruited Viviani to assist him and others in creating a compilation of Galileo's work and coordinating the frontispiece for Galileo's publication.From 1655 to 1656, Viviani edited the first edition of Galileo's collected works. Viviani tried to publish an account of the life of Galileo, but claimed that his efforts were halted by the Catholic church although this claim has been challenged.One of the primary interests of Viviani was the study of the mathematics of the ancients. Viviani spent much of his life restoring the works of Aristaeus the Elder and Apollonius.
In 1660, Viviani and Giovanni Alfonso Borelli conducted an experiment to determine the speed of sound. Timing the difference between the seeing the flash and hearing the sound of a cannon shot at a distance, they calculated a value of 350 meters per second (m/s), considerably better than the previous value of 478 m/s obtained by Pierre Gassendi. The currently accepted value is 331.29 m/s at 0 °C or 340.29 m/s at sea level. It has also been claimed that in 1661 he experimented with the rotation of pendulums, 190 years before the famous demonstration by Foucault.By 1666, Viviani started to receive many job offers as his reputation as a mathematician grew. That same year, Louis XIV of France offered him a position at the Académie Royale and John II Casimir of Poland offered Viviani a post as his astronomer. Fearful of losing Viviani, the Grand Duke appointed him First Mathematician of the Tuscan Court. The position was previously held by Galileo, whose death resulted in Torricelli's appointment to the position, followed by Viviani years after Torricelli's death. Viviani accepted this post and turned down his other offers. From 1666 to 1667, Viviani guided Nicolaus Steno on the geometrical propositions of anatomical figures and dissections of shark muscle fibers. The shark dissection figures in Elementorum myologiae specimen, seu musculi descriptio geometri demonstrated the possible functions of anatomical structures by combining anatomy with geometry while observing muscle contractions.In 1687, he published a book on engineering, Discorso intorno al difendersi da' riempimenti e dalle corrosione de' fiumi.Upon his death, Viviani left an almost completed work on the resistance of solids, which was subsequently completed and published by Luigi Guido Grandi.In 1737, the Church finally allowed Galileo to be reburied in a grave with an elaborate monument. The monument that was created in the church of Santa Croce was constructed with the help of funds left by Viviani for that specific purpose. Viviani's own remains were moved to Galileo's new grave as well.The lunar crater Viviani is named after him.
| 8 |
[
"Vincenzo Viviani",
"given name",
"Vincenzo"
] |
Vincenzo Viviani (April 5, 1622 – September 22, 1703) was an Italian mathematician and scientist. He was a pupil of Torricelli and a disciple of Galileo.Biography
Vincenzo Viviani was born in Florence to the nobles Jacopo di Michelangelo Viviani and Maria Alamanno del Nente. While attending a Jesuit school Viviani studied the humanities. Following the study of humanities, Viviani turned to mathematics. He studied geometry under the instruction of Galilean follower Clemente Settimi. It was through Clemente that Viviani would gain recognition and meet Clemente's instructor, Tuscan Court mathematician Famiano Michelini. In 1638, Michelini initiated the Grand Duke Ferdinand II de’ Medici's interest in Viviani and arranged their introduction in Livorno where Viviani would demonstrate his abilities. The Grand Duke offered Viviani a monthly salary to continue his education and introduced him to Galileo, whose deteriorating health required a capable and competent assistant. Later that year, Viviani was able to expand his knowledge over the philosophy of nature while assisting Galileo on Two new sciences, in which Galileo studied the acceleration of free bodies along an inclined plane. Their frequent exchange over the subject inspired Galileo to elaborate on the mathematical theory and complete his demonstration on free bodies that would establish its connection to nature. Viviani would later use similar applications of mathematics in nature during a collaboration with Nicolaus Steno.In 1639, Viviani moved to Galileo's home in Arcetri to assist him in his studies before they were joined by Evangelista Torricelli in 1641. Apart from being Galileo's disciple, Viviani became a pupil of Evangelista Torricelli and worked on physics and geometry. Viviani was the last disciple of Galileo until Galileo's death in 1642.After Torricelli's 1647 death, Viviani was appointed to fill his position at the Accademia dell'Arte del Disegno in Florence. Viviani was also one of the first members of the Grand Duke's experimental academy, the Accademia del Cimento, when it was created a decade later.Apart from his own career and endeavors, Viviani worked throughout his life to preserve the contributions and life of Galileo. In 1654, Cardinal Leopoldo de’ Medici tasked Viviani with gathering material in order to write a biography about Galileo's life and work. Carlo Manolessi also recruited Viviani to assist him and others in creating a compilation of Galileo's work and coordinating the frontispiece for Galileo's publication.From 1655 to 1656, Viviani edited the first edition of Galileo's collected works. Viviani tried to publish an account of the life of Galileo, but claimed that his efforts were halted by the Catholic church although this claim has been challenged.One of the primary interests of Viviani was the study of the mathematics of the ancients. Viviani spent much of his life restoring the works of Aristaeus the Elder and Apollonius.
In 1660, Viviani and Giovanni Alfonso Borelli conducted an experiment to determine the speed of sound. Timing the difference between the seeing the flash and hearing the sound of a cannon shot at a distance, they calculated a value of 350 meters per second (m/s), considerably better than the previous value of 478 m/s obtained by Pierre Gassendi. The currently accepted value is 331.29 m/s at 0 °C or 340.29 m/s at sea level. It has also been claimed that in 1661 he experimented with the rotation of pendulums, 190 years before the famous demonstration by Foucault.By 1666, Viviani started to receive many job offers as his reputation as a mathematician grew. That same year, Louis XIV of France offered him a position at the Académie Royale and John II Casimir of Poland offered Viviani a post as his astronomer. Fearful of losing Viviani, the Grand Duke appointed him First Mathematician of the Tuscan Court. The position was previously held by Galileo, whose death resulted in Torricelli's appointment to the position, followed by Viviani years after Torricelli's death. Viviani accepted this post and turned down his other offers. From 1666 to 1667, Viviani guided Nicolaus Steno on the geometrical propositions of anatomical figures and dissections of shark muscle fibers. The shark dissection figures in Elementorum myologiae specimen, seu musculi descriptio geometri demonstrated the possible functions of anatomical structures by combining anatomy with geometry while observing muscle contractions.In 1687, he published a book on engineering, Discorso intorno al difendersi da' riempimenti e dalle corrosione de' fiumi.Upon his death, Viviani left an almost completed work on the resistance of solids, which was subsequently completed and published by Luigi Guido Grandi.In 1737, the Church finally allowed Galileo to be reburied in a grave with an elaborate monument. The monument that was created in the church of Santa Croce was constructed with the help of funds left by Viviani for that specific purpose. Viviani's own remains were moved to Galileo's new grave as well.The lunar crater Viviani is named after him.
| 14 |
[
"Vincenzo Viviani",
"occupation",
"mathematician"
] |
Vincenzo Viviani (April 5, 1622 – September 22, 1703) was an Italian mathematician and scientist. He was a pupil of Torricelli and a disciple of Galileo.Biography
Vincenzo Viviani was born in Florence to the nobles Jacopo di Michelangelo Viviani and Maria Alamanno del Nente. While attending a Jesuit school Viviani studied the humanities. Following the study of humanities, Viviani turned to mathematics. He studied geometry under the instruction of Galilean follower Clemente Settimi. It was through Clemente that Viviani would gain recognition and meet Clemente's instructor, Tuscan Court mathematician Famiano Michelini. In 1638, Michelini initiated the Grand Duke Ferdinand II de’ Medici's interest in Viviani and arranged their introduction in Livorno where Viviani would demonstrate his abilities. The Grand Duke offered Viviani a monthly salary to continue his education and introduced him to Galileo, whose deteriorating health required a capable and competent assistant. Later that year, Viviani was able to expand his knowledge over the philosophy of nature while assisting Galileo on Two new sciences, in which Galileo studied the acceleration of free bodies along an inclined plane. Their frequent exchange over the subject inspired Galileo to elaborate on the mathematical theory and complete his demonstration on free bodies that would establish its connection to nature. Viviani would later use similar applications of mathematics in nature during a collaboration with Nicolaus Steno.In 1639, Viviani moved to Galileo's home in Arcetri to assist him in his studies before they were joined by Evangelista Torricelli in 1641. Apart from being Galileo's disciple, Viviani became a pupil of Evangelista Torricelli and worked on physics and geometry. Viviani was the last disciple of Galileo until Galileo's death in 1642.After Torricelli's 1647 death, Viviani was appointed to fill his position at the Accademia dell'Arte del Disegno in Florence. Viviani was also one of the first members of the Grand Duke's experimental academy, the Accademia del Cimento, when it was created a decade later.Apart from his own career and endeavors, Viviani worked throughout his life to preserve the contributions and life of Galileo. In 1654, Cardinal Leopoldo de’ Medici tasked Viviani with gathering material in order to write a biography about Galileo's life and work. Carlo Manolessi also recruited Viviani to assist him and others in creating a compilation of Galileo's work and coordinating the frontispiece for Galileo's publication.From 1655 to 1656, Viviani edited the first edition of Galileo's collected works. Viviani tried to publish an account of the life of Galileo, but claimed that his efforts were halted by the Catholic church although this claim has been challenged.One of the primary interests of Viviani was the study of the mathematics of the ancients. Viviani spent much of his life restoring the works of Aristaeus the Elder and Apollonius.
In 1660, Viviani and Giovanni Alfonso Borelli conducted an experiment to determine the speed of sound. Timing the difference between the seeing the flash and hearing the sound of a cannon shot at a distance, they calculated a value of 350 meters per second (m/s), considerably better than the previous value of 478 m/s obtained by Pierre Gassendi. The currently accepted value is 331.29 m/s at 0 °C or 340.29 m/s at sea level. It has also been claimed that in 1661 he experimented with the rotation of pendulums, 190 years before the famous demonstration by Foucault.By 1666, Viviani started to receive many job offers as his reputation as a mathematician grew. That same year, Louis XIV of France offered him a position at the Académie Royale and John II Casimir of Poland offered Viviani a post as his astronomer. Fearful of losing Viviani, the Grand Duke appointed him First Mathematician of the Tuscan Court. The position was previously held by Galileo, whose death resulted in Torricelli's appointment to the position, followed by Viviani years after Torricelli's death. Viviani accepted this post and turned down his other offers. From 1666 to 1667, Viviani guided Nicolaus Steno on the geometrical propositions of anatomical figures and dissections of shark muscle fibers. The shark dissection figures in Elementorum myologiae specimen, seu musculi descriptio geometri demonstrated the possible functions of anatomical structures by combining anatomy with geometry while observing muscle contractions.In 1687, he published a book on engineering, Discorso intorno al difendersi da' riempimenti e dalle corrosione de' fiumi.Upon his death, Viviani left an almost completed work on the resistance of solids, which was subsequently completed and published by Luigi Guido Grandi.In 1737, the Church finally allowed Galileo to be reburied in a grave with an elaborate monument. The monument that was created in the church of Santa Croce was constructed with the help of funds left by Viviani for that specific purpose. Viviani's own remains were moved to Galileo's new grave as well.The lunar crater Viviani is named after him.
| 18 |
[
"Vincenzo Viviani",
"family name",
"Viviani"
] |
Vincenzo Viviani (April 5, 1622 – September 22, 1703) was an Italian mathematician and scientist. He was a pupil of Torricelli and a disciple of Galileo.Biography
Vincenzo Viviani was born in Florence to the nobles Jacopo di Michelangelo Viviani and Maria Alamanno del Nente. While attending a Jesuit school Viviani studied the humanities. Following the study of humanities, Viviani turned to mathematics. He studied geometry under the instruction of Galilean follower Clemente Settimi. It was through Clemente that Viviani would gain recognition and meet Clemente's instructor, Tuscan Court mathematician Famiano Michelini. In 1638, Michelini initiated the Grand Duke Ferdinand II de’ Medici's interest in Viviani and arranged their introduction in Livorno where Viviani would demonstrate his abilities. The Grand Duke offered Viviani a monthly salary to continue his education and introduced him to Galileo, whose deteriorating health required a capable and competent assistant. Later that year, Viviani was able to expand his knowledge over the philosophy of nature while assisting Galileo on Two new sciences, in which Galileo studied the acceleration of free bodies along an inclined plane. Their frequent exchange over the subject inspired Galileo to elaborate on the mathematical theory and complete his demonstration on free bodies that would establish its connection to nature. Viviani would later use similar applications of mathematics in nature during a collaboration with Nicolaus Steno.In 1639, Viviani moved to Galileo's home in Arcetri to assist him in his studies before they were joined by Evangelista Torricelli in 1641. Apart from being Galileo's disciple, Viviani became a pupil of Evangelista Torricelli and worked on physics and geometry. Viviani was the last disciple of Galileo until Galileo's death in 1642.After Torricelli's 1647 death, Viviani was appointed to fill his position at the Accademia dell'Arte del Disegno in Florence. Viviani was also one of the first members of the Grand Duke's experimental academy, the Accademia del Cimento, when it was created a decade later.Apart from his own career and endeavors, Viviani worked throughout his life to preserve the contributions and life of Galileo. In 1654, Cardinal Leopoldo de’ Medici tasked Viviani with gathering material in order to write a biography about Galileo's life and work. Carlo Manolessi also recruited Viviani to assist him and others in creating a compilation of Galileo's work and coordinating the frontispiece for Galileo's publication.From 1655 to 1656, Viviani edited the first edition of Galileo's collected works. Viviani tried to publish an account of the life of Galileo, but claimed that his efforts were halted by the Catholic church although this claim has been challenged.One of the primary interests of Viviani was the study of the mathematics of the ancients. Viviani spent much of his life restoring the works of Aristaeus the Elder and Apollonius.
In 1660, Viviani and Giovanni Alfonso Borelli conducted an experiment to determine the speed of sound. Timing the difference between the seeing the flash and hearing the sound of a cannon shot at a distance, they calculated a value of 350 meters per second (m/s), considerably better than the previous value of 478 m/s obtained by Pierre Gassendi. The currently accepted value is 331.29 m/s at 0 °C or 340.29 m/s at sea level. It has also been claimed that in 1661 he experimented with the rotation of pendulums, 190 years before the famous demonstration by Foucault.By 1666, Viviani started to receive many job offers as his reputation as a mathematician grew. That same year, Louis XIV of France offered him a position at the Académie Royale and John II Casimir of Poland offered Viviani a post as his astronomer. Fearful of losing Viviani, the Grand Duke appointed him First Mathematician of the Tuscan Court. The position was previously held by Galileo, whose death resulted in Torricelli's appointment to the position, followed by Viviani years after Torricelli's death. Viviani accepted this post and turned down his other offers. From 1666 to 1667, Viviani guided Nicolaus Steno on the geometrical propositions of anatomical figures and dissections of shark muscle fibers. The shark dissection figures in Elementorum myologiae specimen, seu musculi descriptio geometri demonstrated the possible functions of anatomical structures by combining anatomy with geometry while observing muscle contractions.In 1687, he published a book on engineering, Discorso intorno al difendersi da' riempimenti e dalle corrosione de' fiumi.Upon his death, Viviani left an almost completed work on the resistance of solids, which was subsequently completed and published by Luigi Guido Grandi.In 1737, the Church finally allowed Galileo to be reburied in a grave with an elaborate monument. The monument that was created in the church of Santa Croce was constructed with the help of funds left by Viviani for that specific purpose. Viviani's own remains were moved to Galileo's new grave as well.The lunar crater Viviani is named after him.
| 23 |
[
"Giuseppe Biancani",
"place of death",
"Parma"
] |
Biography
Giuseppe Biancani was born in Bologna in 1566, entered the Jesuit Order in 1592, and studied at the College of Brescia with Marco Antonio De Dominis, and at the Academy of Mathematics in the Roman College with Clavius. Between 1596 and 1599 he lived in Padua, where he completed his studies and befriended Galileo, who had been appointed professor of mathematics at the local university in 1592. When the Jesuits were expelled from the Republic of Venice in 1606 Biancani went to Parma where he taught mathematics in the Jesuit College until his death in 1624.
| 10 |
[
"Giuseppe Biancani",
"place of birth",
"Bologna"
] |
Biography
Giuseppe Biancani was born in Bologna in 1566, entered the Jesuit Order in 1592, and studied at the College of Brescia with Marco Antonio De Dominis, and at the Academy of Mathematics in the Roman College with Clavius. Between 1596 and 1599 he lived in Padua, where he completed his studies and befriended Galileo, who had been appointed professor of mathematics at the local university in 1592. When the Jesuits were expelled from the Republic of Venice in 1606 Biancani went to Parma where he taught mathematics in the Jesuit College until his death in 1624.
| 15 |
[
"Giuseppe Biancani",
"occupation",
"university teacher"
] |
Biography
Giuseppe Biancani was born in Bologna in 1566, entered the Jesuit Order in 1592, and studied at the College of Brescia with Marco Antonio De Dominis, and at the Academy of Mathematics in the Roman College with Clavius. Between 1596 and 1599 he lived in Padua, where he completed his studies and befriended Galileo, who had been appointed professor of mathematics at the local university in 1592. When the Jesuits were expelled from the Republic of Venice in 1606 Biancani went to Parma where he taught mathematics in the Jesuit College until his death in 1624.
| 18 |
[
"Guido Bentivoglio",
"educated at",
"University of Padua"
] |
Early years
A member of the Ferrara branch of the influential Bentivoglio family of Bologna, he was the younger son of marchese Cornelio Bentivoglio and Isabella Bendidio. After studying at the universities of Ferrara and Padua, where in 1598 he received a doctorate utroque jure— in both civil and canon law— he returned to Ferrara, to the humanistic studies that honed his elegant writing style. There Pope Clement VIII, on a visit to the city that had recently fallen under direct papal control, made him his private chamberlain, and he returned with Clement to Rome.
| 7 |
[
"Guido Bentivoglio",
"place of birth",
"Ferrara"
] |
Early years
A member of the Ferrara branch of the influential Bentivoglio family of Bologna, he was the younger son of marchese Cornelio Bentivoglio and Isabella Bendidio. After studying at the universities of Ferrara and Padua, where in 1598 he received a doctorate utroque jure— in both civil and canon law— he returned to Ferrara, to the humanistic studies that honed his elegant writing style. There Pope Clement VIII, on a visit to the city that had recently fallen under direct papal control, made him his private chamberlain, and he returned with Clement to Rome.
| 8 |
[
"Guido Bentivoglio",
"work location",
"Ferrara"
] |
Early years
A member of the Ferrara branch of the influential Bentivoglio family of Bologna, he was the younger son of marchese Cornelio Bentivoglio and Isabella Bendidio. After studying at the universities of Ferrara and Padua, where in 1598 he received a doctorate utroque jure— in both civil and canon law— he returned to Ferrara, to the humanistic studies that honed his elegant writing style. There Pope Clement VIII, on a visit to the city that had recently fallen under direct papal control, made him his private chamberlain, and he returned with Clement to Rome.
| 12 |
[
"Guido Bentivoglio",
"mother",
"Isabella Bendidio"
] |
Early years
A member of the Ferrara branch of the influential Bentivoglio family of Bologna, he was the younger son of marchese Cornelio Bentivoglio and Isabella Bendidio. After studying at the universities of Ferrara and Padua, where in 1598 he received a doctorate utroque jure— in both civil and canon law— he returned to Ferrara, to the humanistic studies that honed his elegant writing style. There Pope Clement VIII, on a visit to the city that had recently fallen under direct papal control, made him his private chamberlain, and he returned with Clement to Rome.
| 17 |
[
"Guido Bentivoglio",
"family name",
"Bentivoglio"
] |
Guido Bentivoglio d'Aragona (4 October 1579 – 7 September 1644) was an Italian cardinal, statesman and historian.Early years
A member of the Ferrara branch of the influential Bentivoglio family of Bologna, he was the younger son of marchese Cornelio Bentivoglio and Isabella Bendidio. After studying at the universities of Ferrara and Padua, where in 1598 he received a doctorate utroque jure— in both civil and canon law— he returned to Ferrara, to the humanistic studies that honed his elegant writing style. There Pope Clement VIII, on a visit to the city that had recently fallen under direct papal control, made him his private chamberlain, and he returned with Clement to Rome.
| 26 |
[
"Guido Bentivoglio",
"father",
"Cornelio Bentivoglio"
] |
Early years
A member of the Ferrara branch of the influential Bentivoglio family of Bologna, he was the younger son of marchese Cornelio Bentivoglio and Isabella Bendidio. After studying at the universities of Ferrara and Padua, where in 1598 he received a doctorate utroque jure— in both civil and canon law— he returned to Ferrara, to the humanistic studies that honed his elegant writing style. There Pope Clement VIII, on a visit to the city that had recently fallen under direct papal control, made him his private chamberlain, and he returned with Clement to Rome.
| 28 |
[
"Guido Bentivoglio",
"position held",
"Apostolic Nuncio to France"
] |
Nuncio in Brussels and Paris
Under Clement's successor, Pope Paul V, he was appointed titular archbishop of Rhodes, 14 May 1607, with a dispensation for being three months shy of the canonical age and not having yet received the sacred orders, in order to give him appropriate credentials as nuncio at the court of the Archdukes Albert and Isabella in the Habsburg Netherlands, (1 June 1607 – 24 October 1615).He arrived in Brussels when negotiations between the Habsburgs and the Dutch Republic to end the Eighty Years' War were about to begin. Following the conclusion of the Twelve Years' Truce in April 1609, he was greatly concerned with the position of Catholicism in the Republic. Accredited to a Habsburg court, he likewise took a keen interest in the final stages of the reign and the succession of Emperor Rudolf II.
Three more topics occupied a great deal of his time: the struggle over the Jülich-Cleves inheritance, which was set to ignite the Thirty Years War, the flight of the prince de Condé from France in objection to Henri IV's divorce and remarriage, and the degree of toleration for Catholics in England and Ireland under James I. His correspondence reveals Bentivoglio as "the skilled diplomatist, polished by constant intercourse with the most refined society, as well as the mature observer," according to Ludwig Pastor.Afterwards he was nuncio to the Court of France (9 July 1616 – 1621), where he witnessed the uproars of the Regency of Queen Marie de' Medici, the fall of Concino Concini in the coup operated by Louis XIII and his favorite Charles d'Albert, the discord between the Queen-Mother and her son and the first Huguenot rebellions. The King rewarded his services as nuncio with the appointment on 11 July 1622 to the bishopric of Riez, a position from which Bentivoglio would resign on 16 October 1625.
| 29 |
[
"Giovanni de Galliano Pieroni",
"occupation",
"architect"
] |
Giovanni de Galliano Pieroni (1586–1654) was a military engineer specialized in erecting fortifications, architect, mathematician and astronomer who gained particular fame in his day as also as author of horoscopes. Early in his life, he became friendly with the astronomer, mathematician and physicist Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) – like Pieroni, Galileo also wrote on constructing fortifications, and the two shared interest in mathematics and astronomy. He was also a contemporary and friend of Johannes Kepler (1571-1630) while both spent time in Prague.Biography
Pieroni was born in Florence on 5 March 1586. His childhood and education was privileged because his father Alessandro Pieroni (1550-1607) was an architect at the court of the Medici. After studying law, he was awarded a doctorate in law in Pisa in 1608. He studied under Bernardo Buontalenti (1531-1608). During that time he befriended Galileo, who served then the Tuscan Grand Duke, Cosimo II di Medici. The two corresponded for many years, even after Pieroni left Florence.
He spent a lot of time working for general Albrecht of Wallenstein (1583–1634), in Vienna and Prague, fixing up fortifications of castles and in that vein, of palace and park grounds, particularly the Wallenstein Palace, collaborating with great baroque Italian artists and architects. His young assistant in both cities was Baccio del Bianco, who memorably described Pieroni as an "astrological architect".
In 1635, Pieroni was granted Wallenstein' former estate Dubenec, first as administrator and since 1650 as possessor. Since 1639, he documented the state of fortifications in Croatia and along the Military Frontier on behest of the Hofkriegsrat, the Imperial war council. Based on his studies, he wrote the treatise Trattato delle fortificazioni moderne.After the end of the Thirty Years' War, Pieroni was in charge of the repair and expansion of Prague's fortifications under the city commanders Innocentio Conti and Jan van der Croon. He was assisted by the builders and architects Carlo Lurago and Santino Bossi. Van der Croon and Pieroni also took responsibility for constructing the defensive walls of Náchod castle for its owner Ottavio Piccolomini.
| 5 |
[
"Giovanni de Galliano Pieroni",
"occupation",
"mathematician"
] |
Giovanni de Galliano Pieroni (1586–1654) was a military engineer specialized in erecting fortifications, architect, mathematician and astronomer who gained particular fame in his day as also as author of horoscopes. Early in his life, he became friendly with the astronomer, mathematician and physicist Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) – like Pieroni, Galileo also wrote on constructing fortifications, and the two shared interest in mathematics and astronomy. He was also a contemporary and friend of Johannes Kepler (1571-1630) while both spent time in Prague.
| 8 |
[
"Niccolò Arrighetti",
"instance of",
"human"
] |
Relationship with Galileo
The son of Francesco Arrighetti and Fiammetta Ginori, as a young man he was a private student of Galileo’s, together with his cousin Andrea Arrighetti. Around 1614, Arrighetti assisted Galileo in replying to an attack by Giorgio Coresio on his views of the behaviour of bodies in water. Arrighetti maintained a close interest in Galileo’s experiments in physics and his mathematical work (notably on the flow of water in both straight and twisting channels). It was also Arrighetti who brought Galileo news from Benedetto Castelli about the dispute between Castelli and Cosimo Boscaglia, that prompted Galileo to write his Letter to Benedetto Castelli. A number of Galileo’s notes, sketches and drawings on various topics, including motion, were recorded or copied by Arrighetti.
| 0 |
[
"Niccolò Arrighetti",
"student of",
"Galileo Galilei"
] |
Relationship with Galileo
The son of Francesco Arrighetti and Fiammetta Ginori, as a young man he was a private student of Galileo’s, together with his cousin Andrea Arrighetti. Around 1614, Arrighetti assisted Galileo in replying to an attack by Giorgio Coresio on his views of the behaviour of bodies in water. Arrighetti maintained a close interest in Galileo’s experiments in physics and his mathematical work (notably on the flow of water in both straight and twisting channels). It was also Arrighetti who brought Galileo news from Benedetto Castelli about the dispute between Castelli and Cosimo Boscaglia, that prompted Galileo to write his Letter to Benedetto Castelli. A number of Galileo’s notes, sketches and drawings on various topics, including motion, were recorded or copied by Arrighetti.
| 1 |
[
"Niccolò Arrighetti",
"place of birth",
"Florence"
] |
Niccolò Arrighetti (11 November 1586, in Florence – 29 May 1639, in Florence) was Italian intellectual, pupil and associate of Galileo Galilei.
| 2 |
[
"Niccolò Arrighetti",
"occupation",
"mathematician"
] |
Niccolò Arrighetti (11 November 1586, in Florence – 29 May 1639, in Florence) was Italian intellectual, pupil and associate of Galileo Galilei.
| 3 |
[
"Niccolò Arrighetti",
"given name",
"Niccolò"
] |
Niccolò Arrighetti (11 November 1586, in Florence – 29 May 1639, in Florence) was Italian intellectual, pupil and associate of Galileo Galilei.
| 7 |
[
"Niccolò Arrighetti",
"family name",
"Arrighetti"
] |
Niccolò Arrighetti (11 November 1586, in Florence – 29 May 1639, in Florence) was Italian intellectual, pupil and associate of Galileo Galilei.Relationship with Galileo
The son of Francesco Arrighetti and Fiammetta Ginori, as a young man he was a private student of Galileo’s, together with his cousin Andrea Arrighetti. Around 1614, Arrighetti assisted Galileo in replying to an attack by Giorgio Coresio on his views of the behaviour of bodies in water. Arrighetti maintained a close interest in Galileo’s experiments in physics and his mathematical work (notably on the flow of water in both straight and twisting channels). It was also Arrighetti who brought Galileo news from Benedetto Castelli about the dispute between Castelli and Cosimo Boscaglia, that prompted Galileo to write his Letter to Benedetto Castelli. A number of Galileo’s notes, sketches and drawings on various topics, including motion, were recorded or copied by Arrighetti.
| 8 |
[
"Manuel Contreras",
"instance of",
"human"
] |
Juan Manuel "Mamo" Guillermo Contreras Sepúlveda (4 May 1929 – 7 August 2015) was a Chilean Army officer and the former head of the National Intelligence Directorate (DINA), Chile's secret police during the dictatorship of General Augusto Pinochet. In 1995, he was sentenced to seven years in prison for the murder in Washington, DC, of the Chilean diplomat Dr. Orlando Letelier, which he served until 2001.
At his death, Contreras was serving 59 unappealable sentences totaling 529 years in prison for kidnapping, forced disappearance and assassination.
| 0 |
[
"Manuel Contreras",
"country of citizenship",
"Chile"
] |
Juan Manuel "Mamo" Guillermo Contreras Sepúlveda (4 May 1929 – 7 August 2015) was a Chilean Army officer and the former head of the National Intelligence Directorate (DINA), Chile's secret police during the dictatorship of General Augusto Pinochet. In 1995, he was sentenced to seven years in prison for the murder in Washington, DC, of the Chilean diplomat Dr. Orlando Letelier, which he served until 2001.
At his death, Contreras was serving 59 unappealable sentences totaling 529 years in prison for kidnapping, forced disappearance and assassination.
| 1 |
[
"Manuel Contreras",
"student of",
"Augusto Pinochet"
] |
Career
He entered the Military School in 1944, where he graduated with first seniority on 23 December 1947. In 1952, after gaining the rank of lieutenant, Contreras again arrived at the Military School, but this time, he joined the Company of Engineers as an instructor for sappers.
In 1953, he married María Teresa Valdebenito Stevenson. The same year, he arrived at the newly-formed San Antonio School of Engineers.
In 1960, he entered the War Academy to complete the General Staff Officer course. There, he met the Captain Augusto Pinochet, the deputy director of the academy and professor of strategy classes. In Pinochet's classes, much of the time was occupied by his concern of the triumph of the Cuban Revolution.
Contreras graduated from the War Academy in 1962 as a general staff officer. He stood out as the first of his class and obtained the title of academy professor in the subjects of intelligence and logistics. He returned there in 1966 but this time as an intelligence professor.
| 2 |
[
"Manuel Contreras",
"place of birth",
"Santiago"
] |
Early life
He was the son of Manuel Contreras Morales and Aída Sepúlveda Cubillos, who died when he was six or seven years old. He completed his primary studies at the English Institute of Macul, in Santiago. His father later moved to Osorno, where he entered that city's Lyceum.
| 4 |
[
"Manuel Contreras",
"conflict",
"Operation Condor"
] |
Operation Condor
From 1973 to 1977, Contreras led the agency on an international hunt to track down and kill the political opponents of the Junta, particularly members of the Communist and Socialist Parties and the former guerrilla group and political party Movement of the Revolutionary Left (MIR). On 25 November 1975,
Pinochet's 60th birthday, leaders of the military intelligence services of Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, Paraguay, and Uruguay met with Contreras in Santiago de Chile and officially created the Plan Condor. According to the report "CIA activities in Chile," which was released on September 19, 2000, the US government policy community had approved the CIA's contact with Contreras from 1974 to 1977 to accomplish the CIA's mission in Chile in spite of his role in human rights abuses. By 1975, American intelligence reporting had concluded that Contreras was the principal obstacle to a reasonable human rights policy within the Pinochet government, but the CIA was directed to continue its relationship with Contreras and even gave Contreras a one-time payment in 1975. The CIA became concerned with Contreras's role in the assassination of a former Allende cabinet member and ambassador to Washington, Orlando Letelier, and his American assistant, Ronni Karpen Moffit in Washington, DC, on 21 September 1976. The CIA was said to have gathered specific detailed intelligence reporting alleging Contrera's involvement in ordering the Letelier assassination, but the purported material remains classified and has been withheld at the request of the US Department of Justice (CIA, 2000) CIA contacts with Contreras continued until 1977.
It cost me four years to pacify this country, and once again I will put it all together...Me costó cuatro años pacificar este país y otra vez voy a armarlo...
After Orlando Letelier was assassinated, tensions between Contreras and Pinochet grew over the course of his tenure, and the DINA was closed down in 1977 and replaced with a new apparatus, the National Informations Center (CNI).Contreras, Gerhard Mertins, Sergio Arredondo, and an unidentified Brazilian general traveled to Tehran in 1976 to offer a collaboration to the Shah regime to kill Carlos the Jackal. It is unknown what actually happened in the meetings.By 1979, Contreras was retired from the army at the rank of general, a rank that he held until his death.
| 8 |
[
"Manuel Contreras",
"occupation",
"military officer"
] |
Juan Manuel "Mamo" Guillermo Contreras Sepúlveda (4 May 1929 – 7 August 2015) was a Chilean Army officer and the former head of the National Intelligence Directorate (DINA), Chile's secret police during the dictatorship of General Augusto Pinochet. In 1995, he was sentenced to seven years in prison for the murder in Washington, DC, of the Chilean diplomat Dr. Orlando Letelier, which he served until 2001.
At his death, Contreras was serving 59 unappealable sentences totaling 529 years in prison for kidnapping, forced disappearance and assassination.
| 10 |
[
"Manuel Contreras",
"sex or gender",
"male"
] |
Juan Manuel "Mamo" Guillermo Contreras Sepúlveda (4 May 1929 – 7 August 2015) was a Chilean Army officer and the former head of the National Intelligence Directorate (DINA), Chile's secret police during the dictatorship of General Augusto Pinochet. In 1995, he was sentenced to seven years in prison for the murder in Washington, DC, of the Chilean diplomat Dr. Orlando Letelier, which he served until 2001.
At his death, Contreras was serving 59 unappealable sentences totaling 529 years in prison for kidnapping, forced disappearance and assassination.
| 11 |
[
"Manuel Contreras",
"significant event",
"Letelier assassination"
] |
Juan Manuel "Mamo" Guillermo Contreras Sepúlveda (4 May 1929 – 7 August 2015) was a Chilean Army officer and the former head of the National Intelligence Directorate (DINA), Chile's secret police during the dictatorship of General Augusto Pinochet. In 1995, he was sentenced to seven years in prison for the murder in Washington, DC, of the Chilean diplomat Dr. Orlando Letelier, which he served until 2001.
At his death, Contreras was serving 59 unappealable sentences totaling 529 years in prison for kidnapping, forced disappearance and assassination.Operation Condor
From 1973 to 1977, Contreras led the agency on an international hunt to track down and kill the political opponents of the Junta, particularly members of the Communist and Socialist Parties and the former guerrilla group and political party Movement of the Revolutionary Left (MIR). On 25 November 1975,
Pinochet's 60th birthday, leaders of the military intelligence services of Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, Paraguay, and Uruguay met with Contreras in Santiago de Chile and officially created the Plan Condor. According to the report "CIA activities in Chile," which was released on September 19, 2000, the US government policy community had approved the CIA's contact with Contreras from 1974 to 1977 to accomplish the CIA's mission in Chile in spite of his role in human rights abuses. By 1975, American intelligence reporting had concluded that Contreras was the principal obstacle to a reasonable human rights policy within the Pinochet government, but the CIA was directed to continue its relationship with Contreras and even gave Contreras a one-time payment in 1975. The CIA became concerned with Contreras's role in the assassination of a former Allende cabinet member and ambassador to Washington, Orlando Letelier, and his American assistant, Ronni Karpen Moffit in Washington, DC, on 21 September 1976. The CIA was said to have gathered specific detailed intelligence reporting alleging Contrera's involvement in ordering the Letelier assassination, but the purported material remains classified and has been withheld at the request of the US Department of Justice (CIA, 2000) CIA contacts with Contreras continued until 1977.
It cost me four years to pacify this country, and once again I will put it all together...Me costó cuatro años pacificar este país y otra vez voy a armarlo...
After Orlando Letelier was assassinated, tensions between Contreras and Pinochet grew over the course of his tenure, and the DINA was closed down in 1977 and replaced with a new apparatus, the National Informations Center (CNI).Contreras, Gerhard Mertins, Sergio Arredondo, and an unidentified Brazilian general traveled to Tehran in 1976 to offer a collaboration to the Shah regime to kill Carlos the Jackal. It is unknown what actually happened in the meetings.By 1979, Contreras was retired from the army at the rank of general, a rank that he held until his death.
| 14 |
[
"Manuel Contreras",
"educated at",
"Bernardo O'Higgins Military School"
] |
Career
He entered the Military School in 1944, where he graduated with first seniority on 23 December 1947. In 1952, after gaining the rank of lieutenant, Contreras again arrived at the Military School, but this time, he joined the Company of Engineers as an instructor for sappers.
In 1953, he married María Teresa Valdebenito Stevenson. The same year, he arrived at the newly-formed San Antonio School of Engineers.
In 1960, he entered the War Academy to complete the General Staff Officer course. There, he met the Captain Augusto Pinochet, the deputy director of the academy and professor of strategy classes. In Pinochet's classes, much of the time was occupied by his concern of the triumph of the Cuban Revolution.
Contreras graduated from the War Academy in 1962 as a general staff officer. He stood out as the first of his class and obtained the title of academy professor in the subjects of intelligence and logistics. He returned there in 1966 but this time as an intelligence professor.
| 15 |
[
"Manuel Contreras",
"given name",
"Manuel"
] |
Juan Manuel "Mamo" Guillermo Contreras Sepúlveda (4 May 1929 – 7 August 2015) was a Chilean Army officer and the former head of the National Intelligence Directorate (DINA), Chile's secret police during the dictatorship of General Augusto Pinochet. In 1995, he was sentenced to seven years in prison for the murder in Washington, DC, of the Chilean diplomat Dr. Orlando Letelier, which he served until 2001.
At his death, Contreras was serving 59 unappealable sentences totaling 529 years in prison for kidnapping, forced disappearance and assassination.Early life
He was the son of Manuel Contreras Morales and Aída Sepúlveda Cubillos, who died when he was six or seven years old. He completed his primary studies at the English Institute of Macul, in Santiago. His father later moved to Osorno, where he entered that city's Lyceum.Career
He entered the Military School in 1944, where he graduated with first seniority on 23 December 1947. In 1952, after gaining the rank of lieutenant, Contreras again arrived at the Military School, but this time, he joined the Company of Engineers as an instructor for sappers.
In 1953, he married María Teresa Valdebenito Stevenson. The same year, he arrived at the newly-formed San Antonio School of Engineers.
In 1960, he entered the War Academy to complete the General Staff Officer course. There, he met the Captain Augusto Pinochet, the deputy director of the academy and professor of strategy classes. In Pinochet's classes, much of the time was occupied by his concern of the triumph of the Cuban Revolution.
Contreras graduated from the War Academy in 1962 as a general staff officer. He stood out as the first of his class and obtained the title of academy professor in the subjects of intelligence and logistics. He returned there in 1966 but this time as an intelligence professor.
| 16 |
[
"Manuel Contreras",
"family name",
"Contreras"
] |
Juan Manuel "Mamo" Guillermo Contreras Sepúlveda (4 May 1929 – 7 August 2015) was a Chilean Army officer and the former head of the National Intelligence Directorate (DINA), Chile's secret police during the dictatorship of General Augusto Pinochet. In 1995, he was sentenced to seven years in prison for the murder in Washington, DC, of the Chilean diplomat Dr. Orlando Letelier, which he served until 2001.
At his death, Contreras was serving 59 unappealable sentences totaling 529 years in prison for kidnapping, forced disappearance and assassination.Early life
He was the son of Manuel Contreras Morales and Aída Sepúlveda Cubillos, who died when he was six or seven years old. He completed his primary studies at the English Institute of Macul, in Santiago. His father later moved to Osorno, where he entered that city's Lyceum.Career
He entered the Military School in 1944, where he graduated with first seniority on 23 December 1947. In 1952, after gaining the rank of lieutenant, Contreras again arrived at the Military School, but this time, he joined the Company of Engineers as an instructor for sappers.
In 1953, he married María Teresa Valdebenito Stevenson. The same year, he arrived at the newly-formed San Antonio School of Engineers.
In 1960, he entered the War Academy to complete the General Staff Officer course. There, he met the Captain Augusto Pinochet, the deputy director of the academy and professor of strategy classes. In Pinochet's classes, much of the time was occupied by his concern of the triumph of the Cuban Revolution.
Contreras graduated from the War Academy in 1962 as a general staff officer. He stood out as the first of his class and obtained the title of academy professor in the subjects of intelligence and logistics. He returned there in 1966 but this time as an intelligence professor.
| 20 |
[
"James B. Pollack",
"family name",
"Pollack"
] |
James Barney Pollack (July 9, 1938 – June 13, 1994) was an American astrophysicist who worked for NASA's Ames Research Center.
Pollack was born on July 9, 1938 in New York City, and was brought up in Woodmere, Long Island by a Jewish family that was in the women's garment business. He was a valedictorian of his class at Lawrence High School and graduated from Princeton University in 1960. He then received his master's in nuclear physics at University of California, Berkeley in 1962 and his Ph.D from Harvard in 1965, where he was a student of Carl Sagan. He was openly gay. Dorion Sagan told how his father came to the defense of Pollack's partner in a problem with obtaining treatment at the university health service emergency department.Pollack specialized in atmospheric science, especially the atmospheres of Mars and Venus. He investigated the possibility of terraforming Mars, the extinction of the dinosaurs and the possibility of nuclear winter since the 1980s with Christopher McKay and Sagan. The work of Pollack et al. (1996) on the formation of giant planets ("core accretion paradigm") is seen today as the standard model.He explored the weather on Mars using data from the Mariner 9 spacecraft and the Viking mission. On this he based ground-breaking computer simulations of winds, storms, and the general climate on that planet. An overview of Pollack's scientific vita is given in the memorial talk "James B. Pollack: A Pioneer in Stardust to Planetesimals Research" held at an Astronomical Society of the Pacific 1996 symposium.
He was a recipient of the Gerard P. Kuiper Prize in 1989 for outstanding lifetime achievement in the field of planetary science. Pollack died at his home in California in 1994 from a rare form of spinal cancer, at age 55.A crater on Mars was named in his honor.
| 11 |
[
"Nina Vedeneyeva",
"place of birth",
"Tbilisi"
] |
Early life
Nina Evgenievna Vedeneyeva was born on 1 December 1882 in Tbilisi, capital of the Caucasus Viceroyalty, Russian Empire to Pelageya Ivanovna (née Avdeyeva) (Russian: Пелагея Ивановна Авдеева) and Evgeny Lvovich Vedeneyev (Russian: Евгений Львович Веденеев). Vedeneyeva had three siblings: Olga (born 1880), who became a musician and lived in Japan; Boris (ru) (1885-1946) who was a hydraulic engineer and academician; and Maria (1887-1958) Russian: Мария Евгеньевна Успенская-Веденеева, who became an architect in Leningrad. After completion of her studies at gymnasium, Vedeneyeva with the encouragement of her father went abroad to study architecture in Belgium. Headed for Ghent, she stopped in Liège and met her future husband, Leonid Ivanovich Sirotinsky almost immediately. He was a student at the Liege Electro-Technical Institute and Vedeneyeva then changed her plans and entered the same school. In January 1902, her father was murdered and she returned home until spring. After a year of studies, Vedeneyeva left school and on 28 July 1903 at the Russian Orthodox Church in Brussels, she and Sirotinsky married. He finished his studies and the couple returned to his parental home in Nikolaev, where their son, Yevgeny was born at the end of the year.
| 3 |
[
"Nina Vedeneyeva",
"field of work",
"crystallography"
] |
Nina Yevgenyevna Vedeneyeva (Russian: Нина Евгеньевна Веденеева, 1 December 1882 – 31 December 1955) was a physicist involved in the study of mineral crystals and their coloration. Heading numerous departments at such institutions as the All-USSR Institute of Mineral Resources, the Institute of Geological Sciences and the Institute of Crystallography, she conducted research into color variants of clay minerals and classifying clays which occurred in organic dyes. She was noted for development and design of instruments to improve the methods of optical crystallography. She was the last partner-muse of the poet Sophia Parnok and was awarded the Stalin Prize and Order of Lenin for her scientific studies and inventions.Career
In 1907, Vedeneyeva entered the Chemical Department of the Bestuzhev Courses and graduated in 1912-13, receiving her degree from the USSR Academy of Sciences in 1912 and passing her examination at Moscow University in 1913. In 1914, she began teaching and conducting research in the Bestuzhev Courses, which would later merge with Second Moscow State University and at the Institute of Fine Chemical Technology. In 1915, she enrolled in the Mathematics Department and passed her examination in 1916. She continued teaching first chemistry, then courses on atomic matter, radioactivity and pedagogy until 1919 at Second University. In that year, she divorced Sirotinsky and went on holiday with Eugenia Avramenko (Russian: Евгении Ивановны Авраменко) to Nikolaev again, where her son was living. Unable to return to Moscow because of Anton Denikin's offensive against the city, she and Avramenko proceeded Avramenko's home town and found employment working in Women's Gymnasium in Melitopol for the next two years.Beginning in 1921, both Vedeneyeva and Avramenko taught at the Moscow State Forest University. Vedeneyva taught physics there until she was transferred in 1925 to Leningrad. Avramenko was also transferred to Leningrad in 1925. The following year, Vedeneyva's son, Yevgeny, who was a student at the Moscow Higher Technical School, was arrested and charged as an enemy of the state for participating in scouting, a banned activity. After spending six months at the Solovki prison camp, he was barred from living in any of Russia's major cities and sent in exile to Glazov. It was probably in this period in 1927, when Vedeneyeva met Sophia Parnok, as Parnok's partner at the time, Olga Nikolaevna Tsuberbiller, was a colleague of Vedeneyeva. Tsuberbiller was a mathematician and had written the standard textbook used for several decades in the high schools of the USSR. She assisted Vedeneyeva in obtaining the textbooks Yevgeny needed to complete his mathematics degree. In 1929, he continued his exile in Tver and was not allowed to return to Moscow until 1931.In 1930, Vedeneyeva became the department head of crystal optics at the All-USSR Institute of Mineral Resources in Moscow. The following year, she also began conducting scientific research at Giredmet, the State Research and Design Institute of Rare Metals. She worked on some of the first studies of anomalous dispersion, studying nature of the colorations of both natural and synthetic transparent crystals. In 1932, she moved out of the apartment she had shared since 1918 with Avramenko, moved in with her son, and around the same time her relationship with Parnok intensified. Between January 1932 and August 1933, Parnok wrote thirty poems in two cycles to Vedeneyeva. The first cycle, containing seven poems, was called Ursa Major and the second, containing an additional twenty-three poems was called Useless Goods. The poems are a lyric diary of their affair and are openly erotic poems addressed to her lover, making full use of double entendre to taunt potential censors. Parnok continued living with Tsuberbiller and Vedeneyeva visited her almost daily until her death. The relationship was intense and in the beginning, Vedeneyeva was reticent about the physical relationship. It may have been her first lesbian relationship.Vedeneyeva was with Parnok and Tsuberbiller when Parnok died in 1933 and she fell into a depression. Traveling alone in the summer of 1934 to Armenia, she sought to restore herself, but the depression returned in 1936 and she took a retreat at the beginning of 1936 to sanatorium near Moscow and then in the summer another solo trip to Sudak. Returning to Moscow, Vedeneyeva completed her doctorate in Physical and Mathematical Sciences in 1937 and moved to the Institute of Geological Sciences of the National Academy of Sciences of the USSR to head the optical section in 1941. Working with the Red Army Engineering Unit, she developed a method of spectrophotometry to be used in the field which dealt with the problem of color masking due to crystallographic defects. When the war ended, in 1945, Vedeneyeva became the supervisor of the Crystal Optics Laboratory at the Institute of Crystallography. That same year, she was awarded the Order of the Badge of Honour.Vedeneyeva's research continued, with the study of smoky quartz. She evaluated the absorption and luminescence process of the quartz, and the interrelation of them to its thermoluminescent properties. She also evaluated the adsorption of organic dyes upon thiazine and barium nitrate crystals, as well as upon lead and strontium. She developed and designed instruments which improved the methods of crystal-optical examination and developed methods to classify and diagnose clay minerals and clays found in organic dyes. In 1952, Vedeneyeva was awarded the Stalin Prize in the third degree for inventions and improvements in methods of production in the field of exploration and mining and in 1954, she was presented with the Order of Lenin.
| 5 |
[
"Nina Vedeneyeva",
"award received",
"Order of Lenin"
] |
Nina Yevgenyevna Vedeneyeva (Russian: Нина Евгеньевна Веденеева, 1 December 1882 – 31 December 1955) was a physicist involved in the study of mineral crystals and their coloration. Heading numerous departments at such institutions as the All-USSR Institute of Mineral Resources, the Institute of Geological Sciences and the Institute of Crystallography, she conducted research into color variants of clay minerals and classifying clays which occurred in organic dyes. She was noted for development and design of instruments to improve the methods of optical crystallography. She was the last partner-muse of the poet Sophia Parnok and was awarded the Stalin Prize and Order of Lenin for her scientific studies and inventions.Career
In 1907, Vedeneyeva entered the Chemical Department of the Bestuzhev Courses and graduated in 1912-13, receiving her degree from the USSR Academy of Sciences in 1912 and passing her examination at Moscow University in 1913. In 1914, she began teaching and conducting research in the Bestuzhev Courses, which would later merge with Second Moscow State University and at the Institute of Fine Chemical Technology. In 1915, she enrolled in the Mathematics Department and passed her examination in 1916. She continued teaching first chemistry, then courses on atomic matter, radioactivity and pedagogy until 1919 at Second University. In that year, she divorced Sirotinsky and went on holiday with Eugenia Avramenko (Russian: Евгении Ивановны Авраменко) to Nikolaev again, where her son was living. Unable to return to Moscow because of Anton Denikin's offensive against the city, she and Avramenko proceeded Avramenko's home town and found employment working in Women's Gymnasium in Melitopol for the next two years.Beginning in 1921, both Vedeneyeva and Avramenko taught at the Moscow State Forest University. Vedeneyva taught physics there until she was transferred in 1925 to Leningrad. Avramenko was also transferred to Leningrad in 1925. The following year, Vedeneyva's son, Yevgeny, who was a student at the Moscow Higher Technical School, was arrested and charged as an enemy of the state for participating in scouting, a banned activity. After spending six months at the Solovki prison camp, he was barred from living in any of Russia's major cities and sent in exile to Glazov. It was probably in this period in 1927, when Vedeneyeva met Sophia Parnok, as Parnok's partner at the time, Olga Nikolaevna Tsuberbiller, was a colleague of Vedeneyeva. Tsuberbiller was a mathematician and had written the standard textbook used for several decades in the high schools of the USSR. She assisted Vedeneyeva in obtaining the textbooks Yevgeny needed to complete his mathematics degree. In 1929, he continued his exile in Tver and was not allowed to return to Moscow until 1931.In 1930, Vedeneyeva became the department head of crystal optics at the All-USSR Institute of Mineral Resources in Moscow. The following year, she also began conducting scientific research at Giredmet, the State Research and Design Institute of Rare Metals. She worked on some of the first studies of anomalous dispersion, studying nature of the colorations of both natural and synthetic transparent crystals. In 1932, she moved out of the apartment she had shared since 1918 with Avramenko, moved in with her son, and around the same time her relationship with Parnok intensified. Between January 1932 and August 1933, Parnok wrote thirty poems in two cycles to Vedeneyeva. The first cycle, containing seven poems, was called Ursa Major and the second, containing an additional twenty-three poems was called Useless Goods. The poems are a lyric diary of their affair and are openly erotic poems addressed to her lover, making full use of double entendre to taunt potential censors. Parnok continued living with Tsuberbiller and Vedeneyeva visited her almost daily until her death. The relationship was intense and in the beginning, Vedeneyeva was reticent about the physical relationship. It may have been her first lesbian relationship.Vedeneyeva was with Parnok and Tsuberbiller when Parnok died in 1933 and she fell into a depression. Traveling alone in the summer of 1934 to Armenia, she sought to restore herself, but the depression returned in 1936 and she took a retreat at the beginning of 1936 to sanatorium near Moscow and then in the summer another solo trip to Sudak. Returning to Moscow, Vedeneyeva completed her doctorate in Physical and Mathematical Sciences in 1937 and moved to the Institute of Geological Sciences of the National Academy of Sciences of the USSR to head the optical section in 1941. Working with the Red Army Engineering Unit, she developed a method of spectrophotometry to be used in the field which dealt with the problem of color masking due to crystallographic defects. When the war ended, in 1945, Vedeneyeva became the supervisor of the Crystal Optics Laboratory at the Institute of Crystallography. That same year, she was awarded the Order of the Badge of Honour.Vedeneyeva's research continued, with the study of smoky quartz. She evaluated the absorption and luminescence process of the quartz, and the interrelation of them to its thermoluminescent properties. She also evaluated the adsorption of organic dyes upon thiazine and barium nitrate crystals, as well as upon lead and strontium. She developed and designed instruments which improved the methods of crystal-optical examination and developed methods to classify and diagnose clay minerals and clays found in organic dyes. In 1952, Vedeneyeva was awarded the Stalin Prize in the third degree for inventions and improvements in methods of production in the field of exploration and mining and in 1954, she was presented with the Order of Lenin.
| 9 |
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