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No, this text is not related with defense topics | Bough Down is a collection of poetry and small mixed media collages, created by Karen Green. It was published in 2013 and won the Believer Poetry Award the same year. In her book, Green explores how contradictory emotions can coexist and processes these sentiments through her prose and art. Background Green is known for a variety of exhibitions, such as The Forgiveness Machine, an interactive display from 2009, and Tiny Stampede, a collection of collages from 2011. Alongside Bough Down, Green is also the author of Voices from La Frontera: Pioneer Women from the Big Bend Tell Their Stories (2002) and Frail Sister (2018). Green lives in Northern California. Green was married to American author David Foster Wallace in 2004 until his death of suicide in 2008. Although his name is never mentioned in Bough Down, Green's vulnerable words and dissection of grief stem from this loss. Book's content Organization Bough Down's order is a reflection of the confusion and imbrication of emotions that accompany the loss of a loved one. There are stretches of pages with a paragraph or two of verse, surrounded by large margins and empty space. These are followed by a randomly placed blank page or a postage-sized print of a collage on a single page. The only method of organization is chronologically, as the memories she writes about progress by month and through the evolution of her emotions. Many of her poems are written about a specific person. These people include a variety of characters, such as doctors, the jazz lady, Green's relatives, pets, and even Green herself. These verses vary in content; some are memories, some are comparable to a diary of her thoughts, and others are a combination of the two. Although many of the themes are very serious, some lines are filled with humor, easing the tension. Collages The small collages printed throughout the book are a part of Green's collection, Tiny Stampede. This series was displayed in an exhibition in 2011 in Pasadena, California. She combines snippets of sentences, printed images, inked fingerprints, pieces of a postage stamp collecting book, pencils shavings, her own drawings and watercolors, and other mediums. The mix of media is a form of found poetry, which uses fragments of sentences and random words from other sources to create a new unified work. Green used this process as an escape, a way of coping with trauma and grounding herself. Each printed image in the book is relatively small as well, ranging between 0.5 inches and 3.5 inches in length and width. Green has stated that her choice in size is reflective of how minuscule and lost she felt during this time in her life. The mediums, specific scraps, and colors that she chose to use in each piece are representative of different parts of herself. The inked fingerprints point to her sense of identity as she becomes part of the collective of widows. The repetitive presence of faces and human-like forms is also illustrative of her exploration of selfhood. Green uses color and the names of colors in her work to represent what she calls "unimaginables", a list of her fears and faiths, which she chose to organize by color. The specific meaning behind each color is unknown, but they are used to express the emotions attached to this list. Some images included also depict particular memories and Green's raw self reflection associated with them. Publication Bough Down was published by Siglio Press in 2013 and is on its third printing. Awards and recognition In 2013, the year of its publication, Green won the Believer Poetry Award for Bough Down. Bough Down has been compared to Anne Carson's Nox (2010) and Joan Didion's The Year of Magical Thinking (2005) in the ways she explores her grief through prose and visual art. References Wikipedia Student Program Poetry Poetry collections |
No, this text is not related with defense topics | The Mott–Schottky equation relates the capacitance to the applied voltage across a semiconductor-electrolyte junction. where is the differential capacitance , is the dielectric constant of the semiconductor, is the permittivity of free space, is the area such that the depletion region volume is , is the elementary charge, is the density of dopants, is the applied potential, is the flat band potential, is the Boltzmann constant, and T is the absolute temperature. This theory predicts that a Mott–Schottky plot will be linear. The doping density can be derived from the slope of the plot (provided the area and dielectric constant are known). The flatband potential can be determined as well; absent the temperature term, the plot would cross the -axis at the flatband potential. Derivation Under an applied potential , the width of the depletion region is Using the abrupt approximation, all charge carriers except the ionized dopants have left the depletion region, so the charge density in the depletion region is , and the total charge of the depletion region, compensated by opposite charge nearby in the electrolyte, is Thus, the differential capacitance is which is equivalent to the Mott-Schottky equation, save for the temperature term. In fact the temperature term arises from a more careful analysis, which takes statistical mechanics into account by abandoning the abrupt approximation and solving the Poisson–Boltzmann equation for the charge density in the depletion region. References Equations |
No, this text is not related with defense topics | A mesenchymal–epithelial transition (MET) is a reversible biological process that involves the transition from motile, multipolar or spindle-shaped mesenchymal cells to planar arrays of polarized cells called epithelia. MET is the reverse process of epithelial–mesenchymal transition (EMT) and it has been shown to occur in normal development, induced pluripotent stem cell reprogramming, cancer metastasis and wound healing. Introduction Unlike epithelial cells – which are stationary and characterized by an apico-basal polarity with binding by a basal lamina, tight junctions, gap junctions, adherent junctions and expression of cell-cell adhesion markers such as E-cadherin, mesenchymal cells do not make mature cell-cell contacts, can invade through the extracellular matrix, and express markers such as vimentin, fibronectin, N-cadherin, Twist, and Snail. MET plays also a critical role in metabolic switching and epigenetic modifications. In general epithelium-associated genes are upregulated and mesenchyme-associated genes are downregulated in the process of MET. In development During embryogenesis and early development, cells switch back and forth between different cellular phenotypes via MET and its reverse process, epithelial–mesenchymal transition (EMT). Developmental METs have been studied most extensively in embryogenesis during somitogenesis and nephrogenesis and carcinogenesis during metastasis, but it also occurs in cardiogenesis or foregut development. MET is an essential process in embryogenesis to gather mesenchymal-like cells into cohesive structures. Although the mechanism of MET during various organs morphogenesis is quite similar, each process has a unique signaling pathway to induce changes in gene expression profiles. Nephrogenesis One example of this, the most well described of the developmental METs, is kidney ontogenesis. The mammalian kidney is primarily formed by two early structures: the ureteric bud and the nephrogenic mesenchyme, which form the collecting duct and nephrons respectively (see kidney development for more details). During kidney ontogenesis, a reciprocal induction of the ureteric bud epithelium and nephrogenic mesenchyme occurs. As the ureteric bud grows out of the Wolffian duct, the nephrogenic mesenchyme induces the ureteric bud to branch. Concurrently, the ureteric bud induces the nephrogenic mesenchyme to condense around the bud and undergo MET to form the renal epithelium, which ultimately forms the nephron. Growth factors, integrins, cell adhesion molecules, and protooncogenes, such as c-ret, c-ros, and c-met, mediate the reciprocal induction in metanephrons and consequent MET. Somitogenesis Another example of developmental MET occurs during somitogenesis. Vertebrate somites, the precursors of axial bones and trunk skeletal muscles, are formed by the maturation of the presomitic mesoderm (PSM). The PSM, which is composed of mesenchymal cells, undergoes segmentation by delineating somite boundaries (see somitogenesis for more details). Each somite is encapsulated by an epithelium, formerly mesenchymal cells that had undergone MET. Two Rho family GTPases – Cdc42 and Rac1 – as well as the transcription factor Paraxis are required for chick somitic MET. Cardiogenesis Development of heart is involved in several rounds of EMT and MET. While development splanchnopleure undergo EMT and produce endothelial progenitors, these then form the endocardium through MET. Pericardium is formed by sinus venosus mesenchymal cells that undergo MET. Quite similar processes occur also while regeneration in the injured heart. Injured pericardium undergoes EMT and is transformed into adipocytes or myofibroblasts which induce arrhythmia and scars. MET than leads to the formation of vascular and epithelial progenitors that can differentiate into vasculogenic cells which lead to regeneration of heart injury. Hepatogenesis In cancer While relatively little is known about the role MET plays in cancer when compared to the extensive studies of EMT in tumor metastasis, MET is believed to participate in the establishment and stabilization of distant metastases by allowing cancerous cells to regain epithelial properties and integrate into distant organs. Between these two states, cells occur in 'intermediate‐state', or so‐called partial EMT. In recent years, researchers have begun to investigate MET as one of many potential therapeutic targets in the prevention of metastases. This approach to preventing metastasis is known as differentiation-based therapy or differentiation therapy and it can be used for development of new anti-cancer therapeutic strategies. In iPS cell reprogramming A number of different cellular processes must take place in order for somatic cells to undergo reprogramming into induced pluripotent stem cells (iPS cells). iPS cell reprogramming, also known as somatic cell reprogramming, can be achieved by ectopic expression of Oct4, Klf4, Sox2, and c-Myc (OKSM). Upon induction, mouse fibroblasts must undergo MET to successfully begin the initiation phase of reprogramming. Epithelial-associated genes such as E-cadherin/Cdh1, Cldns −3, −4, −7, −11, Occludin (Ocln), Epithelial cell adhesion molecule (Epcam), and Crumbs homolog 3 (Crb3), were all upregulated before Nanog, a key transcription factor in maintaining pluripotency, was turned on. Additionally, mesenchymal-associated genes such as Snail, Slug, Zeb −1, −2, and N-cadherin were downregulated within the first 5 days post-OKSM induction. Addition of exogenous TGF-β1, which blocks MET, decreased iPS reprogramming efficiency significantly. These findings are all consistent with previous observations that embryonic stem cells resemble epithelial cells and express E-cadherin. Recent studies have suggested that ectopic expression of Klf4 in iPS cell reprogramming may be specifically responsible for inducing E-cadherin expression by binding to promoter regions and the first intron of CDH1 (the gene encoding for E-cadherin). See also Epithelial–mesenchymal transition References Developmental biology Oncology |
No, this text is not related with defense topics | A string bog or strong mire is a bog consisting of slightly elevated ridges and islands, with woody plants, alternating with flat, wet sedge mat areas. String bogs occur on slightly sloping surfaces, with the ridges at right angles to the direction of water flow. They are an example of patterned vegetation. Known as "aapa" moore (from Finnish aapasuo) or strangemoore in Northern Europe. A string bog has a pattern of narrow (2–3m wide), low (<1m high) ridges oriented at right angles to the direction of drainage with wet depressions or pools occurring between the ridges. The water and peat are very low in nutrients because the water has been derived from other ombrotrophic wetlands, which receive all of their water and nutrients from precipitation, rather than from streams or springs. The peat thickness is >1m. String bogs are features associated with periglacial climates, where the temperature results in long periods of subzero temperatures. The active layer exists as frozen ground for long periods and melts in the spring thaw. Slow melting results in characteristic mass movement processes and features associated with specific periglacial environments. See also Blanket bog Flark Marsh References Canadian Soil Information Service - Local Surface Forms (checked 2014-10-18) String bog Ecology de:Regenmoor#Aapamoore |
No, this text is not related with defense topics | The Master of Public Administration (M.P.Adm., M.P.A., or MPA) is a professional graduate degree in public administration, similar to the Master of Business Administration but with an emphasis on the issues of public services. Overview The MPA program is a professional degree and a graduate degree for the public sector and it prepares individuals to serve as managers, executives and policy analysts in the executive arm of local, state/provincial, and federal/national government, and increasingly in non-governmental organization (NGO) and nonprofit sectors; it places a focus on the systematic investigation of executive organization and management. Instruction includes the roles, development, and principles of public administration; public policy management and implementation. Through its history, the MPA degree has become more interdisciplinary by drawing from fields such as economics, sociology, law, anthropology, political science, and regional planning in order to equip MPA graduates with skills and knowledge covering a broad range of topics and disciplines relevant to the public sector. A core curriculum of a typical MPA program usually includes courses on microeconomics, public finance, research methods, statistics, policy analysis, managerial accounting, ethics, public management, geographic information systems (GIS), and program evaluation. MPA students may focus their studies on public sector fields such as urban planning, emergency management, transportation, health care (especially public health), economic development, community development, non-profit management, environmental policy, cultural policy, international affairs, and criminal justice. MPA graduates currently serve in some important positions within the public sector including the current Prime Minister of Singapore Lee Hsien Loong, the Nobel Peace Prize laureate and former President of Colombia Juan Manuel Santos, former UN Secretary General Ban Ki-Moon, three former presidents of Mexico (Felipe Calderón, Carlos Salinas de Gortari and Miguel de la Madrid), former Canadian Prime Minister Pierre Elliott Trudeau, former President of Bolivia Eduardo Rodríguez Veltzé, former President of Ecuador Jamil Mahuad Witt (MPA '89), former President of Costa Rica José María Figueres Olsen, former CIA Director David Petraeus, former president of Liberia Ellen Johnson Sirleaf, Foreign Minister of Serbia Vuk Jeremić, former New York City Police Commissioner Raymond Kelly, former Secretary of Health and Human Services Kathleen Sebelius, current Treasurer of Australia Josh Frydenberg. Other notable MPA graduates include U.S. Representative Dan Crenshaw, Bill O'Reilly and pilot Chesley Sullenberger. A Master of Public Administration can be acquired at various institutions. See List of schools offering MPA degrees. See also Master of Public Affairs Master of Public Policy Master of Nonprofit Organizations Public policy schools Master of Business Administration Doctor of Public Administration List of master's degrees References External links Network of Schools of Public Policy, Affairs, and Administration - Accrediting body for MPA and MPP programs in the U.S. Association for Public Policy Analysis and Management American Society for Public Administration - Professional society for public administration (PA) practitioners and educator] Public Administration, Master Public administration |
No, this text is not related with defense topics | In psychology, steering cognition is a model of a cognitive executive function which contributes to how attention is regulated and corresponding responses coordinated. History The term 'steering cognition' was coined by the researcher Simon P. Walker who discovered consistent, replicable patterns of attention and corresponding response through repeated cognitive tests between 2000 and 2015, in studies with over 15,000 individuals. Working with his colleague Jo Walker, he was able to show that these patterns correlated with other cognitive attributes such as mental wellbeing, social competency and academic performance. Together, Walker and Walker conjecture that steering cognition is a central mechanism by which people self-regulate their cognitive, emotional and social states. Theoretical model Steering cognition describes how the brain biases attention toward specific stimuli whilst ignoring others, before coordinating responsive actions which cohere with our past patterns of self-representation. Steering cognition enables the use of limited cognitive resources to make sense of the world that someone expects to see. Empirical evidence Walker developed a specific steering cognition test used with more than 11,000 candidates between the ages of eight and 60 between 2002 and 2015. Using principle component analysis, Walker was able to identify 7 latent largely independent 'heuristic substitution' factors which he labelled S, L, X, P, M, O, T. He labelled this data model 'the Human Ecology model of Cognitive Affective Social state' or CAS for short. In the most recent and largest ever study, involving 8,000 secondary pupils in the UK, exploratory factor analysis confirmed a largely orthogonal factor analysis structure in which Eigen values revealed the CAS model 7 latent factors explained 50% of the overall variance. For the sake of parsimony, a 7 factor solution has been regarded as acceptable. Studies have shown that steering cognition is distinct from the mind's engine or 'algorithmic processing' which is responsible for how we process complex calculations. The state of steering cognition at any time is influenced by 'priming' effects - cues in the surrounding environment such as sights, sounds and messages of which we may not be conscious. Studies have shown that environmental biasing of our steering cognition can contribute to non-conscious in-group behaviours, e.g. an increased likelihood of groupthink or emotional contagion. Studies have shown that, during adolescence, individuals develop more fixed patterns of steering. By adulthood, these patterns become recognisable as mental traits, behaviours and social attributes. There are some authors, including Meredith Belbin, who claim that people with more flexible steering cognition have advantages in jobs which require greater social or cognitive dexterity because of improved social relating and leadership skills. Steering cognition has been shown to depend on our ability to mental simulate or imagine ourselves performing tasks and functions. As such, Steering cognition requires the capacity to self-represent, associating memories of our past and possible future selves. Steering cognition has been shown to implicate our affective (emotional), social and abstract cognitions. Effects on learning, social and emotional development The ability to regulate steering cognition has been shown to account for up to 15% of academic outcomes at secondary school not accounted for by IQ. Steering cognition can be improved through pupil feedback, coaching and more carefully structured and supportive environments. Poorly regulated steering cognition has been shown to correlate strongly with increased mental health and welfare risks during adolescence. A study in 2015 showed that pupils with certain fixed biases in their steering cognition were four times more likely to exhibit self-harm, be bullied or not cope with school pressures. A large 2014 study showed that boarding school education resulted in better pupil ability to regulate steering cognition across social situations than day school education. This so-called 'tribe effect' is conjectured to lead to continued social advantages beyond school, such as access to future in-group benefits in work and wider society. Practical applications The importance of steering cognition lies in its explanation of human behaviours which lead to either risks or advantages for individuals and groups. The ability to regulate one's steering cognition is unrelated to IQ or rational group behaviour, so measuring steering cognition offers an explanation of behaviours and events not currently detected by traditional metrics and models. The Sunday Times reported in October 2015 that a growing number of schools in the UK, including independent schools Monkton Combe School and Wellington College, were now using a technology, AS Tracking, developed by Mind.World to measure student steering cognition as an 'early warning system' for welfare and mental health risks. Thomas's London Day Schools are using a curriculum, Footprints, to train pupils as young as eight to improve their steering cognition as part of their social and emotional development. Wellington College has engaged in steering cognition research studies as part of the school's evidenced-based education programme. Harrow School, one of Britain's leading independent schools, is piloting AS Tracking as part of a proactive strategy to provide the best possible pastoral care for pupils. The school is measuring steering cognition to gather concrete measurements that can be used as supporting evidence when planning or dealing with individuals and also tracking changes over time as boys move up through the school. Educational campaigners Sir Anthony Seldon and Sir Peter Lampl have suggested steering cognition has application for understanding and improving social mobility. Research fields related to steering cognition Executive function Steering cognition is a model of social and cognitive executive function. It is explains a functional governor mechanism by which the mind coordinates attention and executes responsive action. Metacognition Steering cognition is a model of metacognition. It describes the capacity of the mind to exert conscious control over its reasoning and processing strategies in relation to external data and internal state. Self-regulation Steering cognition is an explanatory mechanism of some phenomena of affective, cognitive and social self-regulation. It describes effortful control processes which exhibit depletion after strain. Mental simulation circuitry Steering cognition has been repeatedly shown to implicate the mind's mental simulation circuitry. As such, it is associated with functional neural circuits involved in prospective and retrospective memory, self-representation, associative processing and imagination. Dual process theory According to the steering cognition model, dual process System 1 functions as a serial cognitive steering processor for System 2, rather than the traditionally understood parallel system. In order to process epistemically varied environmental data, a steering cognition orientation system is required to align varied, incoming environmental data with existing neural algorithmic processes. The brain's associative simulation capacity, centered around the imagination, plays an integrator role to perform this function. Cognitive biases In the cognitive steering model, a conscious state emerges from effortful associative simulation, required to align novel data accurately with remote memory, via later algorithmic processes. By contrast, fast unconscious automaticity is constituted by unregulated simulatory biases, which induce errors in subsequent algorithmic processes. The phrase 'rubbish in, rubbish out' is used to explain errorful steering cognition processing: errors will always occur if the accuracy of initial retrieval and location of data is poorly self-regulated. Social priming Steering cognition provides an explanation of how the mind is non-consciously influenced by the environmental cues, or primes, around it. Steering cognition studies have produced data of attentional bias and blindness best explained by environmental priming. See also Cognitive bias Emotional self-regulation Simulation heuristic References and notes Further reading Daniel Kahneman (25 October 2011). Thinking, Fast and Slow. Attention Cognition |
No, this text is not related with defense topics | A Registered Cardiovascular Invasive Specialist or RCIS assists a cardiologist with cardiac catheterization procedures in the United States. These procedures can determine if a blockage exists in the blood vessels that supply the heart muscle and can help diagnose other problems. To become registered they have to pass the registry proctored by CCI (Cardiovascular Credentialing International). The exam consists of 170 multiple choice questions. Some questions involve mathematical computation as well as pictures where one must identify anatomy and equipment. To be registry eligible, they must have worked in the Cardiac Catheterization Laboratory for one years or have graduated from a registry eligible program. Santa Fe College in Gainesville, Florida has one such accredited program. See also Cardiac catheterization References Cardiology |
No, this text is not related with defense topics | Marine conservation activism is the efforts of non-governmental organizations and individuals to bring about social and political change in the area of marine conservation. Marine conservation is properly conceived as a set of management strategies for the protection and preservation of ecosystems in oceans and seas. Activists raise public awareness and support for conservation, while pushing governments and corporations to practice sound ocean management, create conservation policy, and enforce existing laws and policy through effective regulation. There are many different kinds of organizations and agencies that work toward these common goals. They all are a part of the growing movement that is ocean conservation. These organizations fight for many causes including stopping pollution, overfishing, whaling and by-catching, and supporting marine protected areas. History United States Though the environmental movement began in the United States during the 1960s, the idea of marine conservation really did not take off in the country until the 1972 Marine Protection, Research, and Sanctuaries Act (MPRSA) passed, beginning the movement. The act allowed the regulation by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) over dumping in the seas. Though the act was later amended, it was one of several key events to bring marine issues towards the front of environmental issues in the United States. Notable people Jacques Cousteau: Explorer, Conservationist, Researcher & Author Sylvia Earle: Marine Biologist, Explorer, & Author Steve Irwin: Naturalist, Conservationist, Zoologist, Herpetologist, & Television Personality Ric O'Barry Ric O'Barry is an author of the books Behind the Dolphin Smile and To Free a Dolphin: A Dramatic Case for Keeping Dolphins in their Natural Environment, by the Trainer of "Flipper", both focusing on dolphin preservation. O'Barry was also the star of Oscar award winning documentary, The Cove, which aimed to raise public support for preventing dolphin drive hunting. On April 22, 1970, he founded the Dolphin Project, a non-profit marine environmentalist organization concentrating on dolphins' welfare. Paolo Bray Founder and Director of major sustainability certification programs: Dolphin-Safe, Friend of the Sea and Friend of the Earth. Environmentalist and promoter of conservation projects and campaigns. Since 1990, Director of International Programs for the DOLPHIN-SAFE project of the Earth Island Institute. The project saved millions of dolphins from tuna fishing nets. 95% of world tuna industry adhere to the project. In 2008 founded Friend of the Sea, the major international certification for sustainable seafood and the only one covering both fisheries and aquaculture. The only seafood certification recognized by the national accreditation bodies. Over 800 companies in 70 countries have products certified Friend of the Sea. Certifying also sustainable shipping, whale watching, aquaria, ornamental fish. Friend of the Earth supports conservation projects In 2016 founded Friend of the Earth an international certification of products from sustainable agriculture and farming. 50 companies from 4 continents have products certified Friend of the Earth (including rice, oil, wine, tomato, quinoa, cheese, eggs, etc). Friend of the Earth support also conservation projects. International issues Debris Marine debris is defined as "any persistent solid material that is manufactured or processed and directly or indirectly, intentionally or unintentionally, disposed of or abandoned into the marine environment or the Great Lakes". This debris can injure or even kill marine organisms; it can also interfere with navigation safety and could pose a threat to human health. Marine debris can range from soda cans to plastic bags and can even include abandoned vessels or neglected fishing gear. Ocean Conservancy is a non-profit environmental group that fights for the improvement and conservation of marine ecosystems and marine life. They work to find science-based solutions to protect the world's oceans from the global challenges that they face today. One of the many issues that they work closely to stop is the flow of trash that enters the ocean. The International Coastal Cleanup (ICC) is one of the methods Ocean Conservancy uses to prevent marine debris. The ICC is the largest volunteer effort to clean up the world's oceans and other waterways; over the past 25 years the ICC has cleaned up approximately 144,606,491 pounds of trash from beaches all over the world. Whaling International Whaling Commission Whaling is the hunting of free roaming whales; many whaling practices have led to drastic population loss in many whale populations around the world. In 1986, The International Whaling Commission (IWC) was founded to put a ban on commercial whaling. The commission recognizes three different types of whaling: aboriginal subsistence, commercial, and special permit (or scientific) whaling. Aboriginal subsistence whaling This form of whaling supports indigenous communities where whale products play an important role in cultural and nutritional life. The IWC sets catch limits for aboriginal subsistence whaling every six years. Commercial whaling This form of whaling is highly regulated by the IWC and is currently on a moratorium. There are a few countries that oppose the moratorium and continue to hunt for whales; these countries share catch data with the Commission but are not regulated by it. Since the moratorium was put in place in 1986, more than 50,000 whales have been hunted and killed; there are three nations that are still able to hunt whales because of loopholes in the ban. Norway is able to hunt because of an "objection" to the ban; Iceland is able to hunt because of a "reservation" and Japan is able to hunt because they claim it is for "research purposes". If combined these nations kill around 2,000 whales each year; these whales include humpback, minke, sperm, fin, Bryde's, and sei. The IWC ban does allow for some Aboriginal Subsistence Whaling (ASW) in certain countries. Special permit/scientific whaling This category of whaling is separated from IWC-regulated whaling by international law. Special permit research proposals are to be submitted by countries to the IWC for scientific scrutiny. The role of the IWC is advisory only. Greenpeace Greenpeace, an international environmental organization founded in 1971 in British Columbia, fights against whaling. Their campaigns are nonviolent and many times involve one or more of the five Greenpeace ships which first made the organization famous in the 1970s. In late December 2005, Japanese whaling fleets experienced heavy opposition from Greenpeace, who protested that the Japanese were continuing their commercial whaling under the guise of research, which was being done in the Southern Ocean Whale Sanctuary. They sent volunteer workers in inflatable boats to get in the line of fire in order to stop the whaling. Sea Shepherd Conservation Society Sea Shepherd Conservation Society is a non-profit, marine wildlife conservation organization that works internationally on numerous campaigns to protect the world's oceans. Their mission is to conserve and protect the world's ecosystems and species; they work to end the destruction of habitat and slaughter of the ocean's wildlife. Unlike many other non-profit environmental groups, Sea Shepherd uses direct-action tactics to expose and challenge illegal activities at sea; they strive to ensure that the ocean can survive for future generations. In doing so, they refer to the United Nations World Charter for Nature that calls on individuals to "safeguard and conserve nature in areas beyond national jurisdiction". Sea Shepherd was founded in 1977 by Captain Paul Watson in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada; it was not until 1981 that it was formally incorporated in the United States. Throughout the years their campaigns have ranged from stopping the annual killing of baby harp seals in Eastern Canada to preventing Japanese whalers from killing endangered whale species. They claim only to work to uphold international conservation law and to protect the endangered ocean habitats and species; they do this without prejudice against race, nationality, color, or religious belief. Their crews are made up of volunteers from all over the world, some of which are from countries that Sea Shepherd has campaigns against; they describe themselves as "pro-ocean" instead of "anti-any nationality or culture". Shark finning Shark finning is a worldwide issue that involves cutting off the fins of sharks. This is done while the shark is still alive followed by the rest of the body being thrown back into the ocean, leaving it to die days after. Used in countries like China and Japan, shark fins are a key ingredient in the world-renowned meal, shark fin soup. The high demand for this particular type of soup has skyrocketed in the last few decades and sells for around $100 on average and is often catered at special occasions such as weddings and banquets. Due to the increased want for these shark fins, traders seek out the fins in order to make a profit. However, the fins are the only part of the shark that fishermen seek out to retrieve due to the low economical value of the actual shark meet. This recently exposed issue along with other overfishing issues has brought upon roughly 80 percent of the shark population decline. It has become prominent concern in marine conservation activism for millions of sharks are killed yearly at an often-unregulated expense. Project AWARE Current campaign known as Project AWARE is working globally to advocate solutions for long-term protection for these animals. Created initially as an environmental initiative project, this campaign was developed by the Professional Associations of Diving Instructors (PADI) in 1989. Used to educate divers about environmental problems this program eventually grew to become a registered non-profit organization in the US in 1992 and eventually became recognized in the UK and Australia in 1999 and 2002 respectively. In spite of the arising issues with marine challenges, Project AWARE has continued to grow towards meeting the needs of the marine ecosystem as they see fit. Marine debris and shark and ray conservation activism are the two most prevalent issues that are being further worked toward improving since 2011. Shark Savers Another campaign working to ensure the protection of these marine species is a group called Shark Savers that is sponsored by the group called WildAid. Through the use of community motivation, the project encourages the public to stop eating sharks and shark fin soup. By also working to improve global regulations and creating sanctuaries for sharks, the project aims to take action and get results. Similarly to Project Aware, the Shark Savers program was founded by a group of divers that wanted to help the marine system in 2007. Through the recent creation of shark sanctuaries, the program focuses on sustainability when thinking about the economical and environmental benefits. These created sanctuaries provide a protected area for the sharks and also promote change in nearby communities. Bite-Back Bite-Back is another organization that is active in the community and aims to stop the sale of shark fins for the making of shark fin soup in Great Britain. By exposing the UK and their acts toward profiting from shark products, they aim to put an end to their ways of over fishing and exploitation. The organizations main goal is to allow marine life a chance to thrive while they are busy doing the dirty work of lowering consumer stipulation. Shark Trust Part of a worldwide alliance called The Global Shark and Ray Initiative (GSRI), the Shark Trust is working in efforts to better the ocean for marine animals such as shark and rays. The Initiative created a plan for changing the status of the shark population that would span over 10 years starting on February 15, 2016. Teaming up with other large conservation organization such as Shark Advocates International and World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF), the team aims to ultimately give these vulnerable animals the safety and security that the ought to have in their natural environment. Overfishing Overfishing occurs when fish stocks are over-exploited to below acceptable levels; eventually the fish populations will no longer be able to sustain themselves. This can lead to resource depletion, reduced biological growth, and low biomass levels. In September 2016, a partnership of Google and Oceana and Skytruth introduced Global Fishing Watch, a website designed to assist citizens of the globe in monitoring fishing activities. Marine protected areas Although the idea of marine protected areas is an internationally known concept, there is no one term used internationally. Rather, each country has its own name for the areas. Marine Reserves, Specially Protected Areas, and Marine Park all relate to this concept, though they differ slightly. Some of the most famous marine protected areas are the Ligurian Sea Cetacean Sanctuary along the coasts of Spain, Monaco, and Italy, and Australia's Great Barrier Reef. The largest sanctuary in the world is the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands National Monument. The purpose of these sanctuaries is to provide protection for the living and non-living resources of the oceans and seas. They are created to save species, nursing resources and to help sustain the fish population. The activists at the Ocean Conservancy fight for this cause. They believe that the United States should put forth a consistent and firm commitment in using marine protected areas as a management strategy. Currently, the argument in the United States is whether or not they are necessary, when it should be how can they work the most efficiently. Activists at the Ocean Conservancy have been working on a campaign called the Save Our Ocean Legacy, a campaign lasting several years trying to establish Marine Protected Areas' off of the California coasts. Twenty-nine Marine Protected Areas were planned to be established when the legislation bill passed in 1999. The hope is that the plan will be finalized in 2007. Some fishers do not accept that marine protected areas benefit fish stocks and provide insurance against stock collapse. Marine protected areas can cause a short-term loss in fisheries production. However, the concept of spillover, where fish within a marine protected area move into fished areas, thus benefiting fisheries, has been misunderstood by some fishers. The term is a simplification of numerous ecological benefits that are derived from removing fishing from nursery, breeding grounds and essential fish habitats. References Environmentalism Marine conservation Fishing and the environment |
No, this text is not related with defense topics | "For Want of a Nail" is a proverb, having numerous variations over several centuries, reminding that seemingly unimportant acts or omissions can have grave and unforeseen consequences. Analysis The proverb has come down in many variations over the centuries. It describes a situation in where there is a failure to predict or correct a minor issue; the minor issue escalates and compounds itself into a major issue. The rhyme's implied small difference in initial conditions is the lack of a spare horseshoe nail, relative to a condition of its availability. At a more literal level, it expresses the importance of military logistics in warfare. Such chains of causality are perceived only in hindsight. No one ever lamented, upon seeing his unshod horse, that the kingdom would eventually fall because of it. Related sayings are "A stitch, in time, saves nine" and "An ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure". A somewhat similar idea is referred to in the metaphor known as the camel's nose. Historical references The proverb is found in a number of forms, beginning as early as the 13th century: Middle High German (positively formulated): Diz ſagent uns die wîſen, ein nagel behalt ein îſen, ein îſen ein ros, ein ros ein man, ein man ein burc, der ſtrîten kan. ("The wise tell us that a nail keeps a shoe, a shoe a horse, a horse a man, a man a castle, that can fight.") (c. 1230 Freidank Bescheidenheit) "For sparinge of a litel cost, Fulofte time a man hath lost, The large cote for the hod." ("For sparing a little cost often a man has lost the large coat for the hood.") (c 1390 John Gower, Confessio Amantis v. 4785–4787) French: "Par ung seul clou perd on ung bon cheval." ("By just one nail one loses a good horse.") (c 1507 Jean Molinet, Faictz Dictz D., v768). "The French-men haue a military prouerbe; 'The losse of a nayle, the losse of an army'. The want of a nayle looseth the shooe, the losse of shooe troubles the horse, the horse indangereth the rider, the rider breaking his ranke molests the company, so farre as to hazard the whole Army". (1629 Thomas Adams (clergyman), "The Works of Thomas Adams: The Sum Of His Sermons, Meditations, And Other Divine And Moral Discourses", p. 714") "For want of a naile the shoe is lost, for want of a shoe the horse is lost, for want of a horse the rider is lost." (1640 George Herbert Outlandish Proverbs no. 499) Benjamin Franklin included a version of the rhyme in his Poor Richard's Almanack. (Benjamin Franklin, Poor Richards Almanack, June 1758, The Complete Poor Richard Almanacks, facsimile ed., vol. 2, pp. 375, 377) In British Columbia Saw-Mill Co. v. Nettleship (1868), L.R. 3 C.P. 499 (Eng. Q.B.), a variation on the story is given a legal flavor: "Cases of this kind have always been found to be very difficult to deal with, beginning with a case said to have been decided about two centuries and a half ago, where a man going to be married to an heiress, his horse having cast a shoe on the journey, employed a blacksmith to replace it, who did the work so unskilfully that the horse was lamed, and, the rider not arriving in time, the lady married another; and the blacksmith was held liable for the loss of the marriage. The question is a very serious one; and we should inevitably fall into a similar absurdity unless we applied the rules of common sense to restrict the extent of liability for the breach of contract of this sort." "Don't care" was the man who was to blame for the well-known catastrophe: "For want of a nail the shoe was lost, for want of a shoe the horse was lost, and for want of a horse the man was lost." (1880 Samuel Smiles, Duty) A short variation of the proverb (shown to the right) was published in 1912 in Fifty Famous People by James Baldwin. The story associated with the proverb describes the unhorsing of King Richard III during the Battle of Bosworth Field, which took place on 22 August 1485. However, historically Richard's horse was merely mired in the mud. In Baldwin's story, the proverb and its reference to losing a horse is directly linked to King Richard famously shouting "A Horse! A Horse! My Kingdom for a Horse!", as depicted in Act V, Scene 4 from the Shakespeare play Richard III. "You bring your long-tailed shovel, an' I'll bring me navvy [labourer; in this context referring to a navvy shovel (square mouth shovel)]. We mighten' want them, an', then agen, we might: for want of a nail the shoe was lost, for want of a shoe the horse was lost, an' for want of a horse the man was lost—aw, that's a darlin' proverb, a daarlin'".(1925 S. O'casey Juno and the Paycock i. 16) During World War II, this verse was framed and hung on the wall of the Anglo-American Supply Headquarters in London, England. Modern references Along with the long history of the proverb listed above, it has continued to be referenced in some form or another since the mid 20th century in modern culture. The examples below show how the proverb has had profound implications into a variety of issues and commentary in modern culture. Legal In his dissent in Massachusetts v. Environmental Protection Agency (549 US 497, 2007), Chief Justice John G. Roberts of the U.S. Supreme Court cites "all for the want of a horseshoe nail" as an example of a possible chain of causation. He claimed that, by contrast, the threshold jurisdictional issue of standing requires a likely chain of causation, which was not satisfied by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's regulation of new automobile emissions to prevent the loss of Massachusetts coastal land due to climate change. In his dissent in CSX Transportation, Inc. v. McBride, Roberts again invokes the proverb, explaining that, in tort law, the doctrine of proximate cause is meant to "limit[] liability at some point before the want of a nail leads to loss of the kingdom." Literary For Want of a Nail: If Burgoyne Had Won at Saratoga is an alternate history novel published in 1973 by the American business historian Robert Sobel. The novel depicts an alternative world where the American Revolution was unsuccessful. Cannibals And Missionaries, by Mary McCarthy, quotes on page 199: "No detail... was too small to be passed over.... 'For want of a nail,' as the proverb said." In the novel Rage, by Stephen King, using the pseudonym Richard Bachman, the main character Charlie Decker references the proverb: "But you can't go back. For want of a shoe the horse was lost, and all that." King's 1987 novel The Tommyknockers also references the proverb in its first line: "For want of a nail the kingdom was lost – that's how the catechism goes when you boil it down." JLA: The Nail is a three-issue comic book limited series published by DC Comics in 1998 about a world where the baby Kal-El was never found by Ma and Pa Kent because a nail punctured their truck tire on the day when they would have found his ship and so the child does not grow up to become Superman. The story uses the English ("Knight") variation of the rhyme as a theme. A Wind in the Door is a fantasy/science fiction novel by Madeleine L'Engle which was a sequel to A Wrinkle in Time. The proverb is used in the novel as an explanation by Meg Murry to help Mr. Jenkins understand how a microscopic creature can affect the fate of the universe and is the impetus for much of the action. "For Want of a Nail", a 2011 Hugo award-winning short story by Mary Robinette Kowal, explores the choices that an artificial intelligence and her wrangler must make to solve a seemingly-simple technical problem. The poem "Kiss", found in the collection Full Volume, by Robert Crawford (Scottish poet), is based on the proverb. The poem "Tale of a Nail", by the Polish poet Zbigniew Herbert, starts with the line "For lack of a nail the kingdom fell". The children's poem "The Nail and the Horseshoe (Гвоздь и Подкова)", by the Russian writer Samuil Marshak, retells the proverb in a slight variation where the enemy captured a city because a blacksmith shop did not have a nail in stock. The flow of the poem is very similar to that of its English equivalent. William Golding quotes the whole poem at the end of chapter 9 of his novel The Spire. There, the nail referred to is one of the Nails of the Holy Cross. That relic, when it is embedded at the base of the cross which had to be erected on top of the spire under construction next to Salisbury Cathedral, was thought to ensure stability to all of the daring building and to defeat the evil forces that rage against it, which are symbolized by the howling wind. The proverb is told to Katy Carr by her father in the novel What Katy Did, by Susan Coolidge. Katys is angry about getting into trouble after being late to school because she had not bothered to sew a string onto her bonnet. In his short story "Anxiety Is the Dizziness of Freedom" in Exhalation: Stories, Ted Chiang cites the proverb. The story is set in a world in which people can see alternate timelines through the use of prisms. It is given in the book The Fallacy Detective as a potential example of a slippery-slope logical fallacy. In writer Michael Flynn's 1990 Science Fiction novel, IN THE COUNTRY OF THE BLIND, the proverb is mentioned when discussing an unusual list of names & historical events found when remodeling an old building. In response the term "horseshoe nails" is coined to refer to historical events or actions with disproportionately large impacts. The Horeshoe Nail concept is a key part of the novel's plot and is mentioned several times. Musical Todd Rundgren's song "The Want of a Nail" from his album Nearly Human uses the rhyme as a metaphor for a man who has lived his entire life without love, and how, if you "multiply it a billion times" and "spread it all over the world," things fall apart. A cover of Rundgren's version is also used in the 2003 film Camp as the cast is introduced at the end of the film. Aesop Rock's song "No City" from his album None Shall Pass samples a voice reading the proverb, setting the tone for the idiosyncratic rap. Tom Waits's song "Misery Is the River of the World" from his album Blood Money includes the line "for want of a nail, a shoe was lost" as well as several other variations on the theme. The proverb was set to music on Bing Crosby's 1958 children's album, Jack B. Nimble. Israeli songwriter Naomi Shemer wrote a translated version of the song called "HaKol Biglal Masmer" (All Because of a Nail). Newsboys song "It's All Who You Know" from the album Take Me to Your Leader is based on variations of the theme Cinema and television The title of the season two episode of M*A*S*H, "For Want of a Boot", is adapted from the proverb. The episode's concept itself is also based on the proverb, with the character of Hawkeye going through a convoluted process involving several camp personnel, in order to get a new boot. In the movie The Fast and the Furious: Tokyo Drift, the proverb was used by Kamata (Sonny Chiba) to explain to his nephew the result of a small detail being overlooked. In the movie Father Goose, Frank Houghton (Trevor Howard) in his first scene of the movie, while talking to an Admiral on the telephone, uses part of the proverb by saying "For want of a nail, the war was..." in reference to finding an additional coastal plane spotter. In the episode of USA's Monk, "Mr. Monk at Your Service", Monk quotes the proverb after being challenged by an employee that suggest a fork being a centimeter off center wasn't a problem. Monk: "For the want of a nail, the kingdom was lost." In the 1982 movie The Verdict, Ed Concannon (James Mason) uses the proverb, "for want of a shoe the horse was lost" to his disciples to describe what the case has become after Frank Galvin turned down the settlement. The entire proverbial rhyme is recited by the character Abraham Farlan in the 1946 motion picture A Matter of Life and Death. Here it was used to describe the chain of circumstances which formed the life of the main character, Peter Carter. In season two, episode three of the television show Sliders, while trying to repair the timer device in a world crippled by 'anti-technology' Professor Arturo exclaims, "For want of a shoe the war was lost." In the 50th episode of Dead or Alive, Man On Horseback, Josh Randall, Steve McQueen's character, uses the proverb "For the want of a nail, they lost the shoe. For the want of a shoe, they lost the horse. For the want of a horse, they lost the rider" to justify the reason why he is taking with him four extra horseshoes. In the 1967 Mannix episode 'Turn Every Stone,' Joe Mannix alludes to the saying at the end when he says, "It's the old horseshoe-nail bit again. For want of $10,000, a million was lost." In the 1954 movie The Caine Mutiny, Captain Queeg (Bogart) refers to the proverb during the following conversation with Ensign Keith after he reprimanded him for failing to enforce the untucked shirt-tails rule. "I know a man's shirt's a petty detail, but big things are made up of details. Don't forget, 'For want of a nail, a horseshoe was lost and then the whole battle.' A captain's job is a lonely one. He's easily misunderstood. Forget that I bawled you out." In June 2021, on his show “Tenebrozo”, Mexican clown-politic analyst “Brozo”, used the proverb to describe the political climate in Mexico, regarding a fatal metro accident in Mexico City: “For want of a bolt, a concret tablet was lost, for the want of a tablet, a lock is gone, for the want of a lock, a convoy is gone, for the want of a convoy, a candidate for president is gone”. Video games In the 1996 computer game Star Trek: Borg "Q" quips the line "For want of a horseshoe nail" to the player during a dialog sequence. The 2016 video game Tom Clancy's The Division contains a reference to the proverb in one of antagonist Aaron Keener's audio logs. See also Alliteration Broken windows theory Butterfly effect Camel's nose Cascading failure Causality Chaos theory Domino effect Folklore Parallelism Proverb Remoteness in English law Rhyme Slippery slope Bibliography Benjamin Franklin, Poor Richards Almanack, June 1758, The Complete Poor Richards Almanacks, facsimile ed., vol. 2, pp. 375, 377 G. Herbert, Outlandish Proverbs, c. 1640, no. 499 Oxford Dictionary of Nursery Rhymes, ed. Iona and Peter Opie, Oxford 1951, pg 324 References External links Famous Quotes UK (Retrieved 14-Feb-2008) "For want of a nail" at Everything2.com (Retrieved 14-Feb-2008) The Lorenz Butterfly (Retrieved 14-Feb-2008) JSTOR:For Want of a Nail, E. J. Lowe, Analysis, Vol. 40, No. 1 (Jan., 1980), pp. 50–52 (Retrieved 14-Feb-2008) James S. Robbins on 9/11 Commission published 9 April 2004 by National Review Online "For want of a nail:Lady Condoleezza on the battle of the Saracens." (Retrieved 14-Feb-2008) Benjamin Franklin (1706–1790), U.S. statesman, writer. Poor Richard’s Almanac, preface (1758). (Retrieved 14-Feb-2008) Poems Oral tradition Cultural anthropology Chaos theory Causality |
No, this text is not related with defense topics | Retailtainment is retail marketing as entertainment. In his book, Enchanting a Disenchanted World: Revolutionizing the Means of Consumption (1999), author George Ritzer describes "retailtainment" as the "use of ambience, emotion, sound and activity to get customers interested in the merchandise and in a mood to buy." Sometimes called "inspirational retailing" or "entertailing," it has also been defined as "the modern trend of combining shopping and entertainment opportunities as an anchor for customers." In 2001, Codeluppi described it as a way for marketers to "offer the consumer physical and emotional sensations during the shopping experience." And, in an article entitled "Using sonic branding in the retail environment" in the 2003 issue of the Journal of Consumer Behaviour, Fulberg described it as a way for retailers to entertain the consumer with a dramatization of their values." According to Michael Morrison at the Australian Centre for Retail Studies: “There is a move towards the concept of 'retailtainment.' This phenomenon, which brings together retailing, entertainment, music and leisure ... Retailers need to look further than the traditional retail store elements such as colour, lighting and visual merchandising to influence buying decisions. The specific atmosphere the retailer creates can, in some cases, be more influential in the decision-making process than the product itself. As goods and services become more of a commodity, it is what a shopper experiences and what atmosphere retailers create that really matters. Brand building is a combination of physical, functional, operational and psychological elements. Consumers will be willing to pay more for a brand if there is a perceived or actual added value from their experience of using the product or service.” Shopper marketing expert Simon Temperley of Los Angeles agency The Marketing Arm, formerly U.S. Marketing & Promotions (Usmp), describes "retailtainment" as a "live brand experience" that frequently includes the use of "brand ambassadors" who "converse with the consumer." References Neologisms Marketing Entertainment |
No, this text is not related with defense topics | The administration of territory in dynastic China is the history of practices involved in governing the land from the Qin dynasty (221–206 BC) to the Qing dynasty (1636–1912). Administrative divisions in imperial China Qin dynasty (221–206 BC) After the state of Qin conquered China in 221 BC, the "First Emperor of Qin", Qin Shi Huang, divided the Qin dynasty into 36, and then ultimately, 40 commanderies, which were divided into counties, which were further divided into townships (xiang). The imperial capital was excluded from the normal administrative units and was administered by a Chamberlain (neishi). Administrative control of a commandery was divided between a Governor (shou), who handled general administration, and a Defender (wei), who supervised military garrisons. Counties were administered by a Magistrate (ling). Control of a township was divided between an Elder (sanlao), the moral authority, a Husbander (sefu), who handled fiscal affairs, and a Patroller (youjiao), who kept the local peace. Below townships were even smaller divisions of a thousand households, which constituted a neighborhood (ting), and a hundred households, which constituted a village (li). There was no formal system of recruitment for personnel during Qin times. All appointments down to the county level were based on recommendation and decided by the Grand Chancellor and emperor. Tenures were indefinite. Officials could obtain titles graded from 20 to 1 for meritorious service, but such titles were not hereditary, and did not confer a fief to the holder. Han dynasty (202 BC–220 AD) The founder of the Han dynasty, Emperor Gaozu of Han (r. 28 February 202 – 1 June 195 BC), separated the dynasty's territory between the western half directly controlled by the imperial capital, and the eastern half, ruled by Kings of the Han dynasty. In the areas controlled by the central government, regional hierarchy followed the Qin model of commandery and county. The eastern nobility ruled kingdoms (wangguo) or marquisates (houguo) that were largely autonomous until 154 BC when a series of imperial actions gradually brought them under central control. By the end of the millennium they differed from commanderies and counties only in name and were controlled by a Counselor-delegate (guoxiang) appointed by the central government. Until 106 BC, the central government supervised the commanderies through touring Censors, but in that year, Emperor Wu of Han formally divided the commanderies into 13 provinces. These provinces were governed by Regional Inspectors (cishi) or Regional Governors (zhoumu). Regional Inspectors and Governors were not allowed to serve in their native commandery. After 104 BC, the imperial capital was governed by the Three Guardians (sanfu): Metropolitan Governor (jingzhaoyin), Guardian of the Left (zuopingyi), and Guardian of the Right (youpingyi). After 89 BC, these three positions were subordinated by the Military Commandant (sili xiaowei) who reported directly to the emperor. Recruitment Han officialdom was ruled by an aristocracy down to the county level. Candidates for offices recommended by the provinces were examined by the Ministry of Rites and then presented to the emperor. Some candidates for clerical positions would be given a test to determine whether they could memorize nine thousand Chinese characters. The tests administered during the Han dynasty did not offer formal entry into government posts. Recruitment and appointment in the Han dynasty were primarily through recommendations by aristocrats and local officials. Recommended individuals were also primarily aristocrats. In theory, recommendations were based on a combination of reputation and ability but it's not certain how well this worked in practice. Oral examinations on policy issues were sometimes conducted personally by the emperor himself during Western Han times. Although executive officials were appointed by the central government, they were allowed to freely appoint their own sons and favored friends. An appointed official first served one year in probationary status and then obtained indefinite tenure with three year intervals, at which point they were assessed by their supervisors for promotion, demotion, or dismissal. During the reign of Emperor Wu (r. 9 March 141 BC – 29 March 87 BC), every commandery and kingdom was called on to nominate one or two men for appointment each year. Later the number of nominations was fixed to one per 200,000 people. From 165 BC onward, nominees were given written examinations to confirm their literacy and learning. In 124 BC, Emperor Wu established the Taixue with a faculty of five Erudites (boshi) and student body of 50, recommended by Commandery Governors, that grew to 3,000 by the end of the millennium. Students studied the classics at the Taixue for one year and then sat a written graduation exam, after which they were either appointed or returned home to seek positions on the commandery staff. Officials were paid on a monthly basis in both grain and coin corresponding to their rank. The number of graduates who went on to hold office were few. The examinations did not offer a formal route to commissioned office and the primary path to office remained through recommendations. Sui dynasty (581–618) Sui dynasty administrative divisions were initially the same as the Han, but in 586, Emperor Wen of Sui abolished commanderies and left provinces in direct control of counties. In 605, Emperor Yang of Sui revived the commandery. In the early years of the Sui dynasty, Area Commanders-in-chief (zongguan) ruled as semi-autonomous warlords, but they were gradually replaced with Branch Departments of State Affairs (xing taisheng). In 587, the Sui dynasty mandated every province to nominate three "cultivated talents" (xiucai) per year for appointment. In 599, all capital officials of rank five and above were required to make nominations for appointment in several categories. Imperial examinations Examination categories for "classicists" (mingjing ke) and "cultivated talents" (xiucai ke) were introduced. Classicists were tested on the Confucian canon, which was considered an easy task at the time, so those who passed were awarded posts in the lower rungs of officialdom. Cultivated talents were tested on matters of statecraft as well as the Confucian canon. In AD 607, Emperor Yang established a new category of examinations for the "presented scholar" (jinshi ke ). These three categories of examination were the origins of the imperial examination system that would last until 1905. Consequently, the year 607 is also considered by many to be the real beginning of the imperial examination system. The Sui dynasty was itself short lived however and the system was not developed further until much later. The imperial examinations did not significantly shift recruitment selection in practice during the Sui dynasty. Schools at the capital still produced students for appointment. Inheritance of official status was also still practiced. Men of the merchant and artisan classes were still barred from officialdom. However the reign of Emperor Wen (r. 4 March 581 – 13 August 604) did see much greater expansion of government authority over officials. Under Emperor Wen, all officials down to the county level had to be appointed by the Department of State Affairs in the capital and were subjected to annual merit rating evaluations. Regional Inspectors and County Magistrates had to be transferred every three years and their subordinates every four years. They were not allowed to bring their parents or adult children with them upon reassignment of territorial administration. The Sui did not establish any hereditary kingdoms or marquisates of the Han sort. To compensate, nobles were given substantial stipends and staff. Aristocratic officials were ranked based on their pedigree with distinctions such as "high expectations", "pure", and "impure" so that they could be awarded offices appropriately. Tang dynasty (618–907) The Tang dynasty was divided into circuits, which were divided into prefectures, which were further divided into counties. There were three Superior Prefectures known as Jingzhao, in the Chang'an area, Henan, in the Luoyang area, and Taiyuan, in modern Shanxi Province. Each Superior Prefecture was nominally administered by an Imperial Prince but usually another official was actually in charge. A normal prefecture was administered by a Prefect. Sometimes a prefecture could be designated an Area Command (dudu fu) under an Area Commander (dudu) and a few prefectures could be grouped together into a Superior Area Command (da dudu fu) under a Commander-in-chief (da dudu). Area Commanders were later replaced by Defense Commands (zhen) under Military Commissioners (jiedushi). The circuit was assigned a Surveillance Commissioner (ancha shi), who functioned as an overall coordinator rather than a governor, and visited prefectures and checked up on the performance of officials. After the An Lushan Rebellion (16 December 755 – 17 February 763), the role of the Surveillance Commissioner shifted to that of a more direct civil governor while many Military Commissioners became autonomous warlords in all but name. Sometimes borderlands were designated a Protectorate (duhu fu) under a Protector (duhu). Expansion of the imperial examinations During the Tang dynasty, candidates were either recommended by their schools or had to register for exams at their home prefecture. In 693, Wu Zetian expanded the examination system by allowing commoners and gentry previously disqualified by their non-elite backgrounds to take the tests. Six categories of regular civil-service examinations were organized by the Department of State Affairs and held by the Ministry of Rites: cultivated talents, classicists, presented scholars, legal experts, writing experts, and arithmetic experts. Emperor Xuanzong of Tang also added categories for Daoism and apprentices. The hardest of these examination categories, the presented scholar jinshi degree, became more prominent over time until it superseded all other examinations. By the late Tang the jinshi degree became a prerequisite for appointment into higher offices. Appointments by recommendation were also required to take examinations. However candidates who passed the exams were not automatically granted office. They still had to pass a quality evaluation by the Ministry of Rites, after which they were allowed to wear official robes. Successful candidates reported to the Ministry of Personnel for placement examinations. Unassigned officials and honorary title holders were expected to take placement examinations at regular intervals. Non-assigned status could last a very long time especially when waiting for a substantive appointment. After being assigned to office, a junior official was given an annual merit rating. There was no specified term limit, but most junior officials served for at least three years or more in one post. Senior officials served indefinitely at the pleasure of the emperor. The Tang emperors placed the palace exam graduates, the jinshi, in important government posts, where they came into conflict with hereditary elites. During the reign of Emperor Xuanzong of Tang (713-56), about a third of the Grand Chancellors appointed were jinshi, but by the time of Emperor Xianzong of Tang (806-21), three fifths of the Grand Chancellors appointed were jinshi. This change in the way government was organized dealt a real blow to the aristocrats, but they did not sit idly by and wait to become obsolete. Instead they themselves entered the examinations to gain the privileges associated with it. By the end of the dynasty, the aristocratic class had produced 116 jinshi, so that they remained a significant influence in the government. Hereditary privileges were also not completely done away with. The sons of high ministers and great generals had the right to hold minor offices without taking the examinations. In addition, the number of graduates were not only small, but also formed their own clique in the government based around the examiners and the men they passed. In effect the graduates became another interest group the emperor had to contend with. Liao dynasty (916–1125) The Khitan-led Liao dynasty was divided between a nomadic tribal Northern Administration and a sedentary Chinese Southern Establishment. They were each headed by a Prime Minister, the northern one appointed by the Xiao consort clan, and the southern one appointed by the ruling Yelü clan. The Southern Establishments were divided into five "circuits", each with a capital city. Each circuit except for the one dominated by the Supreme Capital (shangjing) was ruled by a Regent (liushou). Under the Regent were Governors (yin''') of prefectures who ruled below them Magistrates of counties. Under the Northern Administration, Khitans were organized around an ordo, the moving camp of a chief. Throughout the duration of the Liao dynasty, the number of ordos fluctuated between 10 and 44. The tribal vassals of the Liao were organized into territories known as routes (lu) headed by a tribal chief. Imperial examinations were only held for the Southern Establishments until the last decade of the dynasty when Khitans found it an acceptable avenue for advancing their careers. The examinations focused primarily on lyric-meter poetry and rhapsodies. Recruitment through examinations was irregular and all offices of note were hereditary in nature and held by Khitans. Song dynasty (960–1279) The Song dynasty kept the circuit, prefecture, county hierarchy. The Military Prefecture was called an "army" (jun) and a handful of prefectures containing mines and salterns were designated Industrial Prefectures (jian). The prefectures were nominally administered by a Prefect, but in practice the central government appointed another Manager of the Affairs to administer groups of prefectures. Actions by Prefects also had to be signed off by a prefectural supervisor. Like the Tang before them, the Song used circuits not as provincial governorships but regions for Commissioners to coordinate government activity. Four Commissions were assigned to every circuit, each tasked with a different administrative activity: military, fiscal, judicial, and supply. Scholar bureaucracy The imperial examinations became the primary method of recruitment for official posts. More than a hundred palace examinations were held during the dynasty, resulting in a greater number of jinshi degrees rewarded. The examinations were opened to adult Chinese males, with some restrictions, including even individuals from the occupied northern territories of the Liao and Jin dynasties. Many individuals of low social status were able to rise to political prominence through success in the imperial examination. The process of studying for the examination tended to be time-consuming and costly, requiring time to spare and tutors. Most of the candidates came from the numerically small but relatively wealthy land-owning scholar-official class. Successful candidates were appointed to office almost immediately and waiting periods between appointments were not long. Annual merit ratings were taken and officials could request evaluation for reassignment. Officials who wished to escape harsh assignments often requested reassignment as a state supervisor of a Taoist temple or monastery. Senior officials in the capital also sometimes nominated themselves for the position of Prefect in obscure prefectures. Hereditary prefectures When Emperor Taizu of Song expanded southwest he encountered four powerful families: the Yang of Bozhou, the Song of Manzhou, the Tian of Sizhou, and the Long of Nanning. Long Yanyao, patriarch of the Long family, submitted to Song rule in 967 with the guarantee that he could rule Nanning as his personal property, to be passed down through his family without Song interference. In return the Long family was required to present tribute to the Song court. The other families were also offered the same conditions, which they accepted. Although they were included among the official prefectures of the Song dynasty, in practice, these families and their estates constituted independent hereditary kingdoms within the Song realm. In 975, Emperor Taizong of Song ordered Song Jingyang and Long Hantang to attack the Mu'ege kingdom and drive them back across the Yachi River. Whatever territory they seized they were allowed to keep. After a year of fighting, they succeeded in the endeavor. Jin dynasty (1115–1234) The Jurchen-led Jin dynasty was divided into 19 routes, five of which were governed from capitals under the control of Regents. The 14 routes not controlled by capitals were under the administration of Area Commands (zongguanfu). Under the routes were prefectures. The Jurchens adopted a more Chinese administration than the Khitans. They instituted an examination system in 1123 and adopted the triennial examination cycle in 1129. Two separate examinations were held to accommodate their former Liao and Song subjects. In the north, examinations focused on lyric-meter poetry and rhapsodies while in the south, Confucian Classics were tested. During the reign of Emperor Xizong of Jin (r. 1135–1150), the contents of both examinations were unified and examinees were tested on both genres. Emperor Zhangzong of Jin (r. 1189–1208) abolished the prefectural examinations. Emperor Shizong of Jin (r. 1161–1189) created the first examination conducted in the Jurchen language, with a focus on political writings and poetry. Graduates of the Jurchen examination were called "treatise graduates" (celun jinshi) to distinguish them from the regular Chinese jinshi. Posts were regularly filled by examination graduates and it was not uncommon for one in three candidates to pass. An average of 200 Metropolitan Graduate Degrees were handed out per year. Although Chinese subjects were able to obtain offices through the examinations, a regional quota assured that northerners (principally Jurchens) passed more consistently and were more quickly promoted upon obtaining office. Often Jurchen examinees had to demonstrate little more than literacy to pass. Chinese officials also faced discrimination, at times physical, while Jurchens retained all final decision making powers within the Jin government. Yuan dynasty (1271–1368) Under the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty, the largest administrative division was the province, also known as a Branch Secretariat (xing zhongshu sheng). A province was governed by two Managers of Governmental Affairs (pingchang zhengshi). Occasionally a Grand Chancellor (chengxiang) was put in charge of an entire province. It's questionable how much authority the central government had over the provinces as they were essentially the administrative bases of Mongol nobles. Between the provinces and the central government were two agencies: the Branch Bureau of Military Affairs (xing shumi yuan) and the Branch Censorate (xing yushi tai). The Military Branch handled military affairs and had jurisdiction over vaguely defined territories known as Regions (chu). There were three Branch Censorates that handled overseeing the provincial affairs of the Yuan dynasty. Below the provinces were circuits with agencies headed by Commissioners who coordinated matters between the provincial level authorities and lower-level routes, prefectures, and districts. The route was governed by an Overseer and a Commander. Below routes were prefectures headed by an Overseer and a Prefect. At the lowest level, below the prefectures, were counties headed by an Overseer and a Magistrate. The capital Khanbaliq was governed by the Dadu Route under the administration of two Police Commissions, while the summer capital Shangdu was under another Police Commission. All residents of the Yuan dynasty were grouped into four categories: Mongols, Semu-ren, Han-ren, and Manzi. Semu-ren were subjects of the Yuan dynasty west of China, Han-ren were the former subjects of the Jin dynasty, and the Manzi were all former subjects of the Song dynasty. All important government positions were held by Mongols and Semu-ren with some minor offices held by Han-ren, while Manzi were relegated to local offices in their own area. Mongol Overseers were assigned to every office down to the county level. Imperial examinations were ceased for a time with the defeat of the Song in 1279 by Kublai Khan. One of Kublai's main advisers, Liu Bingzhong, recommended restoring the examination system, however Kublai distrusted the examinations and did not heed his advice. Kublai believed that Confucian learning was not needed for government posts and was opposed to such a commitment to the Chinese language and to the Chinese scholars who were so adept at it, as well as its accompanying ideology. He wished to appoint his own people without relying on an apparatus inherited from a newly conquered and sometimes rebellious country.Wendy, Frey. History Alive!: The Medieval World and beyond. Palo Alto, CA: Teacher's Curriculum Institute, 2005. The examination system was revived in 1315 with significant changes during the reign of Ayurbarwada Buyantu Khan. The new examination system organized its examinees into regional categories in a way which favored Mongols and severely disadvantaged the Manzi. A quota system both for number of candidates and degrees awarded was instituted based on the classification of the four groups, those being the Mongols, (Semu-ren), Han-ren, and Manzi, with further restrictions by province favoring the northeast of the empire (Mongolia) and its vicinities. A quota of 300 persons was fixed for provincial examinations with 75 persons from each group. The metropolitan exam had a quota of 100 persons with 25 persons from each group. Candidates were enrolled on two lists with the Mongols and Semu-ren located on the left and the Han-ren and Manzi on the right. Examinations were written in Chinese and based on Confucian and Neo-Confucian texts but the Mongols and Semu-ren received easier questions to answer than the Chinese. Successful candidates were awarded one of three ranks. All graduates were eligible for official appointment. Under the revised system the yearly averages for examination degrees awarded was about 21. The way in which the four regional categories were divided tended to favor the Mongols, Semu-ren, and Han-ren, despite the Manzi being by far the largest portion of the population. The 1290 census figures record some 12,000,000 households (about 48% of the total Yuan population) for South China, versus 2,000,000 North Chinese households, and the populations of Mongols and Semu-ren were both less. While South China was technically allotted 75 candidates for each provincial exam, only 28 Han Chinese from South China were included among the 300 candidates, the rest of the South China slots (47) being occupied by resident Mongols or Semu-ren, although 47 "racial South Chinese" who were not residents of South China were approved as candidates. Recruitment by examination during the Yuan dynasty constituted a very minor part of the Yuan administration. Hereditary Mongol nobility formed the elite nucleus of the government. Initially the Mongols drew administrators from their subjects but in 1261, attempts were made by Kublai to increase Mongol personnel by ordering the establishment of Mongolian schools to draw officials from. The School for the Sons of the State was established in 1271 to give two or three years of training for the sons of Imperial Bodyguards so that they might become suitable for official recruitment. Officials serving in the capital were nominally supposed to receive merit ratings every 30 months, for demotion or promotion, but in practice government posts were inherited from father to son. Tusi Southwestern tribal chieftainships were organized under the tusi system. The tusi system was inspired by the Jimi system () implemented in regions of ethnic minorities groups during the Tang dynasty. It was established as a specific political term during the Yuan dynasty and was used as a political institution to administer newly acquired territories following their conquest of the Dali Kingdom in 1253. Members of the former Duan imperial clan were appointed as governors-general with nominal authority using the title "Dali chief steward" (, p Dàlǐ Zǒngguǎn), and local leaders were co-opted under a variety of titles as administrators of the region. Some credit the Turkoman governor Sayyid Ajjal Shams al-Din Omar with introducing the system into China. Duan Xingzhi, the last king of Dali, was appointed as the first local ruler, and he accepted the stationing of a pacification commissioner there. Duan Xingzhi offered the Yuan maps of Yunnan and led a considerable army to serve as guides for the Yuan army. By the end of 1256, Yunnan was considered to have been pacified. Under the Yuan dynasty, the native officials, or tusi, were the clients of a patron-client relationship. The patron, the Yuan emperors, exercised jurisdictional control over the client, but not his/her territory itself. The tusi chieftains in Yunnan, Guizhou and Sichuan who submitted to Yuan rule and were allowed to keep their titles. The Han Chinese Yang family ruling the Chiefdom of Bozhou which was recognized by the Song and Tang dynasties also received recognition by the subsequent Yuan and Ming dynasties. The Luo clan in Shuixi led by Ahua were recognized by the Yuan emperors, as they were by the Song emperors when led by Pugui and Tang emperors when led by Apei. They descended from the Shu Han era king Huoji who helped Zhuge Liang against Meng Huo. They were also recognized by the Ming dynasty. Ming dynasty (1368–1644) The lowest administrative unit during the Ming dynasty was the county which was supervised by a prefecture through a subprefecture. Prefectures were organized into provinces and administered by three cooperating agencies: the Provincial Administration Commission (chengxuan buzheng shisi), the Provincial Surveillance Commission (tixing ancha shisi), and the Regional Military Commission (du zhihui shisi). The three agencies were directed by a Grand Coordinator and Supreme Commander. The post of Grand Coordinator was indefinite and could last as long as 10 or even 20 years. A Supreme Commander handled military affairs. Neither posts were governorships and were considered special-purpose representatives of the government. The Provincial Administration Commission was in general charge of all civil matters, especially fiscal matters. The Provincial Administration kept three to eight branch offices in each province. Each branch office was headed by an Intendant (daotai) to exercise administrative authority. Each province also had a Tax Intendant (duliang dao). The Provincial Surveillance Commission was headed by a single Surveillance Commissioner, under whom were various vice and assistant commissioners who held censorial and judicial powers. Regional Military Commissioners were responsible for military garrisons in the provinces. Executive officials of the Three Provincial Commissions were collectively known as Regional Overseers. The purpose of this tripartite administration of provinces was so that no one had supreme power in one region. Recruitment by examination flourished after 1384 in the Ming dynasty. Provincial graduates were sometimes appointed to low-ranking offices or entered the Guozijian for further training, after which they might be considered for better appointments. Before appointment to office, metropolitan graduates were assigned to observe the functions of an office for up to one year. The maximum tenure for an office was nine years, but triennial evaluations were also taken, at which point an official could be reassigned. Magistrates of counties submitted monthly evaluation reports to their prefects and the prefects submitted annual evaluations to provincial authorities. Every third year, provincial authorities submitted evaluations to the central government, at which point an "outer evaluation" was conducted, requiring local administration to send representatives to attend a grand audience at the capital. Officials at the capital conducted an evaluation every six years. Capital officials of rank 4 and above were exempted from regular evaluations. Irregular evaluations were conducted by censorial officials. Gaitu guiliu The Ming dynasty continued the Yuan tusi chiefdom system. The Ming tusi were categorized into civil and military ranks. The civilian tusi were given the titles of Tu Zhifu ("native prefecture"), Tu Zhizhou ("native department") and Tu Zhixian ("native county") according to the size and population of their domains. Nominally, they had the same rank as their counterparts in the regular administration system The central government gave more autonomy to those military tusi who controlled areas with fewer Han Chinese people and had underdeveloped infrastructure. They pledged loyalty to the Ming emperor but had almost unfettered power within their domains. All the native chieftains were nominally subordinate to Pacification Commissioners (Xuanfushi, Xuanweishi, Anfushi). The Pacification Commissioners were also native chieftains who received their title from the Ming court. As a way of checking their power, Pacification Commissioners were put under the supervision of the Ministry of War. Throughout its 276 year history, the Ming dynasty bestowed a total of 1608 tusi titles, 960 of which were military-rank and 648 were civilian-rank, the majority of which were in Yunnan, Guizhou and Sichuan. In Tibet, Qinghai and Sichuan, the Ming court sometimes gave both tusi titles and religious titles to leaders. As a result, those tusi had double identities. They played both the role of political leaders and religious leaders within their domains. For example, during the reign of the Yongle Emperor, the leader of the Jinchuan monastery assisted the Ming army in a battle against the Mongols. The leader was later given the title Yanhua Chanshi (演化禅师), or "Evolved Chan Master", and the power to rule 15 villages as his domain as a reward. Under Ming administration, the jurisdictional authority of tusi began to be replaced with state territorial authority. The tusi acted as stop gaps until enough Chinese settlers arrived for a "tipping point" to be reached, and they were then converted into official prefectures and counties to be fully annexed into the central bureaucratic system of the Ming dynasty. This process was known as gaitu guiliu (), or "turning native rule into regular administration". The most notable example of this was the consolidation of southwestern tusi chiefdoms into the province of Guizhou in 1413. In sum, gaitu guiliu was the process of replacing tusi with state-appointed officials, the transition from jurisdictional sovereignty to territorial sovereignty, and the start of formal empire rather than informal. Qing dynasty (1636–1912) The Qing dynasty kept the Ming province system and expanded it to 18 provinces by 1850. However unlike the Ming tripartite provincial administration, Qing provinces were governed by a single Governor (xunfu) who held substantial power. Although all provincial agencies communicated with the central government through him, he himself was subordinate to a Governors-general (zongdu). While nominally superior to a Governor, usually the Governors-general cooperated closely with the Governor and acted jointly in reporting to the central government. Governors and Governors-generals did not have to have a Manchu-Han Chinese balance, unlike in the central government. Subordinate to Governors were two kinds of agencies: Provincial Administration Commissions (chengxuan buzheng shisi) and Provincial Surveillance Commissions (tixing ancha shisi). The Provincial Administration Commissioner was a lieutenant-general who bore fiscal responsibilities. The Provincial Surveillance Commissioner was responsible for the administration of judicial and censorial matters. There was also an unofficial Provincial Education Commissioner (tidu xuezheng) in every province who supervised schools and certified candidates for the civil service examinations. Under the provincial administration were Circuit Intendants (daotai) who served as intermediaries between prefectures and provincial administration. Lifan Yuan Peripheral territories such as Mongolia, Xinjiang, and Tibet were supervised by the Lifan Yuan (Court of Colonial Affairs). The people living in these areas were generally able to keep their own way of life so long as they kept the peace and showed deference to the Qing emperor. Many of the Mongols were organized into Manchu-style banners or leagues and it was not until the 19th century that Mongolia was brought under tighter control under a Manchu general or Grand Minister Consultant (canzan dachen) and several Judicial Administrators (banshi siyuan). The people of Xinjiang were treated as tributary vassals and their leaders used Chinese titles. Tibet's religious leaders were relatively autonomous and treated as tributary princes until the 1720s when rebelliousness prompted the Qing government to place the area under the administration of two Grand Minister Residents (zhuzang dachen), who were supported by Qing military garrisons. Citations References Kracke, E. A., Jr. (1967 [1957]). "Region, Family, and Individual in the Chinese Examination System", in Chinese Thoughts & Institutions, John K. Fairbank, editor. Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press. Yu, Pauline (2002). "Chinese Poetry and Its Institutions", in Hsiang Lectures on Chinese Poetry, Volume 2'', Grace S. Fong, editor. (Montreal: Center for East Asian Research, McGill University). Chinese culture Civil services Confucian education Examinations Government recruitment History of Imperial China Public administration |
No, this text is not related with defense topics | During most of the 20th century photography depended mainly upon the photochemical technology of silver halide emulsions on glass plates or roll film. Early in the 21st century this technology was displaced by the electronic technology of digital cameras. The development of digital image sensors, microprocessors, memory cards, miniaturised devices and image editing software enabled these cameras to offer their users a much wider range of operating options than was possible with the older silver halide technology. This has led to a proliferation of new abbreviations, acronyms and initialisms. The commonest of these are listed below. Some are used in related fields of optics and electronics but many are specific to digital photography. Acronyms and initialisms that are not brand-specific Initialisms that are used mainly by specific brands References General references Blair, John G. The Glossary of Digital Photography. Rocky Nook, 2007, . Peres, Michael R. The Focal Encyclopedia of Photography, Fourth Edition. Focal, 2007, . Taylor, Phil. Digital Photographic Imaging Glossary. Trafford, 2006, . Glossary, issued by Nikon, explaining the Nikkor lens codes. Retrieved 2011-01-01. Photography |
No, this text is not related with defense topics | Holistic nursing is a way of treating and taking care the patient as a whole body which involves physical, social environment, psychological, cultural and religious beliefs. There are many theories that support the importance of nurses approaching the patient holistically and how education on this are there to support the goal of holistic nursing. The important skill to be used in holistic nursing would be communicating skills with patients and other practitioners. These emphasizes that patients being treated would be treated not only their body but also mind and spirit. Holistic nursing is a nursing speciality concerning the integration of one's mind, body, and spirit with his or her environment. This speciality has a theoretical basis in a few grand nursing theories, most notably the science of unitary human beings, as published by Martha E. Rogers in An Introduction to the Theoretical Basis of Nursing, and the mid-range theory Empowered Holistic Nursing Education, as published by Dr. Katie Love. Holistic nursing has gained recognition by the American Nurses Association (ANA) as a nursing specialty with a defined scope of practice and standards. Holistic nursing focuses on the mind, body, and spirit working together as a whole and how spiritual awareness in nursing can help heal illness. Holistic medicine focuses on maintaining optimum well-being and preventing rather than just treating disease. Core values The Holistic philosophy: theory and ethics Holistic nursing is based on the fundamental theories of nursing, such as the works of Florence Nightingale and Jean Watson as well as alternative theories of world connectedness, wholeness, and healing. Holistic nurses respect the patient as the decision-maker throughout the continuum of care. The holistic nurse and patient relationship is based on a partnership in which the holistic nurse engages the patient in treatment options and healthcare choices. The holistic nurse seeks to establish a professional and ethical relationship with the patient in order to preserve the patient's sense of dignity, wholesomeness, and inner worth. Theories of Holistic Nursing The goal for holistic nursing is in the definition of holistic where it is to treat the patient in whole not just physically. Various nursing theories have helped on viewing the importance holistic nursing. These theories may differ on the views of holistic nursing care but have common goal which is to treat the patient in whole body and mind. One of the theories is The Intersystem Model, explaining that individuals are holistic being therefore their illness are interacted and adapted them as a whole not just physically. Also as health can be a different value to individuals which ranges constantly from well-being to disease. For example, despite their chronic condition the patient is satisfied with the changed healthy life for their living. In holistic nursing knowing the theory does not mean that this will be implanted in doing in real life practice many nurses are not able to apply the theory in real life. Holistic caring process Holistic nursing combines standard nursing interventions with various modalities that are focused on treating the patient in totality. Alternative therapies can include stress management, aroma therapy, and therapeutic touch. The combination of interventions allows the patient to heal in mind, body, and spirit by focusing on the patient's emotions, spirituality, and cultural identity as much as the illness. The six steps of the holistic caring process occur simultaneously, including assessment, diagnosis, outcomes, therapeutic plan of care, implementation, and evaluation. The holistic assessment of the patient can include spiritual, transpersonal, and energy-field assessments in combination with the standard physical and emotional assessments. The therapeutic plan of care in holistic nursing includes a highly individualized and unique plan for each patient. Holistic nurses recognize that the plan of care will change based on the individual patient, and therefore embrace healing as a process that is always changing and adapting to the individual's personal healing journey. Therapies utilized by holistic nurses include stress management techniques and alternative or complementary practices such as reiki and guided imagery. These therapy modalities are focused on empowering individuals to reduce stress levels and elicit a relaxation response in order to promote healing and well-being. The caring for patients in holistic nursing may differ from other nursing care as some may lack in caring for the patient as a whole, which includes spiritually. In holistic nursing, taking care of the patient does not differ from other nursing, but is focused on mental and spiritual needs as well as physical health. In holistic nursing there should be a therapeutic trust between the patient and nurse, as caring holistically involves knowing the patient’s illness as whole. This can be only done by the patient who is the one to tell the nurse about the social, spiritual and internal illness that they are experiencing. Also as caring could be involved as assertive action, quiet support or even both which assist in understanding a person’s cultural differences, physical and social needs. Through this the nurse is able to give more holistic care to meet the social and spiritual needs of the patient. The attitude of nurse includes helping, sharing and nurturing. In holistic caring there is spiritual care where it needs an understanding of patient’s beliefs and religious views. This is the reason why there should be therapeutic trust between nurse and patient, as in order to understand and respect the patient’s religious beliefs the nurse has to get information from the patient directly which is hard to get when there is not therapeutic trust. There is no specific order or template for how to care holistically, but the principle of holistic caring is to include patient’s social and internal needs and not just focus on treating the physical illness. Holistic Communication Holistic nurses use intentional listening techniques ("Focus completely on the speaker") and unconditional positive regard to communicate with patients. The goal of using these communication techniques is to create authentic, compassionate, and therapeutic relationships with each patient. In holistic nursing having therapeutic trust with patient and nurse gives great advantage of achieving the goal of treating patients as a whole. Therapeutic trust can be developed by having conversation with the patient. In communication the sender can also become a receiver or vice versa which in holistic nursing the nurses are the receiver of patients concern and the pass the information on to the doctor and do the vice versa. As communication is vital element in nursing it is strongly recommended to nurses to understand what is needed and how to communicate with patients. Communicating with patients can help in the performances of nurses in holistic nursing as by communicating the nurses are able to understand the cultural, social values and psychological conditions. Through this the nurses are able to satisfy the needs of a patients and as well as protecting the nurse for doing their roles as a nurse. In holistic nursing non-verbal communication is also another skill that is taught to nurses which are expressed by gestures, facial expression, posture and creating physical barriers. In holistic nursing as all individuals are not all the same but their social and psychological illness should be treated it is up to the nurse on how they communicate in order to build a therapeutic trust. To achieve the goal of holistic nursing it is important to communicate with the patient properly and to this successfully between the nurse and patient is freakiness and honesty. Without these communicating skills the nurse would not be able to build therapeutic trust and is likely to fail the goal of holistic nursing. Building a Therapeutic Environment Holistic nursing focuses on creating not only a therapeutic relationship with patients but also on creating a therapeutic environment for patients. Several of the therapies included in holistic nursing rely on therapeutic environments to be successful and effective. A therapeutic environment empowers patients to connect with the holistic nurse and with themselves introspectively. Depending on the environment of where the patient is holistic approach may be different and knowing this will help nurses to achieve better in holistic nursing. For patients with illness, trauma and surgery increasing sleep will benefit in recovery, blood pressure, pain relief and emotional wellbeing. As in hospital there are many disturbances which can effect in patients’ quality of sleep and due to this the patients are lacking in aid for healing, recovery and emotional wellbeing. Nurse being able note or take care of patient’s sleep will determine how closely they are approaching to holistic nursing. Depending on disease some the treatment may differ and may need further check-ups or program for patients to do. For example, there are higher chance for women to get cardiovascular disease but there is less number of enrollment for cardiac rehabilitation program compared to men. This was due to the environment of hospital not being able to support females in completing the CR programs. Some examples are physicians are less likely refer CR programs to women and patient’s thought against safety of the program. In situation like this from the knowledge and education that was done from holistic nursing the nurses will be able to approach the patient as they can relate to what the patient is going thought which gives more comfort and safety to patients in doing the programs. Cultural Diversity Part of any type of nursing includes understanding the patient's comprehension level, ability to cope, social supports, and background or base knowledge. The nurse must use this information to effectively communicate with the patient and the patient's family, to build a trusting relationship, and to comprehensively educate the patient. The ability of a holistic nurse to build a therapeutic relationship with a patient is especially important. Holistic nurses ask themselves how they can culturally care for patients through holistic assessment because holistic nurses engage in ethical practices and the treatment of all aspects of the individual. Australia has many different cultures as they are many people who were born overseas and migrated to Australia, which we can experience many cultural diversities. Culture can be defined as how people create collective beliefs and shared practices in order to make sense of their lived experiences which how concepts of language, religion and ethnicity are built in the culture. As the meaning of holistic nursing to heal the person as a whole knowing their cultural identities or backgrounds will help to reach the goal (Mariano, 2007). Understanding peoples culture may help to approach treatment correctly to the patient as it provides knowledge to nurses how patient’s view of the concept of illness and disease are to their values and identity. As in holistic approach culture, beliefs and values are essential components to achieve the goal. People’s actions to promote, maintain and restore health and healing are mainly influenced by their culture which is why knowing other cultures will assist in holistic nursing. By developing knowledge, communication, assessment skills and practices for nurses it guides to provide better experiences to patients who have diverse beliefs, values, and behaviors that respects their social, cultural and linguistic needs. As for most patients and families their decision on having treatment against illness or disease are done from cultural beliefs. This means if the nurses are unable to understand and give information relating to what they believe in the patients will most likely reject the treatment and give hardship on holistic nursing. Holistic Education and Research Holistic registered nurses are responsible for learning the scope of practice established in Holistic Nursing: Scope and Standards of Practice(2007) and for incorporating every core value into daily practice. It is the holistic nurse's responsibility to become familiar with both conventional practices as well as alternative therapies and modalities. Through continuing education and research, the holistic nurse will remain updated on all treatment options for patients. Areas of research completed by holistic nurses includes: measurements of outcomes of holistic therapies, measurements of caring behaviors and spirituality, patient responsiveness to holistic care, and theory development in areas such as intentionality, empowerment, and several other topics. The goal of holistic nursing is treat the patient’s individual’s social, cognitive, emotional and physical problems as well as understanding their spiritual and cultural beliefs. Involving holistic nursing in the education will help future nurses to be more familiar in the terms holistic and how to approach the concept. In the education of holistic nursing all other nursing knowledge is included which once again developed through reflective practice. In holistic nursing the nurses are taught on the five core values in caring, critical thinking, holism, nursing role development and accountability. These values help the nurse to be able to focus on the health care on the clients, their families and the allied health practitioners who is also involved in patient care. Education in holistic nursing is continuous education program which will be ongoing even after graduation to improve in reaching the goal. Education on holistic nursing would be beneficial to nurses if this concept is introduced earlier as repetition of educating holistic nursing could also be the revision of it. There is different education on commutating skills and an example would be the non-verbal and verbal communication with patients. This is done to improve when would the right or wrong to use the communication skill and how powerful skills this could be. Holistic Nurse Self-Care Through the holistic nurse's integration of self-care, self-awareness, and self-healing practices, the holistic nurse is living the values that are taught to patients in practice. Holistic "nurses cannot facilitate healing unless they are in the process of healing themselves." In order to provide holistic nursing to patient it is also important for nurses to take care of themselves. There are various ways which the nurses can heal, assess and care for themselves such as self-assessment, meditation, yoga, good nutrition, energy therapies, support and lifelong learning. By nurses being able achieve balance and harmony in their lives it can assist to understand how to take care of patient holistically. In Florida Atlantic University there is a program that focus on all caring aspects and recognize how to take care of others as well as on how to start evaluation on their own mind, body and spirit. Also there is Travis’ Wellness Model which explores the idea of “self-care, wellness results from an ongoing process of self-awareness, exploring options, looking within, receiving from others (education), trying out new options (growth), and constantly re-evaluating the entire process. Self-awareness and education precede personal growth and wellness”. This model of concepts shows being able to understand own status of health can benefit to patients and reach the goal of holistic nursing. Certification National certification for holistic nursing is regulated by the American Holistic Nurses Certification Corporation (AHNCC). There are two levels of certification: one for nurses holding a bachelor's degree and one for nurses holding a master's degree. Accreditation through the AHNCC is approved by the American Nurses Credentialing Center (ANCC). Global initiatives United States American Holistic Nurses Association (AHNA): Mission Statement "The Mission of the American Holistic Nurses Association is to illuminate holism in nursing practice, community, advocacy, research and education." Canada Canadian Holistic Nurses Association (CHNA): Mission Statement "To support the practice of holistic nursing across Canada by: acting as a body of knowledge for its practitioners, by advocating with policy makers and provincial regulatory bodies and by educating Canadians on the benefits of complementary and integrative health care." Australia Australian Holistic Nurses Association (AHNA) "The Mission of the Australian Holistic Nurses Association (AHNA) is to illuminate holism in nursing practice, research, and education; act as a body of knowledge for its practitioners; advocate with policymakers and regulatory bodies; and educate Australians on the benefits of Complementary and Alternative Medicine (CAM) and integrative health care." See also Alternative medicine Alternative Therapies in Health and Medicine Journal of Holistic Nursing Nursing References Nursing specialties Alternative medicine |
No, this text is not related with defense topics | Cognitive skills, also called cognitive functions, cognitive abilities or cognitive capacities, are brain-based skills which are needed in acquisition of knowledge, manipulation of information and reasoning. They have more to do with the mechanisms of how people learn, remember, solve problems and pay attention, rather than with actual knowledge. Cognitive skills or functions encompass the domains of perception, attention, memory, learning, decision making, and language abilities. Specialisation of functions Cognitive science has provided theories of how the brain works, and these have been of great interest to researchers who work in the empirical fields of brain science. A fundamental question is whether cognitive functions, for example visual processing and language, are autonomous modules, or to what extent the functions depend on each other. Research evidence points towards a middle position, and it is now generally accepted that there is a degree of modularity in aspects of brain organisation. In other words, cognitive skills or functions are specialised, but they also overlap or interact with each other. Deductive reasoning, on the other hand, has been shown to be related to either visual or linguistic processing, depending on the task; although there are also aspects that differ from them. All in all, research evidence does not provide strong support for classical models of cognitive psychology. Cognitive functioning Cognitive functioning refers to a person's ability to process thoughts. It is defined as "the ability of an individual to perform the various mental activities most closely associated with learning and problem-solving. Examples include the verbal, spatial, psychomotor, and processing-speed ability." Cognition mainly refers to things like memory, speech, and the ability to learn new information. The brain is usually capable of learning new skills in the aforementioned areas, typically in early childhood, and of developing personal thoughts and beliefs about the world. Old age and disease may affect cognitive functioning, causing memory loss and trouble thinking of the right words while speaking or writing ("drawing a blank"). Multiple sclerosis (MS), for example, can eventually cause memory loss, an inability to grasp new concepts or information, and depleted verbal fluency. Humans generally have a high capacity for cognitive functioning once born, so almost every person is capable of learning or remembering. Intelligence is tested with IQ tests and others, although these have issues with accuracy and completeness. In such tests, patients may be asked a series of questions, or to perform tasks, with each measuring a cognitive skill, such as level of consciousness, memory, awareness, problem-solving, motor skills, analytical abilities, or other similar concepts. Early childhood is when the brain is most malleable to orientate to tasks that are relevant in the person's environment. See also Adaptive behavior Adaptive functioning Intelligence Quotient (IQ) Cognition Cognitive Abilities Test Jungian cognitive functions Further reading Cognitive Functioning at Edublox References NCME - Glossary of Important Assessment and Measurement Terms [cognitive ability] Cognition |
No, this text is not related with defense topics | Enhanced biological phosphorus removal (EBPR) is a sewage treatment configuration applied to activated sludge systems for the removal of phosphate. The common element in EBPR implementations is the presence of an anaerobic tank (nitrate and oxygen are absent) prior to the aeration tank. Under these conditions a group of heterotrophic bacteria, called polyphosphate-accumulating organisms (PAO) are selectively enriched in the bacterial community within the activated sludge. In the subsequent aerobic phase, these bacteria can accumulate large quantities of polyphosphate within their cells and the removal of phosphorus is said to be enhanced. Generally speaking, all bacteria contain a fraction (1-2%) of phosphorus in their biomass due to its presence in cellular components, such as membrane phospholipids and DNA. Therefore, as bacteria in a wastewater treatment plant consume nutrients in the wastewater, they grow and phosphorus is incorporated into the bacterial biomass. When PAOs grow they not only consume phosphorus for cellular components but also accumulate large quantities of polyphosphate within their cells. Thus, the phosphorus fraction of phosphorus accumulating biomass is 5-7%. In mixed bacterial cultures the phosphorus content will be maximal 3 - 4 % on total organic mass. If additional chemical precipitation takes place, for example to reach discharge limits, the P-content could be higher, but that is not affected by EBPR. This biomass is then separated from the treated (purified) water at end of the process and the phosphorus is thus removed. Thus if PAOs are selectively enriched by the EBPR configuration, considerably more phosphorus is removed, compared to the relatively poor phosphorus removal in conventional activated sludge systems. See also List of waste-water treatment technologies References Further reading External links Handbook Biological Waste Water Treatment - Principles, Configuration and Model EPBR Metagenomics: The Solution to Pollution is Biotechnological Revolution - A Review from the Science Creative Quarterly Website of the Technische Universität Darmstadt and the CEEP about Phosphorus Recovery Biotechnology Waste treatment technology |
No, this text is not related with defense topics | Drafting Tape, also known as artist's tape, is similar to masking tape in that it has a wide variety of uses, but differs in several key areas. Drafting tape should not leave a sticky residue behind Drafting tape is easily removable, even from delicate surfaces like paper. Drafting tape should not tear the paper during removal. This is the main reason engineers and architects use this kind of tape in their blueprints. Drafting tape should have a neutral pH. Drafting tape is slightly more water resistant to help with masking for paint. While the obvious use of drafting tape is for drawing, drafting tape, like masking tape, can also be used for labeling and hanging posters. Its white or cream coloring goes well with many other colors, and it can be written on easily with any felt-tipped marker. In addition, drafting tape costs less than conventional labels, and its low cost also makes it more forgiving of errors. Drafting tape can also be used in Technical Drawing to help keep the paper well positioned and ensure no residue is left behind when removed. Drafting tape is designed to be temporary so it may disintegrate over time. Drafting tape is not nearly as strong as duct tape or Gaffer tape; it will break with minimal effort, it has very little odor, smelling like glue and paper, and it is not waterproof. Painter's Tape, or "blue tape," behaves similarly to artist's tape however painter's tape is not acid free and is meant for household use instead of art use. See also List of adhesive tapes References Visual arts materials Drawing Adhesive tape |
No, this text is not related with defense topics | Design optimization is an engineering design methodology using a mathematical formulation of a design problem to support selection of the optimal design among many alternatives. Design optimization involves the following stages: Variables: Describe the design alternatives Objective: Elected functional combination of variables (to be maximized or minimized) Constraints: Combination of Variables expressed as equalities or inequalities that must be satisfied for any acceptable design alternative Feasibility: Values for set of variables that satisfies all constraints and minimizes/maximizes Objective. Design optimization problem The formal mathematical (standard form) statement of the design optimization problem is where is a vector of n real-valued design variables is the objective function are equality constraints are inequality constraints is a set constraint that includes additional restrictions on besides those implied by the equality and inequality constraints. The problem formulation stated above is a convention called the negative null form, since all constraint function are expressed as equalities and negative inequalities with zero on the right-hand side. This convention is used so that numerical algorithms developed to solve design optimization problems can assume a standard expression of the mathematical problem. We can introduce the vector-valued functions to rewrite the above statement in the compact expression We call the set or system of (functional) constraints and the set constraint. Application Design optimization applies the methods of mathematical optimization to design problem formulations and it is sometimes used interchangeably with the term engineering optimization. When the objective function f is a vector rather than a scalar, the problem becomes a multi-objective optimization one. If the design optimization problem has more than one mathematical solutions the methods of global optimization are used to identified the global optimum. Optimization Checklist Problem Identification Initial Problem Statement Analysis Models Optimal Design Model Model Transformation Local Iterative Techniques Global Verification Final Review A detailed and rigorous description of the stages and practical applications with examples can be found in the book Principles of Optimal Design. Practical design optimization problems are typically solved numerically and many optimization software exist in academic and commercial forms. There are several domain-specific applications of design optimization posing their own specific challenges in formulating and solving the resulting problems; these include, shape optimization, wing-shape optimization, topology optimization, architectural design optimization, power optimization. Several books, articles and journal publications are listed below for reference. Journals Journal of Engineering for Industry Journal of Mechanical Design Journal of Mechanisms, Transmissions, and Automation in Design Design Science Engineering Optimization Journal of Engineering Design Computer-Aided Design Journal of Optimization Theory and Applications Structural and Multidisciplinary Optimization Journal of Product Innovation Management International Journal of Research in Marketing See also Design Decisions Wiki (DDWiki) : Established by the Design Decisions Laboratory at Carnegie Mellon University in 2006 as a central resource for sharing information and tools to analyze and support decision-making References Further reading Rutherford., Aris, ([2016], ©1961). The optimal design of chemical reactors : a study in dynamic programming. Saint Louis: Academic Press/Elsevier Science. . OCLC 952932441 Jerome., Bracken, ([1968]). Selected applications of nonlinear programming. McCormick, Garth P.,. New York,: Wiley. . OCLC 174465 L., Fox, Richard ([1971]). Optimization methods for engineering design. Reading, Mass.,: Addison-Wesley Pub. Co. . OCLC 150744 Johnson, Ray C. Mechanical Design Synthesis With Optimization Applications. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Co, 1971. 1905-, Zener, Clarence, ([1971]). Engineering design by geometric programming. New York,: Wiley-Interscience. . OCLC 197022 H., Mickle, Marlin ([1972]). Optimization in systems engineering. Sze, T. W., 1921-2017,. Scranton,: Intext Educational Publishers. . OCLC 340906. Optimization and design; [papers]. Avriel, M.,, Rijckaert, M. J.,, Wilde, Douglass J.,, NATO Science Committee., Katholieke Universiteit te Leuven (1970- ). Englewood Cliffs, N.J.,: Prentice-Hall. [1973]. . OCLC 618414. J., Wilde, Douglass (1978). Globally optimal design. New York: Wiley. . OCLC 3707693. J., Haug, Edward (1979). Applied optimal design : mechanical and structural systems. Arora, Jasbir S.,. New York: Wiley. . OCLC 4775674. Uri., Kirsch, (1981). Optimum structural design : concepts, methods, and applications. New York: McGraw-Hill. . OCLC 6735289. Uri., Kirsch, (1993). Structural optimization : fundamentals and applications. Berlin: Springer-Verlag. . OCLC 27676129. Structural optimization : recent developments and applications. Lev, Ovadia E., American Society of Civil Engineers. Structural Division., American Society of Civil Engineers. Structural Division. Committee on Electronic Computation. Committee on Optimization. New York, N.Y.: ASCE. 1981. . OCLC 8182361. Foundations of structural optimization : a unified approach. Morris, A. J. Chichester [West Sussex]: Wiley. 1982. . OCLC 8031383. N., Siddall, James (1982). Optimal engineering design : principles and applications. New York: M. Dekker. . OCLC 8389250. 1944-, Ravindran, A., (2006). Engineering optimization : methods and applications. Reklaitis, G. V., 1942-, Ragsdell, K. M. (2nd ed.). Hoboken, N.J.: John Wiley & Sons. . OCLC 61463772. N.,, Vanderplaats, Garret (1984). Numerical optimization techniques for engineering design : with applications. New York: McGraw-Hill. . OCLC 9785595. T., Haftka, Raphael (1990). Elements of Structural Optimization. Gürdal, Zafer., Kamat, Manohar P. (Second rev. edition ed.). Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands. . OCLC 851381183. S., Arora, Jasbir (2011). Introduction to optimum design (3rd ed.). Boston, MA: Academic Press. . OCLC 760173076. S.,, Janna, William. Design of fluid thermal systems (SI edition ; fourth edition ed.). Stamford, Connecticut. . OCLC 881509017. Structural optimization : status and promise. Kamat, Manohar P. Washington, DC: American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. 1993. . OCLC 27918651. Mathematical programming for industrial engineers. Avriel, M., Golany, B. New York: Marcel Dekker. 1996. . OCLC 34474279. Hans., Eschenauer, (1997). Applied structural mechanics : fundamentals of elasticity, load-bearing structures, structural optimization : including exercises. Olhoff, Niels., Schnell, W. Berlin: Springer. . OCLC 35184040. 1956-, Belegundu, Ashok D., (2011). Optimization concepts and applications in engineering. Chandrupatla, Tirupathi R., 1944- (2nd ed.). New York: Cambridge University Press. . OCLC 746750296. Okechi., Onwubiko, Chinyere (2000). Introduction to engineering design optimization. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall. . OCLC 41368373. Optimization in action : proceedings of the Conference on Optimization in Action held at the University of Bristol in January 1975. Dixon, L. C. W. (Laurence Charles Ward), 1935-, Institute of Mathematics and Its Applications. London: Academic Press. 1976. . OCLC 2715969. P., Williams, H. (2013). Model building in mathematical programming (5th ed.). Chichester, West Sussex: Wiley. . OCLC 810039791. Integrated design of multiscale, multifunctional materials and products. McDowell, David L., 1956-. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann. 2010. . OCLC 610001448. M.,, Dede, Ercan. Multiphysics simulation : electromechanical system applications and optimization. Lee, Jaewook,, Nomura, Tsuyoshi,. London. . OCLC 881071474. 1962-, Liu, G. P. (Guo Ping), (2001). Multiobjective optimisation and control. Yang, Jian-Bo, 1961-, Whidborne, J. F. (James Ferris), 1960-. Baldock, Hertfordshire: Research Studies Press. . OCLC 54380075. Structural Topology Optimization "Generating optimal topologies in structural design using a homogenization method". Computer Methods in Applied Mechanics and Engineering. 71 (2): 197–224. 1988-11-01. doi:10.1016/0045-7825(88)90086-2. ISSN 0045-7825. Bendsøe, Martin P (1995). Optimization of structural topology, shape, and material. Berlin; New York: Springer. . Behrooz., Hassani, (1999). Homogenization and Structural Topology Optimization : Theory, Practice and Software. Hinton, E. (Ernest). London: Springer London. . OCLC 853262659. P., Bendsøe, Martin (2003). Topology optimization : theory, methods, and applications. Sigmund, O. (Ole), 1966-. Berlin: Springer. . OCLC 50448149. Topology optimization in structural and continuum mechanics. Rozvany, G. I. N.,, Lewiński, T.,. Wien. . OCLC 859524179. Design |
No, this text is not related with defense topics | The history of herbalism is closely tied with the history of medicine from prehistoric times up until the development of the germ theory of disease in the 19th century. Modern medicine from the 19th century to today has been based on evidence gathered using the scientific method. Evidence-based use of pharmaceutical drugs, often derived from medicinal plants, has largely replaced herbal treatments in modern health care. However, many people continue to employ various forms of traditional or alternative medicine. These systems often have a significant herbal component. The history of herbalism also overlaps with food history, as many of the herbs and spices historically used by humans to season food yield useful medicinal compounds, and use of spices with antimicrobial activity in cooking is part of an ancient response to the threat of food-borne pathogens. Prehistory The use of plants as medicines predates written human history. Archaeological evidence indicates that humans were using medicinal plants during the Paleolithic, approximately 60,000 years ago. (Furthermore, other non-human primates are also known to ingest medicinal plants to treat illness) Plant samples gathered from prehistoric burial sites have been thought to support the claim that Paleolithic people had knowledge of herbal medicine. For instance, a 60,000-year-old Neanderthal burial site, "Shanidar IV", in northern Iraq has yielded large amounts of pollen from 8 plant species, 7 of which are used now as herbal remedies. More recently Paul B. Pettitt has written that "A recent examination of the microfauna from the strata into which the grave was cut suggests that the pollen was deposited by the burrowing rodent Meriones tersicus, which is common in the Shanidar microfauna and whose burrowing activity can be observed today". Medicinal herbs were found in the personal effects of Ötzi the Iceman, whose body was frozen in the Ötztal Alps for more than 5,000 years. These herbs appear to have been used to treat the parasites found in his intestines. Ancient history Mesopotamia In Mesopotamia, the written study of herbs dates back over 5,000 years to the Sumerians, who created clay tablets with lists of hundreds of medicinal plants (such as myrrh and opium). Ancient Egypt Ancient Egyptian texts are of particular interest due to the language and translation controversies that accompany texts from this era and region. These differences in conclusions stem from the lack of complete knowledge of the Egyptian language: many translations are composed of mere approximations between Egyptian and modern ideas, and there can never be complete certainty of meaning or context. While physical documents are scarce, texts such as the Papyrus Ebers serve to illuminate and relieve some of the conjecture surrounding ancient herbal practices. The Papyrus consists of lists of ailments and their treatments, ranging from "disease of the limbs" to "diseases of the skin" and has information on over 850 plant medicines, including garlic, juniper, cannabis, castor bean, aloe, and mandrake. Treatments were mainly aimed at ridding the patient of the most prevalent symptoms because the symptoms were largely regarded as the disease itself. Knowledge of the collection and preparation of such remedies are mostly unknown, as many of the texts available for translation assume the physician already has some knowledge of how treatments are conducted and therefore such techniques would not need restating. Though modern understanding of Egyptian herbals stem form the translation of ancient texts, there is no doubt that trade and politics carried the Egyptian tradition to regions across the world, influencing and evolving many cultures medical practices and allowing for a glimpse into the world of ancient Egyptian medicine. Herbs used by Egyptian healers were mostly indigenous in origin, although some were imported from other regions like Lebanon. Other than papyri, evidence of herbal medicine has also been found in tomb illustrations or jars containing traces of herbs. India In India, Ayurveda medicine has used many herbs such as turmeric possibly as early as 4,000 BC. Earliest Sanskrit writings such as the Rig Veda, and Atharva Veda are some of the earliest available documents detailing the medical knowledge that formed the basis of the Ayurveda system. Many other herbs and minerals used in Ayurveda were later described by ancient Indian herbalists such as Charaka and Sushruta during the 1st millennium BC. The Sushruta Samhita attributed to Sushruta in the 6th century BC describes 700 medicinal plants, 64 preparations from mineral sources, and 57 preparations based on animal sources. China In China, seeds likely used for herbalism have been found in the archaeological sites of Bronze Age China dating from the Shang Dynasty. The mythological Chinese emperor Shennong is said to have written the first Chinese pharmacopoeia, the "Shennong Ben Cao Jing". The "Shennong Ben Cao Jing" lists 365 medicinal plants and their uses - including Ephedra (the shrub that introduced the drug ephedrine to modern medicine), hemp, and chaulmoogra (one of the first effective treatments for leprosy). Succeeding generations augmented on the Shennong Bencao Jing, as in the Yaoxing Lun (Treatise on the Nature of Medicinal Herbs), a 7th-century Tang Dynasty treatise on herbal medicine. Ancient Greece and Rome Hippocrates The Hippocratic Corpus serves as a collection of texts that are associated with the 'Father of Western Medicine', Hippocrates of Kos. Though the actual authorship of some of these texts is disputed, each reflects the general ideals put forth by Hippocrates and his followers. The recipes and remedies included in parts of the Corpus no doubt reveal popular and prevalent treatments of the early ancient Greek period. Though any of the herbals included in the Corpus are similar to those practiced in the religious sectors of healing, they differ strikingly in the lack of rites, prayers, or chants used in the application of remedies. This distinction is truly indicative of the Hippocratic preference for logic and reason within the practices of medicine. The ingredients mentioned in the Corpus consist of a myriad of herbs, both local to Greece and imported from exotic locales such as Arabia. While many imported goods would have been too expensive for common household use, some of the suggested ingredients include the more common and cheaper elderberries and St. John's Wort. Galen Galen of Pergamon, a Greek physician practicing in Rome, was certainly prolific in his attempt to write down his knowledge on all things medical – and in his pursuit, he wrote many texts regarding herbs and their properties, most notably his Works of Therapeutics. In this text, Galen outlines the merging of each discipline within medicine that combine to restore health and prevent disease. While the subject of therapeutics encompasses a wide array of topics, Galen's extensive work in the humors and four basic qualities helped pharmacists to better calibrate their remedies for the individual person and their unique symptoms. Diocles of Carystus The writings of Diocles of Carystus were also extensive and prolific in nature. With enough prestige to be referred to as "the second Hippocrates", his advice in herbalism and treatment was to be taken seriously. Though the original texts no longer exist, many medical scholars throughout the ages have quoted Diocles rather extensively, and it is in these fragments that we gain knowledge of his writings. It is purported that Diocles actually wrote the first comprehensive herbal- this work then cited numerous times by contemporaries such as Galen, Celsus, and Soranus. Pliny In what is one of the first encyclopedic texts, Pliny the Elder's Natural History serves as a comprehensive guide to nature and also presents an extensive catalog of herbs valuable in medicine. With over 900 drugs and plants listed, Pliny's writings provide a very large knowledge base upon which we may learn more about ancient herbalism and medical practices. Pliny himself referred to ailments as "the greatest of all the operations of nature," and the act of treatment via drugs as impacting the "state of peace or of war which exists between the various departments of nature". Dioscorides Much like Pliny, Pedanius Dioscorides constructed a pharmacopeia, De Materia Medica, consisting of over 1000 medicines produced form herbs, minerals, and animals. The remedies that comprise this work were widely utilized throughout the ancient period and Dioscorides remained the greatest expert on drugs for over 1,600 years. Similarly important for herbalists and botanists of later centuries was Theophrastus' Historia Plantarum, written in the 4th century BC, which was the first systematization of the botanical world. Middle Ages While there are certainly texts from the medieval period that denote the uses of herbs, there has been a long-standing debate between scholars as to the actual motivations and understandings that underline the creation of herbal documents during the medieval period. The first point of view dictates that the information presented in these medieval texts were merely copied from their classical equivalents without much thought or understanding. The second viewpoint, which is gaining traction among modern scholars, states that herbals were copied for actual use and backed by genuine understanding. Some evidence for the suggestion that herbals were utilized with knowledgeable intent, was the addition of several chapters of plants, lists of symptoms, habitat information, and plant synonyms added to texts such as the Herbarium. Notable texts utilized in this time period include Bald's Leechbook, the Lacnunga, the peri didaxeon, Herbarium Apulei, Da Taxone, and Madicina de Quadrupedidus, while the most popular during this time period were the Ex Herbis Femininis, the Herbarius, and works by Dioscorides. Benedictine monasteries were the primary source of medical knowledge in Europe and England during the Early Middle Ages. However, most of these monastic scholars' efforts were focused on translating and copying ancient Greco-Roman and Arabic works, rather than creating substantial new information and practices. Many Greek and Roman writings on medicine, as on other subjects, were preserved by hand copying of manuscripts in monasteries. The monasteries thus tended to become local centers of medical knowledge, and their herb gardens provided the raw materials for simple treatment of common disorders. At the same time, folk medicine in the home and village continued uninterrupted, supporting numerous wandering and settled herbalists. Among these were the "wise-women" and "wise men", who prescribed herbal remedies often along with spells, enchantments, divination and advice. One of the most famous women in the herbal tradition was Hildegard of Bingen. A 12th-century Benedictine nun, she wrote a medical text called Causae et Curae. During this time, herbalism was mainly practiced by women, particularly among Germanic tribes. There were three major sources of information on healing at the time including the Arabian School, Anglo-Saxon leechcraft, and Salerno. A great scholar of the Arabian School was Avicenna, who wrote The Canon of Medicine which became the standard medical reference work of the Arab world. "The Canon of Medicine is known for its introduction of systematic experimentation and the study of physiology, the discovery of contagious diseases and sexually transmitted diseases, the introduction of quarantine to limit the spread of infectious diseases, the introduction of experimental medicine, clinical trials, and the idea of a syndrome in the diagnosis of specific diseases. ...The Canon includes a description of some 760 medicinal plants and the medicine that could be derived from them." With Leechcraft, though bringing to mind part of their treatments, leech was the English term for medical practitioner. Salerno was a famous school in Italy centered around health and medicine. A student of the school was Constantine the African, credited with bringing Arab medicine to Europe. Translation of herbals During the Middle Ages, the study of plants began to be based on critical observations. "In the 16th and 17th century an interest in botany revived in Europe and spread to America by way of European conquest and colonization." Philosophers started to act as herbalists and academic professors studied plants with great depth. Herbalists began to explore the use of plants for both medicinal purposes and agricultural uses. Botanists in the Middle Ages were known as herbalists; they collected, grew, dried, stored, and sketched plants. Many became experts in identifying and describing plants according to their morphology and habitats, as well as their usefulness. These books, called herbals included beautiful drawings and paintings of plants as well as their uses. At that time both botany and the art of gardening stressed the utility of plants for man; the popular herbal, described the medical uses of plants. During the Middle Ages, there was an expansion of book culture that spread through the medieval world. The phenomenon of translation is well-documented, from its beginnings as a scholarly endeavor in Baghdad as early as the eighth century to its expansion throughout European Mediterranean centers of scholarship by the eleventh and twelfth centuries. The process of translation is collaborative effort, requiring a variety of people to translate and add to them. However, how the Middle Ages viewed nature seems to be a mystery. Translation of text and image has provided numerous versions and compilations of individual manuscripts from diverse sources, old and new. Translation is a dynamic process as well as a scholarly endeavor that contributed great to science in the Middle Ages; the process naturally entailed continuous revisions and additions. The Benedictine monasteries were known for their in-depth knowledge of herbals. These gardens grew the herbs which were considered to be useful for the treatment of the various human ills; the beginnings of modern medical education can be connected with monastic influence. Monastic academies were developed and monks were taught how to translate Greek manuscripts into Latin. Knowledge of medieval botanicals was closely related to medicine because the plant's principal use was for remedies. Herbals were structured by the names of the plants, identifying features, medicinal parts of plant, therapeutic properties, and some included instructions on how to prepare and use them. For medical use of herbals to be effective, a manual was developed. Dioscorides' De material medica was a significant herbal designed for practical purposes. Theophrastus wrote more than 200 papers describing the characteristics of over 500 plants. He developed a classification system for plants based on their morphology such as their form and structure. He described in detail pepper, cinnamon, bananas, asparagus, and cotton. Two of his best-known works, Enquiry into Plants and The Causes of Plants, have survived for many centuries and were translated into Latin. He has been referred to as the "grandfather of botany". Crateuas was the first to produce a pharmacological book for medicinal plants, and his book influenced medicine for many centuries. A Greek physician, Pedanius Dioscorides described over 600 different kinds of plants and describes their useful qualities for herbal medicine, and his illustrations were used for pharmacology and medicine as late as the Renaissance years. Monasteries established themselves as centers for medical care. Information on these herbals and how to use them was passed on from monks to monks, as well as their patients. These illustrations were of no use to everyday individuals; they were intended to be complex and for people with prior knowledge and understanding of herbal. The usefulness of these herbals have been questioned because they appear to be unrealistic and several plants are depicted claiming to cure the same condition, as “the modern world does not like such impression." When used by experienced healers, these plants can provide their many uses. For these medieval healers, no direction was needed their background allowed them to choose proper plants to use for a variety of medical conditions. The monk's purpose was to collect and organize text to make them useful in their monasteries. Medieval monks took many remedies from classical works and adapted them to their own needs as well as local needs. This may be why none of the collections of remedies we have presently agrees fully with another. Another form of translation was oral transmission; this was used to pass medical knowledge from generation to generation. A common misconception is that one can know early medieval medicine simply by identifying texts, but it is difficult to compose a clear understanding of herbals without prior knowledge. There are many factors that played in influenced in the translation of these herbals, the act of writing or illustrating was just a small piece of the puzzle, these remedies stems from many previous translations the incorporated knowledge from a variety of influences. Early modern era The 16th and 17th centuries were the great age of herbals, many of them available for the first time in English and other languages rather than Latin or Greek. The 18th and 19th centuries saw more incorporation of plants found in the Americas, but also the advance of modern medicine. 16th century The first herbal to be published in English was the anonymous Grete Herball of 1526. The two best-known herbals in English were The Herball or General History of Plants (1597) by John Gerard and The English Physician Enlarged (1653) by Nicholas Culpeper. Gerard's text was basically a pirated translation of a book by the Belgian herbalist Dodoens and his illustrations came from a German botanical work. The original edition contained many errors due to faulty matching of the two parts. Culpeper's blend of traditional medicine with astrology, magic, and folklore was ridiculed by the physicians of his day, yet his book - like Gerard's and other herbals - enjoyed phenomenal popularity. The Age of Exploration and the Columbian Exchange introduced new medicinal plants to Europe. The Badianus Manuscript was an illustrated Mexican herbal written in Nahuatl and Latin in the 16th century. 17th century The second millennium, however, also saw the beginning of a slow erosion of the pre-eminent position held by plants as sources of therapeutic effects. This began with the Black Death, which the then dominant Four Element medical system proved powerless to stop. A century later, Paracelsus introduced the use of active chemical drugs (like arsenic, copper sulfate, iron, mercury, and sulfur). 18th century In the Americas, herbals were relied upon for most medical knowledge with physicians being few and far between. These books included almanacs, Dodoens' New Herbal, Edinburgh New Dispensatory, Buchan's Domestic Medicine, and other works. Aside from European knowledge on American plants, Native Americans shared some of their knowledge with colonists, but most of these records were not written and compiled until the 19th century. John Bartram was a botanist that studied the remedies that Native Americans would share and often included bits of knowledge of these plants in printed almanacs. 19th century The formalization of pharmacology in the 19th century led to greater understanding of the specific actions drugs have on the body. At that time, Samuel Thompson was an uneducated but well respected herbalist who influenced professional opinions so much that Doctors and Herbalists would refer to themselves as Thompsonians. They distinguished themselves from "regular" doctors of the time who used calomel and bloodletting, and led to a brief renewal of the empirical method in herbal medicine. Modern era Traditional herbalism has been regarded as a method of alternative medicine in the United States since the Flexner Report of 1910 led to the closing of the eclectic medical schools where botanical medicine was exclusively practiced. In China, Mao Zedong reintroduced Traditional Chinese Medicine, which relied heavily on herbalism, into the health care system in 1949. Since then, schools have been training thousands of practitioners – including Americans – in the basics of Chinese medicines to be used in hospitals. While Britain in the 1930s was experiencing turbulence over the practice of herbalism, in the United States, government regulation began to prohibit the practice. "The World Health Organization estimated that 80% of people worldwide rely on herbal medicines for some part of their primary health care. In Germany, about 600 to 700 plant based medicines are available and are prescribed by some 70% of German physicians." The practice of prescribing treatments and cures to patients requires a legal medical license in the United States of America, and the licensing of these professions occurs on a state level. "There is currently no licensing or certification for herbalists in any state that precludes the rights of anyone to use, dispense, or recommend herbs." "Traditional medicine is a complex network of interaction of both ideas and practices, the study of which requires a multidisciplinary approach." Many alternative physicians in the 21st century incorporate herbalism in traditional medicine due to the diverse abilities plants have and their low number of side effects. See also Physic garden History of pharmacy Ethnobotany Medieval medicine of Western Europe Traditional African medicine References Further reading Botany History of botany |
No, this text is not related with defense topics | Kimodameshi ( or ; "test one's liver"), or test of courage is a Japanese activity in which people explore frightening, and potentially dangerous, places to build up courage. Kimodameshi is usually played in the summer, in group activities such as school club trips or camping. At night, group of people visit scary places such as a cemetery, haunted house, or a forest path to carry out specific missions there. See also Ghost hunting Haunted house Hyakumonogatari Kaidankai Kaidan, Japanese ghost stories References Japanese culture Ghosts Parapsychology Pseudoscience Hobbies |
No, this text is not related with defense topics | Tactical urbanism includes low-cost, temporary changes to the built environment, usually in cities, intended to improve local neighbourhoods and city gathering places. Tactical urbanism is also commonly referred to as guerrilla urbanism, pop-up urbanism, city repair, or D.I.Y. urbanism. Other terms include planning-by-doing, urban acupuncture, and urban prototyping. Terminology The term was popularized around 2010 to refer to a range of existing techniques. The Street Plans Collaborative defines "tactical urbanism" as an approach to urban change that features the following five characteristics: A deliberate, phased approach to instigating change; The offering of local solutions for local planning challenges; Short-term commitment as a first step towards longer-term change; Lower-risk, with potentially high rewards; and The development of social capital between citizens and the building of organizational capacity between public and private institutions, non-profits, and their constituents. While the 1984 English translation of The Practice of Everyday Life by French author Michel de Certeau used the term tactical urbanism, this was in reference to events occurring in Paris in 1968; the "tactical urbanism" that Certeau described was in opposition to "strategic urbanism", which modern concepts of tactical urbanism tend not to distinguish. The modern sense of the term is attributed to New York-based urban planner Mike Lydon. The Project for Public Spaces uses the phrase "Lighter, Quicker, Cheaper", coined by urban designer Eric Reynolds, to describe the same basic approach expressed by tactical urbanism. Origin The tactical urbanist movement takes inspiration from urban experiments including Ciclovía, Paris-Plages, and the introduction of plazas and pedestrian malls in New York City during the tenure of Janette Sadik-Khan as Commissioner of the New York City Department of Transportation. Tactical urbanism formally emerged as a movement following a meeting of the Next Generation of New Urbanist (CNU NextGen) group in November 2010 in New Orleans. A driving force of the movement is to put the onus back on individuals to take personal responsibility in creating sustainable buildings, streets, neighborhoods, and cities. Following the meeting, an open-source project called Tactical Urbanism: Short TermAction | Long Term Change was developed by a group from NextGen to define tactical urbanism and to promote various interventions to improve urban design and promote positive change in neighbourhoods and communities. Types of interventions Tactical urbanism projects vary significantly in scope, size, budget, and support. Projects often begin as grassroots interventions and spread to other cities, and are in some cases later adopted by municipal governments as best practices. Some common interventions are listed below: Better block initiatives Temporarily transforming retail streets using cheap or donated materials and volunteers. Spaces are transformed by introducing food carts, sidewalk tables, temporary bike lanes and narrowing of streets. Chair bombing The act of removing salvageable materials and using it to build public seating. The chairs are placed in areas that either are quiet or lack comfortable places to sit. De-fencing The act of removing unnecessary fences to break down barriers between neighbours, beautify communities, and encourage community building. Depaving The act of removing unnecessary pavement to transform driveways and parking into green space so that rainwater can be absorbed and neighbourhoods beautified. Food carts/trucks Food carts and trucks are used to attract people to underused public spaces and offer small business opportunities for entrepreneurs. Guerilla gardening Guerrilla gardening is the act of gardening on land that the gardeners do not have the legal rights to utilize, such as abandoned sites, areas not being cared for, or private property. Open Streets To temporarily provide safe spaces for walking, bicycling, skating, and social activities; promote local economic development; and raise awareness about the impact of cars in urban spaces. "Open Streets" is an anglicized term for the South American 'Ciclovia', which originated in Bogota. PARK(ing) Day An annual event where on street parking is converted into park-like spaces. Park(ing) Day was launched in 2005 by Rebar art and design studio. Pavement to Plazas Popularized in New York City, pavement plazas involve converting space on streets to usable public space. The closure of Times Square to vehicular traffic, and its low-cost conversion to a pedestrian plaza, is a primary example of a pavement plaza. Pop-up cafes Pop-up cafes are temporary patios or terraces built in parking spots to provide overflow seating for a nearby cafe or for passersby. Most common in cities where sidewalks are narrow and where there otherwise is not room for outdoor sitting or eating areas. Pop-up parks Pop-up parks temporarily or permanently transform underused spaces into community gathering areas through beautification. Pop-up retail Pop-up shops are temporary retail stores that are set up in vacant stores or property. Protected bike lanes Bike lane protections are usually done by placing potted plants or other physical barriers to make painted bike lanes feel safer. Sometimes there is no pre-existing bike lane, and the physical protection is the only delineator. Resources The Street Plans Collaborative, in collaboration with Ciudad Emergente and Codesign studio, produces a series of free tactical urbanism e-books. Volumes 1 and 2 focus on North American case studies, Volume 3 is a Spanish-language guide to Latin American projects, and Volume 4 covers Australia and New Zealand, including responses to the 2011 Christchurch earthquake. Street Plans' Mike Lydon and Anthony Garcia published a tactical urbanism book in March 2015. References New Urbanism Urban design Environmentalism Sustainable transport Sustainable urban planning Urban planning Urban studies and planning terminology |
No, this text is not related with defense topics | BioLegend is a global developer and manufacturer of antibodies and reagents used in biomedical research located in San Diego, California. It was incorporated in June 2002 and has since expanded to include BioLegend Japan KK, where it is partnered with Tomy Digital Biology Co., Ltd. in Tokyo, BioLegend Europe in the United Kingdom, BioLegend GmbH in Germany, and BioLegend UK Ltd in the United Kingdom. BioLegend manufactures products in the areas of neuroscience, cell immunophenotyping, cytokines and chemokines, adhesion, cancer research, T regulatory cells, stem cells, innate immunity, cell-cycle analysis, apoptosis, and modification-specific antibodies. Reagents are created for use in flow cytometry, proteogenomics, ELISA, immunoprecipitation, Western blotting, immunofluorescence microscopy, immunohistochemistry, and in vitro or in vivo functional assays. History BioLegend was founded by CEO, Gene Lay, D.V.M., who was also the co-founder of PharMingen. In 2011, BioLegend co-developed and introduced Brilliant Violet(TM)-conjugated antibodies, using a novel fluorophore based on Nobel Prize-winning chemistry developed by Sirigen. In 2018, BioLegend introduced TotalSeq™ antibody-oligonucleotide conjugates for use in single cell proteogenomics analysis. BioLegend continued expansion and moved into a new 8 acre campus at BioLegend Way in 2019 with state of the art facilities designed to accommodate up to 1000 employees. References Biotechnology Antibodies |
No, this text is not related with defense topics | Research in Computational Molecular Biology (RECOMB) is an annual academic conference on the subjects of bioinformatics and computational biology. The conference has been held every year since 1997 and is a major international conference in computational biology, alongside the ISMB and ECCB conferences. The conference is affiliated with the International Society for Computational Biology. Since the first conference, authors of accepted proceedings papers have been invited to submit a revised version to a special issue of the Journal of Computational Biology. RECOMB was established in 1997 by Sorin Istrail, Pavel Pevzner and Michael Waterman. The first conference was held at the Sandia National Laboratories in Santa Fe, New Mexico. A series of RECOMB Satellite meetings was established by Pavel Pevzner in 2001. These meetings cover specialist aspects of bioinformatics, including massively parallel sequencing, comparative genomics, regulatory genomics and bioinformatics education. As of RECOMB 2010, the conference has included a highlights track, modelled on the success of a similar track at the ISMB conference. The highlights track contains presentations for computational biology papers published in the previous 18 months. In 2014 RECOMB and PLOS Computational Biology coordinated to let authors submit papers in parallel to both conference and journal. Papers not selected for publication in PLOS Computational Biology were published in edited form in the Journal of Computational Biology as usual. As of 2016 the conference started a partnership with Cell Systems. Each year, a subset of work accepted at RECOMB is also considered for publication in a special issue of Cell Systems devoted to RECOMB. Other RECOMB papers are invited for a short synopsis (Cell Systems Calls) in the same issue. RECOMB steering committee is chaired by Bonnie Berger. List of conferences See also Intelligent Systems for Molecular Biology (ISMB) References Computational science Bioinformatics Computer science conferences Biology conferences + |
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