SUMMARY Embodiments of the invention may include computing, from a wide-azimuth data set, a discrete data set associated with an image function at a seismic image point.","The discrete data set may be mapped onto a continuous curved three-dimensional surface.","The mapped data set may be projected onto a planar surface.","A plurality of continuous planar surfaces, each representing a single image point, may be assembled to form a three-dimensional body, representing a seismic gather of image points.","The three-dimensional body may be displayed.","Other embodiments are described and claimed."],["RELATED APPLICATION DATA This application is a continuation application of U.S. patent application Ser.","No.","15/600,485, filed on May 19, 2017, which is a continuation application of U.S. patent application Ser.","No.","15/262,124, filed on Sep. 12, 2016, which is a continuation application of U.S. patent application Ser.","No.","14/260,778, filed on Apr.","24, 2014, which is a continuation application of U.S. patent application Ser.","No.","14/046,327, filed on Oct. 4, 2013, which is a continuation application of U.S. patent application Ser.","No.","12/663,326, filed on Dec. 7, 2009, which is a national phase application of International Application No.","PCT/US2008/066041, filed on Jun.","6, 2008, which in turn claims the benefit of prior U.S. provisional application No.","60/924,972, filed on Jun.","7, 2007, all of which are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety.","FIELD OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to the representation and display of image data, such as multi-dimensional angle domain seismic data or other angle-related three dimensional data.","BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION A transmitter located on the earth's surface or elsewhere may transmit signals, such as acoustic waves, compression waves or other energy rays or waves that may travel through subsurface structures.","The transmitted signals may become incident signals that are incident to subsurface structures.","The incident signals may reflect at various transition zones or geological discontinuities throughout the subsurface structures.","The reflected signals may include seismic events.","Seismic events including, for example, primary (P) waves and shear (S) waves (e.g., transverse waves in which particle motion may be perpendicular to the direction of propagation of the wave) may be used to image subsurface geological structures, for example, transition surfaces or geological discontinuities.","A receiver may collect and record data, for example, reflected seismic events.","Surveys may use large numbers of transmitters and receivers to record signals across large geophysical regions.","Seismic surveyed regions may, for example, extend to several hundred square kilometers.","In some surveys, the distance between transmitters and receivers may be, for example, about twenty meters, transmitted signals may travel up to about ten kilometers, and frequencies of transmitted signals may be about fifty Hertz.","Other values or parameters may be used.","Recorded data may be collected over intervals of time, for example, ten second intervals, and may be digitized every 4 milliseconds, although other parameters are also possible.","For example, the receiver may collect and/or record several tens or hundreds of terabytes of data.","Once collected, the recorded data may be stored and/or transmitted to a storage or data processing device such as a memory, server or computing system.","Some seismic acquisition methods, such as multi-azimuth or wide-azimuth data acquisition methods, may significantly increase the number of transmitted and received signals used in order to enhance the illumination of reservoirs below complex structures and increase the precision of geophysical detection.","For such methods, single parameters (e.g., pressure or vertical displacement) or multiple parameters (e.g., pressure and three displacement components) may be recorded.","Both P waves and S waves may be recorded.","Other types of waves and other data may be recorded.","Such methods may increase the amount of data recorded for imaging subsurface regions.","To accommodate the increased amount of data, systems that record, process, image, or otherwise use the data may require increased storage size, increased speed for access to input and/or output devices, and/or high performance computation (HPC) hardware or the like.","Such systems may provide computationally and/or power intensive services.","Exploration of geophysical regions may include imaging the subsurface earth, using seismic data recorded from surveying regions, in order to locate for example hydrocarbon reservoirs.","Seismic imaging methods, which may be referred to as seismic migrations, may be classified for example into two main categories: wave equation migrations and ray-based Kirchhoff migrations.","Both types of migrations may be used to generate images of the subsurface of the earth.","Wave equation migration mechanisms may use numerical solutions to the wave equation to extrapolate the recorded wavefields into the subsurface of the earth.","At each level of depth, imaging conditions may be applied to the incident and reflected wavefields.","Ray-based Kirchhoff migrations may be performed in two stages: ray tracing and imaging.","Ray tracing may model the propagation of waves (e.g., rays), for example, in a direction from a surface towards an image point in a subsurface region, and/or in a direction from an image point in a subsurface region towards a surface.","Ray attributes, such as traveltimes, ray trajectories, slowness vectors, amplitude and phase factors, may be computed along the traced rays.","In the imaging stage, the ray attributes may be used to obtain an image of the earth's subsurface from the recorded seismic data.","Both wave equation and ray-based Kirchhoff migrations may generate common image gathers (CIGs).","CIGs may include multiple image traces at a given lateral location.","Each image trace may be generated using a portion of the recorded data that has a common geometrical attribute.","For example, an offset domain common image gather (ODCIG) may include multiple image traces, where each trace may be constructed using seismic data points with the same offset or distance between a source and receiver on the earth's surface.","An angle domain common image gather (ADCIG) may include multiple image traces, where each trace may be constructed using seismic data points with the same opening angle between the incident and reflected rays at the reflection point.","CIGs generated using traces that share a single azimuth may image geophysical structures with insufficient accuracy.","For example, anisotropy effects show that images obtained from different azimuth angles may be significantly different.","Imaging geophysical structures, such as faults, small vertical displacements, and sub-seismic scale fractures (e.g., fractures measuring less than tens of meters, which may be below the resolution for detection of typical receivers or other detection instruments), with desired accuracy, may require imaging along substantially each azimuth angle (which may be referred to for example as full-azimuth imaging).","Wide-azimuth seismic data may be especially valuable for imaging, for example, below salt dome or salt laden structures, such as those in the Gulf of Mexico.","Imaging geophysical structures using, for example, three-dimensional (multi-azimuth) CIGs, instead of commonly used two-dimensional (e.g., single or narrow azimuth) CIGs, may improve image accuracy and provide additional information about the structures.","For example, three-dimensional ODCIGs may include multiple image traces that have substantially different azimuth angles on the earth's surface, in addition to substantially different source-receiver offsets.","The offset may be a two-dimensional vector, for example, having values for in-line and cross-line components, or a length and an azimuth.","Similarly, three-dimensional ADCIGs may include multiple image traces that have substantially different opening azimuth angles at the reflecting surface, in addition to substantially different opening angles.","The opening angle may be, e.g., an angle between the incident and reflected rays, measured at the reflection point corresponding thereto.","The opening azimuth angle may be, e.g., the azimuth of the normal to a plane that passes through the incident and the reflected rays.","Other angles may alternatively be used.","Although three-dimensional CIGs may increase imaging accuracy, they may also increase the computational complexity of imaging, visualization, and/or interpretation systems using such gathers.","Operation of three-dimensional CIGs may also require extensive memory and storage capacity.","CIGs may be used, for example, in the kinematic and dynamic analysis of subsurface structures.","For example, kinematic analysis may be used to build and update geophysical models using tomography mechanisms.","Tomography mechanisms may be used to find a set of model parameters that substantially minimize travel time errors along specular rays (e.g., ray-pairs that obey principles of Snell's law at the reflecting surfaces).","The travel time errors may for example be measured from the differences between locations of the reflection events along the CIGs.","Substantially each reflection event within a given CIG may be related to a specific depth.","If a “true” reflector (e.g., a reflection surface element) is located at a definite depth and the model parameters are “correct”, then the reflector elements are typically at the same depth irrespectively of the reflection angle or the offset indicated by the specific trace.","When reflection events are not located at substantially the same depth (e.g., when reflection events along the CIGs are not substantially flat), the measured or picked differences between the reflection depths of different reflection events may be used to estimate the travel time errors along the specular rays associated with each trace.","A model may be substantially correct when the seismic reflection events along the CIGs are substantially horizontally flat.","In order to obtain an accurate model, for example, using an anisotropy model representation, specular rays and the corresponding travel time errors from varying opening angles (or e.g., offsets) for example, from substantially all azimuths may be used.","In some embodiments, such three-dimensional CIGs may provide information about the azimuthal dependent travel time errors.","Dynamic analysis may include determining physical and/or material parameters or properties of target subsurface structures using changes in the amplitude and phase of reflected signals measured, for example, along the CIGs.","Multi-azimuth CIGs may make it possible to perform azimuthal analysis of amplitude variations with respect to the opening angle (or e.g., offset), which may result in an accurate reconstruction of anisotropy parameters and small scale fractures.","Imaging other than seismic or subsurface imaging for the exploration and production of oil and gas, such as for example, shallow seismic imaging for environmental studies, archeology and construction engineering, may be performed.","These other methods may similarly generate large amounts of data and have large computational needs.","Other types of imaging, such as medical imaging, may also use a relatively large number of transmitters and detectors and therefore may also use a relatively large amount of data, which may require large storage and intensive computational efforts.","The prior patent application Ser.","No.","11/798,996, describes efficient use, storage, processing, imaging, analysis, visualization and interpretation of the rich azimuth data in reduced dimensional coordinate system.","In some other imaging applications, the rich azimuth data are decomposed into few (e.g., up to eight) azimuthal sectors.","A need exists for displaying the discrete data, stored for example in reduced dimensional coordinate system, or the azimuthally sectorized data, in a continuous full dimensional coordinate system.","SUMMARY Embodiments of the invention may include computing, from a wide-azimuth data set, a discrete data set associated with an image function at a seismic image point.","The discrete data set may be mapped onto a continuous curved three-dimensional surface.","The mapped data set may be projected onto a planar surface.","A plurality of continuous planar surfaces, each representing a single image point, may be assembled to form a three-dimensional body, representing a seismic gather of image points.","The three-dimensional body may be displayed.","Other embodiments are described and claimed.","BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The principles and operation of the system, apparatus, and method according to embodiments of the present invention may be better understood with reference to the drawings and the following description, it being understood that these drawings are given for illustrative purposes only and are not meant to be limiting.","FIG.","1 is a schematic illustration of a spherical display of reflection angle data associated with a single image point, according to an embodiment of the invention; FIG.","2 is a schematic illustration of a spherical display of the directional data, associated with a single image point, according to an embodiment of the invention; FIG.","3 is a schematic illustration of a cylindrical display of reflection angle data associated with a plurality of image points, according to an embodiment of the invention; FIG.","4 is a schematic illustration of a cylindrical display of directional data associated with a plurality of image points, according to an embodiment of the invention; FIGS.","5 and 6 are flowcharts of methods, according to embodiments of the invention; FIG.","7 is a schematic illustration of a system, according to an embodiment of the invention; FIGS.","8A, 8B, 8C, 8D, and 8E, are schematic illustrations of an image function defined on nodes arranged in various configurations, and maps therebetween, according to an embodiment of the invention; and FIGS.","9A, 9B, and 9C, are schematic illustrations of stages of constructing a computational mesh, according to an embodiment of the invention.","For simplicity and clarity of illustration, elements shown in the drawings have not necessarily been drawn to scale.","For example, the dimensions of some of the elements may be exaggerated relative to other elements for clarity.","Further, where considered appropriate, reference numerals may be repeated among the drawings to indicate corresponding or analogous elements throughout the serial views.","DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION Introduction In the following description, various aspects of the present invention will be described.","For purposes of explanation, specific configurations and details are set forth in order to provide a thorough understanding of the present invention.","However, it will also be apparent to one skilled in the art that the present invention may be practiced without the specific details presented herein.","Furthermore, well known features may be omitted or simplified in order not to obscure the present invention.","Unless specifically stated otherwise, as apparent from the following discussions, it is appreciated that throughout the specification discussions, utilizing terms such as “processing,” “computing,” “calculating,” “determining,” or the like, refer to the action and/or processes of a computer or computing system, or similar electronic computing device, that manipulates and/or transforms data represented as physical, such as electronic, quantities within the computing system's registers and/or memories into other data similarly represented as physical quantities within the computing system's memories, registers or other, such as information storage, transmission or display devices.","The term “display” may be used herein to describe a visual representation and/or a device for depicting such a representation and/or a method or an algorithm for such representation.","In addition, the term “plurality” may be used throughout the specification to describe two or more components, devices, elements, parameters and the like.","Seismic data may include or represent seismic events (or e.g., signals) that reflect and/or diffract at discontinuous objects and/or continuous horizons.","Continuous horizons may include, for example, interfaces between geological layers.","Discontinuous objects may include, for example, small scale diffractors, faults, or small scale fractures.","Seismic data collected and/or calculated for seismic imaging may be complicated and rich with information.","For example, seismic data may include multiple components, e.g., traveltimes, offsets, zenith angles, azimuth angles, reflection angles, directions, etc.","Each image point may be computed or defined using multiple components.","Each image point may have a value for each of the multiple components.","However, it may be impractical to display all of the component values for all of these components at once to a user.","For example, if each component is represented in a distinct dimension of a three dimensional (3D) display, at most three of these components may be displayed at once to a user, or the multiple component values may be used to create the three components of the 3D display, and thus the actual source component values may not be displayed.","A standard display may be any a visual representation of the spatial properties of the physical universe.","In one embodiment, a standard 3D display may represent a geophysical space using, for example, three components per data point, such as, two Cartesian components of the data point location and a function value at each point.","In this embodiment, the image function ƒ may be presented as a curved 3D surface in the Cartesian space, ƒ=ƒ(x, z), where x may be the lateral coordinate and z may be depth.","In another embodiment, all three of the components for each data point of a 3D standard display may be used to specify a spatial location of the data point.","Each function value ƒ(x, y, z), where x and y may be two lateral coordinates and z may be depth, at each point may alternatively be represented by one of a plurality of colors or intensities.","In each of these embodiments, a standard display typically shows only a subset of the multiple components to provide a general or simplified overview of a geophysical area being studied.","A user may want to view additional or other components or information not typically shown in a standard display.","For example, a user may want to view reflection angles and/or directional data at each point, or at a selected point or set of points.","A pair of reflection angle and directional displays for a point, where the directional display has a single or narrow range of polar angles and the reflection display has multiple or a wide range of polar angles, may indicate that the image point lies on a fault line.","Thus, it may be desirable to concurrently view reflection angle and directional data corresponding to an image point.","These methods may be used for geophysical exploration using reflection angle gathers and directional gathers.","Other features may be determined by values of certain components.","Embodiments of the present invention provide a mechanism for displaying information different from that displayed with the standard display using various types of displays.","For example, a “spherical” display (e.g., FIGS.","1 and 2) and a “cylindrical” display (e.g., FIGS.","3 and 4) may be used.","Shapes other than spherical and cylindrical displays may be used.","One embodiment of the spherical display may display the additional data for a single point while one embodiment of the cylindrical display may display the additional data for a plurality of points.","A display may represent a function, ƒ.","The function may be defined for one or more arguments, e.g., zenith and azimuth.","The function may have a value for the arguments, e.g., typically defined as ƒ(θ,φ), where θ may be the zenith angle and φ may be the azimuth angle.","For example, a spherical display may represent a function (e.g., vs. a reflection angle in FIG.","1; and vs. a direction in FIG.","2) value corresponding to each coordinate (e.g., different arguments, zenith and azimuth) of the sphere.","The whole spherical display may correspond to a single point on a standard display.","Thus, a spherical display may represent the function (e.g., vs. a reflection angle in FIG.","1; and vs. a direction in FIG.","2) value for all polar angle values associated with a single point of the standard display.","The function value at all polar angles may be important information when using wide or full azimuth seismic data (e.g., data collected by imaging at many azimuth angles).","The spherical display may represent other image functions, such as, reflectivity, seismic amplitude, or traveltimes.","The type of additional data displayed on the sphere may be predetermined, programmed, and/or selected or modified by a user.","The cylindrical display typically represents a plurality (e.g., a line that may be vertical, tilted, curved, etc.)","of points (e.g., a gather) of the standard display.","The axial cross-section of the cylindrical display may represent a meridian gather, which may be a data set representing a plurality of image points having different depths or zenith angles, and the same azimuth angle.","In one embodiment, a plurality of spherical displays, each representing a single point of the standard display, may be combined to concurrently display a plurality (e.g., a line that may be vertical, tilted, curved, etc.)","of such points.","In one embodiment, each of the plurality of spherical displays may be flattened or projected onto a two-dimensional (2D) planar surface forming a planar (e.g., circular) disk.","In one embodiment, the planar disks bounded by 2D curved lines may be stacked or otherwise assembled or combined to form a cylinder (e.g., regular, tilted, with a curved axis, etc.)","representing the plurality (e.g., a vertical line, a tilted line, a curve, etc.)","of points of a standard model or representation of the geometry of the physical universe.","For example, the plurality of points shown in a standard model may correspond to an image gather or other object.","According to this construction, each point of a standard model may correspond to a separate spherical display.","Each spherical display may in turn correspond to a planar disk or other planar figure (e.g., the flattened sphere).","Each planar disk may in turn correspond to a point on the axis of a cylinder (e.g., as a normal cross-section of the cylinder at the point), constructed by stacking the planar disks.","A user may manipulate the view of the spherical or cylindrical displays.","For example, a user may move a cursor or mouse or other pointing or input device to select or search along a length (e.g., an axis of symmetry) of the cylinder display.","For example, when the user selects a point or location on the cylinder (e.g., along an axis of symmetry), then the cross-section (e.g., planar curve), spherical display, and/or point of the standard model, corresponding thereto, may be displayed.","The user may use the data to identify features such as subterranean faults.","For example, a user may select to scan image points, to view and display pairs of directional and reflection angle (e.g., or offset) displays corresponding to the selected image points.","The user may search for pairs of displays, where the directional display has a single or narrow range of polar angles and the reflection display has multiple or a wide range of polar angles.","Such pairs of displays may indicate, for example, that the corresponding image point is located on a fault line.","A polar angle may be, e.g., a two-dimensional vector (e.g., defined by a zenith and an azimuth angle).","A zenith is, e.g., the angle between the radius-vector (connecting the center of the sphere to that point) and the polar axis of the sphere.","An azimuth angle is, e.g., an angle between a reference direction in the equatorial plane and a projection of the radius-vector on the equatorial plane.","Other angles, directions, orientations, relationships therebetween, and/or definitions thereof, may alternatively be used.","Each of the cylindrical, spherical, and standard displays may individually show different information corresponding to the same geophysical data or subsurface space.","In some embodiments, when the cylindrical, spherical, and standard displays are simultaneously displayed (e.g., adjacently) the information of each may be compared.","For example, while the user scans a column with a cursor, a corresponding indicator may scan a standard display to indicate to the user which geophysical location is being selected.","In another embodiment, the user may select (e.g., by clicking or highlighting) a geophysical location of the standard display to be displayed as a sphere or cylinder.","The user may operate an input device (e.g., a mouse or keyboard) to manipulate, select, highlight, or otherwise indicate a seismic image point or a plurality of seismic image points corresponding to a line in a physical space.","In response to such an indication, a display may display (e.g., on a graphical user interface) a representation of the indicated data to a user.","For example, in one embodiment, a user may click or otherwise indicate a coordinate or point of the standard display and a corresponding spherical or other display may appear or “pop-up” (e.g., adjacent thereto).","Likewise, a user may select (e.g., by dragging a cursor) a line or other plurality of points and a corresponding cylindrical display may pop-up (e.g., adjacent thereto).","In a system having more than one monitor, a standard display may be displayed on one monitor, and details with specific data may appear on a second monitor or in a new separate window of the same monitor.","In other embodiments the displays may be rotated, translated, shifted, sliced, bent, rescaled, colored, zoomed and/or otherwise moved or reshaped.","It may be appreciated by one skilled in the art that although embodiments of the invention are described in terms of sphere or spherical display, other shapes may be used, e.g., ellipsoids, torus, hyperboloids, polyhedron, which may be, symmetric or asymmetric, and regular or irregular.","It may be appreciated by those skilled in the art that although embodiments of the invention are described in terms of planar disks or flattened sphere, other shapes of 2D figures may be used, e.g., ellipses and other types of conical sections, polygons, or approximations thereof, etc.","It may be appreciated by those skilled in the art that although embodiments of the invention are described in terms of cylinders, other shapes may be used, e.g., cones, prisms, pyramids, polyhedrons, etc., and/or geometric shapes having a line, or a plane of symmetry.","Reference is made to FIGS.","8A, 8B, 8C, 8D, and 8E, which are schematic illustrations of an image function defined on nodes arranged in various configurations, and maps therebetween, according to an embodiment of the invention.","The specific figures and data points in each of FIGS.","8A-8E and the relationships therebetween are not limiting.","It may be appreciated by those skilled in the art that these figures and the elements thereof are only examples and that other mechanisms, structures, relationships, mathematics, and abstractions, may be used to provide embodiments of the invention.","FIG.","8A shows an irregular discrete data set 815 representing the image function as defined on irregular nodes 810.FIG.","8B shows a regular discrete data set 825 representing the image function as defined on regular nodes 820 of a computational mesh 822.FIG.","8C shows a continuous curved three-dimensional surface 835 representing the image function as defined on spiraling nodes 830.FIG.","8D shows a curved planar surface 845, representing the image function as defined on planar nodes 840.The image function may be represented on the planar surface 845 by a two-dimensional region with a curved boundary (e.g., such as regions 365 and 465 of FIGS.","3 and 4, respectively).","FIG.","8E shows a three-dimensional body 855 representing the image function as defined on nodes 850 of a cylindrical body.","The irregular discrete data set 815, regular discrete data set 825, continuous curved three-dimensional surface 835, planar surface 845, and three-dimensional body 855 may be the values of the image function at the irregular nodes 810, regular nodes 820, spherical spiral nodes 830, planar curve nodes 840, and nodes 850 of the cylindrical body, respectively.","The image function may be any additional or other components or information.","For example, the image function may be defined vs. a reflection angle, vs. offset, and/or directional data function.","The value of the image function may be expressed, for example, as a color value on a color map.","The locations of the nodes of FIGS.","8C, 8D, and 8E typically do not correspond to the physical locations of the image points to which they correspond.","For example, a node located to the relative “right” on the continuous curved three-dimensional surface 835 of FIG.","8C may correspond to a greater azimuth angle and not necessarily to a more eastern physical location of a subsurface or geophysical region.","For example, a plurality of data points in FIGS.","8A and 8B describe a plurality of directions for a single physical point in a 3D space.","These directions are arranged irregularly in FIG.","8A and regularly in FIG.","8B.","“Regularly” arranged nodes may indicate that a horizontal line in FIG.","8B represents, e.g., a latitude line, with a fixed zenith angle and variable azimuth.","“Regularly” arranged nodes may likewise indicate that a vertical line in FIG.","8B represents, e.g., a meridian line or a subset of the meridian gather, with a fixed azimuth and variable zenith, related to a single physical point.","Other arrangements of nodes may be considered “regular”.","For example, an alternatively regular arrangement of nodes may include nodes located at the vertices of a regular polyhedron (e.g., an icosahedron, which has 12 vertices and 20 faces) inscribed into a sphere.","The vertices of the regular polyhedron may be the primary nodes of a regular grid.","The regular grid may be refined by, e.g., splitting the faces of the polyhedron into regular (e.g., but not necessarily equal) pieces for generating other (e.g., additional) nodes of the regular grid.","This alternate embodiment is, for example, described in further detail in reference to FIGS.","9A, 9B, and 9C.","Each of FIGS.","8A, 8B, 8C, and 8D typically represents the image function data corresponding to a single point (not shown) in a physical space and FIG.","8E typically represents the image function data corresponding to a plurality of image points (e.g., a line 880) in a physical space.","For example, three-dimensional body 855 may include a plurality of planar surface 845, each representing an image point on a line of a physical space.","Planar surface 845 may have a curved two-dimensional line or region for representing the image function at the image point.","For example, the center points of each of the planar surface 845 may be stacked (e.g., along the line 880) according to the locations of their corresponding image point on the line of the physical space.","A first map 860 may be used to map input data from the irregular discrete data set 815 to the regular discrete data set 825.The first map 860 may be used to normalize or regularize irregular data.","The first map 860 need not be used when the input data is already regular (e.g., defined at regularly spaced nodes of a coordinate system, where each node represents a definite polar angle, i.e., a fixed direction in three-dimensional space).","A second map 865 may be used to map input data from the regular discrete data set 825 to the continuous curved three-dimensional surface 835.Using the regular discrete data set 825, the second map 865 may be used to generate a continuous distribution of the image function for a single image point on the continuous curved three-dimensional surface 835.Data mapped to the continuous curved three-dimensional surface 835 may be represented on for example the spherical displays 100 and 200 of FIGS.","1 and 2.Operating on input data using the first and second maps 860 and 865 in order may be referred to as “gridding”.","Operating on input data using the second map 865 but not the first map 860 may be referred to as “interpolation”.","Therefore, interpolation may be a sub-operation of gridding.","First and second maps 860 and 865 are described in further detail herein, e.g., in the section titled, “Spherical Gridding”.","The construction of the nodes 820, which may be collectively referred to as a “computational mesh” 822, is described in further detail herein, e.g., in the section titled, “Computational Mesh” and in reference to FIGS.","9A, 9B, and 9C.","FIGS.","9A, 9B and 9C describe a mechanism for generating a regular mesh (e.g., computational mesh 822 of FIG.","8B).","The regular mesh may be generated on a sphere.","The mesh described in 9A, 9B, and 9C has cells of approximately equal area, or at least, cells of similar areas.","The mesh preferably does not have singularities at the poles of the sphere.","A third map 870 may be used to map input data from the continuous curved three-dimensional surface 835 to the curved two-dimensional surface of the planar surface 845.The third map 870 may be, for example, a projection map, of the continuous curved three-dimensional surface 835 or any other map for flattening or transforming or expanding the continuous curved three-dimensional surface 835 to the planar surface 845.A projection map may describe a surjective or “onto” map as are known in the art.","A projection map may describe a function for mapping data from a first coordinate space (e.g., N-dimensional) to a second (e.g., N-1 dimensional) coordinate space.","Alternately, third map 870 may be, for example, an expansion map.","The expansion map may project a three-dimensional surface into a two-dimensional surface by “unraveling” or “unfolding” the three-dimensional surface.","The third map may include other or additional projections, such as, e.g., cylindrical, pseudo-cylindrical, hybrid, conical, pseudo-conical, azimuthal (projections onto a plane), conformal, equal-area, equidistant, gnomonic, retro-azimuthal, compromise projections, or the like.","A fourth map 875 may be used to map input data from a set of the planar surfaces 845 to the three-dimensional body 855.The fourth map 875 may be used to generate a continuous distribution of the image function for a plurality of image points (e.g., corresponding to a line in a physical 3D space) on the three-dimensional body 855.Data mapped to the three-dimensional body 855 may be represented on the cylindrical displays 300 and 400 of FIGS.","3 and 4.Embodiments of the invention include operating on a discrete data set (e.g., irregular or regular discrete data sets 815 and 825, respectively) representing a single or a plurality of image points of a physical 3D space with a sequence of maps in a predetermined order (e.g., first map 860, second map 865, third map 870, and/or fourth map 875) to generate a continuous curved three-dimensional surface 835 (e.g., a sphere) and a three-dimensional body 855 (e.g., a cylinder), respectively.","It may be appreciated by those skilled in the art that maps described herein are only one example and that other maps, functions, transformations, or relationships may be used to map data between the various nodal configurations, e.g., irregular nodes 810, regular nodes 820, spiraling nodes 830, planar nodes 840, and/or cylindrical nodes 850.It may be appreciated by those skilled in the art that any map(s) may be combined or separated into other and/or different numbers of maps to perform equivalent operation(s).","It may be appreciated by those skilled in the art that nodes and the configurations thereof described herein are only one example and that configurations or arrangements or nodes other than irregular nodes 810, regular nodes 820, spherical spiral nodes 830, planar surface nodes 840, and/or cylindrical nodes 850 may be used to represent equivalent information.","Embodiments of the invention provide a system and methods for displaying continuous full-azimuth angle domain image data and/or wide-offset domain image data at a given image point of the discrete data set such as data set 815 of FIG.","8 (e.g., on the spherical displays 100 and 200 of FIGS.","1 and 2) or at a set of image points (e.g., on the cylindrical displays 300 and 400 of FIGS.","3 and 4).","The full-azimuth angle and/or wide-offset domain image data of the discrete data sets 815 and 825 may include, for example, angle domain common image gathers (ADCIG) and offset domain common image gathers (ODCIG), respectively.","Embodiments of the invention include accepting the (e.g., azimuthally) discrete data set, mapping the discrete sets of data to the continuous curved three-dimensional surface 835, for example, creating three-dimensional ADCIGs in the directional or reflection angle domains.","Embodiments of the invention include, for each image point, using, for example, spherical gridding mechanism or other methods or techniques for interpolating and extrapolating data onto a spherical or otherwise curved surface.","It may be appreciated by those skilled in the art that techniques other than spherical gridding (e.g., the first and second mappings 860 and 865 in FIG.","8) or interpolation (e.g., only the second map 865) may be used for generating spherical, cylindrical, or otherwise shaped displays for representing wide-azimuth data, as described herein.","Embodiments of the invention include projecting the data represented on the curved surface to a planar surface.","For a gather of image points (e.g., an ADCIG), embodiments of the invention include combining the data sets associated with several planar surfaces into a three-dimensional body, such as a circular cylinder or other cylinder.","It may be appreciated by those skilled in the art that shapes other than spheres and cylinders may be used.","Embodiments of the invention include a mechanism for mapping angle dependent image point data onto a spherical or otherwise curved surface, using, for example, a spherical gridding, interpolation/extrapolation or other methods.","Embodiments of the invention include displaying angle dependent image point data on a spherical or otherwise curved surface.","The image function data (e.g., the reflectivity) may be displayed as a function of the direction angles, reflection angles, and/or offsets.","Embodiments of the invention include projecting or expanding the data defined on a curved surface to the data defined on a planar surface.","Embodiments of the invention also include cylindrical displays for displaying simultaneously image data for a plurality, for example, a gather of image points (e.g., a set of image points located along a vertical line at a given horizontal location).","As described in the referred patent U.S. patent application Ser.","No.","11/798,996, full-azimuth angle gathers (e.g., ADCIGs) may be used to generate a spherical spiral geometry.","These types of gathers may be referred to as “Spiral ADCIGs”, where a directional gather may be referred to as a “Spiral-D” and a reflection gather may be referred to as a “Spiral-R”.","It may be appreciated by those skilled in the art that embodiments of the present invention may be applied to any seismic processing and imaging system.","Embodiments of the present invention may be used for generating displays and visualizations in various areas or fields, such as, for example, exploration and production of oil and gas, imaging of the shallow earth model for environmental study (e.g., using data collected using seismic and/or ground penetration radar (GPR) methods), construction engineering (e.g., to identify locations of pipes), construction safety and security (e.g., to identify holes and channels), medical imaging (e.g., using computed tomography (CT), magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and ultra-sound devices), non-destructive material inspection, inspection of internal items for security reasons (e.g., homeland security), marine sonar, and antenna and radar systems.","The Proposed Displays Reference is made to FIGS.","1-4, which are schematic illustrations of displays or visualizations of continuous data according to embodiments of the invention.","FIGS.","1 and 2 are spherical displays related to a specific image point, according to one embodiment.","FIGS.","3 and 4 are cylindrical displays related to a specific gather of image points, according to one embodiment.","The data displayed in FIGS.","1-4 may be data additional to that typically shown in standard displays.","For example, these displays may be generated at the request of a user to have a “closer look” or additional information associated with one or more data points of a geophysical region.","The additional information may include for example an image function of reflection angle, offset, and directional data for the one or more data points.","Displays 100, 200, 300, and 400 may be generated for example by the mapping of data as shown in FIGS.","8A, 8B, 8C, 8D, and 8E, although other methods of creating these displays may be used.","The input data for the displays may be discrete data set 815 or 825, for example, of an image function defined at a plurality of discrete nodes 810 and 820 of FIG.","8 (e.g., referred to as “control points”).","The location of nodes 810 and 820 may be defined by a discrete geometry.","The nodes 810 and 820 may be irregularly and regularly spaced, respectively, with respect to a coordinate system (e.g., a spiral coordinate system).","Embodiments of the invention may include a gridding mechanism (e.g., using first map 860 of FIG.","8) for normalizing the irregular discrete data set 815 to generate the regular discrete data set 825.The regular discrete data set 825 may be interpolated (e.g., using second map 865) to generate the continuous curved three-dimensional surface 835.The continuous curved three-dimensional surface 835 may represent the image function at a single image point.","In one embodiment, the discrete data set 825 of FIG.","8 may be mapped or transformed by second map 865 to a continuous surface by simulating the elastic bending of a thin shell reinforced by “springs” or elastic structures.","In one embodiment, “springs” may be data abstractions supporting the nodes of the shell at discrete control points.","For example, the “springs” may be, contracted, or expanded, to shift, “squeeze”, or reorient, the nodes 810 and/or 820 in order to provide a better coincidence of the deformed shell with the data values at the reference nodes, such as, the spiraling nodes 830 of the continuous curved three-dimensional surface 835, as described herein.","It may be appreciated by those skilled in the art that techniques other than spherical gridding and/or interpolation may be used for generating a continuous image function, as described herein.","In some embodiments, exact accuracy is not required for a gridding mechanism.","Instead, a gridding mechanism may be adjusted for achieving a balance between accuracy and a continuity of gridding.","“Springs” may be used to provide a better continuity of gridding.","It may be appreciated that the “springs” and the use and elasticity thereof, as described herein, are data abstractions and computational abstractions, and may be represented by comparable software programs or sets of instructions, mathematical equations, data value, and/or visual representations.","In some embodiments, when control points or nodes 810 and/or 820 are shifted toward the in-line or cross-line directions, there may an option to “squeeze” the computational mesh 822 (e.g., and corresponding or spherical displays 100 or 200 of FIGS.","1 and 2), for mapping the discrete nodes 810 and/or 820 to the continuous curved three-dimensional surface 835 that better fits the real image data, such as, a spheroid or a general ellipsoid with all three axes distinct (e.g., scalene ellipsoid).","In some embodiments, “squeezing” may include transforming, distorting, refitting, resizing, reshaping, or other manipulation effects to alter a shape of the continuous curved three-dimensional surface 835 and/or computational mesh 822 (e.g., as described herein) used to generate the shape.","In one embodiment, the discrete data set may be defined on discrete nodes of a spiraling geometry, for example, as described in U.S. patent application Ser.","No.","11/798,996.For example, with a spherical spiral discretization, the location of input points may be described by a single parameter, e.g., the normalized area swept by spiral coils or the normalized arc length of spiral.","The display mechanisms may include spherical gridding or other interpolation or extrapolation techniques, such as for example, local spherical interpolation, or Fourier transform on a spherical surface.","These mechanisms may map an image function defined at discrete regular or irregular nodes 810 and/or 820 onto a spherical or otherwise continuous curved three-dimensional surface 835, with a continuous distribution of the image function defined through a corresponding (e.g., “squeezed”) curved surface.","The gridding mechanisms described herein are non-limiting examples of many possible methods for transforming or a mapping a discrete data set 815 and/or 825 to a continuous curved three-dimensional surface 835.Other gridding mechanisms, maps, and/or transformations, may be used.","Spherical Gridding Objective of Spherical Gridding “Normalization” may refer to for example mapping irregular data to a regular data set (e.g., using first map 860).","“Interpolation” may refer to for example, using discrete data to generate a continuous distribution of an image function (e.g., using second map 865).","“Gridding” may refer to for example the combined steps of normalization and interpolation, for example, executed in that order.","Embodiments of the invention may include interpolating or mapping a discrete data set such as data sets 815 or 825 of FIG.","8 of an image function to a continuous image function on a continuous curved three-dimensional surface such as surface 835 (e.g., using first and/or second maps 860 and 865).","The discretely defined image function may be defined on an input grid of nodes 810 or 820.When the nodes 810 of the input grid are irregular, a standardized or uniform grid may be used to regularize or normalize the input grid to generate an output grid of nodes 820 defining a continuous image function.","For example, the data in the input grid that differs from the uniform grid may be adjusted to fit (e.g., using first map 860).","The input grid may be for example a spiral coordinate system.","The output grid may be a conventional spherical mesh with constant resolutions in zenith and azimuth, or any other conventional visualization mesh on a spherical surface or other curved surface.","Other grids may be used.","Embodiments of the invention include a gridding mechanism to interpolate an image function at a point onto a continuous spherical, ellipsoidal, or otherwise curved three-dimensional surface 835 (e.g., using second map 865).","The curved three-dimensional surface 835 may be displayed as spherical displays 100 and 200 representing the reflection angle image function and the directional data, respectively, in FIGS.","1 and 2, for a single point.","The interpolated image functions for each point may be flattened or projected to the curved two-dimensional surface of planar surface 845 (e.g., using third map 870), for a single point.","A plurality of curved two-dimensional planar surfaces 845, each representing the image function at a point, may be stacked along the line 880 to form a cylindrical or other three-dimensional body 855 (e.g., using fourth map 875), representing the image function at a plurality of points.","The three-dimensional body 855 may be displayed as displays such as cylindrical displays 300 and 400 representing the reflection angle image function and the directional data, respectively in FIGS.","3 and 4, for a plurality of points.","The position at which each of planar surfaces 845 is stacked along the line 880 may, for example, correspond to the relative spatial arrangement of the image point represented thereby.","Thus, a user may scan the line 880 in a direction (e.g., “upward”) to display cross-sections of the cylindrical display (e.g., as planar surfaces 845 or corresponding three-dimensional surfaces 835 unflattened by an inverse map of 870) of the image function at different image points of the physical universe in a corresponding (e.g., “upward”) direction.","The initial image function may be defined at discrete control points (e.g., irregular or regular nodes 810 or 820).","Embodiments of the invention provide first and/or second map 860 and/or 865 to generate a continuous distribution of the image function on a curved three-dimensional surface 835 from input points of the discrete data set 815 or 825.The components of the polar angles (e.g., zenith and azimuth) of the input (e.g., control) points may be presented in, e.g., a Cartesian coordinate system or a spherical coordinate system (e.g., at the nodes of a spherical or ellipsoidal spiral), or other coordinate systems.","The input points may have any locations, may be regularly or irregularly spaced, and may be arranged in any suitable order or sequence.","The output function may be a continuous image function defined at any point or at all points of the spherical or ellipsoidal surface, or at all points of a part of the surface (e.g., such as a spherical hemisphere or “ellipsoidal cap”).","It may be appreciated that different positions on the curved three-dimensional surface represent a single physical point in a 3D space and a plurality of directions corresponding to the point.","At the control points (e.g., irregular nodes 810), the output values may coincide or nearly coincide with the input data.","In some embodiments, an adjusting parameter (e.g., such as weights of the data at the control points) may be applied to the interpolation map (e.g., as part of the first map 860) for balancing the benefits of continuity (e.g., smoothness) of the distribution and accuracy of the solution to the image function at the control points (e.g., achieving a best fit for matching the input and output data of the interpolation function).","In some embodiments, the output image function may be generated to exactly match the control or input data.","Alternatively, the output image function need not exactly match the input image function.","In such embodiments, when the exact fit requirement is relaxed, the output image function may be a more smooth and continuous distribution of the mapped function through the curved surface with smaller gradients.","Gridding may include simulating the elastic bending of a thin shell or computational mesh 822 of FIG.","8B, reinforced by springs.","This model is only one of a variety of possible approaches, and other models and approaches may be used.","It may be appreciated by those skilled in the art that the shell and the springs are abstractions, and that there is no real physical structure that comprises shell and springs.","The spring abstraction may be located at the nodes of control points.","Typically, an exact match between the interpolated (e.g., output) function and the input function at the control points is not required.","The spherical gridding method may be used to interpolate image data, for example, when the angle domain is not fully illuminated.","Spherical Gridding in the Local Angle Domain The system of incident and reflected waves (e.g., or ray pairs) defining a geophysical region may be defined by the directional and reflection subsystems of the local angle domain (LAD).","The directional system may include two components of polar angles describing the zenith (e.g., dip) and the azimuth angles of the normal to the reflection surface element.","The reflection system may include two components describing an opening angle between incident and reflected rays and an opening azimuth or alternatively, an offset magnitude and an offset azimuth, where the offset is specified on the earth's surface.","Together, the directional and reflection subsystems may define the position of each image point in the LAD.","For each image point, two angle domain imaging systems may be created, e.g., the directional and reflection subsystems.","Other than two angle domain imaging systems may be used.","Both imaging systems may be defined on a curved surface, such as, the unit sphere (e.g., the reflection subsystem in FIG.","1; the direction subsystem in FIG.","2).","A point on the curved surface may be defined by two components of the polar angle (e.g., the zenith and azimuth).","Each point in the direction system on the spherical surface may correspond to a certain direction of the inward normal to the reflection element, with all possible reflection angles and their azimuths summed Each point in the reflection system on the spherical surface may correspond to a certain opening angle and opening azimuth, with all possible directions of the ray pair normal summed up.","Other subsystems, angles, components, or relationships thereof may be used.","Principles of Spherical Gridding The term “interpolating” may be used for example to describe estimating function values at (e.g., arbitrary or specific) points between nodes, where the nodes or control points may be evenly or regularly spaced.","The term “gridding” may be used for example to describe interpolating, where the nodes may be irregularly spaced.","Thus, gridding may be a more general form of interpolation and interpolation may be considered a stage of the gridding procedure.","In the interpolation problem, a function may be defined at evenly (e.g., or at least regularly) spaced grid nodes of an n-dimensional space.","In the gridding problem, the input points may be irregularly spaced (e.g., not necessarily at the grid nodes).","In one embodiment of the gridding technique, an input mesh may not exist and the input control points may be an unordered or random collection of points in a finite (e.g., or bounded) space.","In this embodiment, the gridding mechanism may generate a continuous distribution of a function estimating all points of the finite space.","The gridding procedure may include generating a regular computational mesh, e.g.","822 (e.g., and the values of an image function estimated at the spiraling nodes 830) and interpolating the image function between mesh nodes 830 for generating a continuous output image function.","The input image function may be fit exactly, or alternatively, approximately, to the output image function.","When the input and output data are fit to match less than perfectly, the output data may be fit to be more continuous (e.g., having fewer and/or less drastic discontinuities).","When generating the regular computational mesh 822, the unknowns may be the nodal values of the image function.","Between the nodes, the function behavior may be defined by, for example, interpolation polynomials.","To find the nodal values, the energy of the surface defined by the image function may be minimized, for example, taking into account the control values, either exactly (e.g., to generate the exact output values at the control points), or using additional energy terms (e.g., for greater continuity).","When an image function is displayed on a surface such as continuous curved three-dimensional surface 835, e.g., as a thin elastic shell, shell elastic displacements may be modeled by the image function, and the energy per unit area (e.g., the specific energy) may be approximated by the curvature of the shell squared.","The surface defined by the image function (e.g., having minimized energy) may be an elastically deformed surface that initially (e.g., before deformation) had a spherical, an ellipsoidal, or another curved form.","The surface may be supported by pre-stretched springs at the locations of control data points.","In such embodiments, the input data may be approximately fit.","Alternatively, normal displacements may be specified at the control points.","In such embodiments, the input data may be exactly fit.","After the grid values at nodes 820 are established for generating for example the computational mesh 822, the same interpolation polynomials may be used for interpolation to estimate the image function values at arbitrary points between the regularly spaced nodes 820 of the computational mesh 822, for example, at nodes 830 of the spiraling geometry, or at the other nodes.","Therefore the stages of interpolation, e.g., generating the computational mesh 822 and interpolating the image function along the mesh, are typically related.","Gridding through a planar or curved surface (spherical, ellipsoidal, etc.)","may provide the function values at the spiraling nodes 830 or control points as well as partial derivatives (gradient components) of the function at the control points.","For an ellipsoidal surface, the partial derivatives of the function at the control points may be the derivative of the image function with respect to the zenith and having a constant azimuth, with respect to the azimuth and having a constant zenith, or with respect to the azimuth and having a constant vertical coordinate (e.g., which may be a different embodiment for a scalene ellipsoid).","In addition, the derivative of the input function may be determined in any arbitrary direction on a curved surface.","Computational Mesh The complexity of a computational mesh used with embodiments of the invention, such as the computational mesh 822, may be defined by for example the number of recursion levels used to generate the mesh.","The mesh may be generated on the unit sphere or any other n-dimensional space.","When the three-dimensional curved surface is different from the unit sphere (e.g., an ellipsoid) the mesh may be generated on the unit sphere and then formed into another (e.g., ellipsoidal) shape.","Reference is made to FIGS.","9A, 9B, and 9C, which are schematic illustrations of stages of constructing a computational mesh according to embodiments of the invention, such as the computational mesh 822, according to an embodiment of the invention.","The computational mesh 822 (e.g., the generated mesh) is regular, and may or may not be uniform.","The specific figures and mechanism described in reference to FIGS.","9A-9C are not limiting.","It may be appreciated by those skilled in the art that these figures and the elements thereof are only examples and that other mechanisms, structures, relationships, mathematics, and abstractions, may be used to provide embodiments of the invention.","In one exemplary embodiment, the computational mesh 822 of FIG.","8C may be initially formed from a polyhedron 900 of FIG.","9A, such as, a regular icosahedron with (e.g., 12) vertices 902, (e.g., 20) triangular faces 904 and (e.g., 30) edges 906, e.g., inscribed in a sphere 910.This geometry may correspond to the zero recursion level for generating a computational mesh such as the computational mesh 822.Other shapes, polyhedrons, and numbers may be used.","To obtain the next level of recursion, in FIG.","9B, flat triangular faces 904 may be replaced by spherical triangles 912 (e.g., having curved face and/or edges).","For example, points A, B and C are vertices 902 of an arbitrary one of triangular faces 904.Point O is the center of the sphere 910 and lines OA, OB, and OC are radii of the sphere 910.Lines AB, BC, and CA, the edges of the triangular faces 904 of the polyhedron 900 (e.g., icosahedron), may be replaced by curved approximations of the lines 918, such as, arcs of “great circles” (or geodesic curves).","To obtain the next level of recursion, in FIG.","9C, each spherical triangle ABC 912 may be split by medians into (e.g., four) derivative spherical triangles: (e.g., three) peripheral triangles 916 (of the same area), labeled TA, TB and TC and (e.g., one) central triangle 914 (of different area), labeled TM in FIG.","9C.","For example, in FIG.","9C new points 930, MAB, MBC and MAC, e.g., the centers of spherical arcs AB, BC, and AC, respectively, may form additional vertices 902, triangular faces 904, and edges 906 forming a new polyhedron, e.g., different from polyhedron 900 (e.g., having more vertices, faces, and edges).","Each new edge 906 may yield an additional node 930, for example, giving a polyhedron with e.g., 42 nodes (of course other numbers of nodes may be used).","Such a procedure may be repeated multiple times, e.g., each time the level of recursion increasing by one.","For the last (e.g., highest) level of recursion, the spherical triangles 912 may be approximated by flat triangular faces 904.The gridding may be modeled by bending deformations of a three-dimensional spatial elastic shell consisting of the flat triangular faces 904 (e.g., corresponding to the last level of recursion).","As the number of recursions increases, the polyhedron 900 converges to approximate the sphere 910 of FIG.","9A.","At a certain recursion level (e.g., 4 or 5, although other numbers may be used), the surface of the polyhedron 900 may be determined to be sufficiently close to spherical.","The vertices 902 of the polyhedron 900 of FIG.","9A may be the nodes 820 of the computational mesh 822 of FIG.","8B.","The spherical shell may be simulated to be resting on pre-loaded springs located at the control points.","Thus, the spring locations need not necessarily coincide with the mesh nodes.","The direction of the force exerted by a spring may be normal to the spherical or the ellipsoidal surface at the control point.","The elastic displacements at the shell nodes may be calculated, for example, by the Finite Element Method.","The nodes 830 may be numerated globally, for example, in a specific manner: first the “north pole”, having the highest z coordinate, then the nodes of the northern hemisphere having the next z level and other z levels, then the equator, the levels of the southern hemisphere, and finally the south pole, having the lowest z coordinate.","This numeration method may yield a small or minimal band width of a resolving matrix.","Other numberings, and other methods of global numbering, may be used.","The whole sphere or ellipsoid need not be analyzed at once.","In some embodiments, the input data (e.g., the control points) may be located within a definite range of zenith angles, for example, that do not exceed a pre-defined maximum zenith value.","In such embodiments, only a part of the whole surface (e.g., a spherical or an ellipsoidal cap) may be analyzed.","In embodiments when the reflection subsystem includes the offset value and the offset azimuth (e.g., instead of the opening angle and the opening azimuth), gridding may be performed on a flat (e.g., planar) surface (e.g., instead of a spherical surface).","Since angle gather data typically corresponds to different directions at an image point or at a set of image points (e.g., along a vertical line), different directions at a single point may be represented by a curved surface, such as a spherical surface.","In contrast, an offset gather (e.g., or the specific physical location in depth thereof) typically corresponds to different lateral shifts between the source and the receiver on the surface of the Earth.","These shifts typically have, e.g., two Cartesian components, x and y, and the Earth surface and are represented by a planar or flat surface.","Northern and southern hemispheres are relative terms describing regions above and below an equator (e.g., the widest circumference of an oriented body), respectfully.","Similarly, terms such as equator, meridian, south, north, vertical, horizontal, lateral, perpendicular, or other orienting terms are relative terms, depending on a viewer's perspective or vantage point.","Spherical Display Reference is again made to FIGS.","1 and 2, which show spherical displays, related to a specific image point, for the reflection and directional subsystems, respectively.","The output data for the displays 100 and 200 (e.g., of continuous curved three-dimensional surface 835 of FIG.","8C) may be specified at the nodes of spherical or ellipsoidal surface (e.g., spiraling nodes 830 of FIG.","8C).","The shape of the displays 100 and 200 may be determined by the construction of the computation mesh 822 of FIG.","8B (e.g., as described in reference to FIGS.","9A, 9B, and 9C).","The displays may be for example continuous spherical or ellipsoid surfaces, or portions (e.g., a cap) thereof.","In some embodiments, there may be a plurality or range of colors that corresponds to the range of the image function values.","The surfaces of the displays may have a color or other visual indication at each point corresponding to the image function value at that point.","In FIGS.","1 and 2, different colors are represented by differently shaded (e.g., cross-hatched) regions 165 and 265, respectively.","The display may provide numerical output values (e.g., corresponding to the representative color value) at any point of the curved surface, for example, when the point is selected or highlighted by a user.","The display may provide the input values corresponding to the interpolated or gridded displayed output values, for example, for comparison between the input and the output values at the control points.","The accuracy of the gridding and the visualization may be defined for example, by the computational complexity and the visualization complexity.","The computational complexity may be the number of recursion levels of the computational mesh 822.The visualization complexity may be a similar number, for example, of the sectioning of the graphics grid.","Typically, these two numbers coincide, or are close.","The display may be rotated, shifted, zoomed, enlarged, sectioned, inverted, or otherwise transformed or translated.","Cylindrical Display Reference is again made to FIGS.","3 and 4, which show cylindrical displays 300 and 400, each related to a plurality of image points, for the reflection and directional subsystems, respectively.","Each of cylindrical displays 300 and 400 may be formed as an assemblage of multiple planar disks (e.g., curved two-dimensional planar surface 845 of FIG.","8D by the fourth map 875).","Each planar disk may be formed by projecting the continuous curved three-dimensional surface 835 (e.g., a sphere, ellipsoid, or otherwise 3D curved surface) onto a plane or 2D space.","Each curved 3D surface may represent a point (e.g., having a physical location in the Cartesian coordinate system).","Thus, each 3D body or cylindrical displays 300 and 400 may represent a plurality of points (e.g., each having a unique depth).","The cylindrical displays may represent image points defined by coordinates other than depth.","In one embodiment, cylindrical displays 300 and 400 may display substantially simultaneously a plurality (for example, a gather) of image points, in an integrated display.","For example, each display 300 and 400 may correspond to a set of two or more image points with substantially the same lateral location and substantially different depths.","Consider several directional displays (e.g., FIG.","2) or reflection displays (e.g., FIG.","1) in spherical/ellipsoidal spiral coordinate system.","A display may correspond to a gather of image points with the same lateral location and different depths.","Initially the parameters of these spirals (e.g., elevation, maximum zenith angle, segment area, etc.)","may be different.","Thus, there may be several different spiral representations of the computed data (e.g., image function), corresponding to different depths of the gather nodes.","In addition, there may be a visualization spiral to which parameters may be assigned.","The maximum zenith angle of the visualization spiral may be the largest maximum zenith angle for all gather nodes at different depths.","To construct a common cylindrical display 300 and/or 400 for all image points of the gather, the computed data may be regularized or normalized to fit the nodes of the visualization spiral.","Regularization may be carried out for each individual node in depth, and may include, for example, two stages.","First, gridding may be performed for the input data at the control points with specific angular locations, corresponding to the given input or non-regularized spiral.","The input spirals may be different for different depths.","For the reflection subsystem gather, the maximum zenith angle (e.g., the maximum opening angle) typically decreases with depth.","Theoretically, the maximum opening angle may vanish at infinite depth.","After gridding, the values of the image function may be determined or scanned at any point of the spherical or ellipsoidal surface.","In one embodiment, the values of the image function may be “read” at the nodes of the visualization spiral (e.g., nodes 830 of the continuous curved three-dimensional surface 835 of FIG.","8C).","The visualization spiral may be the same for all nodes (e.g., all depth indices) of the gather.","Alternatively, the visualization spiral may be differently shaped or have different nodal arrangements or ordering at one or more different nodes at depths of the gather, for example, to accommodate for inconsistent data.","A gridding technique may be performed independently for each spherical or ellipsoidal surface (e.g., of FIGS.","1 and 2) (e.g., for each node in depth).","Alternatively, a gridding technique may be performed simultaneously, one time, or according to the same parameters, for the whole gather or portion thereof.","The latter method may increase the computational complexity of gridding, but may provide a more continuous vertical distribution of the image function.","In one embodiment, the visualization spiral data set for each node of the gather may be mapped to a continuous distribution, generating a spherical or ellipsoidal display.","The spherical or ellipsoidal display generated for each vertical node of the gather may be projected, flattened or expanded, into a planar circular, elliptic or elliptic-like, or otherwise planar 2D region.","In one embodiment, the polar radius of a point on the curved 2D region may be equal or proportional to the zenith angle on the spherical display.","The azimuth values of the points on the 3D spherical and flattened 2D displays are typically the same.","Note that for the reflection subsystem representing the offset magnitude and the offset azimuth, each single-node of the gather may be originally defined on a planar surface, and need not be projected or expanded onto a plane.","A set of planar displays (e.g., circular or planar curved-line non-circular) created for the nodes of the gather with the same lateral location and different vertical locations may form each cylindrical display 300 and/or 400.In one embodiment, reflection and directional subsystem cylindrical displays 300 and 400 may include horizontal cross sections 320 and 420 and vertical cross sections 330 and 430 thereof, respectively.","Horizontal cross sections 320 and 420 may be normal to axes 310 and 410, respectively, and vertical cross sections 330 and 430 may be parallel to axes 310 and 410, respectively.","Each horizontal cross section 320 and 420 may be, for example, a projected, flattened, or reduced dimensional representation of reflectivity and directional spherical displays 100 and 200, respectively.","Horizontal cross sections 320 and 420 may include regions 365 and 465.Regions 365 and 465 may be, for example, projected, flattened, or reduced dimensional representation of reflectivity vs. reflection and directional component angles of regions 165 and 265, respectively, for an image point.","A color map including a plurality of colors may correspond to a range of the image function values.","In FIGS.","3 and 4, different colors are represented by differently shaded regions 365 and 465, respectively.","The color map may be the same color map as used for the spherical displays in FIGS.","1 and 2 for the corresponding image point of the gather.","Alternatively, a different color map may be used.","Other methods of displaying image function values may be used, such as e.g., grayscale, brightness, luminosity, cross-hatching, etc.","A user may view displays on a graphical user interface (e.g., graphical user interface 182a and/or 182b of FIG.","7).","Horizontal cross section 320 and 420 may correspond to a specific image point of the gather (e.g., with a specific vertical location).","Horizontal cross sections 320 and 420 may show the reflectivity function in, for example, a range of or all spatial directions.","Vertical cross sections 330 and 430 may include information related to a gather of points, for a range of zenith angles, and for a specific or single azimuth value.","The cylindrical radius 332 (e.g., of the meridian gather), corresponding to the amplitude of an image function, may vary along the length of the vertical axis 310.For example, in vertical cross sections 330, the cylindrical radius 332 may decay or reduce as the depth or axis 310 coordinate increases.","Thus, for a limited acquisition area or a limited distance between the source and the receiver, the maximum possible opening angle between the incident and the reflected rays typically decrease with increasing depth and, for example, a zenith angle approaching an infinite depth may vanish (e.g., or approach a negligent or zero value).","For the directional subsystem, along vertical cross section 430, the maximum zenith angle may also decay with depth.","Cylindrical radius 332, axes 310 and 410, image function, etc.","may be viewed on the cylindrical displays 300 and 400, respectively, or as separate data points or graphs.","In another embodiment, this data may be hidden or revealed according to a selection by a user.","Although displays of three-dimensional bodies shaped as cylinders are described herein, it may be appreciated by the one skilled in the art that differently shaped three-dimensional bodies may be used to concurrently represents data associated with a plurality of image points.","For example, a plurality of spherical surface displays, each representing data associated with a single point, may be assembled into shapes other than cylinders.","In one embodiment, each of the spherical surface displays may be resized, e.g., to a different graded size (monotonically increasing or decreasing in size).","Each resized spherical surface may be nested according to its size to form a solid sphere.","For example, the smallest spherical surface may be an interior surface of the solid sphere and a largest spherical surface may be an exterior of the solid sphere).","The resizing of each spherical surface (e.g., enlarging or decreasing) may be considered a projection map onto a differently sized spherical surface (e.g., larger and smaller, respectively).","In one embodiment, there may be a minimum size for the smallest spherical surface, e.g., for that surface to contain and display (with proper resolution as to be useful to a user) the data associated with a single seismic image point.","In this embodiment, the spherical three-dimensional body or solid may be hollow, e.g., having no data at a radii less than the radius of the smallest spherical surface.","In other embodiments, the smallest spherical surface may be a point and the spherical body or solid may not be hollow.","In such embodiments, the smallest one or more spherical surface may be used as placeholders.","Since the smallest spherical surface are typically too small to visualize data associated therewith with proper resolution, a separate display may provide this data (e.g., as a full size spherical surface in a “pop-up” window).","Other shapes for the (e.g., solid) three-dimensional body may include a hyperboloid, ellipsoid, and polyhedron, e.g., which may be assembled from a plurality of nested hyperbolic surfaces, elliptical surfaces, and polyhedron surfaces, respectively, (e.g., each of differently graded size).","A three-dimensional body may define a solid object in a three-dimensional coordinate space.","A three-dimensional surface may define a two-dimensional manifold, e.g., in a three-dimensional coordinate space.","Other definitions of surfaces and bodies may be used.","Spherical displays 100 and 200 of FIGS.","1 and 2, respectively, are typically three-dimensional surfaces and cylindrical displays 300 and 400 of FIGS.","3 and 4, respectively, are typically three-dimensional body.","Example of Workflow Reference is again made to FIGS.","5 and 6, which are flowcharts of methods, according to embodiments of the invention.","For example, FIG.","5 describes operations for generating and displaying spherical displays (e.g., shown in FIGS.","1 and 2) and cylindrical displays (e.g., shown in FIGS.","3 and 4), according to one embodiment.","Other embodiments may be used to create such displays.","The flowcharts describe an example of workflow for data processing and data visualization, for example, using spherical and cylindrical displays.","It may be appreciated by the one skilled in the art that this workflow is only an example, among a variety of other possible sequences of operations, and this workflow example does not limit the invention.","Referring to FIG.","5, in operation 500, a seismic acquisition system (e.g., system 700 of FIG.","7) may collect seismic data.","Other data, such as medical imaging data or industrial imaging data, may be collected, processed, and displayed.","In operation 510, a processor (e.g., processor 140 of FIG.","7) may generate a discrete data set (e.g., discrete data set 815 or 825 of FIGS.","8A and 8B) representing an image function for an image point.","The discrete data set may include seismic data gathers traced from the acquired seismic data.","The seismic data gathers may be, for example, discrete azimuthally dependent angle and/or offset domain gathers for the directional and/or reflection subsystems.","Other data or types of gathers may be used.","In operation 520, the processor may normalize (or grid) an irregular data set (e.g., irregular discrete data set 815 of FIG.","8A) (e.g., using the first map 860).","For example, a computational mesh (e.g., computational mesh 822) may be generated along which data nodes (e.g., nodes 820) or control points of the discrete data set may be regularly or evenly spaced.","This operation may be skipped if the nodes or control points of the discrete data set are already regularly or evenly spaced.","In operation 530, the processor may, for each gather node, and for each subsystem (e.g., the directional and reflection subsystems), apply an interpolation technique (e.g., using the second map 865), to obtain the values of the image function between the regularly spaced nodes of the mesh (e.g., on the continuous curved three-dimensional surface 835).","In operation 540, for selected gather nodes, and for each of the subsystems, the processor may plot the image function on a spherical or otherwise curved surface (e.g., spherical displays 100 and 200, of FIGS.","1 and 2, respectively).","The displayed color map or other map may include a continuous distribution of the image function through the spherical or otherwise curved surface (e.g., continuous curved three-dimensional surface 835).","In operation 550, for each gather node, the processor may (e.g., using the third map 870), project, flatten, or expand the image date defined on the spherical surface or otherwise curved surface, onto a planar surface 845 (e.g., a circular or other disk) such as a circular or non-circular planar disk.","In operation 560, for each of the two subsystems, the processor may assemble planar disks having the projected image date (e.g., using the fourth map 875).","The data defined with planar surfaces for each gather node may be combined to form a three-dimensional body (e.g., three-dimensional body 855) such as a circular or non-circular cylinder.","In operation 570, the processor may display the three-dimensional body (e.g., cylindrical displays 300 and 400, of FIGS.","3 and 4, respectively).","In operation 580, the processor may generate axial cross sections (e.g., 330 and 430 of FIGS.","3 and 4, respectively) of the three-dimensional body (e.g., of cylindrical displays 300 and 400, respectively) for arbitrary azimuths selected by a user.","Each axial cross section may represent a single-azimuth image gather including multiple zenith angles (e.g., or offset magnitudes) within a given range, and multiple gather nodes in depth.","Other operations or series of operations may be used.","Referring to FIG.","6, in operation 600, a first display (e.g., display 180a of FIG.","7) may show a standard display of image points (e.g., seismic data) as a visualization of a geophysical region.","The first display may be a visualization of an image function vs. location.","For example, each point may be defined by three components, such as, Cartesian components of the point, and a color corresponding to a function value at each point.","While specific displays (e.g.","FIGS.","1-4) and data structures are described, other displays and data structures may be used with embodiments of the invention.","In operation 610, an input device may receive point selected or indicated by a user.","The user may indicate (e.g., by clicking or highlighting) the physical location of one image point or a plurality of image points (e.g., determined to be located along a line in a physical space, e.g.","a vertical line) of the standard display to be displayed as a sphere or cylinder.","Points may be “determined” to be located instead of “actually” located, since geophysical simulations typically have less than full (100%) accuracy.","In response to such an indication, a display may display (e.g., on the graphical user interface) a representation of the indicated data to a user.","In operation 620, in response to receiving indications of one or more seismic image points from a user, a second display (e.g., display 180b of FIG.","7) may display (e.g., on graphical user interface 182b), one or a plurality (e.g., a gather) of image points, of one or more components of data in addition to the data displayed in operation 600 (e.g., on graphical user interface 182a).","The second display may be a visualization of the image function vs. additional component, such as, an orientation on the spherical display, or a location (e.g.","vertical) and orientation on the cylindrical display.","When data for one image point is displayed, the display may include spherical displays 100 and/or 200 of FIGS.","1 and 2.When data for a plurality of image point or seismic image gather (e.g., corresponding to a line or curve in a physical space) is displayed, the display may include cylindrical displays 300 and 400 of FIGS.","3 and 4.The additional component data displays (e.g., on graphical user interface 182b) may be displayed with or adjacent to a standard display or visualization of a geophysical region (e.g., on graphical user interface 182a).","While two displays or monitors are shown, this is by way of example only, and only one or more than two monitors may be used, and further only one type of data need be displayed at one time.","For example, a “standard” 3D display need not be displayed, but rather specific components.","In one embodiment, the cylindrical display (e.g., 300 and/or 400, of FIGS.","3 and 4) may be viewed as a partially hollowed structure.","Alternatively, the display may be (e.g., initially) solid and when operated on or manipulated by a user, may become transparent to reveal data not shown on the outside surface of the solid structure.","For example, only one planar disk may be displayed at a time.","The other disks may be hidden so that they do not obstruct a view of the single displayed disk.","In other embodiments, two or more disks may be simultaneously displayed.","For example, a user may indicate a point (e.g., along the line 880) on the cylinder and in response to the indication, the display may display the disk having that point.","Data corresponding to the hidden disks, e.g., the maximum cylindrical radius 332 (e.g., of the meridian gather), corresponding to the maximum zenith angle of the image function of a disk varying along the length of the vertical axis 310, may be displayed.","The cylindrical radius 332 of the meridian gather may be a simple indication of the image function of disks that are not displayed.","A user may for example compare the detailed image function of the single displayed disk to the simplified representation of the image function (e.g., a maximum cylindrical radius 332 representing maximum zenith angle of the meridian gather) of the hidden disks, e.g., to identify trends or compare image function or component values among disks.","Other portions of the displays may be hidden or revealed and the hidden or revealed structures may be changeable, e.g., controlled at least in part by a user operating an input device.","For example, when displaying cylindrical display (e.g., 300 and/or 400, of FIGS.","3 and 4), a user may request (e.g., by right clicking or selecting an appropriate icon) to hide or to reveal axes 310 and/or 340, planar nodes 840 (e.g., e.g., overlaid on corresponding planar disks), and/or cylindrical nodes 850 (e.g., e.g., overlaid on the corresponding cylindrical displays).","For example, when displaying spherical display (e.g., 100 and/or 200, of FIGS.","1 and 2), a user may request to hide or to reveal computational mesh 822, or an output mesh thereof, e.g., spiraling nodes 830, etc.","The user may request additional information to reveal the physical space (e.g., by color, highlighting, arrow pointers, etc.)","to which a selected one or more image points are determined to be located (e.g., on the first display of operation 600).","Additional data may be shown, e.g., the number of iterations used to generate a computational mesh 822 or a visualization of the stages of the recursive construction (e.g., from an first stage polygon having a relatively few number of faces to a last stage polygon having a relatively large number of faces and closely approximating a sphere to within a predetermined threshold of error compared to the next iteration).","Other data, such as, maximum cylindrical radius 332 of a line of points such as the meridian gather, color maps, axes 310 and 410, locations of image points on the cylindrical display and/or in a physical space, image function values, color maps, etc.","may be viewed on the display or as separate data points or graphs.","This data may be hidden or revealed according to a selection by a user.","In one embodiment, a cylindrical display (e.g., 300 and/or 400, of FIGS.","3 and 4) may display components of image data corresponding to two subsystems (e.g., reflection angle or offset and direction).","The cylindrical display may include multiple stacked planar disks, each flattened from a spherical display (e.g., 100 and/or 200, of FIGS.","1 and 2), each spherical display representing an image function for a different point of an image gather.","The cylindrical display may thus correspond to an image gather.","Displays other than a cylindrical display may be used, such as cones, pyramids, funnels, conical or cylindrical portions or sections, etc.","The user may, for example, analyze the pair of reflection (e.g., or offset) and directional displays corresponding to the same point.","A pair of displays including a directional display having a single or narrow range of values and a reflection angle (e.g., or offset) display having multiple or a wide range of values the image point may indicate that the image point lies on a fault line.","Thus, operations 610 to 620 may be repeated, for example, as a user indicate other image points (e.g., scanning image points), to view corresponding pairs of directional and reflection angle (e.g., or offset) displays to discover the locations of image points that fall on fault lines.","Other benefits may be realized.","Other operations or series of operations may be used.","Example of a System Reference is made to FIG.","7, which is a schematic illustration of a system, including a transmitter, a receiver and a computing system in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention.","System 700 may be used, for example, to display image data, such as, for example, seismic data, in a spherical displays (e.g., of FIGS.","1 and 2) and/or cylindrical displays (e.g., of FIGS.","3 and 4) and/or displays of a standard or physical space.","Data other than seismic data may be used with embodiments of the present invention.","System 700 may perform embodiments of any of the methods discussed herein, and/or other operations or computations.","System 700 may, for example, display a standard display or visualization of physical space (e.g., a geophysical space, a medical image), and in addition or as an alternate option for a user, displays such as but not limited to spherical or cylindrical displays, which may display details or additional component data which may have been used to build the standard visualization.","System 700 may include for example a transmitter 110, a receiver 120, a computing system 130, and one or more displays 180a and 180b.","In a system having more than one monitor or display, a standard display or visualization of a physical space may be displayed on one display (e.g., display 180a), and spherical or cylindrical displays displaying details or additional component data may appear on a second display (e.g., display 180b).","However, one display may be used for displaying one or more types of information (e.g., a standard display and/or a display including additional component data).","Transmitter 110 may output any suitable signals, or generate incident signal(s).","For example, a series of sonic or seismic energy rays or waves may be emitted from each of multiple locations.","Receiver 120 may accept reflected signal(s) that correspond or relate to incident signals, sent by transmitter 110.In the case of imaging in other areas, e.g., medical imaging, transmitter 110 may output energy such as ultrasound, magnetic, x-ray, or other suitable energy.","Computing system 130 may include, for example, processor 140, memory 150 and software 160.Processor 140 may process data, for example, raw data received from receiver 120.Memory 150 may store data, for example, raw or processed seismic data.","Operations executed according to embodiments of the invention, such as for example, mapping, projecting, interpolating, gridding, generating a computational mesh, estimating, approximating, displaying, etc.","may be at least partially executed, operated or calculated, for example, by an operator (e.g., implemented in software 160).","Other units or processors may perform such operations, or other operations according to embodiments of the present invention.","Displays 180a and/or 180b (e.g., such as monitors or screens) may display to a user or viewer spherical or cylindrical displays representing data from transmitter 110, receiver 120, computing system 130, or any other suitable systems, devices, or programs, for example, an imaging program or software, or a transmitter or receiver tracking device.","Displays 180a and/or 180b may include one or more inputs for displaying data from multiple data sources.","The system may include multiple displays.","Displays 180a and/or 180b may display images produced from data.","For example, displays 180a and/or 180b may display representations or visualizations of seismic or other imaging data, for example, angle dependent CIGs, processes according to embodiments described herein.","Displays 180a and 180b may include for example one or more graphical user interfaces 182a and 182b, respectively.","The displays may, in response to an indication, from a user operating the input device 170, of one or more seismic image points or a line of a physical space, display the graphical user interfaces 182a and/or 182b.","The display may, for example, display direction data, data for a plurality of directions, and/or an image function vs. the direction, associated with the indicated seismic image point.","The graphical user interfaces 182a and/or 182b may enable a user to view the results of their input (e.g., operating the input device 170) or interact with the displays for selecting points, requesting additional data, setting graphical parameters, selecting to hide or reveal graphical structures, etc.","Computing system 130 may include, for example, one or more input device(s) 170 (e.g., such as a keyboard and/or mouse) for receiving command, selections, or signals (e.g., from a user or other external device).","Computing system 130 may include, for example, any suitable processing system, computing system, computing device, processing device, computer, processor, and the like, and may be implemented using any suitable combination of hardware and/or software.","Processor 140 may include, for example, one or more processors, controllers or central processing units (“CPUs”).","Software 160 may be stored, for example, all or in part, in memory 150.Software 160 may include any suitable software, for example, for processing or imaging according to embodiments of the present invention.","Processor 140 may operate at least partially based on instructions in software 160.Embodiments of the invention may include a computer readable storage medium, such as for example a memory, a disk drive, or a “disk-on-key”, including instructions which when executed by a processor or controller, carry out methods disclosed herein, or cause the processor to carry out such methods.","Software 160 may be stored on the computer readable storage medium.","System 700 may, for example, display images of target surfaces, for example, using software 160 and/or processor 140, or other components such as dedicated image or signal processors.","Such displays may be used and analyzed for example, for determining the locations of image points that lie on faults or other geological discontinuities or points of interest.","System 700 may, for example, display a seismic image data point.","The spatial features of the seismic data point (e.g., a zenith and azimuth angles, a relative location, and/or other spatial coordinates within a larger subsurface region) may be represented in a standard display of a conventional (e.g., Cartesian or polar) coordinate system.","Processor 140 may, for example, compute, from a wide-azimuth data set, a discrete data set (e.g., 815 or 825 of FIGS.","8A and 8B, respectively) associated with an image function at a seismic image point in a three-dimensional coordinate system.","The processor 140 may map (e.g., by interpolation or gridding) the discrete data set onto a continuous curved three-dimensional surface (e.g., 835 of FIG.","8C).","Processor 140 may generate a computational mesh (e.g., according to operation 520 of FIG.","5).","The computational mesh (e.g., computational mesh 822 of FIG.","8B) may include regularly spaced nodes (e.g., nodes 820).","Processor 140 may grid (e.g., or interpolate) the input data onto the computational mesh (e.g., according to operation 530 of FIG.","5).","For example, processor 140 may map the discrete data set onto the continuous curved three-dimensional surface, for example, by estimating the values of the image function at the nodes of the computational mesh and at points between the regularly space nodes of the computational mesh.","Processor 140 may generate the computational mesh starting from a primary polyhedron inscribed into a sphere and then splitting its spherical triangles in a recursive manner, as described in the previous sections.","Other relationships or maps between the spatial coordinates and the continuous curved three-dimensional surface may be used.","Displays 180a and/or 180b may display the continuous curved three-dimensional surface as a sphere, an ellipsoid, a spherical cap, and an ellipsoidal cap, or otherwise curved 3D surface (e.g., such as spherical displays 100 and/or 200 of FIGS.","1 and 2, respectively).","Processor 140 may, for example, project the mapped data set onto a continuous curved two-dimensional surface (e.g., a planar disk).","Displays 180a and/or 180b may display the projected data as a planar disk.","The outer boundary of the planar disk may be, for example, a closed curve, including a circle, an ellipse, or another closed curve, or an otherwise 2D surface (e.g., such as displays of planar surface 845 of FIG.","8D).","The radii of the points on the planar disk may, for example, correspond to zenith angles of the discrete data set or to offset magnitudes of the discrete data set.","Processor 140 may, for example, assemble the plurality of continuous planar surfaces into a three-dimensional body (e.g., 855 of FIG.","8E).","Displays 180a and/or 180b may display the three-dimensional body as a cylinder, a cone, a truncated cone, or otherwise curved 3D body (e.g., such as cylindrical displays 300 and/or 400 of FIGS.","3 and 4, respectively).","The arguments of the image function represented on the continuous curved three-dimensional surface may include, for example, direction angles, reflection angles, offsets (e.g., defined by offset magnitudes and azimuths) of, e.g., wide-azimuth data collected during geophysical exploration, and/or other or additional components not typically shown on a standard display.","Although these additional components may be combined or processed to provide spatial features of the image point, each of the additional components typically do not show a location of the image point in a geophysical space.","System 700 may, for example, display a seismic image gather.","Processor 140 may generate, from a wide-azimuth data set, a plurality of discrete data sets (e.g., 815 or 825 of FIGS.","8A and 8B, respectively).","Each discrete data set may be associated with an image function of one of a plurality of seismic image data points determined to be located along a line in a physical space.","Each of the plurality of seismic image data points determined to be located along a line in a physical space may correspond to a seismic image gather representing a plurality of zenith angles and a single azimuth angle.","Processor 140 may grid each of the discrete data sets onto a continuous curved three-dimensional surface.","Processor 140 may project each of the gridded data sets onto a continuous curved two-dimensional surface.","Processor 140 may assemble the plurality of continuous curved two-dimensional surface into a three-dimensional body.","Processor 140 may assemble the plurality of continuous curved two-dimensional surfaces into a three-dimensional body along an axis (e.g., line 880 of FIG.","8E) of symmetry of the body.","Displays 180a and/or 180b may display the three-dimensional body.","The three-dimensional body for concurrently representing data associated with the line of points.","The three-dimensional body may be, e.g., such a cylinder (e.g., such as cylindrical displays 300 and/or 400 of FIGS.","3 and 4, respectively), a cone, a funnel, or a pyramid.","An input device (e.g., input device 170 of FIG.","7) may receive indications from a user of a seismic image point or a line (e.g., of seismic image points) in a physical space.","The display may, in response to the indication of the seismic image point from a user operating the input device, display a graphical user interface (e.g., graphical user interface 182b of FIG.","7) comprising projected data derived from the discrete data set associated with the indicated seismic image point.","The display may, in response to an indication of the line from a user operating the input device, display a graphical user interface (e.g., graphical user interface 182b) including the three-dimensional body derived from the discrete data set associated with the plurality of seismic image data points determined to be located along the indicated line.","One embodiment of the invention may include displaying wide-azimuth seismic image data mapped from a first coordinate system to a reduced dimensional coordinate system for reducing the dimensionality of the data set.","The reduced dimensional coordinate system may be for example, as described in U.S. patent application Ser.","No.","11/798,996.A display may include a spiraling geometry.","According to one embodiment, the reduced dimensional data may be displayed on spherical surfaces for the reflection angle (FIG.","1) and directional (FIG.","2) subsystems of the LAD.","These displays may be projected and assembled to form reduced dimensional cylindrical displays in the reduced dimensional coordinate space.","The foregoing description of the embodiments of the invention has been presented for the purposes of illustration and description.","It is not intended to be exhaustive or to limit the invention to the precise form disclosed.","It should be appreciated by persons skilled in the art that many modifications, variations, substitutions, changes, and equivalents are possible in light of the above teaching.","It is, therefore, to be understood that the appended claims are intended to cover all such modifications and changes as fall within the true spirit of the invention."]],"string":"[\n [\n \"DEVICE AND METHOD FOR DISPLAYING FULL AZIMUTH ANGLE DOMAIN IMAGE DATA\",\n \"A device, system, and method for displaying seismic image data may include computing, from a wide-azimuth data set, a discrete data set associated with an image function at a seismic image point.\",\n \"The discrete data set may be mapped onto a continuous curved three-dimensional surface.\",\n \"The mapped data set may be projected onto a continuous planar surface.\",\n \"The projected data may be displayed as a planar disk.\",\n \"A plurality of continuous planar surfaces, each representing a single image point, may be assembled to form a three-dimensional body, representing a seismic gather of image points.\",\n \"The three-dimensional body may be displayed.\",\n \"Other embodiments are described and claimed.\"\n ],\n [\n \"1.A method for displaying data representing a single seismic image data point of subsurface geological structures, the method comprising: computing, from a wide-azimuth data set, a discrete data set including multiple azimuths associated with an image function at the single seismic image point; mapping the discrete data set onto a continuous curved three-dimensional surface; displaying the mapping of the discrete data set computed from wide-azimuth data representing the single seismic image data point of the subsurface geological structures on the continuous curved three-dimensional surface.\",\n \"2.The method of claim 1, wherein the discrete data set is mapped from a first coordinate system to the continuous curved three-dimensional surface in a reduced dimensional coordinate system to reduce the dimensionality of the discrete data set.\",\n \"3.The method of claim 1, wherein the discrete data set comprises zenith angles and azimuth angles, wherein each distinct pair of zenith and azimuth angles of the discrete data set corresponds to a point of the continuous curved three-dimensional surface.\",\n \"4.The method of claim 1 comprising defining a computational mesh with regularly spaced nodes on the continuous curved three-dimensional surface, and mapping the discrete data set onto the continuous curved three-dimensional surface by estimating the values of the image function at the nodes of the computational mesh and at points between the regularly spaced nodes of the computational mesh.\",\n \"5.The method of claim 1 comprising defining the discrete data set on discrete nodes of a spiraling geometry.\",\n \"6.The method of claim 5 comprising performing a spherical spiral discretization to define the location of input points by a normalized area swept by spiral coils or a normalized arc length of the spiraling geometry.\",\n \"7.The method of claim 1, wherein the continuous curved three-dimensional surface is selected from the group consisting of: a sphere, an ellipsoid, a spherical cap, and an ellipsoidal cap.\",\n \"8.The method of claim 1, wherein displaying comprises, in response to an indication of a location of a seismic image point by a user, displaying to the user the image function vs. the direction associated with the indicated seismic image point.\",\n \"9.The method of claim 1 comprising: projecting the mapped data set onto a continuous planar surface; and displaying the projection of wide-azimuth data on a planar disk representing the single seismic image data point.\",\n \"10.The method of claim 1, comprising: generating a plurality of continuous planar surfaces representing data associated with a plurality of respective seismic image data points determined to be located along a line in a physical space; assembling the plurality of continuous planar surfaces into a three-dimensional body; and displaying the three-dimensional body for concurrently representing data associated with the line of points.\",\n \"11.A system for displaying data representing a single seismic image data point of subsurface geological structures, the system comprising: a processor configured to: compute, from a wide-azimuth data set, a discrete data set including multiple azimuths associated with an image function at the single seismic image data point, and map the discrete data set onto a continuous curved three-dimensional surface; and a display to display the mapped discrete data set computed from wide-azimuth data representing the single seismic image data point of the subsurface geological structures on the continuous curved three-dimensional surface.\",\n \"12.The system of claim 11, wherein the processor is configured to map the discrete data set from a first coordinate system to the continuous curved three-dimensional surface in a reduced dimensional coordinate system to reduce the dimensionality of the discrete data set.\",\n \"13.The system of claim 11, wherein the processor is configured to compute the discrete data set to include zenith angles and azimuth angles, such that each distinct pair of zenith and azimuth angles of the discrete data set corresponds to a point of the continuous curved three-dimensional surface.\",\n \"14.The system of claim 11, wherein the processor is configured to define a computational mesh with regularly spaced nodes on the continuous curved three-dimensional surface, and map the discrete data set onto the continuous curved three-dimensional surface by estimating the values of the image function at the nodes of the computational mesh and at points between the regularly spaced nodes of the computational mesh.\",\n \"15.The system of claim 11, wherein the processor is configured to define the discrete data set on discrete nodes of a spiraling geometry.\",\n \"16.The system of claim 15, wherein the processor is configured to perform a spherical spiral discretization to define the location of input points by a normalized area swept by spiral coils or a normalized arc length of the spiraling geometry.\",\n \"17.The system of claim 11, wherein the continuous curved three-dimensional surface is selected from the group consisting of: a sphere, an ellipsoid, a spherical cap, and an ellipsoidal cap.\",\n \"18.The system of claim 11, wherein the processor is configured to display by, in response to an indication of a location of a seismic image point by a user, displaying to the user the image function vs. the direction associated with the indicated seismic image point.\",\n \"19.The system of claim 11, wherein the processor is configured to project the mapped data set onto a continuous planar surface and display the projection of wide-azimuth data on a planar disk representing the single seismic image data point.\",\n \"20.The system of claim 11, wherein the processor is configured to: generate a plurality of continuous planar surfaces representing data associated with a plurality of respective seismic image data points determined to be located along a line in a physical space, assemble the plurality of continuous planar surfaces into a three-dimensional body, and display the three-dimensional body for concurrently representing data associated with the line of points.\"\n ],\n [\n \" BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION A transmitter located on the earth's surface or elsewhere may transmit signals, such as acoustic waves, compression waves or other energy rays or waves that may travel through subsurface structures.\",\n \"The transmitted signals may become incident signals that are incident to subsurface structures.\",\n \"The incident signals may reflect at various transition zones or geological discontinuities throughout the subsurface structures.\",\n \"The reflected signals may include seismic events.\",\n \"Seismic events including, for example, primary (P) waves and shear (S) waves (e.g., transverse waves in which particle motion may be perpendicular to the direction of propagation of the wave) may be used to image subsurface geological structures, for example, transition surfaces or geological discontinuities.\",\n \"A receiver may collect and record data, for example, reflected seismic events.\",\n \"Surveys may use large numbers of transmitters and receivers to record signals across large geophysical regions.\",\n \"Seismic surveyed regions may, for example, extend to several hundred square kilometers.\",\n \"In some surveys, the distance between transmitters and receivers may be, for example, about twenty meters, transmitted signals may travel up to about ten kilometers, and frequencies of transmitted signals may be about fifty Hertz.\",\n \"Other values or parameters may be used.\",\n \"Recorded data may be collected over intervals of time, for example, ten second intervals, and may be digitized every 4 milliseconds, although other parameters are also possible.\",\n \"For example, the receiver may collect and/or record several tens or hundreds of terabytes of data.\",\n \"Once collected, the recorded data may be stored and/or transmitted to a storage or data processing device such as a memory, server or computing system.\",\n \"Some seismic acquisition methods, such as multi-azimuth or wide-azimuth data acquisition methods, may significantly increase the number of transmitted and received signals used in order to enhance the illumination of reservoirs below complex structures and increase the precision of geophysical detection.\",\n \"For such methods, single parameters (e.g., pressure or vertical displacement) or multiple parameters (e.g., pressure and three displacement components) may be recorded.\",\n \"Both P waves and S waves may be recorded.\",\n \"Other types of waves and other data may be recorded.\",\n \"Such methods may increase the amount of data recorded for imaging subsurface regions.\",\n \"To accommodate the increased amount of data, systems that record, process, image, or otherwise use the data may require increased storage size, increased speed for access to input and/or output devices, and/or high performance computation (HPC) hardware or the like.\",\n \"Such systems may provide computationally and/or power intensive services.\",\n \"Exploration of geophysical regions may include imaging the subsurface earth, using seismic data recorded from surveying regions, in order to locate for example hydrocarbon reservoirs.\",\n \"Seismic imaging methods, which may be referred to as seismic migrations, may be classified for example into two main categories: wave equation migrations and ray-based Kirchhoff migrations.\",\n \"Both types of migrations may be used to generate images of the subsurface of the earth.\",\n \"Wave equation migration mechanisms may use numerical solutions to the wave equation to extrapolate the recorded wavefields into the subsurface of the earth.\",\n \"At each level of depth, imaging conditions may be applied to the incident and reflected wavefields.\",\n \"Ray-based Kirchhoff migrations may be performed in two stages: ray tracing and imaging.\",\n \"Ray tracing may model the propagation of waves (e.g., rays), for example, in a direction from a surface towards an image point in a subsurface region, and/or in a direction from an image point in a subsurface region towards a surface.\",\n \"Ray attributes, such as traveltimes, ray trajectories, slowness vectors, amplitude and phase factors, may be computed along the traced rays.\",\n \"In the imaging stage, the ray attributes may be used to obtain an image of the earth's subsurface from the recorded seismic data.\",\n \"Both wave equation and ray-based Kirchhoff migrations may generate common image gathers (CIGs).\",\n \"CIGs may include multiple image traces at a given lateral location.\",\n \"Each image trace may be generated using a portion of the recorded data that has a common geometrical attribute.\",\n \"For example, an offset domain common image gather (ODCIG) may include multiple image traces, where each trace may be constructed using seismic data points with the same offset or distance between a source and receiver on the earth's surface.\",\n \"An angle domain common image gather (ADCIG) may include multiple image traces, where each trace may be constructed using seismic data points with the same opening angle between the incident and reflected rays at the reflection point.\",\n \"CIGs generated using traces that share a single azimuth may image geophysical structures with insufficient accuracy.\",\n \"For example, anisotropy effects show that images obtained from different azimuth angles may be significantly different.\",\n \"Imaging geophysical structures, such as faults, small vertical displacements, and sub-seismic scale fractures (e.g., fractures measuring less than tens of meters, which may be below the resolution for detection of typical receivers or other detection instruments), with desired accuracy, may require imaging along substantially each azimuth angle (which may be referred to for example as full-azimuth imaging).\",\n \"Wide-azimuth seismic data may be especially valuable for imaging, for example, below salt dome or salt laden structures, such as those in the Gulf of Mexico.\",\n \"Imaging geophysical structures using, for example, three-dimensional (multi-azimuth) CIGs, instead of commonly used two-dimensional (e.g., single or narrow azimuth) CIGs, may improve image accuracy and provide additional information about the structures.\",\n \"For example, three-dimensional ODCIGs may include multiple image traces that have substantially different azimuth angles on the earth's surface, in addition to substantially different source-receiver offsets.\",\n \"The offset may be a two-dimensional vector, for example, having values for in-line and cross-line components, or a length and an azimuth.\",\n \"Similarly, three-dimensional ADCIGs may include multiple image traces that have substantially different opening azimuth angles at the reflecting surface, in addition to substantially different opening angles.\",\n \"The opening angle may be, e.g., an angle between the incident and reflected rays, measured at the reflection point corresponding thereto.\",\n \"The opening azimuth angle may be, e.g., the azimuth of the normal to a plane that passes through the incident and the reflected rays.\",\n \"Other angles may alternatively be used.\",\n \"Although three-dimensional CIGs may increase imaging accuracy, they may also increase the computational complexity of imaging, visualization, and/or interpretation systems using such gathers.\",\n \"Operation of three-dimensional CIGs may also require extensive memory and storage capacity.\",\n \"CIGs may be used, for example, in the kinematic and dynamic analysis of subsurface structures.\",\n \"For example, kinematic analysis may be used to build and update geophysical models using tomography mechanisms.\",\n \"Tomography mechanisms may be used to find a set of model parameters that substantially minimize travel time errors along specular rays (e.g., ray-pairs that obey principles of Snell's law at the reflecting surfaces).\",\n \"The travel time errors may for example be measured from the differences between locations of the reflection events along the CIGs.\",\n \"Substantially each reflection event within a given CIG may be related to a specific depth.\",\n \"If a “true” reflector (e.g., a reflection surface element) is located at a definite depth and the model parameters are “correct”, then the reflector elements are typically at the same depth irrespectively of the reflection angle or the offset indicated by the specific trace.\",\n \"When reflection events are not located at substantially the same depth (e.g., when reflection events along the CIGs are not substantially flat), the measured or picked differences between the reflection depths of different reflection events may be used to estimate the travel time errors along the specular rays associated with each trace.\",\n \"A model may be substantially correct when the seismic reflection events along the CIGs are substantially horizontally flat.\",\n \"In order to obtain an accurate model, for example, using an anisotropy model representation, specular rays and the corresponding travel time errors from varying opening angles (or e.g., offsets) for example, from substantially all azimuths may be used.\",\n \"In some embodiments, such three-dimensional CIGs may provide information about the azimuthal dependent travel time errors.\",\n \"Dynamic analysis may include determining physical and/or material parameters or properties of target subsurface structures using changes in the amplitude and phase of reflected signals measured, for example, along the CIGs.\",\n \"Multi-azimuth CIGs may make it possible to perform azimuthal analysis of amplitude variations with respect to the opening angle (or e.g., offset), which may result in an accurate reconstruction of anisotropy parameters and small scale fractures.\",\n \"Imaging other than seismic or subsurface imaging for the exploration and production of oil and gas, such as for example, shallow seismic imaging for environmental studies, archeology and construction engineering, may be performed.\",\n \"These other methods may similarly generate large amounts of data and have large computational needs.\",\n \"Other types of imaging, such as medical imaging, may also use a relatively large number of transmitters and detectors and therefore may also use a relatively large amount of data, which may require large storage and intensive computational efforts.\",\n \"The prior patent application Ser.\",\n \"No.\",\n \"11/798,996, describes efficient use, storage, processing, imaging, analysis, visualization and interpretation of the rich azimuth data in reduced dimensional coordinate system.\",\n \"In some other imaging applications, the rich azimuth data are decomposed into few (e.g., up to eight) azimuthal sectors.\",\n \"A need exists for displaying the discrete data, stored for example in reduced dimensional coordinate system, or the azimuthally sectorized data, in a continuous full dimensional coordinate system.\"\n ],\n [\n \" SUMMARY Embodiments of the invention may include computing, from a wide-azimuth data set, a discrete data set associated with an image function at a seismic image point.\",\n \"The discrete data set may be mapped onto a continuous curved three-dimensional surface.\",\n \"The mapped data set may be projected onto a planar surface.\",\n \"A plurality of continuous planar surfaces, each representing a single image point, may be assembled to form a three-dimensional body, representing a seismic gather of image points.\",\n \"The three-dimensional body may be displayed.\",\n \"Other embodiments are described and claimed.\"\n ],\n [\n \"RELATED APPLICATION DATA This application is a continuation application of U.S. patent application Ser.\",\n \"No.\",\n \"15/600,485, filed on May 19, 2017, which is a continuation application of U.S. patent application Ser.\",\n \"No.\",\n \"15/262,124, filed on Sep. 12, 2016, which is a continuation application of U.S. patent application Ser.\",\n \"No.\",\n \"14/260,778, filed on Apr.\",\n \"24, 2014, which is a continuation application of U.S. patent application Ser.\",\n \"No.\",\n \"14/046,327, filed on Oct. 4, 2013, which is a continuation application of U.S. patent application Ser.\",\n \"No.\",\n \"12/663,326, filed on Dec. 7, 2009, which is a national phase application of International Application No.\",\n \"PCT/US2008/066041, filed on Jun.\",\n \"6, 2008, which in turn claims the benefit of prior U.S. provisional application No.\",\n \"60/924,972, filed on Jun.\",\n \"7, 2007, all of which are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety.\",\n \"FIELD OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to the representation and display of image data, such as multi-dimensional angle domain seismic data or other angle-related three dimensional data.\",\n \"BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION A transmitter located on the earth's surface or elsewhere may transmit signals, such as acoustic waves, compression waves or other energy rays or waves that may travel through subsurface structures.\",\n \"The transmitted signals may become incident signals that are incident to subsurface structures.\",\n \"The incident signals may reflect at various transition zones or geological discontinuities throughout the subsurface structures.\",\n \"The reflected signals may include seismic events.\",\n \"Seismic events including, for example, primary (P) waves and shear (S) waves (e.g., transverse waves in which particle motion may be perpendicular to the direction of propagation of the wave) may be used to image subsurface geological structures, for example, transition surfaces or geological discontinuities.\",\n \"A receiver may collect and record data, for example, reflected seismic events.\",\n \"Surveys may use large numbers of transmitters and receivers to record signals across large geophysical regions.\",\n \"Seismic surveyed regions may, for example, extend to several hundred square kilometers.\",\n \"In some surveys, the distance between transmitters and receivers may be, for example, about twenty meters, transmitted signals may travel up to about ten kilometers, and frequencies of transmitted signals may be about fifty Hertz.\",\n \"Other values or parameters may be used.\",\n \"Recorded data may be collected over intervals of time, for example, ten second intervals, and may be digitized every 4 milliseconds, although other parameters are also possible.\",\n \"For example, the receiver may collect and/or record several tens or hundreds of terabytes of data.\",\n \"Once collected, the recorded data may be stored and/or transmitted to a storage or data processing device such as a memory, server or computing system.\",\n \"Some seismic acquisition methods, such as multi-azimuth or wide-azimuth data acquisition methods, may significantly increase the number of transmitted and received signals used in order to enhance the illumination of reservoirs below complex structures and increase the precision of geophysical detection.\",\n \"For such methods, single parameters (e.g., pressure or vertical displacement) or multiple parameters (e.g., pressure and three displacement components) may be recorded.\",\n \"Both P waves and S waves may be recorded.\",\n \"Other types of waves and other data may be recorded.\",\n \"Such methods may increase the amount of data recorded for imaging subsurface regions.\",\n \"To accommodate the increased amount of data, systems that record, process, image, or otherwise use the data may require increased storage size, increased speed for access to input and/or output devices, and/or high performance computation (HPC) hardware or the like.\",\n \"Such systems may provide computationally and/or power intensive services.\",\n \"Exploration of geophysical regions may include imaging the subsurface earth, using seismic data recorded from surveying regions, in order to locate for example hydrocarbon reservoirs.\",\n \"Seismic imaging methods, which may be referred to as seismic migrations, may be classified for example into two main categories: wave equation migrations and ray-based Kirchhoff migrations.\",\n \"Both types of migrations may be used to generate images of the subsurface of the earth.\",\n \"Wave equation migration mechanisms may use numerical solutions to the wave equation to extrapolate the recorded wavefields into the subsurface of the earth.\",\n \"At each level of depth, imaging conditions may be applied to the incident and reflected wavefields.\",\n \"Ray-based Kirchhoff migrations may be performed in two stages: ray tracing and imaging.\",\n \"Ray tracing may model the propagation of waves (e.g., rays), for example, in a direction from a surface towards an image point in a subsurface region, and/or in a direction from an image point in a subsurface region towards a surface.\",\n \"Ray attributes, such as traveltimes, ray trajectories, slowness vectors, amplitude and phase factors, may be computed along the traced rays.\",\n \"In the imaging stage, the ray attributes may be used to obtain an image of the earth's subsurface from the recorded seismic data.\",\n \"Both wave equation and ray-based Kirchhoff migrations may generate common image gathers (CIGs).\",\n \"CIGs may include multiple image traces at a given lateral location.\",\n \"Each image trace may be generated using a portion of the recorded data that has a common geometrical attribute.\",\n \"For example, an offset domain common image gather (ODCIG) may include multiple image traces, where each trace may be constructed using seismic data points with the same offset or distance between a source and receiver on the earth's surface.\",\n \"An angle domain common image gather (ADCIG) may include multiple image traces, where each trace may be constructed using seismic data points with the same opening angle between the incident and reflected rays at the reflection point.\",\n \"CIGs generated using traces that share a single azimuth may image geophysical structures with insufficient accuracy.\",\n \"For example, anisotropy effects show that images obtained from different azimuth angles may be significantly different.\",\n \"Imaging geophysical structures, such as faults, small vertical displacements, and sub-seismic scale fractures (e.g., fractures measuring less than tens of meters, which may be below the resolution for detection of typical receivers or other detection instruments), with desired accuracy, may require imaging along substantially each azimuth angle (which may be referred to for example as full-azimuth imaging).\",\n \"Wide-azimuth seismic data may be especially valuable for imaging, for example, below salt dome or salt laden structures, such as those in the Gulf of Mexico.\",\n \"Imaging geophysical structures using, for example, three-dimensional (multi-azimuth) CIGs, instead of commonly used two-dimensional (e.g., single or narrow azimuth) CIGs, may improve image accuracy and provide additional information about the structures.\",\n \"For example, three-dimensional ODCIGs may include multiple image traces that have substantially different azimuth angles on the earth's surface, in addition to substantially different source-receiver offsets.\",\n \"The offset may be a two-dimensional vector, for example, having values for in-line and cross-line components, or a length and an azimuth.\",\n \"Similarly, three-dimensional ADCIGs may include multiple image traces that have substantially different opening azimuth angles at the reflecting surface, in addition to substantially different opening angles.\",\n \"The opening angle may be, e.g., an angle between the incident and reflected rays, measured at the reflection point corresponding thereto.\",\n \"The opening azimuth angle may be, e.g., the azimuth of the normal to a plane that passes through the incident and the reflected rays.\",\n \"Other angles may alternatively be used.\",\n \"Although three-dimensional CIGs may increase imaging accuracy, they may also increase the computational complexity of imaging, visualization, and/or interpretation systems using such gathers.\",\n \"Operation of three-dimensional CIGs may also require extensive memory and storage capacity.\",\n \"CIGs may be used, for example, in the kinematic and dynamic analysis of subsurface structures.\",\n \"For example, kinematic analysis may be used to build and update geophysical models using tomography mechanisms.\",\n \"Tomography mechanisms may be used to find a set of model parameters that substantially minimize travel time errors along specular rays (e.g., ray-pairs that obey principles of Snell's law at the reflecting surfaces).\",\n \"The travel time errors may for example be measured from the differences between locations of the reflection events along the CIGs.\",\n \"Substantially each reflection event within a given CIG may be related to a specific depth.\",\n \"If a “true” reflector (e.g., a reflection surface element) is located at a definite depth and the model parameters are “correct”, then the reflector elements are typically at the same depth irrespectively of the reflection angle or the offset indicated by the specific trace.\",\n \"When reflection events are not located at substantially the same depth (e.g., when reflection events along the CIGs are not substantially flat), the measured or picked differences between the reflection depths of different reflection events may be used to estimate the travel time errors along the specular rays associated with each trace.\",\n \"A model may be substantially correct when the seismic reflection events along the CIGs are substantially horizontally flat.\",\n \"In order to obtain an accurate model, for example, using an anisotropy model representation, specular rays and the corresponding travel time errors from varying opening angles (or e.g., offsets) for example, from substantially all azimuths may be used.\",\n \"In some embodiments, such three-dimensional CIGs may provide information about the azimuthal dependent travel time errors.\",\n \"Dynamic analysis may include determining physical and/or material parameters or properties of target subsurface structures using changes in the amplitude and phase of reflected signals measured, for example, along the CIGs.\",\n \"Multi-azimuth CIGs may make it possible to perform azimuthal analysis of amplitude variations with respect to the opening angle (or e.g., offset), which may result in an accurate reconstruction of anisotropy parameters and small scale fractures.\",\n \"Imaging other than seismic or subsurface imaging for the exploration and production of oil and gas, such as for example, shallow seismic imaging for environmental studies, archeology and construction engineering, may be performed.\",\n \"These other methods may similarly generate large amounts of data and have large computational needs.\",\n \"Other types of imaging, such as medical imaging, may also use a relatively large number of transmitters and detectors and therefore may also use a relatively large amount of data, which may require large storage and intensive computational efforts.\",\n \"The prior patent application Ser.\",\n \"No.\",\n \"11/798,996, describes efficient use, storage, processing, imaging, analysis, visualization and interpretation of the rich azimuth data in reduced dimensional coordinate system.\",\n \"In some other imaging applications, the rich azimuth data are decomposed into few (e.g., up to eight) azimuthal sectors.\",\n \"A need exists for displaying the discrete data, stored for example in reduced dimensional coordinate system, or the azimuthally sectorized data, in a continuous full dimensional coordinate system.\",\n \"SUMMARY Embodiments of the invention may include computing, from a wide-azimuth data set, a discrete data set associated with an image function at a seismic image point.\",\n \"The discrete data set may be mapped onto a continuous curved three-dimensional surface.\",\n \"The mapped data set may be projected onto a planar surface.\",\n \"A plurality of continuous planar surfaces, each representing a single image point, may be assembled to form a three-dimensional body, representing a seismic gather of image points.\",\n \"The three-dimensional body may be displayed.\",\n \"Other embodiments are described and claimed.\",\n \"BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The principles and operation of the system, apparatus, and method according to embodiments of the present invention may be better understood with reference to the drawings and the following description, it being understood that these drawings are given for illustrative purposes only and are not meant to be limiting.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"1 is a schematic illustration of a spherical display of reflection angle data associated with a single image point, according to an embodiment of the invention; FIG.\",\n \"2 is a schematic illustration of a spherical display of the directional data, associated with a single image point, according to an embodiment of the invention; FIG.\",\n \"3 is a schematic illustration of a cylindrical display of reflection angle data associated with a plurality of image points, according to an embodiment of the invention; FIG.\",\n \"4 is a schematic illustration of a cylindrical display of directional data associated with a plurality of image points, according to an embodiment of the invention; FIGS.\",\n \"5 and 6 are flowcharts of methods, according to embodiments of the invention; FIG.\",\n \"7 is a schematic illustration of a system, according to an embodiment of the invention; FIGS.\",\n \"8A, 8B, 8C, 8D, and 8E, are schematic illustrations of an image function defined on nodes arranged in various configurations, and maps therebetween, according to an embodiment of the invention; and FIGS.\",\n \"9A, 9B, and 9C, are schematic illustrations of stages of constructing a computational mesh, according to an embodiment of the invention.\",\n \"For simplicity and clarity of illustration, elements shown in the drawings have not necessarily been drawn to scale.\",\n \"For example, the dimensions of some of the elements may be exaggerated relative to other elements for clarity.\",\n \"Further, where considered appropriate, reference numerals may be repeated among the drawings to indicate corresponding or analogous elements throughout the serial views.\",\n \"DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION Introduction In the following description, various aspects of the present invention will be described.\",\n \"For purposes of explanation, specific configurations and details are set forth in order to provide a thorough understanding of the present invention.\",\n \"However, it will also be apparent to one skilled in the art that the present invention may be practiced without the specific details presented herein.\",\n \"Furthermore, well known features may be omitted or simplified in order not to obscure the present invention.\",\n \"Unless specifically stated otherwise, as apparent from the following discussions, it is appreciated that throughout the specification discussions, utilizing terms such as “processing,” “computing,” “calculating,” “determining,” or the like, refer to the action and/or processes of a computer or computing system, or similar electronic computing device, that manipulates and/or transforms data represented as physical, such as electronic, quantities within the computing system's registers and/or memories into other data similarly represented as physical quantities within the computing system's memories, registers or other, such as information storage, transmission or display devices.\",\n \"The term “display” may be used herein to describe a visual representation and/or a device for depicting such a representation and/or a method or an algorithm for such representation.\",\n \"In addition, the term “plurality” may be used throughout the specification to describe two or more components, devices, elements, parameters and the like.\",\n \"Seismic data may include or represent seismic events (or e.g., signals) that reflect and/or diffract at discontinuous objects and/or continuous horizons.\",\n \"Continuous horizons may include, for example, interfaces between geological layers.\",\n \"Discontinuous objects may include, for example, small scale diffractors, faults, or small scale fractures.\",\n \"Seismic data collected and/or calculated for seismic imaging may be complicated and rich with information.\",\n \"For example, seismic data may include multiple components, e.g., traveltimes, offsets, zenith angles, azimuth angles, reflection angles, directions, etc.\",\n \"Each image point may be computed or defined using multiple components.\",\n \"Each image point may have a value for each of the multiple components.\",\n \"However, it may be impractical to display all of the component values for all of these components at once to a user.\",\n \"For example, if each component is represented in a distinct dimension of a three dimensional (3D) display, at most three of these components may be displayed at once to a user, or the multiple component values may be used to create the three components of the 3D display, and thus the actual source component values may not be displayed.\",\n \"A standard display may be any a visual representation of the spatial properties of the physical universe.\",\n \"In one embodiment, a standard 3D display may represent a geophysical space using, for example, three components per data point, such as, two Cartesian components of the data point location and a function value at each point.\",\n \"In this embodiment, the image function ƒ may be presented as a curved 3D surface in the Cartesian space, ƒ=ƒ(x, z), where x may be the lateral coordinate and z may be depth.\",\n \"In another embodiment, all three of the components for each data point of a 3D standard display may be used to specify a spatial location of the data point.\",\n \"Each function value ƒ(x, y, z), where x and y may be two lateral coordinates and z may be depth, at each point may alternatively be represented by one of a plurality of colors or intensities.\",\n \"In each of these embodiments, a standard display typically shows only a subset of the multiple components to provide a general or simplified overview of a geophysical area being studied.\",\n \"A user may want to view additional or other components or information not typically shown in a standard display.\",\n \"For example, a user may want to view reflection angles and/or directional data at each point, or at a selected point or set of points.\",\n \"A pair of reflection angle and directional displays for a point, where the directional display has a single or narrow range of polar angles and the reflection display has multiple or a wide range of polar angles, may indicate that the image point lies on a fault line.\",\n \"Thus, it may be desirable to concurrently view reflection angle and directional data corresponding to an image point.\",\n \"These methods may be used for geophysical exploration using reflection angle gathers and directional gathers.\",\n \"Other features may be determined by values of certain components.\",\n \"Embodiments of the present invention provide a mechanism for displaying information different from that displayed with the standard display using various types of displays.\",\n \"For example, a “spherical” display (e.g., FIGS.\",\n \"1 and 2) and a “cylindrical” display (e.g., FIGS.\",\n \"3 and 4) may be used.\",\n \"Shapes other than spherical and cylindrical displays may be used.\",\n \"One embodiment of the spherical display may display the additional data for a single point while one embodiment of the cylindrical display may display the additional data for a plurality of points.\",\n \"A display may represent a function, ƒ.\",\n \"The function may be defined for one or more arguments, e.g., zenith and azimuth.\",\n \"The function may have a value for the arguments, e.g., typically defined as ƒ(θ,φ), where θ may be the zenith angle and φ may be the azimuth angle.\",\n \"For example, a spherical display may represent a function (e.g., vs. a reflection angle in FIG.\",\n \"1; and vs. a direction in FIG.\",\n \"2) value corresponding to each coordinate (e.g., different arguments, zenith and azimuth) of the sphere.\",\n \"The whole spherical display may correspond to a single point on a standard display.\",\n \"Thus, a spherical display may represent the function (e.g., vs. a reflection angle in FIG.\",\n \"1; and vs. a direction in FIG.\",\n \"2) value for all polar angle values associated with a single point of the standard display.\",\n \"The function value at all polar angles may be important information when using wide or full azimuth seismic data (e.g., data collected by imaging at many azimuth angles).\",\n \"The spherical display may represent other image functions, such as, reflectivity, seismic amplitude, or traveltimes.\",\n \"The type of additional data displayed on the sphere may be predetermined, programmed, and/or selected or modified by a user.\",\n \"The cylindrical display typically represents a plurality (e.g., a line that may be vertical, tilted, curved, etc.)\",\n \"of points (e.g., a gather) of the standard display.\",\n \"The axial cross-section of the cylindrical display may represent a meridian gather, which may be a data set representing a plurality of image points having different depths or zenith angles, and the same azimuth angle.\",\n \"In one embodiment, a plurality of spherical displays, each representing a single point of the standard display, may be combined to concurrently display a plurality (e.g., a line that may be vertical, tilted, curved, etc.)\",\n \"of such points.\",\n \"In one embodiment, each of the plurality of spherical displays may be flattened or projected onto a two-dimensional (2D) planar surface forming a planar (e.g., circular) disk.\",\n \"In one embodiment, the planar disks bounded by 2D curved lines may be stacked or otherwise assembled or combined to form a cylinder (e.g., regular, tilted, with a curved axis, etc.)\",\n \"representing the plurality (e.g., a vertical line, a tilted line, a curve, etc.)\",\n \"of points of a standard model or representation of the geometry of the physical universe.\",\n \"For example, the plurality of points shown in a standard model may correspond to an image gather or other object.\",\n \"According to this construction, each point of a standard model may correspond to a separate spherical display.\",\n \"Each spherical display may in turn correspond to a planar disk or other planar figure (e.g., the flattened sphere).\",\n \"Each planar disk may in turn correspond to a point on the axis of a cylinder (e.g., as a normal cross-section of the cylinder at the point), constructed by stacking the planar disks.\",\n \"A user may manipulate the view of the spherical or cylindrical displays.\",\n \"For example, a user may move a cursor or mouse or other pointing or input device to select or search along a length (e.g., an axis of symmetry) of the cylinder display.\",\n \"For example, when the user selects a point or location on the cylinder (e.g., along an axis of symmetry), then the cross-section (e.g., planar curve), spherical display, and/or point of the standard model, corresponding thereto, may be displayed.\",\n \"The user may use the data to identify features such as subterranean faults.\",\n \"For example, a user may select to scan image points, to view and display pairs of directional and reflection angle (e.g., or offset) displays corresponding to the selected image points.\",\n \"The user may search for pairs of displays, where the directional display has a single or narrow range of polar angles and the reflection display has multiple or a wide range of polar angles.\",\n \"Such pairs of displays may indicate, for example, that the corresponding image point is located on a fault line.\",\n \"A polar angle may be, e.g., a two-dimensional vector (e.g., defined by a zenith and an azimuth angle).\",\n \"A zenith is, e.g., the angle between the radius-vector (connecting the center of the sphere to that point) and the polar axis of the sphere.\",\n \"An azimuth angle is, e.g., an angle between a reference direction in the equatorial plane and a projection of the radius-vector on the equatorial plane.\",\n \"Other angles, directions, orientations, relationships therebetween, and/or definitions thereof, may alternatively be used.\",\n \"Each of the cylindrical, spherical, and standard displays may individually show different information corresponding to the same geophysical data or subsurface space.\",\n \"In some embodiments, when the cylindrical, spherical, and standard displays are simultaneously displayed (e.g., adjacently) the information of each may be compared.\",\n \"For example, while the user scans a column with a cursor, a corresponding indicator may scan a standard display to indicate to the user which geophysical location is being selected.\",\n \"In another embodiment, the user may select (e.g., by clicking or highlighting) a geophysical location of the standard display to be displayed as a sphere or cylinder.\",\n \"The user may operate an input device (e.g., a mouse or keyboard) to manipulate, select, highlight, or otherwise indicate a seismic image point or a plurality of seismic image points corresponding to a line in a physical space.\",\n \"In response to such an indication, a display may display (e.g., on a graphical user interface) a representation of the indicated data to a user.\",\n \"For example, in one embodiment, a user may click or otherwise indicate a coordinate or point of the standard display and a corresponding spherical or other display may appear or “pop-up” (e.g., adjacent thereto).\",\n \"Likewise, a user may select (e.g., by dragging a cursor) a line or other plurality of points and a corresponding cylindrical display may pop-up (e.g., adjacent thereto).\",\n \"In a system having more than one monitor, a standard display may be displayed on one monitor, and details with specific data may appear on a second monitor or in a new separate window of the same monitor.\",\n \"In other embodiments the displays may be rotated, translated, shifted, sliced, bent, rescaled, colored, zoomed and/or otherwise moved or reshaped.\",\n \"It may be appreciated by one skilled in the art that although embodiments of the invention are described in terms of sphere or spherical display, other shapes may be used, e.g., ellipsoids, torus, hyperboloids, polyhedron, which may be, symmetric or asymmetric, and regular or irregular.\",\n \"It may be appreciated by those skilled in the art that although embodiments of the invention are described in terms of planar disks or flattened sphere, other shapes of 2D figures may be used, e.g., ellipses and other types of conical sections, polygons, or approximations thereof, etc.\",\n \"It may be appreciated by those skilled in the art that although embodiments of the invention are described in terms of cylinders, other shapes may be used, e.g., cones, prisms, pyramids, polyhedrons, etc., and/or geometric shapes having a line, or a plane of symmetry.\",\n \"Reference is made to FIGS.\",\n \"8A, 8B, 8C, 8D, and 8E, which are schematic illustrations of an image function defined on nodes arranged in various configurations, and maps therebetween, according to an embodiment of the invention.\",\n \"The specific figures and data points in each of FIGS.\",\n \"8A-8E and the relationships therebetween are not limiting.\",\n \"It may be appreciated by those skilled in the art that these figures and the elements thereof are only examples and that other mechanisms, structures, relationships, mathematics, and abstractions, may be used to provide embodiments of the invention.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"8A shows an irregular discrete data set 815 representing the image function as defined on irregular nodes 810.FIG.\",\n \"8B shows a regular discrete data set 825 representing the image function as defined on regular nodes 820 of a computational mesh 822.FIG.\",\n \"8C shows a continuous curved three-dimensional surface 835 representing the image function as defined on spiraling nodes 830.FIG.\",\n \"8D shows a curved planar surface 845, representing the image function as defined on planar nodes 840.The image function may be represented on the planar surface 845 by a two-dimensional region with a curved boundary (e.g., such as regions 365 and 465 of FIGS.\",\n \"3 and 4, respectively).\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"8E shows a three-dimensional body 855 representing the image function as defined on nodes 850 of a cylindrical body.\",\n \"The irregular discrete data set 815, regular discrete data set 825, continuous curved three-dimensional surface 835, planar surface 845, and three-dimensional body 855 may be the values of the image function at the irregular nodes 810, regular nodes 820, spherical spiral nodes 830, planar curve nodes 840, and nodes 850 of the cylindrical body, respectively.\",\n \"The image function may be any additional or other components or information.\",\n \"For example, the image function may be defined vs. a reflection angle, vs. offset, and/or directional data function.\",\n \"The value of the image function may be expressed, for example, as a color value on a color map.\",\n \"The locations of the nodes of FIGS.\",\n \"8C, 8D, and 8E typically do not correspond to the physical locations of the image points to which they correspond.\",\n \"For example, a node located to the relative “right” on the continuous curved three-dimensional surface 835 of FIG.\",\n \"8C may correspond to a greater azimuth angle and not necessarily to a more eastern physical location of a subsurface or geophysical region.\",\n \"For example, a plurality of data points in FIGS.\",\n \"8A and 8B describe a plurality of directions for a single physical point in a 3D space.\",\n \"These directions are arranged irregularly in FIG.\",\n \"8A and regularly in FIG.\",\n \"8B.\",\n \"“Regularly” arranged nodes may indicate that a horizontal line in FIG.\",\n \"8B represents, e.g., a latitude line, with a fixed zenith angle and variable azimuth.\",\n \"“Regularly” arranged nodes may likewise indicate that a vertical line in FIG.\",\n \"8B represents, e.g., a meridian line or a subset of the meridian gather, with a fixed azimuth and variable zenith, related to a single physical point.\",\n \"Other arrangements of nodes may be considered “regular”.\",\n \"For example, an alternatively regular arrangement of nodes may include nodes located at the vertices of a regular polyhedron (e.g., an icosahedron, which has 12 vertices and 20 faces) inscribed into a sphere.\",\n \"The vertices of the regular polyhedron may be the primary nodes of a regular grid.\",\n \"The regular grid may be refined by, e.g., splitting the faces of the polyhedron into regular (e.g., but not necessarily equal) pieces for generating other (e.g., additional) nodes of the regular grid.\",\n \"This alternate embodiment is, for example, described in further detail in reference to FIGS.\",\n \"9A, 9B, and 9C.\",\n \"Each of FIGS.\",\n \"8A, 8B, 8C, and 8D typically represents the image function data corresponding to a single point (not shown) in a physical space and FIG.\",\n \"8E typically represents the image function data corresponding to a plurality of image points (e.g., a line 880) in a physical space.\",\n \"For example, three-dimensional body 855 may include a plurality of planar surface 845, each representing an image point on a line of a physical space.\",\n \"Planar surface 845 may have a curved two-dimensional line or region for representing the image function at the image point.\",\n \"For example, the center points of each of the planar surface 845 may be stacked (e.g., along the line 880) according to the locations of their corresponding image point on the line of the physical space.\",\n \"A first map 860 may be used to map input data from the irregular discrete data set 815 to the regular discrete data set 825.The first map 860 may be used to normalize or regularize irregular data.\",\n \"The first map 860 need not be used when the input data is already regular (e.g., defined at regularly spaced nodes of a coordinate system, where each node represents a definite polar angle, i.e., a fixed direction in three-dimensional space).\",\n \"A second map 865 may be used to map input data from the regular discrete data set 825 to the continuous curved three-dimensional surface 835.Using the regular discrete data set 825, the second map 865 may be used to generate a continuous distribution of the image function for a single image point on the continuous curved three-dimensional surface 835.Data mapped to the continuous curved three-dimensional surface 835 may be represented on for example the spherical displays 100 and 200 of FIGS.\",\n \"1 and 2.Operating on input data using the first and second maps 860 and 865 in order may be referred to as “gridding”.\",\n \"Operating on input data using the second map 865 but not the first map 860 may be referred to as “interpolation”.\",\n \"Therefore, interpolation may be a sub-operation of gridding.\",\n \"First and second maps 860 and 865 are described in further detail herein, e.g., in the section titled, “Spherical Gridding”.\",\n \"The construction of the nodes 820, which may be collectively referred to as a “computational mesh” 822, is described in further detail herein, e.g., in the section titled, “Computational Mesh” and in reference to FIGS.\",\n \"9A, 9B, and 9C.\",\n \"FIGS.\",\n \"9A, 9B and 9C describe a mechanism for generating a regular mesh (e.g., computational mesh 822 of FIG.\",\n \"8B).\",\n \"The regular mesh may be generated on a sphere.\",\n \"The mesh described in 9A, 9B, and 9C has cells of approximately equal area, or at least, cells of similar areas.\",\n \"The mesh preferably does not have singularities at the poles of the sphere.\",\n \"A third map 870 may be used to map input data from the continuous curved three-dimensional surface 835 to the curved two-dimensional surface of the planar surface 845.The third map 870 may be, for example, a projection map, of the continuous curved three-dimensional surface 835 or any other map for flattening or transforming or expanding the continuous curved three-dimensional surface 835 to the planar surface 845.A projection map may describe a surjective or “onto” map as are known in the art.\",\n \"A projection map may describe a function for mapping data from a first coordinate space (e.g., N-dimensional) to a second (e.g., N-1 dimensional) coordinate space.\",\n \"Alternately, third map 870 may be, for example, an expansion map.\",\n \"The expansion map may project a three-dimensional surface into a two-dimensional surface by “unraveling” or “unfolding” the three-dimensional surface.\",\n \"The third map may include other or additional projections, such as, e.g., cylindrical, pseudo-cylindrical, hybrid, conical, pseudo-conical, azimuthal (projections onto a plane), conformal, equal-area, equidistant, gnomonic, retro-azimuthal, compromise projections, or the like.\",\n \"A fourth map 875 may be used to map input data from a set of the planar surfaces 845 to the three-dimensional body 855.The fourth map 875 may be used to generate a continuous distribution of the image function for a plurality of image points (e.g., corresponding to a line in a physical 3D space) on the three-dimensional body 855.Data mapped to the three-dimensional body 855 may be represented on the cylindrical displays 300 and 400 of FIGS.\",\n \"3 and 4.Embodiments of the invention include operating on a discrete data set (e.g., irregular or regular discrete data sets 815 and 825, respectively) representing a single or a plurality of image points of a physical 3D space with a sequence of maps in a predetermined order (e.g., first map 860, second map 865, third map 870, and/or fourth map 875) to generate a continuous curved three-dimensional surface 835 (e.g., a sphere) and a three-dimensional body 855 (e.g., a cylinder), respectively.\",\n \"It may be appreciated by those skilled in the art that maps described herein are only one example and that other maps, functions, transformations, or relationships may be used to map data between the various nodal configurations, e.g., irregular nodes 810, regular nodes 820, spiraling nodes 830, planar nodes 840, and/or cylindrical nodes 850.It may be appreciated by those skilled in the art that any map(s) may be combined or separated into other and/or different numbers of maps to perform equivalent operation(s).\",\n \"It may be appreciated by those skilled in the art that nodes and the configurations thereof described herein are only one example and that configurations or arrangements or nodes other than irregular nodes 810, regular nodes 820, spherical spiral nodes 830, planar surface nodes 840, and/or cylindrical nodes 850 may be used to represent equivalent information.\",\n \"Embodiments of the invention provide a system and methods for displaying continuous full-azimuth angle domain image data and/or wide-offset domain image data at a given image point of the discrete data set such as data set 815 of FIG.\",\n \"8 (e.g., on the spherical displays 100 and 200 of FIGS.\",\n \"1 and 2) or at a set of image points (e.g., on the cylindrical displays 300 and 400 of FIGS.\",\n \"3 and 4).\",\n \"The full-azimuth angle and/or wide-offset domain image data of the discrete data sets 815 and 825 may include, for example, angle domain common image gathers (ADCIG) and offset domain common image gathers (ODCIG), respectively.\",\n \"Embodiments of the invention include accepting the (e.g., azimuthally) discrete data set, mapping the discrete sets of data to the continuous curved three-dimensional surface 835, for example, creating three-dimensional ADCIGs in the directional or reflection angle domains.\",\n \"Embodiments of the invention include, for each image point, using, for example, spherical gridding mechanism or other methods or techniques for interpolating and extrapolating data onto a spherical or otherwise curved surface.\",\n \"It may be appreciated by those skilled in the art that techniques other than spherical gridding (e.g., the first and second mappings 860 and 865 in FIG.\",\n \"8) or interpolation (e.g., only the second map 865) may be used for generating spherical, cylindrical, or otherwise shaped displays for representing wide-azimuth data, as described herein.\",\n \"Embodiments of the invention include projecting the data represented on the curved surface to a planar surface.\",\n \"For a gather of image points (e.g., an ADCIG), embodiments of the invention include combining the data sets associated with several planar surfaces into a three-dimensional body, such as a circular cylinder or other cylinder.\",\n \"It may be appreciated by those skilled in the art that shapes other than spheres and cylinders may be used.\",\n \"Embodiments of the invention include a mechanism for mapping angle dependent image point data onto a spherical or otherwise curved surface, using, for example, a spherical gridding, interpolation/extrapolation or other methods.\",\n \"Embodiments of the invention include displaying angle dependent image point data on a spherical or otherwise curved surface.\",\n \"The image function data (e.g., the reflectivity) may be displayed as a function of the direction angles, reflection angles, and/or offsets.\",\n \"Embodiments of the invention include projecting or expanding the data defined on a curved surface to the data defined on a planar surface.\",\n \"Embodiments of the invention also include cylindrical displays for displaying simultaneously image data for a plurality, for example, a gather of image points (e.g., a set of image points located along a vertical line at a given horizontal location).\",\n \"As described in the referred patent U.S. patent application Ser.\",\n \"No.\",\n \"11/798,996, full-azimuth angle gathers (e.g., ADCIGs) may be used to generate a spherical spiral geometry.\",\n \"These types of gathers may be referred to as “Spiral ADCIGs”, where a directional gather may be referred to as a “Spiral-D” and a reflection gather may be referred to as a “Spiral-R”.\",\n \"It may be appreciated by those skilled in the art that embodiments of the present invention may be applied to any seismic processing and imaging system.\",\n \"Embodiments of the present invention may be used for generating displays and visualizations in various areas or fields, such as, for example, exploration and production of oil and gas, imaging of the shallow earth model for environmental study (e.g., using data collected using seismic and/or ground penetration radar (GPR) methods), construction engineering (e.g., to identify locations of pipes), construction safety and security (e.g., to identify holes and channels), medical imaging (e.g., using computed tomography (CT), magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and ultra-sound devices), non-destructive material inspection, inspection of internal items for security reasons (e.g., homeland security), marine sonar, and antenna and radar systems.\",\n \"The Proposed Displays Reference is made to FIGS.\",\n \"1-4, which are schematic illustrations of displays or visualizations of continuous data according to embodiments of the invention.\",\n \"FIGS.\",\n \"1 and 2 are spherical displays related to a specific image point, according to one embodiment.\",\n \"FIGS.\",\n \"3 and 4 are cylindrical displays related to a specific gather of image points, according to one embodiment.\",\n \"The data displayed in FIGS.\",\n \"1-4 may be data additional to that typically shown in standard displays.\",\n \"For example, these displays may be generated at the request of a user to have a “closer look” or additional information associated with one or more data points of a geophysical region.\",\n \"The additional information may include for example an image function of reflection angle, offset, and directional data for the one or more data points.\",\n \"Displays 100, 200, 300, and 400 may be generated for example by the mapping of data as shown in FIGS.\",\n \"8A, 8B, 8C, 8D, and 8E, although other methods of creating these displays may be used.\",\n \"The input data for the displays may be discrete data set 815 or 825, for example, of an image function defined at a plurality of discrete nodes 810 and 820 of FIG.\",\n \"8 (e.g., referred to as “control points”).\",\n \"The location of nodes 810 and 820 may be defined by a discrete geometry.\",\n \"The nodes 810 and 820 may be irregularly and regularly spaced, respectively, with respect to a coordinate system (e.g., a spiral coordinate system).\",\n \"Embodiments of the invention may include a gridding mechanism (e.g., using first map 860 of FIG.\",\n \"8) for normalizing the irregular discrete data set 815 to generate the regular discrete data set 825.The regular discrete data set 825 may be interpolated (e.g., using second map 865) to generate the continuous curved three-dimensional surface 835.The continuous curved three-dimensional surface 835 may represent the image function at a single image point.\",\n \"In one embodiment, the discrete data set 825 of FIG.\",\n \"8 may be mapped or transformed by second map 865 to a continuous surface by simulating the elastic bending of a thin shell reinforced by “springs” or elastic structures.\",\n \"In one embodiment, “springs” may be data abstractions supporting the nodes of the shell at discrete control points.\",\n \"For example, the “springs” may be, contracted, or expanded, to shift, “squeeze”, or reorient, the nodes 810 and/or 820 in order to provide a better coincidence of the deformed shell with the data values at the reference nodes, such as, the spiraling nodes 830 of the continuous curved three-dimensional surface 835, as described herein.\",\n \"It may be appreciated by those skilled in the art that techniques other than spherical gridding and/or interpolation may be used for generating a continuous image function, as described herein.\",\n \"In some embodiments, exact accuracy is not required for a gridding mechanism.\",\n \"Instead, a gridding mechanism may be adjusted for achieving a balance between accuracy and a continuity of gridding.\",\n \"“Springs” may be used to provide a better continuity of gridding.\",\n \"It may be appreciated that the “springs” and the use and elasticity thereof, as described herein, are data abstractions and computational abstractions, and may be represented by comparable software programs or sets of instructions, mathematical equations, data value, and/or visual representations.\",\n \"In some embodiments, when control points or nodes 810 and/or 820 are shifted toward the in-line or cross-line directions, there may an option to “squeeze” the computational mesh 822 (e.g., and corresponding or spherical displays 100 or 200 of FIGS.\",\n \"1 and 2), for mapping the discrete nodes 810 and/or 820 to the continuous curved three-dimensional surface 835 that better fits the real image data, such as, a spheroid or a general ellipsoid with all three axes distinct (e.g., scalene ellipsoid).\",\n \"In some embodiments, “squeezing” may include transforming, distorting, refitting, resizing, reshaping, or other manipulation effects to alter a shape of the continuous curved three-dimensional surface 835 and/or computational mesh 822 (e.g., as described herein) used to generate the shape.\",\n \"In one embodiment, the discrete data set may be defined on discrete nodes of a spiraling geometry, for example, as described in U.S. patent application Ser.\",\n \"No.\",\n \"11/798,996.For example, with a spherical spiral discretization, the location of input points may be described by a single parameter, e.g., the normalized area swept by spiral coils or the normalized arc length of spiral.\",\n \"The display mechanisms may include spherical gridding or other interpolation or extrapolation techniques, such as for example, local spherical interpolation, or Fourier transform on a spherical surface.\",\n \"These mechanisms may map an image function defined at discrete regular or irregular nodes 810 and/or 820 onto a spherical or otherwise continuous curved three-dimensional surface 835, with a continuous distribution of the image function defined through a corresponding (e.g., “squeezed”) curved surface.\",\n \"The gridding mechanisms described herein are non-limiting examples of many possible methods for transforming or a mapping a discrete data set 815 and/or 825 to a continuous curved three-dimensional surface 835.Other gridding mechanisms, maps, and/or transformations, may be used.\",\n \"Spherical Gridding Objective of Spherical Gridding “Normalization” may refer to for example mapping irregular data to a regular data set (e.g., using first map 860).\",\n \"“Interpolation” may refer to for example, using discrete data to generate a continuous distribution of an image function (e.g., using second map 865).\",\n \"“Gridding” may refer to for example the combined steps of normalization and interpolation, for example, executed in that order.\",\n \"Embodiments of the invention may include interpolating or mapping a discrete data set such as data sets 815 or 825 of FIG.\",\n \"8 of an image function to a continuous image function on a continuous curved three-dimensional surface such as surface 835 (e.g., using first and/or second maps 860 and 865).\",\n \"The discretely defined image function may be defined on an input grid of nodes 810 or 820.When the nodes 810 of the input grid are irregular, a standardized or uniform grid may be used to regularize or normalize the input grid to generate an output grid of nodes 820 defining a continuous image function.\",\n \"For example, the data in the input grid that differs from the uniform grid may be adjusted to fit (e.g., using first map 860).\",\n \"The input grid may be for example a spiral coordinate system.\",\n \"The output grid may be a conventional spherical mesh with constant resolutions in zenith and azimuth, or any other conventional visualization mesh on a spherical surface or other curved surface.\",\n \"Other grids may be used.\",\n \"Embodiments of the invention include a gridding mechanism to interpolate an image function at a point onto a continuous spherical, ellipsoidal, or otherwise curved three-dimensional surface 835 (e.g., using second map 865).\",\n \"The curved three-dimensional surface 835 may be displayed as spherical displays 100 and 200 representing the reflection angle image function and the directional data, respectively, in FIGS.\",\n \"1 and 2, for a single point.\",\n \"The interpolated image functions for each point may be flattened or projected to the curved two-dimensional surface of planar surface 845 (e.g., using third map 870), for a single point.\",\n \"A plurality of curved two-dimensional planar surfaces 845, each representing the image function at a point, may be stacked along the line 880 to form a cylindrical or other three-dimensional body 855 (e.g., using fourth map 875), representing the image function at a plurality of points.\",\n \"The three-dimensional body 855 may be displayed as displays such as cylindrical displays 300 and 400 representing the reflection angle image function and the directional data, respectively in FIGS.\",\n \"3 and 4, for a plurality of points.\",\n \"The position at which each of planar surfaces 845 is stacked along the line 880 may, for example, correspond to the relative spatial arrangement of the image point represented thereby.\",\n \"Thus, a user may scan the line 880 in a direction (e.g., “upward”) to display cross-sections of the cylindrical display (e.g., as planar surfaces 845 or corresponding three-dimensional surfaces 835 unflattened by an inverse map of 870) of the image function at different image points of the physical universe in a corresponding (e.g., “upward”) direction.\",\n \"The initial image function may be defined at discrete control points (e.g., irregular or regular nodes 810 or 820).\",\n \"Embodiments of the invention provide first and/or second map 860 and/or 865 to generate a continuous distribution of the image function on a curved three-dimensional surface 835 from input points of the discrete data set 815 or 825.The components of the polar angles (e.g., zenith and azimuth) of the input (e.g., control) points may be presented in, e.g., a Cartesian coordinate system or a spherical coordinate system (e.g., at the nodes of a spherical or ellipsoidal spiral), or other coordinate systems.\",\n \"The input points may have any locations, may be regularly or irregularly spaced, and may be arranged in any suitable order or sequence.\",\n \"The output function may be a continuous image function defined at any point or at all points of the spherical or ellipsoidal surface, or at all points of a part of the surface (e.g., such as a spherical hemisphere or “ellipsoidal cap”).\",\n \"It may be appreciated that different positions on the curved three-dimensional surface represent a single physical point in a 3D space and a plurality of directions corresponding to the point.\",\n \"At the control points (e.g., irregular nodes 810), the output values may coincide or nearly coincide with the input data.\",\n \"In some embodiments, an adjusting parameter (e.g., such as weights of the data at the control points) may be applied to the interpolation map (e.g., as part of the first map 860) for balancing the benefits of continuity (e.g., smoothness) of the distribution and accuracy of the solution to the image function at the control points (e.g., achieving a best fit for matching the input and output data of the interpolation function).\",\n \"In some embodiments, the output image function may be generated to exactly match the control or input data.\",\n \"Alternatively, the output image function need not exactly match the input image function.\",\n \"In such embodiments, when the exact fit requirement is relaxed, the output image function may be a more smooth and continuous distribution of the mapped function through the curved surface with smaller gradients.\",\n \"Gridding may include simulating the elastic bending of a thin shell or computational mesh 822 of FIG.\",\n \"8B, reinforced by springs.\",\n \"This model is only one of a variety of possible approaches, and other models and approaches may be used.\",\n \"It may be appreciated by those skilled in the art that the shell and the springs are abstractions, and that there is no real physical structure that comprises shell and springs.\",\n \"The spring abstraction may be located at the nodes of control points.\",\n \"Typically, an exact match between the interpolated (e.g., output) function and the input function at the control points is not required.\",\n \"The spherical gridding method may be used to interpolate image data, for example, when the angle domain is not fully illuminated.\",\n \"Spherical Gridding in the Local Angle Domain The system of incident and reflected waves (e.g., or ray pairs) defining a geophysical region may be defined by the directional and reflection subsystems of the local angle domain (LAD).\",\n \"The directional system may include two components of polar angles describing the zenith (e.g., dip) and the azimuth angles of the normal to the reflection surface element.\",\n \"The reflection system may include two components describing an opening angle between incident and reflected rays and an opening azimuth or alternatively, an offset magnitude and an offset azimuth, where the offset is specified on the earth's surface.\",\n \"Together, the directional and reflection subsystems may define the position of each image point in the LAD.\",\n \"For each image point, two angle domain imaging systems may be created, e.g., the directional and reflection subsystems.\",\n \"Other than two angle domain imaging systems may be used.\",\n \"Both imaging systems may be defined on a curved surface, such as, the unit sphere (e.g., the reflection subsystem in FIG.\",\n \"1; the direction subsystem in FIG.\",\n \"2).\",\n \"A point on the curved surface may be defined by two components of the polar angle (e.g., the zenith and azimuth).\",\n \"Each point in the direction system on the spherical surface may correspond to a certain direction of the inward normal to the reflection element, with all possible reflection angles and their azimuths summed Each point in the reflection system on the spherical surface may correspond to a certain opening angle and opening azimuth, with all possible directions of the ray pair normal summed up.\",\n \"Other subsystems, angles, components, or relationships thereof may be used.\",\n \"Principles of Spherical Gridding The term “interpolating” may be used for example to describe estimating function values at (e.g., arbitrary or specific) points between nodes, where the nodes or control points may be evenly or regularly spaced.\",\n \"The term “gridding” may be used for example to describe interpolating, where the nodes may be irregularly spaced.\",\n \"Thus, gridding may be a more general form of interpolation and interpolation may be considered a stage of the gridding procedure.\",\n \"In the interpolation problem, a function may be defined at evenly (e.g., or at least regularly) spaced grid nodes of an n-dimensional space.\",\n \"In the gridding problem, the input points may be irregularly spaced (e.g., not necessarily at the grid nodes).\",\n \"In one embodiment of the gridding technique, an input mesh may not exist and the input control points may be an unordered or random collection of points in a finite (e.g., or bounded) space.\",\n \"In this embodiment, the gridding mechanism may generate a continuous distribution of a function estimating all points of the finite space.\",\n \"The gridding procedure may include generating a regular computational mesh, e.g.\",\n \"822 (e.g., and the values of an image function estimated at the spiraling nodes 830) and interpolating the image function between mesh nodes 830 for generating a continuous output image function.\",\n \"The input image function may be fit exactly, or alternatively, approximately, to the output image function.\",\n \"When the input and output data are fit to match less than perfectly, the output data may be fit to be more continuous (e.g., having fewer and/or less drastic discontinuities).\",\n \"When generating the regular computational mesh 822, the unknowns may be the nodal values of the image function.\",\n \"Between the nodes, the function behavior may be defined by, for example, interpolation polynomials.\",\n \"To find the nodal values, the energy of the surface defined by the image function may be minimized, for example, taking into account the control values, either exactly (e.g., to generate the exact output values at the control points), or using additional energy terms (e.g., for greater continuity).\",\n \"When an image function is displayed on a surface such as continuous curved three-dimensional surface 835, e.g., as a thin elastic shell, shell elastic displacements may be modeled by the image function, and the energy per unit area (e.g., the specific energy) may be approximated by the curvature of the shell squared.\",\n \"The surface defined by the image function (e.g., having minimized energy) may be an elastically deformed surface that initially (e.g., before deformation) had a spherical, an ellipsoidal, or another curved form.\",\n \"The surface may be supported by pre-stretched springs at the locations of control data points.\",\n \"In such embodiments, the input data may be approximately fit.\",\n \"Alternatively, normal displacements may be specified at the control points.\",\n \"In such embodiments, the input data may be exactly fit.\",\n \"After the grid values at nodes 820 are established for generating for example the computational mesh 822, the same interpolation polynomials may be used for interpolation to estimate the image function values at arbitrary points between the regularly spaced nodes 820 of the computational mesh 822, for example, at nodes 830 of the spiraling geometry, or at the other nodes.\",\n \"Therefore the stages of interpolation, e.g., generating the computational mesh 822 and interpolating the image function along the mesh, are typically related.\",\n \"Gridding through a planar or curved surface (spherical, ellipsoidal, etc.)\",\n \"may provide the function values at the spiraling nodes 830 or control points as well as partial derivatives (gradient components) of the function at the control points.\",\n \"For an ellipsoidal surface, the partial derivatives of the function at the control points may be the derivative of the image function with respect to the zenith and having a constant azimuth, with respect to the azimuth and having a constant zenith, or with respect to the azimuth and having a constant vertical coordinate (e.g., which may be a different embodiment for a scalene ellipsoid).\",\n \"In addition, the derivative of the input function may be determined in any arbitrary direction on a curved surface.\",\n \"Computational Mesh The complexity of a computational mesh used with embodiments of the invention, such as the computational mesh 822, may be defined by for example the number of recursion levels used to generate the mesh.\",\n \"The mesh may be generated on the unit sphere or any other n-dimensional space.\",\n \"When the three-dimensional curved surface is different from the unit sphere (e.g., an ellipsoid) the mesh may be generated on the unit sphere and then formed into another (e.g., ellipsoidal) shape.\",\n \"Reference is made to FIGS.\",\n \"9A, 9B, and 9C, which are schematic illustrations of stages of constructing a computational mesh according to embodiments of the invention, such as the computational mesh 822, according to an embodiment of the invention.\",\n \"The computational mesh 822 (e.g., the generated mesh) is regular, and may or may not be uniform.\",\n \"The specific figures and mechanism described in reference to FIGS.\",\n \"9A-9C are not limiting.\",\n \"It may be appreciated by those skilled in the art that these figures and the elements thereof are only examples and that other mechanisms, structures, relationships, mathematics, and abstractions, may be used to provide embodiments of the invention.\",\n \"In one exemplary embodiment, the computational mesh 822 of FIG.\",\n \"8C may be initially formed from a polyhedron 900 of FIG.\",\n \"9A, such as, a regular icosahedron with (e.g., 12) vertices 902, (e.g., 20) triangular faces 904 and (e.g., 30) edges 906, e.g., inscribed in a sphere 910.This geometry may correspond to the zero recursion level for generating a computational mesh such as the computational mesh 822.Other shapes, polyhedrons, and numbers may be used.\",\n \"To obtain the next level of recursion, in FIG.\",\n \"9B, flat triangular faces 904 may be replaced by spherical triangles 912 (e.g., having curved face and/or edges).\",\n \"For example, points A, B and C are vertices 902 of an arbitrary one of triangular faces 904.Point O is the center of the sphere 910 and lines OA, OB, and OC are radii of the sphere 910.Lines AB, BC, and CA, the edges of the triangular faces 904 of the polyhedron 900 (e.g., icosahedron), may be replaced by curved approximations of the lines 918, such as, arcs of “great circles” (or geodesic curves).\",\n \"To obtain the next level of recursion, in FIG.\",\n \"9C, each spherical triangle ABC 912 may be split by medians into (e.g., four) derivative spherical triangles: (e.g., three) peripheral triangles 916 (of the same area), labeled TA, TB and TC and (e.g., one) central triangle 914 (of different area), labeled TM in FIG.\",\n \"9C.\",\n \"For example, in FIG.\",\n \"9C new points 930, MAB, MBC and MAC, e.g., the centers of spherical arcs AB, BC, and AC, respectively, may form additional vertices 902, triangular faces 904, and edges 906 forming a new polyhedron, e.g., different from polyhedron 900 (e.g., having more vertices, faces, and edges).\",\n \"Each new edge 906 may yield an additional node 930, for example, giving a polyhedron with e.g., 42 nodes (of course other numbers of nodes may be used).\",\n \"Such a procedure may be repeated multiple times, e.g., each time the level of recursion increasing by one.\",\n \"For the last (e.g., highest) level of recursion, the spherical triangles 912 may be approximated by flat triangular faces 904.The gridding may be modeled by bending deformations of a three-dimensional spatial elastic shell consisting of the flat triangular faces 904 (e.g., corresponding to the last level of recursion).\",\n \"As the number of recursions increases, the polyhedron 900 converges to approximate the sphere 910 of FIG.\",\n \"9A.\",\n \"At a certain recursion level (e.g., 4 or 5, although other numbers may be used), the surface of the polyhedron 900 may be determined to be sufficiently close to spherical.\",\n \"The vertices 902 of the polyhedron 900 of FIG.\",\n \"9A may be the nodes 820 of the computational mesh 822 of FIG.\",\n \"8B.\",\n \"The spherical shell may be simulated to be resting on pre-loaded springs located at the control points.\",\n \"Thus, the spring locations need not necessarily coincide with the mesh nodes.\",\n \"The direction of the force exerted by a spring may be normal to the spherical or the ellipsoidal surface at the control point.\",\n \"The elastic displacements at the shell nodes may be calculated, for example, by the Finite Element Method.\",\n \"The nodes 830 may be numerated globally, for example, in a specific manner: first the “north pole”, having the highest z coordinate, then the nodes of the northern hemisphere having the next z level and other z levels, then the equator, the levels of the southern hemisphere, and finally the south pole, having the lowest z coordinate.\",\n \"This numeration method may yield a small or minimal band width of a resolving matrix.\",\n \"Other numberings, and other methods of global numbering, may be used.\",\n \"The whole sphere or ellipsoid need not be analyzed at once.\",\n \"In some embodiments, the input data (e.g., the control points) may be located within a definite range of zenith angles, for example, that do not exceed a pre-defined maximum zenith value.\",\n \"In such embodiments, only a part of the whole surface (e.g., a spherical or an ellipsoidal cap) may be analyzed.\",\n \"In embodiments when the reflection subsystem includes the offset value and the offset azimuth (e.g., instead of the opening angle and the opening azimuth), gridding may be performed on a flat (e.g., planar) surface (e.g., instead of a spherical surface).\",\n \"Since angle gather data typically corresponds to different directions at an image point or at a set of image points (e.g., along a vertical line), different directions at a single point may be represented by a curved surface, such as a spherical surface.\",\n \"In contrast, an offset gather (e.g., or the specific physical location in depth thereof) typically corresponds to different lateral shifts between the source and the receiver on the surface of the Earth.\",\n \"These shifts typically have, e.g., two Cartesian components, x and y, and the Earth surface and are represented by a planar or flat surface.\",\n \"Northern and southern hemispheres are relative terms describing regions above and below an equator (e.g., the widest circumference of an oriented body), respectfully.\",\n \"Similarly, terms such as equator, meridian, south, north, vertical, horizontal, lateral, perpendicular, or other orienting terms are relative terms, depending on a viewer's perspective or vantage point.\",\n \"Spherical Display Reference is again made to FIGS.\",\n \"1 and 2, which show spherical displays, related to a specific image point, for the reflection and directional subsystems, respectively.\",\n \"The output data for the displays 100 and 200 (e.g., of continuous curved three-dimensional surface 835 of FIG.\",\n \"8C) may be specified at the nodes of spherical or ellipsoidal surface (e.g., spiraling nodes 830 of FIG.\",\n \"8C).\",\n \"The shape of the displays 100 and 200 may be determined by the construction of the computation mesh 822 of FIG.\",\n \"8B (e.g., as described in reference to FIGS.\",\n \"9A, 9B, and 9C).\",\n \"The displays may be for example continuous spherical or ellipsoid surfaces, or portions (e.g., a cap) thereof.\",\n \"In some embodiments, there may be a plurality or range of colors that corresponds to the range of the image function values.\",\n \"The surfaces of the displays may have a color or other visual indication at each point corresponding to the image function value at that point.\",\n \"In FIGS.\",\n \"1 and 2, different colors are represented by differently shaded (e.g., cross-hatched) regions 165 and 265, respectively.\",\n \"The display may provide numerical output values (e.g., corresponding to the representative color value) at any point of the curved surface, for example, when the point is selected or highlighted by a user.\",\n \"The display may provide the input values corresponding to the interpolated or gridded displayed output values, for example, for comparison between the input and the output values at the control points.\",\n \"The accuracy of the gridding and the visualization may be defined for example, by the computational complexity and the visualization complexity.\",\n \"The computational complexity may be the number of recursion levels of the computational mesh 822.The visualization complexity may be a similar number, for example, of the sectioning of the graphics grid.\",\n \"Typically, these two numbers coincide, or are close.\",\n \"The display may be rotated, shifted, zoomed, enlarged, sectioned, inverted, or otherwise transformed or translated.\",\n \"Cylindrical Display Reference is again made to FIGS.\",\n \"3 and 4, which show cylindrical displays 300 and 400, each related to a plurality of image points, for the reflection and directional subsystems, respectively.\",\n \"Each of cylindrical displays 300 and 400 may be formed as an assemblage of multiple planar disks (e.g., curved two-dimensional planar surface 845 of FIG.\",\n \"8D by the fourth map 875).\",\n \"Each planar disk may be formed by projecting the continuous curved three-dimensional surface 835 (e.g., a sphere, ellipsoid, or otherwise 3D curved surface) onto a plane or 2D space.\",\n \"Each curved 3D surface may represent a point (e.g., having a physical location in the Cartesian coordinate system).\",\n \"Thus, each 3D body or cylindrical displays 300 and 400 may represent a plurality of points (e.g., each having a unique depth).\",\n \"The cylindrical displays may represent image points defined by coordinates other than depth.\",\n \"In one embodiment, cylindrical displays 300 and 400 may display substantially simultaneously a plurality (for example, a gather) of image points, in an integrated display.\",\n \"For example, each display 300 and 400 may correspond to a set of two or more image points with substantially the same lateral location and substantially different depths.\",\n \"Consider several directional displays (e.g., FIG.\",\n \"2) or reflection displays (e.g., FIG.\",\n \"1) in spherical/ellipsoidal spiral coordinate system.\",\n \"A display may correspond to a gather of image points with the same lateral location and different depths.\",\n \"Initially the parameters of these spirals (e.g., elevation, maximum zenith angle, segment area, etc.)\",\n \"may be different.\",\n \"Thus, there may be several different spiral representations of the computed data (e.g., image function), corresponding to different depths of the gather nodes.\",\n \"In addition, there may be a visualization spiral to which parameters may be assigned.\",\n \"The maximum zenith angle of the visualization spiral may be the largest maximum zenith angle for all gather nodes at different depths.\",\n \"To construct a common cylindrical display 300 and/or 400 for all image points of the gather, the computed data may be regularized or normalized to fit the nodes of the visualization spiral.\",\n \"Regularization may be carried out for each individual node in depth, and may include, for example, two stages.\",\n \"First, gridding may be performed for the input data at the control points with specific angular locations, corresponding to the given input or non-regularized spiral.\",\n \"The input spirals may be different for different depths.\",\n \"For the reflection subsystem gather, the maximum zenith angle (e.g., the maximum opening angle) typically decreases with depth.\",\n \"Theoretically, the maximum opening angle may vanish at infinite depth.\",\n \"After gridding, the values of the image function may be determined or scanned at any point of the spherical or ellipsoidal surface.\",\n \"In one embodiment, the values of the image function may be “read” at the nodes of the visualization spiral (e.g., nodes 830 of the continuous curved three-dimensional surface 835 of FIG.\",\n \"8C).\",\n \"The visualization spiral may be the same for all nodes (e.g., all depth indices) of the gather.\",\n \"Alternatively, the visualization spiral may be differently shaped or have different nodal arrangements or ordering at one or more different nodes at depths of the gather, for example, to accommodate for inconsistent data.\",\n \"A gridding technique may be performed independently for each spherical or ellipsoidal surface (e.g., of FIGS.\",\n \"1 and 2) (e.g., for each node in depth).\",\n \"Alternatively, a gridding technique may be performed simultaneously, one time, or according to the same parameters, for the whole gather or portion thereof.\",\n \"The latter method may increase the computational complexity of gridding, but may provide a more continuous vertical distribution of the image function.\",\n \"In one embodiment, the visualization spiral data set for each node of the gather may be mapped to a continuous distribution, generating a spherical or ellipsoidal display.\",\n \"The spherical or ellipsoidal display generated for each vertical node of the gather may be projected, flattened or expanded, into a planar circular, elliptic or elliptic-like, or otherwise planar 2D region.\",\n \"In one embodiment, the polar radius of a point on the curved 2D region may be equal or proportional to the zenith angle on the spherical display.\",\n \"The azimuth values of the points on the 3D spherical and flattened 2D displays are typically the same.\",\n \"Note that for the reflection subsystem representing the offset magnitude and the offset azimuth, each single-node of the gather may be originally defined on a planar surface, and need not be projected or expanded onto a plane.\",\n \"A set of planar displays (e.g., circular or planar curved-line non-circular) created for the nodes of the gather with the same lateral location and different vertical locations may form each cylindrical display 300 and/or 400.In one embodiment, reflection and directional subsystem cylindrical displays 300 and 400 may include horizontal cross sections 320 and 420 and vertical cross sections 330 and 430 thereof, respectively.\",\n \"Horizontal cross sections 320 and 420 may be normal to axes 310 and 410, respectively, and vertical cross sections 330 and 430 may be parallel to axes 310 and 410, respectively.\",\n \"Each horizontal cross section 320 and 420 may be, for example, a projected, flattened, or reduced dimensional representation of reflectivity and directional spherical displays 100 and 200, respectively.\",\n \"Horizontal cross sections 320 and 420 may include regions 365 and 465.Regions 365 and 465 may be, for example, projected, flattened, or reduced dimensional representation of reflectivity vs. reflection and directional component angles of regions 165 and 265, respectively, for an image point.\",\n \"A color map including a plurality of colors may correspond to a range of the image function values.\",\n \"In FIGS.\",\n \"3 and 4, different colors are represented by differently shaded regions 365 and 465, respectively.\",\n \"The color map may be the same color map as used for the spherical displays in FIGS.\",\n \"1 and 2 for the corresponding image point of the gather.\",\n \"Alternatively, a different color map may be used.\",\n \"Other methods of displaying image function values may be used, such as e.g., grayscale, brightness, luminosity, cross-hatching, etc.\",\n \"A user may view displays on a graphical user interface (e.g., graphical user interface 182a and/or 182b of FIG.\",\n \"7).\",\n \"Horizontal cross section 320 and 420 may correspond to a specific image point of the gather (e.g., with a specific vertical location).\",\n \"Horizontal cross sections 320 and 420 may show the reflectivity function in, for example, a range of or all spatial directions.\",\n \"Vertical cross sections 330 and 430 may include information related to a gather of points, for a range of zenith angles, and for a specific or single azimuth value.\",\n \"The cylindrical radius 332 (e.g., of the meridian gather), corresponding to the amplitude of an image function, may vary along the length of the vertical axis 310.For example, in vertical cross sections 330, the cylindrical radius 332 may decay or reduce as the depth or axis 310 coordinate increases.\",\n \"Thus, for a limited acquisition area or a limited distance between the source and the receiver, the maximum possible opening angle between the incident and the reflected rays typically decrease with increasing depth and, for example, a zenith angle approaching an infinite depth may vanish (e.g., or approach a negligent or zero value).\",\n \"For the directional subsystem, along vertical cross section 430, the maximum zenith angle may also decay with depth.\",\n \"Cylindrical radius 332, axes 310 and 410, image function, etc.\",\n \"may be viewed on the cylindrical displays 300 and 400, respectively, or as separate data points or graphs.\",\n \"In another embodiment, this data may be hidden or revealed according to a selection by a user.\",\n \"Although displays of three-dimensional bodies shaped as cylinders are described herein, it may be appreciated by the one skilled in the art that differently shaped three-dimensional bodies may be used to concurrently represents data associated with a plurality of image points.\",\n \"For example, a plurality of spherical surface displays, each representing data associated with a single point, may be assembled into shapes other than cylinders.\",\n \"In one embodiment, each of the spherical surface displays may be resized, e.g., to a different graded size (monotonically increasing or decreasing in size).\",\n \"Each resized spherical surface may be nested according to its size to form a solid sphere.\",\n \"For example, the smallest spherical surface may be an interior surface of the solid sphere and a largest spherical surface may be an exterior of the solid sphere).\",\n \"The resizing of each spherical surface (e.g., enlarging or decreasing) may be considered a projection map onto a differently sized spherical surface (e.g., larger and smaller, respectively).\",\n \"In one embodiment, there may be a minimum size for the smallest spherical surface, e.g., for that surface to contain and display (with proper resolution as to be useful to a user) the data associated with a single seismic image point.\",\n \"In this embodiment, the spherical three-dimensional body or solid may be hollow, e.g., having no data at a radii less than the radius of the smallest spherical surface.\",\n \"In other embodiments, the smallest spherical surface may be a point and the spherical body or solid may not be hollow.\",\n \"In such embodiments, the smallest one or more spherical surface may be used as placeholders.\",\n \"Since the smallest spherical surface are typically too small to visualize data associated therewith with proper resolution, a separate display may provide this data (e.g., as a full size spherical surface in a “pop-up” window).\",\n \"Other shapes for the (e.g., solid) three-dimensional body may include a hyperboloid, ellipsoid, and polyhedron, e.g., which may be assembled from a plurality of nested hyperbolic surfaces, elliptical surfaces, and polyhedron surfaces, respectively, (e.g., each of differently graded size).\",\n \"A three-dimensional body may define a solid object in a three-dimensional coordinate space.\",\n \"A three-dimensional surface may define a two-dimensional manifold, e.g., in a three-dimensional coordinate space.\",\n \"Other definitions of surfaces and bodies may be used.\",\n \"Spherical displays 100 and 200 of FIGS.\",\n \"1 and 2, respectively, are typically three-dimensional surfaces and cylindrical displays 300 and 400 of FIGS.\",\n \"3 and 4, respectively, are typically three-dimensional body.\",\n \"Example of Workflow Reference is again made to FIGS.\",\n \"5 and 6, which are flowcharts of methods, according to embodiments of the invention.\",\n \"For example, FIG.\",\n \"5 describes operations for generating and displaying spherical displays (e.g., shown in FIGS.\",\n \"1 and 2) and cylindrical displays (e.g., shown in FIGS.\",\n \"3 and 4), according to one embodiment.\",\n \"Other embodiments may be used to create such displays.\",\n \"The flowcharts describe an example of workflow for data processing and data visualization, for example, using spherical and cylindrical displays.\",\n \"It may be appreciated by the one skilled in the art that this workflow is only an example, among a variety of other possible sequences of operations, and this workflow example does not limit the invention.\",\n \"Referring to FIG.\",\n \"5, in operation 500, a seismic acquisition system (e.g., system 700 of FIG.\",\n \"7) may collect seismic data.\",\n \"Other data, such as medical imaging data or industrial imaging data, may be collected, processed, and displayed.\",\n \"In operation 510, a processor (e.g., processor 140 of FIG.\",\n \"7) may generate a discrete data set (e.g., discrete data set 815 or 825 of FIGS.\",\n \"8A and 8B) representing an image function for an image point.\",\n \"The discrete data set may include seismic data gathers traced from the acquired seismic data.\",\n \"The seismic data gathers may be, for example, discrete azimuthally dependent angle and/or offset domain gathers for the directional and/or reflection subsystems.\",\n \"Other data or types of gathers may be used.\",\n \"In operation 520, the processor may normalize (or grid) an irregular data set (e.g., irregular discrete data set 815 of FIG.\",\n \"8A) (e.g., using the first map 860).\",\n \"For example, a computational mesh (e.g., computational mesh 822) may be generated along which data nodes (e.g., nodes 820) or control points of the discrete data set may be regularly or evenly spaced.\",\n \"This operation may be skipped if the nodes or control points of the discrete data set are already regularly or evenly spaced.\",\n \"In operation 530, the processor may, for each gather node, and for each subsystem (e.g., the directional and reflection subsystems), apply an interpolation technique (e.g., using the second map 865), to obtain the values of the image function between the regularly spaced nodes of the mesh (e.g., on the continuous curved three-dimensional surface 835).\",\n \"In operation 540, for selected gather nodes, and for each of the subsystems, the processor may plot the image function on a spherical or otherwise curved surface (e.g., spherical displays 100 and 200, of FIGS.\",\n \"1 and 2, respectively).\",\n \"The displayed color map or other map may include a continuous distribution of the image function through the spherical or otherwise curved surface (e.g., continuous curved three-dimensional surface 835).\",\n \"In operation 550, for each gather node, the processor may (e.g., using the third map 870), project, flatten, or expand the image date defined on the spherical surface or otherwise curved surface, onto a planar surface 845 (e.g., a circular or other disk) such as a circular or non-circular planar disk.\",\n \"In operation 560, for each of the two subsystems, the processor may assemble planar disks having the projected image date (e.g., using the fourth map 875).\",\n \"The data defined with planar surfaces for each gather node may be combined to form a three-dimensional body (e.g., three-dimensional body 855) such as a circular or non-circular cylinder.\",\n \"In operation 570, the processor may display the three-dimensional body (e.g., cylindrical displays 300 and 400, of FIGS.\",\n \"3 and 4, respectively).\",\n \"In operation 580, the processor may generate axial cross sections (e.g., 330 and 430 of FIGS.\",\n \"3 and 4, respectively) of the three-dimensional body (e.g., of cylindrical displays 300 and 400, respectively) for arbitrary azimuths selected by a user.\",\n \"Each axial cross section may represent a single-azimuth image gather including multiple zenith angles (e.g., or offset magnitudes) within a given range, and multiple gather nodes in depth.\",\n \"Other operations or series of operations may be used.\",\n \"Referring to FIG.\",\n \"6, in operation 600, a first display (e.g., display 180a of FIG.\",\n \"7) may show a standard display of image points (e.g., seismic data) as a visualization of a geophysical region.\",\n \"The first display may be a visualization of an image function vs. location.\",\n \"For example, each point may be defined by three components, such as, Cartesian components of the point, and a color corresponding to a function value at each point.\",\n \"While specific displays (e.g.\",\n \"FIGS.\",\n \"1-4) and data structures are described, other displays and data structures may be used with embodiments of the invention.\",\n \"In operation 610, an input device may receive point selected or indicated by a user.\",\n \"The user may indicate (e.g., by clicking or highlighting) the physical location of one image point or a plurality of image points (e.g., determined to be located along a line in a physical space, e.g.\",\n \"a vertical line) of the standard display to be displayed as a sphere or cylinder.\",\n \"Points may be “determined” to be located instead of “actually” located, since geophysical simulations typically have less than full (100%) accuracy.\",\n \"In response to such an indication, a display may display (e.g., on the graphical user interface) a representation of the indicated data to a user.\",\n \"In operation 620, in response to receiving indications of one or more seismic image points from a user, a second display (e.g., display 180b of FIG.\",\n \"7) may display (e.g., on graphical user interface 182b), one or a plurality (e.g., a gather) of image points, of one or more components of data in addition to the data displayed in operation 600 (e.g., on graphical user interface 182a).\",\n \"The second display may be a visualization of the image function vs. additional component, such as, an orientation on the spherical display, or a location (e.g.\",\n \"vertical) and orientation on the cylindrical display.\",\n \"When data for one image point is displayed, the display may include spherical displays 100 and/or 200 of FIGS.\",\n \"1 and 2.When data for a plurality of image point or seismic image gather (e.g., corresponding to a line or curve in a physical space) is displayed, the display may include cylindrical displays 300 and 400 of FIGS.\",\n \"3 and 4.The additional component data displays (e.g., on graphical user interface 182b) may be displayed with or adjacent to a standard display or visualization of a geophysical region (e.g., on graphical user interface 182a).\",\n \"While two displays or monitors are shown, this is by way of example only, and only one or more than two monitors may be used, and further only one type of data need be displayed at one time.\",\n \"For example, a “standard” 3D display need not be displayed, but rather specific components.\",\n \"In one embodiment, the cylindrical display (e.g., 300 and/or 400, of FIGS.\",\n \"3 and 4) may be viewed as a partially hollowed structure.\",\n \"Alternatively, the display may be (e.g., initially) solid and when operated on or manipulated by a user, may become transparent to reveal data not shown on the outside surface of the solid structure.\",\n \"For example, only one planar disk may be displayed at a time.\",\n \"The other disks may be hidden so that they do not obstruct a view of the single displayed disk.\",\n \"In other embodiments, two or more disks may be simultaneously displayed.\",\n \"For example, a user may indicate a point (e.g., along the line 880) on the cylinder and in response to the indication, the display may display the disk having that point.\",\n \"Data corresponding to the hidden disks, e.g., the maximum cylindrical radius 332 (e.g., of the meridian gather), corresponding to the maximum zenith angle of the image function of a disk varying along the length of the vertical axis 310, may be displayed.\",\n \"The cylindrical radius 332 of the meridian gather may be a simple indication of the image function of disks that are not displayed.\",\n \"A user may for example compare the detailed image function of the single displayed disk to the simplified representation of the image function (e.g., a maximum cylindrical radius 332 representing maximum zenith angle of the meridian gather) of the hidden disks, e.g., to identify trends or compare image function or component values among disks.\",\n \"Other portions of the displays may be hidden or revealed and the hidden or revealed structures may be changeable, e.g., controlled at least in part by a user operating an input device.\",\n \"For example, when displaying cylindrical display (e.g., 300 and/or 400, of FIGS.\",\n \"3 and 4), a user may request (e.g., by right clicking or selecting an appropriate icon) to hide or to reveal axes 310 and/or 340, planar nodes 840 (e.g., e.g., overlaid on corresponding planar disks), and/or cylindrical nodes 850 (e.g., e.g., overlaid on the corresponding cylindrical displays).\",\n \"For example, when displaying spherical display (e.g., 100 and/or 200, of FIGS.\",\n \"1 and 2), a user may request to hide or to reveal computational mesh 822, or an output mesh thereof, e.g., spiraling nodes 830, etc.\",\n \"The user may request additional information to reveal the physical space (e.g., by color, highlighting, arrow pointers, etc.)\",\n \"to which a selected one or more image points are determined to be located (e.g., on the first display of operation 600).\",\n \"Additional data may be shown, e.g., the number of iterations used to generate a computational mesh 822 or a visualization of the stages of the recursive construction (e.g., from an first stage polygon having a relatively few number of faces to a last stage polygon having a relatively large number of faces and closely approximating a sphere to within a predetermined threshold of error compared to the next iteration).\",\n \"Other data, such as, maximum cylindrical radius 332 of a line of points such as the meridian gather, color maps, axes 310 and 410, locations of image points on the cylindrical display and/or in a physical space, image function values, color maps, etc.\",\n \"may be viewed on the display or as separate data points or graphs.\",\n \"This data may be hidden or revealed according to a selection by a user.\",\n \"In one embodiment, a cylindrical display (e.g., 300 and/or 400, of FIGS.\",\n \"3 and 4) may display components of image data corresponding to two subsystems (e.g., reflection angle or offset and direction).\",\n \"The cylindrical display may include multiple stacked planar disks, each flattened from a spherical display (e.g., 100 and/or 200, of FIGS.\",\n \"1 and 2), each spherical display representing an image function for a different point of an image gather.\",\n \"The cylindrical display may thus correspond to an image gather.\",\n \"Displays other than a cylindrical display may be used, such as cones, pyramids, funnels, conical or cylindrical portions or sections, etc.\",\n \"The user may, for example, analyze the pair of reflection (e.g., or offset) and directional displays corresponding to the same point.\",\n \"A pair of displays including a directional display having a single or narrow range of values and a reflection angle (e.g., or offset) display having multiple or a wide range of values the image point may indicate that the image point lies on a fault line.\",\n \"Thus, operations 610 to 620 may be repeated, for example, as a user indicate other image points (e.g., scanning image points), to view corresponding pairs of directional and reflection angle (e.g., or offset) displays to discover the locations of image points that fall on fault lines.\",\n \"Other benefits may be realized.\",\n \"Other operations or series of operations may be used.\",\n \"Example of a System Reference is made to FIG.\",\n \"7, which is a schematic illustration of a system, including a transmitter, a receiver and a computing system in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention.\",\n \"System 700 may be used, for example, to display image data, such as, for example, seismic data, in a spherical displays (e.g., of FIGS.\",\n \"1 and 2) and/or cylindrical displays (e.g., of FIGS.\",\n \"3 and 4) and/or displays of a standard or physical space.\",\n \"Data other than seismic data may be used with embodiments of the present invention.\",\n \"System 700 may perform embodiments of any of the methods discussed herein, and/or other operations or computations.\",\n \"System 700 may, for example, display a standard display or visualization of physical space (e.g., a geophysical space, a medical image), and in addition or as an alternate option for a user, displays such as but not limited to spherical or cylindrical displays, which may display details or additional component data which may have been used to build the standard visualization.\",\n \"System 700 may include for example a transmitter 110, a receiver 120, a computing system 130, and one or more displays 180a and 180b.\",\n \"In a system having more than one monitor or display, a standard display or visualization of a physical space may be displayed on one display (e.g., display 180a), and spherical or cylindrical displays displaying details or additional component data may appear on a second display (e.g., display 180b).\",\n \"However, one display may be used for displaying one or more types of information (e.g., a standard display and/or a display including additional component data).\",\n \"Transmitter 110 may output any suitable signals, or generate incident signal(s).\",\n \"For example, a series of sonic or seismic energy rays or waves may be emitted from each of multiple locations.\",\n \"Receiver 120 may accept reflected signal(s) that correspond or relate to incident signals, sent by transmitter 110.In the case of imaging in other areas, e.g., medical imaging, transmitter 110 may output energy such as ultrasound, magnetic, x-ray, or other suitable energy.\",\n \"Computing system 130 may include, for example, processor 140, memory 150 and software 160.Processor 140 may process data, for example, raw data received from receiver 120.Memory 150 may store data, for example, raw or processed seismic data.\",\n \"Operations executed according to embodiments of the invention, such as for example, mapping, projecting, interpolating, gridding, generating a computational mesh, estimating, approximating, displaying, etc.\",\n \"may be at least partially executed, operated or calculated, for example, by an operator (e.g., implemented in software 160).\",\n \"Other units or processors may perform such operations, or other operations according to embodiments of the present invention.\",\n \"Displays 180a and/or 180b (e.g., such as monitors or screens) may display to a user or viewer spherical or cylindrical displays representing data from transmitter 110, receiver 120, computing system 130, or any other suitable systems, devices, or programs, for example, an imaging program or software, or a transmitter or receiver tracking device.\",\n \"Displays 180a and/or 180b may include one or more inputs for displaying data from multiple data sources.\",\n \"The system may include multiple displays.\",\n \"Displays 180a and/or 180b may display images produced from data.\",\n \"For example, displays 180a and/or 180b may display representations or visualizations of seismic or other imaging data, for example, angle dependent CIGs, processes according to embodiments described herein.\",\n \"Displays 180a and 180b may include for example one or more graphical user interfaces 182a and 182b, respectively.\",\n \"The displays may, in response to an indication, from a user operating the input device 170, of one or more seismic image points or a line of a physical space, display the graphical user interfaces 182a and/or 182b.\",\n \"The display may, for example, display direction data, data for a plurality of directions, and/or an image function vs. the direction, associated with the indicated seismic image point.\",\n \"The graphical user interfaces 182a and/or 182b may enable a user to view the results of their input (e.g., operating the input device 170) or interact with the displays for selecting points, requesting additional data, setting graphical parameters, selecting to hide or reveal graphical structures, etc.\",\n \"Computing system 130 may include, for example, one or more input device(s) 170 (e.g., such as a keyboard and/or mouse) for receiving command, selections, or signals (e.g., from a user or other external device).\",\n \"Computing system 130 may include, for example, any suitable processing system, computing system, computing device, processing device, computer, processor, and the like, and may be implemented using any suitable combination of hardware and/or software.\",\n \"Processor 140 may include, for example, one or more processors, controllers or central processing units (“CPUs”).\",\n \"Software 160 may be stored, for example, all or in part, in memory 150.Software 160 may include any suitable software, for example, for processing or imaging according to embodiments of the present invention.\",\n \"Processor 140 may operate at least partially based on instructions in software 160.Embodiments of the invention may include a computer readable storage medium, such as for example a memory, a disk drive, or a “disk-on-key”, including instructions which when executed by a processor or controller, carry out methods disclosed herein, or cause the processor to carry out such methods.\",\n \"Software 160 may be stored on the computer readable storage medium.\",\n \"System 700 may, for example, display images of target surfaces, for example, using software 160 and/or processor 140, or other components such as dedicated image or signal processors.\",\n \"Such displays may be used and analyzed for example, for determining the locations of image points that lie on faults or other geological discontinuities or points of interest.\",\n \"System 700 may, for example, display a seismic image data point.\",\n \"The spatial features of the seismic data point (e.g., a zenith and azimuth angles, a relative location, and/or other spatial coordinates within a larger subsurface region) may be represented in a standard display of a conventional (e.g., Cartesian or polar) coordinate system.\",\n \"Processor 140 may, for example, compute, from a wide-azimuth data set, a discrete data set (e.g., 815 or 825 of FIGS.\",\n \"8A and 8B, respectively) associated with an image function at a seismic image point in a three-dimensional coordinate system.\",\n \"The processor 140 may map (e.g., by interpolation or gridding) the discrete data set onto a continuous curved three-dimensional surface (e.g., 835 of FIG.\",\n \"8C).\",\n \"Processor 140 may generate a computational mesh (e.g., according to operation 520 of FIG.\",\n \"5).\",\n \"The computational mesh (e.g., computational mesh 822 of FIG.\",\n \"8B) may include regularly spaced nodes (e.g., nodes 820).\",\n \"Processor 140 may grid (e.g., or interpolate) the input data onto the computational mesh (e.g., according to operation 530 of FIG.\",\n \"5).\",\n \"For example, processor 140 may map the discrete data set onto the continuous curved three-dimensional surface, for example, by estimating the values of the image function at the nodes of the computational mesh and at points between the regularly space nodes of the computational mesh.\",\n \"Processor 140 may generate the computational mesh starting from a primary polyhedron inscribed into a sphere and then splitting its spherical triangles in a recursive manner, as described in the previous sections.\",\n \"Other relationships or maps between the spatial coordinates and the continuous curved three-dimensional surface may be used.\",\n \"Displays 180a and/or 180b may display the continuous curved three-dimensional surface as a sphere, an ellipsoid, a spherical cap, and an ellipsoidal cap, or otherwise curved 3D surface (e.g., such as spherical displays 100 and/or 200 of FIGS.\",\n \"1 and 2, respectively).\",\n \"Processor 140 may, for example, project the mapped data set onto a continuous curved two-dimensional surface (e.g., a planar disk).\",\n \"Displays 180a and/or 180b may display the projected data as a planar disk.\",\n \"The outer boundary of the planar disk may be, for example, a closed curve, including a circle, an ellipse, or another closed curve, or an otherwise 2D surface (e.g., such as displays of planar surface 845 of FIG.\",\n \"8D).\",\n \"The radii of the points on the planar disk may, for example, correspond to zenith angles of the discrete data set or to offset magnitudes of the discrete data set.\",\n \"Processor 140 may, for example, assemble the plurality of continuous planar surfaces into a three-dimensional body (e.g., 855 of FIG.\",\n \"8E).\",\n \"Displays 180a and/or 180b may display the three-dimensional body as a cylinder, a cone, a truncated cone, or otherwise curved 3D body (e.g., such as cylindrical displays 300 and/or 400 of FIGS.\",\n \"3 and 4, respectively).\",\n \"The arguments of the image function represented on the continuous curved three-dimensional surface may include, for example, direction angles, reflection angles, offsets (e.g., defined by offset magnitudes and azimuths) of, e.g., wide-azimuth data collected during geophysical exploration, and/or other or additional components not typically shown on a standard display.\",\n \"Although these additional components may be combined or processed to provide spatial features of the image point, each of the additional components typically do not show a location of the image point in a geophysical space.\",\n \"System 700 may, for example, display a seismic image gather.\",\n \"Processor 140 may generate, from a wide-azimuth data set, a plurality of discrete data sets (e.g., 815 or 825 of FIGS.\",\n \"8A and 8B, respectively).\",\n \"Each discrete data set may be associated with an image function of one of a plurality of seismic image data points determined to be located along a line in a physical space.\",\n \"Each of the plurality of seismic image data points determined to be located along a line in a physical space may correspond to a seismic image gather representing a plurality of zenith angles and a single azimuth angle.\",\n \"Processor 140 may grid each of the discrete data sets onto a continuous curved three-dimensional surface.\",\n \"Processor 140 may project each of the gridded data sets onto a continuous curved two-dimensional surface.\",\n \"Processor 140 may assemble the plurality of continuous curved two-dimensional surface into a three-dimensional body.\",\n \"Processor 140 may assemble the plurality of continuous curved two-dimensional surfaces into a three-dimensional body along an axis (e.g., line 880 of FIG.\",\n \"8E) of symmetry of the body.\",\n \"Displays 180a and/or 180b may display the three-dimensional body.\",\n \"The three-dimensional body for concurrently representing data associated with the line of points.\",\n \"The three-dimensional body may be, e.g., such a cylinder (e.g., such as cylindrical displays 300 and/or 400 of FIGS.\",\n \"3 and 4, respectively), a cone, a funnel, or a pyramid.\",\n \"An input device (e.g., input device 170 of FIG.\",\n \"7) may receive indications from a user of a seismic image point or a line (e.g., of seismic image points) in a physical space.\",\n \"The display may, in response to the indication of the seismic image point from a user operating the input device, display a graphical user interface (e.g., graphical user interface 182b of FIG.\",\n \"7) comprising projected data derived from the discrete data set associated with the indicated seismic image point.\",\n \"The display may, in response to an indication of the line from a user operating the input device, display a graphical user interface (e.g., graphical user interface 182b) including the three-dimensional body derived from the discrete data set associated with the plurality of seismic image data points determined to be located along the indicated line.\",\n \"One embodiment of the invention may include displaying wide-azimuth seismic image data mapped from a first coordinate system to a reduced dimensional coordinate system for reducing the dimensionality of the data set.\",\n \"The reduced dimensional coordinate system may be for example, as described in U.S. patent application Ser.\",\n \"No.\",\n \"11/798,996.A display may include a spiraling geometry.\",\n \"According to one embodiment, the reduced dimensional data may be displayed on spherical surfaces for the reflection angle (FIG.\",\n \"1) and directional (FIG.\",\n \"2) subsystems of the LAD.\",\n \"These displays may be projected and assembled to form reduced dimensional cylindrical displays in the reduced dimensional coordinate space.\",\n \"The foregoing description of the embodiments of the invention has been presented for the purposes of illustration and description.\",\n \"It is not intended to be exhaustive or to limit the invention to the precise form disclosed.\",\n \"It should be appreciated by persons skilled in the art that many modifications, variations, substitutions, changes, and equivalents are possible in light of the above teaching.\",\n \"It is, therefore, to be understood that the appended claims are intended to cover all such modifications and changes as fall within the true spirit of the invention.\"\n ]\n]"},"source":{"kind":"string","value":"Patent_15875332"}}},{"rowIdx":4494854,"cells":{"text":{"kind":"list like","value":[["VEHICLE SPEED CONTROL SYSTEM","A vehicle speed control system for a vehicle having a plurality of wheels, the vehicle speed control system comprising one or more electronic control units configured to carry out a method that includes applying torque to at least one of the plurality of wheels, detecting a slip event between any one or more of the wheels and the ground over which the vehicle is travelling when the vehicle is in motion and providing a slip detection output signal in the event thereof.","The method carried out by the one or more electronic control units further includes receiving a user input of a target speed at which the vehicle is intended to travel and maintaining the vehicle at the target speed independently of the slip detection output signal by adjusting the amount of torque applied to the at least one of the plurality of wheels."],["1.A vehicle speed control system for a vehicle having a plurality of wheels, the vehicle speed control system configured to automatically control the speed of the vehicle to a target speed and comprising one or more electronic control units arranged to: control the application of torque to at least one of the plurality of wheels; detect a slip event between any one or more of the wheels and the surface over which the vehicle is travelling when the vehicle is in motion and provide a slip detection output signal in the event thereof; receive a user input of a target set-speed at which the vehicle is intended to travel; and control the application of torque to the at least one of the plurality of wheels for maintaining the vehicle at the target speed independently of the slip detection output signal by requesting the application of increased net torque to the at least one of the plurality of wheels when the vehicle speed needs to be increased to maintain the vehicle at the target speed wherein the magnitude of the requested increased net torque is reduced when an identified external force acts on the vehicle in a direction so as to cause positive acceleration.","2.The vehicle speed control system as claimed in claim 1 wherein the magnitude of the reduction of the requested increased net torque is proportional to the magnitude of the external force.","3.The vehicle speed control system as claimed in claim 1 wherein the magnitude of the requested increased net torque is increased when an identified external force acts on the vehicle in a direction so as to cause negative acceleration.","4.The vehicle speed control system as claimed in claim 3 wherein the magnitude of the increase of the requested increased net torque is proportional to the magnitude of the external force.","5.The vehicle speed control system as claimed in claim 1, wherein said one or more electronic control unit is arranged to: determine the magnitude and direction of an external force operating on the vehicle; compare the current speed with the target speed and providing an output indicative of the difference between the current speed and the target speed; and evaluating the torque to be applied to at least one of the vehicle wheels in dependence on the output, and increasing or decreasing the magnitude of the evaluated torque in dependence on the determined magnitude and direction of an external force operating on the vehicle.","6.The vehicle speed control system as claimed in claim 5, wherein said one or more electronic control unit is arranged to apply torque to at least two wheels of the vehicle simultaneously.","7.The vehicle speed control system as claimed in claim 5, wherein said one or more electronic control unit is arranged to apply torque to at least four wheels of the vehicle simultaneously.","8.A vehicle comprising a control system as claimed in claim 1.9.A vehicle speed control system for a vehicle having a plurality of wheels, the vehicle speed control system configured to automatically control the speed of the vehicle to a target speed and comprising one or more electronic control units arranged to: control the application of torque to at least one of the plurality of wheels; detect a slip event between any one or more of the wheels and the surface over which the vehicle is travelling when the vehicle is in motion and provide a slip detection output signal in the event thereof; receive a user input of a target set-speed at which the vehicle is intended to travel; and control the application of torque to the at least one of the plurality of wheels for maintaining the vehicle at the target speed independently of the slip detection output signal by requesting a reduction of net torque applied to the vehicle wheels when the vehicle speed needs to be decreased to maintain the vehicle at the target speed wherein the magnitude of the requested reduction of net torque is increased when an identified external force acts on the vehicle in a direction so as to cause positive acceleration.","10.The vehicle speed control system as claimed in claim 9 wherein the magnitude of the increase of the reduction of net torque is proportional to the magnitude of the external force.","11.The vehicle speed control system as claimed in claim 9 wherein the magnitude of the requested reduction of net torque is decreased when an identified external force acts on the vehicle in a direction so as to cause negative acceleration.","12.The vehicle speed control system as claimed in claim 11 wherein the magnitude of the decrease of the requested reduction of net torque is proportional to the magnitude of the external force.","13.The vehicle speed control system as claimed in claim 9, wherein said one or more electronic control unit is arranged to: determine the magnitude and direction of an external force operating on the vehicle; compare the current speed with the target speed and providing an output indicative of the difference between the current speed and the target speed; and evaluating the torque to be applied to at least one of the vehicle wheels in dependence on the output, and increasing or decreasing the magnitude of the evaluated torque in dependence on the determined magnitude and direction of an external force operating on the vehicle.","14.The vehicle speed control system as claimed in claim 13, wherein said one or more electronic control unit is arranged to apply torque to at least two wheels of the vehicle simultaneously.","15.The vehicle speed control system as claimed in claim 13, wherein said one or more electronic control unit is arranged to apply torque to at least four wheels of the vehicle simultaneously.","16.A vehicle comprising a control system as claimed in claim 9.17.A vehicle comprising a control system as claimed in claim 1 and comprising a vehicle speed control system configured to automatically control the speed of the vehicle to a target speed and comprising one or more electronic control units arranged to: control the application of torque to at least one of the plurality of wheels; detect a slip event between any one or more of the wheels and the surface over which the vehicle is travelling when the vehicle is in motion and provide a slip detection output signal in the event thereof; receive a user input of a target set-speed at which the vehicle is intended to travel; and control the application of torque to the at least one of the plurality of wheels for maintaining the vehicle at the target speed independently of the slip detection output signal by requesting a reduction of net torque applied to the vehicle wheels when the vehicle speed needs to be decreased to maintain the vehicle at the target speed wherein the magnitude of the requested reduction of net torque is increased when an identified external force acts on the vehicle in a direction so as to cause positive acceleration.","18.A method of automatically controlling a speed to a target speed of a vehicle having a plurality of wheels, the method comprising: applying torque to at least one of the plurality of wheels; detecting a slip event between any one or more of the wheels and the ground over which the vehicle is travelling when the vehicle is in motion and providing a slip detection output signal in the event thereof; receiving a user input of a target set-speed at which the vehicle is intended to travel; and automatically maintaining the vehicle at the target speed independently of the slip detection output signal by requesting the application of increased net torque to the at least one of the plurality of wheels when the vehicle speed needs to be increased to maintain the vehicle at the target speed wherein the magnitude of the requested increased net torque is reduced when an identified external force acts on the vehicle in a direction so as to cause positive acceleration."],[" BACKGROUND In known vehicle speed control systems, typically referred to as cruise control systems, the vehicle speed is maintained once set by the user without further intervention by the user so as to improve the driving experience for the user.","The user selects a speed at which the vehicle is to be maintained, and the vehicle is maintained at that speed for as long as the user does not apply a brake or, in some systems, the clutch.","The cruise control system takes its speed signal from the driveshaft or wheel speed sensors.","When the brake or the clutch is depressed, the cruise control system is disabled so that the user can change the vehicle speed without resistance from the system.","If the user depresses the accelerator pedal the vehicle speed will increase, but once the user removes his foot from the accelerator pedal the vehicle reverts to the pre-set cruise speed.","More sophisticated cruise control systems are integrated into the engine management system and may include an adaptive functionality which takes into account the distance to the vehicle in front using a radar-based system.","For example, the vehicle may be provided with a forward-looking radar detection system so that the speed and distance of the vehicle in front is detected and a safe following speed and distance is maintained automatically without the need for user input.","If the lead vehicle slows down, or another object is detected by the radar detection system, the system sends a signal to the engine or the braking system to slow the vehicle down accordingly.","Such systems are usually operable only above a certain speed, typically around 15 mph, and are ideal in circumstances in which the vehicle is travelling in steady traffic conditions, and particularly on highways or motorways.","In congested traffic conditions, however, where vehicle speed tends to vary widely, cruise control systems are ineffective, and especially where the systems are inoperable because of a minimum speed requirement.","A minimum speed requirement is often imposed on cruise control systems so as to reduce the likelihood of low speed collision, for example when parking.","Such systems are therefore ineffective in certain driving conditions (e.g.","low speed) and are set to be automatically disabled in circumstances in which a user may not consider it to be desirable to do so.","It is also known to provide a control system for a motor vehicle for controlling one or more vehicle subsystems.","U.S. Pat.","No.","7,349,776, the content of which is hereby incorporated by reference, discloses a vehicle control system comprising a plurality of subsystem controllers including an engine management system, a transmission controller, a steering controller, a brakes controller and a suspension controller.","The subsystem controllers are each operable in a plurality of subsystem function modes.","The subsystem controllers are connected to a vehicle mode controller which controls the subsystem controllers to assume a required function mode so as to provide a number of driving modes for the vehicle.","Each of the driving modes corresponds to a particular driving condition or set of driving conditions, and in each mode each of the sub-systems is set to the function mode most appropriate to those conditions.","Such conditions are linked to types of terrain over which the vehicle may be driven such as grass/gravel/snow, mud and ruts, rock crawl, sand and a highway mode known as ‘special programs off’(SPO).","The vehicle mode controller may be referred to as a Terrain Response (TR)® System or controller."],[" SUMMARY Embodiments of the invention may be understood with reference to the appended claims.","Aspects of the present invention provide a system, a vehicle and a method.","It is with a view to addressing the aforementioned limitations of existing systems that the present invention provides, in an aspect of the invention for which protection is sought there is provided, a vehicle speed control system for a vehicle having a plurality of wheels, the vehicle speed control system configured to automatically control the speed of the vehicle to a target set-speed and comprising means for applying a torque to at least one of the plurality of wheels; means for detecting a slip event between any one or more of the wheels and the ground over which the vehicle is travelling when the vehicle is in motion and for providing a slip detection output signal in the event thereof; and means for receiving a user input of a target speed at which the vehicle is intended to travel.","The system further comprises means for maintaining the vehicle at the target speed independently of the slip detection output signal.","The user input of target speed will be understood to be a target set-speed of the automatic speed control system.","In another aspect of the invention for which protection is sought there is provided, a vehicle speed control system for a vehicle having a plurality of wheels and a powertrain for providing a torque thereto, the vehicle speed control system comprising: means for receiving an input signal indicative of a slip event between any one or more of the wheels and the ground over which the vehicle is travelling when the vehicle is in motion; means for receiving a user input of a target speed at which the vehicle is intended to travel; and means for outputting a torque request signal to control the vehicle powertrain, wherein the system is operable to maintain the vehicle at the target speed independently of the slip detection output signal.","A problem with existing vehicle speed control systems, such as cruise control systems, is that the system is cancelled when the vehicle detects a wheel slip event at one or more wheel.","The system will also cancel upon activation of the anti-lock braking system (ABS), the traction control system or stability control systems or the like.","Whilst the approach taken by known cruise control systems may be entirely appropriate for driving on the highway, it makes these ‘on-highway’ cruise control systems unreliable and entirely inappropriate for use in most off-road driving applications, where the driving speed is typically much lower and the varied nature of the terrain tends to give rise to frequent slip events.","In other words, driving in adverse and slippery conditions off-road, where wheel slip is not uncommon, on-highway cruise control systems are ineffective.","It is one benefit of at least some embodiments of the invention that it provides a speed-based control which enables the user to select a very low target speed at which the vehicle progresses without any pedal inputs being required by the user once the vehicle is moving and, moreover, which is not disabled upon activation of any of the vehicle slip control mechanisms.","In particular, this enables the speed of the vehicle to be controlled in driving conditions where wheel slip may occur relatively frequently, such as on slippery or icy terrain, but where low speed progress of the vehicle is still desirable.","It is a further benefit of at least some embodiments of the invention that as the user does not have to concentrate on regulating the speed of the vehicle, it is easier to focus on navigational aspects such as route planning and obstacle avoidance.","This is particularly advantageous when the terrain over which the vehicle is travelling is challenging to navigate, such as, for example, for off-road terrains (such as sand, rock, gravel) or in conditions such as ice or snow or where the vehicle is being driven through deep water, where the demands on user concentration are greater.","According to a further aspect of the invention for which protection is sought there is provided a memory device which comprises a carrier medium carrying a computer-readable code for controlling the vehicle to carry out the method described above.","It will be appreciated that preferred and/or optional features of any one aspect of the invention may be incorporated alone or in appropriate combination within the any other aspect of the invention also."],["FIELD OF THE INVENTION The invention relates to a system for controlling the speed of a vehicle.","In particular, but not exclusively, the invention relates to a system for controlling the speed of a land-based vehicle which is capable of driving in a variety of different and extreme terrains and conditions.","BACKGROUND In known vehicle speed control systems, typically referred to as cruise control systems, the vehicle speed is maintained once set by the user without further intervention by the user so as to improve the driving experience for the user.","The user selects a speed at which the vehicle is to be maintained, and the vehicle is maintained at that speed for as long as the user does not apply a brake or, in some systems, the clutch.","The cruise control system takes its speed signal from the driveshaft or wheel speed sensors.","When the brake or the clutch is depressed, the cruise control system is disabled so that the user can change the vehicle speed without resistance from the system.","If the user depresses the accelerator pedal the vehicle speed will increase, but once the user removes his foot from the accelerator pedal the vehicle reverts to the pre-set cruise speed.","More sophisticated cruise control systems are integrated into the engine management system and may include an adaptive functionality which takes into account the distance to the vehicle in front using a radar-based system.","For example, the vehicle may be provided with a forward-looking radar detection system so that the speed and distance of the vehicle in front is detected and a safe following speed and distance is maintained automatically without the need for user input.","If the lead vehicle slows down, or another object is detected by the radar detection system, the system sends a signal to the engine or the braking system to slow the vehicle down accordingly.","Such systems are usually operable only above a certain speed, typically around 15 mph, and are ideal in circumstances in which the vehicle is travelling in steady traffic conditions, and particularly on highways or motorways.","In congested traffic conditions, however, where vehicle speed tends to vary widely, cruise control systems are ineffective, and especially where the systems are inoperable because of a minimum speed requirement.","A minimum speed requirement is often imposed on cruise control systems so as to reduce the likelihood of low speed collision, for example when parking.","Such systems are therefore ineffective in certain driving conditions (e.g.","low speed) and are set to be automatically disabled in circumstances in which a user may not consider it to be desirable to do so.","It is also known to provide a control system for a motor vehicle for controlling one or more vehicle subsystems.","U.S. Pat.","No.","7,349,776, the content of which is hereby incorporated by reference, discloses a vehicle control system comprising a plurality of subsystem controllers including an engine management system, a transmission controller, a steering controller, a brakes controller and a suspension controller.","The subsystem controllers are each operable in a plurality of subsystem function modes.","The subsystem controllers are connected to a vehicle mode controller which controls the subsystem controllers to assume a required function mode so as to provide a number of driving modes for the vehicle.","Each of the driving modes corresponds to a particular driving condition or set of driving conditions, and in each mode each of the sub-systems is set to the function mode most appropriate to those conditions.","Such conditions are linked to types of terrain over which the vehicle may be driven such as grass/gravel/snow, mud and ruts, rock crawl, sand and a highway mode known as ‘special programs off’(SPO).","The vehicle mode controller may be referred to as a Terrain Response (TR)® System or controller.","SUMMARY Embodiments of the invention may be understood with reference to the appended claims.","Aspects of the present invention provide a system, a vehicle and a method.","It is with a view to addressing the aforementioned limitations of existing systems that the present invention provides, in an aspect of the invention for which protection is sought there is provided, a vehicle speed control system for a vehicle having a plurality of wheels, the vehicle speed control system configured to automatically control the speed of the vehicle to a target set-speed and comprising means for applying a torque to at least one of the plurality of wheels; means for detecting a slip event between any one or more of the wheels and the ground over which the vehicle is travelling when the vehicle is in motion and for providing a slip detection output signal in the event thereof; and means for receiving a user input of a target speed at which the vehicle is intended to travel.","The system further comprises means for maintaining the vehicle at the target speed independently of the slip detection output signal.","The user input of target speed will be understood to be a target set-speed of the automatic speed control system.","In another aspect of the invention for which protection is sought there is provided, a vehicle speed control system for a vehicle having a plurality of wheels and a powertrain for providing a torque thereto, the vehicle speed control system comprising: means for receiving an input signal indicative of a slip event between any one or more of the wheels and the ground over which the vehicle is travelling when the vehicle is in motion; means for receiving a user input of a target speed at which the vehicle is intended to travel; and means for outputting a torque request signal to control the vehicle powertrain, wherein the system is operable to maintain the vehicle at the target speed independently of the slip detection output signal.","A problem with existing vehicle speed control systems, such as cruise control systems, is that the system is cancelled when the vehicle detects a wheel slip event at one or more wheel.","The system will also cancel upon activation of the anti-lock braking system (ABS), the traction control system or stability control systems or the like.","Whilst the approach taken by known cruise control systems may be entirely appropriate for driving on the highway, it makes these ‘on-highway’ cruise control systems unreliable and entirely inappropriate for use in most off-road driving applications, where the driving speed is typically much lower and the varied nature of the terrain tends to give rise to frequent slip events.","In other words, driving in adverse and slippery conditions off-road, where wheel slip is not uncommon, on-highway cruise control systems are ineffective.","It is one benefit of at least some embodiments of the invention that it provides a speed-based control which enables the user to select a very low target speed at which the vehicle progresses without any pedal inputs being required by the user once the vehicle is moving and, moreover, which is not disabled upon activation of any of the vehicle slip control mechanisms.","In particular, this enables the speed of the vehicle to be controlled in driving conditions where wheel slip may occur relatively frequently, such as on slippery or icy terrain, but where low speed progress of the vehicle is still desirable.","It is a further benefit of at least some embodiments of the invention that as the user does not have to concentrate on regulating the speed of the vehicle, it is easier to focus on navigational aspects such as route planning and obstacle avoidance.","This is particularly advantageous when the terrain over which the vehicle is travelling is challenging to navigate, such as, for example, for off-road terrains (such as sand, rock, gravel) or in conditions such as ice or snow or where the vehicle is being driven through deep water, where the demands on user concentration are greater.","According to a further aspect of the invention for which protection is sought there is provided a memory device which comprises a carrier medium carrying a computer-readable code for controlling the vehicle to carry out the method described above.","It will be appreciated that preferred and/or optional features of any one aspect of the invention may be incorporated alone or in appropriate combination within the any other aspect of the invention also.","BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The invention will now be described by way of example only with reference to the following figures in which: FIG.","1 is a schematic illustration of a vehicle according to an embodiment of the invention in plan view; FIG.","2 shows the vehicle of FIG.","1 in side view; FIG.","3 is a high level schematic diagram of an embodiment of the vehicle speed control system of the present invention, including a cruise control system and a low-speed progress control system; FIG.","4 is a flow diagram to illustrate the interaction between the cruise control system and the low-speed progress control system in FIG.","3; FIG.","5 is a schematic diagram of further features of the vehicle speed control system in FIG.","3; FIG.","6 illustrates a steering wheel and brake and accelerator pedals of a vehicle according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG.","7 shows a plot of pedal output signal S as a function of pedal travel d in a vehicle according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG.","8 shows a vehicle according to an embodiment of the present invention ascending a slope at two different locations, each location having a different respective gradient; FIG.","9(a)-(f) are plots of certain vehicle parameters as a function of time in different off-road driving situations illustrating operation of a speed control system according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG.","10 is a plot of powertrain torque and brake torque as a function of time in a vehicle according to an embodiment of the present invention over the course of a portion of an example off-road journey; FIG.","11 is a plot of powertrain torque and brake torque as a function of time in a vehicle according to an embodiment of the present invention over the course of respective portions of example off-road journeys; FIG.","12 is a plot of vehicle speed v, set speed vset and traction control system flag status as a function of time in a vehicle according to an embodiment of the present invention over the course of a portion of an example off-road journey; FIG.","13 is a plot of vehicle speed v, set speed vset and traction control system flag status as a function of distance for a vehicle according to an embodiment of the present invention over the course of a portion of a further example off-road journey; FIG.","14 is a plot of powertrain torque, vehicle speed and set speed as a function of distance in a vehicle according to an embodiment of the present invention over the course of a portion of an example off-road journey; FIG.","15 is a plot of powertrain torque, vehicle speed and set speed as a function of distance in a vehicle according to an embodiment of the present invention over the course of a portion of an example off-road journey; and FIG.","16 shows (a) a console installed in a vehicle according to an embodiment of the present invention and (b) a plan view of a cabin of a vehicle according to an embodiment of the present invention.","DETAILED DESCRIPTION References herein to a block such as a function block are to be understood to include reference to software code for performing the function or action specified in which an output is provided responsive to one or more inputs.","The code may be in the form of a software routine or function called by a main computer program, or may be code forming part of a flow of code not being a separate routine or function.","Reference to function block is made for ease of explanation of the manner of operation of the controller.","Embodiments of the invention are suitable for use in vehicles with automatic or continuously variable transmissions.","FIG.","1 shows a vehicle 100 according to an embodiment of the invention having a powertrain 129.The powertrain 129 includes an engine 121 that is connected to a driveline 130 having a transmission 124.The driveline 130 is arranged to drive a pair of front vehicle wheels 111,112 by means of a front differential 137 and a pair of front drive shafts 118.The driveline 130 also comprises an auxiliary driveline portion 131 arranged to drive a pair of rear wheels 114, 115 by means of an auxiliary driveshaft or prop-shaft 132, a rear differential 135 and a pair of rear driveshafts 139.Embodiments of the invention are suitable for use with vehicles in which the transmission is arranged to drive only a pair of front wheels or only a pair of rear wheels (i.e.","front wheel drive vehicles or rear wheel drive vehicles) or selectable two wheel drive/four wheel drive vehicles.","In the embodiment of FIG.","1 the transmission 124 is releasably connectable to the auxiliary driveline portion 131 by means of a power transfer unit (PTU) 131, allowing selectable two wheel drive or four wheel drive operation.","It is to be understood that embodiments of the invention may be suitable for vehicles having more than four wheels or where only two wheels are driven, for example two wheels of a three wheeled vehicle or four wheeled vehicle or a vehicle with more than four wheels.","The control system for the vehicle engine 121 includes a central controller, referred to as the vehicle control unit (VCU) 10.The VCU 10 receives and outputs a plurality of signals to and from various sensors and subsystems (not shown) provided on the vehicle.","The VCU 10 includes a low-speed progress (LSP) control system 12 and a stability control system (SCS) 14, the latter being a known component of existing vehicle control systems.","The SCS 14 improves the safety of the vehicle by detecting and reducing loss of traction.","When a loss of steering control is detected, the SCS 14 automatically applies the brakes to help to steer the vehicle in the direction the user wants to go.","Although not shown in detail in FIG.","3, the VCU 10 further includes a Dynamic Stability Control (DSC) function block, a Traction Control (TC) function block, an Anti-Lock Braking System (ABS) function block and a Hill Descent Control (HDC) function block.","These function blocks provide outputs indicative of, for example, DSC activity, TC activity, ABS activity, brake interventions on individual wheels and engine torque reduction requests from the VCU 10 to the engine 121.All of the aforementioned events indicate that a wheel slip event has occurred.","Other vehicle sub-systems such as a roll stability control system or the like may also be useful.","The vehicle also includes a cruise control system 16 which is operable to automatically maintain vehicle speed at a selected speed when the vehicle is travelling at speeds in excess of 30 mph.","The cruise control system 16 is provided with a cruise control HMI 18 by which means the user can input a target vehicle speed to the cruise control system 16 in a known manner.","In one embodiment of the invention, cruise control system input controls are mounted to a steering wheel 171.Depression of a ‘set-speed’ control 173 sets the set-speed to the current vehicle speed.","Depression of a ‘+’ button 174 allows the set speed to be increased whilst depression of a ‘−’ button allows the set speed to be decreased.","The cruise control system 16 monitors vehicle speed and any deviation from the target vehicle speed is adjusted automatically so that the vehicle speed is maintained at a substantially constant value, typically in excess of 30 mph.","In other words, the cruise control system is ineffective at speeds lower than 30 mph.","The cruise HMI 18 may also be configured to provide an alert to the user about the status of the cruise control system via a visual display of the HMI 18.The LSP control system 12 provides a speed-based control system for the user which enables the user to select a very low target speed at which the vehicle can progress without any pedal inputs being required by the user.","This low-speed progress control function is not provided by the on-highway cruise control system 16 which operates only at speeds above 30 mph.","Furthermore, known on-highway cruise control systems including the present system 16 are configured so that, in the event that the user depresses the brake or the clutch, the cruise control function is over-ridden and the vehicle reverts to a manual mode of operation which requires user pedal input to maintain vehicle speed.","In addition, detection of a wheel slip event, as may be initiated by a loss of traction, has the effect of suspending the cruise control function.","The LSP control is implemented by applying selective powertrain, traction control and braking actions to the wheels of the vehicle, collectively or individually, to maintain the vehicle at the desired speed.","The user inputs the desired target speed to the LSP control system 12 via a low-speed progress HMI (LSP HMI) 20.The LSP control system 12 operates at vehicle speeds typically below about 50 mph but does not activate until vehicle speed drops to below 30 mph when the cruise control system of the vehicle becomes ineffective.","The LSP control system 12 is configured to operate independently of traction events, such as wheel slip, and in this way, at least, differs from the functionality of the cruise control system 16, as will be described in further detail below.","The LSP HMI 20 is provided in the vehicle cabin.","The user of the vehicle is able to input to the LSP control system 12, via the LSP HMI 20 and a signal line 21, the speed at which it is desired for the vehicle to travel (referred to as “the target speed”).","The LSP HMI 20 also includes a visual display (not shown) upon which an alert can be provided to the user about the status of the LSP control system 12.The LSP control system 12 receives an input from a braking system 22 of the vehicle, which is an input indicative of the extent to which the user has applied braking by means of a brake pedal 163.The LSP control system 12 also receives an input from an accelerator pedal 161, which is an input indicative of the extent to which the user has depressed the accelerator pedal 161.An input is also provided to the LSP control system 12 from the transmission or gearbox 124 and any associated control means not shown.","This input may include signals representative of, for example, the speed of the output shaft from the gearbox 124, torque converter slip and a gear ratio request.","Other inputs to the LSP control system 12 include an input from the cruise HMI 18 which is representative of the status (ON/OFF) of the cruise control system 16, and an input from the LSP HMI 20 which is representative of the status of the LSP control function.","The cruise HMI 18 and the LSP HMI 20 are typically mounted on or adjacent to the steering wheel of the vehicle for convenience of operation by the user.","The cruise control HMI and the LSP HMI are arranged adjacent to one another in the vehicle cabin, and preferably on the steering wheel of the vehicle for convenience of operation by the user.","FIG.","4 shows a flow process to illustrate the interaction between the cruise control system 18 and the LSP control system 12.If cruise control is active when the user tries to activate the LSP control system 12 via the LSP HMI 20, a signal is sent to the cruise control system 16 to cancel the speed control routine.","The LSP control system 12 is then initiated and the vehicle speed is maintained at the low target speed selected by the user via the LSP HMI 20.It is also the case that if the LSP control system 12 is active, operation of the cruise control system 16 is inhibited.","The two systems 12, 16 therefore operate independently of one another, so that only one can be operable at any one time, depending on the speed at which the vehicle is travelling.","In another embodiment, the cruise HMI 18 and the LSP HMI 20 may be configured within the same hardware so that, for example, the speed selection is input via the same hardware, with a separate switch being provided to switch between the LSP input and the cruise control input.","FIG.","5 illustrates the means by which vehicle speed is controlled in the LSP control system 12.The speed selected to the user is input to the LSP control system 12 via the LSP HMI 20.A vehicle speed sensor 34 associated with the engine provides a signal 36 indicative of vehicle speed to the LSP control system 12.The LSP control system 12 includes a comparator 28 which compares the target speed 38 selected by the user with the measured speed 36 and provides an output signal 30 indicative of the comparison.","The output signal 30 is provided to an evaluator unit 40 of the VCU 10 which interprets the output signal 30 as either a demand for additional torque to be applied to the vehicle wheels, or for a reduction in torque to be applied to the vehicle wheels, depending on whether the vehicle speed needs to be increased or decreased to maintain the speed that has been selected by the user.","An output 42 from the evaluator unit 40 is provided to the driveline for the vehicle wheels 111-115 so as to either increase or decrease the torque applied to the wheels, depending on whether there is a positive or negative demand for torque from the evaluator unit 40.In order to initiate the necessary positive or negative torque being applied to the wheels, the evaluator unit 32 may either command that additional power is applied to the vehicle wheels or that a braking force is applied to the vehicle wheels, either or both of which may be used to implement the change in torque that is necessary to maintain the target vehicle speed.","In the illustrated embodiment the torque is applied to the vehicle wheels individually so as to maintain the target vehicle speed, but in another embodiment torque may be applied to the wheels collectively to maintain the target speed.","The LSP control system 12 also receives a signal 48 indicative of a wheel slip event having occurred.","This may be the same signal 48 that is supplied to the on-highway cruise control system 16 of the vehicle, and which in the case of the latter triggers an override or inhibit mode of operation in the on-highway cruise control system 16 so that automatic control of the vehicle speed by the on-highway cruise control system 16 is suspended or cancelled.","However, the LSP control system 12 is not arranged to cancel or suspend operation in dependence on receipt of a wheel slip signal 48 indicative of wheel slip, rather, the system 12 is arranged to monitor and subsequently manage wheel slip so as to keep driver workload to a minimum.","During a slip event, the LSP control system 12 continues to compare the measured vehicle speed with the desired vehicle speed as input by the user, and continues to control automatically the torque applied across the vehicle wheels so as to maintain vehicle speed at the selected value.","In this way the LSP control system 12 is therefore configured differently to the cruise control system 16, for which a wheel slip event has the effect of overriding the cruise control function so that manual operation of the vehicle must be resumed, or the cruise control function re-set.","A further embodiment of the invention (not shown) is one in which the vehicle is provided with a wheel slip signal 48 derived not just form a comparison of wheel speeds, but further refined using sensor data indicative of the vehicle's speed over ground.","Such speed over ground determination may be made via global positioning (GPS) data, or via a vehicle mounted radar or laser based system arranged to determine the relative movement of the vehicle and the ground over which it is travelling.","At any stage of the LSP control process the user can override the function by applying the accelerator and/or the brake to adjust the vehicle speed in a positive or negative sense.","However, in the event that a wheel slip event is detected via signal line 48, no action is taken by the LSP control system 12 to suspend the LSP process.","As shown in FIG.","5, this may be implemented by providing a wheel slip event signal to the LSP control system 12 which is then managed by the LSP control system 12 and does not result in suspension or other disablement of the LSP control process.","A wheel slip event is triggered when a loss of traction occurs at any one of the vehicle wheels.","Wheels and tyres may be more prone to losing traction when travelling on snow, ice or sand, for example, or in environments where the terrain is more uneven or slippery compared with driving on a highway in normal on-road conditions.","The invention therefore finds particular benefit when the vehicle is being driven in an off-road environment, or in conditions in which wheel slip may commonly occur, and where manual operation by the user can be a difficult and often stressful experience and may result in an uncomfortable ride, because it enables continued progress to be made at a low target speed without the need for user intervention.","The invention is also beneficial when employed in low-speed congested traffic situations as it reduces fatigue for the user due to repeated start/stop pedal actions.","The LSP control system 12 is inoperable above vehicle speeds in excess of a predetermined threshold speed of for example 30 mph.","So, for example, if the user selects the LSP control system 12 when the vehicle is travelling above 30 mph, an alert is displayed to the user via the LSP HMI 20 that the LSP control system cannot be activated.","Once the vehicle speed reduces to below 30 mph, however, the LSP control system 12 is initiated automatically without the user having to select LSP control again.","In other words, the LSP control system 12 is held in a wait state pending the speed of the vehicle reducing to a level below that of the threshold speed.","The LSP control system 12 may be configured so that, if the user operates the LSP HMI 20 to initiate operation of the system whilst the vehicle is travelling at a speed between a first, lower threshold speed and a second, higher threshold speed, the system registers that the user wishes to initiate LSP control but does not initiate LSP control until the vehicle speed has reduced to a level below the first, lower threshold speed.","A further embodiment of the invention (not shown) is one in which the vehicle is provided with an on-board detection system such as a radar system or other range detection means, which monitors for obstacles or lead vehicles in front of the vehicle and uses the information that is fed-back from the radar system to maintain a safe distance to the lead vehicle.","The vehicle is also provided with additional sensors (not shown) which are representative of a variety of different parameters associated with vehicle motion and status.","These may be inertial systems unique to the speed control system or part of an occupant restraint system or any other sub-system which may provide data from sensors such as gyros or accelerometers that may be indicative of vehicle body movement and may provide a useful input to the LSP control system 12.The signals from the sensors provide, or are used to calculate, a plurality of driving condition indicators (also referred to as terrain indicators) which are indicative of the nature of the terrain conditions over which the vehicle is travelling.","The signals are provided to the VCU 10 which determines the most appropriate control mode for the various subsystems on the basis of the terrain indicators, and automatically controls the subsystems accordingly.","This aspect of the invention is described in further detail in our co-pending patent application nos.","GB1111288.5, GB1211910.3 and GB1202427.9, the contents of each of which is incorporated herein by reference.","The sensors (not shown) on the vehicle include, but are not limited to, sensors which provide continuous sensor outputs to the VCU 10, including wheel speed sensors, as mentioned previously and as shown in FIG.","5, an ambient temperature sensor, an atmospheric pressure sensor, tyre pressure sensors, gyroscopic sensors to detect vehicular yaw, roll and pitch angle and rate, a vehicle speed sensor, a longitudinal acceleration sensor, an engine torque sensor (or engine torque estimator), a steering angle sensor, a steering wheel speed sensor, a gradient sensor (or gradient estimator), a lateral acceleration sensor on the stability control system (SCS), a brake pedal position sensor, an acceleration pedal position sensor, longitudinal, lateral and vertical motion sensors and water detection sensors in particular forming part of a vehicle wading assistance system (not shown).","In other embodiments, only a selection of the aforementioned sensors may be used.","The VCU 10 also receives a signal from the electronic power assisted steering unit (ePAS unit) of the vehicle to indicate the steering force that is applied to the wheels (steering force applied by the user combined with steering force applied by the ePAS system).","The VCU 10 evaluates the various sensor inputs to determine the probability that each of a plurality of different control modes for the vehicle subsystems is appropriate, with each control mode corresponding to a particular terrain type over which the vehicle is travelling (for example, mud and ruts, sand, grass/gravel/snow).","The VCU 10 then selects which of the control modes is most appropriate and controls various vehicle parameters accordingly.","The nature of the terrain over which the vehicle is travelling may also be utilised in the LSP control system 12 to determine an appropriate increase or decrease in drive torque to be applied to the vehicle wheels.","For example, if the user selects a target speed that is not suitable for the nature of the terrain over which the vehicle is travelling, for example for safety reasons, the system is operable to automatically adjust the vehicle speed downwards by reducing the speed of the vehicle wheels.","In some cases, for example, the user selected speed may not be achievable or appropriate over certain terrain types, particularly in the case of uneven or rough surfaces.","If the system selects a speed that differs from the user-selected target speed, a visual indication of the speed constraint is provided to the user via the LSP HMI 20 to indicate that an alternative speed has been adopted.","The speed control system may be operable to allow a user to reduce the set speed by user actuation of a vehicle brake control.","By vehicle brake control is meant a control by means of which a user may apply a foundation braking system.","The brake control may for example comprise a brake pedal.","The foundation braking system may include a friction braking system and optionally a regenerative braking system.","In some embodiments the foundation braking system may comprise a regenerative braking system in place of or in addition to a friction braking system.","In conventional cruise control systems for highway driving a control for changing the set speed of a cruise control system is typically provided in the form of a ‘+/−’ button mounted on or adjacent to a steering wheel of the vehicle.","In vehicles operating in off-highway conditions, a user may be required to perform relatively rapid rotations of the steering wheel and/or rotate the wheel through relatively large angles whilst negotiating difficult terrain.","As such it may be difficult for the user to manipulate the ‘+/−’ buttons at the same time.","Furthermore, the user might inadvertently depress the wrong button, changing the set speed.","Embodiments of the present invention have the advantage that a control by means of which the set speed may be changed may be provided separately from the steering wheel.","Furthermore, the control for changing the set speed may be controlled by a foot of the user rather than by hand, leaving the user's hands free to continue steering the vehicle.","By employing the brake pedal to reduce the set speed, a relatively intuitive means may be provided to enable the user to change the set speed.","The speed control system may be operable to allow a user to enable or disable adjustment of off-highway speed control set speed by means of a brake and/or accelerator control.","This functionality may be provided via an HMI display or the like, The control means may be operable to allow the user to reduce the set speed by user actuation of the brake control by applying a force that is within a prescribed range of force or translating the control by an amount that is within a prescribed range of travel.","The range of pressure or travel required to reduce the set speed may be less than that required to apply the foundation braking system.","That is, the range may be within a ‘dead band’ of pressure or stroke.","Alternatively, the range may include values sufficient to cause application of the foundation braking system.","In some embodiments where the range includes values sufficient to cause application of the foundation braking system, in the event the user applies pressure in the prescribed range or effects translation within the prescribed range sufficient to actuate the foundation braking system, the speed control system may be operable to compensate for the braking torque applied when the foundation braking system is applied by application of increased powertrain torque.","Other arrangements are also useful.","It is to be understood that the prescribed range of values of pressure may be from a first value of pressure to a second value of pressure where the first and second values are greater than zero.","In some embodiments the prescribed range may be from a value that is above zero but less than or equal to a second value that is greater than zero.","The control means being operable to allow a user to increase the set speed by user actuation of a vehicle accelerator control.","The accelerator control may for example comprise an accelerator pedal.","The control means may be operable to allow the user to increase the set speed by user actuation of the accelerator control by applying a force that is within a prescribed range of pressures or by translating the control by an amount that is within a prescribed range of travel.","The range of force or travel required to increase the set speed may be less than that required to increase the amount of power developed by a powertrain.","That is, the range may be within a ‘dead band’ of force or stroke.","Alternatively, the range may include values sufficient to cause an increase in the amount of power developed by the powertrain.","In some embodiments where the range includes values sufficient to cause an increase in the amount of power developed by the powertrain, in the event a user applies force in the prescribed range or effects translation within the prescribed range sufficient to cause an increase in powertrain torque, the speed control system may be operable to compensate for the increased torque applied by the powertrain by application of the foundation braking system.","Other arrangements are also useful.","Advantageously the system may be further operable to allow a user to decrease the set speed by user actuation of a vehicle brake control, such as a brake pedal.","Optionally, the control means may be configured wherein if the user actuates the brake control by applying pressure having a value that is within a prescribed range of values and/or by translating the control by an amount within a prescribed range for longer than a prescribed period of time the control means may be configured gradually to reduce the set speed in incremental steps during the period for which the user actuates the brake control within the prescribed range.","It is to be understood that if the user actuates the brake control by applying a pressure greater than a prescribed pressure and/or by more than a prescribed amount of travel the speed control system may be operable to cancel speed control mode and a foundation braking system may be applied in the conventional manner.","Thus in a motor vehicle having a speed control system according to the present invention installed therein a foundation braking system may be configured to operate independently of the speed control system such that the vehicle responds to brake control inputs in the same manner whether or not speed control mode is selected.","Thus, it is envisaged that in some embodiments of the present invention standard accelerator and brake control inputs will always take priority over any autonomous control system or control means when brake control pressure or travel exceeds a prescribed value, and cancel speed control if user behaviour indicates the user wishes to cancel speed control.","In some arrangements the prescribed pressure and/or prescribed amount of travel above which the foundation braking system is applied may correspond to that above which the foundation braking system is applied when speed control is not selected.","This feature has the advantage that the user experiences the same response of the foundation braking system to brake control inputs whether or not speed control mode is selected.","In some arrangements any dead band present in brake and/or accelerator control travel may be increased artificially when off-highway speed control is operational.","If the speed control system (or any other controller such as a brake controller) detects that a rate of travel of the brake pedal, or a rate of increase of pressure applied to the brake pedal exceeds a prescribed rate even whilst still within the dead band, a braking system of the vehicle may be commanded to be applied.","This feature has the advantage that a speed at which a braking system is able to respond to an emergency braking control input may be increased.","Advantageously the system may be further operable to allow a user to increase the set speed by user actuation of a vehicle accelerator control.","Advantageously the speed control system is operable in an off highway condition and a highway condition.","The off highway (or ‘off road’) condition may be referred to as a progress control system or low speed progress control system.","The on-highway condition may be referred to as a cruise control system.","Other arrangements are also useful.","Optionally the speed control system may be operable to allow a user to reduce the set speed by user actuation of the vehicle brake control (and optionally increase set speed by user actuation of the vehicle accelerator control) only when operating in the off highway condition.","Alternatively the speed control system may be operable to allow a user to reduce the set speed by user actuation of the vehicle brake control (and optionally increase set speed by user actuation of the vehicle accelerator control) when operating in either the off highway condition or the highway condition, e.g.","when in a low speed progress control condition or an on highway cruise control condition.","It is to be understood that embodiments of the invention are also suitable for use in vehicles not having an off highway operating condition or vehicles not having an on highway cruise control system.","It is to be understood that control of set speed by means of a brake control and/or an accelerator control may be arranged to occur only in off-highway speed control in some embodiments.","The method may comprise reducing automatically a set speed of the vehicle in dependence on user actuation of a vehicle brake control and/or increasing automatically a set speed of the vehicle in dependence on user actuation of a vehicle accelerator control.","It is to be understood that if the set speed is decreased the speed control system may be operable to change a gear ratio of a transmission in order to ensure sufficient drive torque is available to negotiate an obstacle.","The speed control system may be operable to increase the gear ratio.","Thus, in some arrangements as the user decreases the set speed an engine speed may increase, for example if the set speed falls below a prescribed value such as 5 km/h or any other suitable speed.","Reduction in set speed may signify that a user intends to negotiate an obstacle such as a boulder, a steep incline or other obstacle.","It is to be understood that by enabling a user to change the set speed of the speed control system by means of relatively light pedal inputs, the vehicle may be driven off road at low speed (for example below 50 km/h) without the user needing to manually manipulate a speed setting control on the steering wheel.","This greatly reduces user workload and makes vehicle operation with speed control active more intuitive.","Embodiments of the invention also enable de-cluttering of switch packs on or around the steering wheel or other steering control of the vehicle.","It is to be understood that in some scenarios it is vital that a user's attention is not distracted from the terrain on which the vehicle is being driven.","By eliminating the requirement for the user to focus their attention inside the vehicle when changing the set speed, for example by manipulating hand or finger controls within the vehicle, an improved user experience may be achieved.","In an embodiment, if the user initiates speed control and the vehicle is travelling below a threshold speed and/or the vehicle has been set to an off road driving mode (for example by selection of a terrain response (TR) mode or selection of a low-ratio gear), or if the vehicle otherwise determines that it is being driven off road, then the speed control system will operate in an off-road condition (or mode) and accept set speed adjustment commands via brake and/or accelerator controls such as brake and/or accelerator pedals as described above whilst remaining in a speed control active condition.","In some arrangements, if the user initiates speed control whilst the vehicle is travelling above a predetermined speed and/or is being driven on the road (as indicated by a ‘high’ gear ratio selected as opposed to ‘low’ gear ratio) or if the terrain response (TR) mode is deselected (in some embodiments a ‘special programs off’ TR mode is selected), the speed control system may only accept speed adjustments by means of hand-operated controls typically located on or adjacent a steering wheel of the vehicle.","If the user presses the brake pedal, even lightly, during speed control operation (in the on-road or on-highway condition) then speed control operation is suspended and the vehicle will start to coast until the user presses the throttle pedal or re-activates speed control via a hand operated switch.","The user may adjust the speed of the vehicle whilst traveling in the off-highway speed control condition either by pressing the brake pedal (in order to reduce the set speed) or by pressing the accelerator pedal (in order to increase the set speed).","The control means may be operable to allow a user to change the set speed by user actuation of a foot pedal.","The system may be operable to decrease the set speed by user actuation of the brake pedal.","In addition or instead the system may be operable to increase the set speed by user actuation of an accelerator pedal.","FIG.","6 shows the steering wheel 171 of the vehicle 100 of FIG.","1 in more detail, together with the accelerator and brake pedals 161, 163.As in the case of a conventional vehicle, the steering wheel 171 has a ‘set-speed’ control 173 depression of which enables a user to activate a speed control system to maintain the current vehicle speed.","The wheel 171 also has a ‘LSP’ control activation button and a resume button.","The resume button may be used to control both an ‘on-highway’ cruise control system when driving on road, and the LSP control system 12 when driving off-road.","The LSP control button is used to activate the LSP control system 12 and the resume button used to command the system 12 to control the vehicle 100 to resume the previously set (user defined) set speed.","The system 12 may be provided with a memory arranged to store previously set, user defined set speeds in addition to that which was last set be the user.","In this way, the user may quickly access more than one set speed via the resume button or other appropriate control.","In this embodiment, the user may be operating the vehicle at a set speed of 10 mph, but choose to reduce this to 6 mph to negotiate an obstacle off-road.","The system 12 is arranged to store both 6 mph and 10 mph, such that if the system 12 intervenes and reduces the speed further to 4 mph, the user may request the system to accelerate to 6 mph with a single press of the resume button, or 10 mph with a double press of the resume button.","The system 12 may be provided with means to display the stored set-speeds to the user, for example by illuminated markers or chaplets arranged at appropriate locations around a speedometer.","In such an example, the system 12 may be arranged to independently or in conjunction with TR mode setting, prevent the user accessing pre-set speeds from the memory and applying them if it is determined they would be too fast for the terrain over which the vehicle is presently moving.","Instead, the system 12 may be arranged to accelerate up to the highest speed it determined appropriate for the terrain and will continue to accelerate towards the chosen set-speed as the terrain permits.","In this example, the system 12 will manage the acceleration of the vehicle within a predefined acceleration corridor, for example from 0.1 to 0.2 g. The system 12 may be provided with means to indicate to the user the current status and that the system 12 is working to resume the user defined set speed once it becomes appropriate for the terrain.","The system 12 is arranged to permit the user to override the system 12 at any time in the aforementioned manner.","If the vehicle is operating on-highway, depression of set-speed control 173 causes the cruise control system 16 to activate provided the current vehicle speed exceeds 50 km/h.","Depression of the ‘+’ control 174 causes the cruise control system 16 to increase the set-speed whilst depression of the ‘−’ control 175 causes the cruise control system 16 to decrease the set-speed.","It will be appreciated that ‘+’ and ‘−’ controls may be on a single button.","If the vehicle is operating off-highway, depression of set-speed control 173 causes the LSP control system 12 to activate and operate as described above.","The system may further comprise a ‘cancel’ button operable to cancel speed control by the LSP control system 12.In some embodiments, the LSP system may be in either one of an active condition or a standby condition.","In some embodiments the LSP control system 12 may be operable to assume an intermediate condition in which vehicle speed control by the LSP control system 12 is suspended but a hill descent control (HDC) system of the like may remain active if already active.","Other arrangements are also useful.","With the LSP control system 12 active, the user may increase or decrease the vehicle set speed by means of the ‘+’ and ‘−’ buttons 174, 175.In addition, the user may also increase or decrease the vehicle set speed by lightly pressing the accelerator or brake pedals 161, 163 respectively.","In some embodiments, with the LSP control system 12 active the ‘+’ and ‘−’ buttons 174, 175 are disabled.","FIG.","7 is a plot of pedal output signal, s, as a function of accelerator or brake pedal travel, d, being the amount by which the pedal 161, 163 has been pressed (measured for example in terms of linear translation or angular rotation or a proportion of full scale deflection).","In the arrangement shown the pedal output signal increases in a substantially linear manner as a function of travel although other arrangements are also useful.","In response to the pedal output signal, a braking system 22 is operable to apply brakes of the vehicle 100 and the VCU 10 is operable to change the amount of torque developed by the engine 121.In the present embodiment, the braking system 22 is arranged not to apply the brakes of the vehicle and the VCU 10 is arranged not to change the amount of torque developed by the engine 121 unless the amount of pedal travel exceeds a threshold distance d2 illustrated in FIG.","7.The LSP control system 12 is operable to monitor pedal input signals from the accelerator and brake pedals 161, 163.If the amount of pedal travel meets the condition d10, the LSP control system 12 is operable to increase or decrease the LSP control system set-speed.","If the accelerator pedal travel meets this condition the LSP control system 12 increases the set-speed whilst if the brake pedal travel meets this condition the LSP control system 12 decreases the set-speed.","In some arrangements, one or both of the values of d1 and d2 may be different for the accelerator and brake pedals 161, 163 respectively.","In some arrangements, a vehicle 100 may be configured such that if a ‘−’ button or like control is used to reduce speed rather than a brake control, the speed control system allows a vehicle speed to reduce at least initially by coasting rather than application of a braking system or other retarding torque means, with application of a braking system only if the speed control system determines that such action is required.","In contrast, if a brake control is applied such as brake pedal 163 in order to reduce set speed, at least a light braking force may be applied in some embodiments whilst the pedal 163 is depressed.","Thus, reduction in set speed by means of the brake pedal 163 may result in a more rapid reduction in vehicle speed since a brake torque is applied as soon as the brake pedal 163 is depressed to reduce vehicle set speed, rather than after the speed control system has determined that a brake torque is required in order to reduce speed to the new user-selected set speed.","It is to be understood that reference herein to a ‘+’ or ‘−’ control is not to be understood as limiting to a control placarded with such symbols.","Rather, a ‘−’ control may be understood to include a control other than a brake control for reducing set speed whilst a ‘+’ control may be understood to include a control other than an accelerator control for increasing set speed.","The ‘+’ and ‘−’ controls may be manually operated, for example by a user's hand.","Embodiments of the present invention enable enhanced user enjoyment of a vehicle when driving in off-highway conditions.","The control means may be operable to allow a user to change the set speed in response to user actuation of a control, the system being operable to provide haptic feedback to the user in response to user actuation of the control by an amount sufficient to change the set speed.","Advantageously the control comprises a foot operated pedal.","In some embodiments the foot pedal is operable to provide haptic feedback only when the vehicle is in an off-highway or off-road speed control condition or mode.","In such a condition, the speed control system may be configured to enable the vehicle to maintain a relatively low set speed (for example a speed less than 50 km/h, such as a speed in the range from 5-10 km/h), even if one or more wheels are slipping due to loss of traction.","For example, in some embodiments the off-road speed control system may remain operational even in the presence of an amount of wheel slip sufficient to cause activation of a vehicle stability control system or the like.","Conventional on-highway speed control systems are limited to operation at a minimum speed (typically around 50 km/h) and automatically cancel if wheel slip sufficient to cause intervention by a stability control system is detected.","In some arrangements, if the user actuates the control beyond the range of positions or applied pressures (the ‘haptic zone’), the speed control system is arranged to cancel automatic speed control.","Control of vehicle speed therefore reverts to the user.","It is to be understood that the haptic feedback provided by the speed control system may be arranged to be different from that associated with an anti-lock braking system (ABS) operation so that a user may readily distinguish between the two.","The haptic feedback may for example provide pulses, vibrations and/or sounds at a different amplitude and/or frequency to those associated with ABS operation.","In addition or instead, in some arrangements the haptic zone may be identified by means of an increase in resistance to pedal movement as a user applies pressure to a brake pedal or a force to an accelerator pedal.","The increase may be provided throughout the haptic zone.","In some embodiments an increase in resistance may be presented before an amount of travel of the pedal or an amount of pressure or force applied to the pedal is sufficient to result in exiting of the haptic zone.","In some arrangements one or more audible clicks, tones or pulses may be generated when the control is in the haptic zone.","HMI (human machine interface) feedback may also be provided to a user in response to actuation of the control in the haptic zone with the speed control system operational.","In some embodiments haptic feedback in respect of set speed change may be provided only when the speed control system for which the control may be used to change set speed is operational.","Arrangements of the present invention have the advantage that a user does not need to employ a brake or accelerator pedal in order for a vehicle to maintain progress across terrain.","Rather, the off-highway speed control system may control automatically a powertrain and braking system in order to maintain progress.","In some embodiments the off-highway speed control system may be operable to cancel when a brake pedal is depressed by more than a prescribed amount.","Whilst a speed control system is operating in an off-highway speed control condition, depression of a brake pedal by an amount that is non-zero but below a prescribed applied pressure or amount of travel may result in a reduction in vehicle set speed associated with the speed control system without application of a vehicle braking system and without cancelling the off-highway speed control condition.","It will be appreciated this may be particularly useful where the pedal is not isolated or otherwise disconnected from the foundation braking system when off-highway speed control functionality is in operation.","Other arrangements are also useful.","In some embodiments depression of an accelerator pedal by an amount greater than zero but below a prescribed applied force or amount of travel results in an increase in vehicle set speed.","As noted above, a change in vehicle set speed when a foot pedal is depressed may be arranged to occur only when the vehicle is operated in the off-highway speed control condition or mode.","When the user depresses the brake pedal he or she may be reminded that the vehicle is in the off-highway condition.","If the user depresses the brake pedal by a sufficiently large amount of travel or applies a sufficiently high pressure, the pedal will ‘push through’ the haptic band and cause a suspension/cancellation of the off-road speed control mode.","It is to be understood that when traveling over rough terrain it may be difficult to know how much pressure to apply to a brake or force to apply to an accelerator pedal to change the set speed.","Accordingly, the provision of haptic feedback enables a user to determine positively that the amount of pressure applied to the brake pedal (and/or force to the accelerator pedal) is sufficient to cause the set speed to change.","Haptic feedback may be provided to the user via the foot pedal the user is depressing (such as a brake or accelerator pedal), by means of a steering wheel, a user's seat or any other suitable means of providing a user with a haptic experience.","A user is able to determine how much to press a brake and/or accelerator pedal in order to change the set speed of a speed control system without causing the off-road speed control condition to cancel.","With reference to FIG.","7, if a user depresses a brake pedal 163 by an amount of travel in the range from d1 to d2 such that the pedal output signal s has a value in the range from s1 to s2, the LSP control system 12 is operable to reduce the user selected set speed and provide haptic feedback to the user by applying a vibrational excitation to the brake pedal 163.If the brake pedal output signal s is in the range from s1 to s2 for less than a prescribed period of time (such as 1 s), the value of set speed is decremented by a prescribed amount (in the present embodiment 1 km/h or 1 mph depending on user choice of units).","If the brake pedal output signal is in the range from s1 to s2 for more than a prescribed amount of time (in the present case, more than 1 s), the set speed is decremented in steps, for example by 1 km/h or 1 mile/h per 500 ms or other time period.","Alternatively the rate of deceleration may be set to an arbitrary rate.","Other arrangements are also useful, and other lengths of time are also useful.","The LSP control system 12 may be configured such that the brake pedal 163 must be depressed for longer than a prescribed period (which may be any suitable value, for example 100 ms) before a decrement in set speed takes place.","Conversely, if the accelerator pedal 163 is depressed such that the accelerator pedal output signal is in the range from s1 to s2, the value of set speed is incremented.","If the accelerator pedal output signal is in the range from s1 to s2 for more than a prescribed amount of time, for example 1s in some embodiments, the set speed is incremented in steps, for example by 1 km/h or 1 mile/h per 500 ms or other time period.","Alternatively the rate of acceleration may be set to an arbitrary rate.","Other arrangements are also useful.","The LSP control system 12 may be configured such that the accelerator pedal 161 must be depressed for longer than a prescribed period (which may be any suitable value, for example 100 ms) before an increment in set speed takes place.","In one arrangement the system may be operable to allow a user to increase or decrease the set speed from a current set speed to a target set speed.","Thus when the user commands a change in set speed the speed control system may control the means for applying torque in such a manner as to allow the vehicle automatically to accelerate (in a positive or negative sense) to achieve the new set speed.","The means for applying torque may comprise a powertrain and optionally a braking system, as will be described in more detail below.","In changing the speed of the vehicle to match the new set speed, the system may be operable to detect and take into account an external force acting on the vehicle in such a manner as to accelerate the vehicle (in a positive or negative sense).","The speed control system may compensate for the presence of the external force when changing the amount of torque commanded to be applied to the one or more wheels so as to reduce a risk of overshoot of the new target set speed.","In some embodiments the system may be operable substantially to prevent overshoot of the new target set speed.","The speed control system may be operable to control a powertrain and optionally a braking system.","It is to be understood that in some embodiments a powertrain may comprise means for applying relatively rapidly a negative torque to one or more wheels, for example by means of one or more electric machines, for example one or more electric machines operable as electrical generators, without a requirement for a friction braking system to be deployed.","It is to be understood that an external force acting on a vehicle to accelerate the vehicle may be a retarding force acting to cause negative acceleration of the vehicle (i.e.","decelerate the vehicle) or a force acting in such a manner as to cause positive acceleration of the vehicle.","It is to be understood that a force acting to accelerate a vehicle in a positive or negative manner may be a force having a component acting in a direction parallel to or along a direction of travel of the vehicle.","In the case of a vehicle travelling uphill the force may act in a direction opposite the direction of travel and therefore be a retarding force.","In some embodiments the normal direction of travel (i.e.","when the vehicle is experiencing substantially zero side slip or yaw) may be arranged to be parallel to or along a longitudinal axis of the vehicle.","The speed control system may be operable to increase or decrease the amount of torque commanded to be applied to one or more wheels so that the amount of torque increases or decreases at a rate that is dependent on the size of the external force.","Thus in some embodiments the greater the external force (such as a retarding force or a force causing positive acceleration) the slower the rate at which the amount of torque applied to one or more wheels by the means for application of said torque is commanded to change.","A positive accelerating force may for example be experienced in the case the vehicle is descending a slope, and a negative force if the vehicle is ascending a slope.","In some embodiments the system is provided with data in respect of at least one selected from amongst a gradient of a driving surface (for example by reference to an attitude of the vehicle), gear selection, tyre friction, wheel articulation.","rolling resistance and a selected terrain response mode of the vehicle in addition to wheel speed.","In some embodiments in which driving surface gradient information is provided the system may be operable to control a rate at which the amount of torque applied to one or more wheels changes in dependence on the magnitude and direction of the force acting to accelerate or decelerate the vehicle.","In some embodiments, in the case the vehicle experiences an external force acting in a direction to positively accelerate the vehicle in the direction of travel, the speed control system may be operable to reduce the rate at which the means for applying torque changes the amount of applied torque when an increase in set speed is commanded, the rate being reduced by an amount that is greater as the size of the external force increases.","Thus overshoot of the (new) target set speed (where the vehicle speed exceeds the set speed) may be reduced or prevented.","It is to be understood that in the case of a vehicle descending a slope, the steeper the gradient, the greater the component of gravitational force tending to cause positive acceleration and therefore less accelerating torque is required from the means for applying torque to the one or more wheels.","The means for applying torque may comprise an engine, an electric machine or any other suitable means for applying drive torque to one or more wheels.","It is to be understood that in some situations an increase in powertrain torque may be required in order to accelerate the vehicle to the new set speed within a defined acceleration corridor (for example at a rate in the range from 0.1 to 0.2 g).","In some situations where a gradient is particularly steep, a decrease in brake torque may be required in order to accelerate the vehicle with a value of acceleration that is within the prescribed corridor of values.","In either case, the rate of change of powertrain torque and/or braking torque may be arranged to decrease with increasing gradient.","Conversely, where a force acting on a vehicle is such as to cause positive acceleration, if a decrease in set speed is requested the speed control system may be operable to change the amount of torque applied to one or more wheels at a rate that increases as the size of the external force increases.","This is because the external force is acting in direction that opposes a reduction in the set speed.","In a situation where a vehicle is experiencing a force in a direction such as to cause negative acceleration in the intended direction of travel, for example in an uphill direction against gravity, or over sandy terrain against drag due to the composition of the terrain, the speed control system may be operable to increase a rate at which torque applied to the one or more wheels is increased when an increase in set speed is requested, and to decrease the rate at which torque applied to the one or more wheels is decreased when a decrease in set speed is requested, in order to maintain vehicle acceleration within the prescribed corridor of values.","In other words, in the event that a decrease in set speed is commanded whilst the vehicle is ascending a slope (where a retarding force is acting on the vehicle) the system may be configured to reduce the rate at which wheel torque is decreased in order to reduce a risk that a vehicle has insufficient wheel torque to overcome the gradient, resulting in the vehicle tending to move backwards down the slope.","It is to be understood that if wheel torque is decreased by too great an amount (for example a reduction to zero) whilst ascending a relatively steep slope, a drop in vehicle speed may undershoot excessively the new target set speed, i.e.","fall below the new target speed.","In some situations a vehicle may even move backwards down the slope as described above.","Accordingly, wheel torque is decreased more slowly compared with driving on level ground.","In some embodiments, if the vehicle is descending a slope and an increase in set speed is required, the system may be operable to change the amount of torque applied to one or more wheels at a rate that decreases as a function of increasing gradient.","In some embodiments, the vehicle may be configured to control the rate at which wheel torque is changed responsive to an amount of an external force that is determined to be acting on the vehicle due to a type of terrain or environment over which or through which the vehicle is travelling.","It is to be understood that terrain such as sand, mud, water or the like may apply a relatively large retarding force to a vehicle.","Wading through a body of water may result in application of a force tending to accelerate or decelerate the vehicle, depending on whether the body of water is stationary or moving in a direction having a component acting along a direction of intended travel (with or against the direction of travel).","If the vehicle is travelling over a level, sandy or muddy surface and a decrease in set speed is commanded the system may be operable to change the amount of torque applied to one or more wheels in order to reduce the vehicle speed to the new set speed at a rate that decreases as the amount of drag acting on the vehicle increases.","It is to be understood that if the amount of powertrain torque is decreased too rapidly, drag acting on the vehicle may reduce the speed of the vehicle by an amount (and at a rate) that may result in discomfort to one or more occupants and may result in stopping of the vehicle.","Once the vehicle is stopped it may be difficult to enable the vehicle to begin to move again from rest.","Conversely, if an increase in vehicle set speed is requested, the speed control system may be operable to command an increase in powertrain torque at a rate that increases with the amount of drag acting on the vehicle.","This is because powertrain torque must overcome a drag force tending to oppose vehicle acceleration as well as vehicle inertia in order to achieve the new set speed.","It is to be understood that this feature has the advantage that the vehicle may progress over terrain more reliably and with greater composure than a vehicle not having a speed control system according to the present invention and enable a new set speed to be attained relatively quickly regardless of an amount of force acting to oppose or promote vehicle motion across a surface, enhancing user confidence in the system.","In one arrangement the system may be operable to allow a user to increase or decrease the set speed from a current set speed to a target set speed, the system being operable to take into account an external force acting on the vehicle to accelerate the vehicle when changing the amount of torque commanded to be applied to the one or more wheels thereby to reduce overshoot or undershoot of the target set speed.","The means for applying torque may comprise a powertrain and optionally a braking system.","When the speed control system is operating in an off highway speed control mode, the system may be configured to accept a light press of the brake pedal as being indicative of the user's desire to remain in speed control mode but at a reduced speed, whereas a firm press on the brake pedal may indicate that the user wishes to bring the vehicle out of speed control mode and set speed control to a suspended state until re-activated.","In this way, the vehicle may be driven off-road at low speed (for example <50 km/h) without the user needing to touch the pedals, or repeatedly operate controls on the steering wheel.","This greatly reduces user workload and improves vehicle composure.","It is to be understood that it is often difficult to maintain a constant light pressure on a foot pedal when driving over rough ground as the user often uses their feet to support/steady themselves as the vehicle negotiates off-road obstacles such as ruts or potholes.","It is envisaged that the off-road speed control system may form part of an ATPC (All-Terrain Progress Control) system, which may be arranged to work independently of, or in conjunction with, one or more vehicle control systems arranged to optimise vehicle configurations for a given terrain over which the vehicle is travelling.","An example of such a system may be a Terrain Response™ system.","In one embodiment of the proposed speed control system, if the user initiates speed control and the vehicle is travelling below a threshold speed and/or the vehicle has been set to an off-road driving mode (for example via a TR mode selection or selection of a low-ratio gear), or if the vehicle otherwise determines that it is being driven off-road, then the speed control system will operate in an off-road mode and will accept speed adjustment commands via the brake and accelerator pedals whilst remaining in a speed control active mode.","The off-road speed control system may be provided with at least one selected from amongst information in respect of a vehicle's attitude, wheel speed, wheel articulation, gear selection, tyre friction, rolling resistance and selected TR mode.","It is to be understood that if the user is using off-road speed control to travel off-road at a slow speed, say 5 km/h, and the vehicle is travelling up a steep incline, when the user requests a reduction in cruising set-speed, there may be insufficient torque to maintain progress unless the system takes drag/load-inducing factors into account such as the steepness of the gradient up which the vehicle is travelling.","In this way, the off-road speed control system may predict that the requested reduction in speed may result in the moving backwards down the slope, in which case the torque may be reduced more gradually as the steepness of the slope increases.","It is to be understood that this is because a slight reduction in torque supplied to the wheels will result in a greater reduction in vehicle speed when ascending a slope than if the vehicle were driving over level ground.","In this way, the torque may be accurately controlled in order to achieve a desired set-speed regardless of the gradient and terrain over which the vehicle is travelling.","This ensures that vehicular response is intuitive and as expected by the driver who may be inexperienced in off-road driving.","If the vehicle user brings the vehicle to a halt or near stand-still on a steep hill whilst operating the vehicle in off-road speed control mode, then the off-road speed control system may apply the vehicle brakes and balance their effect with an appropriate level of engine torque whilst additionally demanding support from a hill-hold assist system.","Hill-hold assist is an automated braking feature arranged to release the brakes during a hill-start only when there is sufficient torque available from the powertrain to prevent unwanted movement of the vehicle, in other words, to prevent the vehicle moving backwards down the hill.","In some embodiments, the off-road speed control system may be able to control or otherwise influence gear and ratio selection, to ensure that the vehicle is travelling at low speeds off-road in a gear appropriate to avoid engine stalling and maintain suitable progress.","In some embodiments the proposed off-road speed control system may be able to control or otherwise influence operation of the Hill Descent Control (HDC) system automatically to apply the vehicle brakes as the vehicle travels in off-road speed control mode down a steep slope.","In this situation, the system will ensure that the vehicle engine is kept running but is not permitted to push the vehicle speed over the desired set-speed.","It is to be understood that in some embodiments a vehicle may be operated in off-road speed control mode in either forward or reverse driving use.","The off-road speed control system may actively look at inputs from traction or stability control systems to determine if the vehicle is still being driven off-road, and manage vehicle speed up to the set speed where traction is limited by one or more slip events, maintaining speed control operation in order to maintain vehicle progress and momentum in slippery conditions rather than cancelling operation.","It is to be understood that if speed control were suddenly cancelled automatically in response to a slip event as in the case of conventional speed control systems, for example an event in which a traction control system becomes active, a sudden change in vehicle speed due to speed control cancellation may cause the vehicle to break traction altogether or become stuck.","FIG.","8 shows a vehicle 100 according to the embodiment of FIG.","1 negotiating a gradient at two different locations, A and B.","At location B the gradient experienced by the vehicle 100 is greater than that experienced at location A.","If a user requests a decrease in set speed from a first speed to a second speed at location A, the LSP control system 12 is configured to reduce the amount of torque supplied to wheels of the vehicle 100 by the powertrain 129 at a first rate in order to reduce the speed of the vehicle 100 to match the new set speed.","The first rate is lower than that which would be employed if the driving surface were level, for a given surface type.","This is because a retarding force due to gravity is acting on the vehicle 100 to accelerate the vehicle downhill, i.e.","in opposition to the direction of travel.","The LSP control system 12 reduces powertrain torque and optionally applies a braking system in order to seek to maintain vehicle deceleration within the prescribed corridor.","The acceleration corridor may, in some embodiments, be in the range +/−(0.1 g to 0.2 g).","As the vehicle 100 progresses it encounters a steeper gradient at location B.","If a user requests a similar decrease in set speed from the first speed to the second speed at location B, the LSP control system 12 is configured to reduce the amount of torque supplied to wheels of the vehicle 100 by the powertrain 129 at a second rate that is lower than the first in order to reduce the speed of the vehicle 100 to match the new set speed.","A reduced rate of powertrain torque reduction is employed because a retarding force acting on the vehicle 100 to accelerate the vehicle downhill is relatively high compared with that at location A and vehicle speed responds relatively quickly to reductions in powertrain torque.","The LSP control system 12 controls powertrain torque (and braking system torque) to allow vehicle deceleration to be maintained within the prescribed corridor of +/−(0.1 g to 0.2 g) in the present embodiment.","FIGS.","9(a) and 9(b) show schematically values of certain vehicle parameters as a function of time in an example scenario illustrating a manner of operation of the LSP control system 12.FIG.","9(a) shows a plot of vehicle speed (v) as a function of time whilst the vehicle 100 is ascending a relatively steep gradient, for example when at location B of FIG.","8.At time t=0 the vehicle 100 is travelling at a speed v2.Also at time t=0 the user holds the brake pedal 163 depressed by an amount d (FIG.","9(b)) where d is in the range from d1 to d2 (FIG.","7) such that the vehicle set speed vset reduces over the period from t=0 to t=t1.At time t1 the driver releases the brake pedal 163.In response to the reduction in vset, the LSP control system 12 controls the powertrain torque and, if necessary brake torque, in order to reduce vehicle speed v towards the new set speed vset.","Thus, as vset decreases a corresponding decrease in speed v takes place, as shown in FIG.","9(a).","The LSP control system 12 controls the powertrain 129 and braking system to achieve a rate of deceleration that is within the prescribed acceleration corridor.","In the present embodiment the corridor corresponds to the range +/−(0.1-0.2 g).","The LSP control system 12 remains active throughout this period, with LSP control system status flag F set to F=1 as shown in FIG.","9(b).","FIGS.","9(c) and 9(d) show schematically values of the vehicle parameters represented in FIGS.","9(a) and 9(b) in an alternative example scenario.","FIG.","9(c) shows a plot of vehicle speed (v) as a function of time whilst ascending a similar, relatively steep gradient.","At time t=0 the vehicle is travelling at a speed v2.Also at time t=0 the user holds the brake pedal depressed by an amount in the range from d1 to d2 (FIG.","7, FIG.","9(d)) such that the vehicle set speed vset reduces over the period from t=0 to t=t1.At time t1, when set speed reaches a value vsetmin, the driver releases the brake pedal 163.It is to be understood that vsetmin corresponds to the lowest allowable vehicle set speed.","In some embodiments the minimum allowable set speed may be a speed of around 1 km/h, 2 km/h, 5 km/h or another suitable value.","In response to the reduction in vset, the LSP control system 12 controls the powertrain torque and if necessary brake torque in order to reduce vehicle speed towards the new set speed vsetmin.","The LSP control system 12 controls the powertrain 129 and braking system to achieve a rate of deceleration that is within the prescribed acceleration corridor of +/−(0.1-0.2 g).","In the example illustrated the LSP control system 12 determines that it does not need to apply the braking system in order to reduce vehicle speed v at a rate within the prescribed corridor.","However in the example shown, the vehicle speed v falls below the new set speed vsetmin (an undershoot condition), due to the steepness of the gradient.","Although the speed falls below vsetmin the control system 12 controls the speed to rise back to vsetmin and the vehicle continues to progress at new set speed vsetmin.","As can be seen from FIG.","9(d), the LSP control system status flag F remains set to F=1 throughout the set speed reduction operation.","In other words, the LSP control system does not cancel automatically LSP control of vehicle progress even though vehicle speed v falls below vsetmin.","In some scenarios, it is possible that the LSP control system 12 may determine that the rate of fall of speed v is such that the vehicle may eventually have insufficient torque to maintain progress up the slope.","If such a determination is made, the system 12 is operable to apply the vehicle foundation braking system to hold the vehicle stationary in order to prevent reversal of direction.","That is, brake torque is applied automatically.","The LSP control system 12 may then control the powertrain 129 to develop sufficient torque to accelerate the vehicle 100 from rest to new set speed vset.","It is to be understood that the LSP control system 12 may not always be required to hold the vehicle stationary in order to prevent reversal of a direction of travel of the vehicle 100.However, in some embodiments the system 12 may be operable to perform this function.","FIGS.","9(e) and 9(f) show schematically values of the vehicle parameters represented in FIG.","9(a)-(d) in a further alternative example scenario, to further illustrate operation of the LSP control system 12.The scenario is similar to that shown in FIGS.","9(c) and (d) except that the user releases the brake pedal 163 only after the set speed vset has fallen below the minimum speed vsetmin, such as in this example, when vehicle speed has fallen to zero in the example shown.","FIG.","9(e) is a plot of vehicle speed (v) as a function of time whilst ascending a similar, relatively steep gradient to scenario B of FIG.","8.At time t=0 the vehicle is travelling at a speed v2.Also at time t=0 the user holds the brake pedal depressed by an amount in the range from d1 to d2 (FIG.","7, FIG.","9(f)) corresponding to a relatively light pressure such that the vehicle set speed vset reduces over the period from t=0 to t=t1 from v2 to vsetmin.","At time t1, when set speed reaches vsetmin, the driver maintains the light pressure on the brake pedal 163.In the present example, the amount of pressure is sufficient to cause application of the braking system, albeit relatively lightly, such that the braking system is applying brake torque to the wheels.","Once the vehicle speed v falls to zero, or a prescribed value below vsetmin, the LSP control system 12 recognises that the user apparently wishes to override control of the vehicle by the system 12 and therefore cancels or suspends vehicle control at time t2.LSP control system status flag F is therefore changed from F=1 to F=0.At time t3 the user releases the brake pedal 163.If deemed necessary a hill hold assistance system or like may maintain a braking system active so as to prevent movement of the vehicle in a reverse direction if a risk of such exists.","At time t4 the user selects operation of the LSP control system 12 by pressing ‘resume’ button 171.Alternatively, the system 12 may resume control of the vehicle sped when the user lifts their foot off the brake pedal and presses the ‘+’ button.","Responsive to depression of this button the LSP control system 12 controls the vehicle 100 to accelerate from rest to the minimum set speed vsetmin, and in other embodiments, the system 12 may permit the user to select a previously used user defined set speed held in a memory.","The control system 12 again controls the rate of acceleration such that where possible it falls within the prescribed acceleration corridor.","This feature has the advantage that it may greatly reduce user workload over manual driving and minimise wear and tear on a vehicle by avoiding situations where the vehicle may be left labouring up a gradient without making progress or moving backwards due to insufficient torque being supplied to the wheels by the powertrain 129.Use of a speed control system at low speeds when driving off-road may offer a user of a vehicle considerable advantages in reduced user workload and enhanced vehicle composure.","However, if the user attempts to use a conventional cruise control system to negotiate an off-road obstacle such as a boulder field, then the vehicle speed would likely either be too great (typically cruise control systems have a minimum set speed of around 50 km/h) or the vehicle engine would likely stall during the extremes of torque requirement required to negotiate such an obstacle.","One concern in particular is the vehicle's natural tendency to overrun after cresting a boulder.","This is where the obstacle necessitates a large supply of torque to the driven wheels in order to lift the vehicle over the obstacle, followed immediately by light application of the brakes to counter the overrun of the engine after the demand for torque has passed.","Such precise control of the vehicle powertrain and brakes is not possible with cruise control systems currently available today.","In one arrangement the system may be operable automatically to apply a retarding torque to one or more wheels of the vehicle in response to a determination that the vehicle is cresting an obstacle thereby to counteract powertrain overrun and maintain substantially the set speed as the vehicle negotiates the obstacle.","The retarding torque may be applied by means of one or more selected from amongst a braking system, an electric machine, a gear shift or any other suitable means.","Vehicle composure may be maintained without excessive variation in speed which may give rise to the vehicle body being perceived by an occupant as lurching as the vehicle negotiates an obstacle.","The determination that the vehicle is cresting an obstacle may be made in response to a signal received by the system indicative of vehicle attitude, for example via a controller area network (CAN) or other suitable data bus, a direct sensor input or any other suitable means.","In addition or instead, cresting may be inferred when a drop-off in respect of required torque is detected following a steep rise in requested torque required to maintain progress.","Optionally the system may be operable to apply a retarding torque to one or more wheels when it is detected that the vehicle is negotiating an obstacle as the vehicle climbs at least a portion of the obstacle before cresting is detected.","Further the system may be operable to modulate the amount of retarding torque applied in dependence on a determination that the vehicle is cresting thereby to maintain substantially the set speed.","This feature has the advantage that in some situations vehicle composure may be further enhanced since the powertrain is working against a damping force applied by the retarding force, reducing fluctuations in vehicle speed as the obstacle is negotiated.","The system may be operable to detect cresting by one or more wheels of the vehicle (for example by reference to one or more of vehicle attitude, changes in vehicle attitude, vehicle suspension articulation (extension or compression) and any other suitable parameter.","It is to be understood that some arrangements provide an off-road speed control system with information about the terrain over which the vehicle is driving, as well as the vehicle's attitude, wheel articulation, wheel speed, gear selection, tyre friction, rolling resistance and TR (terrain response) mode.","In some embodiments, if the user is using off-road speed control to travel over an obstacle such as walking-holes, or steps, the off-road speed control system may supply sufficient torque to overcome the obstacle and deploy (say) the vehicle braking system to provide an appropriate restraining force as the system detects that the demand for torque (in order to maintain a set speed) is reducing as the vehicle crests the obstacle.","The system deploys the retarding force in order to counteract powertrain overrun, preventing the vehicle from unintentionally exceeding the set-speed and maintaining composure and control.","It is to be understood that a retarding torque applied by (say) a vehicle braking system is typically much more responsive in terms of rate of change of torque applied to wheels of the vehicle compared with a powertrain due to lag in the response of an internal combustion engine (ICE) to changes in accelerator pedal or other accelerator input signal (for example a signal from a speed control system).","That is, due to the physical nature of an ICE, torque output tends to lag torque demand.","In particular, where torque demand geos from high to low, the rotational momentum of the engine holds the torque output artificially high until the engine has time to slow down.","Unless drive is disconnected from the wheels by a clutch or similar means, the response lag of the engine may manifest itself as a vehicle overrun as the vehicle crests over the obstacle, i.e.","vehicle speed increases above that which is desired.","This may be perceived as the vehicle lurching over the obstacle, causing the vehicle to travel too quickly towards a successive obstacle and/or causing the rear wheel to come into contact with the obstacle aggressively.","These characteristics are overcome or at least mitigated with an off-road speed control system according to an embodiment of the present invention.","The proposed system is intended to actively monitor torque requirements necessary to overcome an obstacle and to manage known control delays by actively employing a mechanical restraining or damping force to the vehicle to mitigate against overrun after cresting, greatly enhancing vehicle composure during off-road driving.","As noted above the damping force may be applied by means of a vehicle braking system, electric machine, gear shift or any other suitable means.","As also noted above, the off-road speed control system may be provided with information about a vehicle's attitude as well as one or more of wheel speed, gear selection, tyre friction, rolling resistance, wheel articulation and TR mode.","In this way, if the user is using off-road speed control to travel off-road at a slow speed, say 5 km/h, when the vehicle is travelling over an obstacle such as a step or over walking-holes, the off-road speed control system can determine when the vehicle has almost crested the obstacle by rate of change in torque required, and deploy an appropriate retarding torque by means of (say) the braking system in order to overcome engine overrun.","In this way, the off-road speed control system may predict that the requested reduction in torque may result in the vehicle lurching forwards due to engine overrun, and take steps to counter engine overrun before it adversely affects vehicle composure.","It is to be understood that an off-road speed control system according to an embodiment of the invention may temporarily bring the vehicle to a standstill (or almost to a standstill) in extreme conditions in order to negotiate terrain such as a boulder field with multiple objects over which the vehicle must crest.","In such events, the application of the retarding torque (for example by operation of the braking system) may be in response to a cresting event at any of the road wheels, which could otherwise give rise to an overrun situation.","In some embodiments an off-road speed control system may be operable to control or otherwise influence gear and/or ‘high/low’ ratio selection, to ensure that the vehicle is travelling at low speeds off-road in a gear appropriate to avoid engine stalling and maintain suitable progress.","In some embodiments an off-road speed control system may be operable to control or otherwise influence vehicle speed to allow time for adjustment of one or more system configurations.","For example to allow time for a change in ride height or tyre pressure or any other suitable parameter, to ensure that the vehicle is travelling with a configuration appropriate to the prevailing terrain.","Thus in the event a vehicle encounters relatively rough terrain the speed control system may stop the vehicle or reduce speed in order to allow ride height adjustment and/or tyre pressure adjustment.","In some embodiments the speed control system may reduce vehicle speed rather than stopping the vehicle in order to reduce a risk that the vehicle loses traction and becomes stuck.","FIG.","10 shows a plot of an amount of torque developed by a powertrain 129 (plot P) and a braking system (plot B) of a vehicle 100 according to an embodiment of the present invention as the vehicle 100 negotiates an obstacle such as a boulder or step.","At time td4.It is to be understood that in some embodiments a vehicle 100 may be operated in off-road speed control mode in either forward or reverse driving directions.","Embodiments of the invention may further improve vehicle composure by adapting to rapid or abrupt changes in drag or other forces acting on a vehicle caused by variation in terrain and resisting speed overshoot by a vehicle under the control of the off-road speed control system.","Use of speed control at low speeds when driving off-road may offer a user considerable advantages in reduced user workload and enhanced vehicle composure.","However, a speed control system arranged to work off-road would not take into account that although a vehicle may be capable of maintaining a given speed over a varying terrain, some surfaces may be more uncomfortable to drive over than others at the same speed.","The present invention provides an off-road speed control system that is arranged to permit the user to operate the vehicle at low speeds off-road with the off-road speed control system regulating vehicle speed up to a user selected set-speed.","In some embodiments, the off-road speed control system is configured to take into account at least one selected from amongst surface roughness, wheel slip and wheel articulation when determining a maximum speed at which the system will allow the vehicle to drive over a surface.","In some situations the speed control system may be perceived as intervening to reduce the maximum vehicle speed unnecessarily for some users, but intervening sufficiently in the opinion of others.","Off-road speed control systems according to the present invention are intended to enhance off-road driving performance by reducing user workload and enhancing vehicle composure.","It is to be understood that a level of vehicle composure may affect all vehicle occupants and not just the person under whose control the vehicle is being operated.","In some embodiments there is provided an off-road speed control system that is provided with at least one selected from amongst information or data in respect of terrain over which the vehicle is driving, vehicle attitude, wheel articulation, wheel speed, driving surface roughness, gear selection, tyre friction, tyre drag, rolling resistance and TR mode.","In an embodiment of the invention the system is further provided with a memory, user operable input means such as a switch, a processor and seat occupancy data.","The off-road speed control system may be operable to adjust a comfort setting of the speed control system being a setting used by the system to determine how much to slow the vehicle below a given set-speed for a given ground condition or terrain.","The system may be operable to adjust the comfort setting in dependence on data in respect of seat occupancy and an input signal received from the user operable input means.","In operation, the system is configured to log in the memory how the user adjusts the off-road speed control comfort setting for a given amplitude and frequency of vehicle vibration caused by the roughness of the terrain over which the vehicle is driving.","When the system determines that a vehicle body vibration is similar to or otherwise matches a sample stored in the memory the processor generates a temporary default baseline set-speed limit below the speed control set-speed that was previously been set by the user.","The temporary default baseline set-speed limit is set by the system for the duration of the particular section of terrain the vehicle is travelling over unless overridden by the user.","If the user overrides the system then data corresponding to the fact that the system was over-ridden may be stored in the memory.","A look-up table in which data in respect of vehicle speed requested by a user as a function of vehicle vibration characteristic data is stored is updated.","In some embodiments the speed control system updates the stored data only if the user repeatedly overrides the system.","In an embodiment of the system, if user adjustment of off-road speed control system speed in respect of a particular user indicates a trend to override the automated speed reduction feature towards a higher speed, then the off-road speed control system may be configured to adopt a user specific baseline speed limit that is higher than the default baseline speed limit for a given type of terrain.","That is, a speed limit to which the system may reduce the set-speed in the event that such terrain is encountered that is higher than a default baseline speed limit for that type of terrain.","As noted above, in some embodiments terrain ‘type’ may be quantified by reference to amplitude and frequency of vehicle vibration, optionally wheel articulation, optionally one or more other parameters in addition or instead, such as a value of one or more parameters for a given selected TR mode.","In some embodiments the user specific baseline speed limit may be manually reset by a user such that the system employs the default value of maximum off-road speed control speed, which may be lower than the driver specific baseline speed.","In some embodiments the default value may in fact be higher than the driver specific speed.","In some embodiments, in addition or instead, the system may be operable to detect that the off-road speed control system is being employed on a journey where the vehicle is carrying one or more passengers.","If such a determination is made the system may be operable to reset a user-specific baseline off-road speed control system speed to the default baseline speed limit.","It is to be understood that in scenarios in which a user typically uses the off-road speed control system when driving alone, the user may opt to accept less vehicle composure in order to drive the vehicle at a faster speed over a given surface.","As the user is in control of the vehicle, the movement of the vehicle is likely to be perceived by the user as being in line with their expectations and therefore acceptable.","Furthermore, a driver may steady him or herself against a steering wheel and therefore tolerate more vehicle body movement than a passenger might be comfortable with.","A passenger, who is not in control of the vehicle, may perceive the same vehicle movement or vibration as being unacceptably uncomfortable.","To compensate for this, in some embodiments, when the system detects that the vehicle is carrying one or more passengers, the system defaults to a comfort and composure orientated speed adjustment mode (in which the maximum speed corresponds for example to the default baseline value), unless and until the user manually overrides the setting.","The speed control system may be operable to monitor one or more parameters influencing vehicle body movement and therefore occupant comfort such as a steering wheel or steerable road wheel angle and/or a rate of change thereof.","The system may be operable to monitor data indicative of driving surface roughness and correlate this data with one or more vehicle parameters that may influence vehicle body movement such as steering wheel angle, steerable road wheel angle or a rate of change thereof.","In the event a user overrides the speed control system, indicating that they feel the speed is too high, the system may determine whether the user chose to override the system because of a feature of terrain over which the vehicle is travelling, or because of another factor influencing vehicle body movement.","An example of such a factor might be an action by a driver such as abrupt turning of the steering wheel on terrain that would otherwise not cause excessive user discomfort.","In some embodiments the system may take into account vehicle roll angle; for example if the vehicle is driving across a gradient a user may be more sensitive to the fact that the vehicle is tilted about its longitudinal axis and require the system to reduce the set speed even when the terrain is relatively smooth.","Thus it is to be understood that the speed control system may be configured to log data indicating steering wheel angle, steerable road wheel angle or rate of change of one or both, optionally vehicle roll angle, lateral acceleration and the like and be able to determine whether the fact that a user chose to over-ride the speed control system to reduce set speed is because of terrain roughness alone or because of a combination of terrain roughness and one or more other parameters affecting body movement.","The system may be configured to take into account whether or not passengers are being carried when a user intervenes to reduce set speed.","In the event passengers are not being carried, the vehicle may determine that if a similar scenario is encountered when passengers are being carried in the future, set speed may be reduced to an even lower level than that to which it was reduced when the user was the sole occupant.","Furthermore, the system may be operable to reduce set speed when reduced values of one or more parameters affecting vehicle body roll are detected in the future, in the expectation that passengers may be less tolerant of certain body movements than a driver.","Furthermore, such action may be prudent also since a centre of gravity of a vehicle may rise in the presence of one or more passengers, resulting in an increased tendency for a vehicle body to move when travelling over certain terrain.","In this way, vehicle body movement, whilst the vehicle is under control of the system 12, is managed at least in part, to balance the desire to maintain good progress off-road with the need to manage certain factors that may influence or otherwise affect the comfort of each occupant of the vehicle.","FIG.","16(a) shows a console 184 of a vehicle 100 according to an embodiment of the present invention having user configurable progress control.","The console has a user operable button 187 depression of which provides a control signal to a processor 185 associated with the LSP control system 12.The processor is operable to store and retrieve data from a memory 186 also associated with the LSP control system 12.The LSP control system 12 is operable to receive data indicative of seat occupancy of the vehicle.","That is, data indicative as to whether a given seat of the vehicle other than a driver's seat is occupied.","FIG.","16(b) is a plan view of a cabin of a vehicle according to an embodiment of the invention showing seats 101S to 105S.","The LSP system 12 receives data corresponding to a state of a switch embedded in a seat belt buckle 106 associated with each seat 101S-105S.","If the state of the switch indicates that the buckle 106 is fastened, the LSP system 12 considers that the seat associated with the buckle is occupied.","If the state of the switch indicates the buckle 106 is unfastened, the LSP system 12 considers that the seat associated with the buckle 106 is unoccupied.","Seat occupancy may be determined by sensors in each seat or by means of an infrared or visible light camera arranged to observe the interior of the occupant compartment.","Other means for determining seat occupancy are also useful.","Memory 186 may be divided so as to store data in respect of a plurality of known drivers and their associated preferences.","The system may be arranged to identify a driver by identification of one selected from amongst a seat adjustment position, a user specific key fob identity, or other known means.","In some embodiments, the maximum speed (set-speed limit) imposed automatically by the system may be adjusted automatically by the system based on duration and vehicle behaviour in dependence on a determination that vehicle body acceleration exceeds a pre-determined threshold.","This may be used to enhance vehicle composure and act as a means for determining vehicle movement independently of an output of one or more wheel speed sensors.","This may be useful in situations in which no two wheel speed readings match each other.","This feature may be employed across multiple vehicle variants with different suspension spring/damper settings and be used in vehicles whose characteristics may vary over time.","Employment of vehicle body acceleration measurements may free the speed control system from being tied to a specific vehicle or suspension variant.","It is to be understood that in some embodiments an off road speed control system may be operable in either forward or reverse driving use.","It is to be understood that the control system according to an may form part of an ATPC (All-Terrain Progress Control) system, which may be arranged to work independently or in conjunction with one or more vehicle control systems arranged to optimise one or more vehicle configurations such as one or more sub-system configurations for a given terrain over which the vehicle is travelling.","An example of such a system is a Terrain Response® system.","Some embodiments of the invention enhance enjoyment of a vehicle by a given user when driving alone and passengers when being carried by the same user, since the level of vehicle composure that may be tolerated by one or more passengers may differ from that which may be tolerated by the user.","It will be understood that the embodiments described above are given by way of example only and are not intended to limit the invention, the scope of which is defined in the appended claims.","Throughout the description and claims of this specification, the words “comprise” and “contain” and variations of the words, for example “comprising” and “comprises”, means “including but not limited to”, and is not intended to (and does not) exclude other moieties, additives, components, integers or steps.","Throughout the description and claims of this specification, the singular encompasses the plural unless the context otherwise requires.","In particular, where the indefinite article is used, the specification is to be understood as contemplating plurality as well as singularity, unless the context requires otherwise.","Features, integers, characteristics, compounds, chemical moieties or groups described in conjunction with a particular aspect, embodiment or example of the invention are to be understood to be applicable to any other aspect, embodiment or example described herein unless incompatible therewith.","For the avoidance of doubt it is explicitly stated that it is to be understood that aspects or embodiments of the invention described under each of headings 1 to 10 above are not to be interpreted as necessarily including one or more features described under another one or more of headings 1 to 10 unless explicitly stated.","It is also to be understood that aspects or embodiments of the invention described under one or more of headings 1 to 10 are applicable to any other embodiment whether under another one or more of headings 1 to 10 or not unless incompatible therewith.","Reference to features of a common figure such as FIG.","1 or any other figure under a plurality of headings 1 to 10 is not to be interpreted as requiring that aspects or embodiments described under a given heading also have the features that are described with respect to the common figure under another heading."]],"string":"[\n [\n \"VEHICLE SPEED CONTROL SYSTEM\",\n \"A vehicle speed control system for a vehicle having a plurality of wheels, the vehicle speed control system comprising one or more electronic control units configured to carry out a method that includes applying torque to at least one of the plurality of wheels, detecting a slip event between any one or more of the wheels and the ground over which the vehicle is travelling when the vehicle is in motion and providing a slip detection output signal in the event thereof.\",\n \"The method carried out by the one or more electronic control units further includes receiving a user input of a target speed at which the vehicle is intended to travel and maintaining the vehicle at the target speed independently of the slip detection output signal by adjusting the amount of torque applied to the at least one of the plurality of wheels.\"\n ],\n [\n \"1.A vehicle speed control system for a vehicle having a plurality of wheels, the vehicle speed control system configured to automatically control the speed of the vehicle to a target speed and comprising one or more electronic control units arranged to: control the application of torque to at least one of the plurality of wheels; detect a slip event between any one or more of the wheels and the surface over which the vehicle is travelling when the vehicle is in motion and provide a slip detection output signal in the event thereof; receive a user input of a target set-speed at which the vehicle is intended to travel; and control the application of torque to the at least one of the plurality of wheels for maintaining the vehicle at the target speed independently of the slip detection output signal by requesting the application of increased net torque to the at least one of the plurality of wheels when the vehicle speed needs to be increased to maintain the vehicle at the target speed wherein the magnitude of the requested increased net torque is reduced when an identified external force acts on the vehicle in a direction so as to cause positive acceleration.\",\n \"2.The vehicle speed control system as claimed in claim 1 wherein the magnitude of the reduction of the requested increased net torque is proportional to the magnitude of the external force.\",\n \"3.The vehicle speed control system as claimed in claim 1 wherein the magnitude of the requested increased net torque is increased when an identified external force acts on the vehicle in a direction so as to cause negative acceleration.\",\n \"4.The vehicle speed control system as claimed in claim 3 wherein the magnitude of the increase of the requested increased net torque is proportional to the magnitude of the external force.\",\n \"5.The vehicle speed control system as claimed in claim 1, wherein said one or more electronic control unit is arranged to: determine the magnitude and direction of an external force operating on the vehicle; compare the current speed with the target speed and providing an output indicative of the difference between the current speed and the target speed; and evaluating the torque to be applied to at least one of the vehicle wheels in dependence on the output, and increasing or decreasing the magnitude of the evaluated torque in dependence on the determined magnitude and direction of an external force operating on the vehicle.\",\n \"6.The vehicle speed control system as claimed in claim 5, wherein said one or more electronic control unit is arranged to apply torque to at least two wheels of the vehicle simultaneously.\",\n \"7.The vehicle speed control system as claimed in claim 5, wherein said one or more electronic control unit is arranged to apply torque to at least four wheels of the vehicle simultaneously.\",\n \"8.A vehicle comprising a control system as claimed in claim 1.9.A vehicle speed control system for a vehicle having a plurality of wheels, the vehicle speed control system configured to automatically control the speed of the vehicle to a target speed and comprising one or more electronic control units arranged to: control the application of torque to at least one of the plurality of wheels; detect a slip event between any one or more of the wheels and the surface over which the vehicle is travelling when the vehicle is in motion and provide a slip detection output signal in the event thereof; receive a user input of a target set-speed at which the vehicle is intended to travel; and control the application of torque to the at least one of the plurality of wheels for maintaining the vehicle at the target speed independently of the slip detection output signal by requesting a reduction of net torque applied to the vehicle wheels when the vehicle speed needs to be decreased to maintain the vehicle at the target speed wherein the magnitude of the requested reduction of net torque is increased when an identified external force acts on the vehicle in a direction so as to cause positive acceleration.\",\n \"10.The vehicle speed control system as claimed in claim 9 wherein the magnitude of the increase of the reduction of net torque is proportional to the magnitude of the external force.\",\n \"11.The vehicle speed control system as claimed in claim 9 wherein the magnitude of the requested reduction of net torque is decreased when an identified external force acts on the vehicle in a direction so as to cause negative acceleration.\",\n \"12.The vehicle speed control system as claimed in claim 11 wherein the magnitude of the decrease of the requested reduction of net torque is proportional to the magnitude of the external force.\",\n \"13.The vehicle speed control system as claimed in claim 9, wherein said one or more electronic control unit is arranged to: determine the magnitude and direction of an external force operating on the vehicle; compare the current speed with the target speed and providing an output indicative of the difference between the current speed and the target speed; and evaluating the torque to be applied to at least one of the vehicle wheels in dependence on the output, and increasing or decreasing the magnitude of the evaluated torque in dependence on the determined magnitude and direction of an external force operating on the vehicle.\",\n \"14.The vehicle speed control system as claimed in claim 13, wherein said one or more electronic control unit is arranged to apply torque to at least two wheels of the vehicle simultaneously.\",\n \"15.The vehicle speed control system as claimed in claim 13, wherein said one or more electronic control unit is arranged to apply torque to at least four wheels of the vehicle simultaneously.\",\n \"16.A vehicle comprising a control system as claimed in claim 9.17.A vehicle comprising a control system as claimed in claim 1 and comprising a vehicle speed control system configured to automatically control the speed of the vehicle to a target speed and comprising one or more electronic control units arranged to: control the application of torque to at least one of the plurality of wheels; detect a slip event between any one or more of the wheels and the surface over which the vehicle is travelling when the vehicle is in motion and provide a slip detection output signal in the event thereof; receive a user input of a target set-speed at which the vehicle is intended to travel; and control the application of torque to the at least one of the plurality of wheels for maintaining the vehicle at the target speed independently of the slip detection output signal by requesting a reduction of net torque applied to the vehicle wheels when the vehicle speed needs to be decreased to maintain the vehicle at the target speed wherein the magnitude of the requested reduction of net torque is increased when an identified external force acts on the vehicle in a direction so as to cause positive acceleration.\",\n \"18.A method of automatically controlling a speed to a target speed of a vehicle having a plurality of wheels, the method comprising: applying torque to at least one of the plurality of wheels; detecting a slip event between any one or more of the wheels and the ground over which the vehicle is travelling when the vehicle is in motion and providing a slip detection output signal in the event thereof; receiving a user input of a target set-speed at which the vehicle is intended to travel; and automatically maintaining the vehicle at the target speed independently of the slip detection output signal by requesting the application of increased net torque to the at least one of the plurality of wheels when the vehicle speed needs to be increased to maintain the vehicle at the target speed wherein the magnitude of the requested increased net torque is reduced when an identified external force acts on the vehicle in a direction so as to cause positive acceleration.\"\n ],\n [\n \" BACKGROUND In known vehicle speed control systems, typically referred to as cruise control systems, the vehicle speed is maintained once set by the user without further intervention by the user so as to improve the driving experience for the user.\",\n \"The user selects a speed at which the vehicle is to be maintained, and the vehicle is maintained at that speed for as long as the user does not apply a brake or, in some systems, the clutch.\",\n \"The cruise control system takes its speed signal from the driveshaft or wheel speed sensors.\",\n \"When the brake or the clutch is depressed, the cruise control system is disabled so that the user can change the vehicle speed without resistance from the system.\",\n \"If the user depresses the accelerator pedal the vehicle speed will increase, but once the user removes his foot from the accelerator pedal the vehicle reverts to the pre-set cruise speed.\",\n \"More sophisticated cruise control systems are integrated into the engine management system and may include an adaptive functionality which takes into account the distance to the vehicle in front using a radar-based system.\",\n \"For example, the vehicle may be provided with a forward-looking radar detection system so that the speed and distance of the vehicle in front is detected and a safe following speed and distance is maintained automatically without the need for user input.\",\n \"If the lead vehicle slows down, or another object is detected by the radar detection system, the system sends a signal to the engine or the braking system to slow the vehicle down accordingly.\",\n \"Such systems are usually operable only above a certain speed, typically around 15 mph, and are ideal in circumstances in which the vehicle is travelling in steady traffic conditions, and particularly on highways or motorways.\",\n \"In congested traffic conditions, however, where vehicle speed tends to vary widely, cruise control systems are ineffective, and especially where the systems are inoperable because of a minimum speed requirement.\",\n \"A minimum speed requirement is often imposed on cruise control systems so as to reduce the likelihood of low speed collision, for example when parking.\",\n \"Such systems are therefore ineffective in certain driving conditions (e.g.\",\n \"low speed) and are set to be automatically disabled in circumstances in which a user may not consider it to be desirable to do so.\",\n \"It is also known to provide a control system for a motor vehicle for controlling one or more vehicle subsystems.\",\n \"U.S. Pat.\",\n \"No.\",\n \"7,349,776, the content of which is hereby incorporated by reference, discloses a vehicle control system comprising a plurality of subsystem controllers including an engine management system, a transmission controller, a steering controller, a brakes controller and a suspension controller.\",\n \"The subsystem controllers are each operable in a plurality of subsystem function modes.\",\n \"The subsystem controllers are connected to a vehicle mode controller which controls the subsystem controllers to assume a required function mode so as to provide a number of driving modes for the vehicle.\",\n \"Each of the driving modes corresponds to a particular driving condition or set of driving conditions, and in each mode each of the sub-systems is set to the function mode most appropriate to those conditions.\",\n \"Such conditions are linked to types of terrain over which the vehicle may be driven such as grass/gravel/snow, mud and ruts, rock crawl, sand and a highway mode known as ‘special programs off’(SPO).\",\n \"The vehicle mode controller may be referred to as a Terrain Response (TR)® System or controller.\"\n ],\n [\n \" SUMMARY Embodiments of the invention may be understood with reference to the appended claims.\",\n \"Aspects of the present invention provide a system, a vehicle and a method.\",\n \"It is with a view to addressing the aforementioned limitations of existing systems that the present invention provides, in an aspect of the invention for which protection is sought there is provided, a vehicle speed control system for a vehicle having a plurality of wheels, the vehicle speed control system configured to automatically control the speed of the vehicle to a target set-speed and comprising means for applying a torque to at least one of the plurality of wheels; means for detecting a slip event between any one or more of the wheels and the ground over which the vehicle is travelling when the vehicle is in motion and for providing a slip detection output signal in the event thereof; and means for receiving a user input of a target speed at which the vehicle is intended to travel.\",\n \"The system further comprises means for maintaining the vehicle at the target speed independently of the slip detection output signal.\",\n \"The user input of target speed will be understood to be a target set-speed of the automatic speed control system.\",\n \"In another aspect of the invention for which protection is sought there is provided, a vehicle speed control system for a vehicle having a plurality of wheels and a powertrain for providing a torque thereto, the vehicle speed control system comprising: means for receiving an input signal indicative of a slip event between any one or more of the wheels and the ground over which the vehicle is travelling when the vehicle is in motion; means for receiving a user input of a target speed at which the vehicle is intended to travel; and means for outputting a torque request signal to control the vehicle powertrain, wherein the system is operable to maintain the vehicle at the target speed independently of the slip detection output signal.\",\n \"A problem with existing vehicle speed control systems, such as cruise control systems, is that the system is cancelled when the vehicle detects a wheel slip event at one or more wheel.\",\n \"The system will also cancel upon activation of the anti-lock braking system (ABS), the traction control system or stability control systems or the like.\",\n \"Whilst the approach taken by known cruise control systems may be entirely appropriate for driving on the highway, it makes these ‘on-highway’ cruise control systems unreliable and entirely inappropriate for use in most off-road driving applications, where the driving speed is typically much lower and the varied nature of the terrain tends to give rise to frequent slip events.\",\n \"In other words, driving in adverse and slippery conditions off-road, where wheel slip is not uncommon, on-highway cruise control systems are ineffective.\",\n \"It is one benefit of at least some embodiments of the invention that it provides a speed-based control which enables the user to select a very low target speed at which the vehicle progresses without any pedal inputs being required by the user once the vehicle is moving and, moreover, which is not disabled upon activation of any of the vehicle slip control mechanisms.\",\n \"In particular, this enables the speed of the vehicle to be controlled in driving conditions where wheel slip may occur relatively frequently, such as on slippery or icy terrain, but where low speed progress of the vehicle is still desirable.\",\n \"It is a further benefit of at least some embodiments of the invention that as the user does not have to concentrate on regulating the speed of the vehicle, it is easier to focus on navigational aspects such as route planning and obstacle avoidance.\",\n \"This is particularly advantageous when the terrain over which the vehicle is travelling is challenging to navigate, such as, for example, for off-road terrains (such as sand, rock, gravel) or in conditions such as ice or snow or where the vehicle is being driven through deep water, where the demands on user concentration are greater.\",\n \"According to a further aspect of the invention for which protection is sought there is provided a memory device which comprises a carrier medium carrying a computer-readable code for controlling the vehicle to carry out the method described above.\",\n \"It will be appreciated that preferred and/or optional features of any one aspect of the invention may be incorporated alone or in appropriate combination within the any other aspect of the invention also.\"\n ],\n [\n \"FIELD OF THE INVENTION The invention relates to a system for controlling the speed of a vehicle.\",\n \"In particular, but not exclusively, the invention relates to a system for controlling the speed of a land-based vehicle which is capable of driving in a variety of different and extreme terrains and conditions.\",\n \"BACKGROUND In known vehicle speed control systems, typically referred to as cruise control systems, the vehicle speed is maintained once set by the user without further intervention by the user so as to improve the driving experience for the user.\",\n \"The user selects a speed at which the vehicle is to be maintained, and the vehicle is maintained at that speed for as long as the user does not apply a brake or, in some systems, the clutch.\",\n \"The cruise control system takes its speed signal from the driveshaft or wheel speed sensors.\",\n \"When the brake or the clutch is depressed, the cruise control system is disabled so that the user can change the vehicle speed without resistance from the system.\",\n \"If the user depresses the accelerator pedal the vehicle speed will increase, but once the user removes his foot from the accelerator pedal the vehicle reverts to the pre-set cruise speed.\",\n \"More sophisticated cruise control systems are integrated into the engine management system and may include an adaptive functionality which takes into account the distance to the vehicle in front using a radar-based system.\",\n \"For example, the vehicle may be provided with a forward-looking radar detection system so that the speed and distance of the vehicle in front is detected and a safe following speed and distance is maintained automatically without the need for user input.\",\n \"If the lead vehicle slows down, or another object is detected by the radar detection system, the system sends a signal to the engine or the braking system to slow the vehicle down accordingly.\",\n \"Such systems are usually operable only above a certain speed, typically around 15 mph, and are ideal in circumstances in which the vehicle is travelling in steady traffic conditions, and particularly on highways or motorways.\",\n \"In congested traffic conditions, however, where vehicle speed tends to vary widely, cruise control systems are ineffective, and especially where the systems are inoperable because of a minimum speed requirement.\",\n \"A minimum speed requirement is often imposed on cruise control systems so as to reduce the likelihood of low speed collision, for example when parking.\",\n \"Such systems are therefore ineffective in certain driving conditions (e.g.\",\n \"low speed) and are set to be automatically disabled in circumstances in which a user may not consider it to be desirable to do so.\",\n \"It is also known to provide a control system for a motor vehicle for controlling one or more vehicle subsystems.\",\n \"U.S. Pat.\",\n \"No.\",\n \"7,349,776, the content of which is hereby incorporated by reference, discloses a vehicle control system comprising a plurality of subsystem controllers including an engine management system, a transmission controller, a steering controller, a brakes controller and a suspension controller.\",\n \"The subsystem controllers are each operable in a plurality of subsystem function modes.\",\n \"The subsystem controllers are connected to a vehicle mode controller which controls the subsystem controllers to assume a required function mode so as to provide a number of driving modes for the vehicle.\",\n \"Each of the driving modes corresponds to a particular driving condition or set of driving conditions, and in each mode each of the sub-systems is set to the function mode most appropriate to those conditions.\",\n \"Such conditions are linked to types of terrain over which the vehicle may be driven such as grass/gravel/snow, mud and ruts, rock crawl, sand and a highway mode known as ‘special programs off’(SPO).\",\n \"The vehicle mode controller may be referred to as a Terrain Response (TR)® System or controller.\",\n \"SUMMARY Embodiments of the invention may be understood with reference to the appended claims.\",\n \"Aspects of the present invention provide a system, a vehicle and a method.\",\n \"It is with a view to addressing the aforementioned limitations of existing systems that the present invention provides, in an aspect of the invention for which protection is sought there is provided, a vehicle speed control system for a vehicle having a plurality of wheels, the vehicle speed control system configured to automatically control the speed of the vehicle to a target set-speed and comprising means for applying a torque to at least one of the plurality of wheels; means for detecting a slip event between any one or more of the wheels and the ground over which the vehicle is travelling when the vehicle is in motion and for providing a slip detection output signal in the event thereof; and means for receiving a user input of a target speed at which the vehicle is intended to travel.\",\n \"The system further comprises means for maintaining the vehicle at the target speed independently of the slip detection output signal.\",\n \"The user input of target speed will be understood to be a target set-speed of the automatic speed control system.\",\n \"In another aspect of the invention for which protection is sought there is provided, a vehicle speed control system for a vehicle having a plurality of wheels and a powertrain for providing a torque thereto, the vehicle speed control system comprising: means for receiving an input signal indicative of a slip event between any one or more of the wheels and the ground over which the vehicle is travelling when the vehicle is in motion; means for receiving a user input of a target speed at which the vehicle is intended to travel; and means for outputting a torque request signal to control the vehicle powertrain, wherein the system is operable to maintain the vehicle at the target speed independently of the slip detection output signal.\",\n \"A problem with existing vehicle speed control systems, such as cruise control systems, is that the system is cancelled when the vehicle detects a wheel slip event at one or more wheel.\",\n \"The system will also cancel upon activation of the anti-lock braking system (ABS), the traction control system or stability control systems or the like.\",\n \"Whilst the approach taken by known cruise control systems may be entirely appropriate for driving on the highway, it makes these ‘on-highway’ cruise control systems unreliable and entirely inappropriate for use in most off-road driving applications, where the driving speed is typically much lower and the varied nature of the terrain tends to give rise to frequent slip events.\",\n \"In other words, driving in adverse and slippery conditions off-road, where wheel slip is not uncommon, on-highway cruise control systems are ineffective.\",\n \"It is one benefit of at least some embodiments of the invention that it provides a speed-based control which enables the user to select a very low target speed at which the vehicle progresses without any pedal inputs being required by the user once the vehicle is moving and, moreover, which is not disabled upon activation of any of the vehicle slip control mechanisms.\",\n \"In particular, this enables the speed of the vehicle to be controlled in driving conditions where wheel slip may occur relatively frequently, such as on slippery or icy terrain, but where low speed progress of the vehicle is still desirable.\",\n \"It is a further benefit of at least some embodiments of the invention that as the user does not have to concentrate on regulating the speed of the vehicle, it is easier to focus on navigational aspects such as route planning and obstacle avoidance.\",\n \"This is particularly advantageous when the terrain over which the vehicle is travelling is challenging to navigate, such as, for example, for off-road terrains (such as sand, rock, gravel) or in conditions such as ice or snow or where the vehicle is being driven through deep water, where the demands on user concentration are greater.\",\n \"According to a further aspect of the invention for which protection is sought there is provided a memory device which comprises a carrier medium carrying a computer-readable code for controlling the vehicle to carry out the method described above.\",\n \"It will be appreciated that preferred and/or optional features of any one aspect of the invention may be incorporated alone or in appropriate combination within the any other aspect of the invention also.\",\n \"BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The invention will now be described by way of example only with reference to the following figures in which: FIG.\",\n \"1 is a schematic illustration of a vehicle according to an embodiment of the invention in plan view; FIG.\",\n \"2 shows the vehicle of FIG.\",\n \"1 in side view; FIG.\",\n \"3 is a high level schematic diagram of an embodiment of the vehicle speed control system of the present invention, including a cruise control system and a low-speed progress control system; FIG.\",\n \"4 is a flow diagram to illustrate the interaction between the cruise control system and the low-speed progress control system in FIG.\",\n \"3; FIG.\",\n \"5 is a schematic diagram of further features of the vehicle speed control system in FIG.\",\n \"3; FIG.\",\n \"6 illustrates a steering wheel and brake and accelerator pedals of a vehicle according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG.\",\n \"7 shows a plot of pedal output signal S as a function of pedal travel d in a vehicle according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG.\",\n \"8 shows a vehicle according to an embodiment of the present invention ascending a slope at two different locations, each location having a different respective gradient; FIG.\",\n \"9(a)-(f) are plots of certain vehicle parameters as a function of time in different off-road driving situations illustrating operation of a speed control system according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG.\",\n \"10 is a plot of powertrain torque and brake torque as a function of time in a vehicle according to an embodiment of the present invention over the course of a portion of an example off-road journey; FIG.\",\n \"11 is a plot of powertrain torque and brake torque as a function of time in a vehicle according to an embodiment of the present invention over the course of respective portions of example off-road journeys; FIG.\",\n \"12 is a plot of vehicle speed v, set speed vset and traction control system flag status as a function of time in a vehicle according to an embodiment of the present invention over the course of a portion of an example off-road journey; FIG.\",\n \"13 is a plot of vehicle speed v, set speed vset and traction control system flag status as a function of distance for a vehicle according to an embodiment of the present invention over the course of a portion of a further example off-road journey; FIG.\",\n \"14 is a plot of powertrain torque, vehicle speed and set speed as a function of distance in a vehicle according to an embodiment of the present invention over the course of a portion of an example off-road journey; FIG.\",\n \"15 is a plot of powertrain torque, vehicle speed and set speed as a function of distance in a vehicle according to an embodiment of the present invention over the course of a portion of an example off-road journey; and FIG.\",\n \"16 shows (a) a console installed in a vehicle according to an embodiment of the present invention and (b) a plan view of a cabin of a vehicle according to an embodiment of the present invention.\",\n \"DETAILED DESCRIPTION References herein to a block such as a function block are to be understood to include reference to software code for performing the function or action specified in which an output is provided responsive to one or more inputs.\",\n \"The code may be in the form of a software routine or function called by a main computer program, or may be code forming part of a flow of code not being a separate routine or function.\",\n \"Reference to function block is made for ease of explanation of the manner of operation of the controller.\",\n \"Embodiments of the invention are suitable for use in vehicles with automatic or continuously variable transmissions.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"1 shows a vehicle 100 according to an embodiment of the invention having a powertrain 129.The powertrain 129 includes an engine 121 that is connected to a driveline 130 having a transmission 124.The driveline 130 is arranged to drive a pair of front vehicle wheels 111,112 by means of a front differential 137 and a pair of front drive shafts 118.The driveline 130 also comprises an auxiliary driveline portion 131 arranged to drive a pair of rear wheels 114, 115 by means of an auxiliary driveshaft or prop-shaft 132, a rear differential 135 and a pair of rear driveshafts 139.Embodiments of the invention are suitable for use with vehicles in which the transmission is arranged to drive only a pair of front wheels or only a pair of rear wheels (i.e.\",\n \"front wheel drive vehicles or rear wheel drive vehicles) or selectable two wheel drive/four wheel drive vehicles.\",\n \"In the embodiment of FIG.\",\n \"1 the transmission 124 is releasably connectable to the auxiliary driveline portion 131 by means of a power transfer unit (PTU) 131, allowing selectable two wheel drive or four wheel drive operation.\",\n \"It is to be understood that embodiments of the invention may be suitable for vehicles having more than four wheels or where only two wheels are driven, for example two wheels of a three wheeled vehicle or four wheeled vehicle or a vehicle with more than four wheels.\",\n \"The control system for the vehicle engine 121 includes a central controller, referred to as the vehicle control unit (VCU) 10.The VCU 10 receives and outputs a plurality of signals to and from various sensors and subsystems (not shown) provided on the vehicle.\",\n \"The VCU 10 includes a low-speed progress (LSP) control system 12 and a stability control system (SCS) 14, the latter being a known component of existing vehicle control systems.\",\n \"The SCS 14 improves the safety of the vehicle by detecting and reducing loss of traction.\",\n \"When a loss of steering control is detected, the SCS 14 automatically applies the brakes to help to steer the vehicle in the direction the user wants to go.\",\n \"Although not shown in detail in FIG.\",\n \"3, the VCU 10 further includes a Dynamic Stability Control (DSC) function block, a Traction Control (TC) function block, an Anti-Lock Braking System (ABS) function block and a Hill Descent Control (HDC) function block.\",\n \"These function blocks provide outputs indicative of, for example, DSC activity, TC activity, ABS activity, brake interventions on individual wheels and engine torque reduction requests from the VCU 10 to the engine 121.All of the aforementioned events indicate that a wheel slip event has occurred.\",\n \"Other vehicle sub-systems such as a roll stability control system or the like may also be useful.\",\n \"The vehicle also includes a cruise control system 16 which is operable to automatically maintain vehicle speed at a selected speed when the vehicle is travelling at speeds in excess of 30 mph.\",\n \"The cruise control system 16 is provided with a cruise control HMI 18 by which means the user can input a target vehicle speed to the cruise control system 16 in a known manner.\",\n \"In one embodiment of the invention, cruise control system input controls are mounted to a steering wheel 171.Depression of a ‘set-speed’ control 173 sets the set-speed to the current vehicle speed.\",\n \"Depression of a ‘+’ button 174 allows the set speed to be increased whilst depression of a ‘−’ button allows the set speed to be decreased.\",\n \"The cruise control system 16 monitors vehicle speed and any deviation from the target vehicle speed is adjusted automatically so that the vehicle speed is maintained at a substantially constant value, typically in excess of 30 mph.\",\n \"In other words, the cruise control system is ineffective at speeds lower than 30 mph.\",\n \"The cruise HMI 18 may also be configured to provide an alert to the user about the status of the cruise control system via a visual display of the HMI 18.The LSP control system 12 provides a speed-based control system for the user which enables the user to select a very low target speed at which the vehicle can progress without any pedal inputs being required by the user.\",\n \"This low-speed progress control function is not provided by the on-highway cruise control system 16 which operates only at speeds above 30 mph.\",\n \"Furthermore, known on-highway cruise control systems including the present system 16 are configured so that, in the event that the user depresses the brake or the clutch, the cruise control function is over-ridden and the vehicle reverts to a manual mode of operation which requires user pedal input to maintain vehicle speed.\",\n \"In addition, detection of a wheel slip event, as may be initiated by a loss of traction, has the effect of suspending the cruise control function.\",\n \"The LSP control is implemented by applying selective powertrain, traction control and braking actions to the wheels of the vehicle, collectively or individually, to maintain the vehicle at the desired speed.\",\n \"The user inputs the desired target speed to the LSP control system 12 via a low-speed progress HMI (LSP HMI) 20.The LSP control system 12 operates at vehicle speeds typically below about 50 mph but does not activate until vehicle speed drops to below 30 mph when the cruise control system of the vehicle becomes ineffective.\",\n \"The LSP control system 12 is configured to operate independently of traction events, such as wheel slip, and in this way, at least, differs from the functionality of the cruise control system 16, as will be described in further detail below.\",\n \"The LSP HMI 20 is provided in the vehicle cabin.\",\n \"The user of the vehicle is able to input to the LSP control system 12, via the LSP HMI 20 and a signal line 21, the speed at which it is desired for the vehicle to travel (referred to as “the target speed”).\",\n \"The LSP HMI 20 also includes a visual display (not shown) upon which an alert can be provided to the user about the status of the LSP control system 12.The LSP control system 12 receives an input from a braking system 22 of the vehicle, which is an input indicative of the extent to which the user has applied braking by means of a brake pedal 163.The LSP control system 12 also receives an input from an accelerator pedal 161, which is an input indicative of the extent to which the user has depressed the accelerator pedal 161.An input is also provided to the LSP control system 12 from the transmission or gearbox 124 and any associated control means not shown.\",\n \"This input may include signals representative of, for example, the speed of the output shaft from the gearbox 124, torque converter slip and a gear ratio request.\",\n \"Other inputs to the LSP control system 12 include an input from the cruise HMI 18 which is representative of the status (ON/OFF) of the cruise control system 16, and an input from the LSP HMI 20 which is representative of the status of the LSP control function.\",\n \"The cruise HMI 18 and the LSP HMI 20 are typically mounted on or adjacent to the steering wheel of the vehicle for convenience of operation by the user.\",\n \"The cruise control HMI and the LSP HMI are arranged adjacent to one another in the vehicle cabin, and preferably on the steering wheel of the vehicle for convenience of operation by the user.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"4 shows a flow process to illustrate the interaction between the cruise control system 18 and the LSP control system 12.If cruise control is active when the user tries to activate the LSP control system 12 via the LSP HMI 20, a signal is sent to the cruise control system 16 to cancel the speed control routine.\",\n \"The LSP control system 12 is then initiated and the vehicle speed is maintained at the low target speed selected by the user via the LSP HMI 20.It is also the case that if the LSP control system 12 is active, operation of the cruise control system 16 is inhibited.\",\n \"The two systems 12, 16 therefore operate independently of one another, so that only one can be operable at any one time, depending on the speed at which the vehicle is travelling.\",\n \"In another embodiment, the cruise HMI 18 and the LSP HMI 20 may be configured within the same hardware so that, for example, the speed selection is input via the same hardware, with a separate switch being provided to switch between the LSP input and the cruise control input.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"5 illustrates the means by which vehicle speed is controlled in the LSP control system 12.The speed selected to the user is input to the LSP control system 12 via the LSP HMI 20.A vehicle speed sensor 34 associated with the engine provides a signal 36 indicative of vehicle speed to the LSP control system 12.The LSP control system 12 includes a comparator 28 which compares the target speed 38 selected by the user with the measured speed 36 and provides an output signal 30 indicative of the comparison.\",\n \"The output signal 30 is provided to an evaluator unit 40 of the VCU 10 which interprets the output signal 30 as either a demand for additional torque to be applied to the vehicle wheels, or for a reduction in torque to be applied to the vehicle wheels, depending on whether the vehicle speed needs to be increased or decreased to maintain the speed that has been selected by the user.\",\n \"An output 42 from the evaluator unit 40 is provided to the driveline for the vehicle wheels 111-115 so as to either increase or decrease the torque applied to the wheels, depending on whether there is a positive or negative demand for torque from the evaluator unit 40.In order to initiate the necessary positive or negative torque being applied to the wheels, the evaluator unit 32 may either command that additional power is applied to the vehicle wheels or that a braking force is applied to the vehicle wheels, either or both of which may be used to implement the change in torque that is necessary to maintain the target vehicle speed.\",\n \"In the illustrated embodiment the torque is applied to the vehicle wheels individually so as to maintain the target vehicle speed, but in another embodiment torque may be applied to the wheels collectively to maintain the target speed.\",\n \"The LSP control system 12 also receives a signal 48 indicative of a wheel slip event having occurred.\",\n \"This may be the same signal 48 that is supplied to the on-highway cruise control system 16 of the vehicle, and which in the case of the latter triggers an override or inhibit mode of operation in the on-highway cruise control system 16 so that automatic control of the vehicle speed by the on-highway cruise control system 16 is suspended or cancelled.\",\n \"However, the LSP control system 12 is not arranged to cancel or suspend operation in dependence on receipt of a wheel slip signal 48 indicative of wheel slip, rather, the system 12 is arranged to monitor and subsequently manage wheel slip so as to keep driver workload to a minimum.\",\n \"During a slip event, the LSP control system 12 continues to compare the measured vehicle speed with the desired vehicle speed as input by the user, and continues to control automatically the torque applied across the vehicle wheels so as to maintain vehicle speed at the selected value.\",\n \"In this way the LSP control system 12 is therefore configured differently to the cruise control system 16, for which a wheel slip event has the effect of overriding the cruise control function so that manual operation of the vehicle must be resumed, or the cruise control function re-set.\",\n \"A further embodiment of the invention (not shown) is one in which the vehicle is provided with a wheel slip signal 48 derived not just form a comparison of wheel speeds, but further refined using sensor data indicative of the vehicle's speed over ground.\",\n \"Such speed over ground determination may be made via global positioning (GPS) data, or via a vehicle mounted radar or laser based system arranged to determine the relative movement of the vehicle and the ground over which it is travelling.\",\n \"At any stage of the LSP control process the user can override the function by applying the accelerator and/or the brake to adjust the vehicle speed in a positive or negative sense.\",\n \"However, in the event that a wheel slip event is detected via signal line 48, no action is taken by the LSP control system 12 to suspend the LSP process.\",\n \"As shown in FIG.\",\n \"5, this may be implemented by providing a wheel slip event signal to the LSP control system 12 which is then managed by the LSP control system 12 and does not result in suspension or other disablement of the LSP control process.\",\n \"A wheel slip event is triggered when a loss of traction occurs at any one of the vehicle wheels.\",\n \"Wheels and tyres may be more prone to losing traction when travelling on snow, ice or sand, for example, or in environments where the terrain is more uneven or slippery compared with driving on a highway in normal on-road conditions.\",\n \"The invention therefore finds particular benefit when the vehicle is being driven in an off-road environment, or in conditions in which wheel slip may commonly occur, and where manual operation by the user can be a difficult and often stressful experience and may result in an uncomfortable ride, because it enables continued progress to be made at a low target speed without the need for user intervention.\",\n \"The invention is also beneficial when employed in low-speed congested traffic situations as it reduces fatigue for the user due to repeated start/stop pedal actions.\",\n \"The LSP control system 12 is inoperable above vehicle speeds in excess of a predetermined threshold speed of for example 30 mph.\",\n \"So, for example, if the user selects the LSP control system 12 when the vehicle is travelling above 30 mph, an alert is displayed to the user via the LSP HMI 20 that the LSP control system cannot be activated.\",\n \"Once the vehicle speed reduces to below 30 mph, however, the LSP control system 12 is initiated automatically without the user having to select LSP control again.\",\n \"In other words, the LSP control system 12 is held in a wait state pending the speed of the vehicle reducing to a level below that of the threshold speed.\",\n \"The LSP control system 12 may be configured so that, if the user operates the LSP HMI 20 to initiate operation of the system whilst the vehicle is travelling at a speed between a first, lower threshold speed and a second, higher threshold speed, the system registers that the user wishes to initiate LSP control but does not initiate LSP control until the vehicle speed has reduced to a level below the first, lower threshold speed.\",\n \"A further embodiment of the invention (not shown) is one in which the vehicle is provided with an on-board detection system such as a radar system or other range detection means, which monitors for obstacles or lead vehicles in front of the vehicle and uses the information that is fed-back from the radar system to maintain a safe distance to the lead vehicle.\",\n \"The vehicle is also provided with additional sensors (not shown) which are representative of a variety of different parameters associated with vehicle motion and status.\",\n \"These may be inertial systems unique to the speed control system or part of an occupant restraint system or any other sub-system which may provide data from sensors such as gyros or accelerometers that may be indicative of vehicle body movement and may provide a useful input to the LSP control system 12.The signals from the sensors provide, or are used to calculate, a plurality of driving condition indicators (also referred to as terrain indicators) which are indicative of the nature of the terrain conditions over which the vehicle is travelling.\",\n \"The signals are provided to the VCU 10 which determines the most appropriate control mode for the various subsystems on the basis of the terrain indicators, and automatically controls the subsystems accordingly.\",\n \"This aspect of the invention is described in further detail in our co-pending patent application nos.\",\n \"GB1111288.5, GB1211910.3 and GB1202427.9, the contents of each of which is incorporated herein by reference.\",\n \"The sensors (not shown) on the vehicle include, but are not limited to, sensors which provide continuous sensor outputs to the VCU 10, including wheel speed sensors, as mentioned previously and as shown in FIG.\",\n \"5, an ambient temperature sensor, an atmospheric pressure sensor, tyre pressure sensors, gyroscopic sensors to detect vehicular yaw, roll and pitch angle and rate, a vehicle speed sensor, a longitudinal acceleration sensor, an engine torque sensor (or engine torque estimator), a steering angle sensor, a steering wheel speed sensor, a gradient sensor (or gradient estimator), a lateral acceleration sensor on the stability control system (SCS), a brake pedal position sensor, an acceleration pedal position sensor, longitudinal, lateral and vertical motion sensors and water detection sensors in particular forming part of a vehicle wading assistance system (not shown).\",\n \"In other embodiments, only a selection of the aforementioned sensors may be used.\",\n \"The VCU 10 also receives a signal from the electronic power assisted steering unit (ePAS unit) of the vehicle to indicate the steering force that is applied to the wheels (steering force applied by the user combined with steering force applied by the ePAS system).\",\n \"The VCU 10 evaluates the various sensor inputs to determine the probability that each of a plurality of different control modes for the vehicle subsystems is appropriate, with each control mode corresponding to a particular terrain type over which the vehicle is travelling (for example, mud and ruts, sand, grass/gravel/snow).\",\n \"The VCU 10 then selects which of the control modes is most appropriate and controls various vehicle parameters accordingly.\",\n \"The nature of the terrain over which the vehicle is travelling may also be utilised in the LSP control system 12 to determine an appropriate increase or decrease in drive torque to be applied to the vehicle wheels.\",\n \"For example, if the user selects a target speed that is not suitable for the nature of the terrain over which the vehicle is travelling, for example for safety reasons, the system is operable to automatically adjust the vehicle speed downwards by reducing the speed of the vehicle wheels.\",\n \"In some cases, for example, the user selected speed may not be achievable or appropriate over certain terrain types, particularly in the case of uneven or rough surfaces.\",\n \"If the system selects a speed that differs from the user-selected target speed, a visual indication of the speed constraint is provided to the user via the LSP HMI 20 to indicate that an alternative speed has been adopted.\",\n \"The speed control system may be operable to allow a user to reduce the set speed by user actuation of a vehicle brake control.\",\n \"By vehicle brake control is meant a control by means of which a user may apply a foundation braking system.\",\n \"The brake control may for example comprise a brake pedal.\",\n \"The foundation braking system may include a friction braking system and optionally a regenerative braking system.\",\n \"In some embodiments the foundation braking system may comprise a regenerative braking system in place of or in addition to a friction braking system.\",\n \"In conventional cruise control systems for highway driving a control for changing the set speed of a cruise control system is typically provided in the form of a ‘+/−’ button mounted on or adjacent to a steering wheel of the vehicle.\",\n \"In vehicles operating in off-highway conditions, a user may be required to perform relatively rapid rotations of the steering wheel and/or rotate the wheel through relatively large angles whilst negotiating difficult terrain.\",\n \"As such it may be difficult for the user to manipulate the ‘+/−’ buttons at the same time.\",\n \"Furthermore, the user might inadvertently depress the wrong button, changing the set speed.\",\n \"Embodiments of the present invention have the advantage that a control by means of which the set speed may be changed may be provided separately from the steering wheel.\",\n \"Furthermore, the control for changing the set speed may be controlled by a foot of the user rather than by hand, leaving the user's hands free to continue steering the vehicle.\",\n \"By employing the brake pedal to reduce the set speed, a relatively intuitive means may be provided to enable the user to change the set speed.\",\n \"The speed control system may be operable to allow a user to enable or disable adjustment of off-highway speed control set speed by means of a brake and/or accelerator control.\",\n \"This functionality may be provided via an HMI display or the like, The control means may be operable to allow the user to reduce the set speed by user actuation of the brake control by applying a force that is within a prescribed range of force or translating the control by an amount that is within a prescribed range of travel.\",\n \"The range of pressure or travel required to reduce the set speed may be less than that required to apply the foundation braking system.\",\n \"That is, the range may be within a ‘dead band’ of pressure or stroke.\",\n \"Alternatively, the range may include values sufficient to cause application of the foundation braking system.\",\n \"In some embodiments where the range includes values sufficient to cause application of the foundation braking system, in the event the user applies pressure in the prescribed range or effects translation within the prescribed range sufficient to actuate the foundation braking system, the speed control system may be operable to compensate for the braking torque applied when the foundation braking system is applied by application of increased powertrain torque.\",\n \"Other arrangements are also useful.\",\n \"It is to be understood that the prescribed range of values of pressure may be from a first value of pressure to a second value of pressure where the first and second values are greater than zero.\",\n \"In some embodiments the prescribed range may be from a value that is above zero but less than or equal to a second value that is greater than zero.\",\n \"The control means being operable to allow a user to increase the set speed by user actuation of a vehicle accelerator control.\",\n \"The accelerator control may for example comprise an accelerator pedal.\",\n \"The control means may be operable to allow the user to increase the set speed by user actuation of the accelerator control by applying a force that is within a prescribed range of pressures or by translating the control by an amount that is within a prescribed range of travel.\",\n \"The range of force or travel required to increase the set speed may be less than that required to increase the amount of power developed by a powertrain.\",\n \"That is, the range may be within a ‘dead band’ of force or stroke.\",\n \"Alternatively, the range may include values sufficient to cause an increase in the amount of power developed by the powertrain.\",\n \"In some embodiments where the range includes values sufficient to cause an increase in the amount of power developed by the powertrain, in the event a user applies force in the prescribed range or effects translation within the prescribed range sufficient to cause an increase in powertrain torque, the speed control system may be operable to compensate for the increased torque applied by the powertrain by application of the foundation braking system.\",\n \"Other arrangements are also useful.\",\n \"Advantageously the system may be further operable to allow a user to decrease the set speed by user actuation of a vehicle brake control, such as a brake pedal.\",\n \"Optionally, the control means may be configured wherein if the user actuates the brake control by applying pressure having a value that is within a prescribed range of values and/or by translating the control by an amount within a prescribed range for longer than a prescribed period of time the control means may be configured gradually to reduce the set speed in incremental steps during the period for which the user actuates the brake control within the prescribed range.\",\n \"It is to be understood that if the user actuates the brake control by applying a pressure greater than a prescribed pressure and/or by more than a prescribed amount of travel the speed control system may be operable to cancel speed control mode and a foundation braking system may be applied in the conventional manner.\",\n \"Thus in a motor vehicle having a speed control system according to the present invention installed therein a foundation braking system may be configured to operate independently of the speed control system such that the vehicle responds to brake control inputs in the same manner whether or not speed control mode is selected.\",\n \"Thus, it is envisaged that in some embodiments of the present invention standard accelerator and brake control inputs will always take priority over any autonomous control system or control means when brake control pressure or travel exceeds a prescribed value, and cancel speed control if user behaviour indicates the user wishes to cancel speed control.\",\n \"In some arrangements the prescribed pressure and/or prescribed amount of travel above which the foundation braking system is applied may correspond to that above which the foundation braking system is applied when speed control is not selected.\",\n \"This feature has the advantage that the user experiences the same response of the foundation braking system to brake control inputs whether or not speed control mode is selected.\",\n \"In some arrangements any dead band present in brake and/or accelerator control travel may be increased artificially when off-highway speed control is operational.\",\n \"If the speed control system (or any other controller such as a brake controller) detects that a rate of travel of the brake pedal, or a rate of increase of pressure applied to the brake pedal exceeds a prescribed rate even whilst still within the dead band, a braking system of the vehicle may be commanded to be applied.\",\n \"This feature has the advantage that a speed at which a braking system is able to respond to an emergency braking control input may be increased.\",\n \"Advantageously the system may be further operable to allow a user to increase the set speed by user actuation of a vehicle accelerator control.\",\n \"Advantageously the speed control system is operable in an off highway condition and a highway condition.\",\n \"The off highway (or ‘off road’) condition may be referred to as a progress control system or low speed progress control system.\",\n \"The on-highway condition may be referred to as a cruise control system.\",\n \"Other arrangements are also useful.\",\n \"Optionally the speed control system may be operable to allow a user to reduce the set speed by user actuation of the vehicle brake control (and optionally increase set speed by user actuation of the vehicle accelerator control) only when operating in the off highway condition.\",\n \"Alternatively the speed control system may be operable to allow a user to reduce the set speed by user actuation of the vehicle brake control (and optionally increase set speed by user actuation of the vehicle accelerator control) when operating in either the off highway condition or the highway condition, e.g.\",\n \"when in a low speed progress control condition or an on highway cruise control condition.\",\n \"It is to be understood that embodiments of the invention are also suitable for use in vehicles not having an off highway operating condition or vehicles not having an on highway cruise control system.\",\n \"It is to be understood that control of set speed by means of a brake control and/or an accelerator control may be arranged to occur only in off-highway speed control in some embodiments.\",\n \"The method may comprise reducing automatically a set speed of the vehicle in dependence on user actuation of a vehicle brake control and/or increasing automatically a set speed of the vehicle in dependence on user actuation of a vehicle accelerator control.\",\n \"It is to be understood that if the set speed is decreased the speed control system may be operable to change a gear ratio of a transmission in order to ensure sufficient drive torque is available to negotiate an obstacle.\",\n \"The speed control system may be operable to increase the gear ratio.\",\n \"Thus, in some arrangements as the user decreases the set speed an engine speed may increase, for example if the set speed falls below a prescribed value such as 5 km/h or any other suitable speed.\",\n \"Reduction in set speed may signify that a user intends to negotiate an obstacle such as a boulder, a steep incline or other obstacle.\",\n \"It is to be understood that by enabling a user to change the set speed of the speed control system by means of relatively light pedal inputs, the vehicle may be driven off road at low speed (for example below 50 km/h) without the user needing to manually manipulate a speed setting control on the steering wheel.\",\n \"This greatly reduces user workload and makes vehicle operation with speed control active more intuitive.\",\n \"Embodiments of the invention also enable de-cluttering of switch packs on or around the steering wheel or other steering control of the vehicle.\",\n \"It is to be understood that in some scenarios it is vital that a user's attention is not distracted from the terrain on which the vehicle is being driven.\",\n \"By eliminating the requirement for the user to focus their attention inside the vehicle when changing the set speed, for example by manipulating hand or finger controls within the vehicle, an improved user experience may be achieved.\",\n \"In an embodiment, if the user initiates speed control and the vehicle is travelling below a threshold speed and/or the vehicle has been set to an off road driving mode (for example by selection of a terrain response (TR) mode or selection of a low-ratio gear), or if the vehicle otherwise determines that it is being driven off road, then the speed control system will operate in an off-road condition (or mode) and accept set speed adjustment commands via brake and/or accelerator controls such as brake and/or accelerator pedals as described above whilst remaining in a speed control active condition.\",\n \"In some arrangements, if the user initiates speed control whilst the vehicle is travelling above a predetermined speed and/or is being driven on the road (as indicated by a ‘high’ gear ratio selected as opposed to ‘low’ gear ratio) or if the terrain response (TR) mode is deselected (in some embodiments a ‘special programs off’ TR mode is selected), the speed control system may only accept speed adjustments by means of hand-operated controls typically located on or adjacent a steering wheel of the vehicle.\",\n \"If the user presses the brake pedal, even lightly, during speed control operation (in the on-road or on-highway condition) then speed control operation is suspended and the vehicle will start to coast until the user presses the throttle pedal or re-activates speed control via a hand operated switch.\",\n \"The user may adjust the speed of the vehicle whilst traveling in the off-highway speed control condition either by pressing the brake pedal (in order to reduce the set speed) or by pressing the accelerator pedal (in order to increase the set speed).\",\n \"The control means may be operable to allow a user to change the set speed by user actuation of a foot pedal.\",\n \"The system may be operable to decrease the set speed by user actuation of the brake pedal.\",\n \"In addition or instead the system may be operable to increase the set speed by user actuation of an accelerator pedal.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"6 shows the steering wheel 171 of the vehicle 100 of FIG.\",\n \"1 in more detail, together with the accelerator and brake pedals 161, 163.As in the case of a conventional vehicle, the steering wheel 171 has a ‘set-speed’ control 173 depression of which enables a user to activate a speed control system to maintain the current vehicle speed.\",\n \"The wheel 171 also has a ‘LSP’ control activation button and a resume button.\",\n \"The resume button may be used to control both an ‘on-highway’ cruise control system when driving on road, and the LSP control system 12 when driving off-road.\",\n \"The LSP control button is used to activate the LSP control system 12 and the resume button used to command the system 12 to control the vehicle 100 to resume the previously set (user defined) set speed.\",\n \"The system 12 may be provided with a memory arranged to store previously set, user defined set speeds in addition to that which was last set be the user.\",\n \"In this way, the user may quickly access more than one set speed via the resume button or other appropriate control.\",\n \"In this embodiment, the user may be operating the vehicle at a set speed of 10 mph, but choose to reduce this to 6 mph to negotiate an obstacle off-road.\",\n \"The system 12 is arranged to store both 6 mph and 10 mph, such that if the system 12 intervenes and reduces the speed further to 4 mph, the user may request the system to accelerate to 6 mph with a single press of the resume button, or 10 mph with a double press of the resume button.\",\n \"The system 12 may be provided with means to display the stored set-speeds to the user, for example by illuminated markers or chaplets arranged at appropriate locations around a speedometer.\",\n \"In such an example, the system 12 may be arranged to independently or in conjunction with TR mode setting, prevent the user accessing pre-set speeds from the memory and applying them if it is determined they would be too fast for the terrain over which the vehicle is presently moving.\",\n \"Instead, the system 12 may be arranged to accelerate up to the highest speed it determined appropriate for the terrain and will continue to accelerate towards the chosen set-speed as the terrain permits.\",\n \"In this example, the system 12 will manage the acceleration of the vehicle within a predefined acceleration corridor, for example from 0.1 to 0.2 g. The system 12 may be provided with means to indicate to the user the current status and that the system 12 is working to resume the user defined set speed once it becomes appropriate for the terrain.\",\n \"The system 12 is arranged to permit the user to override the system 12 at any time in the aforementioned manner.\",\n \"If the vehicle is operating on-highway, depression of set-speed control 173 causes the cruise control system 16 to activate provided the current vehicle speed exceeds 50 km/h.\",\n \"Depression of the ‘+’ control 174 causes the cruise control system 16 to increase the set-speed whilst depression of the ‘−’ control 175 causes the cruise control system 16 to decrease the set-speed.\",\n \"It will be appreciated that ‘+’ and ‘−’ controls may be on a single button.\",\n \"If the vehicle is operating off-highway, depression of set-speed control 173 causes the LSP control system 12 to activate and operate as described above.\",\n \"The system may further comprise a ‘cancel’ button operable to cancel speed control by the LSP control system 12.In some embodiments, the LSP system may be in either one of an active condition or a standby condition.\",\n \"In some embodiments the LSP control system 12 may be operable to assume an intermediate condition in which vehicle speed control by the LSP control system 12 is suspended but a hill descent control (HDC) system of the like may remain active if already active.\",\n \"Other arrangements are also useful.\",\n \"With the LSP control system 12 active, the user may increase or decrease the vehicle set speed by means of the ‘+’ and ‘−’ buttons 174, 175.In addition, the user may also increase or decrease the vehicle set speed by lightly pressing the accelerator or brake pedals 161, 163 respectively.\",\n \"In some embodiments, with the LSP control system 12 active the ‘+’ and ‘−’ buttons 174, 175 are disabled.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"7 is a plot of pedal output signal, s, as a function of accelerator or brake pedal travel, d, being the amount by which the pedal 161, 163 has been pressed (measured for example in terms of linear translation or angular rotation or a proportion of full scale deflection).\",\n \"In the arrangement shown the pedal output signal increases in a substantially linear manner as a function of travel although other arrangements are also useful.\",\n \"In response to the pedal output signal, a braking system 22 is operable to apply brakes of the vehicle 100 and the VCU 10 is operable to change the amount of torque developed by the engine 121.In the present embodiment, the braking system 22 is arranged not to apply the brakes of the vehicle and the VCU 10 is arranged not to change the amount of torque developed by the engine 121 unless the amount of pedal travel exceeds a threshold distance d2 illustrated in FIG.\",\n \"7.The LSP control system 12 is operable to monitor pedal input signals from the accelerator and brake pedals 161, 163.If the amount of pedal travel meets the condition d10, the LSP control system 12 is operable to increase or decrease the LSP control system set-speed.\",\n \"If the accelerator pedal travel meets this condition the LSP control system 12 increases the set-speed whilst if the brake pedal travel meets this condition the LSP control system 12 decreases the set-speed.\",\n \"In some arrangements, one or both of the values of d1 and d2 may be different for the accelerator and brake pedals 161, 163 respectively.\",\n \"In some arrangements, a vehicle 100 may be configured such that if a ‘−’ button or like control is used to reduce speed rather than a brake control, the speed control system allows a vehicle speed to reduce at least initially by coasting rather than application of a braking system or other retarding torque means, with application of a braking system only if the speed control system determines that such action is required.\",\n \"In contrast, if a brake control is applied such as brake pedal 163 in order to reduce set speed, at least a light braking force may be applied in some embodiments whilst the pedal 163 is depressed.\",\n \"Thus, reduction in set speed by means of the brake pedal 163 may result in a more rapid reduction in vehicle speed since a brake torque is applied as soon as the brake pedal 163 is depressed to reduce vehicle set speed, rather than after the speed control system has determined that a brake torque is required in order to reduce speed to the new user-selected set speed.\",\n \"It is to be understood that reference herein to a ‘+’ or ‘−’ control is not to be understood as limiting to a control placarded with such symbols.\",\n \"Rather, a ‘−’ control may be understood to include a control other than a brake control for reducing set speed whilst a ‘+’ control may be understood to include a control other than an accelerator control for increasing set speed.\",\n \"The ‘+’ and ‘−’ controls may be manually operated, for example by a user's hand.\",\n \"Embodiments of the present invention enable enhanced user enjoyment of a vehicle when driving in off-highway conditions.\",\n \"The control means may be operable to allow a user to change the set speed in response to user actuation of a control, the system being operable to provide haptic feedback to the user in response to user actuation of the control by an amount sufficient to change the set speed.\",\n \"Advantageously the control comprises a foot operated pedal.\",\n \"In some embodiments the foot pedal is operable to provide haptic feedback only when the vehicle is in an off-highway or off-road speed control condition or mode.\",\n \"In such a condition, the speed control system may be configured to enable the vehicle to maintain a relatively low set speed (for example a speed less than 50 km/h, such as a speed in the range from 5-10 km/h), even if one or more wheels are slipping due to loss of traction.\",\n \"For example, in some embodiments the off-road speed control system may remain operational even in the presence of an amount of wheel slip sufficient to cause activation of a vehicle stability control system or the like.\",\n \"Conventional on-highway speed control systems are limited to operation at a minimum speed (typically around 50 km/h) and automatically cancel if wheel slip sufficient to cause intervention by a stability control system is detected.\",\n \"In some arrangements, if the user actuates the control beyond the range of positions or applied pressures (the ‘haptic zone’), the speed control system is arranged to cancel automatic speed control.\",\n \"Control of vehicle speed therefore reverts to the user.\",\n \"It is to be understood that the haptic feedback provided by the speed control system may be arranged to be different from that associated with an anti-lock braking system (ABS) operation so that a user may readily distinguish between the two.\",\n \"The haptic feedback may for example provide pulses, vibrations and/or sounds at a different amplitude and/or frequency to those associated with ABS operation.\",\n \"In addition or instead, in some arrangements the haptic zone may be identified by means of an increase in resistance to pedal movement as a user applies pressure to a brake pedal or a force to an accelerator pedal.\",\n \"The increase may be provided throughout the haptic zone.\",\n \"In some embodiments an increase in resistance may be presented before an amount of travel of the pedal or an amount of pressure or force applied to the pedal is sufficient to result in exiting of the haptic zone.\",\n \"In some arrangements one or more audible clicks, tones or pulses may be generated when the control is in the haptic zone.\",\n \"HMI (human machine interface) feedback may also be provided to a user in response to actuation of the control in the haptic zone with the speed control system operational.\",\n \"In some embodiments haptic feedback in respect of set speed change may be provided only when the speed control system for which the control may be used to change set speed is operational.\",\n \"Arrangements of the present invention have the advantage that a user does not need to employ a brake or accelerator pedal in order for a vehicle to maintain progress across terrain.\",\n \"Rather, the off-highway speed control system may control automatically a powertrain and braking system in order to maintain progress.\",\n \"In some embodiments the off-highway speed control system may be operable to cancel when a brake pedal is depressed by more than a prescribed amount.\",\n \"Whilst a speed control system is operating in an off-highway speed control condition, depression of a brake pedal by an amount that is non-zero but below a prescribed applied pressure or amount of travel may result in a reduction in vehicle set speed associated with the speed control system without application of a vehicle braking system and without cancelling the off-highway speed control condition.\",\n \"It will be appreciated this may be particularly useful where the pedal is not isolated or otherwise disconnected from the foundation braking system when off-highway speed control functionality is in operation.\",\n \"Other arrangements are also useful.\",\n \"In some embodiments depression of an accelerator pedal by an amount greater than zero but below a prescribed applied force or amount of travel results in an increase in vehicle set speed.\",\n \"As noted above, a change in vehicle set speed when a foot pedal is depressed may be arranged to occur only when the vehicle is operated in the off-highway speed control condition or mode.\",\n \"When the user depresses the brake pedal he or she may be reminded that the vehicle is in the off-highway condition.\",\n \"If the user depresses the brake pedal by a sufficiently large amount of travel or applies a sufficiently high pressure, the pedal will ‘push through’ the haptic band and cause a suspension/cancellation of the off-road speed control mode.\",\n \"It is to be understood that when traveling over rough terrain it may be difficult to know how much pressure to apply to a brake or force to apply to an accelerator pedal to change the set speed.\",\n \"Accordingly, the provision of haptic feedback enables a user to determine positively that the amount of pressure applied to the brake pedal (and/or force to the accelerator pedal) is sufficient to cause the set speed to change.\",\n \"Haptic feedback may be provided to the user via the foot pedal the user is depressing (such as a brake or accelerator pedal), by means of a steering wheel, a user's seat or any other suitable means of providing a user with a haptic experience.\",\n \"A user is able to determine how much to press a brake and/or accelerator pedal in order to change the set speed of a speed control system without causing the off-road speed control condition to cancel.\",\n \"With reference to FIG.\",\n \"7, if a user depresses a brake pedal 163 by an amount of travel in the range from d1 to d2 such that the pedal output signal s has a value in the range from s1 to s2, the LSP control system 12 is operable to reduce the user selected set speed and provide haptic feedback to the user by applying a vibrational excitation to the brake pedal 163.If the brake pedal output signal s is in the range from s1 to s2 for less than a prescribed period of time (such as 1 s), the value of set speed is decremented by a prescribed amount (in the present embodiment 1 km/h or 1 mph depending on user choice of units).\",\n \"If the brake pedal output signal is in the range from s1 to s2 for more than a prescribed amount of time (in the present case, more than 1 s), the set speed is decremented in steps, for example by 1 km/h or 1 mile/h per 500 ms or other time period.\",\n \"Alternatively the rate of deceleration may be set to an arbitrary rate.\",\n \"Other arrangements are also useful, and other lengths of time are also useful.\",\n \"The LSP control system 12 may be configured such that the brake pedal 163 must be depressed for longer than a prescribed period (which may be any suitable value, for example 100 ms) before a decrement in set speed takes place.\",\n \"Conversely, if the accelerator pedal 163 is depressed such that the accelerator pedal output signal is in the range from s1 to s2, the value of set speed is incremented.\",\n \"If the accelerator pedal output signal is in the range from s1 to s2 for more than a prescribed amount of time, for example 1s in some embodiments, the set speed is incremented in steps, for example by 1 km/h or 1 mile/h per 500 ms or other time period.\",\n \"Alternatively the rate of acceleration may be set to an arbitrary rate.\",\n \"Other arrangements are also useful.\",\n \"The LSP control system 12 may be configured such that the accelerator pedal 161 must be depressed for longer than a prescribed period (which may be any suitable value, for example 100 ms) before an increment in set speed takes place.\",\n \"In one arrangement the system may be operable to allow a user to increase or decrease the set speed from a current set speed to a target set speed.\",\n \"Thus when the user commands a change in set speed the speed control system may control the means for applying torque in such a manner as to allow the vehicle automatically to accelerate (in a positive or negative sense) to achieve the new set speed.\",\n \"The means for applying torque may comprise a powertrain and optionally a braking system, as will be described in more detail below.\",\n \"In changing the speed of the vehicle to match the new set speed, the system may be operable to detect and take into account an external force acting on the vehicle in such a manner as to accelerate the vehicle (in a positive or negative sense).\",\n \"The speed control system may compensate for the presence of the external force when changing the amount of torque commanded to be applied to the one or more wheels so as to reduce a risk of overshoot of the new target set speed.\",\n \"In some embodiments the system may be operable substantially to prevent overshoot of the new target set speed.\",\n \"The speed control system may be operable to control a powertrain and optionally a braking system.\",\n \"It is to be understood that in some embodiments a powertrain may comprise means for applying relatively rapidly a negative torque to one or more wheels, for example by means of one or more electric machines, for example one or more electric machines operable as electrical generators, without a requirement for a friction braking system to be deployed.\",\n \"It is to be understood that an external force acting on a vehicle to accelerate the vehicle may be a retarding force acting to cause negative acceleration of the vehicle (i.e.\",\n \"decelerate the vehicle) or a force acting in such a manner as to cause positive acceleration of the vehicle.\",\n \"It is to be understood that a force acting to accelerate a vehicle in a positive or negative manner may be a force having a component acting in a direction parallel to or along a direction of travel of the vehicle.\",\n \"In the case of a vehicle travelling uphill the force may act in a direction opposite the direction of travel and therefore be a retarding force.\",\n \"In some embodiments the normal direction of travel (i.e.\",\n \"when the vehicle is experiencing substantially zero side slip or yaw) may be arranged to be parallel to or along a longitudinal axis of the vehicle.\",\n \"The speed control system may be operable to increase or decrease the amount of torque commanded to be applied to one or more wheels so that the amount of torque increases or decreases at a rate that is dependent on the size of the external force.\",\n \"Thus in some embodiments the greater the external force (such as a retarding force or a force causing positive acceleration) the slower the rate at which the amount of torque applied to one or more wheels by the means for application of said torque is commanded to change.\",\n \"A positive accelerating force may for example be experienced in the case the vehicle is descending a slope, and a negative force if the vehicle is ascending a slope.\",\n \"In some embodiments the system is provided with data in respect of at least one selected from amongst a gradient of a driving surface (for example by reference to an attitude of the vehicle), gear selection, tyre friction, wheel articulation.\",\n \"rolling resistance and a selected terrain response mode of the vehicle in addition to wheel speed.\",\n \"In some embodiments in which driving surface gradient information is provided the system may be operable to control a rate at which the amount of torque applied to one or more wheels changes in dependence on the magnitude and direction of the force acting to accelerate or decelerate the vehicle.\",\n \"In some embodiments, in the case the vehicle experiences an external force acting in a direction to positively accelerate the vehicle in the direction of travel, the speed control system may be operable to reduce the rate at which the means for applying torque changes the amount of applied torque when an increase in set speed is commanded, the rate being reduced by an amount that is greater as the size of the external force increases.\",\n \"Thus overshoot of the (new) target set speed (where the vehicle speed exceeds the set speed) may be reduced or prevented.\",\n \"It is to be understood that in the case of a vehicle descending a slope, the steeper the gradient, the greater the component of gravitational force tending to cause positive acceleration and therefore less accelerating torque is required from the means for applying torque to the one or more wheels.\",\n \"The means for applying torque may comprise an engine, an electric machine or any other suitable means for applying drive torque to one or more wheels.\",\n \"It is to be understood that in some situations an increase in powertrain torque may be required in order to accelerate the vehicle to the new set speed within a defined acceleration corridor (for example at a rate in the range from 0.1 to 0.2 g).\",\n \"In some situations where a gradient is particularly steep, a decrease in brake torque may be required in order to accelerate the vehicle with a value of acceleration that is within the prescribed corridor of values.\",\n \"In either case, the rate of change of powertrain torque and/or braking torque may be arranged to decrease with increasing gradient.\",\n \"Conversely, where a force acting on a vehicle is such as to cause positive acceleration, if a decrease in set speed is requested the speed control system may be operable to change the amount of torque applied to one or more wheels at a rate that increases as the size of the external force increases.\",\n \"This is because the external force is acting in direction that opposes a reduction in the set speed.\",\n \"In a situation where a vehicle is experiencing a force in a direction such as to cause negative acceleration in the intended direction of travel, for example in an uphill direction against gravity, or over sandy terrain against drag due to the composition of the terrain, the speed control system may be operable to increase a rate at which torque applied to the one or more wheels is increased when an increase in set speed is requested, and to decrease the rate at which torque applied to the one or more wheels is decreased when a decrease in set speed is requested, in order to maintain vehicle acceleration within the prescribed corridor of values.\",\n \"In other words, in the event that a decrease in set speed is commanded whilst the vehicle is ascending a slope (where a retarding force is acting on the vehicle) the system may be configured to reduce the rate at which wheel torque is decreased in order to reduce a risk that a vehicle has insufficient wheel torque to overcome the gradient, resulting in the vehicle tending to move backwards down the slope.\",\n \"It is to be understood that if wheel torque is decreased by too great an amount (for example a reduction to zero) whilst ascending a relatively steep slope, a drop in vehicle speed may undershoot excessively the new target set speed, i.e.\",\n \"fall below the new target speed.\",\n \"In some situations a vehicle may even move backwards down the slope as described above.\",\n \"Accordingly, wheel torque is decreased more slowly compared with driving on level ground.\",\n \"In some embodiments, if the vehicle is descending a slope and an increase in set speed is required, the system may be operable to change the amount of torque applied to one or more wheels at a rate that decreases as a function of increasing gradient.\",\n \"In some embodiments, the vehicle may be configured to control the rate at which wheel torque is changed responsive to an amount of an external force that is determined to be acting on the vehicle due to a type of terrain or environment over which or through which the vehicle is travelling.\",\n \"It is to be understood that terrain such as sand, mud, water or the like may apply a relatively large retarding force to a vehicle.\",\n \"Wading through a body of water may result in application of a force tending to accelerate or decelerate the vehicle, depending on whether the body of water is stationary or moving in a direction having a component acting along a direction of intended travel (with or against the direction of travel).\",\n \"If the vehicle is travelling over a level, sandy or muddy surface and a decrease in set speed is commanded the system may be operable to change the amount of torque applied to one or more wheels in order to reduce the vehicle speed to the new set speed at a rate that decreases as the amount of drag acting on the vehicle increases.\",\n \"It is to be understood that if the amount of powertrain torque is decreased too rapidly, drag acting on the vehicle may reduce the speed of the vehicle by an amount (and at a rate) that may result in discomfort to one or more occupants and may result in stopping of the vehicle.\",\n \"Once the vehicle is stopped it may be difficult to enable the vehicle to begin to move again from rest.\",\n \"Conversely, if an increase in vehicle set speed is requested, the speed control system may be operable to command an increase in powertrain torque at a rate that increases with the amount of drag acting on the vehicle.\",\n \"This is because powertrain torque must overcome a drag force tending to oppose vehicle acceleration as well as vehicle inertia in order to achieve the new set speed.\",\n \"It is to be understood that this feature has the advantage that the vehicle may progress over terrain more reliably and with greater composure than a vehicle not having a speed control system according to the present invention and enable a new set speed to be attained relatively quickly regardless of an amount of force acting to oppose or promote vehicle motion across a surface, enhancing user confidence in the system.\",\n \"In one arrangement the system may be operable to allow a user to increase or decrease the set speed from a current set speed to a target set speed, the system being operable to take into account an external force acting on the vehicle to accelerate the vehicle when changing the amount of torque commanded to be applied to the one or more wheels thereby to reduce overshoot or undershoot of the target set speed.\",\n \"The means for applying torque may comprise a powertrain and optionally a braking system.\",\n \"When the speed control system is operating in an off highway speed control mode, the system may be configured to accept a light press of the brake pedal as being indicative of the user's desire to remain in speed control mode but at a reduced speed, whereas a firm press on the brake pedal may indicate that the user wishes to bring the vehicle out of speed control mode and set speed control to a suspended state until re-activated.\",\n \"In this way, the vehicle may be driven off-road at low speed (for example <50 km/h) without the user needing to touch the pedals, or repeatedly operate controls on the steering wheel.\",\n \"This greatly reduces user workload and improves vehicle composure.\",\n \"It is to be understood that it is often difficult to maintain a constant light pressure on a foot pedal when driving over rough ground as the user often uses their feet to support/steady themselves as the vehicle negotiates off-road obstacles such as ruts or potholes.\",\n \"It is envisaged that the off-road speed control system may form part of an ATPC (All-Terrain Progress Control) system, which may be arranged to work independently of, or in conjunction with, one or more vehicle control systems arranged to optimise vehicle configurations for a given terrain over which the vehicle is travelling.\",\n \"An example of such a system may be a Terrain Response™ system.\",\n \"In one embodiment of the proposed speed control system, if the user initiates speed control and the vehicle is travelling below a threshold speed and/or the vehicle has been set to an off-road driving mode (for example via a TR mode selection or selection of a low-ratio gear), or if the vehicle otherwise determines that it is being driven off-road, then the speed control system will operate in an off-road mode and will accept speed adjustment commands via the brake and accelerator pedals whilst remaining in a speed control active mode.\",\n \"The off-road speed control system may be provided with at least one selected from amongst information in respect of a vehicle's attitude, wheel speed, wheel articulation, gear selection, tyre friction, rolling resistance and selected TR mode.\",\n \"It is to be understood that if the user is using off-road speed control to travel off-road at a slow speed, say 5 km/h, and the vehicle is travelling up a steep incline, when the user requests a reduction in cruising set-speed, there may be insufficient torque to maintain progress unless the system takes drag/load-inducing factors into account such as the steepness of the gradient up which the vehicle is travelling.\",\n \"In this way, the off-road speed control system may predict that the requested reduction in speed may result in the moving backwards down the slope, in which case the torque may be reduced more gradually as the steepness of the slope increases.\",\n \"It is to be understood that this is because a slight reduction in torque supplied to the wheels will result in a greater reduction in vehicle speed when ascending a slope than if the vehicle were driving over level ground.\",\n \"In this way, the torque may be accurately controlled in order to achieve a desired set-speed regardless of the gradient and terrain over which the vehicle is travelling.\",\n \"This ensures that vehicular response is intuitive and as expected by the driver who may be inexperienced in off-road driving.\",\n \"If the vehicle user brings the vehicle to a halt or near stand-still on a steep hill whilst operating the vehicle in off-road speed control mode, then the off-road speed control system may apply the vehicle brakes and balance their effect with an appropriate level of engine torque whilst additionally demanding support from a hill-hold assist system.\",\n \"Hill-hold assist is an automated braking feature arranged to release the brakes during a hill-start only when there is sufficient torque available from the powertrain to prevent unwanted movement of the vehicle, in other words, to prevent the vehicle moving backwards down the hill.\",\n \"In some embodiments, the off-road speed control system may be able to control or otherwise influence gear and ratio selection, to ensure that the vehicle is travelling at low speeds off-road in a gear appropriate to avoid engine stalling and maintain suitable progress.\",\n \"In some embodiments the proposed off-road speed control system may be able to control or otherwise influence operation of the Hill Descent Control (HDC) system automatically to apply the vehicle brakes as the vehicle travels in off-road speed control mode down a steep slope.\",\n \"In this situation, the system will ensure that the vehicle engine is kept running but is not permitted to push the vehicle speed over the desired set-speed.\",\n \"It is to be understood that in some embodiments a vehicle may be operated in off-road speed control mode in either forward or reverse driving use.\",\n \"The off-road speed control system may actively look at inputs from traction or stability control systems to determine if the vehicle is still being driven off-road, and manage vehicle speed up to the set speed where traction is limited by one or more slip events, maintaining speed control operation in order to maintain vehicle progress and momentum in slippery conditions rather than cancelling operation.\",\n \"It is to be understood that if speed control were suddenly cancelled automatically in response to a slip event as in the case of conventional speed control systems, for example an event in which a traction control system becomes active, a sudden change in vehicle speed due to speed control cancellation may cause the vehicle to break traction altogether or become stuck.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"8 shows a vehicle 100 according to the embodiment of FIG.\",\n \"1 negotiating a gradient at two different locations, A and B.\",\n \"At location B the gradient experienced by the vehicle 100 is greater than that experienced at location A.\",\n \"If a user requests a decrease in set speed from a first speed to a second speed at location A, the LSP control system 12 is configured to reduce the amount of torque supplied to wheels of the vehicle 100 by the powertrain 129 at a first rate in order to reduce the speed of the vehicle 100 to match the new set speed.\",\n \"The first rate is lower than that which would be employed if the driving surface were level, for a given surface type.\",\n \"This is because a retarding force due to gravity is acting on the vehicle 100 to accelerate the vehicle downhill, i.e.\",\n \"in opposition to the direction of travel.\",\n \"The LSP control system 12 reduces powertrain torque and optionally applies a braking system in order to seek to maintain vehicle deceleration within the prescribed corridor.\",\n \"The acceleration corridor may, in some embodiments, be in the range +/−(0.1 g to 0.2 g).\",\n \"As the vehicle 100 progresses it encounters a steeper gradient at location B.\",\n \"If a user requests a similar decrease in set speed from the first speed to the second speed at location B, the LSP control system 12 is configured to reduce the amount of torque supplied to wheels of the vehicle 100 by the powertrain 129 at a second rate that is lower than the first in order to reduce the speed of the vehicle 100 to match the new set speed.\",\n \"A reduced rate of powertrain torque reduction is employed because a retarding force acting on the vehicle 100 to accelerate the vehicle downhill is relatively high compared with that at location A and vehicle speed responds relatively quickly to reductions in powertrain torque.\",\n \"The LSP control system 12 controls powertrain torque (and braking system torque) to allow vehicle deceleration to be maintained within the prescribed corridor of +/−(0.1 g to 0.2 g) in the present embodiment.\",\n \"FIGS.\",\n \"9(a) and 9(b) show schematically values of certain vehicle parameters as a function of time in an example scenario illustrating a manner of operation of the LSP control system 12.FIG.\",\n \"9(a) shows a plot of vehicle speed (v) as a function of time whilst the vehicle 100 is ascending a relatively steep gradient, for example when at location B of FIG.\",\n \"8.At time t=0 the vehicle 100 is travelling at a speed v2.Also at time t=0 the user holds the brake pedal 163 depressed by an amount d (FIG.\",\n \"9(b)) where d is in the range from d1 to d2 (FIG.\",\n \"7) such that the vehicle set speed vset reduces over the period from t=0 to t=t1.At time t1 the driver releases the brake pedal 163.In response to the reduction in vset, the LSP control system 12 controls the powertrain torque and, if necessary brake torque, in order to reduce vehicle speed v towards the new set speed vset.\",\n \"Thus, as vset decreases a corresponding decrease in speed v takes place, as shown in FIG.\",\n \"9(a).\",\n \"The LSP control system 12 controls the powertrain 129 and braking system to achieve a rate of deceleration that is within the prescribed acceleration corridor.\",\n \"In the present embodiment the corridor corresponds to the range +/−(0.1-0.2 g).\",\n \"The LSP control system 12 remains active throughout this period, with LSP control system status flag F set to F=1 as shown in FIG.\",\n \"9(b).\",\n \"FIGS.\",\n \"9(c) and 9(d) show schematically values of the vehicle parameters represented in FIGS.\",\n \"9(a) and 9(b) in an alternative example scenario.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"9(c) shows a plot of vehicle speed (v) as a function of time whilst ascending a similar, relatively steep gradient.\",\n \"At time t=0 the vehicle is travelling at a speed v2.Also at time t=0 the user holds the brake pedal depressed by an amount in the range from d1 to d2 (FIG.\",\n \"7, FIG.\",\n \"9(d)) such that the vehicle set speed vset reduces over the period from t=0 to t=t1.At time t1, when set speed reaches a value vsetmin, the driver releases the brake pedal 163.It is to be understood that vsetmin corresponds to the lowest allowable vehicle set speed.\",\n \"In some embodiments the minimum allowable set speed may be a speed of around 1 km/h, 2 km/h, 5 km/h or another suitable value.\",\n \"In response to the reduction in vset, the LSP control system 12 controls the powertrain torque and if necessary brake torque in order to reduce vehicle speed towards the new set speed vsetmin.\",\n \"The LSP control system 12 controls the powertrain 129 and braking system to achieve a rate of deceleration that is within the prescribed acceleration corridor of +/−(0.1-0.2 g).\",\n \"In the example illustrated the LSP control system 12 determines that it does not need to apply the braking system in order to reduce vehicle speed v at a rate within the prescribed corridor.\",\n \"However in the example shown, the vehicle speed v falls below the new set speed vsetmin (an undershoot condition), due to the steepness of the gradient.\",\n \"Although the speed falls below vsetmin the control system 12 controls the speed to rise back to vsetmin and the vehicle continues to progress at new set speed vsetmin.\",\n \"As can be seen from FIG.\",\n \"9(d), the LSP control system status flag F remains set to F=1 throughout the set speed reduction operation.\",\n \"In other words, the LSP control system does not cancel automatically LSP control of vehicle progress even though vehicle speed v falls below vsetmin.\",\n \"In some scenarios, it is possible that the LSP control system 12 may determine that the rate of fall of speed v is such that the vehicle may eventually have insufficient torque to maintain progress up the slope.\",\n \"If such a determination is made, the system 12 is operable to apply the vehicle foundation braking system to hold the vehicle stationary in order to prevent reversal of direction.\",\n \"That is, brake torque is applied automatically.\",\n \"The LSP control system 12 may then control the powertrain 129 to develop sufficient torque to accelerate the vehicle 100 from rest to new set speed vset.\",\n \"It is to be understood that the LSP control system 12 may not always be required to hold the vehicle stationary in order to prevent reversal of a direction of travel of the vehicle 100.However, in some embodiments the system 12 may be operable to perform this function.\",\n \"FIGS.\",\n \"9(e) and 9(f) show schematically values of the vehicle parameters represented in FIG.\",\n \"9(a)-(d) in a further alternative example scenario, to further illustrate operation of the LSP control system 12.The scenario is similar to that shown in FIGS.\",\n \"9(c) and (d) except that the user releases the brake pedal 163 only after the set speed vset has fallen below the minimum speed vsetmin, such as in this example, when vehicle speed has fallen to zero in the example shown.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"9(e) is a plot of vehicle speed (v) as a function of time whilst ascending a similar, relatively steep gradient to scenario B of FIG.\",\n \"8.At time t=0 the vehicle is travelling at a speed v2.Also at time t=0 the user holds the brake pedal depressed by an amount in the range from d1 to d2 (FIG.\",\n \"7, FIG.\",\n \"9(f)) corresponding to a relatively light pressure such that the vehicle set speed vset reduces over the period from t=0 to t=t1 from v2 to vsetmin.\",\n \"At time t1, when set speed reaches vsetmin, the driver maintains the light pressure on the brake pedal 163.In the present example, the amount of pressure is sufficient to cause application of the braking system, albeit relatively lightly, such that the braking system is applying brake torque to the wheels.\",\n \"Once the vehicle speed v falls to zero, or a prescribed value below vsetmin, the LSP control system 12 recognises that the user apparently wishes to override control of the vehicle by the system 12 and therefore cancels or suspends vehicle control at time t2.LSP control system status flag F is therefore changed from F=1 to F=0.At time t3 the user releases the brake pedal 163.If deemed necessary a hill hold assistance system or like may maintain a braking system active so as to prevent movement of the vehicle in a reverse direction if a risk of such exists.\",\n \"At time t4 the user selects operation of the LSP control system 12 by pressing ‘resume’ button 171.Alternatively, the system 12 may resume control of the vehicle sped when the user lifts their foot off the brake pedal and presses the ‘+’ button.\",\n \"Responsive to depression of this button the LSP control system 12 controls the vehicle 100 to accelerate from rest to the minimum set speed vsetmin, and in other embodiments, the system 12 may permit the user to select a previously used user defined set speed held in a memory.\",\n \"The control system 12 again controls the rate of acceleration such that where possible it falls within the prescribed acceleration corridor.\",\n \"This feature has the advantage that it may greatly reduce user workload over manual driving and minimise wear and tear on a vehicle by avoiding situations where the vehicle may be left labouring up a gradient without making progress or moving backwards due to insufficient torque being supplied to the wheels by the powertrain 129.Use of a speed control system at low speeds when driving off-road may offer a user of a vehicle considerable advantages in reduced user workload and enhanced vehicle composure.\",\n \"However, if the user attempts to use a conventional cruise control system to negotiate an off-road obstacle such as a boulder field, then the vehicle speed would likely either be too great (typically cruise control systems have a minimum set speed of around 50 km/h) or the vehicle engine would likely stall during the extremes of torque requirement required to negotiate such an obstacle.\",\n \"One concern in particular is the vehicle's natural tendency to overrun after cresting a boulder.\",\n \"This is where the obstacle necessitates a large supply of torque to the driven wheels in order to lift the vehicle over the obstacle, followed immediately by light application of the brakes to counter the overrun of the engine after the demand for torque has passed.\",\n \"Such precise control of the vehicle powertrain and brakes is not possible with cruise control systems currently available today.\",\n \"In one arrangement the system may be operable automatically to apply a retarding torque to one or more wheels of the vehicle in response to a determination that the vehicle is cresting an obstacle thereby to counteract powertrain overrun and maintain substantially the set speed as the vehicle negotiates the obstacle.\",\n \"The retarding torque may be applied by means of one or more selected from amongst a braking system, an electric machine, a gear shift or any other suitable means.\",\n \"Vehicle composure may be maintained without excessive variation in speed which may give rise to the vehicle body being perceived by an occupant as lurching as the vehicle negotiates an obstacle.\",\n \"The determination that the vehicle is cresting an obstacle may be made in response to a signal received by the system indicative of vehicle attitude, for example via a controller area network (CAN) or other suitable data bus, a direct sensor input or any other suitable means.\",\n \"In addition or instead, cresting may be inferred when a drop-off in respect of required torque is detected following a steep rise in requested torque required to maintain progress.\",\n \"Optionally the system may be operable to apply a retarding torque to one or more wheels when it is detected that the vehicle is negotiating an obstacle as the vehicle climbs at least a portion of the obstacle before cresting is detected.\",\n \"Further the system may be operable to modulate the amount of retarding torque applied in dependence on a determination that the vehicle is cresting thereby to maintain substantially the set speed.\",\n \"This feature has the advantage that in some situations vehicle composure may be further enhanced since the powertrain is working against a damping force applied by the retarding force, reducing fluctuations in vehicle speed as the obstacle is negotiated.\",\n \"The system may be operable to detect cresting by one or more wheels of the vehicle (for example by reference to one or more of vehicle attitude, changes in vehicle attitude, vehicle suspension articulation (extension or compression) and any other suitable parameter.\",\n \"It is to be understood that some arrangements provide an off-road speed control system with information about the terrain over which the vehicle is driving, as well as the vehicle's attitude, wheel articulation, wheel speed, gear selection, tyre friction, rolling resistance and TR (terrain response) mode.\",\n \"In some embodiments, if the user is using off-road speed control to travel over an obstacle such as walking-holes, or steps, the off-road speed control system may supply sufficient torque to overcome the obstacle and deploy (say) the vehicle braking system to provide an appropriate restraining force as the system detects that the demand for torque (in order to maintain a set speed) is reducing as the vehicle crests the obstacle.\",\n \"The system deploys the retarding force in order to counteract powertrain overrun, preventing the vehicle from unintentionally exceeding the set-speed and maintaining composure and control.\",\n \"It is to be understood that a retarding torque applied by (say) a vehicle braking system is typically much more responsive in terms of rate of change of torque applied to wheels of the vehicle compared with a powertrain due to lag in the response of an internal combustion engine (ICE) to changes in accelerator pedal or other accelerator input signal (for example a signal from a speed control system).\",\n \"That is, due to the physical nature of an ICE, torque output tends to lag torque demand.\",\n \"In particular, where torque demand geos from high to low, the rotational momentum of the engine holds the torque output artificially high until the engine has time to slow down.\",\n \"Unless drive is disconnected from the wheels by a clutch or similar means, the response lag of the engine may manifest itself as a vehicle overrun as the vehicle crests over the obstacle, i.e.\",\n \"vehicle speed increases above that which is desired.\",\n \"This may be perceived as the vehicle lurching over the obstacle, causing the vehicle to travel too quickly towards a successive obstacle and/or causing the rear wheel to come into contact with the obstacle aggressively.\",\n \"These characteristics are overcome or at least mitigated with an off-road speed control system according to an embodiment of the present invention.\",\n \"The proposed system is intended to actively monitor torque requirements necessary to overcome an obstacle and to manage known control delays by actively employing a mechanical restraining or damping force to the vehicle to mitigate against overrun after cresting, greatly enhancing vehicle composure during off-road driving.\",\n \"As noted above the damping force may be applied by means of a vehicle braking system, electric machine, gear shift or any other suitable means.\",\n \"As also noted above, the off-road speed control system may be provided with information about a vehicle's attitude as well as one or more of wheel speed, gear selection, tyre friction, rolling resistance, wheel articulation and TR mode.\",\n \"In this way, if the user is using off-road speed control to travel off-road at a slow speed, say 5 km/h, when the vehicle is travelling over an obstacle such as a step or over walking-holes, the off-road speed control system can determine when the vehicle has almost crested the obstacle by rate of change in torque required, and deploy an appropriate retarding torque by means of (say) the braking system in order to overcome engine overrun.\",\n \"In this way, the off-road speed control system may predict that the requested reduction in torque may result in the vehicle lurching forwards due to engine overrun, and take steps to counter engine overrun before it adversely affects vehicle composure.\",\n \"It is to be understood that an off-road speed control system according to an embodiment of the invention may temporarily bring the vehicle to a standstill (or almost to a standstill) in extreme conditions in order to negotiate terrain such as a boulder field with multiple objects over which the vehicle must crest.\",\n \"In such events, the application of the retarding torque (for example by operation of the braking system) may be in response to a cresting event at any of the road wheels, which could otherwise give rise to an overrun situation.\",\n \"In some embodiments an off-road speed control system may be operable to control or otherwise influence gear and/or ‘high/low’ ratio selection, to ensure that the vehicle is travelling at low speeds off-road in a gear appropriate to avoid engine stalling and maintain suitable progress.\",\n \"In some embodiments an off-road speed control system may be operable to control or otherwise influence vehicle speed to allow time for adjustment of one or more system configurations.\",\n \"For example to allow time for a change in ride height or tyre pressure or any other suitable parameter, to ensure that the vehicle is travelling with a configuration appropriate to the prevailing terrain.\",\n \"Thus in the event a vehicle encounters relatively rough terrain the speed control system may stop the vehicle or reduce speed in order to allow ride height adjustment and/or tyre pressure adjustment.\",\n \"In some embodiments the speed control system may reduce vehicle speed rather than stopping the vehicle in order to reduce a risk that the vehicle loses traction and becomes stuck.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"10 shows a plot of an amount of torque developed by a powertrain 129 (plot P) and a braking system (plot B) of a vehicle 100 according to an embodiment of the present invention as the vehicle 100 negotiates an obstacle such as a boulder or step.\",\n \"At time td4.It is to be understood that in some embodiments a vehicle 100 may be operated in off-road speed control mode in either forward or reverse driving directions.\",\n \"Embodiments of the invention may further improve vehicle composure by adapting to rapid or abrupt changes in drag or other forces acting on a vehicle caused by variation in terrain and resisting speed overshoot by a vehicle under the control of the off-road speed control system.\",\n \"Use of speed control at low speeds when driving off-road may offer a user considerable advantages in reduced user workload and enhanced vehicle composure.\",\n \"However, a speed control system arranged to work off-road would not take into account that although a vehicle may be capable of maintaining a given speed over a varying terrain, some surfaces may be more uncomfortable to drive over than others at the same speed.\",\n \"The present invention provides an off-road speed control system that is arranged to permit the user to operate the vehicle at low speeds off-road with the off-road speed control system regulating vehicle speed up to a user selected set-speed.\",\n \"In some embodiments, the off-road speed control system is configured to take into account at least one selected from amongst surface roughness, wheel slip and wheel articulation when determining a maximum speed at which the system will allow the vehicle to drive over a surface.\",\n \"In some situations the speed control system may be perceived as intervening to reduce the maximum vehicle speed unnecessarily for some users, but intervening sufficiently in the opinion of others.\",\n \"Off-road speed control systems according to the present invention are intended to enhance off-road driving performance by reducing user workload and enhancing vehicle composure.\",\n \"It is to be understood that a level of vehicle composure may affect all vehicle occupants and not just the person under whose control the vehicle is being operated.\",\n \"In some embodiments there is provided an off-road speed control system that is provided with at least one selected from amongst information or data in respect of terrain over which the vehicle is driving, vehicle attitude, wheel articulation, wheel speed, driving surface roughness, gear selection, tyre friction, tyre drag, rolling resistance and TR mode.\",\n \"In an embodiment of the invention the system is further provided with a memory, user operable input means such as a switch, a processor and seat occupancy data.\",\n \"The off-road speed control system may be operable to adjust a comfort setting of the speed control system being a setting used by the system to determine how much to slow the vehicle below a given set-speed for a given ground condition or terrain.\",\n \"The system may be operable to adjust the comfort setting in dependence on data in respect of seat occupancy and an input signal received from the user operable input means.\",\n \"In operation, the system is configured to log in the memory how the user adjusts the off-road speed control comfort setting for a given amplitude and frequency of vehicle vibration caused by the roughness of the terrain over which the vehicle is driving.\",\n \"When the system determines that a vehicle body vibration is similar to or otherwise matches a sample stored in the memory the processor generates a temporary default baseline set-speed limit below the speed control set-speed that was previously been set by the user.\",\n \"The temporary default baseline set-speed limit is set by the system for the duration of the particular section of terrain the vehicle is travelling over unless overridden by the user.\",\n \"If the user overrides the system then data corresponding to the fact that the system was over-ridden may be stored in the memory.\",\n \"A look-up table in which data in respect of vehicle speed requested by a user as a function of vehicle vibration characteristic data is stored is updated.\",\n \"In some embodiments the speed control system updates the stored data only if the user repeatedly overrides the system.\",\n \"In an embodiment of the system, if user adjustment of off-road speed control system speed in respect of a particular user indicates a trend to override the automated speed reduction feature towards a higher speed, then the off-road speed control system may be configured to adopt a user specific baseline speed limit that is higher than the default baseline speed limit for a given type of terrain.\",\n \"That is, a speed limit to which the system may reduce the set-speed in the event that such terrain is encountered that is higher than a default baseline speed limit for that type of terrain.\",\n \"As noted above, in some embodiments terrain ‘type’ may be quantified by reference to amplitude and frequency of vehicle vibration, optionally wheel articulation, optionally one or more other parameters in addition or instead, such as a value of one or more parameters for a given selected TR mode.\",\n \"In some embodiments the user specific baseline speed limit may be manually reset by a user such that the system employs the default value of maximum off-road speed control speed, which may be lower than the driver specific baseline speed.\",\n \"In some embodiments the default value may in fact be higher than the driver specific speed.\",\n \"In some embodiments, in addition or instead, the system may be operable to detect that the off-road speed control system is being employed on a journey where the vehicle is carrying one or more passengers.\",\n \"If such a determination is made the system may be operable to reset a user-specific baseline off-road speed control system speed to the default baseline speed limit.\",\n \"It is to be understood that in scenarios in which a user typically uses the off-road speed control system when driving alone, the user may opt to accept less vehicle composure in order to drive the vehicle at a faster speed over a given surface.\",\n \"As the user is in control of the vehicle, the movement of the vehicle is likely to be perceived by the user as being in line with their expectations and therefore acceptable.\",\n \"Furthermore, a driver may steady him or herself against a steering wheel and therefore tolerate more vehicle body movement than a passenger might be comfortable with.\",\n \"A passenger, who is not in control of the vehicle, may perceive the same vehicle movement or vibration as being unacceptably uncomfortable.\",\n \"To compensate for this, in some embodiments, when the system detects that the vehicle is carrying one or more passengers, the system defaults to a comfort and composure orientated speed adjustment mode (in which the maximum speed corresponds for example to the default baseline value), unless and until the user manually overrides the setting.\",\n \"The speed control system may be operable to monitor one or more parameters influencing vehicle body movement and therefore occupant comfort such as a steering wheel or steerable road wheel angle and/or a rate of change thereof.\",\n \"The system may be operable to monitor data indicative of driving surface roughness and correlate this data with one or more vehicle parameters that may influence vehicle body movement such as steering wheel angle, steerable road wheel angle or a rate of change thereof.\",\n \"In the event a user overrides the speed control system, indicating that they feel the speed is too high, the system may determine whether the user chose to override the system because of a feature of terrain over which the vehicle is travelling, or because of another factor influencing vehicle body movement.\",\n \"An example of such a factor might be an action by a driver such as abrupt turning of the steering wheel on terrain that would otherwise not cause excessive user discomfort.\",\n \"In some embodiments the system may take into account vehicle roll angle; for example if the vehicle is driving across a gradient a user may be more sensitive to the fact that the vehicle is tilted about its longitudinal axis and require the system to reduce the set speed even when the terrain is relatively smooth.\",\n \"Thus it is to be understood that the speed control system may be configured to log data indicating steering wheel angle, steerable road wheel angle or rate of change of one or both, optionally vehicle roll angle, lateral acceleration and the like and be able to determine whether the fact that a user chose to over-ride the speed control system to reduce set speed is because of terrain roughness alone or because of a combination of terrain roughness and one or more other parameters affecting body movement.\",\n \"The system may be configured to take into account whether or not passengers are being carried when a user intervenes to reduce set speed.\",\n \"In the event passengers are not being carried, the vehicle may determine that if a similar scenario is encountered when passengers are being carried in the future, set speed may be reduced to an even lower level than that to which it was reduced when the user was the sole occupant.\",\n \"Furthermore, the system may be operable to reduce set speed when reduced values of one or more parameters affecting vehicle body roll are detected in the future, in the expectation that passengers may be less tolerant of certain body movements than a driver.\",\n \"Furthermore, such action may be prudent also since a centre of gravity of a vehicle may rise in the presence of one or more passengers, resulting in an increased tendency for a vehicle body to move when travelling over certain terrain.\",\n \"In this way, vehicle body movement, whilst the vehicle is under control of the system 12, is managed at least in part, to balance the desire to maintain good progress off-road with the need to manage certain factors that may influence or otherwise affect the comfort of each occupant of the vehicle.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"16(a) shows a console 184 of a vehicle 100 according to an embodiment of the present invention having user configurable progress control.\",\n \"The console has a user operable button 187 depression of which provides a control signal to a processor 185 associated with the LSP control system 12.The processor is operable to store and retrieve data from a memory 186 also associated with the LSP control system 12.The LSP control system 12 is operable to receive data indicative of seat occupancy of the vehicle.\",\n \"That is, data indicative as to whether a given seat of the vehicle other than a driver's seat is occupied.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"16(b) is a plan view of a cabin of a vehicle according to an embodiment of the invention showing seats 101S to 105S.\",\n \"The LSP system 12 receives data corresponding to a state of a switch embedded in a seat belt buckle 106 associated with each seat 101S-105S.\",\n \"If the state of the switch indicates that the buckle 106 is fastened, the LSP system 12 considers that the seat associated with the buckle is occupied.\",\n \"If the state of the switch indicates the buckle 106 is unfastened, the LSP system 12 considers that the seat associated with the buckle 106 is unoccupied.\",\n \"Seat occupancy may be determined by sensors in each seat or by means of an infrared or visible light camera arranged to observe the interior of the occupant compartment.\",\n \"Other means for determining seat occupancy are also useful.\",\n \"Memory 186 may be divided so as to store data in respect of a plurality of known drivers and their associated preferences.\",\n \"The system may be arranged to identify a driver by identification of one selected from amongst a seat adjustment position, a user specific key fob identity, or other known means.\",\n \"In some embodiments, the maximum speed (set-speed limit) imposed automatically by the system may be adjusted automatically by the system based on duration and vehicle behaviour in dependence on a determination that vehicle body acceleration exceeds a pre-determined threshold.\",\n \"This may be used to enhance vehicle composure and act as a means for determining vehicle movement independently of an output of one or more wheel speed sensors.\",\n \"This may be useful in situations in which no two wheel speed readings match each other.\",\n \"This feature may be employed across multiple vehicle variants with different suspension spring/damper settings and be used in vehicles whose characteristics may vary over time.\",\n \"Employment of vehicle body acceleration measurements may free the speed control system from being tied to a specific vehicle or suspension variant.\",\n \"It is to be understood that in some embodiments an off road speed control system may be operable in either forward or reverse driving use.\",\n \"It is to be understood that the control system according to an may form part of an ATPC (All-Terrain Progress Control) system, which may be arranged to work independently or in conjunction with one or more vehicle control systems arranged to optimise one or more vehicle configurations such as one or more sub-system configurations for a given terrain over which the vehicle is travelling.\",\n \"An example of such a system is a Terrain Response® system.\",\n \"Some embodiments of the invention enhance enjoyment of a vehicle by a given user when driving alone and passengers when being carried by the same user, since the level of vehicle composure that may be tolerated by one or more passengers may differ from that which may be tolerated by the user.\",\n \"It will be understood that the embodiments described above are given by way of example only and are not intended to limit the invention, the scope of which is defined in the appended claims.\",\n \"Throughout the description and claims of this specification, the words “comprise” and “contain” and variations of the words, for example “comprising” and “comprises”, means “including but not limited to”, and is not intended to (and does not) exclude other moieties, additives, components, integers or steps.\",\n \"Throughout the description and claims of this specification, the singular encompasses the plural unless the context otherwise requires.\",\n \"In particular, where the indefinite article is used, the specification is to be understood as contemplating plurality as well as singularity, unless the context requires otherwise.\",\n \"Features, integers, characteristics, compounds, chemical moieties or groups described in conjunction with a particular aspect, embodiment or example of the invention are to be understood to be applicable to any other aspect, embodiment or example described herein unless incompatible therewith.\",\n \"For the avoidance of doubt it is explicitly stated that it is to be understood that aspects or embodiments of the invention described under each of headings 1 to 10 above are not to be interpreted as necessarily including one or more features described under another one or more of headings 1 to 10 unless explicitly stated.\",\n \"It is also to be understood that aspects or embodiments of the invention described under one or more of headings 1 to 10 are applicable to any other embodiment whether under another one or more of headings 1 to 10 or not unless incompatible therewith.\",\n \"Reference to features of a common figure such as FIG.\",\n \"1 or any other figure under a plurality of headings 1 to 10 is not to be interpreted as requiring that aspects or embodiments described under a given heading also have the features that are described with respect to the common figure under another heading.\"\n ]\n]"},"source":{"kind":"string","value":"Patent_15875333"}}},{"rowIdx":4494855,"cells":{"text":{"kind":"list like","value":[["METHOD FOR APPLYING A BONDING LAYER","A method for applying a bonding layer that is comprised of a basic layer and a protective layer on a substrate with the following method steps: application of an oxidizable basic material as a basic layer on a bonding side of the substrate, at least partial covering of the basic layer with a protective material that is at least partially dissolvable in the basic material as a protective layer.","In addition, the invention relates to a corresponding substrate."],["1.A method for bonding a first substrate with a second substrate, said method comprising: forming a plurality of structures of oxidizable basic material on a bonding side of the first substrate; removing oxide layers respectively formed on the oxidizable basic material by one or more of chemical oxide removal, grinding, and polishing; at least partially covering each of the oxidizable basic material structures with a layer of protective material having a thickness of less than 100 nm; and bonding the first and second substrates, wherein the protective material is dissolved completely in the oxidizable basic material during the bonding.","2.The method according to claim 1, wherein the oxidizable basic material is oxygen-affine and is comprised of aluminum and/or copper.","3.The method according to claim 1, wherein at least one of the forming and the covering respectively comprises depositing the oxidizable basic material on the bonding side and depositing the protective layer material on each of the oxidizable basic material structures.","4.The method according to claim 1, wherein the covering comprises respectively sealing the oxidizable basic material structures with the protective materials layers relative to an atmosphere.","5.The method according to claim 1, wherein the oxidizable basic material and/or the protective material is/are one or more materials selected from the group consisting of metals, alkali metals, alkaline-earth metals, alloys, and semiconductors provided with corresponding doping.","6.The method according to claim 1, wherein semiconductors provided with corresponding doping are selected as the protective material.","7.The method according to claim 1, wherein the removing comprises at least partially removing the oxide layers respectively formed on the oxidizable basic material by the chemical oxide removal, the chemical oxide removal being performed with a gaseous reducing agent and/or a liquid reducing agent.","8.The method according to claim 5, wherein said metals are selected from the group consisting of Cu, Ag, Au, Al, Fe, Ni, Co, Pt, W, Cr, Pb, Ti, Te, Sn, Zn, and Ga. 9.The method according to claim 5, wherein said alkali metals are selected from the group consisting of Li, Na, K, Rb, and Cs.","10.The method according to claim 5, wherein said alkaline earth metals are selected from the group consisting of Mg, Ca, Sr, and Ba.","11.The method according to claim 5, wherein said semiconductors are selected from the group consisting of element semiconductors and compound conductors.","12.The method according to claim 6, wherein said semiconductors are selected from the group consisting of element semiconductors and compound conductors.","13.The method according to claim 11, wherein said element semiconductors are selected from the group consisting of Si, Ge, Se, Te, B, and Sn.","14.The method according to claim 12, wherein said element semiconductors are selected from the group consisting of Si, Ge, Se, Te, B, and Sn.","15.The method according to claim 11, wherein said compound semiconductors are selected from the group consisting of GaAs, GaN, InP, InxGa1−xN, InSb, InAs, GaSb, AN, InN, GaP, BeTe, ZnO, CuInGaSe2, ZnS, ZnSe, ZnTe, CdS, CdSe, CdTe, Hg(1−x)Cd(x)Te, BeSe, HgS, AlxGa1−xAs, GaS, GaSe, GaTe, InS, InSe, InTe, CuInSe2, CuInS2, CuInGaS2, SiC, and SiGe.","16.The method according to claim 12, wherein said compound semiconductors are selected from the group consisting of GaAs, GaN, InP, InxGa1−xN, InSb, InAs, GaSb, AN, InN, GaP, BeTe, ZnO, CuInGaSe2, ZnS, ZnSe, ZnTe, CdS, CdSe, CdTe, Hg(1−x)Cd(x)Te, BeSe, HgS, AlxGa1−xAs, GaS, GaSe, GaTe, InS, InSe, InTe, CuInSe2, CuInS2, CuInGaS2, SiC, and SiGe.","17.A method for bonding a first substrate with a second substrate, said method comprising: forming a plurality of areas of oxidizable basic material on a bonding side of the first substrate; removing oxide layers respectively formed on the oxidizable basic material by chemical-mechanical polishing; at least partially covering each of the oxidizable basic material areas with a layer of protective material having a thickness of less than 100 nm; and bonding the first and second substrates, wherein the protective material is dissolved completely in the oxidizable basic material during the bonding.","18.The method according to claim 17, wherein the chemical mechanical polishing comprises one or more of chemical oxide removal, grinding, and polishing.","19.A method for bonding a first substrate with a second substrate, said method comprising: structurally depositing oxidizable basic material on a bonding side of the first substrate; chemical-mechanical polishing the structurally deposited oxidizable basic material to remove oxide layers formed on the structurally deposited oxidizable basic material; at least partially covering the structurally deposited oxidizable basic material with protective material having a thickness of less than 100 nm; and bonding the first and second substrates, wherein the protective material is dissolved completely in the structurally deposited oxidizable basic material during the bonding.","20.The method according to claim 19, wherein the chemical-mechanical polishing comprises one or more of chemical oxide removing the oxide layers formed on the structurally deposited oxidizable basic material, grinding the oxide layers formed on the structurally deposited oxidizable basic material, and polishing the oxide layers formed on the structurally deposited oxidizable basic material."],[" BACKGROUND OF INVENTION In the state of the art, countless methods to connect various materials to one another exist.","In the semiconductor industry, in recent years, primarily the bonding technology to connect two substrates temporarily or permanently to one another has gained acceptance.","Very often, the bonding process takes place between semiconductor(s) and/or metal structures on the substrate.","The best-known metal bonding technology of recent times is copper bonding.","Substrates are the carriers for functional assemblies such as microchips, memory chips, or MEMS assemblies.","In recent years, increasingly attempts were made to produce a connection between assemblies arranged on various substrates in order to avoid a wire-bonding process between the assemblies that is labor-intensive, costly, and susceptible to flaws.","In addition, the direct bonding variant has the enormous advantage of elevated assembly density.","The assemblies must no longer be positioned beside one another and connected via wires, but rather are stacked on one another and connected vertically to one another by various technologies.","In most cases, the vertical connections are produced by contact points.","The contact points of different substrates must be identical to one another and are oriented to one another before the actual bonding process.","Another little-used process is aluminum bonding.","In this process, aluminized points on the surface of a substrate are to be bonded with a material lying on a second substrate.","In this case, this can be aluminum or a suitable, different material.","One drawback of aluminum is its extreme oxygen affinity.","Even with copper, the oxygen affinity is high, so that copper oxides must be regularly removed before a bonding process.","With aluminum, the oxygen affinity is higher by a multiple.","Aluminum still forms relatively thick, passivating aluminum oxide layers, which are difficult to remove.","In contrast to copper, aluminum is therefore little used for bonding connections, since at this time, because of the very stable oxide layers, no reliable bonding result can be achieved at a reasonable cost.","Nevertheless, aluminum is widely used in the semiconductor area to produce metal connections on the chip surface in the lateral direction.","Here, aluminum is distinguished in that it has significantly slower diffusion behavior in silicon than, for example, copper or gold.","Metal diffused into silicon would impair the characteristics of transistors or make the latter completely unfunctional.","Based on this advantageous diffusion behavior, paired with low costs and relatively good electrical conductivity, aluminum has been established over many years as the material that is mainly used for producing electrical connections laterally on the semiconductor chips.","Recently, in chips of the newest generation, aluminum is increasingly being replaced by copper because of its better electrical conductivity; however, aluminum still enjoys great importance, primarily in the production of chips on 200 mm substrates with somewhat older production technology.","It is specifically these production surrounding areas/plants that in recent times have found enhanced use for the production of MEMS (micro-electro-mechanical systems) components.","The production of these MEMS components in turn frequently requires bonding processes, so that the need for a reliable aluminum bonding process increases.","Outside of the semiconductor industry, aluminum is also a structural material that is in demand, since it is light, inexpensive, and primarily hardenable.","In the semiconductor industry, based on the above-mentioned reasons, it has been attempted for some time to develop processes that make aluminum usable as structural material and in particular material for bonding connections.","The greatest problem when using oxygen-affine materials such as copper and aluminum is the avoidance of oxidation on bonding surfaces and/or the complete removal of oxide from bonding surfaces before a bonding process.","Extremely oxygen-affine materials such as aluminum produce, moreover, oxides that are strong and difficult to reduce.","Plants for oxide removal are expensive, labor-intensive and under certain circumstances dangerous (toxic substances)."],[" SUMMARY OF INVENTION The object of this invention is therefore to indicate a method as well as a substrate provided with a bonding layer, with which an oxidizable material (such as in particular aluminum) can be used for bonding.","This object is achieved with the features of the independent claim(s).","Advantageous further developments of the invention are indicated in the subclaims.","All combinations of at least two of the features indicated in the specification, the claims and/or the figures also fall within the scope of the invention.","In the indicated ranges of values, values that lie within the above-mentioned limits are also to be disclosed as boundary values and can be claimed in any combination.","It is an essential idea of this invention to provide a bonding layer, comprised of a basic layer and a protective layer, in particular as a diffusion pair, on the substrate, whereby a basic material of the basic layer can be oxidized, while a protective material of the protective layer can be oxidized at least less easily.","The invention therefore in particular is a matter of a process in which the oxidation of oxygen-affine materials such as in particular aluminum (preferred) or copper is prevented from the start.","The protection of oxygen-affine basic material is achieved according to the invention in particular by the deposition of a protective material, which covers the basic material at least partially, in particular primarily, and preferably completely.","The objective breakdown of the elements relative to their oxygen affinity can be most simply defined by the electrochemical voltage sequence.","Oxygen-affine elements such as lithium are extremely base materials, are easily oxidized, and therefore act as reducing agents, easily release electrons, and therefore have an extremely negative standard electrode potential.","However, elements with a low oxygen affinity are referred to as noble, since the latter can be easily reduced and therefore act as oxidizing agents, accommodate electrons, and have an extremely positive standard electrode potential.","As basic material, in particular a material with a standard electrode potential is used that is less than 2.00 V, preferably less than 1.00 V, more preferably less than 0.0 V, most preferably less than −1.0 V, with utmost preference less than −2.0 V, and even more preferably less than −3.0 V. Copper has a standard electrode potential of approximately 0.16 V, aluminum of approximately −1.66 V. The noblest metal is gold with a standard electrode potential of approximately 1.69 V (for the first oxidation stage).","In an especially preferred variant, the basic material and the protective material are located as targets, separated from one another, in a coating chamber and are applied in succession under vacuum, so that no contact of the basic material with an oxygen-containing atmosphere is produced.","An embodiment of the invention is comprised in leaving the protective material on the basic material during the bonding process and, because of its chemical-physical properties, in at least partially, in particular predominantly, and preferably completely dissolving the protective material in the basic material during the bonding process.","The selection of the basic material-protective material combination is carried out in such a way that the latter allows a solid dissolution process.","The protective material is preferably more readily soluble in the basic material than vice versa.","The protective material is dissolved in particular under specific process conditions in the basic material.","The basic material therefore has a boundary solubility for the protective material and/or the basic material can be mixed at least partially, in particular predominantly, and preferably completely with the basic material.","In the case of an existing boundary solubility of the protective material in the basic material, the boundary solubility at room temperature is in particular great enough to keep a specific amount of the protective material dissolved.","In this way, the protective material according to the invention can be applied as an extremely thin layer in order to avoid local concentration peaks during the diffusion process of the protective material into the basic material that can lead to an (undesired) precipitate.","Another aspect of this invention that is advantageous according to the invention is comprised in preventing a contact of the oxygen-affine basic material with an oxygen-containing or oxygen-rich atmosphere, in particular by at least predominant covering of the surfaces of the basic layer, not covered by the substrate, with the protective layer.","The protective material itself is preferably a solid, in particular at least at room temperature.","The latter is therefore not liquid and allows the transport of the protected basic material through an oxygen-containing atmosphere.","In an advantageous embodiment of the invention, the protective material is selected in such a way that the latter is less oxygen-affine than the basic material, or any oxide that is formed on the protective material can be removed with simpler means than would be the case in an oxide formed on the basic material.","Oxide-forming material for the protective layer is advantageously selected in such a way that in addition to the simple removal of the oxide, new oxide is only slowly formed again after the oxide removal.","In particular, less than 0.3 nm of oxide, preferably less than 0.1 nm of oxide, is formed on time lapses of at least 2 minutes, preferably at least 5 minutes, more preferably at least 10 minutes, and most preferably at least 15 minutes.","An incorporation of any oxide, formed on the protective layer, in the basic material is in particular at least predominantly prevented according to the invention.","To this end, the oxide of the protective material is removed in particular immediately before a bonding process.","In the case of a smaller amount of formed oxide, a breaking of the oxide during the later desired bonding process and a direct incorporation into the boundary layer are also conceivable.","Protective materials with one or more of the properties cited below are preferably used: A low oxygen affinity, in particular defined by a standard electrode potential of more than 0 V, preferably more than 1.00 V, more preferably more than 2.00 V, preferably less than the oxygen affinity of the basic material, A high solubility in the basic material, in particular more than 10-5 mol %, preferably more than 10-3 mol %, more preferably more than 1 mol %, most preferably more than 10 mol %, and with utmost preference more than 40 mol %, The properties of the basic material are not negatively influenced, and therefore in the case of the desired high conductivity do not impair the conductivity and in the case of the desired high level of strength do not reduce the strength, Airtight relative to the atmosphere, Economical, High level of availability, Slightly toxic, in particular non-toxic, and/or Good bonding properties.","Accordingly, the invention relates in particular to a method for covering, in particular coating, a first material tending toward oxidation, the basic material, in particular a metal or a semiconductor, with a second material, the protective material.","The protective material is in particular dissolved at least partially, in particular predominantly, and preferably completely in another process step by a dissolution process of the basic material and/or forms precipitates partially, in particular predominantly, and preferably completely, in a quite special, expanded embodiment.","The embodiment that is preferred according to the invention comprises a complete dissolution of the protective material into the basic material, whereby in this case, no precipitates are produced.","The object of the protective layer formed from the protective material consists in particular in the prevention of the oxidation of the basic material.","The protective material can itself oxidize upon contact with an oxygen-containing atmosphere and is optionally removed from oxide, before the dissolution process according to the invention begins in the basic material.","In a quite special embodiment, the removal of this oxide on the protective layer is performed in a unit in which a renewed oxidation of the protective layer is prevented for design reasons on the way to the bonder.","For example, the use of an oxide removal module and a bonding chamber in a corresponding vacuum cluster, which separates the module from the surrounding, oxygen-containing atmosphere, would be conceivable.","Such cluster systems are well known to one skilled in the art.","The preferred target of the process according to the invention primarily includes protecting oxygen-affine basic materials, in particular aluminum but also copper, which are to be bonded in an additional process step, up to the actual bonding step before an oxidation.","The removal of any oxides of the protective material, which preferably has a much lower oxygen affinity than the basic material to be protected, is considerably simpler, faster, and primarily more reliable, so that the process can be accelerated.","According to a preferred embodiment, the protective material, in particular after a removal of oxides of the protective material, is then bonded with another substrate that is formed in particular according to the invention.","Preferably, the protective material is at least partially, in particular predominantly, and preferably completely dissolved during the bonding process in the basic material, so that in the ideal case, no contact occurs between the basic material and the oxygen-rich atmosphere until the bonding takes place.","The method according to the invention is therefore primarily suitable for temporarily protecting with the protective material oxygen-affine basic materials, in particular aluminum or copper, directly after the coating on a substrate.","To the extent the basic material is not full-surface but rather is applied on the substrate in particular in a structured manner and/or only in partial areas (for example copper contacts or aluminum boundaries, which are to be part of a hermetically-sealed space of a MEMS component), the protective material is applied in the form of a film that is as uniformly thick as possible, and in particular is sealed.","According to the invention, primarily the ratio of the (in particular middle) layer thickness of the basic material to the layer thickness of the protective material is important.","In addition, the chemical, physical and/or metallurgical behavior of the basic material with the protective material according to the invention plays a role.","The basic material is preferably a solid solvent.","In particular, the basic material can be a multi-phase-multi-component system.","In the case of a multi-phase material, all considerations for the dissolution process are valid at least for a phase, in the ideal case for all phases.","As basic material, an individual chemical element is preferably selected, in particular a metal, a semi-metal, or a non-metal, in particular silicon, gallium, aluminum, nickel, titanium or copper.","These metals are the materials that are most often used in the semiconductor industry for the production of conductive compounds, contact or structural building blocks (for example MEMS assemblies).","In order to disclose the process according to the invention as simply as possible, the process according to the invention is described by way of example, but not in a limiting manner, with regard to the basic material aluminum.","Aluminum is especially suitable according to the invention, since it is a highly-available, economical structural material.","The protective material can in particular also be a multi-phase-multi-component system, but it is preferably a simple chemical element that preferably occurs only in one phase.","In this case, it is preferably a metal, a semi-metal, an alkali metal or an alkaline-earth metal.","The use of non-metallic elements such as carbon would also be conceivable according to the invention as long as the chemical-physical properties correspond between the non-metal with basic material in terms of the process according to the invention.","The following materials are considered according to the invention in principle as basic material and/or protective material.","In this case, the processes according to the invention require that the protective material be at least partially, in particular predominantly, and preferably completely, dissolvable in the basic material.","Metals, in particular Cu, Ag, Au, Al, Fe, Ni, Co, Pt, W, Cr, Pb, Ti, Te, Sn, Zn, Ga Alkali metals, in particular Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs Alkaline-earth metals, in particular Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba Alloys Semiconductors, provided in particular with corresponding doping Element semiconductors, in particular Si, Ge, Se, Te, B, Sn Compound semiconductors, in particular GaAs, GaN, InP, InxGa1−xN, InSb, InAs, GaSb, AN, InN, GaP, BeTe, ZnO, CuInGaSe 2 , ZnS, ZnSe, ZnTe, CdS, CdSe, CdTe, Hg(1−x)Cd(x)Te, BeSe, HgS, AlxGa1−xAs, GaS, GaSe, GaTe, InS, InSe, InTe, CuInSe 2 , CuInS 2 , CuInGaS 2 , SiC, SiGe.","For removal of oxide layers of the protective material, preferably the following processes are suitable: Chemical oxide removal, in particular by a Gaseous reducing agent and/or Liquid reducing agent Physical oxide removal, in particular with plasma Ion-Assisted Chemical Etching, in particular Fast Ion Bombardment (FAB, sputtering) Grinding, and/or Polishing.","For deposition and therefore synthesis of the basic material and/or the protective layer, the following processes are suitable: Physical Vapor Deposition (English: Physical Vapor Deposition, PVD) Chemical Vapor Deposition (English: Chemical Vapor Deposition, CVD) Galvanic method Sol-gel method The systems of basic layer and protective layer according to the invention are designed as layer systems and in particular represent a system that is not located in thermodynamic equilibrium.","As a result, at a temperature that is elevated relative to room temperature, an interdiffusion, preferably at least predominantly and in particular exclusively, brings about a diffusion of the protective material into the basic material between basic material and protective material.","The systems according to the invention are designed in particular as a diffusion pair.","The described phase diagram as well as any phase diagram of the above-mentioned material combinations represent equilibrium states of several phases at various temperatures and concentrations.","The conclusions that can be drawn from equilibrium diagrams such as phase diagrams regarding kinetic processes such as diffusion are very limited.","In principle, equilibrium diagrams do not allow any assessment on kinetic processes.","The phase diagrams are therefore used exclusively to make an assessment as to whether the protective material in general could dissolve at a specific temperature in the basic material.","To the extent that local concentration build-ups occur during the diffusion process of the protective material into the basic material, which exceed the solubility of the protective material in the basic material and thus lead to a possible separation, phase formation or the like, this is ignored in the description below.","Hereinafter, in principle, the assumption is that the diffusion of the protective material into the basic material is carried out quickly, so that at a given temperature, at no time anywhere in the basic material is the maximum solubility of protective material exceeded.","This is achieved in particular according to the invention in that the greater the solubility of the protective material in the basic material at a given temperature, the faster the protective material diffuses into the basic material and/or the smaller the transfer of protective material into the basic material in the protective-material-basic material interface.","The depicted and described phase diagrams were determined by metallurgy.","Many components have a very low solubility in the second components in each case, so that the solubility limit is hardly recognizable based on the depiction.","In order to be able to better describe the ideas according to the invention, the idea according to the invention of several systems that are as simple as possible is described.","As basic material, the technically very important and to date material that is very difficult to bond, aluminum, is used.","Therefore, basic material after the deposition on the bonding side of the substrate is a one-component one-phase system.","As protective materials for the protective layer, four important materials are presented below by way of example, and said materials have the necessary properties according to the invention, namely germanium, gallium, zinc and magnesium.","Therefore, this protective material after the deposition is also a one-component-one-phase system.","The above-mentioned material combinations are preferred according to the invention, whereby reference is made to the examples described below with the above-mentioned advantages relative to the individual material combination.","The basic material-protective material system of the bonding layer is accordingly a layer system, which is converted preferably during the bonding process by a dissolution process into a two-component-one-phase system.","In this case, a mixed crystal comprised of basic material and protective material is preferably produced.","The bonding process itself takes place either in an inert gas atmosphere, but more preferably in a vacuum.","In an advantageous embodiment of this invention, precipitates are desired, in particular by at least one heat treatment being carried out after the (successful) bonding process, in order to produce a two-component-two-phase system by at least partial, in particular predominant, and preferably complete, precipitation of the protective material out of the basic material.","Below, based on more advantageous embodiments, the invention is explained, whereby the embodiments in each case can be considered independent invention aspects per se, which aspects are to be disclosed as separate inventions and are to be claimable, in particular in combination with the above general disclosure."],["RELATED APPLICATIONS This application is a continuation of U.S. application Ser.","No.","15/441,741, filed Feb. 24, 2017, which is a continuation of U.S. application Ser.","No.","14/909,157, filed Feb. 1, 2016, which is a U.S. National Stage Application of International Application No.","PCT/EP2013/069003, filed Sep. 13, 2013, said patent applications hereby fully incorporated herein by reference.","FIELD OF INVENTION The invention relates to a method for applying a bonding layer and to a substrate provided with a bonding layer.","BACKGROUND OF INVENTION In the state of the art, countless methods to connect various materials to one another exist.","In the semiconductor industry, in recent years, primarily the bonding technology to connect two substrates temporarily or permanently to one another has gained acceptance.","Very often, the bonding process takes place between semiconductor(s) and/or metal structures on the substrate.","The best-known metal bonding technology of recent times is copper bonding.","Substrates are the carriers for functional assemblies such as microchips, memory chips, or MEMS assemblies.","In recent years, increasingly attempts were made to produce a connection between assemblies arranged on various substrates in order to avoid a wire-bonding process between the assemblies that is labor-intensive, costly, and susceptible to flaws.","In addition, the direct bonding variant has the enormous advantage of elevated assembly density.","The assemblies must no longer be positioned beside one another and connected via wires, but rather are stacked on one another and connected vertically to one another by various technologies.","In most cases, the vertical connections are produced by contact points.","The contact points of different substrates must be identical to one another and are oriented to one another before the actual bonding process.","Another little-used process is aluminum bonding.","In this process, aluminized points on the surface of a substrate are to be bonded with a material lying on a second substrate.","In this case, this can be aluminum or a suitable, different material.","One drawback of aluminum is its extreme oxygen affinity.","Even with copper, the oxygen affinity is high, so that copper oxides must be regularly removed before a bonding process.","With aluminum, the oxygen affinity is higher by a multiple.","Aluminum still forms relatively thick, passivating aluminum oxide layers, which are difficult to remove.","In contrast to copper, aluminum is therefore little used for bonding connections, since at this time, because of the very stable oxide layers, no reliable bonding result can be achieved at a reasonable cost.","Nevertheless, aluminum is widely used in the semiconductor area to produce metal connections on the chip surface in the lateral direction.","Here, aluminum is distinguished in that it has significantly slower diffusion behavior in silicon than, for example, copper or gold.","Metal diffused into silicon would impair the characteristics of transistors or make the latter completely unfunctional.","Based on this advantageous diffusion behavior, paired with low costs and relatively good electrical conductivity, aluminum has been established over many years as the material that is mainly used for producing electrical connections laterally on the semiconductor chips.","Recently, in chips of the newest generation, aluminum is increasingly being replaced by copper because of its better electrical conductivity; however, aluminum still enjoys great importance, primarily in the production of chips on 200 mm substrates with somewhat older production technology.","It is specifically these production surrounding areas/plants that in recent times have found enhanced use for the production of MEMS (micro-electro-mechanical systems) components.","The production of these MEMS components in turn frequently requires bonding processes, so that the need for a reliable aluminum bonding process increases.","Outside of the semiconductor industry, aluminum is also a structural material that is in demand, since it is light, inexpensive, and primarily hardenable.","In the semiconductor industry, based on the above-mentioned reasons, it has been attempted for some time to develop processes that make aluminum usable as structural material and in particular material for bonding connections.","The greatest problem when using oxygen-affine materials such as copper and aluminum is the avoidance of oxidation on bonding surfaces and/or the complete removal of oxide from bonding surfaces before a bonding process.","Extremely oxygen-affine materials such as aluminum produce, moreover, oxides that are strong and difficult to reduce.","Plants for oxide removal are expensive, labor-intensive and under certain circumstances dangerous (toxic substances).","SUMMARY OF INVENTION The object of this invention is therefore to indicate a method as well as a substrate provided with a bonding layer, with which an oxidizable material (such as in particular aluminum) can be used for bonding.","This object is achieved with the features of the independent claim(s).","Advantageous further developments of the invention are indicated in the subclaims.","All combinations of at least two of the features indicated in the specification, the claims and/or the figures also fall within the scope of the invention.","In the indicated ranges of values, values that lie within the above-mentioned limits are also to be disclosed as boundary values and can be claimed in any combination.","It is an essential idea of this invention to provide a bonding layer, comprised of a basic layer and a protective layer, in particular as a diffusion pair, on the substrate, whereby a basic material of the basic layer can be oxidized, while a protective material of the protective layer can be oxidized at least less easily.","The invention therefore in particular is a matter of a process in which the oxidation of oxygen-affine materials such as in particular aluminum (preferred) or copper is prevented from the start.","The protection of oxygen-affine basic material is achieved according to the invention in particular by the deposition of a protective material, which covers the basic material at least partially, in particular primarily, and preferably completely.","The objective breakdown of the elements relative to their oxygen affinity can be most simply defined by the electrochemical voltage sequence.","Oxygen-affine elements such as lithium are extremely base materials, are easily oxidized, and therefore act as reducing agents, easily release electrons, and therefore have an extremely negative standard electrode potential.","However, elements with a low oxygen affinity are referred to as noble, since the latter can be easily reduced and therefore act as oxidizing agents, accommodate electrons, and have an extremely positive standard electrode potential.","As basic material, in particular a material with a standard electrode potential is used that is less than 2.00 V, preferably less than 1.00 V, more preferably less than 0.0 V, most preferably less than −1.0 V, with utmost preference less than −2.0 V, and even more preferably less than −3.0 V. Copper has a standard electrode potential of approximately 0.16 V, aluminum of approximately −1.66 V. The noblest metal is gold with a standard electrode potential of approximately 1.69 V (for the first oxidation stage).","In an especially preferred variant, the basic material and the protective material are located as targets, separated from one another, in a coating chamber and are applied in succession under vacuum, so that no contact of the basic material with an oxygen-containing atmosphere is produced.","An embodiment of the invention is comprised in leaving the protective material on the basic material during the bonding process and, because of its chemical-physical properties, in at least partially, in particular predominantly, and preferably completely dissolving the protective material in the basic material during the bonding process.","The selection of the basic material-protective material combination is carried out in such a way that the latter allows a solid dissolution process.","The protective material is preferably more readily soluble in the basic material than vice versa.","The protective material is dissolved in particular under specific process conditions in the basic material.","The basic material therefore has a boundary solubility for the protective material and/or the basic material can be mixed at least partially, in particular predominantly, and preferably completely with the basic material.","In the case of an existing boundary solubility of the protective material in the basic material, the boundary solubility at room temperature is in particular great enough to keep a specific amount of the protective material dissolved.","In this way, the protective material according to the invention can be applied as an extremely thin layer in order to avoid local concentration peaks during the diffusion process of the protective material into the basic material that can lead to an (undesired) precipitate.","Another aspect of this invention that is advantageous according to the invention is comprised in preventing a contact of the oxygen-affine basic material with an oxygen-containing or oxygen-rich atmosphere, in particular by at least predominant covering of the surfaces of the basic layer, not covered by the substrate, with the protective layer.","The protective material itself is preferably a solid, in particular at least at room temperature.","The latter is therefore not liquid and allows the transport of the protected basic material through an oxygen-containing atmosphere.","In an advantageous embodiment of the invention, the protective material is selected in such a way that the latter is less oxygen-affine than the basic material, or any oxide that is formed on the protective material can be removed with simpler means than would be the case in an oxide formed on the basic material.","Oxide-forming material for the protective layer is advantageously selected in such a way that in addition to the simple removal of the oxide, new oxide is only slowly formed again after the oxide removal.","In particular, less than 0.3 nm of oxide, preferably less than 0.1 nm of oxide, is formed on time lapses of at least 2 minutes, preferably at least 5 minutes, more preferably at least 10 minutes, and most preferably at least 15 minutes.","An incorporation of any oxide, formed on the protective layer, in the basic material is in particular at least predominantly prevented according to the invention.","To this end, the oxide of the protective material is removed in particular immediately before a bonding process.","In the case of a smaller amount of formed oxide, a breaking of the oxide during the later desired bonding process and a direct incorporation into the boundary layer are also conceivable.","Protective materials with one or more of the properties cited below are preferably used: A low oxygen affinity, in particular defined by a standard electrode potential of more than 0 V, preferably more than 1.00 V, more preferably more than 2.00 V, preferably less than the oxygen affinity of the basic material, A high solubility in the basic material, in particular more than 10-5 mol %, preferably more than 10-3 mol %, more preferably more than 1 mol %, most preferably more than 10 mol %, and with utmost preference more than 40 mol %, The properties of the basic material are not negatively influenced, and therefore in the case of the desired high conductivity do not impair the conductivity and in the case of the desired high level of strength do not reduce the strength, Airtight relative to the atmosphere, Economical, High level of availability, Slightly toxic, in particular non-toxic, and/or Good bonding properties.","Accordingly, the invention relates in particular to a method for covering, in particular coating, a first material tending toward oxidation, the basic material, in particular a metal or a semiconductor, with a second material, the protective material.","The protective material is in particular dissolved at least partially, in particular predominantly, and preferably completely in another process step by a dissolution process of the basic material and/or forms precipitates partially, in particular predominantly, and preferably completely, in a quite special, expanded embodiment.","The embodiment that is preferred according to the invention comprises a complete dissolution of the protective material into the basic material, whereby in this case, no precipitates are produced.","The object of the protective layer formed from the protective material consists in particular in the prevention of the oxidation of the basic material.","The protective material can itself oxidize upon contact with an oxygen-containing atmosphere and is optionally removed from oxide, before the dissolution process according to the invention begins in the basic material.","In a quite special embodiment, the removal of this oxide on the protective layer is performed in a unit in which a renewed oxidation of the protective layer is prevented for design reasons on the way to the bonder.","For example, the use of an oxide removal module and a bonding chamber in a corresponding vacuum cluster, which separates the module from the surrounding, oxygen-containing atmosphere, would be conceivable.","Such cluster systems are well known to one skilled in the art.","The preferred target of the process according to the invention primarily includes protecting oxygen-affine basic materials, in particular aluminum but also copper, which are to be bonded in an additional process step, up to the actual bonding step before an oxidation.","The removal of any oxides of the protective material, which preferably has a much lower oxygen affinity than the basic material to be protected, is considerably simpler, faster, and primarily more reliable, so that the process can be accelerated.","According to a preferred embodiment, the protective material, in particular after a removal of oxides of the protective material, is then bonded with another substrate that is formed in particular according to the invention.","Preferably, the protective material is at least partially, in particular predominantly, and preferably completely dissolved during the bonding process in the basic material, so that in the ideal case, no contact occurs between the basic material and the oxygen-rich atmosphere until the bonding takes place.","The method according to the invention is therefore primarily suitable for temporarily protecting with the protective material oxygen-affine basic materials, in particular aluminum or copper, directly after the coating on a substrate.","To the extent the basic material is not full-surface but rather is applied on the substrate in particular in a structured manner and/or only in partial areas (for example copper contacts or aluminum boundaries, which are to be part of a hermetically-sealed space of a MEMS component), the protective material is applied in the form of a film that is as uniformly thick as possible, and in particular is sealed.","According to the invention, primarily the ratio of the (in particular middle) layer thickness of the basic material to the layer thickness of the protective material is important.","In addition, the chemical, physical and/or metallurgical behavior of the basic material with the protective material according to the invention plays a role.","The basic material is preferably a solid solvent.","In particular, the basic material can be a multi-phase-multi-component system.","In the case of a multi-phase material, all considerations for the dissolution process are valid at least for a phase, in the ideal case for all phases.","As basic material, an individual chemical element is preferably selected, in particular a metal, a semi-metal, or a non-metal, in particular silicon, gallium, aluminum, nickel, titanium or copper.","These metals are the materials that are most often used in the semiconductor industry for the production of conductive compounds, contact or structural building blocks (for example MEMS assemblies).","In order to disclose the process according to the invention as simply as possible, the process according to the invention is described by way of example, but not in a limiting manner, with regard to the basic material aluminum.","Aluminum is especially suitable according to the invention, since it is a highly-available, economical structural material.","The protective material can in particular also be a multi-phase-multi-component system, but it is preferably a simple chemical element that preferably occurs only in one phase.","In this case, it is preferably a metal, a semi-metal, an alkali metal or an alkaline-earth metal.","The use of non-metallic elements such as carbon would also be conceivable according to the invention as long as the chemical-physical properties correspond between the non-metal with basic material in terms of the process according to the invention.","The following materials are considered according to the invention in principle as basic material and/or protective material.","In this case, the processes according to the invention require that the protective material be at least partially, in particular predominantly, and preferably completely, dissolvable in the basic material.","Metals, in particular Cu, Ag, Au, Al, Fe, Ni, Co, Pt, W, Cr, Pb, Ti, Te, Sn, Zn, Ga Alkali metals, in particular Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs Alkaline-earth metals, in particular Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba Alloys Semiconductors, provided in particular with corresponding doping Element semiconductors, in particular Si, Ge, Se, Te, B, Sn Compound semiconductors, in particular GaAs, GaN, InP, InxGa1−xN, InSb, InAs, GaSb, AN, InN, GaP, BeTe, ZnO, CuInGaSe2, ZnS, ZnSe, ZnTe, CdS, CdSe, CdTe, Hg(1−x)Cd(x)Te, BeSe, HgS, AlxGa1−xAs, GaS, GaSe, GaTe, InS, InSe, InTe, CuInSe2, CuInS2, CuInGaS2, SiC, SiGe.","For removal of oxide layers of the protective material, preferably the following processes are suitable: Chemical oxide removal, in particular by a Gaseous reducing agent and/or Liquid reducing agent Physical oxide removal, in particular with plasma Ion-Assisted Chemical Etching, in particular Fast Ion Bombardment (FAB, sputtering) Grinding, and/or Polishing.","For deposition and therefore synthesis of the basic material and/or the protective layer, the following processes are suitable: Physical Vapor Deposition (English: Physical Vapor Deposition, PVD) Chemical Vapor Deposition (English: Chemical Vapor Deposition, CVD) Galvanic method Sol-gel method The systems of basic layer and protective layer according to the invention are designed as layer systems and in particular represent a system that is not located in thermodynamic equilibrium.","As a result, at a temperature that is elevated relative to room temperature, an interdiffusion, preferably at least predominantly and in particular exclusively, brings about a diffusion of the protective material into the basic material between basic material and protective material.","The systems according to the invention are designed in particular as a diffusion pair.","The described phase diagram as well as any phase diagram of the above-mentioned material combinations represent equilibrium states of several phases at various temperatures and concentrations.","The conclusions that can be drawn from equilibrium diagrams such as phase diagrams regarding kinetic processes such as diffusion are very limited.","In principle, equilibrium diagrams do not allow any assessment on kinetic processes.","The phase diagrams are therefore used exclusively to make an assessment as to whether the protective material in general could dissolve at a specific temperature in the basic material.","To the extent that local concentration build-ups occur during the diffusion process of the protective material into the basic material, which exceed the solubility of the protective material in the basic material and thus lead to a possible separation, phase formation or the like, this is ignored in the description below.","Hereinafter, in principle, the assumption is that the diffusion of the protective material into the basic material is carried out quickly, so that at a given temperature, at no time anywhere in the basic material is the maximum solubility of protective material exceeded.","This is achieved in particular according to the invention in that the greater the solubility of the protective material in the basic material at a given temperature, the faster the protective material diffuses into the basic material and/or the smaller the transfer of protective material into the basic material in the protective-material-basic material interface.","The depicted and described phase diagrams were determined by metallurgy.","Many components have a very low solubility in the second components in each case, so that the solubility limit is hardly recognizable based on the depiction.","In order to be able to better describe the ideas according to the invention, the idea according to the invention of several systems that are as simple as possible is described.","As basic material, the technically very important and to date material that is very difficult to bond, aluminum, is used.","Therefore, basic material after the deposition on the bonding side of the substrate is a one-component one-phase system.","As protective materials for the protective layer, four important materials are presented below by way of example, and said materials have the necessary properties according to the invention, namely germanium, gallium, zinc and magnesium.","Therefore, this protective material after the deposition is also a one-component-one-phase system.","The above-mentioned material combinations are preferred according to the invention, whereby reference is made to the examples described below with the above-mentioned advantages relative to the individual material combination.","The basic material-protective material system of the bonding layer is accordingly a layer system, which is converted preferably during the bonding process by a dissolution process into a two-component-one-phase system.","In this case, a mixed crystal comprised of basic material and protective material is preferably produced.","The bonding process itself takes place either in an inert gas atmosphere, but more preferably in a vacuum.","In an advantageous embodiment of this invention, precipitates are desired, in particular by at least one heat treatment being carried out after the (successful) bonding process, in order to produce a two-component-two-phase system by at least partial, in particular predominant, and preferably complete, precipitation of the protective material out of the basic material.","Below, based on more advantageous embodiments, the invention is explained, whereby the embodiments in each case can be considered independent invention aspects per se, which aspects are to be disclosed as separate inventions and are to be claimable, in particular in combination with the above general disclosure.","First Embodiment A first system, to which the idea according to the invention can be applied, is the aluminum-germanium system, Al—Ge for short.","The binary Al—Ge system is a purely eutectic system with a partial boundary solubility for germanium in aluminum and a disappearing low boundary solubility of aluminum in germanium.","As basic material, aluminum is therefore selected.","In order to protect the aluminum against oxidation, it is immediately covered with a germanium layer as a protective layer after the successful deposition on the substrate.","Germanium is therefore the protective material according to the invention.","The germanium layer is in particular less than 10 μm, preferably less than 1 μm, more preferably less than 100 nm, most preferably less than 10 nm, and with utmost preference less than 1 nm.","The deposition is carried out at the lowest possible temperatures, in order to prevent or at least to suppress a partial or even complete diffusion of the germanium at elevated temperature into the aluminum.","In the case of the deposition of the germanium, the temperature of the aluminum is less than 600° C., preferably less than 500° C., more preferably less than 400° C., most preferably less than 300° C., with utmost preference less than 200° C., and even more preferably less than 100° C. In special cases, the aluminum can even be actively cooled in order to further drop the temperature.","By the lowest possible temperature, a germanium that is deposited on the aluminum is immediately hindered in its thermal movement and preferably remains on the surface, and therefore does not diffuse into the aluminum.","In addition, the diffusion of the germanium into the aluminum is hampered by the especially low solubility of the germanium in aluminum at low temperatures.","Starting from this time, germanium serves as a protective material for the aluminum.","If the system is exposed to an oxygen-containing atmosphere, the germanium oxidizes at least predominantly and preferably completely, and thus aluminum protects the latter against oxidation by virtue of the fact that the aluminum is sealed relative to the atmosphere.","In this connection, it is to be considered that the standard electrode potential of germanium is approximately 0.12 V and that of aluminum is approximately −1.66 V. Germanium is therefore nobler than aluminum and is consequently not able to protect aluminum chemically as a sacrifice anode.","Accordingly, the germanium layer is tightly applied in order to build up a physical barrier between the aluminum and the atmosphere.","In order to implement a bond between aluminum and a desired second material, first any germanium oxides formed are removed from the germanium.","The removal of the germanium oxides is carried out by physical and/or chemical means.","Sputtering-off of oxides, wet-chemical removal by reducing acids, or reduction by hydrogen or other gaseous reducing agents is conceivable.","After the removal of germanium oxides, bringing the pure germanium surface into contact with the surface to be bonded, in particular a substrate that is structured analogously in particular according to the invention, is carried out as quickly as possible.","The bonding process is carried out at a bonding temperature that is elevated relative to room temperature.","In this case, the bonding temperature is in particular greater than 25° C., preferably greater than 100° C., more preferably greater than 200° C., most preferably greater than 300° C., with utmost preference greater than 400° C., and even more preferably around 426° C. According to the phase diagram, aluminum at approximately 426° C. has the greatest solubility for germanium of approximately 2.5 mol %.","According to the invention, in a preferred embodiment, the forming of a liquid, eutectic phase in the boundary area is prevented by the preferred bonding temperature being below the eutectic temperature, in particular between 400° C.-420° C. In this temperature range, the solubility of the germanium in the aluminum is always still high enough to justify dissolution of the germanium into aluminum.","According to the invention, the bonding temperature during the bonding process is kept constant at this temperature up to the at least predominant, preferably complete, dissolution of the germanium into aluminum.","The time required for the dissolution can be calculated by the dissolution of the one-dimensional diffusion equation knowing the diffusion constants of germanium into aluminum.","Nevertheless, it may be necessary and useful to maintain the temperature for a shorter or longer time.","The length of time for dissolving the germanium in aluminum is set, according to the invention, in particular at greater than 1 minute, preferably greater than 10 minutes, more preferably greater than 30 minutes, most preferably greater than 1 hour, with utmost preference greater than 2 hours, and even more preferably greater than 5 hours.","During the dissolution process, the pressure on the substrates that are to be bonded with one another is preferably maintained or increased.","The pressure that acts on the bonding layer is in particular greater than 1 Pa, preferably greater than 100 Pa, more preferably greater than 10,000 Pa, most preferably greater than 1 MPa, with utmost preference greater than 10 MPa, and even more preferably greater than 100 MPa.","The forces that are used, in particular relative to standard wafers, are greater than 10 N, preferably greater than 100 N, most preferably greater than 1,000 N, with utmost preference greater than 10,000 N, and even more preferably greater than 100,000 N. During the dissolution process, the germanium preferably dissolves in all of the aluminum.","Because of the fact that the amount of germanium to be dissolved is very low at the same time that the amount of dissolving aluminum is very large, the total concentration of the germanium in aluminum is very small.","The total concentration of the germanium in aluminum is in particular less than 1 mol %, preferably less than 10−3 mol %, preferably less than 10−5 mol %, and most preferably less than 10−7 mol %.","The germanium is dissolved preferably not only exclusively in the region of the aluminum that is near the surface but rather diffuses as deep as possible into the aluminum, preferably so deep that after a specific time, an even distribution of germanium in aluminum has been achieved.","In a first procedure according to the invention, it is provided that during the cooling process, it does not result in exceeding the boundary solubility of the germanium in aluminum, so that germanium always remains completely dissolved in the aluminum.","As a result, the precipitation of germanium in the aluminum matrix is prevented in the entire temperature range.","This is carried out according to the invention by a ratio of aluminum layer thickness to germanium layer thickness according to the invention being selected and the diffusion process running for a specific amount of time until germanium is distributed into aluminum in particular predominantly, preferably completely, and primarily over the entire available space.","The ratio between the germanium layer thickness and aluminum layer thickness is in this case less than 1, preferably less than 10−3, more preferably less than 10−5, most preferably less than 10−7, with utmost preference less than 10−9, and most preferably less than 10−11.In an alternative procedure according to the invention, the germanium layer thickness is set in such a way that at higher temperatures, an in particular at least predominant, preferably complete, dissolution of the germanium is carried out, but a supersaturated mixed crystal is produced during cooling that leads to germanium precipitates.","These germanium precipitates can positively influence the strength properties of the aluminum.","They preferably result in an increase in strength of the aluminum, in particular in combination with an additional heat treatment.","Second Embodiment A second system, to which the idea according to the invention can be applied, is aluminum-gallium, Al—Ga for short.","The binary aluminum-gallium system is a purely eutectic system with very strong degradation.","The eutectic concentration is very close to the concentration of pure gallium.","The boundary solubility of the gallium in aluminum is extraordinarily high and reaches its maximum of approximately 7.5-8.0 mol % at temperatures around 125° C. The boundary solubility of aluminum in gallium is minute, however.","As basic material, the aluminum according to the invention is therefore selected.","In order to protect the aluminum against oxidation, it is immediately covered with a gallium layer after the successful deposition.","The gallium layer is formed in particular at less than 10 μm, preferably less than 1 μm, more preferably less than 100 nm, most preferably less than 10 nm, and with utmost preference less than 1 nm.","The deposition is carried out at the lowest possible temperatures in order to prevent or at least to suppress a partial or even complete diffusion of gallium at elevated temperature into aluminum.","Gallium has a very low melting point of approximately 30° C. In order to prevent the gallium layer applied on aluminum from liquefying, a temperature of below 30° C. is set.","According to the invention, it would be conceivable, however, that at higher temperatures, the gallium remains in liquid form on the aluminum, without hampering the handling of the entire wafer.","The reason may be primarily the extremely small amount of deposited gallium, which has a high enough surface tension and a high enough adhesion to aluminum to continue to exist as a liquid metal film.","In the second embodiment, it is provided according to the invention that the gallium diffuses at moderate temperatures into aluminum.","Therefore, the subsequent bonding process is performed as shortly as possible after the basic layer is covered with the protective layer.","In the case of the deposition of the gallium, the temperature of the aluminum is less than 300° C., preferably less than 200° C., more preferably less than 100° C., most preferably less than 50° C., with utmost preference less than 30° C., and even more preferably less than 0° C. In special cases, the aluminum can even be actively cooled by further dropping the temperature.","If the system is exposed to an oxygen-containing atmosphere, the gallium preferably oxidizes and thus protects the aluminum.","In this connection, it is to be considered that the standard electrode potential of gallium is approximately −0.53 V and that of aluminum is approximately −1.66 V. Gallium is therefore nobler than aluminum and is consequently not able to protect aluminum chemically as a sacrifice anode.","Accordingly, the gallium layer is tightly applied in order to build up a physical barrier between the aluminum and the atmosphere.","The boundary solubility of gallium in aluminum is also still extremely high at room temperature, if not even just below at the maximum of the already mentioned 7.5-8.0 mol %.","The boundary solubility of the gallium in aluminum decreases again only below room temperature.","A precipitation of dissolved gallium in aluminum can therefore be avoided in this embodiment of the invention.","By the especially high solubility of gallium in aluminum, in particular also even at room temperature, the material gallium is especially suitable in this respect to be dissolved in aluminum.","According to the invention, the process parameters are set so that the concentration of gallium in aluminum at any time is less than the boundary solubility, since otherwise a two-phase system can be produced from an aluminum mixed crystal with gallium and a liquid phase.","This would have the effect that the bonding can no longer be implemented since the liquid phase also still exists at room temperature.","In contrast, specifically the low melting point and the possibility to liquefy at extremely low temperatures are an optimal requirement for a subsequent bonding process.","By means of the most minor temperature increases, gallium is liquefied on the surface of the aluminum and thus as a liquid phase matches the contours of the two surfaces that are to be connected to one another.","Although it is the actual idea of the invention according to the invention to dissolve gallium in aluminum, the capability of liquefaction at low temperatures for supporting the bonding process before the actual dissolution process is disclosed in this respect as an independent aspect of the invention.","In order to implement a bonding between aluminum and a desired second material, first any gallium oxides formed are removed from the gallium.","Just like aluminum, gallium coats itself with a thick oxide layer and is thus passivated.","Gallium forms a gallium hydroxide layer with water.","The removal of gallium oxides is carried out by physical and/or chemical means.","Sputtering-off of oxides, wet-chemical removal by reducing acids and/or liquors, or reduction by hydrogen or other gaseous reducing agents is conceivable.","After the removal of gallium oxides, bringing the pure gallium surface into contact with the surface to be bonded, in particular a substrate that is structured analogously in particular according to the invention, is carried out as quickly as possible.","The bonding process is carried out at a temperature that is elevated relative to room temperature.","In this case, the bonding temperature is in particular greater than 25° C., preferably greater than 100° C., more preferably greater than 200° C., most preferably greater than 300° C., with utmost preference greater than 400° C., and even more preferably around 426° C. According to the phase diagram, aluminum has the greatest solubility for germanium of approximately 8 mol % between 77° C. and 177° C. Preventing the forming of a liquid, eutectic phase in the boundary area is very difficult in the case of an Al-Ga diffusion pair.","Since dissolving gallium in aluminum is preferred according to the invention and since diffusion is to take place as quickly as possible, a brief existence of a liquid phase according to the invention is acceptable.","According to the invention, the bonding temperature during the bonding process is kept constant at this temperature up to the at least predominant, preferably complete, dissolution of gallium in aluminum.","The required time can be calculated by solving the one-dimensional diffusion equation knowing the diffusion constants of gallium in aluminum.","Nevertheless, it may be necessary and useful to maintain the temperature for a shorter or longer time.","The length of time for dissolving gallium in aluminum is in this case greater than 1 minute, preferably greater than 10 minutes, more preferably greater than 30 minutes, most preferably greater than 1 hour, with utmost preference greater than 2 hours, and even more preferably greater than 5 hours.","During the dissolution process, the pressure is preferably maintained or even increased on the substrates that are to be bonded with one another.","The prevailing pressure is in particular greater than 1 Pa, preferably greater than 100 Pa, more preferably greater than 10,000 Pa, most preferably greater than 1 MPa, with utmost preference greater than 10 MPa, and even more preferably greater than 100 MPa.","The forces that are used, in particular relative to standard wafers, are greater than 10 N, preferably greater than 100 N, most preferably greater than 1,000 N, with utmost preference greater than 10,000 N, and even more preferably greater than 100,000 N. During the dissolution process, gallium preferably dissolves in all of the aluminum.","Because of the fact that the amount of gallium to be dissolved is very small but the amount of aluminum to be dissolved is very large, the total concentration of gallium in aluminum is very small.","The total concentration of gallium in aluminum is in particular less than 10 mol %, preferably less than 5 mol %, preferably less than 1 mol %, and most preferably less than 10−3 mol %.","Gallium is preferably dissolved not only exclusively in the region of the aluminum that is near the surface but rather diffuses as deep as possible into the aluminum, preferably so deep that after a specific time, an even distribution of gallium in aluminum has been achieved.","In a procedure according to the invention, it is now ensured that during the cooling process, the boundary solubility of gallium in aluminum is never exceeded, so that gallium always remains completely dissolved in aluminum.","As a result, the precipitation of gallium in the aluminum matrix is prevented in the entire temperature range.","In the Al—Ga system, this is technically very simple to bring about since the change in the boundary solubility of gallium in aluminum is marginal in the temperature range between approximately 130° C. and room temperature, i.e., it does not change particularly much.","As a result, during the cooling process, there is virtually no danger that a (significant) precipitation of gallium in aluminum occurs.","The ratio between the gallium layer thickness and the aluminum layer thickness is in this case less than 1, preferably less than 10−3, more preferably less than 10−5, most preferably less than 10−7, with utmost preference less than 10−9, and even more preferably less than 10−11.Third Embodiment A third system, to which the idea according to the invention can be applied, is the aluminum-zinc system, Al—Zn for short.","The binary aluminum-zinc system is a binary system that has a zinc-rich eutectic and a zinc-rich eutectoid.","For the ideas according to the invention, in particular the boundary solubilities of the system partners are important.","According to the Al—Zn phase diagram, aluminum has a boundary solubility for zinc, and zinc has a boundary solubility, albeit a small one, for aluminum.","Since aluminum is preferably used as basic material and zinc is preferably used as a protective layer, only the aluminum-rich side of the phase diagram is important.","In order to protect aluminum against oxidation, it is immediately covered with a zinc layer as a protective layer after the successful deposition on the substrate.","Zinc is thus the protective material for protection of the basic layer against oxidation.","The zinc layer is in particular less than 10 μm, preferably less than 1 μm, more preferably less than 100 nm, most preferably less than 10 nm, and with utmost preference less than 1 nm.","The deposition is carried out at the lowest possible temperatures in order to prevent or at least to suppress a partial or even complete diffusion of zinc at elevated temperature into aluminum.","In the case of the deposition of zinc, the temperature of aluminum is less than 600° C., preferably less than 500° C., more preferably less than 400° C., most preferably less than 300° C., with utmost preference less than 200° C., and even more preferably less than 100° C. In special cases, the aluminum can even be actively cooled in order to further drop the temperature.","By the lowest possible temperature, the zinc that is deposited on the aluminum is immediately impeded in its thermal movement and preferably remains on the surface, and it therefore does not diffuse into aluminum.","In addition, by the especially low solubility of zinc in aluminum at low temperatures, the diffusion of zinc into aluminum is hampered.","From this time, zinc serves as protective material for aluminum.","If the system is exposed to an oxygen-containing atmosphere, the zinc at least predominantly, preferably completely, oxidizes, and the latter thus protects the aluminum against oxidation, in particular by the aluminum being sealed relative to the atmosphere.","In this connection, it is to be considered that the standard electrode potential of zinc is approximately −0.76 V, and that of aluminum is approximately −1.66 V. Zinc is therefore nobler than aluminum and is consequently not able to protect aluminum chemically as a sacrifice anode.","Accordingly, the zinc layer is tightly applied in order to build up a physical barrier between aluminum and the surrounding area, in particular the atmosphere.","In order to implement a bond between aluminum and a desired second material, first any zinc oxides formed are removed from the zinc.","The removal of the zinc oxides is carried out in particular by physical and/or chemical means.","Sputtering-off of oxides, wet-chemical removal by reducing acids, or reduction by hydrogen or other gaseous reducing agents, in particular carbon monoxide, is conceivable according to the invention.","After the removal of zinc oxides, bringing the pure zinc surface into contact with the surface to be bonded is carried out as quickly as possible.","The bonding process is carried out at an elevated temperature relative to room temperature.","In this case, the bonding temperature is greater than 25° C., preferably greater than 100° C., more preferably greater than 200° C., most preferably greater than 300° C., with utmost preference greater than 400° C., and even more preferably around 380° C. According to the phase diagram, of between approximately 350° C. and approximately 380° C., zinc has an extremely large area with a high solubility for zinc in aluminum.","According to the invention, the amount of deposited zinc is set low so that after the complete and primarily uniform distribution of zinc in aluminum, no concentrations are set in a range above 1 mol % of zinc, much less 50-60 mol % of zinc.","The large solubility range is well suited in this respect to avoid any local concentration peaks without exceeding the concentration range of a mixed crystal that is desired according to the invention.","By a correspondingly long heat treatment, any concentration peak of the zinc in aluminum is again reduced by a uniform distribution of zinc in aluminum so that the final end concentration of the zinc in aluminum, reached before the cooling process, preferably lies below the boundary solubility of the zinc in aluminum at room temperature.","According to the invention, preferably during the bonding process, the system is therefore maintained within this temperature range for the length of time that is required in order to dissolve all of the zinc in aluminum.","Nevertheless, even at approximately 280° C., the boundary solubility of the zinc in aluminum is high enough to implement the process according to the invention.","The required time can be calculated by solving the one-dimensional diffusion equation knowing the diffusion constants of zinc in aluminum.","Nevertheless, it may be useful according to the invention to maintain the temperature for a shorter or longer time.","The length of time for dissolving zinc in aluminum is set in particular at greater than 1 minute, preferably greater than 10 minutes, more preferably greater than 30 minutes, most preferably greater than 1 hour, with utmost preference greater than 2 hours, and even more preferably greater than 5 hours.","During the dissolution process, the pressure is preferably maintained or increased on the substrates that are to be bonded with one another.","The prevailing pressure is in particular greater than 1 Pa, preferably greater than 100 Pa, more preferably greater than 10,000 Pa, most preferably greater than 1 MPa, with utmost preference greater than 10 MPa, and even more preferably greater than 100 MPa.","The forces that are used, in particular relative to standard wafers, are greater than 10 N, preferably greater than 100 N, most preferably greater than 1,000 N, with utmost preference greater than 10,000 N, and even more preferably greater than 100,000 N. During the dissolution process, the zinc is preferably dissolved in all of the aluminum.","Because of the fact that the amount of zinc to be dissolved is very small but the amount of the dissolving aluminum is very large, the total concentration of zinc in aluminum is very small.","The zinc is preferably dissolved not only exclusively in the region of the aluminum that is near to the surface, but rather diffuses as deep as possible into the aluminum, preferably so deep that after a specific time, an even distribution of zinc in aluminum has been achieved.","In a first procedure according to the invention, it is now ensured that during the cooling process, the boundary solubility of zinc in aluminum is not exceeded, so that zinc always remains completely dissolved in aluminum.","As a result, the precipitation of zinc in the aluminum matrix is prevented in the entire temperature range according to the invention.","This is carried out according to the invention by a ratio of aluminum layer thickness to zinc layer thickness according to the invention being selected and the diffusion process being run for a specific time until the zinc is distributed completely, in particular in the entire available space, in aluminum.","The ratio between the zinc layer thickness and aluminum layer thickness in this case is less than 1, preferably less than 10−3, more preferably less than 10−5, most preferably less than 10−7, with utmost preference less than 10−9, and even more preferably less than 10−11.According to another procedure according to the invention, the zinc layer thickness is set in such a way that at higher temperatures, a dissolution of the zinc into aluminum that is in particular at least predominant and preferably complete, is carried out, but during cooling, a supersaturated mixed crystal is produced that results in zinc precipitates.","These zinc precipitates can positively influence the strength properties of aluminum.","They preferably result in an increase in strength of the aluminum, in particular in combination with a heat treatment.","Fourth Embodiment A fourth system, to which the idea according to the invention can be applied, is the aluminum-magnesium system, Al—Mg for short.","The binary Al—Mg system is a binary system that consists of two eutectics with boundary solubility for magnesium in aluminum as well as a boundary solubility for aluminum in magnesium.","As basic material, aluminum is preferably selected.","In order to protect the aluminum against oxidation, it is immediately covered with a magnesium layer after the successful deposition of the magnesium material.","Magnesium is a very reactive alkaline-earth metal, primarily in its pure form.","The magnesium layer is in particular less than 10 μm, preferably less than 1 μm, more preferably less than 100 nm, most preferably less than 10 nm, and with utmost preference less than 1 nm.","The deposition is carried out at the lowest possible temperatures in order to prevent or at least to suppress a partial or even complete diffusion of the magnesium at elevated temperature in the aluminum.","In the case of the deposition of magnesium, the temperature of aluminum is less than 600° C., preferably less than 500° C., more preferably less than 400° C., most preferably less than 300° C., with utmost preference less than 200° C., and even more preferably less than 100° C. In special cases, the aluminum can even be actively cooled in order to further drop the temperature.","Because of the lowest possible temperature, a magnesium that is deposited on the aluminum is immediately hindered in its thermal movement and preferably remains on the surface, i.e., does not diffuse into the aluminum.","In addition, the diffusion of magnesium into aluminum is hampered by the especially low solubility of magnesium in aluminum at low temperatures.","Starting from this time, magnesium serves as protective material for aluminum.","If the system is exposed to an oxygen-containing atmosphere, the magnesium preferably oxidizes and thus protects the aluminum.","In this connection, it is to be considered that the standard electrode potential of magnesium is approximately −2.36 and that of aluminum is approximately −1.66 V. Magnesium is therefore a more base material than aluminum and is consequently able to protect aluminum chemically as a sacrifice anode.","It would perhaps even be conceivable that the deposited magnesium is used directly as a reducing agent for aluminum oxide that is already at least partially formed or not completely removed.","The reduction process can be performed by a separate, additional heat treatment step and preferably reduces the magnesium-covered aluminum oxide to form pure aluminum with the formation of magnesium oxide.","Hereinafter, in particular an independent aspect of the invention is found that, in combination with any additional method features disclosed, is to be valid and is to be claimable.","In order to implement a bond between aluminum and a desired second material, first any magnesium oxides formed must be removed from magnesium.","The removal of the magnesium oxides is carried out by physical and/or chemical means.","Sputtering-off of oxides, wet-chemical removal by reducing acids, or reduction by hydrogen or other gaseous reducing agents is conceivable according to the invention.","It is to be considered in this connection that magnesium oxides should be fairly stable structures that can be removed completely by wet-chemical means only with great difficulty; thus, physical methods according to the invention are rather suitable.","After the removal of magnesium oxides, bringing the pure magnesium surface into contact with the surface to be bonded is carried out as quickly as possible.","The bonding process is carried out at an elevated temperature.","In this case, the bonding temperature is greater than 25° C., preferably greater than 100° C., more preferably greater than 200° C., most preferably greater than 300° C., with utmost preference greater than 400° C., and even more preferably around 426° C. According to the phase diagram, aluminum at approximately 452° C. has the greatest solubility for magnesium of approximately 16 mol %.","However, if it is desired to prevent a liquid phase from forming in the boundary area and only to provide that the solid magnesium is dissolved in solid aluminum, the preferred bonding temperature is below the above-mentioned 452° C. In this temperature range, the solubility of the magnesium in aluminum is always still high enough to produce a noticeable dissolution of the magnesium in aluminum.","According to the invention, the temperature is maintained for the time of the in particular predominant, preferably complete, dissolution of magnesium in aluminum.","The required time can be calculated by solving the one-dimensional diffusion equation knowing the diffusion constants of magnesium in aluminum.","According to the invention, it may be useful to maintain the temperature for a shorter or longer time.","The length of time for dissolving magnesium in aluminum is set in particular at greater than 1 minute, preferably greater than 10 minutes, more preferably greater than 30 minutes, most preferably greater than 1 hour, with utmost preference greater than 2 hours, and even more preferably greater than 5 hours.","During the dissolution process, the pressure on the substrates that are to be bonded with one another is preferably maintained or increased.","The prevailing pressure is in particular greater than 1 Pa, preferably greater than 100 Pa, more preferably greater than 10,000 Pa, most preferably greater than 1 MPa, with utmost preference greater than 10 MPa, and even more preferably greater than 100 MPa.","The forces used that act on the wafer are greater than 10 N, preferably greater than 100 N, most preferably greater than 1,000 N, with utmost preference greater than 10,000 N, and even more preferably greater than 100,000 N. During the dissolution process, the magnesium preferably dissolves in all of the aluminum.","Because of the fact that the amount of magnesium to be dissolved is very small and the amount of dissolving aluminum is very large, the total concentration of the magnesium in aluminum is very small.","The magnesium is dissolved preferably not only exclusively in the region of the aluminum that is near the surface but rather diffuses as deep as possible into the aluminum, preferably so deep that after a specific time, an even distribution of germanium in aluminum has been achieved.","In a first procedure according to the invention, it is provided that during the cooling process, it does not result in exceeding the boundary solubility of the magnesium in aluminum, so that magnesium always remains completely dissolved in the aluminum.","As a result, the precipitation of a stoichiometric aluminum-magnesium phase in the aluminum matrix is prevented in the entire temperature range according to the invention.","This is carried out according to the invention by a ratio of aluminum layer thickness to magnesium layer thickness according to the invention being selected and by giving the diffusion process enough time until magnesium is distributed in the aluminum completely, and primarily over the entire available space.","The ratio between the magnesium layer thickness and aluminum layer thickness is selected in particular less than 1, preferably less than 10−3, more preferably less than 10−5, most preferably less than 10−7, with utmost preference less than 10−9, and even more preferably less than 10−11.In an alternative procedure according to the invention, the magnesium layer thickness is set in such a way that at higher temperatures, an in particular predominant, preferably complete, dissolution of the magnesium is carried out, but during cooling, a supersaturated mixed crystal is produced that leads to the precipitation of the stoichiometric aluminum-magnesium phase.","The aluminum-magnesium phase precipitates can positively influence the strength properties of the aluminum.","They preferably result in an increase in strength of the aluminum, in particular in combination with a heat treatment.","In quite special embodiments, the basic material is ground and/or polished before the deposition of the protective material.","In this case, it results in a planarization of the surface, which is of decisive importance for the later bonding process.","The mean roughness and/or the quadratic roughness are less than 100 μm, preferably less than 10 μm, more preferably less than 1 μm, most preferably less than 100 nm, with utmost preference less than 10 nm, and even more preferably less than 1 nm.","The polishing can take place by purely mechanical and/or chemical means.","Most optimal is a chemical-mechanical polishing (CMP).","Should an oxide layer have formed on the basic material, the latter is preferably already removed by the above-mentioned processes.","Should the removal of oxide by the above-mentioned processes not suffice, the already mentioned processes for oxide removal, such as, for example, sputtering, use of reducing gases and/or acids, can be used in addition.","After the planarization and optional purification of oxide, the coating of the protective layer is then carried out.","For all embodiments according to the invention, it holds true according to an advantageous embodiment of the invention that the bonding process of a second heat treatment process that takes place later can take place in particular spatially separately.","In the bonding unit, preferably only the actual bonding process is performed.","The bonding process lasts in particular less than 5 hours, preferably less than 1 hour, more preferably less than 30 minutes, most preferably less than 15 minutes, and with utmost preference less than 5 minutes.","As soon as the bonding step was completed and a high enough adhesion between two substrates exists, the bonded substrate pair can be removed from the bonder in order to be further treated, in particular heat-treated, in another unit.","Such a heat treatment unit is preferably a batch unit, therefore a unit that can simultaneously accommodate, perhaps even continuously, a large number of wafers.","The heat treatment in such a heat treatment unit is carried out according to the invention in particular longer than 5 minutes, preferably longer than 30 minutes, more preferably longer than 1 hour, and most preferably longer than 5 hours.","The temperature in such a heat treatment unit is preferably adjustable, preferably adjustable along a path and/or as a function of time, so that the processed substrates can run through exact temperature profiles.","The temperatures that are used are in particular greater than 25° C., preferably greater than 100° C., more preferably greater than 300° C., more preferably greater than 500° C., and with utmost preference greater than 800° C. The heat treatment can preferably take place in an inert gas atmosphere in order to protect the open surfaces of substrates against unnecessary or unintended oxidation.","In such a heat treatment plant, all conceivable heat treatment steps can be performed.","It would be conceivable in particular that the actual dissolution of the protective layer according to the invention into the basic material is carried out only in the heat treatment unit.","The heat treatment unit can bring several pairs of substrates at the same time to a higher temperature than would be the case in a bonding unit.","In the case of a continuously operating heat treatment unit that takes up substrate pairs on one side, continuously conveys them through the unit, for example by an assembly line, and releases them again on another end, even the setting of a temperature gradient over the path would be conceivable over time, and therefore, in particular, in the case of constant assembly line speed.","According to the invention, the diffusion of the protective material into the basic material should only be carried out, however, outside of a bonding unit when no pressure is necessary for the production of a corresponding solid bond between the substrates.","After making successful contact and a successful bond between the substrates, in particular after the dissolution of the protective material into the basic material according to the invention, an attempt is made to achieve recrystallization of the structure, working as much as possible over the entire thickness of the two basic material layers.","This recrystallization can take place in the heat treatment unit if the process does not already take place during the actual bonding process.","The recrystallization leads to a new construction of the grains, in particular via the bonding boundary surface, and thus produces a mechanically stable, solid and permanent basic material layer that extends through along the entire thickness.","The new microstructure formed by recrystallization has the optimal and actually desired structure, since in this structure, a bonding boundary surface is no longer present.","Methods for at least partially controllable recrystallization of the structure are preferably used.","These include in particular the increase in the dislocation density and/or a correspondingly high temperature.","In the most preferred embodiment, the dissolution of the protective material in the basic material according to the invention as well as the recrystallization of the structure are carried out in an external heat treatment unit, in particular separated from the bonder.","As a result, the bonder is available for the next substrate bond as quickly as possible.","In a quite special embodiment, the dissolution process according to the invention as well as the recrystallization take place simultaneously.","Further advantages, features and details of the invention are produced from the subsequent description of preferred embodiments and based on the drawings.","BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF DRAWINGS FIG.","1 a depiction of the binary Al—Ge phase diagram, FIG.","2 a depiction of the binary Al—Ga phase diagram, FIG.","3 a depiction of the binary Al—Zn phase diagram, FIG.","4 a depiction of the binary Al—Mg phase diagram, FIG.","5a a diagrammatic cross-sectional depiction of an embodiment of a substrate according to the invention with a full-surface basic layer that consists of a basic material and a full-surface protective layer that consists of a protective material with alignment, FIG.","5b a diagrammatic cross-sectional depiction according to FIG.","5a with a contact/bonding step, and FIG.","5c a diagrammatic cross-sectional depiction according to FIG.","5a according to the bonding step.","DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF INVENTION FIG.","1 shows a first binary Al-Ge system by way of example.","The important part in the phase diagram according to the invention is the mixed crystal area 7.The mixed crystal area 7 is separated from the two-phase areas 9, 10 by the boundary solubility 8.The boundary solubility for germanium decreases with decreasing temperature, starting from the eutectic temperature or the eutecticals 11.The boundary solubility for germanium also decreases with increasing temperature, starting from the eutectic temperature or the eutecticals 11.FIG.","2 shows a second binary Al-Ga system by way of example.","The important part according to the invention in the phase diagram is the mixed crystal area 7.The mixed crystal area 7 is separated by the boundary solubility 8 from the two-phase areas 9, 10.The boundary solubility for gallium decreases with decreasing temperature, starting from the eutectic temperature or the eutecticals 11.The boundary solubility for gallium decreases also with increasing temperature, starting from the eutectic temperature or the eutecticals 11.The degradation of the eutectic by a eutectic point 6 that lies very near in the concentration of the pure germanium is characteristic.","FIG.","3 shows a third binary Al—Zn system by way of example.","The important part according to the invention in the phase diagram is the mixed crystal area 7.The mixed crystal area 7 is very pronounced here.","At temperatures around 370° C., it reaches up to more than 65 mol % of zinc.","The mixed crystal area 7 is separated by the boundary solubility 8′ from the two-phase area 10.The boundary solubility for zinc decreases with decreasing temperature, starting from the eutectoid temperature or the eutectoids 11′.","FIG.","4 shows a fourth binary Al—Mg system by way of example.","The important part according to the invention in the phase diagram is the mixed crystal area 7.The mixed crystal area 7 is separated by the boundary solubility 8 from the two-phase areas 9, 10.The boundary solubility for magnesium decreases with decreasing temperature, starting from the eutectic temperature or the eutecticals 11.The boundary solubility for magnesium also decreases with increasing temperature, starting from the eutectic temperature or the eutecticals 11.FIG.","5a shows as simple a system according to the invention as possible, comprised of a first substrate 4 and a second substrate 5.Both substrates 4 and 5 are coated with a basic material 1 and a protective material 2.In an embodiment according to the invention, basic material 1 and protective material 2 are not necessarily applied on the full surface on the first substrate 4 but rather have undergone a specific structuring before the bonding.","In this step, possible oxide layers of the protective material 2 have already been removed.","FIG.","5b shows a contact or bonding step of the two substrates 4 and 5.If the two substrates were structured, a previous orienting step would have had to have oriented the two substrates to one another before the actual contact or bonding step would take place.","Finally, FIG.","5c shows the mixed crystal 12 that is produced and that is carried out by the diffusion of the protective layer material 2 into the basic material 1.LIST OF REFERENCE SYMBOLS 1 Basic Material 2 Protective Material 3 Oxide Layer 4 First Substrate 5 Second Substrate 6 Eutectic Point 7 Mixed Crystal Area 8 Boundary Solubility 9 Two-Phase Area: Liquid, Solid 10 Two-Phase Area: Solid, Solid 11, 11′ Eutecticals, Eutectoids 12 Mixed Crystal"]],"string":"[\n [\n \"METHOD FOR APPLYING A BONDING LAYER\",\n \"A method for applying a bonding layer that is comprised of a basic layer and a protective layer on a substrate with the following method steps: application of an oxidizable basic material as a basic layer on a bonding side of the substrate, at least partial covering of the basic layer with a protective material that is at least partially dissolvable in the basic material as a protective layer.\",\n \"In addition, the invention relates to a corresponding substrate.\"\n ],\n [\n \"1.A method for bonding a first substrate with a second substrate, said method comprising: forming a plurality of structures of oxidizable basic material on a bonding side of the first substrate; removing oxide layers respectively formed on the oxidizable basic material by one or more of chemical oxide removal, grinding, and polishing; at least partially covering each of the oxidizable basic material structures with a layer of protective material having a thickness of less than 100 nm; and bonding the first and second substrates, wherein the protective material is dissolved completely in the oxidizable basic material during the bonding.\",\n \"2.The method according to claim 1, wherein the oxidizable basic material is oxygen-affine and is comprised of aluminum and/or copper.\",\n \"3.The method according to claim 1, wherein at least one of the forming and the covering respectively comprises depositing the oxidizable basic material on the bonding side and depositing the protective layer material on each of the oxidizable basic material structures.\",\n \"4.The method according to claim 1, wherein the covering comprises respectively sealing the oxidizable basic material structures with the protective materials layers relative to an atmosphere.\",\n \"5.The method according to claim 1, wherein the oxidizable basic material and/or the protective material is/are one or more materials selected from the group consisting of metals, alkali metals, alkaline-earth metals, alloys, and semiconductors provided with corresponding doping.\",\n \"6.The method according to claim 1, wherein semiconductors provided with corresponding doping are selected as the protective material.\",\n \"7.The method according to claim 1, wherein the removing comprises at least partially removing the oxide layers respectively formed on the oxidizable basic material by the chemical oxide removal, the chemical oxide removal being performed with a gaseous reducing agent and/or a liquid reducing agent.\",\n \"8.The method according to claim 5, wherein said metals are selected from the group consisting of Cu, Ag, Au, Al, Fe, Ni, Co, Pt, W, Cr, Pb, Ti, Te, Sn, Zn, and Ga. 9.The method according to claim 5, wherein said alkali metals are selected from the group consisting of Li, Na, K, Rb, and Cs.\",\n \"10.The method according to claim 5, wherein said alkaline earth metals are selected from the group consisting of Mg, Ca, Sr, and Ba.\",\n \"11.The method according to claim 5, wherein said semiconductors are selected from the group consisting of element semiconductors and compound conductors.\",\n \"12.The method according to claim 6, wherein said semiconductors are selected from the group consisting of element semiconductors and compound conductors.\",\n \"13.The method according to claim 11, wherein said element semiconductors are selected from the group consisting of Si, Ge, Se, Te, B, and Sn.\",\n \"14.The method according to claim 12, wherein said element semiconductors are selected from the group consisting of Si, Ge, Se, Te, B, and Sn.\",\n \"15.The method according to claim 11, wherein said compound semiconductors are selected from the group consisting of GaAs, GaN, InP, InxGa1−xN, InSb, InAs, GaSb, AN, InN, GaP, BeTe, ZnO, CuInGaSe2, ZnS, ZnSe, ZnTe, CdS, CdSe, CdTe, Hg(1−x)Cd(x)Te, BeSe, HgS, AlxGa1−xAs, GaS, GaSe, GaTe, InS, InSe, InTe, CuInSe2, CuInS2, CuInGaS2, SiC, and SiGe.\",\n \"16.The method according to claim 12, wherein said compound semiconductors are selected from the group consisting of GaAs, GaN, InP, InxGa1−xN, InSb, InAs, GaSb, AN, InN, GaP, BeTe, ZnO, CuInGaSe2, ZnS, ZnSe, ZnTe, CdS, CdSe, CdTe, Hg(1−x)Cd(x)Te, BeSe, HgS, AlxGa1−xAs, GaS, GaSe, GaTe, InS, InSe, InTe, CuInSe2, CuInS2, CuInGaS2, SiC, and SiGe.\",\n \"17.A method for bonding a first substrate with a second substrate, said method comprising: forming a plurality of areas of oxidizable basic material on a bonding side of the first substrate; removing oxide layers respectively formed on the oxidizable basic material by chemical-mechanical polishing; at least partially covering each of the oxidizable basic material areas with a layer of protective material having a thickness of less than 100 nm; and bonding the first and second substrates, wherein the protective material is dissolved completely in the oxidizable basic material during the bonding.\",\n \"18.The method according to claim 17, wherein the chemical mechanical polishing comprises one or more of chemical oxide removal, grinding, and polishing.\",\n \"19.A method for bonding a first substrate with a second substrate, said method comprising: structurally depositing oxidizable basic material on a bonding side of the first substrate; chemical-mechanical polishing the structurally deposited oxidizable basic material to remove oxide layers formed on the structurally deposited oxidizable basic material; at least partially covering the structurally deposited oxidizable basic material with protective material having a thickness of less than 100 nm; and bonding the first and second substrates, wherein the protective material is dissolved completely in the structurally deposited oxidizable basic material during the bonding.\",\n \"20.The method according to claim 19, wherein the chemical-mechanical polishing comprises one or more of chemical oxide removing the oxide layers formed on the structurally deposited oxidizable basic material, grinding the oxide layers formed on the structurally deposited oxidizable basic material, and polishing the oxide layers formed on the structurally deposited oxidizable basic material.\"\n ],\n [\n \" BACKGROUND OF INVENTION In the state of the art, countless methods to connect various materials to one another exist.\",\n \"In the semiconductor industry, in recent years, primarily the bonding technology to connect two substrates temporarily or permanently to one another has gained acceptance.\",\n \"Very often, the bonding process takes place between semiconductor(s) and/or metal structures on the substrate.\",\n \"The best-known metal bonding technology of recent times is copper bonding.\",\n \"Substrates are the carriers for functional assemblies such as microchips, memory chips, or MEMS assemblies.\",\n \"In recent years, increasingly attempts were made to produce a connection between assemblies arranged on various substrates in order to avoid a wire-bonding process between the assemblies that is labor-intensive, costly, and susceptible to flaws.\",\n \"In addition, the direct bonding variant has the enormous advantage of elevated assembly density.\",\n \"The assemblies must no longer be positioned beside one another and connected via wires, but rather are stacked on one another and connected vertically to one another by various technologies.\",\n \"In most cases, the vertical connections are produced by contact points.\",\n \"The contact points of different substrates must be identical to one another and are oriented to one another before the actual bonding process.\",\n \"Another little-used process is aluminum bonding.\",\n \"In this process, aluminized points on the surface of a substrate are to be bonded with a material lying on a second substrate.\",\n \"In this case, this can be aluminum or a suitable, different material.\",\n \"One drawback of aluminum is its extreme oxygen affinity.\",\n \"Even with copper, the oxygen affinity is high, so that copper oxides must be regularly removed before a bonding process.\",\n \"With aluminum, the oxygen affinity is higher by a multiple.\",\n \"Aluminum still forms relatively thick, passivating aluminum oxide layers, which are difficult to remove.\",\n \"In contrast to copper, aluminum is therefore little used for bonding connections, since at this time, because of the very stable oxide layers, no reliable bonding result can be achieved at a reasonable cost.\",\n \"Nevertheless, aluminum is widely used in the semiconductor area to produce metal connections on the chip surface in the lateral direction.\",\n \"Here, aluminum is distinguished in that it has significantly slower diffusion behavior in silicon than, for example, copper or gold.\",\n \"Metal diffused into silicon would impair the characteristics of transistors or make the latter completely unfunctional.\",\n \"Based on this advantageous diffusion behavior, paired with low costs and relatively good electrical conductivity, aluminum has been established over many years as the material that is mainly used for producing electrical connections laterally on the semiconductor chips.\",\n \"Recently, in chips of the newest generation, aluminum is increasingly being replaced by copper because of its better electrical conductivity; however, aluminum still enjoys great importance, primarily in the production of chips on 200 mm substrates with somewhat older production technology.\",\n \"It is specifically these production surrounding areas/plants that in recent times have found enhanced use for the production of MEMS (micro-electro-mechanical systems) components.\",\n \"The production of these MEMS components in turn frequently requires bonding processes, so that the need for a reliable aluminum bonding process increases.\",\n \"Outside of the semiconductor industry, aluminum is also a structural material that is in demand, since it is light, inexpensive, and primarily hardenable.\",\n \"In the semiconductor industry, based on the above-mentioned reasons, it has been attempted for some time to develop processes that make aluminum usable as structural material and in particular material for bonding connections.\",\n \"The greatest problem when using oxygen-affine materials such as copper and aluminum is the avoidance of oxidation on bonding surfaces and/or the complete removal of oxide from bonding surfaces before a bonding process.\",\n \"Extremely oxygen-affine materials such as aluminum produce, moreover, oxides that are strong and difficult to reduce.\",\n \"Plants for oxide removal are expensive, labor-intensive and under certain circumstances dangerous (toxic substances).\"\n ],\n [\n \" SUMMARY OF INVENTION The object of this invention is therefore to indicate a method as well as a substrate provided with a bonding layer, with which an oxidizable material (such as in particular aluminum) can be used for bonding.\",\n \"This object is achieved with the features of the independent claim(s).\",\n \"Advantageous further developments of the invention are indicated in the subclaims.\",\n \"All combinations of at least two of the features indicated in the specification, the claims and/or the figures also fall within the scope of the invention.\",\n \"In the indicated ranges of values, values that lie within the above-mentioned limits are also to be disclosed as boundary values and can be claimed in any combination.\",\n \"It is an essential idea of this invention to provide a bonding layer, comprised of a basic layer and a protective layer, in particular as a diffusion pair, on the substrate, whereby a basic material of the basic layer can be oxidized, while a protective material of the protective layer can be oxidized at least less easily.\",\n \"The invention therefore in particular is a matter of a process in which the oxidation of oxygen-affine materials such as in particular aluminum (preferred) or copper is prevented from the start.\",\n \"The protection of oxygen-affine basic material is achieved according to the invention in particular by the deposition of a protective material, which covers the basic material at least partially, in particular primarily, and preferably completely.\",\n \"The objective breakdown of the elements relative to their oxygen affinity can be most simply defined by the electrochemical voltage sequence.\",\n \"Oxygen-affine elements such as lithium are extremely base materials, are easily oxidized, and therefore act as reducing agents, easily release electrons, and therefore have an extremely negative standard electrode potential.\",\n \"However, elements with a low oxygen affinity are referred to as noble, since the latter can be easily reduced and therefore act as oxidizing agents, accommodate electrons, and have an extremely positive standard electrode potential.\",\n \"As basic material, in particular a material with a standard electrode potential is used that is less than 2.00 V, preferably less than 1.00 V, more preferably less than 0.0 V, most preferably less than −1.0 V, with utmost preference less than −2.0 V, and even more preferably less than −3.0 V. Copper has a standard electrode potential of approximately 0.16 V, aluminum of approximately −1.66 V. The noblest metal is gold with a standard electrode potential of approximately 1.69 V (for the first oxidation stage).\",\n \"In an especially preferred variant, the basic material and the protective material are located as targets, separated from one another, in a coating chamber and are applied in succession under vacuum, so that no contact of the basic material with an oxygen-containing atmosphere is produced.\",\n \"An embodiment of the invention is comprised in leaving the protective material on the basic material during the bonding process and, because of its chemical-physical properties, in at least partially, in particular predominantly, and preferably completely dissolving the protective material in the basic material during the bonding process.\",\n \"The selection of the basic material-protective material combination is carried out in such a way that the latter allows a solid dissolution process.\",\n \"The protective material is preferably more readily soluble in the basic material than vice versa.\",\n \"The protective material is dissolved in particular under specific process conditions in the basic material.\",\n \"The basic material therefore has a boundary solubility for the protective material and/or the basic material can be mixed at least partially, in particular predominantly, and preferably completely with the basic material.\",\n \"In the case of an existing boundary solubility of the protective material in the basic material, the boundary solubility at room temperature is in particular great enough to keep a specific amount of the protective material dissolved.\",\n \"In this way, the protective material according to the invention can be applied as an extremely thin layer in order to avoid local concentration peaks during the diffusion process of the protective material into the basic material that can lead to an (undesired) precipitate.\",\n \"Another aspect of this invention that is advantageous according to the invention is comprised in preventing a contact of the oxygen-affine basic material with an oxygen-containing or oxygen-rich atmosphere, in particular by at least predominant covering of the surfaces of the basic layer, not covered by the substrate, with the protective layer.\",\n \"The protective material itself is preferably a solid, in particular at least at room temperature.\",\n \"The latter is therefore not liquid and allows the transport of the protected basic material through an oxygen-containing atmosphere.\",\n \"In an advantageous embodiment of the invention, the protective material is selected in such a way that the latter is less oxygen-affine than the basic material, or any oxide that is formed on the protective material can be removed with simpler means than would be the case in an oxide formed on the basic material.\",\n \"Oxide-forming material for the protective layer is advantageously selected in such a way that in addition to the simple removal of the oxide, new oxide is only slowly formed again after the oxide removal.\",\n \"In particular, less than 0.3 nm of oxide, preferably less than 0.1 nm of oxide, is formed on time lapses of at least 2 minutes, preferably at least 5 minutes, more preferably at least 10 minutes, and most preferably at least 15 minutes.\",\n \"An incorporation of any oxide, formed on the protective layer, in the basic material is in particular at least predominantly prevented according to the invention.\",\n \"To this end, the oxide of the protective material is removed in particular immediately before a bonding process.\",\n \"In the case of a smaller amount of formed oxide, a breaking of the oxide during the later desired bonding process and a direct incorporation into the boundary layer are also conceivable.\",\n \"Protective materials with one or more of the properties cited below are preferably used: A low oxygen affinity, in particular defined by a standard electrode potential of more than 0 V, preferably more than 1.00 V, more preferably more than 2.00 V, preferably less than the oxygen affinity of the basic material, A high solubility in the basic material, in particular more than 10-5 mol %, preferably more than 10-3 mol %, more preferably more than 1 mol %, most preferably more than 10 mol %, and with utmost preference more than 40 mol %, The properties of the basic material are not negatively influenced, and therefore in the case of the desired high conductivity do not impair the conductivity and in the case of the desired high level of strength do not reduce the strength, Airtight relative to the atmosphere, Economical, High level of availability, Slightly toxic, in particular non-toxic, and/or Good bonding properties.\",\n \"Accordingly, the invention relates in particular to a method for covering, in particular coating, a first material tending toward oxidation, the basic material, in particular a metal or a semiconductor, with a second material, the protective material.\",\n \"The protective material is in particular dissolved at least partially, in particular predominantly, and preferably completely in another process step by a dissolution process of the basic material and/or forms precipitates partially, in particular predominantly, and preferably completely, in a quite special, expanded embodiment.\",\n \"The embodiment that is preferred according to the invention comprises a complete dissolution of the protective material into the basic material, whereby in this case, no precipitates are produced.\",\n \"The object of the protective layer formed from the protective material consists in particular in the prevention of the oxidation of the basic material.\",\n \"The protective material can itself oxidize upon contact with an oxygen-containing atmosphere and is optionally removed from oxide, before the dissolution process according to the invention begins in the basic material.\",\n \"In a quite special embodiment, the removal of this oxide on the protective layer is performed in a unit in which a renewed oxidation of the protective layer is prevented for design reasons on the way to the bonder.\",\n \"For example, the use of an oxide removal module and a bonding chamber in a corresponding vacuum cluster, which separates the module from the surrounding, oxygen-containing atmosphere, would be conceivable.\",\n \"Such cluster systems are well known to one skilled in the art.\",\n \"The preferred target of the process according to the invention primarily includes protecting oxygen-affine basic materials, in particular aluminum but also copper, which are to be bonded in an additional process step, up to the actual bonding step before an oxidation.\",\n \"The removal of any oxides of the protective material, which preferably has a much lower oxygen affinity than the basic material to be protected, is considerably simpler, faster, and primarily more reliable, so that the process can be accelerated.\",\n \"According to a preferred embodiment, the protective material, in particular after a removal of oxides of the protective material, is then bonded with another substrate that is formed in particular according to the invention.\",\n \"Preferably, the protective material is at least partially, in particular predominantly, and preferably completely dissolved during the bonding process in the basic material, so that in the ideal case, no contact occurs between the basic material and the oxygen-rich atmosphere until the bonding takes place.\",\n \"The method according to the invention is therefore primarily suitable for temporarily protecting with the protective material oxygen-affine basic materials, in particular aluminum or copper, directly after the coating on a substrate.\",\n \"To the extent the basic material is not full-surface but rather is applied on the substrate in particular in a structured manner and/or only in partial areas (for example copper contacts or aluminum boundaries, which are to be part of a hermetically-sealed space of a MEMS component), the protective material is applied in the form of a film that is as uniformly thick as possible, and in particular is sealed.\",\n \"According to the invention, primarily the ratio of the (in particular middle) layer thickness of the basic material to the layer thickness of the protective material is important.\",\n \"In addition, the chemical, physical and/or metallurgical behavior of the basic material with the protective material according to the invention plays a role.\",\n \"The basic material is preferably a solid solvent.\",\n \"In particular, the basic material can be a multi-phase-multi-component system.\",\n \"In the case of a multi-phase material, all considerations for the dissolution process are valid at least for a phase, in the ideal case for all phases.\",\n \"As basic material, an individual chemical element is preferably selected, in particular a metal, a semi-metal, or a non-metal, in particular silicon, gallium, aluminum, nickel, titanium or copper.\",\n \"These metals are the materials that are most often used in the semiconductor industry for the production of conductive compounds, contact or structural building blocks (for example MEMS assemblies).\",\n \"In order to disclose the process according to the invention as simply as possible, the process according to the invention is described by way of example, but not in a limiting manner, with regard to the basic material aluminum.\",\n \"Aluminum is especially suitable according to the invention, since it is a highly-available, economical structural material.\",\n \"The protective material can in particular also be a multi-phase-multi-component system, but it is preferably a simple chemical element that preferably occurs only in one phase.\",\n \"In this case, it is preferably a metal, a semi-metal, an alkali metal or an alkaline-earth metal.\",\n \"The use of non-metallic elements such as carbon would also be conceivable according to the invention as long as the chemical-physical properties correspond between the non-metal with basic material in terms of the process according to the invention.\",\n \"The following materials are considered according to the invention in principle as basic material and/or protective material.\",\n \"In this case, the processes according to the invention require that the protective material be at least partially, in particular predominantly, and preferably completely, dissolvable in the basic material.\",\n \"Metals, in particular Cu, Ag, Au, Al, Fe, Ni, Co, Pt, W, Cr, Pb, Ti, Te, Sn, Zn, Ga Alkali metals, in particular Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs Alkaline-earth metals, in particular Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba Alloys Semiconductors, provided in particular with corresponding doping Element semiconductors, in particular Si, Ge, Se, Te, B, Sn Compound semiconductors, in particular GaAs, GaN, InP, InxGa1−xN, InSb, InAs, GaSb, AN, InN, GaP, BeTe, ZnO, CuInGaSe 2 , ZnS, ZnSe, ZnTe, CdS, CdSe, CdTe, Hg(1−x)Cd(x)Te, BeSe, HgS, AlxGa1−xAs, GaS, GaSe, GaTe, InS, InSe, InTe, CuInSe 2 , CuInS 2 , CuInGaS 2 , SiC, SiGe.\",\n \"For removal of oxide layers of the protective material, preferably the following processes are suitable: Chemical oxide removal, in particular by a Gaseous reducing agent and/or Liquid reducing agent Physical oxide removal, in particular with plasma Ion-Assisted Chemical Etching, in particular Fast Ion Bombardment (FAB, sputtering) Grinding, and/or Polishing.\",\n \"For deposition and therefore synthesis of the basic material and/or the protective layer, the following processes are suitable: Physical Vapor Deposition (English: Physical Vapor Deposition, PVD) Chemical Vapor Deposition (English: Chemical Vapor Deposition, CVD) Galvanic method Sol-gel method The systems of basic layer and protective layer according to the invention are designed as layer systems and in particular represent a system that is not located in thermodynamic equilibrium.\",\n \"As a result, at a temperature that is elevated relative to room temperature, an interdiffusion, preferably at least predominantly and in particular exclusively, brings about a diffusion of the protective material into the basic material between basic material and protective material.\",\n \"The systems according to the invention are designed in particular as a diffusion pair.\",\n \"The described phase diagram as well as any phase diagram of the above-mentioned material combinations represent equilibrium states of several phases at various temperatures and concentrations.\",\n \"The conclusions that can be drawn from equilibrium diagrams such as phase diagrams regarding kinetic processes such as diffusion are very limited.\",\n \"In principle, equilibrium diagrams do not allow any assessment on kinetic processes.\",\n \"The phase diagrams are therefore used exclusively to make an assessment as to whether the protective material in general could dissolve at a specific temperature in the basic material.\",\n \"To the extent that local concentration build-ups occur during the diffusion process of the protective material into the basic material, which exceed the solubility of the protective material in the basic material and thus lead to a possible separation, phase formation or the like, this is ignored in the description below.\",\n \"Hereinafter, in principle, the assumption is that the diffusion of the protective material into the basic material is carried out quickly, so that at a given temperature, at no time anywhere in the basic material is the maximum solubility of protective material exceeded.\",\n \"This is achieved in particular according to the invention in that the greater the solubility of the protective material in the basic material at a given temperature, the faster the protective material diffuses into the basic material and/or the smaller the transfer of protective material into the basic material in the protective-material-basic material interface.\",\n \"The depicted and described phase diagrams were determined by metallurgy.\",\n \"Many components have a very low solubility in the second components in each case, so that the solubility limit is hardly recognizable based on the depiction.\",\n \"In order to be able to better describe the ideas according to the invention, the idea according to the invention of several systems that are as simple as possible is described.\",\n \"As basic material, the technically very important and to date material that is very difficult to bond, aluminum, is used.\",\n \"Therefore, basic material after the deposition on the bonding side of the substrate is a one-component one-phase system.\",\n \"As protective materials for the protective layer, four important materials are presented below by way of example, and said materials have the necessary properties according to the invention, namely germanium, gallium, zinc and magnesium.\",\n \"Therefore, this protective material after the deposition is also a one-component-one-phase system.\",\n \"The above-mentioned material combinations are preferred according to the invention, whereby reference is made to the examples described below with the above-mentioned advantages relative to the individual material combination.\",\n \"The basic material-protective material system of the bonding layer is accordingly a layer system, which is converted preferably during the bonding process by a dissolution process into a two-component-one-phase system.\",\n \"In this case, a mixed crystal comprised of basic material and protective material is preferably produced.\",\n \"The bonding process itself takes place either in an inert gas atmosphere, but more preferably in a vacuum.\",\n \"In an advantageous embodiment of this invention, precipitates are desired, in particular by at least one heat treatment being carried out after the (successful) bonding process, in order to produce a two-component-two-phase system by at least partial, in particular predominant, and preferably complete, precipitation of the protective material out of the basic material.\",\n \"Below, based on more advantageous embodiments, the invention is explained, whereby the embodiments in each case can be considered independent invention aspects per se, which aspects are to be disclosed as separate inventions and are to be claimable, in particular in combination with the above general disclosure.\"\n ],\n [\n \"RELATED APPLICATIONS This application is a continuation of U.S. application Ser.\",\n \"No.\",\n \"15/441,741, filed Feb. 24, 2017, which is a continuation of U.S. application Ser.\",\n \"No.\",\n \"14/909,157, filed Feb. 1, 2016, which is a U.S. National Stage Application of International Application No.\",\n \"PCT/EP2013/069003, filed Sep. 13, 2013, said patent applications hereby fully incorporated herein by reference.\",\n \"FIELD OF INVENTION The invention relates to a method for applying a bonding layer and to a substrate provided with a bonding layer.\",\n \"BACKGROUND OF INVENTION In the state of the art, countless methods to connect various materials to one another exist.\",\n \"In the semiconductor industry, in recent years, primarily the bonding technology to connect two substrates temporarily or permanently to one another has gained acceptance.\",\n \"Very often, the bonding process takes place between semiconductor(s) and/or metal structures on the substrate.\",\n \"The best-known metal bonding technology of recent times is copper bonding.\",\n \"Substrates are the carriers for functional assemblies such as microchips, memory chips, or MEMS assemblies.\",\n \"In recent years, increasingly attempts were made to produce a connection between assemblies arranged on various substrates in order to avoid a wire-bonding process between the assemblies that is labor-intensive, costly, and susceptible to flaws.\",\n \"In addition, the direct bonding variant has the enormous advantage of elevated assembly density.\",\n \"The assemblies must no longer be positioned beside one another and connected via wires, but rather are stacked on one another and connected vertically to one another by various technologies.\",\n \"In most cases, the vertical connections are produced by contact points.\",\n \"The contact points of different substrates must be identical to one another and are oriented to one another before the actual bonding process.\",\n \"Another little-used process is aluminum bonding.\",\n \"In this process, aluminized points on the surface of a substrate are to be bonded with a material lying on a second substrate.\",\n \"In this case, this can be aluminum or a suitable, different material.\",\n \"One drawback of aluminum is its extreme oxygen affinity.\",\n \"Even with copper, the oxygen affinity is high, so that copper oxides must be regularly removed before a bonding process.\",\n \"With aluminum, the oxygen affinity is higher by a multiple.\",\n \"Aluminum still forms relatively thick, passivating aluminum oxide layers, which are difficult to remove.\",\n \"In contrast to copper, aluminum is therefore little used for bonding connections, since at this time, because of the very stable oxide layers, no reliable bonding result can be achieved at a reasonable cost.\",\n \"Nevertheless, aluminum is widely used in the semiconductor area to produce metal connections on the chip surface in the lateral direction.\",\n \"Here, aluminum is distinguished in that it has significantly slower diffusion behavior in silicon than, for example, copper or gold.\",\n \"Metal diffused into silicon would impair the characteristics of transistors or make the latter completely unfunctional.\",\n \"Based on this advantageous diffusion behavior, paired with low costs and relatively good electrical conductivity, aluminum has been established over many years as the material that is mainly used for producing electrical connections laterally on the semiconductor chips.\",\n \"Recently, in chips of the newest generation, aluminum is increasingly being replaced by copper because of its better electrical conductivity; however, aluminum still enjoys great importance, primarily in the production of chips on 200 mm substrates with somewhat older production technology.\",\n \"It is specifically these production surrounding areas/plants that in recent times have found enhanced use for the production of MEMS (micro-electro-mechanical systems) components.\",\n \"The production of these MEMS components in turn frequently requires bonding processes, so that the need for a reliable aluminum bonding process increases.\",\n \"Outside of the semiconductor industry, aluminum is also a structural material that is in demand, since it is light, inexpensive, and primarily hardenable.\",\n \"In the semiconductor industry, based on the above-mentioned reasons, it has been attempted for some time to develop processes that make aluminum usable as structural material and in particular material for bonding connections.\",\n \"The greatest problem when using oxygen-affine materials such as copper and aluminum is the avoidance of oxidation on bonding surfaces and/or the complete removal of oxide from bonding surfaces before a bonding process.\",\n \"Extremely oxygen-affine materials such as aluminum produce, moreover, oxides that are strong and difficult to reduce.\",\n \"Plants for oxide removal are expensive, labor-intensive and under certain circumstances dangerous (toxic substances).\",\n \"SUMMARY OF INVENTION The object of this invention is therefore to indicate a method as well as a substrate provided with a bonding layer, with which an oxidizable material (such as in particular aluminum) can be used for bonding.\",\n \"This object is achieved with the features of the independent claim(s).\",\n \"Advantageous further developments of the invention are indicated in the subclaims.\",\n \"All combinations of at least two of the features indicated in the specification, the claims and/or the figures also fall within the scope of the invention.\",\n \"In the indicated ranges of values, values that lie within the above-mentioned limits are also to be disclosed as boundary values and can be claimed in any combination.\",\n \"It is an essential idea of this invention to provide a bonding layer, comprised of a basic layer and a protective layer, in particular as a diffusion pair, on the substrate, whereby a basic material of the basic layer can be oxidized, while a protective material of the protective layer can be oxidized at least less easily.\",\n \"The invention therefore in particular is a matter of a process in which the oxidation of oxygen-affine materials such as in particular aluminum (preferred) or copper is prevented from the start.\",\n \"The protection of oxygen-affine basic material is achieved according to the invention in particular by the deposition of a protective material, which covers the basic material at least partially, in particular primarily, and preferably completely.\",\n \"The objective breakdown of the elements relative to their oxygen affinity can be most simply defined by the electrochemical voltage sequence.\",\n \"Oxygen-affine elements such as lithium are extremely base materials, are easily oxidized, and therefore act as reducing agents, easily release electrons, and therefore have an extremely negative standard electrode potential.\",\n \"However, elements with a low oxygen affinity are referred to as noble, since the latter can be easily reduced and therefore act as oxidizing agents, accommodate electrons, and have an extremely positive standard electrode potential.\",\n \"As basic material, in particular a material with a standard electrode potential is used that is less than 2.00 V, preferably less than 1.00 V, more preferably less than 0.0 V, most preferably less than −1.0 V, with utmost preference less than −2.0 V, and even more preferably less than −3.0 V. Copper has a standard electrode potential of approximately 0.16 V, aluminum of approximately −1.66 V. The noblest metal is gold with a standard electrode potential of approximately 1.69 V (for the first oxidation stage).\",\n \"In an especially preferred variant, the basic material and the protective material are located as targets, separated from one another, in a coating chamber and are applied in succession under vacuum, so that no contact of the basic material with an oxygen-containing atmosphere is produced.\",\n \"An embodiment of the invention is comprised in leaving the protective material on the basic material during the bonding process and, because of its chemical-physical properties, in at least partially, in particular predominantly, and preferably completely dissolving the protective material in the basic material during the bonding process.\",\n \"The selection of the basic material-protective material combination is carried out in such a way that the latter allows a solid dissolution process.\",\n \"The protective material is preferably more readily soluble in the basic material than vice versa.\",\n \"The protective material is dissolved in particular under specific process conditions in the basic material.\",\n \"The basic material therefore has a boundary solubility for the protective material and/or the basic material can be mixed at least partially, in particular predominantly, and preferably completely with the basic material.\",\n \"In the case of an existing boundary solubility of the protective material in the basic material, the boundary solubility at room temperature is in particular great enough to keep a specific amount of the protective material dissolved.\",\n \"In this way, the protective material according to the invention can be applied as an extremely thin layer in order to avoid local concentration peaks during the diffusion process of the protective material into the basic material that can lead to an (undesired) precipitate.\",\n \"Another aspect of this invention that is advantageous according to the invention is comprised in preventing a contact of the oxygen-affine basic material with an oxygen-containing or oxygen-rich atmosphere, in particular by at least predominant covering of the surfaces of the basic layer, not covered by the substrate, with the protective layer.\",\n \"The protective material itself is preferably a solid, in particular at least at room temperature.\",\n \"The latter is therefore not liquid and allows the transport of the protected basic material through an oxygen-containing atmosphere.\",\n \"In an advantageous embodiment of the invention, the protective material is selected in such a way that the latter is less oxygen-affine than the basic material, or any oxide that is formed on the protective material can be removed with simpler means than would be the case in an oxide formed on the basic material.\",\n \"Oxide-forming material for the protective layer is advantageously selected in such a way that in addition to the simple removal of the oxide, new oxide is only slowly formed again after the oxide removal.\",\n \"In particular, less than 0.3 nm of oxide, preferably less than 0.1 nm of oxide, is formed on time lapses of at least 2 minutes, preferably at least 5 minutes, more preferably at least 10 minutes, and most preferably at least 15 minutes.\",\n \"An incorporation of any oxide, formed on the protective layer, in the basic material is in particular at least predominantly prevented according to the invention.\",\n \"To this end, the oxide of the protective material is removed in particular immediately before a bonding process.\",\n \"In the case of a smaller amount of formed oxide, a breaking of the oxide during the later desired bonding process and a direct incorporation into the boundary layer are also conceivable.\",\n \"Protective materials with one or more of the properties cited below are preferably used: A low oxygen affinity, in particular defined by a standard electrode potential of more than 0 V, preferably more than 1.00 V, more preferably more than 2.00 V, preferably less than the oxygen affinity of the basic material, A high solubility in the basic material, in particular more than 10-5 mol %, preferably more than 10-3 mol %, more preferably more than 1 mol %, most preferably more than 10 mol %, and with utmost preference more than 40 mol %, The properties of the basic material are not negatively influenced, and therefore in the case of the desired high conductivity do not impair the conductivity and in the case of the desired high level of strength do not reduce the strength, Airtight relative to the atmosphere, Economical, High level of availability, Slightly toxic, in particular non-toxic, and/or Good bonding properties.\",\n \"Accordingly, the invention relates in particular to a method for covering, in particular coating, a first material tending toward oxidation, the basic material, in particular a metal or a semiconductor, with a second material, the protective material.\",\n \"The protective material is in particular dissolved at least partially, in particular predominantly, and preferably completely in another process step by a dissolution process of the basic material and/or forms precipitates partially, in particular predominantly, and preferably completely, in a quite special, expanded embodiment.\",\n \"The embodiment that is preferred according to the invention comprises a complete dissolution of the protective material into the basic material, whereby in this case, no precipitates are produced.\",\n \"The object of the protective layer formed from the protective material consists in particular in the prevention of the oxidation of the basic material.\",\n \"The protective material can itself oxidize upon contact with an oxygen-containing atmosphere and is optionally removed from oxide, before the dissolution process according to the invention begins in the basic material.\",\n \"In a quite special embodiment, the removal of this oxide on the protective layer is performed in a unit in which a renewed oxidation of the protective layer is prevented for design reasons on the way to the bonder.\",\n \"For example, the use of an oxide removal module and a bonding chamber in a corresponding vacuum cluster, which separates the module from the surrounding, oxygen-containing atmosphere, would be conceivable.\",\n \"Such cluster systems are well known to one skilled in the art.\",\n \"The preferred target of the process according to the invention primarily includes protecting oxygen-affine basic materials, in particular aluminum but also copper, which are to be bonded in an additional process step, up to the actual bonding step before an oxidation.\",\n \"The removal of any oxides of the protective material, which preferably has a much lower oxygen affinity than the basic material to be protected, is considerably simpler, faster, and primarily more reliable, so that the process can be accelerated.\",\n \"According to a preferred embodiment, the protective material, in particular after a removal of oxides of the protective material, is then bonded with another substrate that is formed in particular according to the invention.\",\n \"Preferably, the protective material is at least partially, in particular predominantly, and preferably completely dissolved during the bonding process in the basic material, so that in the ideal case, no contact occurs between the basic material and the oxygen-rich atmosphere until the bonding takes place.\",\n \"The method according to the invention is therefore primarily suitable for temporarily protecting with the protective material oxygen-affine basic materials, in particular aluminum or copper, directly after the coating on a substrate.\",\n \"To the extent the basic material is not full-surface but rather is applied on the substrate in particular in a structured manner and/or only in partial areas (for example copper contacts or aluminum boundaries, which are to be part of a hermetically-sealed space of a MEMS component), the protective material is applied in the form of a film that is as uniformly thick as possible, and in particular is sealed.\",\n \"According to the invention, primarily the ratio of the (in particular middle) layer thickness of the basic material to the layer thickness of the protective material is important.\",\n \"In addition, the chemical, physical and/or metallurgical behavior of the basic material with the protective material according to the invention plays a role.\",\n \"The basic material is preferably a solid solvent.\",\n \"In particular, the basic material can be a multi-phase-multi-component system.\",\n \"In the case of a multi-phase material, all considerations for the dissolution process are valid at least for a phase, in the ideal case for all phases.\",\n \"As basic material, an individual chemical element is preferably selected, in particular a metal, a semi-metal, or a non-metal, in particular silicon, gallium, aluminum, nickel, titanium or copper.\",\n \"These metals are the materials that are most often used in the semiconductor industry for the production of conductive compounds, contact or structural building blocks (for example MEMS assemblies).\",\n \"In order to disclose the process according to the invention as simply as possible, the process according to the invention is described by way of example, but not in a limiting manner, with regard to the basic material aluminum.\",\n \"Aluminum is especially suitable according to the invention, since it is a highly-available, economical structural material.\",\n \"The protective material can in particular also be a multi-phase-multi-component system, but it is preferably a simple chemical element that preferably occurs only in one phase.\",\n \"In this case, it is preferably a metal, a semi-metal, an alkali metal or an alkaline-earth metal.\",\n \"The use of non-metallic elements such as carbon would also be conceivable according to the invention as long as the chemical-physical properties correspond between the non-metal with basic material in terms of the process according to the invention.\",\n \"The following materials are considered according to the invention in principle as basic material and/or protective material.\",\n \"In this case, the processes according to the invention require that the protective material be at least partially, in particular predominantly, and preferably completely, dissolvable in the basic material.\",\n \"Metals, in particular Cu, Ag, Au, Al, Fe, Ni, Co, Pt, W, Cr, Pb, Ti, Te, Sn, Zn, Ga Alkali metals, in particular Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs Alkaline-earth metals, in particular Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba Alloys Semiconductors, provided in particular with corresponding doping Element semiconductors, in particular Si, Ge, Se, Te, B, Sn Compound semiconductors, in particular GaAs, GaN, InP, InxGa1−xN, InSb, InAs, GaSb, AN, InN, GaP, BeTe, ZnO, CuInGaSe2, ZnS, ZnSe, ZnTe, CdS, CdSe, CdTe, Hg(1−x)Cd(x)Te, BeSe, HgS, AlxGa1−xAs, GaS, GaSe, GaTe, InS, InSe, InTe, CuInSe2, CuInS2, CuInGaS2, SiC, SiGe.\",\n \"For removal of oxide layers of the protective material, preferably the following processes are suitable: Chemical oxide removal, in particular by a Gaseous reducing agent and/or Liquid reducing agent Physical oxide removal, in particular with plasma Ion-Assisted Chemical Etching, in particular Fast Ion Bombardment (FAB, sputtering) Grinding, and/or Polishing.\",\n \"For deposition and therefore synthesis of the basic material and/or the protective layer, the following processes are suitable: Physical Vapor Deposition (English: Physical Vapor Deposition, PVD) Chemical Vapor Deposition (English: Chemical Vapor Deposition, CVD) Galvanic method Sol-gel method The systems of basic layer and protective layer according to the invention are designed as layer systems and in particular represent a system that is not located in thermodynamic equilibrium.\",\n \"As a result, at a temperature that is elevated relative to room temperature, an interdiffusion, preferably at least predominantly and in particular exclusively, brings about a diffusion of the protective material into the basic material between basic material and protective material.\",\n \"The systems according to the invention are designed in particular as a diffusion pair.\",\n \"The described phase diagram as well as any phase diagram of the above-mentioned material combinations represent equilibrium states of several phases at various temperatures and concentrations.\",\n \"The conclusions that can be drawn from equilibrium diagrams such as phase diagrams regarding kinetic processes such as diffusion are very limited.\",\n \"In principle, equilibrium diagrams do not allow any assessment on kinetic processes.\",\n \"The phase diagrams are therefore used exclusively to make an assessment as to whether the protective material in general could dissolve at a specific temperature in the basic material.\",\n \"To the extent that local concentration build-ups occur during the diffusion process of the protective material into the basic material, which exceed the solubility of the protective material in the basic material and thus lead to a possible separation, phase formation or the like, this is ignored in the description below.\",\n \"Hereinafter, in principle, the assumption is that the diffusion of the protective material into the basic material is carried out quickly, so that at a given temperature, at no time anywhere in the basic material is the maximum solubility of protective material exceeded.\",\n \"This is achieved in particular according to the invention in that the greater the solubility of the protective material in the basic material at a given temperature, the faster the protective material diffuses into the basic material and/or the smaller the transfer of protective material into the basic material in the protective-material-basic material interface.\",\n \"The depicted and described phase diagrams were determined by metallurgy.\",\n \"Many components have a very low solubility in the second components in each case, so that the solubility limit is hardly recognizable based on the depiction.\",\n \"In order to be able to better describe the ideas according to the invention, the idea according to the invention of several systems that are as simple as possible is described.\",\n \"As basic material, the technically very important and to date material that is very difficult to bond, aluminum, is used.\",\n \"Therefore, basic material after the deposition on the bonding side of the substrate is a one-component one-phase system.\",\n \"As protective materials for the protective layer, four important materials are presented below by way of example, and said materials have the necessary properties according to the invention, namely germanium, gallium, zinc and magnesium.\",\n \"Therefore, this protective material after the deposition is also a one-component-one-phase system.\",\n \"The above-mentioned material combinations are preferred according to the invention, whereby reference is made to the examples described below with the above-mentioned advantages relative to the individual material combination.\",\n \"The basic material-protective material system of the bonding layer is accordingly a layer system, which is converted preferably during the bonding process by a dissolution process into a two-component-one-phase system.\",\n \"In this case, a mixed crystal comprised of basic material and protective material is preferably produced.\",\n \"The bonding process itself takes place either in an inert gas atmosphere, but more preferably in a vacuum.\",\n \"In an advantageous embodiment of this invention, precipitates are desired, in particular by at least one heat treatment being carried out after the (successful) bonding process, in order to produce a two-component-two-phase system by at least partial, in particular predominant, and preferably complete, precipitation of the protective material out of the basic material.\",\n \"Below, based on more advantageous embodiments, the invention is explained, whereby the embodiments in each case can be considered independent invention aspects per se, which aspects are to be disclosed as separate inventions and are to be claimable, in particular in combination with the above general disclosure.\",\n \"First Embodiment A first system, to which the idea according to the invention can be applied, is the aluminum-germanium system, Al—Ge for short.\",\n \"The binary Al—Ge system is a purely eutectic system with a partial boundary solubility for germanium in aluminum and a disappearing low boundary solubility of aluminum in germanium.\",\n \"As basic material, aluminum is therefore selected.\",\n \"In order to protect the aluminum against oxidation, it is immediately covered with a germanium layer as a protective layer after the successful deposition on the substrate.\",\n \"Germanium is therefore the protective material according to the invention.\",\n \"The germanium layer is in particular less than 10 μm, preferably less than 1 μm, more preferably less than 100 nm, most preferably less than 10 nm, and with utmost preference less than 1 nm.\",\n \"The deposition is carried out at the lowest possible temperatures, in order to prevent or at least to suppress a partial or even complete diffusion of the germanium at elevated temperature into the aluminum.\",\n \"In the case of the deposition of the germanium, the temperature of the aluminum is less than 600° C., preferably less than 500° C., more preferably less than 400° C., most preferably less than 300° C., with utmost preference less than 200° C., and even more preferably less than 100° C. In special cases, the aluminum can even be actively cooled in order to further drop the temperature.\",\n \"By the lowest possible temperature, a germanium that is deposited on the aluminum is immediately hindered in its thermal movement and preferably remains on the surface, and therefore does not diffuse into the aluminum.\",\n \"In addition, the diffusion of the germanium into the aluminum is hampered by the especially low solubility of the germanium in aluminum at low temperatures.\",\n \"Starting from this time, germanium serves as a protective material for the aluminum.\",\n \"If the system is exposed to an oxygen-containing atmosphere, the germanium oxidizes at least predominantly and preferably completely, and thus aluminum protects the latter against oxidation by virtue of the fact that the aluminum is sealed relative to the atmosphere.\",\n \"In this connection, it is to be considered that the standard electrode potential of germanium is approximately 0.12 V and that of aluminum is approximately −1.66 V. Germanium is therefore nobler than aluminum and is consequently not able to protect aluminum chemically as a sacrifice anode.\",\n \"Accordingly, the germanium layer is tightly applied in order to build up a physical barrier between the aluminum and the atmosphere.\",\n \"In order to implement a bond between aluminum and a desired second material, first any germanium oxides formed are removed from the germanium.\",\n \"The removal of the germanium oxides is carried out by physical and/or chemical means.\",\n \"Sputtering-off of oxides, wet-chemical removal by reducing acids, or reduction by hydrogen or other gaseous reducing agents is conceivable.\",\n \"After the removal of germanium oxides, bringing the pure germanium surface into contact with the surface to be bonded, in particular a substrate that is structured analogously in particular according to the invention, is carried out as quickly as possible.\",\n \"The bonding process is carried out at a bonding temperature that is elevated relative to room temperature.\",\n \"In this case, the bonding temperature is in particular greater than 25° C., preferably greater than 100° C., more preferably greater than 200° C., most preferably greater than 300° C., with utmost preference greater than 400° C., and even more preferably around 426° C. According to the phase diagram, aluminum at approximately 426° C. has the greatest solubility for germanium of approximately 2.5 mol %.\",\n \"According to the invention, in a preferred embodiment, the forming of a liquid, eutectic phase in the boundary area is prevented by the preferred bonding temperature being below the eutectic temperature, in particular between 400° C.-420° C. In this temperature range, the solubility of the germanium in the aluminum is always still high enough to justify dissolution of the germanium into aluminum.\",\n \"According to the invention, the bonding temperature during the bonding process is kept constant at this temperature up to the at least predominant, preferably complete, dissolution of the germanium into aluminum.\",\n \"The time required for the dissolution can be calculated by the dissolution of the one-dimensional diffusion equation knowing the diffusion constants of germanium into aluminum.\",\n \"Nevertheless, it may be necessary and useful to maintain the temperature for a shorter or longer time.\",\n \"The length of time for dissolving the germanium in aluminum is set, according to the invention, in particular at greater than 1 minute, preferably greater than 10 minutes, more preferably greater than 30 minutes, most preferably greater than 1 hour, with utmost preference greater than 2 hours, and even more preferably greater than 5 hours.\",\n \"During the dissolution process, the pressure on the substrates that are to be bonded with one another is preferably maintained or increased.\",\n \"The pressure that acts on the bonding layer is in particular greater than 1 Pa, preferably greater than 100 Pa, more preferably greater than 10,000 Pa, most preferably greater than 1 MPa, with utmost preference greater than 10 MPa, and even more preferably greater than 100 MPa.\",\n \"The forces that are used, in particular relative to standard wafers, are greater than 10 N, preferably greater than 100 N, most preferably greater than 1,000 N, with utmost preference greater than 10,000 N, and even more preferably greater than 100,000 N. During the dissolution process, the germanium preferably dissolves in all of the aluminum.\",\n \"Because of the fact that the amount of germanium to be dissolved is very low at the same time that the amount of dissolving aluminum is very large, the total concentration of the germanium in aluminum is very small.\",\n \"The total concentration of the germanium in aluminum is in particular less than 1 mol %, preferably less than 10−3 mol %, preferably less than 10−5 mol %, and most preferably less than 10−7 mol %.\",\n \"The germanium is dissolved preferably not only exclusively in the region of the aluminum that is near the surface but rather diffuses as deep as possible into the aluminum, preferably so deep that after a specific time, an even distribution of germanium in aluminum has been achieved.\",\n \"In a first procedure according to the invention, it is provided that during the cooling process, it does not result in exceeding the boundary solubility of the germanium in aluminum, so that germanium always remains completely dissolved in the aluminum.\",\n \"As a result, the precipitation of germanium in the aluminum matrix is prevented in the entire temperature range.\",\n \"This is carried out according to the invention by a ratio of aluminum layer thickness to germanium layer thickness according to the invention being selected and the diffusion process running for a specific amount of time until germanium is distributed into aluminum in particular predominantly, preferably completely, and primarily over the entire available space.\",\n \"The ratio between the germanium layer thickness and aluminum layer thickness is in this case less than 1, preferably less than 10−3, more preferably less than 10−5, most preferably less than 10−7, with utmost preference less than 10−9, and most preferably less than 10−11.In an alternative procedure according to the invention, the germanium layer thickness is set in such a way that at higher temperatures, an in particular at least predominant, preferably complete, dissolution of the germanium is carried out, but a supersaturated mixed crystal is produced during cooling that leads to germanium precipitates.\",\n \"These germanium precipitates can positively influence the strength properties of the aluminum.\",\n \"They preferably result in an increase in strength of the aluminum, in particular in combination with an additional heat treatment.\",\n \"Second Embodiment A second system, to which the idea according to the invention can be applied, is aluminum-gallium, Al—Ga for short.\",\n \"The binary aluminum-gallium system is a purely eutectic system with very strong degradation.\",\n \"The eutectic concentration is very close to the concentration of pure gallium.\",\n \"The boundary solubility of the gallium in aluminum is extraordinarily high and reaches its maximum of approximately 7.5-8.0 mol % at temperatures around 125° C. The boundary solubility of aluminum in gallium is minute, however.\",\n \"As basic material, the aluminum according to the invention is therefore selected.\",\n \"In order to protect the aluminum against oxidation, it is immediately covered with a gallium layer after the successful deposition.\",\n \"The gallium layer is formed in particular at less than 10 μm, preferably less than 1 μm, more preferably less than 100 nm, most preferably less than 10 nm, and with utmost preference less than 1 nm.\",\n \"The deposition is carried out at the lowest possible temperatures in order to prevent or at least to suppress a partial or even complete diffusion of gallium at elevated temperature into aluminum.\",\n \"Gallium has a very low melting point of approximately 30° C. In order to prevent the gallium layer applied on aluminum from liquefying, a temperature of below 30° C. is set.\",\n \"According to the invention, it would be conceivable, however, that at higher temperatures, the gallium remains in liquid form on the aluminum, without hampering the handling of the entire wafer.\",\n \"The reason may be primarily the extremely small amount of deposited gallium, which has a high enough surface tension and a high enough adhesion to aluminum to continue to exist as a liquid metal film.\",\n \"In the second embodiment, it is provided according to the invention that the gallium diffuses at moderate temperatures into aluminum.\",\n \"Therefore, the subsequent bonding process is performed as shortly as possible after the basic layer is covered with the protective layer.\",\n \"In the case of the deposition of the gallium, the temperature of the aluminum is less than 300° C., preferably less than 200° C., more preferably less than 100° C., most preferably less than 50° C., with utmost preference less than 30° C., and even more preferably less than 0° C. In special cases, the aluminum can even be actively cooled by further dropping the temperature.\",\n \"If the system is exposed to an oxygen-containing atmosphere, the gallium preferably oxidizes and thus protects the aluminum.\",\n \"In this connection, it is to be considered that the standard electrode potential of gallium is approximately −0.53 V and that of aluminum is approximately −1.66 V. Gallium is therefore nobler than aluminum and is consequently not able to protect aluminum chemically as a sacrifice anode.\",\n \"Accordingly, the gallium layer is tightly applied in order to build up a physical barrier between the aluminum and the atmosphere.\",\n \"The boundary solubility of gallium in aluminum is also still extremely high at room temperature, if not even just below at the maximum of the already mentioned 7.5-8.0 mol %.\",\n \"The boundary solubility of the gallium in aluminum decreases again only below room temperature.\",\n \"A precipitation of dissolved gallium in aluminum can therefore be avoided in this embodiment of the invention.\",\n \"By the especially high solubility of gallium in aluminum, in particular also even at room temperature, the material gallium is especially suitable in this respect to be dissolved in aluminum.\",\n \"According to the invention, the process parameters are set so that the concentration of gallium in aluminum at any time is less than the boundary solubility, since otherwise a two-phase system can be produced from an aluminum mixed crystal with gallium and a liquid phase.\",\n \"This would have the effect that the bonding can no longer be implemented since the liquid phase also still exists at room temperature.\",\n \"In contrast, specifically the low melting point and the possibility to liquefy at extremely low temperatures are an optimal requirement for a subsequent bonding process.\",\n \"By means of the most minor temperature increases, gallium is liquefied on the surface of the aluminum and thus as a liquid phase matches the contours of the two surfaces that are to be connected to one another.\",\n \"Although it is the actual idea of the invention according to the invention to dissolve gallium in aluminum, the capability of liquefaction at low temperatures for supporting the bonding process before the actual dissolution process is disclosed in this respect as an independent aspect of the invention.\",\n \"In order to implement a bonding between aluminum and a desired second material, first any gallium oxides formed are removed from the gallium.\",\n \"Just like aluminum, gallium coats itself with a thick oxide layer and is thus passivated.\",\n \"Gallium forms a gallium hydroxide layer with water.\",\n \"The removal of gallium oxides is carried out by physical and/or chemical means.\",\n \"Sputtering-off of oxides, wet-chemical removal by reducing acids and/or liquors, or reduction by hydrogen or other gaseous reducing agents is conceivable.\",\n \"After the removal of gallium oxides, bringing the pure gallium surface into contact with the surface to be bonded, in particular a substrate that is structured analogously in particular according to the invention, is carried out as quickly as possible.\",\n \"The bonding process is carried out at a temperature that is elevated relative to room temperature.\",\n \"In this case, the bonding temperature is in particular greater than 25° C., preferably greater than 100° C., more preferably greater than 200° C., most preferably greater than 300° C., with utmost preference greater than 400° C., and even more preferably around 426° C. According to the phase diagram, aluminum has the greatest solubility for germanium of approximately 8 mol % between 77° C. and 177° C. Preventing the forming of a liquid, eutectic phase in the boundary area is very difficult in the case of an Al-Ga diffusion pair.\",\n \"Since dissolving gallium in aluminum is preferred according to the invention and since diffusion is to take place as quickly as possible, a brief existence of a liquid phase according to the invention is acceptable.\",\n \"According to the invention, the bonding temperature during the bonding process is kept constant at this temperature up to the at least predominant, preferably complete, dissolution of gallium in aluminum.\",\n \"The required time can be calculated by solving the one-dimensional diffusion equation knowing the diffusion constants of gallium in aluminum.\",\n \"Nevertheless, it may be necessary and useful to maintain the temperature for a shorter or longer time.\",\n \"The length of time for dissolving gallium in aluminum is in this case greater than 1 minute, preferably greater than 10 minutes, more preferably greater than 30 minutes, most preferably greater than 1 hour, with utmost preference greater than 2 hours, and even more preferably greater than 5 hours.\",\n \"During the dissolution process, the pressure is preferably maintained or even increased on the substrates that are to be bonded with one another.\",\n \"The prevailing pressure is in particular greater than 1 Pa, preferably greater than 100 Pa, more preferably greater than 10,000 Pa, most preferably greater than 1 MPa, with utmost preference greater than 10 MPa, and even more preferably greater than 100 MPa.\",\n \"The forces that are used, in particular relative to standard wafers, are greater than 10 N, preferably greater than 100 N, most preferably greater than 1,000 N, with utmost preference greater than 10,000 N, and even more preferably greater than 100,000 N. During the dissolution process, gallium preferably dissolves in all of the aluminum.\",\n \"Because of the fact that the amount of gallium to be dissolved is very small but the amount of aluminum to be dissolved is very large, the total concentration of gallium in aluminum is very small.\",\n \"The total concentration of gallium in aluminum is in particular less than 10 mol %, preferably less than 5 mol %, preferably less than 1 mol %, and most preferably less than 10−3 mol %.\",\n \"Gallium is preferably dissolved not only exclusively in the region of the aluminum that is near the surface but rather diffuses as deep as possible into the aluminum, preferably so deep that after a specific time, an even distribution of gallium in aluminum has been achieved.\",\n \"In a procedure according to the invention, it is now ensured that during the cooling process, the boundary solubility of gallium in aluminum is never exceeded, so that gallium always remains completely dissolved in aluminum.\",\n \"As a result, the precipitation of gallium in the aluminum matrix is prevented in the entire temperature range.\",\n \"In the Al—Ga system, this is technically very simple to bring about since the change in the boundary solubility of gallium in aluminum is marginal in the temperature range between approximately 130° C. and room temperature, i.e., it does not change particularly much.\",\n \"As a result, during the cooling process, there is virtually no danger that a (significant) precipitation of gallium in aluminum occurs.\",\n \"The ratio between the gallium layer thickness and the aluminum layer thickness is in this case less than 1, preferably less than 10−3, more preferably less than 10−5, most preferably less than 10−7, with utmost preference less than 10−9, and even more preferably less than 10−11.Third Embodiment A third system, to which the idea according to the invention can be applied, is the aluminum-zinc system, Al—Zn for short.\",\n \"The binary aluminum-zinc system is a binary system that has a zinc-rich eutectic and a zinc-rich eutectoid.\",\n \"For the ideas according to the invention, in particular the boundary solubilities of the system partners are important.\",\n \"According to the Al—Zn phase diagram, aluminum has a boundary solubility for zinc, and zinc has a boundary solubility, albeit a small one, for aluminum.\",\n \"Since aluminum is preferably used as basic material and zinc is preferably used as a protective layer, only the aluminum-rich side of the phase diagram is important.\",\n \"In order to protect aluminum against oxidation, it is immediately covered with a zinc layer as a protective layer after the successful deposition on the substrate.\",\n \"Zinc is thus the protective material for protection of the basic layer against oxidation.\",\n \"The zinc layer is in particular less than 10 μm, preferably less than 1 μm, more preferably less than 100 nm, most preferably less than 10 nm, and with utmost preference less than 1 nm.\",\n \"The deposition is carried out at the lowest possible temperatures in order to prevent or at least to suppress a partial or even complete diffusion of zinc at elevated temperature into aluminum.\",\n \"In the case of the deposition of zinc, the temperature of aluminum is less than 600° C., preferably less than 500° C., more preferably less than 400° C., most preferably less than 300° C., with utmost preference less than 200° C., and even more preferably less than 100° C. In special cases, the aluminum can even be actively cooled in order to further drop the temperature.\",\n \"By the lowest possible temperature, the zinc that is deposited on the aluminum is immediately impeded in its thermal movement and preferably remains on the surface, and it therefore does not diffuse into aluminum.\",\n \"In addition, by the especially low solubility of zinc in aluminum at low temperatures, the diffusion of zinc into aluminum is hampered.\",\n \"From this time, zinc serves as protective material for aluminum.\",\n \"If the system is exposed to an oxygen-containing atmosphere, the zinc at least predominantly, preferably completely, oxidizes, and the latter thus protects the aluminum against oxidation, in particular by the aluminum being sealed relative to the atmosphere.\",\n \"In this connection, it is to be considered that the standard electrode potential of zinc is approximately −0.76 V, and that of aluminum is approximately −1.66 V. Zinc is therefore nobler than aluminum and is consequently not able to protect aluminum chemically as a sacrifice anode.\",\n \"Accordingly, the zinc layer is tightly applied in order to build up a physical barrier between aluminum and the surrounding area, in particular the atmosphere.\",\n \"In order to implement a bond between aluminum and a desired second material, first any zinc oxides formed are removed from the zinc.\",\n \"The removal of the zinc oxides is carried out in particular by physical and/or chemical means.\",\n \"Sputtering-off of oxides, wet-chemical removal by reducing acids, or reduction by hydrogen or other gaseous reducing agents, in particular carbon monoxide, is conceivable according to the invention.\",\n \"After the removal of zinc oxides, bringing the pure zinc surface into contact with the surface to be bonded is carried out as quickly as possible.\",\n \"The bonding process is carried out at an elevated temperature relative to room temperature.\",\n \"In this case, the bonding temperature is greater than 25° C., preferably greater than 100° C., more preferably greater than 200° C., most preferably greater than 300° C., with utmost preference greater than 400° C., and even more preferably around 380° C. According to the phase diagram, of between approximately 350° C. and approximately 380° C., zinc has an extremely large area with a high solubility for zinc in aluminum.\",\n \"According to the invention, the amount of deposited zinc is set low so that after the complete and primarily uniform distribution of zinc in aluminum, no concentrations are set in a range above 1 mol % of zinc, much less 50-60 mol % of zinc.\",\n \"The large solubility range is well suited in this respect to avoid any local concentration peaks without exceeding the concentration range of a mixed crystal that is desired according to the invention.\",\n \"By a correspondingly long heat treatment, any concentration peak of the zinc in aluminum is again reduced by a uniform distribution of zinc in aluminum so that the final end concentration of the zinc in aluminum, reached before the cooling process, preferably lies below the boundary solubility of the zinc in aluminum at room temperature.\",\n \"According to the invention, preferably during the bonding process, the system is therefore maintained within this temperature range for the length of time that is required in order to dissolve all of the zinc in aluminum.\",\n \"Nevertheless, even at approximately 280° C., the boundary solubility of the zinc in aluminum is high enough to implement the process according to the invention.\",\n \"The required time can be calculated by solving the one-dimensional diffusion equation knowing the diffusion constants of zinc in aluminum.\",\n \"Nevertheless, it may be useful according to the invention to maintain the temperature for a shorter or longer time.\",\n \"The length of time for dissolving zinc in aluminum is set in particular at greater than 1 minute, preferably greater than 10 minutes, more preferably greater than 30 minutes, most preferably greater than 1 hour, with utmost preference greater than 2 hours, and even more preferably greater than 5 hours.\",\n \"During the dissolution process, the pressure is preferably maintained or increased on the substrates that are to be bonded with one another.\",\n \"The prevailing pressure is in particular greater than 1 Pa, preferably greater than 100 Pa, more preferably greater than 10,000 Pa, most preferably greater than 1 MPa, with utmost preference greater than 10 MPa, and even more preferably greater than 100 MPa.\",\n \"The forces that are used, in particular relative to standard wafers, are greater than 10 N, preferably greater than 100 N, most preferably greater than 1,000 N, with utmost preference greater than 10,000 N, and even more preferably greater than 100,000 N. During the dissolution process, the zinc is preferably dissolved in all of the aluminum.\",\n \"Because of the fact that the amount of zinc to be dissolved is very small but the amount of the dissolving aluminum is very large, the total concentration of zinc in aluminum is very small.\",\n \"The zinc is preferably dissolved not only exclusively in the region of the aluminum that is near to the surface, but rather diffuses as deep as possible into the aluminum, preferably so deep that after a specific time, an even distribution of zinc in aluminum has been achieved.\",\n \"In a first procedure according to the invention, it is now ensured that during the cooling process, the boundary solubility of zinc in aluminum is not exceeded, so that zinc always remains completely dissolved in aluminum.\",\n \"As a result, the precipitation of zinc in the aluminum matrix is prevented in the entire temperature range according to the invention.\",\n \"This is carried out according to the invention by a ratio of aluminum layer thickness to zinc layer thickness according to the invention being selected and the diffusion process being run for a specific time until the zinc is distributed completely, in particular in the entire available space, in aluminum.\",\n \"The ratio between the zinc layer thickness and aluminum layer thickness in this case is less than 1, preferably less than 10−3, more preferably less than 10−5, most preferably less than 10−7, with utmost preference less than 10−9, and even more preferably less than 10−11.According to another procedure according to the invention, the zinc layer thickness is set in such a way that at higher temperatures, a dissolution of the zinc into aluminum that is in particular at least predominant and preferably complete, is carried out, but during cooling, a supersaturated mixed crystal is produced that results in zinc precipitates.\",\n \"These zinc precipitates can positively influence the strength properties of aluminum.\",\n \"They preferably result in an increase in strength of the aluminum, in particular in combination with a heat treatment.\",\n \"Fourth Embodiment A fourth system, to which the idea according to the invention can be applied, is the aluminum-magnesium system, Al—Mg for short.\",\n \"The binary Al—Mg system is a binary system that consists of two eutectics with boundary solubility for magnesium in aluminum as well as a boundary solubility for aluminum in magnesium.\",\n \"As basic material, aluminum is preferably selected.\",\n \"In order to protect the aluminum against oxidation, it is immediately covered with a magnesium layer after the successful deposition of the magnesium material.\",\n \"Magnesium is a very reactive alkaline-earth metal, primarily in its pure form.\",\n \"The magnesium layer is in particular less than 10 μm, preferably less than 1 μm, more preferably less than 100 nm, most preferably less than 10 nm, and with utmost preference less than 1 nm.\",\n \"The deposition is carried out at the lowest possible temperatures in order to prevent or at least to suppress a partial or even complete diffusion of the magnesium at elevated temperature in the aluminum.\",\n \"In the case of the deposition of magnesium, the temperature of aluminum is less than 600° C., preferably less than 500° C., more preferably less than 400° C., most preferably less than 300° C., with utmost preference less than 200° C., and even more preferably less than 100° C. In special cases, the aluminum can even be actively cooled in order to further drop the temperature.\",\n \"Because of the lowest possible temperature, a magnesium that is deposited on the aluminum is immediately hindered in its thermal movement and preferably remains on the surface, i.e., does not diffuse into the aluminum.\",\n \"In addition, the diffusion of magnesium into aluminum is hampered by the especially low solubility of magnesium in aluminum at low temperatures.\",\n \"Starting from this time, magnesium serves as protective material for aluminum.\",\n \"If the system is exposed to an oxygen-containing atmosphere, the magnesium preferably oxidizes and thus protects the aluminum.\",\n \"In this connection, it is to be considered that the standard electrode potential of magnesium is approximately −2.36 and that of aluminum is approximately −1.66 V. Magnesium is therefore a more base material than aluminum and is consequently able to protect aluminum chemically as a sacrifice anode.\",\n \"It would perhaps even be conceivable that the deposited magnesium is used directly as a reducing agent for aluminum oxide that is already at least partially formed or not completely removed.\",\n \"The reduction process can be performed by a separate, additional heat treatment step and preferably reduces the magnesium-covered aluminum oxide to form pure aluminum with the formation of magnesium oxide.\",\n \"Hereinafter, in particular an independent aspect of the invention is found that, in combination with any additional method features disclosed, is to be valid and is to be claimable.\",\n \"In order to implement a bond between aluminum and a desired second material, first any magnesium oxides formed must be removed from magnesium.\",\n \"The removal of the magnesium oxides is carried out by physical and/or chemical means.\",\n \"Sputtering-off of oxides, wet-chemical removal by reducing acids, or reduction by hydrogen or other gaseous reducing agents is conceivable according to the invention.\",\n \"It is to be considered in this connection that magnesium oxides should be fairly stable structures that can be removed completely by wet-chemical means only with great difficulty; thus, physical methods according to the invention are rather suitable.\",\n \"After the removal of magnesium oxides, bringing the pure magnesium surface into contact with the surface to be bonded is carried out as quickly as possible.\",\n \"The bonding process is carried out at an elevated temperature.\",\n \"In this case, the bonding temperature is greater than 25° C., preferably greater than 100° C., more preferably greater than 200° C., most preferably greater than 300° C., with utmost preference greater than 400° C., and even more preferably around 426° C. According to the phase diagram, aluminum at approximately 452° C. has the greatest solubility for magnesium of approximately 16 mol %.\",\n \"However, if it is desired to prevent a liquid phase from forming in the boundary area and only to provide that the solid magnesium is dissolved in solid aluminum, the preferred bonding temperature is below the above-mentioned 452° C. In this temperature range, the solubility of the magnesium in aluminum is always still high enough to produce a noticeable dissolution of the magnesium in aluminum.\",\n \"According to the invention, the temperature is maintained for the time of the in particular predominant, preferably complete, dissolution of magnesium in aluminum.\",\n \"The required time can be calculated by solving the one-dimensional diffusion equation knowing the diffusion constants of magnesium in aluminum.\",\n \"According to the invention, it may be useful to maintain the temperature for a shorter or longer time.\",\n \"The length of time for dissolving magnesium in aluminum is set in particular at greater than 1 minute, preferably greater than 10 minutes, more preferably greater than 30 minutes, most preferably greater than 1 hour, with utmost preference greater than 2 hours, and even more preferably greater than 5 hours.\",\n \"During the dissolution process, the pressure on the substrates that are to be bonded with one another is preferably maintained or increased.\",\n \"The prevailing pressure is in particular greater than 1 Pa, preferably greater than 100 Pa, more preferably greater than 10,000 Pa, most preferably greater than 1 MPa, with utmost preference greater than 10 MPa, and even more preferably greater than 100 MPa.\",\n \"The forces used that act on the wafer are greater than 10 N, preferably greater than 100 N, most preferably greater than 1,000 N, with utmost preference greater than 10,000 N, and even more preferably greater than 100,000 N. During the dissolution process, the magnesium preferably dissolves in all of the aluminum.\",\n \"Because of the fact that the amount of magnesium to be dissolved is very small and the amount of dissolving aluminum is very large, the total concentration of the magnesium in aluminum is very small.\",\n \"The magnesium is dissolved preferably not only exclusively in the region of the aluminum that is near the surface but rather diffuses as deep as possible into the aluminum, preferably so deep that after a specific time, an even distribution of germanium in aluminum has been achieved.\",\n \"In a first procedure according to the invention, it is provided that during the cooling process, it does not result in exceeding the boundary solubility of the magnesium in aluminum, so that magnesium always remains completely dissolved in the aluminum.\",\n \"As a result, the precipitation of a stoichiometric aluminum-magnesium phase in the aluminum matrix is prevented in the entire temperature range according to the invention.\",\n \"This is carried out according to the invention by a ratio of aluminum layer thickness to magnesium layer thickness according to the invention being selected and by giving the diffusion process enough time until magnesium is distributed in the aluminum completely, and primarily over the entire available space.\",\n \"The ratio between the magnesium layer thickness and aluminum layer thickness is selected in particular less than 1, preferably less than 10−3, more preferably less than 10−5, most preferably less than 10−7, with utmost preference less than 10−9, and even more preferably less than 10−11.In an alternative procedure according to the invention, the magnesium layer thickness is set in such a way that at higher temperatures, an in particular predominant, preferably complete, dissolution of the magnesium is carried out, but during cooling, a supersaturated mixed crystal is produced that leads to the precipitation of the stoichiometric aluminum-magnesium phase.\",\n \"The aluminum-magnesium phase precipitates can positively influence the strength properties of the aluminum.\",\n \"They preferably result in an increase in strength of the aluminum, in particular in combination with a heat treatment.\",\n \"In quite special embodiments, the basic material is ground and/or polished before the deposition of the protective material.\",\n \"In this case, it results in a planarization of the surface, which is of decisive importance for the later bonding process.\",\n \"The mean roughness and/or the quadratic roughness are less than 100 μm, preferably less than 10 μm, more preferably less than 1 μm, most preferably less than 100 nm, with utmost preference less than 10 nm, and even more preferably less than 1 nm.\",\n \"The polishing can take place by purely mechanical and/or chemical means.\",\n \"Most optimal is a chemical-mechanical polishing (CMP).\",\n \"Should an oxide layer have formed on the basic material, the latter is preferably already removed by the above-mentioned processes.\",\n \"Should the removal of oxide by the above-mentioned processes not suffice, the already mentioned processes for oxide removal, such as, for example, sputtering, use of reducing gases and/or acids, can be used in addition.\",\n \"After the planarization and optional purification of oxide, the coating of the protective layer is then carried out.\",\n \"For all embodiments according to the invention, it holds true according to an advantageous embodiment of the invention that the bonding process of a second heat treatment process that takes place later can take place in particular spatially separately.\",\n \"In the bonding unit, preferably only the actual bonding process is performed.\",\n \"The bonding process lasts in particular less than 5 hours, preferably less than 1 hour, more preferably less than 30 minutes, most preferably less than 15 minutes, and with utmost preference less than 5 minutes.\",\n \"As soon as the bonding step was completed and a high enough adhesion between two substrates exists, the bonded substrate pair can be removed from the bonder in order to be further treated, in particular heat-treated, in another unit.\",\n \"Such a heat treatment unit is preferably a batch unit, therefore a unit that can simultaneously accommodate, perhaps even continuously, a large number of wafers.\",\n \"The heat treatment in such a heat treatment unit is carried out according to the invention in particular longer than 5 minutes, preferably longer than 30 minutes, more preferably longer than 1 hour, and most preferably longer than 5 hours.\",\n \"The temperature in such a heat treatment unit is preferably adjustable, preferably adjustable along a path and/or as a function of time, so that the processed substrates can run through exact temperature profiles.\",\n \"The temperatures that are used are in particular greater than 25° C., preferably greater than 100° C., more preferably greater than 300° C., more preferably greater than 500° C., and with utmost preference greater than 800° C. The heat treatment can preferably take place in an inert gas atmosphere in order to protect the open surfaces of substrates against unnecessary or unintended oxidation.\",\n \"In such a heat treatment plant, all conceivable heat treatment steps can be performed.\",\n \"It would be conceivable in particular that the actual dissolution of the protective layer according to the invention into the basic material is carried out only in the heat treatment unit.\",\n \"The heat treatment unit can bring several pairs of substrates at the same time to a higher temperature than would be the case in a bonding unit.\",\n \"In the case of a continuously operating heat treatment unit that takes up substrate pairs on one side, continuously conveys them through the unit, for example by an assembly line, and releases them again on another end, even the setting of a temperature gradient over the path would be conceivable over time, and therefore, in particular, in the case of constant assembly line speed.\",\n \"According to the invention, the diffusion of the protective material into the basic material should only be carried out, however, outside of a bonding unit when no pressure is necessary for the production of a corresponding solid bond between the substrates.\",\n \"After making successful contact and a successful bond between the substrates, in particular after the dissolution of the protective material into the basic material according to the invention, an attempt is made to achieve recrystallization of the structure, working as much as possible over the entire thickness of the two basic material layers.\",\n \"This recrystallization can take place in the heat treatment unit if the process does not already take place during the actual bonding process.\",\n \"The recrystallization leads to a new construction of the grains, in particular via the bonding boundary surface, and thus produces a mechanically stable, solid and permanent basic material layer that extends through along the entire thickness.\",\n \"The new microstructure formed by recrystallization has the optimal and actually desired structure, since in this structure, a bonding boundary surface is no longer present.\",\n \"Methods for at least partially controllable recrystallization of the structure are preferably used.\",\n \"These include in particular the increase in the dislocation density and/or a correspondingly high temperature.\",\n \"In the most preferred embodiment, the dissolution of the protective material in the basic material according to the invention as well as the recrystallization of the structure are carried out in an external heat treatment unit, in particular separated from the bonder.\",\n \"As a result, the bonder is available for the next substrate bond as quickly as possible.\",\n \"In a quite special embodiment, the dissolution process according to the invention as well as the recrystallization take place simultaneously.\",\n \"Further advantages, features and details of the invention are produced from the subsequent description of preferred embodiments and based on the drawings.\",\n \"BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF DRAWINGS FIG.\",\n \"1 a depiction of the binary Al—Ge phase diagram, FIG.\",\n \"2 a depiction of the binary Al—Ga phase diagram, FIG.\",\n \"3 a depiction of the binary Al—Zn phase diagram, FIG.\",\n \"4 a depiction of the binary Al—Mg phase diagram, FIG.\",\n \"5a a diagrammatic cross-sectional depiction of an embodiment of a substrate according to the invention with a full-surface basic layer that consists of a basic material and a full-surface protective layer that consists of a protective material with alignment, FIG.\",\n \"5b a diagrammatic cross-sectional depiction according to FIG.\",\n \"5a with a contact/bonding step, and FIG.\",\n \"5c a diagrammatic cross-sectional depiction according to FIG.\",\n \"5a according to the bonding step.\",\n \"DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF INVENTION FIG.\",\n \"1 shows a first binary Al-Ge system by way of example.\",\n \"The important part in the phase diagram according to the invention is the mixed crystal area 7.The mixed crystal area 7 is separated from the two-phase areas 9, 10 by the boundary solubility 8.The boundary solubility for germanium decreases with decreasing temperature, starting from the eutectic temperature or the eutecticals 11.The boundary solubility for germanium also decreases with increasing temperature, starting from the eutectic temperature or the eutecticals 11.FIG.\",\n \"2 shows a second binary Al-Ga system by way of example.\",\n \"The important part according to the invention in the phase diagram is the mixed crystal area 7.The mixed crystal area 7 is separated by the boundary solubility 8 from the two-phase areas 9, 10.The boundary solubility for gallium decreases with decreasing temperature, starting from the eutectic temperature or the eutecticals 11.The boundary solubility for gallium decreases also with increasing temperature, starting from the eutectic temperature or the eutecticals 11.The degradation of the eutectic by a eutectic point 6 that lies very near in the concentration of the pure germanium is characteristic.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"3 shows a third binary Al—Zn system by way of example.\",\n \"The important part according to the invention in the phase diagram is the mixed crystal area 7.The mixed crystal area 7 is very pronounced here.\",\n \"At temperatures around 370° C., it reaches up to more than 65 mol % of zinc.\",\n \"The mixed crystal area 7 is separated by the boundary solubility 8′ from the two-phase area 10.The boundary solubility for zinc decreases with decreasing temperature, starting from the eutectoid temperature or the eutectoids 11′.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"4 shows a fourth binary Al—Mg system by way of example.\",\n \"The important part according to the invention in the phase diagram is the mixed crystal area 7.The mixed crystal area 7 is separated by the boundary solubility 8 from the two-phase areas 9, 10.The boundary solubility for magnesium decreases with decreasing temperature, starting from the eutectic temperature or the eutecticals 11.The boundary solubility for magnesium also decreases with increasing temperature, starting from the eutectic temperature or the eutecticals 11.FIG.\",\n \"5a shows as simple a system according to the invention as possible, comprised of a first substrate 4 and a second substrate 5.Both substrates 4 and 5 are coated with a basic material 1 and a protective material 2.In an embodiment according to the invention, basic material 1 and protective material 2 are not necessarily applied on the full surface on the first substrate 4 but rather have undergone a specific structuring before the bonding.\",\n \"In this step, possible oxide layers of the protective material 2 have already been removed.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"5b shows a contact or bonding step of the two substrates 4 and 5.If the two substrates were structured, a previous orienting step would have had to have oriented the two substrates to one another before the actual contact or bonding step would take place.\",\n \"Finally, FIG.\",\n \"5c shows the mixed crystal 12 that is produced and that is carried out by the diffusion of the protective layer material 2 into the basic material 1.LIST OF REFERENCE SYMBOLS 1 Basic Material 2 Protective Material 3 Oxide Layer 4 First Substrate 5 Second Substrate 6 Eutectic Point 7 Mixed Crystal Area 8 Boundary Solubility 9 Two-Phase Area: Liquid, Solid 10 Two-Phase Area: Solid, Solid 11, 11′ Eutecticals, Eutectoids 12 Mixed Crystal\"\n ]\n]"},"source":{"kind":"string","value":"Patent_15875335"}}},{"rowIdx":4494856,"cells":{"text":{"kind":"list like","value":[["SYSTEMS AND METHODS FOR MAPPING AND DEMAPPING DIGITIZED SIGNALS FOR OPTICAL TRANSMISSION","An optical network includes a transmitter portion configured to transmit a digitized stream of symbols over a digital optical link, a mapping unit disposed within the transmitter portion and configured to code the transmitted digitized stream of symbols with a mapping code prior to transmission over the digital optical link, a receiver portion configured to recover the coded stream of symbols from the digital optical link, and a demapping unit disposed within the receiver portion and configured to map the recovered coded stream of symbols into an uncoded digitized signal corresponding to the digitized stream of symbols at the transmitter portion prior to coding by the mapping unit."],["1.An optical network, comprising: a transmitter portion configured to transmit a digitized stream of symbols over a digital optical link; a mapping unit disposed within the transmitter portion and configured to code the transmitted digitized stream of symbols with a mapping code prior to transmission over the digital optical link; a receiver portion configured to recover the coded stream of symbols from the digital optical link; and a demapping unit disposed within the receiver portion and configured to map the recovered coded stream of symbols into an uncoded digitized signal corresponding to the digitized stream of symbols at the transmitter portion prior to coding by the mapping unit.","2.The system of claim 1, wherein the transmitter portion comprises an analog-to-digital converter configured to digitize an input analog signal.","3.The system of claim 2, wherein the analog-to-digital converter is configured to implement delta-sigma digitization on the input analog signal.","4.The system of claim 3, wherein the analog-to-digital converter is disposed within the transmitter portion such that the delta-sigma digitization of the input analog signal is implemented prior to coding of the transmitted digitized stream by the mapping unit.","5.The system of claim 3, wherein the receiver portion comprises an digital-to-analog converter configured to convert the uncoded digitized signal into a recovered analog signal.","6.The system of claim 5, wherein the digital-to-analog converter is configured to implement delta-sigma demodulation on the uncoded digitized signal.","7.The system of claim 6, wherein the digital-to-analog converter is disposed within the receiver portion such that the delta-sigma demodulation of the uncoded digitized signal is implemented after mapping of the recovered coded stream by the demapping unit.","8.The system of claim 1, wherein the system is configured to transmit a signal according to one or more of a DOCSIS 3.1, a Wi-Fi, a WiMAX, a UWB, an LTE, and a 5G wireless signal specification.","9.The system of claim 1, wherein the digitized stream of symbols is digitized according to at least one of an OOK and a PAM4 signal format.","10.A symbol mapping method for a digitized signal, the digitized signal including a series of transmitted symbols having a Gaussian distribution of symbol amplitude values, the method comprising the steps of: mapping, for at least one input occurrence of a first symbol of the series of transmitted symbols, the first symbol to a second symbol of the series of transmitted symbols, wherein the first symbol has a first symbol amplitude value and the second symbol as a second symbol amplitude value greater than the first symbol amplitude value; and mapping, for at least one occurrence of the second symbol, the second symbol to the first symbol.","11.The method of claim 10, wherein the sign of the first and second symbols remains unchanged after mapping to the other of the first and second symbols.","12.The method of claim 10, further comprising the step of applying a scrambling code to each input occurrence of the first and second symbols.","13.The method of claim 12, wherein the scrambling code comprises a periodic pseudo-random bit stream of 0 and 1 values having substantially equal probabilities of occurrence.","14.The method of claim 13, wherein, for each occurrence of the first input symbol, the first symbol is mapped to the second symbol when the scrambling code has a 1 value, and the first symbol remains unchanged when the scrambling code has a 0 value.","15.The method of claim 12, wherein the scrambling code comprises a periodic pseudo-random bit stream of −1, 0, and 1 values, wherein the −1 and 1 values each have a 25% probability of occurrence, and wherein the 0 value has a 50% probability of occurrence.","16.The method of claim 15, wherein, for each occurrence of the first input symbol, the first symbol is mapped to the second symbol when the scrambling code has a −1 or 1 value, and the first symbol remains unchanged when the scrambling code has a 0 value.","17.The method of claim 16, wherein, for each mapping of the first symbol to the second symbol, the symbol amplitude value of the mapped first symbol will be equal to the symbol amplitude value of the second symbol, the sign of the mapped first symbol will remain unchanged when the scrambling code has a 1 value, and the sign of the mapped first symbol will be reversed when the scrambling code has a −1 value.","18.The method of claim 10, wherein the first symbol has a ±1 value in the second symbol has a ±3 value.","19.The method of claim 10, wherein the series of transmitted symbols represents a PAM4 signal.","20.The method of claim 10, wherein the digitized signal is a DOCSIS 3.1 signal."],[" BACKGROUND The field of the disclosure relates generally to fiber communication networks, and more particularly, to digitization techniques in hybrid fiber coaxial networks.","Typical hybrid fiber-coaxial (HFC) architectures deploy few long fiber strands from fiber a hub to a node, but often many short fiber strands are deployed to cover the shorter distances that are typical from legacy HFC nodes to end users.","Conventional Multiple Service Operators (MSOs) offer a variety of services, including analog/digital TV, video on demand (VoD), telephony, and high speed data internet, over HFC networks that utilize both optical fibers and coaxial cables.","FIG.","1 is a schematic illustration of a conventional HFC network 100 operable to provide video, voice, and data services to subscribers.","HFC network 100 includes a master headend 102 , a hub 104 , a fiber node 106 , and end users/subscribers 108 .","An optical fiber 110 carries optical analog signals and connects the link between master headend 102 , hub 104 , and fiber node 106 .","A plurality of coaxial cables 112 carry radio frequency (RF) modulated analog electrical signals and connect fiber node 106 to respective end users 108 .","In operation, fiber node 106 converts the optical analog signals from optical fiber 110 into the RF modulated electrical signals, which are then transported along coaxial cables 112 to end users/subscribers 108 .","In some instances, HFC network 100 implements a fiber deep architecture.","HFC network 100 may further utilize electrical amplifiers 114 respectively disposed along coaxial cables 112 to amplify the RF analog signals to respective end users 108 .","In HFC network 100 , both the optical and electrical signals are in the analog form from hub 104 all the way to the subscriber's home of end user 108 .","Typically, a cable modem termination system (CMTS) is located at either headend 102 or hub 104 , and provides complementary functionality to cable modems (CMs) (not shown) respectively disposed at end users 108 .","Recently, the Data Over Cable Service Interface Specification (DOCSIS) has been established as an international standard interface that permits the addition of high-bandwidth Internet protocol (IP) data transfer to an existing HFC network, such as HFC network 100 .","The latest DOCSIS standard, DOCSIS 3.1, offers (1) the opportunity to expand transmitted spectrum beyond the bandwidths that had previously been available, and in both the downstream and upstream directions, and (2) more efficient use of the spectrum itself.","However, a DOCSIS 3.1 HFC network (i.e., supporting orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM)), when compared with its previous DOCSIS HFC network counterpart, requires significantly higher system performance for both the upstream and the downstream signals, and particularly with respect to the carrier to noise ratio (CNR) or the modulation error ratio (MER).","The DOCSIS 3.1 Physical Layer Specification defines the downstream minimum required CNR performance of OFDM signals with low-density parity-check (LDPC) error correction in additive white Gaussian noise (AWGN) channel as shown in Table 1, below.","For example, a typical OFDM quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM) of 1024 (1K-QAM) requires a signal performance of 34 dB CNR, or approximately 41-41.5 decibels (dB) CNR for the 4K-QAM modulation format option in the downstream direction.","A similar situation occurs in the DOCSIS 3.1 upstream transmission path, as shown in Table 2, also below.","In such analog HFC systems, the quality of the recovered RF signal channel (e.g., at CMs of end users 108 ) is determined according to the carrier-to-composite noise (CCN), or CCN ratio.","The CCN of an HFC fiber link represents the combination of noise components (e.g., shot noise, thermal noise, laser noise (i.e., from hub/headend laser transmission), etc.","), the intermodulation noise (e.g., second, third, and higher order components), and the crosstalk noise (e.g., nonlinear fiber interactions, such as four-wave mixing, cross-phase modulation, Raman crosstalk, etc.).","Continuous envelope and high peak-to-average power ratio (PAPR) are significant concerns with respect to OFDM signals in particular.","That is, OFDM signals are very sensitive to nonlinear intermodulation, especially composite triple beat (CTB).","Second-order nonlinear products are out-of-band and are typically filtered.","However, most third-order nonlinear products are located in-band, and cause problems by overlapping with existing carriers.","TABLE 1 CM minimum CNR performance in AWGN channel Constellation CNR (dB) up CNR (dB) up (QAM) to 1 GHz to 1.0-1.218 GHz 4096 41 41.5 2048 37.0 37.5 1024 34.0 34.0 512 30.5 30.5 256 27.0 27.0 128 24.0 24.0 64 21.0 21.0 16 15.0 15.0 TABLE 2 CMTS minimum CNR performance in AWGN channel Constellation (QAM) CNR (dB) 4096 43.0 2048 39.0 1024 35.5 512 32.5 256 29.0 128 26.0 64 23.0 32 20.0 16 17.0 8 14.0 QPSK 11.0 Accordingly, the link loss and the analog linear distortions significantly limit the achievable link budget of the conventional HFC network.","The effect on the achievable link budget is even more pronounced with respect to high-order modulation formats, which target a high data rate.","Conventional analog optics technology is unable to keep up with the increasing data demand on legacy HFC networks.","Replacing such legacy HFC networks, however, would be very expensive, and thus impractical."],[" BRIEF SUMMARY In an embodiment, an analog signal processor includes a sampling unit configured to (i) filter, in the frequency domain, a received time domain analog signal into a low-frequency end of a corresponding frequency spectrum, (ii) sample the filtered analog signal at a frequency substantially higher than the low-frequency end, and (iii) spread quantization noise over an expanded Nyquist zone of the corresponding frequency spectrum.","The processor further includes a noise shaping unit configured to shape the spread quantization noise out of the low-frequency end of the corresponding frequency spectrum such that the filtered analog signal and the shaped quantization noise are substantially separated in the frequency domain, and a quantization unit configured to apply delta-sigma modulation to the filtered analog signal using at least one quantization bit and output a digitized bit stream that substantially follows the amplitude of the received time domain analog signal.","In an embodiment, a hybrid fiber coaxial (HFC) network is provided.","The network includes an optical hub configured to transmit a digitized bit stream over a digital optical link, a fiber node configured to receive the digitized bit stream over the digital optical link and convert the received digitized bit stream into a delta-sigma demodulated analog signal, and at least one end user configured to receive the delta-sigma demodulated analog signal from the fiber node.","In an embodiment, an optical network includes a transmitter portion configured to transmit a digitized stream of symbols over a digital optical link, a mapping unit disposed within the transmitter portion and configured to code the transmitted digitized stream of symbols with a mapping code prior to transmission over the digital optical link, a receiver portion configured to recover the coded stream of symbols from the digital optical link, and a demapping unit disposed within the receiver portion and configured to map the recovered coded stream of symbols into an uncoded digitized signal corresponding to the digitized stream of symbols at the transmitter portion prior to coding by the mapping unit.","In an embodiment, a symbol mapping method for a digitized signal is provided.","The digitized signal includes a series of transmitted symbols having a Gaussian distribution of symbol amplitude values.","The method includes a step of mapping, for at least one input occurrence of a first symbol of the series of transmitted symbols, the first symbol to a second symbol of the series of transmitted symbols.","The first symbol has a first symbol amplitude value and the second symbol as a second symbol amplitude value greater than the first symbol amplitude value.","The method further includes a step of mapping, for at least one occurrence of the second symbol, the second symbol to the first symbol."],["CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser.","No.","15/847,417, filed Dec. 19, 2017, which claims the benefit of and priority to U.S.","Provisional Patent Application Ser.","No.","62/435,961, filed Dec. 19, 2016.This application also claims the benefit of and priority to U.S.","Provisional Patent Application Ser.","No.","62/448,044, filed Jan. 19, 2017.The disclosures of all of these prior applications are incorporated herein by reference in their entireties.","BACKGROUND The field of the disclosure relates generally to fiber communication networks, and more particularly, to digitization techniques in hybrid fiber coaxial networks.","Typical hybrid fiber-coaxial (HFC) architectures deploy few long fiber strands from fiber a hub to a node, but often many short fiber strands are deployed to cover the shorter distances that are typical from legacy HFC nodes to end users.","Conventional Multiple Service Operators (MSOs) offer a variety of services, including analog/digital TV, video on demand (VoD), telephony, and high speed data internet, over HFC networks that utilize both optical fibers and coaxial cables.","FIG.","1 is a schematic illustration of a conventional HFC network 100 operable to provide video, voice, and data services to subscribers.","HFC network 100 includes a master headend 102, a hub 104, a fiber node 106, and end users/subscribers 108.An optical fiber 110 carries optical analog signals and connects the link between master headend 102, hub 104, and fiber node 106.A plurality of coaxial cables 112 carry radio frequency (RF) modulated analog electrical signals and connect fiber node 106 to respective end users 108.In operation, fiber node 106 converts the optical analog signals from optical fiber 110 into the RF modulated electrical signals, which are then transported along coaxial cables 112 to end users/subscribers 108.In some instances, HFC network 100 implements a fiber deep architecture.","HFC network 100 may further utilize electrical amplifiers 114 respectively disposed along coaxial cables 112 to amplify the RF analog signals to respective end users 108.In HFC network 100, both the optical and electrical signals are in the analog form from hub 104 all the way to the subscriber's home of end user 108.Typically, a cable modem termination system (CMTS) is located at either headend 102 or hub 104, and provides complementary functionality to cable modems (CMs) (not shown) respectively disposed at end users 108.Recently, the Data Over Cable Service Interface Specification (DOCSIS) has been established as an international standard interface that permits the addition of high-bandwidth Internet protocol (IP) data transfer to an existing HFC network, such as HFC network 100.The latest DOCSIS standard, DOCSIS 3.1, offers (1) the opportunity to expand transmitted spectrum beyond the bandwidths that had previously been available, and in both the downstream and upstream directions, and (2) more efficient use of the spectrum itself.","However, a DOCSIS 3.1 HFC network (i.e., supporting orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM)), when compared with its previous DOCSIS HFC network counterpart, requires significantly higher system performance for both the upstream and the downstream signals, and particularly with respect to the carrier to noise ratio (CNR) or the modulation error ratio (MER).","The DOCSIS 3.1 Physical Layer Specification defines the downstream minimum required CNR performance of OFDM signals with low-density parity-check (LDPC) error correction in additive white Gaussian noise (AWGN) channel as shown in Table 1, below.","For example, a typical OFDM quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM) of 1024 (1K-QAM) requires a signal performance of 34 dB CNR, or approximately 41-41.5 decibels (dB) CNR for the 4K-QAM modulation format option in the downstream direction.","A similar situation occurs in the DOCSIS 3.1 upstream transmission path, as shown in Table 2, also below.","In such analog HFC systems, the quality of the recovered RF signal channel (e.g., at CMs of end users 108) is determined according to the carrier-to-composite noise (CCN), or CCN ratio.","The CCN of an HFC fiber link represents the combination of noise components (e.g., shot noise, thermal noise, laser noise (i.e., from hub/headend laser transmission), etc.","), the intermodulation noise (e.g., second, third, and higher order components), and the crosstalk noise (e.g., nonlinear fiber interactions, such as four-wave mixing, cross-phase modulation, Raman crosstalk, etc.).","Continuous envelope and high peak-to-average power ratio (PAPR) are significant concerns with respect to OFDM signals in particular.","That is, OFDM signals are very sensitive to nonlinear intermodulation, especially composite triple beat (CTB).","Second-order nonlinear products are out-of-band and are typically filtered.","However, most third-order nonlinear products are located in-band, and cause problems by overlapping with existing carriers.","TABLE 1 CM minimum CNR performance in AWGN channel Constellation CNR (dB) up CNR (dB) up (QAM) to 1 GHz to 1.0-1.218 GHz 4096 41 41.5 2048 37.0 37.5 1024 34.0 34.0 512 30.5 30.5 256 27.0 27.0 128 24.0 24.0 64 21.0 21.0 16 15.0 15.0 TABLE 2 CMTS minimum CNR performance in AWGN channel Constellation (QAM) CNR (dB) 4096 43.0 2048 39.0 1024 35.5 512 32.5 256 29.0 128 26.0 64 23.0 32 20.0 16 17.0 8 14.0 QPSK 11.0 Accordingly, the link loss and the analog linear distortions significantly limit the achievable link budget of the conventional HFC network.","The effect on the achievable link budget is even more pronounced with respect to high-order modulation formats, which target a high data rate.","Conventional analog optics technology is unable to keep up with the increasing data demand on legacy HFC networks.","Replacing such legacy HFC networks, however, would be very expensive, and thus impractical.","BRIEF SUMMARY In an embodiment, an analog signal processor includes a sampling unit configured to (i) filter, in the frequency domain, a received time domain analog signal into a low-frequency end of a corresponding frequency spectrum, (ii) sample the filtered analog signal at a frequency substantially higher than the low-frequency end, and (iii) spread quantization noise over an expanded Nyquist zone of the corresponding frequency spectrum.","The processor further includes a noise shaping unit configured to shape the spread quantization noise out of the low-frequency end of the corresponding frequency spectrum such that the filtered analog signal and the shaped quantization noise are substantially separated in the frequency domain, and a quantization unit configured to apply delta-sigma modulation to the filtered analog signal using at least one quantization bit and output a digitized bit stream that substantially follows the amplitude of the received time domain analog signal.","In an embodiment, a hybrid fiber coaxial (HFC) network is provided.","The network includes an optical hub configured to transmit a digitized bit stream over a digital optical link, a fiber node configured to receive the digitized bit stream over the digital optical link and convert the received digitized bit stream into a delta-sigma demodulated analog signal, and at least one end user configured to receive the delta-sigma demodulated analog signal from the fiber node.","In an embodiment, an optical network includes a transmitter portion configured to transmit a digitized stream of symbols over a digital optical link, a mapping unit disposed within the transmitter portion and configured to code the transmitted digitized stream of symbols with a mapping code prior to transmission over the digital optical link, a receiver portion configured to recover the coded stream of symbols from the digital optical link, and a demapping unit disposed within the receiver portion and configured to map the recovered coded stream of symbols into an uncoded digitized signal corresponding to the digitized stream of symbols at the transmitter portion prior to coding by the mapping unit.","In an embodiment, a symbol mapping method for a digitized signal is provided.","The digitized signal includes a series of transmitted symbols having a Gaussian distribution of symbol amplitude values.","The method includes a step of mapping, for at least one input occurrence of a first symbol of the series of transmitted symbols, the first symbol to a second symbol of the series of transmitted symbols.","The first symbol has a first symbol amplitude value and the second symbol as a second symbol amplitude value greater than the first symbol amplitude value.","The method further includes a step of mapping, for at least one occurrence of the second symbol, the second symbol to the first symbol.","BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS These and other features, aspects, and advantages of the present disclosure will become better understood when the following detailed description is read with reference to the accompanying drawings in which like characters represent like parts throughout the drawings, wherein: FIG.","1 is a schematic illustration of a conventional HFC network.","FIGS.","2A-2B are graphical illustrations depicting respective operating principles of a conventional sampling process 200 compared with an exemplary modulation process.","FIG.","3 is a graphical illustration depicting an operating principle of a demodulation process for the modulated digitized output signal depicted in FIG.","2B, according to an embodiment.","FIGS.","4A-B are schematic illustrations of an exemplary HFC network utilizing the delta-sigma modulation process depicted in FIG.","2B, and the delta-sigma demodulation process depicted in FIG.","3.FIGS.","5A-B are schematic illustrations of an exemplary digitized distributed network utilizing the delta-sigma modulation process depicted in FIG.","2B, and the delta-sigma demodulation process depicted in FIG.","3.FIGS.","6A-B are schematic illustrations of an exemplary radio frequency over glass network utilizing the delta-sigma modulation process depicted in FIG.","2B, and the delta-sigma demodulation process depicted in FIG.","3.FIG.","7 is a schematic block diagram of an exemplary system-level signal mapping process, according to an embodiment.","FIG.","8 is a graphical illustration depicting an unmapped electrical eye diagram of a digitized signal after delta-sigma digitization, according to an embodiment.","FIG.","9 is a graphical illustration depicting an electrical eye diagram of a digitized signal after delta-sigma digitization, implementing a flip mapping process.","FIG.","10 is a graphical illustration of a flip mapping table that may be implemented with the digitized signal of the electrical eye diagram depicted in FIG.","9.FIGS.","11A-B are graphical illustrations depicting a comparative result of a transmitted signal with and without implementation of the flip mapping processes depicted in FIGS.","9 and 10.FIGS.","12A-B are graphical illustrations depicting a comparative result of an electrical eye diagram of a pseudorandom binary sequence PAM4 signal with that of a signal implementing a uniform mapping process, according to an embodiment.","FIGS.","13A-B are graphical illustrations of alternative symbol mapping tables that may be implemented with the digitized signal of the electrical eye diagram depicted in FIG.","12B.","FIGS.","14A-B are graphical illustrations depicting a comparative result of a signal implementing the uniform mapping process depicted in FIG.","13A with a signal implementing the alternative uniform mapping process depicted in FIG.","13B.","FIG.","15 is a graphical illustration of a symbol table comparing the symbol mapping of the several processes described herein.","Unless otherwise indicated, the drawings provided herein are meant to illustrate features of embodiments of this disclosure.","These features are believed to be applicable in a wide variety of systems including one or more embodiments of this disclosure.","As such, the drawings are not meant to include all conventional features known by those of ordinary skill in the art to be required for the practice of the embodiments disclosed herein.","DETAILED DESCRIPTION In the following specification and the claims, reference will be made to a number of terms, which shall be defined to have the following meanings.","The singular forms “a,” “an,” and “the” include plural references unless the context clearly dictates otherwise.","“Optional” or “optionally” means that the subsequently described event or circumstance may or may not occur, and that the description includes instances where the event occurs and instances where it does not.","Approximating language, as used herein throughout the specification and claims, may be applied to modify any quantitative representation that could permissibly vary without resulting in a change in the basic function to which it is related.","Accordingly, a value modified by a term or terms, such as “about,” “approximately,” and “substantially,” are not to be limited to the precise value specified.","In at least some instances, the approximating language may correspond to the precision of an instrument for measuring the value.","Here and throughout the specification and claims, range limitations may be combined and/or interchanged; such ranges are identified and include all the sub-ranges contained therein unless context or language indicates otherwise.","According to the embodiments described herein, a digital optical network implements a digital optical link over a digitized distributed network, or utilizing a digitized analog signal over the conventional HFC network.","The digital optical network according to the present systems and methods is less affected by link loss, and also realizes a higher tolerance to nonlinear noise from the laser (e.g., of the headend/hub) or the fiber itself when the optical power is above the sensitivity of the receiver (e.g., of an end user).","The present digital optical network is therefore advantageously able to realize transmission over longer distances, support wavelengths per fiber, and effectively eliminate optical noise contribution to CNR.","Moreover, according to the advantageous techniques described herein, the CMTS and respective CMs may operate at higher orders of modulation format.","In the exemplary embodiments, optical digital transmission is accomplished utilizing delta-sigma modulation and demodulation.","Key steps in the optical digital transmission process include analog-to-digital (A/D) and digital-to-analog (D/A) conversion.","The A/D conversion (ADC) and D/A conversion (DAC) subprocesses involve two important factors: (1) sampling rate; and (2) bit resolution.","The minimum sampling rate is generally governed according to the Nyquist Sampling Theorem, whereas the bit resolution it important for determining the quantization noise.","In some of the embodiments described below, a DOCSIS digitization scheme, utilizing delta-sigma modulation and demodulation, is applied to variations of a conventional HFC network and implements one or more of (i) oversampling, (ii) decimation filtering, and (iii) quantization noise shaping, to achieve ultra-high resolution and excellent antialiasing filtering.","The present embodiments are therefore of particular advantageous use in audio applications, precision temperature measurements, and weighing scales.","The present systems and methods are further capable of implementing low-pass filtering that does not demand the processing latency experienced in conventional HFC networks.","Furthermore, the present optical digital transmission systems and networks realize even lower latencies than those experienced utilizing conventional ADC/DAC approaches.","Low latency is a particularly critical factor in virtual reality and immersive applications that networks of the future will have to support.","By leveraging frequency selective digitization, the present embodiments are even further able to advantageously reduce the amount of data required to represent the analog spectrum, such as the analog cable signal of HFC network 100, FIG.","1, above.","FIGS.","2A-2B are graphical illustrations depicting respective operating principles of a conventional sampling process 200 compared with an exemplary modulation process 202, according to an embodiment.","Process 200 depicts the operation of a conventional Nyquist-Shannon sampling ADC for an analog signal 204 (shown the time domain).","In the exemplary embodiment, process 200 bandwidth-limits analog signal 204 in the corresponding frequency domain (e.g., using a low-pass filter 206, at frequency fB).","In the example shown in FIG.","2A, quantization noise 208 is uncorrelated with the frequency of the input signal, and is spread evenly over the Nyquist bandwidth fs/2.Process 200 performs Nyquist sampling 210 of analog signal 204 (i.e., at the Nyquist frequency), and quantizes each sample by multiple quantization bits to produce multi-bit quantization signal 212.Since the quantization noise of a Nyquist ADC is approximately Gaussian, as well as uniformly spread over the Nyquist zone, a very large number of quantization bits are needed to ensure the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) (e.g., CNR or MER) of the resulting digitized signals 212.Such a large number of required quantization bits leads to very high requirements for the effective number of bits (ENOB), while also producing a low spectral efficiency and a data rate bottleneck.","That is, according to the prior art techniques, a narrow band analog signal can consume tremendous transmission bandwidth after digitization, due to the large number of quantization bits for each sample.","These drawbacks of conventional sampling techniques are solved according to exemplary modulation process 202.As depicted in FIG.","2B, in exemplary modulation process 202, a processor 214 of an A/D converter (not shown in FIG.","2B) applies delta-sigma modulation to exploit an oversampling ADC that utilizes one or two quantization bits on an input signal 216 to generate an output signal 218.In some embodiments, output signal 218 is binary (e.g., one-bit quantization).","In other embodiments, output signal 218 is a PAM4 output signal (e.g., two-bit quantization).","More particularly, modulation process 202 implements an oversampling subprocess 220, a noise shaping subprocess 222, and a quantization subprocess 224.In oversampling subprocess 220, modulation process 202 samples analog input signal 216 (e.g., a DOCSIS RF signal) at a high frequency, and spreads the quantization noise over an expanded Nyquist zone 226.Modulation process 202 then implements noise shaping subprocess 222 to push the quantization noise out of the signal band.","In the example depicted in FIG.","2B, a low-pass delta-sigma modulator 228 places analog signal 216 in the low-frequency end of the spectrum, and a noise transfer function 230 functions as a high-pass filter to push the quantization noise out of the signal band to the high frequency end, such that analog signal 216 is separated from the noise in the frequency domain.","The delta-sigma modulation technique of modulation process 202 outputs binary (e.g., on/off key (OOK)) signal 218 (1) or non-binary signal 218 (2) (e.g., PAM4 (pulse-amplitude-modulation having four amplitude levels)), depending on one-bit or two-bit quantization, and having a baud rate equal to the oversampling ADC of the subprocess 220.Accordingly, the resulting output binary or non-binary signal 218 generally follows the amplitude of analog input signal 216 in an average sense.","According to the advantageous technique of modulation process 202, the output produced using the present delta-sigma modulation techniques represents a high data rate bit stream (e.g., output 218), having an amplitude that generally tracks with the amplitude of the input analog signal (e.g., input signal 216) after a weighted moving average, for example.","In the exemplary embodiment, an averaging process implements low-pass filtering, and is thereby capable of smoothing out the high frequency oscillation of the output digitized bit stream.","The use of low-pass filtering further advantageously allows for easier and more reliable retrieval, i.e., modulation, of the original analog signal from the output digitized bit stream, as described below with respect to FIG.","3.FIG.","3 is a graphical illustration depicting an operating principle of a demodulation process 300 for the modulated digitized output signal 218, FIG.","2B, above.","More specifically, in demodulation process 300, a processor 302 implements delta-sigma demodulation to retrieve an analog signal 304 from digitized bit stream 218, FIG.","2B, using a low-pass filter 306.This advantageous technique is significantly simpler in comparison to the conventional Nyquist DAC, which reads the quantization bits of each sample, and converts the read quantization bits to an appropriate output level.","A frequency domain diagram 308 illustrates the advantages of the present delta-sigma operating principle, in the frequency domain, over the more laborious conventional Nyquist demodulation techniques.","That is, low-pass filter 306 effectively eliminates the out-of-band noise and filters retrieved analog signal 304 at the low frequency end.","In this example, as illustrated in FIG.","3, retrieved analog signal 304 has an uneven noise floor 310 due to noise shaping.","FIGS.","4A-B are schematic illustrations of an exemplary digitized HFC network 400 utilizing modulation process 202, FIG.","2B, and demodulation process 300, FIG.","3.Digitized HFC network 400 is similar to HFC network 100 in overall structure, except that digitized HFC network 400 is configured to implement delta-sigma modulation and demodulation instead of the conventional A/D and D/A conversion techniques.","Specifically, HFC network 400 includes a headend 402, a hub 404, a fiber node 406, end users/subscribers 408, and at least one optical fiber 410 connecting the link between headend 402, hub 404, and fiber node 406.Optical fiber 410 is also configured to carry digitized bit streams of the downstream and/or upstream optical signals.","A plurality of coaxial cables 412 connect fiber node 406 to respective end users 408, and carry the analog electrical signals therebetween.","Digitized HFC network 400 optionally implements amplifiers 414 along coaxial cables 412.In some embodiments, both of the digitized upstream and downstream optical signals are transmitted along the same optical fiber 410.In such instances, hub 404 includes an optical multiplexer/demultiplexer 416 for respectively combining/splitting the downstream and upstream optical signals, and fiber node 406 similarly includes an optical multiplexer/demultiplexer 418.Multiplexers/demultiplexers 416, 418 may be passive devices, such as diplexers, or active configuration units.","In other embodiments, the upstream and downstream signals are transmitted along separate fibers, and multiplexing is optional (e.g., where multiple optical signals are transmitted in the same direction).","FIG.","4B illustrates an exemplary architecture 420 for implementing the delta-sigma modulation and demodulation processes of digitized HFC network 400.In operation of architecture 420, a downstream analog signal (e.g., analog signal 216, FIG.","2B) from a CMTS 422 of headend 402/hub 404 is converted into a digital signal by a downstream delta-sigma modulator 424 (e.g., using modulation process 202, FIG.","2B) for analog signal digitization.","In the exemplary embodiment, the downstream analog signal is an analog DOCSIS RF signal from a broadcast service of CMTS 422, or may constitute edge QAM technology or a converged cable access platform (CCAP).","A bit stream (e.g., output 218, FIG.","2B) generated by downstream modulator 424 drives a downstream digital optical transmitter 426 to transmit the downstream digitized bit stream over optical fiber 410 to be received by a downstream digital optical receiver 428 of fiber node 406.At fiber node 406, a downstream delta-sigma demodulator 430 converts (e.g., by demodulation process 300, FIG.","3) the downstream electrical digital bit stream from downstream demodulator 430 back into analog form, where this demodulated downstream analog signal may be further transmitted throughout an existing HFC cable infrastructure, such as over coaxial cables 412, amplifiers 414, and optional taps 432.In further operation of digitized HFC network 400, upstream transmissions are accomplished similarly to the downstream transmissions, but in reverse.","That is, fiber node 406 receives an analog RF signal from one or more end users 408.An upstream delta-sigma modulator 434 converts the upstream analog signal into a digital upstream bit stream, which drives an upstream digital optical transmitter 436 of fiber node 406 to transmit the upstream digitized bit stream over optical fiber 410, to be received by an upstream digital optical receiver 438 of hub 404.An upstream delta-sigma demodulator 440 converts the upstream electrical digital bit stream into analog form, which may then be received by CMTS 422.As described above, for upstream transmissions, a different optical wavelength from the downstream transmission may be used.","Alternatively, the downstream and upstream digitized bit streams may be separately transmitted over separate optical fibers 410DS and 410US, respectively.","In the alternative embodiments, an electrical diplexer 442 and or optical multiplexers/demultiplexers (e.g., elements 416, 418, FIG.","4A) may be utilized where node aggregation and/or node splitting is desired.","The present embodiments are therefore of particular advantage to fiber-starved network environments faced by many present-day cable operators, where more limited conventional node aggregation and splitting techniques are commonly implemented to maximize fiber utilization.","By rendering the delta-sigma modulation and demodulation processes complementary (or the same) in both the downstream and upstream directions, the present techniques may be further advantageously deployed within existing legacy HFC networks, and without requiring significant hardware modifications to the CMTS in the headend/hub, or to the existing infrastructure between the fiber node and end users (i.e., electrical amplifiers, taps, etc.).","In the exemplary embodiment illustrated in FIGS.","4A-4B, the optical connection between the hub and the fiber node is upgraded to a digital optical link.","Through this digital optical link, digitized HFC network 400 is therefore advantageously capable of utilizing several different optical transport technologies, such as direct optical detection or coherent optical detection, depending on the requirement of oversampling rate and SNR for the various transmission conditions (e.g., legacy fiber, distance, etc.)","and resulting link capacity.","Through these advantageous techniques, the present systems and methods are thus able to achieve significantly longer transmission distances through use of the high-performance, delta-sigma modulation-based digital transmission.","At present, transport in the cable environment is asymmetric.","Accordingly, the requirements for HFC systems that implement the present delta-sigma modulation techniques may also be applied asymmetrically.","According to the delta-sigma modulation techniques described herein though, only the transmitter side experiences increased complexity to the oversampling subprocesses.","In contrast, no such complexity is required on the receiver side.","That is, implementation costs at the receiver side will be minimal.","However, the asymmetry of conventional HFC networks nevertheless allows implementation costs on the transmitter side to be significantly reduced as well.","For example, some DOCSIS 3.1 implementations utilize a high-split scenario, such as 1.2 GHz downstream/200 MHz upstream.","Accordingly, the costs of transmitting upstream will still be reduced in comparison with costs of transmitting downstream, since the upstream bandwidth is a fraction of the downstream bandwidth.","Furthermore, since many end users do not fully utilize the available upstream transport, the sampling needs from a customer perspective might be even lower in practice, and therefore the resulting transmitter implementation costs on the customer side as well.","Additionally, the digital optical link of the upgraded node, according to the embodiments illustrated in FIGS.","4A-B, achieve significantly improved reliability as compared to conventional techniques that are intended to support higher DOCSIS performance levels.","That is, the delta-sigma modulation/demodulation techniques of the present embodiments will have superior reliability over conventional remote-CMTS, remote-PHY, and A/D-D/A digitization approaches.","The delta-sigma modulation and demodulation processes described herein therefore have particular applicability to support heterogeneous service environments that include wireless backhaul and business connections according to end user requirements, while greatly simplifying the operational complexity for all end users.","FIGS.","5A-B are schematic illustrations of an exemplary digitized distributed network 500 utilizing modulation process 202, FIG.","2B, and demodulation process 300, FIG.","3.As shown in FIG.","5A, distributed network 500 is structurally similar to digitized HFC network 400, and includes a headend 502, a hub 504, a fiber node 506, end users/subscribers 508, at least one optical fiber 510, a plurality of coaxial cables 512, and optional amplifiers 514.Distributed network 500 differs though, from digitized HFC network 400 in operation, as explained further below with respect to FIG.","5B.","FIG.","5B illustrates an exemplary distributed architecture 516 for implementing the delta-sigma modulation and demodulation processes of distributed network 500.Operation of distributed architecture 516 differs from the operation of architecture 420, FIG.","4, in that distributed architecture 516 distributes the PHY layer into the HFC network.","That is, distributed architecture 516 distributes the PHY layer to fiber node 506 (or the PHY shelf), thereby effectively removing the PHY from a CMTS 518 (i.e., the CCAP Core), for example, thereby further rendering it possible to eliminate the need for an analog laser (not shown) in the headend 502/hub 504.In this embodiment, CMTS 518 is thus functionally converted to digital fiber Ethernet link (e.g., a network aggregation layer for an optical Ethernet or passive optical network (PON)), and optical fiber 510 functionally serves as an optical Ethernet digital fiber.","At fiber node 506, a digital optical transceiver 520 receives the digital signals from CMTS 518, at a downstream distributed MAC/PHY layer 522 for conversion, by a downstream delta-sigma demodulator 524, to an analog signal.","Similarly, an upstream delta-sigma modulator converts analog signals from end users 508 into digitize signals for an upstream distributed MAC/PHY layer 528 to provide to digital optical transceiver 520 for upstream transport over fiber 510.Similar to architecture 420, FIG.","4, distributed architecture 516 may further include a diplexer 530 and at least one tap 532.In this example, distributed architecture 516 advantageously utilizes downstream delta-sigma demodulator 524 as a D/A converter, and upstream delta-sigma modulator 526 as an A/D converter.","Therefore, the delta-sigma modulation and demodulation techniques of FIGS.","5A-B may be fully implemented in both the upstream and downstream directions, respectively.","According to this embodiment, a low-cost demodulation process is provided.","The implementation thereof achieves an ultra-high resolution for RF signal conversion, and is capable of utilizing either direct or coherent detection technologies using the optical connection between the headend/hub and fiber node.","Through the economic simplification of distributed architecture 516, distributed network 500 requires only one delta-sigma modulator/demodulator pair at fiber node 506 for RF-to-digital conversion.","FIGS.","6A-B are schematic illustrations of an exemplary radio frequency over glass (RFoG) network 600 utilizing modulation process 202, FIG.","2B, and demodulation process 300, FIG.","3.As shown in FIG.","6A, RFoG network 600 is structurally similar to digitized HFC network 400, and includes a headend 602, a hub 604, a fiber node 606, end users/subscribers 608, at least one optical fiber 610, a plurality of coaxial cables 612, and optional amplifiers 614.RFoG network 600 differs though, from digitized HFC network 400, in that RFoG analog optics technology transmits RF over fiber, instead of coaxial cable, to a terminating unit (e.g., an optical network unit (ONU) or an optical network terminal (ONT), not individually shown) deployed at the respective customer premises of end users 608.FIG.","6B illustrates an exemplary RFoG architecture 616 for implementing the delta-sigma modulation and demodulation processes of RFoG network 600.RFoG architecture 616 is similar to architecture 420, FIG.","4, and includes a CMTS 618, a downstream delta-sigma modulator 620, a downstream digital optical transmitter 622, a hub diplexer 624 (or multiplexer/demultiplexer), a fiber node diplexer 626 (or multiplexer/demultiplexer), a downstream digital optical receiver 628, a downstream delta-sigma demodulator 630, an upstream delta-sigma modulator 632, an upstream digital optical transmitter 634, an upstream digital optical receiver 636 of hub 604, and an upstream delta-sigma demodulator 638.In the exemplary embodiment, RFoG architecture 616 further includes at least one optical splitter 640 disposed along optical fiber 610.Downstream delta-sigma demodulator 630 and upstream delta-sigma modulator 632 communicate with a customer premises equipment (CPE) 642 of at least one end user 608.According to the advantageous embodiments illustrated in FIGS.","6A-B, a significant improvement to the transmission performance of the digital link of RFoG network 600 is achieved by introducing delta-sigma modulation and demodulation processes at both the headend/hub and the customer premises/end users, thereby effectively replacing optical connection with digital transmissions.","The architecture and operation of RFoG network 600 is particularly advantageous to customer users having existing home coaxial wiring and/or CPEs; implementation of RFoG network 600 requires no hardware changes to such existing infrastructure.","Furthermore, the digital fiber deep architecture of RFoG network 600 further allows the delivered data rate to be increased to end users 608.Where splitter 640 is implemented, the splitting ratio may also be further increased due to the higher power budget margin achievable from such digital transmission links.","According to the advantageous systems and methods described above, efficient digitization techniques may be employed over conventional HFC in RFoG networks to significantly expand transport capabilities of existing fiber strands, and without requiring significant hardware modification or costs.","The systems and methods described herein utilize existing fiber infrastructures to increase the capacity of such existing infrastructures, but without increasing complexity at the receiver side.","The present embodiments also advantageously utilize existing network transmission asymmetry to further reduce complexity at the transmitter side.","The present systems and methods thus significantly extend the life of existing fiber infrastructures, and also more efficiently use existing optical wavelengths.","Through the techniques described herein, a fiber communication network will realize increased scalability, thereby allowing the network to flexibly grow according to increasing demand from cable subscribers.","Exemplary embodiments of analog digitization systems and methods are described above in detail.","The systems and methods of this disclosure though, are not limited to only the specific embodiments described herein, but rather, the components and/or steps of their implementation may be utilized independently and separately from other components and/or steps described herein.","Additionally, the exemplary embodiments can be implemented and utilized in connection with other access networks utilizing fiber and coaxial transmission.","Mapping and DeMapping Digitized Signals for Optical Transmission Digitization of analog signals can significantly improve the achievable SNR/CNR and capacity over digital optical transmission links.","As described above, delta-sigma ADC improves over the conventional Nyquist ADC, by featuring high oversampling rate and a small number of quantization bits (1-2 bits).","As described above, the conventional Nyquist ADC operates at the Nyquist sampling rate and exploits many quantization bits to suppress the quantization noise, whereas delta-sigma ADC may use only 1 or 2 quantization bits, and rely on the oversampling technique to expand the Nyquist zone.","The delta-sigma ADC further exploits noise shaping techniques to move quantization noise out of the signal band and enhance in-band SNR, so that the effective quantization bit number is increased.","The embodiments herein and below are described herein particularly with respect to DOCSIS signals (and DOCSIS 3.1), but the present embodiments also provide significant advantages with respect to other multicarrier signals, such as Wi-Fi, WiMAX, UWB, LTE, and 5G wireless signals.","The digitization processes of the present embodiments are still further applicable to analog signals for fronthaul and/or backhaul applications.","The following embodiments represent systems and methods for symbol mapping of digitized signals at the transmitter side, after delta-sigma digitization (DSD), and the symbol demapping of recovered signals at the receiver side.","The remapping processes map the recovered signals to the original digitized signal sequences.","The innovative techniques described herein increase system performance, while also reducing costs for deeper nodes and higher bandwidths for customer applications, while leveraging existing optical components and fiber infrastructure.","In an exemplary embodiment, for OOK signals generated by 1-bit DSD, a symbol mapping process scrambles the bit sequence to avoid consecutive 0s or 1s, such that the digitized signal not only has equal amount of 0 bits and 1 bits, but also has 0s and 1s evenly distributed in the time sequence to facilitate the optical transmission and clock recovery at digital receiver.","For PAM4 signals, on the other hand, generated by 2-bit DSD, a symbol mapping process modifies the distribution of ±1 and ±3 symbols, so that the digitized symbols are equally distributed on ±1s and ±3s for optical transmission link, as described further below.","Analog signal utilization is prevalent in HFC networks of the cable television industry.","Utilization of analog signals though, is being challenged by the appearance of DOCSIS 3.1.In analog systems, e.g., DOCSIS 3.0 and earlier HFC networks, the quality of received RF signals is determined by the composite carrier to noise ratio (CCNR), which is limited by a combination of noise and nonlinear impairments contributed by both electrical and optical domains.","By transforming the signal waveforms from single-carrier to multicarrier OFDM, DOCSIS 3.1 supports higher order modulation formats for improved spectral efficiency, increased data capacity, and more flexible spectral resource allocation.","However, OFDM signals feature continuous envelopes and high peak-to-average power ratio (PAPR), which make the OFDM signals vulnerable to transmission impairments and nonlinear distortions.","For example, third order distortions, such as composite triple beat (CTB), can produce in-band interference components, which would overlap with the existing OFDM subcarriers and are difficult to filter.","Moreover, in order to support the challenging CNR requirements for high order modulation formats (e.g., 1024QAM and above) of DOCSIS 3.1, conventional analog fiber optic technologies have been pushed to their extremes.","The achievable link budget of the conventional system is significantly limited by the nonlinear distortion of the analog signals.","According to the innovative embodiments described herein, the transmission performance of DOCSIS 3.1 signals in HFC networks is significantly improved by utilizing digital links to leverage existing digital fiber communication technologies in HFC networks, such as coherent data center interconnect (DCI), or intensity modulation-direct detection (IM-DD) PONs.","Digital links are more robust against power loss and nonlinear impairments, and the received optical power is maintained above the receiver sensitivity.","Through these innovative techniques, increased fiber distance, enlarged coverage of the headend/hub, and enhanced tolerance of transmission impairments our achieved.","With digital error-free transportation, the transmission impairments of digital links may be essentially isolated from the quality of received RF signals.","That is, the CNR degradation contributed by optical/electrical noise and distortions can be eliminated.","Furthermore, by exploiting wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM) technology, the digital optical systems of the present embodiments may further support multiple wavelengths per fiber, thereby allowing for future capacity upgrade.","The embodiments described herein are different from the conventional Nyquist digitization, which features symmetric complexity of AD/DA operations on the transmitter/receiver side; the delta-sigma digitization (DSD) techniques of the present embodiments provide asymmetric complexities for AD and DA operations.","FIG.","7 is a schematic block diagram of an exemplary system-level signal mapping process 700.In an exemplary embodiment, process 700 is implemented with respect to a coherent optical network system 702, which includes a transmitter portion 704 and a receiver portion 706, in operable communication with each other over an optical transmission link 708 (e.g., for direct or coherent detection).","In the exemplary embodiment, transmitter portion 704 represents the headend and or optical hub, and includes a complex, high speed ADC (not shown in FIG.","7), which is configured to perform the oversampling, noise shaping, and quantization (1-bit or 2-bit) processes described above to convert the analog input signals to digital outputs (OOK or PAM4, respectively).","Also in an exemplary embodiment, receiver portion 706 includes a fiber node and filters (also not shown in FIG.","7) configured to perform the DAC processes described above.","As described above, process 700 differs from the conventional Nyquist ADC, which eliminates quantization noise by using many quantization bits.","In contrast, process 700 may implement delta-sigma ADC to move the quantization noise out-of-band.","Accordingly, a low-pass filter (LPF) or bandpass filter (BPF) may be implemented on the side of receiver portion 706 to filter out the desired signal.","Simultaneously, or at approximately the same time, the digitized signal may be converted back to its analog waveform by eliminating the out-of-band quantization noise.","According to this advantageous configuration, channel frequency demultiplexing and D/A conversion may both the implemented by a single device.","This asymmetry of the AD/DA operations of delta-sigma digitization may be further advantageously implemented in point-to-multipoint architectures, such as PONs, mobile fronthaul networks, and HFC networks.","In an exemplary embodiment, the complex ADC of process 700 may be centralized in the headend/hub, and shared by multiple fiber nodes.","In contrast, the simplified LPF/BPF may be distributed in each fiber node of optical link 708 to function as both the DAC and channel de-multiplexer.","According to this advantageous system architecture, the cost and design complexity of fiber nodes may be significantly reduced, but while improving system reliability.","In an exemplary embodiment, process 700 is implemented with respect to a DOCSIS 3.1 transmission.","DOCSIS 3.1 utilizes OFDM signals, which have a continuous envelope and Gaussian-distributed amplitudes, i.e., there are more small amplitude samples than large amplitude samples.","In the exemplary embodiment, after 1-bit delta-sigma digitization, the DOCSIS 3.1 signals are digitized to OOK signals.","Although if, in this example, the number of 0 bits and 1 bits will be equal, there will also occur many consecutive 0s or is due to the continuous envelope of input OFDM signals.","To improve the transmission performance and facilitate the clock recovery of receiver portion 706, process 700 further implements symbol mapping to scramble the bit sequence and thereby avoid consecutive 0s or 1s.","Symbol matching may then be performed, and the digitized signal produced therefrom will have not only equal amount of 0 bits and 1 bits, but also have 0s and 1s therein evenly distributed in the transmitted time sequence.","Similarly, after 2-bit delta-sigma digitization, the DOCSIS 3.1 signals may be digitized to PAM4 signals using 4 symbols, i.e., ±1 and ±3.Due to the Gaussian distribution of the input analog signal (e.g., signal 216, FIG.","2), the quantity of these four symbols will also have a Gaussian distribution, i.e., there will be more ±1s than there will be ±3s.","As described further below, process 700 addresses this distribution issue by adjusting the symbol distribution of the digitized signals two more evenly equalized the quantity of each symbol that is transmitted.","According to these advantageous techniques, the present embodiments more fully utilize the capacity of the digital fiber link (e.g., link 708), and maintain zero modification to the commercial DSP algorithms in coherent/IM-DD digital receivers.","As described above, these techniques not limited to DOCSIS 3.1, and may be also applied to other transmitted signals, such as Wi-Fi, WiMAX, UWB, LTE, and 5G wireless signals with the support of multicarrier modulation formats.","As described further below, process 700 implements mapping and demapping flow techniques (“(2)”) in in addition to the system flow 710 (“(1),” dashed circles) utilizing only the delta-sigma digitization techniques described above.","In the exemplary embodiment, for an input analog signal 712, transmitter 704 implements a delta-sigma digitization subprocess 714 to perform ADC on input analog signal 712.When implementing delta-sigma digitization without mapping, process 700 will proceed from delta-sigma digitization subprocess 714 to a digital signal modulation subprocess 716 (e.g., E/O conversion).","However, according to the exemplary embodiment, process 700 further includes a digital signal shaping subprocess 718, performed after delta-sigma digitization in subprocess 714, but before digital signal modulation in subprocess 716, to provide a distribution mapping of the digitized signal on the transmitter side, i.e., transmitter portion 704.In further operation, after modulation in subprocess 716, the modulated signal is transmitted over optical transmission link 708.On the receiver side, i.e., receiver portion 706, process 700 then implements a digital signal recovery subprocess 720 (e.g., 0/E conversion and processing).","In the case where distribution mapping has not been implemented from subprocess 718, process 700 will proceed from recovery subprocess 722 a delta-sigma demodulation subprocess 722, from which recovered analog signals 724 are obtained.","However, according to the exemplary embodiment, process 700 further includes a digital signal unshaping subprocess 726, performed after digital signal recovery in subprocess 720, but before delta-sigma demodulation in subprocess 722, to provide a distribution demapping of the digitized signal on the receiver side, i.e., transmitter portion 706, prior to analog conversion.","In the exemplary embodiment, process 700 inserts a symbol mapping subprocess (i.e., subprocess 718) on the transmitter side (i.e., transmitter portion 704) after delta-sigma digitization of input analog signal 712 in subprocess 714.Similarly, process 700 employs a symbol demapping subprocess (i.e., subprocess 726) on the receiver side (i.e., receiver portion 706) to map/demap the signal back to the original signal sequences, and then feed the demapped signal into a DAC (i.e., delta-sigma demodulation subprocess 722) for digital-to-analog conversion.","In the exemplary embodiment, a mapping code 728 is communicated from digital signal shaping subprocess 718 to digital signal unshaping process 726 to modify the signal distribution transmitted over optical transmission link 708.In some embodiments, mapping code 728 is transmitted over optical transmission link 708.In other embodiments, mapping code 728 is transmitted over alternative communication channels.","According to the exemplary configuration of process 700, because the signal mapping/demapping subprocesses 718/726 are performed according to their own mapping code 728, the need is eliminated to modify existing commercial digital signal recovery algorithms after delta-sigma digitization is performed, or after the signals are transmitted over optical transmission link 708.In some embodiments, the several subprocesses of process 700 are performed by one or more hardware units (e.g., ADC, DAC, modulator, demodulator, mapper, demapper) configured to perform one or more of the respective functions thereof.","In other embodiments, the several subprocesses are implemented through software programming of at least one processor of transmitter portion 704 and/or receiver portion 706.In at least one embodiment, the subprocesses are performed by a combination of hardware units and software programming.","In an exemplary embodiment, the DAC includes an LPF and/or a BPF.","FIG.","8 is a graphical illustration depicting an unmapped electrical eye diagram 800 of a digitized signal after delta-sigma digitization (e.g., subprocess 714, FIG.","7).","In an exemplary embodiment, eye diagram 800 represents a PAM4 signal after delta-sigma digitization.","In this example, the occurrence of +1 and −1 symbols will each have probabilities of p1, whereas the occurrence of +3 and −3 symbols Will each have probabilities of p3, and the total probabilities of all four symbols occurring will be 100%.","This total probability may be represented according to the following equation: 2p1+2p3=100% (Eq.","1) As described above, OFDM signals follow Gaussian distribution, end result in more small amplitude samples than large amplitude samples.","Therefore, in the digitized PAM4 signal, there are much more ±1 symbols (small amplitude) than ±3 symbols (large amplitude), i.e.","p1>>p3.Accordingly, as can be seen in eye diagram 800, areas 802 of greater intensity represent the ±1 symbol levels, whereas areas 804 of lesser intensity represent the ±3 symbol levels, due to the unequal distribution.","FIG.","9 is a graphical illustration depicting an electrical eye diagram 900 of a digitized signal after delta-sigma digitization, implementing a flip mapping process.","In this example, electrical eye diagram 900 represents the PAM4 signal of eye diagram 800 after delta-sigma digitization, and after implementation of a flip mapping subprocess (described further below with respect to FIG.","10).","In the exemplary embodiment, the flip mapping subprocess of eye diagram 900 maps the ±1 symbols to the ±3 symbols, but with the respective sign unchanged, and vice versa.","That is, flip mapping of the symbols occurs as follows: +3→+1; +1→+3; −1→−3; −3→−1.Accordingly, since p1>>p3, after flip mapping, there will be significantly more ±3 symbols than ±1 symbols.","Accordingly, as can be seen in eye diagram 900, areas 902 of greater intensity represent the ±3 symbol levels, whereas areas 904 of lesser intensity represent the ±1 symbol levels, in contrast to eye diagram 800.This reversal may be represented according to the following equation: yn=sgn(xn)(4−|xn|) (Eq.","2) Where xn is the symbol value of the digitized sequence of n symbols, and yn is the symbol value of the digitized sequence after the flip mapping subprocess is implemented.","FIG.","10 is a graphical illustration of a flip mapping table 1000 that may be implemented with the digitized signal of electrical eye diagram 900, FIG.","9.Flip mapping table 1000 graphically illustrates the correspondence of flips of the flip mapping subprocess described above with respect to FIG.","9.In an exemplary embodiment, flip mapping table 1000 may be implemented in respective databases of the transmitter (i.e., transmitter portion 704, FIG.","7) and the receiver (i.e., receiver portion 706, FIG.","7) and communicated therebetween as a code (i.e., mapping code 728, FIG.","7).","FIGS.","11A-B are graphical illustrations depicting a comparative result of a transmitted signal with and without implementation of the flip mapping processes depicted in FIGS.","9 and 10.Specifically, FIG.","11A depicts a transmitted signal 1100 upon which a delta-sigma digitization subprocess has been implemented, but not a mapping subprocess, and FIG.","11B depicts a mapped signal 1102, which represents transmitted signal 1100 after a flip mapping subprocess has been implemented thereupon.","In this example, signals 1100, 1102 are illustrated as 16QAM 16GBaud signals over a 40-km transmission at 128 Gb/s.","Accordingly, as can be seen from a comparison of mapped signal 1102 with the transmitted (unmapped) signal 1100, the signal magnitude smooths significantly around the center frequency after implementation of the flip mapping subprocess.","FIGS.","12A-B are graphical illustrations depicting a comparative result of a pseudorandom binary sequence (PRBS)-based PAM4 signal with a result of a signal upon which a uniform mapping subprocess (subprocess A, described below) has been implemented.","Specifically, FIG.","12A depicts an electrical eye diagram 1200 of a PRBS-based PAM4 signal, and FIG.","12B depicts an electrical eye diagram 1202 of a signal implementing uniform mapping subprocess A.","In an exemplary embodiment, uniform mapping subprocess A utilizes a scrambling code Sn, which represents a periodic pseudo-random bit stream of 0 and 1 values with equal probabilities (i.e., 50% will be 0s, and 50% will be 1s).","For an input symbol xn, the value will be flipped when Sn=1, but remain unchanged when Sn=0.Thus, uniform mapping subprocess A maybe implemented together with the flip mapping process described above with respect to FIGS.","9 and 10, above.","Accordingly, as can be seen from a comparison of eye diagrams 1200 and 1202, after implementation of uniform mapping subprocess A, the respective ±1 and ±3 symbols are equally distributed.","That is, eye diagram 1202 of the mapped signal is almost identical with eye diagram 1200 of the PRBS-based PAM4 signal.","FIGS.","13A-B are graphical illustrations of alternative symbol mapping tables 1300 and 1302, respectively, that may be implemented with the digitized signal of electrical eye diagram 1202, FIG.","12B.","Symbol mapping table 1300 corresponds to uniform mapping subprocess A, described above with respect to FIGS.","12A-B.","In the exemplary embodiment, utilizing scrambling code Sn, 50% of the +3 symbols will be mapped to a +1 symbol (e.g., Sn=1), whereas the other half of the +3 symbols will remain unchanged (e.g., Sn=0).","The disposition of the +1, −1, and −3 symbols it will be determined similarly, as represented by the following equation for symbol mapping table 1300 (mapping subprocess A): y n = { x n ( S n = 0 ) sgn ( x n ) ( 4 - x n ) ( S n = 1 ) ( Eq ."," 3 ) Symbol mapping table 1302 is similar to symbol mapping table 1300, but utilizes an additional value for scrambling code Sn.","That is, according to symbol mapping table 1302 (for uniform mapping subprocess “B”), scrambling code Sn represents a periodic pseudo-random bit stream of −1, 0, and 1 values with probabilities of 25%, 50% and 25%, respectively (i.e., (i.e., 25% of occurrences will be a −1, 50% of occurrences will be a 0, and 25% of occurrences will be a 1).","In this alternative embodiment, for an input symbol xn, the value will be flipped with its sign unchanged when Sn=1, and the value will be flipped with its sign also flipped when when Sn=−1.When Sn=0, both the value and the sign of xn remain unchanged.","The resulting values yn may be represented according to the following equation: y n = { x n ( S n = 0 ) sgn ( x n ) ( 4 - x n ) ( S n = 1 ) - sgn ( x n ) ( 4 - x n ) ( S n = - 1 ) ( Eq ."," 4 ) Looking specifically at the disposition of the +3 symbol, for example, 25% of the +3 symbols will be mapped to a +1 symbol, another 25% of the +3 symbols will be mapped to a −1 symbol, and the remaining 50% of the +3 symbols remain unchanged (i.e., mapped to a +3 symbol).","The disposition of the +1, −1, and −3 symbols are similarly determined according to the same calculations.","Similar to the implementation of uniform mapping subprocess A, described above with respect to FIGS.","12A-B, implementation of uniform mapping subprocess B also equally distributes the ±1 and ±3 symbols after mapping, thereby producing an eye diagram (not shown) that is also almost identical to eye diagram 1200 of the PRBS-based PAM4 signal.","That is, an eye diagram produced according to uniform mapping subprocess B will be identical to eye diagram 1202 produced according to uniform mapping subprocess A (and therefore also to I diagram 1200 of the PRBS-based PAM4 signal).","Accordingly, both uniform mapping subprocesses A and B May be successfully implemented to modify the symbol distribution to map the respective input signal to a PRBS signal with the statistical accuracy.","FIGS.","14A-B are graphical illustrations depicting a comparative result of a signal implementing the uniform mapping process depicted in FIG.","13A with a signal implementing the alternative uniform mapping process depicted in FIG.","13B.","Specifically, FIG.","13A depicts a transmitted signal 1300 upon which uniform mapping subprocess A has been implemented, and FIG.","13B depicts a transmitted signal 1302 upon which uniform mapping subprocess B has been implemented.","In this example, signal 1300 is illustrated as a 16QAM 16GBaud signal over a 40-km transmission at 128 Gb/s, and signal 1302 is illustrated as a 16QAM 32GBaud signal over a 40-km transmission at 256 Gb/s.","Accordingly, as can be seen from a comparison of signals 1300 and 1302, the different uniform mapping subprocesses may be successfully implemented for similar input signals, but having different symbol rates and data rates.","FIG.","15 is a graphical illustration of a symbol table 1500 comparing the symbol mapping techniques of the several mapping subprocesses described above.","In this example, the respective probabilities are labeled on each mapping pass (i.e., “Matching A” for uniform mapping subprocess A, and “Matching B” for uniform mapping subprocess B), for each respective scrambling code Sn (“Scrambler A” and “Scrambler B”).","As can be seen from symbol table 1500, the respective probabilities of symbol occurrences change according to whether only a delta-sigma digitization subprocess is implemented on the analog signal, or whether a flip mapping subprocess, and or a two-value or a three-value uniform mapping/scrambling subprocess is also implemented.","As described with respect to the embodiments above, the mapping and demapping techniques of the present systems and methods significantly improve the quality and capability of a digitized signal transmitted over an optical link.","Although specific features of various embodiments of the disclosure may be shown in some drawings and not in others, this is for convenience only.","In accordance with the principles of the disclosure, a particular feature shown in a drawing may be referenced and/or claimed in combination with features of the other drawings.","Some embodiments involve the use of one or more electronic or computing devices.","Such devices typically include a processor or controller, such as a general purpose central processing unit (CPU), a graphics processing unit (GPU), a microcontroller, a reduced instruction set computer (RISC) processor, an application specific integrated circuit (ASIC), a programmable logic circuit (PLC), a field programmable gate array (FPGA), a DSP device, and/or any other circuit or processor capable of executing the functions described herein.","The processes described herein may be encoded as executable instructions embodied in a computer readable medium, including, without limitation, a storage device and/or a memory device.","Such instructions, when executed by a processor, cause the processor to perform at least a portion of the methods described herein.","The above examples are exemplary only, and thus are not intended to limit in any way the definition and/or meaning of the term “processor.” This written description uses examples to disclose the embodiments, including the best mode, and also to enable any person skilled in the art to practice the embodiments, including making and using any devices or systems and performing any incorporated methods.","The patentable scope of the disclosure is defined by the claims, and may include other examples that occur to those skilled in the art.","Such other examples are intended to be within the scope of the claims if they have structural elements that do not differ from the literal language of the claims, or if they include equivalent structural elements with insubstantial differences from the literal language of the claims."]],"string":"[\n [\n \"SYSTEMS AND METHODS FOR MAPPING AND DEMAPPING DIGITIZED SIGNALS FOR OPTICAL TRANSMISSION\",\n \"An optical network includes a transmitter portion configured to transmit a digitized stream of symbols over a digital optical link, a mapping unit disposed within the transmitter portion and configured to code the transmitted digitized stream of symbols with a mapping code prior to transmission over the digital optical link, a receiver portion configured to recover the coded stream of symbols from the digital optical link, and a demapping unit disposed within the receiver portion and configured to map the recovered coded stream of symbols into an uncoded digitized signal corresponding to the digitized stream of symbols at the transmitter portion prior to coding by the mapping unit.\"\n ],\n [\n \"1.An optical network, comprising: a transmitter portion configured to transmit a digitized stream of symbols over a digital optical link; a mapping unit disposed within the transmitter portion and configured to code the transmitted digitized stream of symbols with a mapping code prior to transmission over the digital optical link; a receiver portion configured to recover the coded stream of symbols from the digital optical link; and a demapping unit disposed within the receiver portion and configured to map the recovered coded stream of symbols into an uncoded digitized signal corresponding to the digitized stream of symbols at the transmitter portion prior to coding by the mapping unit.\",\n \"2.The system of claim 1, wherein the transmitter portion comprises an analog-to-digital converter configured to digitize an input analog signal.\",\n \"3.The system of claim 2, wherein the analog-to-digital converter is configured to implement delta-sigma digitization on the input analog signal.\",\n \"4.The system of claim 3, wherein the analog-to-digital converter is disposed within the transmitter portion such that the delta-sigma digitization of the input analog signal is implemented prior to coding of the transmitted digitized stream by the mapping unit.\",\n \"5.The system of claim 3, wherein the receiver portion comprises an digital-to-analog converter configured to convert the uncoded digitized signal into a recovered analog signal.\",\n \"6.The system of claim 5, wherein the digital-to-analog converter is configured to implement delta-sigma demodulation on the uncoded digitized signal.\",\n \"7.The system of claim 6, wherein the digital-to-analog converter is disposed within the receiver portion such that the delta-sigma demodulation of the uncoded digitized signal is implemented after mapping of the recovered coded stream by the demapping unit.\",\n \"8.The system of claim 1, wherein the system is configured to transmit a signal according to one or more of a DOCSIS 3.1, a Wi-Fi, a WiMAX, a UWB, an LTE, and a 5G wireless signal specification.\",\n \"9.The system of claim 1, wherein the digitized stream of symbols is digitized according to at least one of an OOK and a PAM4 signal format.\",\n \"10.A symbol mapping method for a digitized signal, the digitized signal including a series of transmitted symbols having a Gaussian distribution of symbol amplitude values, the method comprising the steps of: mapping, for at least one input occurrence of a first symbol of the series of transmitted symbols, the first symbol to a second symbol of the series of transmitted symbols, wherein the first symbol has a first symbol amplitude value and the second symbol as a second symbol amplitude value greater than the first symbol amplitude value; and mapping, for at least one occurrence of the second symbol, the second symbol to the first symbol.\",\n \"11.The method of claim 10, wherein the sign of the first and second symbols remains unchanged after mapping to the other of the first and second symbols.\",\n \"12.The method of claim 10, further comprising the step of applying a scrambling code to each input occurrence of the first and second symbols.\",\n \"13.The method of claim 12, wherein the scrambling code comprises a periodic pseudo-random bit stream of 0 and 1 values having substantially equal probabilities of occurrence.\",\n \"14.The method of claim 13, wherein, for each occurrence of the first input symbol, the first symbol is mapped to the second symbol when the scrambling code has a 1 value, and the first symbol remains unchanged when the scrambling code has a 0 value.\",\n \"15.The method of claim 12, wherein the scrambling code comprises a periodic pseudo-random bit stream of −1, 0, and 1 values, wherein the −1 and 1 values each have a 25% probability of occurrence, and wherein the 0 value has a 50% probability of occurrence.\",\n \"16.The method of claim 15, wherein, for each occurrence of the first input symbol, the first symbol is mapped to the second symbol when the scrambling code has a −1 or 1 value, and the first symbol remains unchanged when the scrambling code has a 0 value.\",\n \"17.The method of claim 16, wherein, for each mapping of the first symbol to the second symbol, the symbol amplitude value of the mapped first symbol will be equal to the symbol amplitude value of the second symbol, the sign of the mapped first symbol will remain unchanged when the scrambling code has a 1 value, and the sign of the mapped first symbol will be reversed when the scrambling code has a −1 value.\",\n \"18.The method of claim 10, wherein the first symbol has a ±1 value in the second symbol has a ±3 value.\",\n \"19.The method of claim 10, wherein the series of transmitted symbols represents a PAM4 signal.\",\n \"20.The method of claim 10, wherein the digitized signal is a DOCSIS 3.1 signal.\"\n ],\n [\n \" BACKGROUND The field of the disclosure relates generally to fiber communication networks, and more particularly, to digitization techniques in hybrid fiber coaxial networks.\",\n \"Typical hybrid fiber-coaxial (HFC) architectures deploy few long fiber strands from fiber a hub to a node, but often many short fiber strands are deployed to cover the shorter distances that are typical from legacy HFC nodes to end users.\",\n \"Conventional Multiple Service Operators (MSOs) offer a variety of services, including analog/digital TV, video on demand (VoD), telephony, and high speed data internet, over HFC networks that utilize both optical fibers and coaxial cables.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"1 is a schematic illustration of a conventional HFC network 100 operable to provide video, voice, and data services to subscribers.\",\n \"HFC network 100 includes a master headend 102 , a hub 104 , a fiber node 106 , and end users/subscribers 108 .\",\n \"An optical fiber 110 carries optical analog signals and connects the link between master headend 102 , hub 104 , and fiber node 106 .\",\n \"A plurality of coaxial cables 112 carry radio frequency (RF) modulated analog electrical signals and connect fiber node 106 to respective end users 108 .\",\n \"In operation, fiber node 106 converts the optical analog signals from optical fiber 110 into the RF modulated electrical signals, which are then transported along coaxial cables 112 to end users/subscribers 108 .\",\n \"In some instances, HFC network 100 implements a fiber deep architecture.\",\n \"HFC network 100 may further utilize electrical amplifiers 114 respectively disposed along coaxial cables 112 to amplify the RF analog signals to respective end users 108 .\",\n \"In HFC network 100 , both the optical and electrical signals are in the analog form from hub 104 all the way to the subscriber's home of end user 108 .\",\n \"Typically, a cable modem termination system (CMTS) is located at either headend 102 or hub 104 , and provides complementary functionality to cable modems (CMs) (not shown) respectively disposed at end users 108 .\",\n \"Recently, the Data Over Cable Service Interface Specification (DOCSIS) has been established as an international standard interface that permits the addition of high-bandwidth Internet protocol (IP) data transfer to an existing HFC network, such as HFC network 100 .\",\n \"The latest DOCSIS standard, DOCSIS 3.1, offers (1) the opportunity to expand transmitted spectrum beyond the bandwidths that had previously been available, and in both the downstream and upstream directions, and (2) more efficient use of the spectrum itself.\",\n \"However, a DOCSIS 3.1 HFC network (i.e., supporting orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM)), when compared with its previous DOCSIS HFC network counterpart, requires significantly higher system performance for both the upstream and the downstream signals, and particularly with respect to the carrier to noise ratio (CNR) or the modulation error ratio (MER).\",\n \"The DOCSIS 3.1 Physical Layer Specification defines the downstream minimum required CNR performance of OFDM signals with low-density parity-check (LDPC) error correction in additive white Gaussian noise (AWGN) channel as shown in Table 1, below.\",\n \"For example, a typical OFDM quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM) of 1024 (1K-QAM) requires a signal performance of 34 dB CNR, or approximately 41-41.5 decibels (dB) CNR for the 4K-QAM modulation format option in the downstream direction.\",\n \"A similar situation occurs in the DOCSIS 3.1 upstream transmission path, as shown in Table 2, also below.\",\n \"In such analog HFC systems, the quality of the recovered RF signal channel (e.g., at CMs of end users 108 ) is determined according to the carrier-to-composite noise (CCN), or CCN ratio.\",\n \"The CCN of an HFC fiber link represents the combination of noise components (e.g., shot noise, thermal noise, laser noise (i.e., from hub/headend laser transmission), etc.\",\n \"), the intermodulation noise (e.g., second, third, and higher order components), and the crosstalk noise (e.g., nonlinear fiber interactions, such as four-wave mixing, cross-phase modulation, Raman crosstalk, etc.).\",\n \"Continuous envelope and high peak-to-average power ratio (PAPR) are significant concerns with respect to OFDM signals in particular.\",\n \"That is, OFDM signals are very sensitive to nonlinear intermodulation, especially composite triple beat (CTB).\",\n \"Second-order nonlinear products are out-of-band and are typically filtered.\",\n \"However, most third-order nonlinear products are located in-band, and cause problems by overlapping with existing carriers.\",\n \"TABLE 1 CM minimum CNR performance in AWGN channel Constellation CNR (dB) up CNR (dB) up (QAM) to 1 GHz to 1.0-1.218 GHz 4096 41 41.5 2048 37.0 37.5 1024 34.0 34.0 512 30.5 30.5 256 27.0 27.0 128 24.0 24.0 64 21.0 21.0 16 15.0 15.0 TABLE 2 CMTS minimum CNR performance in AWGN channel Constellation (QAM) CNR (dB) 4096 43.0 2048 39.0 1024 35.5 512 32.5 256 29.0 128 26.0 64 23.0 32 20.0 16 17.0 8 14.0 QPSK 11.0 Accordingly, the link loss and the analog linear distortions significantly limit the achievable link budget of the conventional HFC network.\",\n \"The effect on the achievable link budget is even more pronounced with respect to high-order modulation formats, which target a high data rate.\",\n \"Conventional analog optics technology is unable to keep up with the increasing data demand on legacy HFC networks.\",\n \"Replacing such legacy HFC networks, however, would be very expensive, and thus impractical.\"\n ],\n [\n \" BRIEF SUMMARY In an embodiment, an analog signal processor includes a sampling unit configured to (i) filter, in the frequency domain, a received time domain analog signal into a low-frequency end of a corresponding frequency spectrum, (ii) sample the filtered analog signal at a frequency substantially higher than the low-frequency end, and (iii) spread quantization noise over an expanded Nyquist zone of the corresponding frequency spectrum.\",\n \"The processor further includes a noise shaping unit configured to shape the spread quantization noise out of the low-frequency end of the corresponding frequency spectrum such that the filtered analog signal and the shaped quantization noise are substantially separated in the frequency domain, and a quantization unit configured to apply delta-sigma modulation to the filtered analog signal using at least one quantization bit and output a digitized bit stream that substantially follows the amplitude of the received time domain analog signal.\",\n \"In an embodiment, a hybrid fiber coaxial (HFC) network is provided.\",\n \"The network includes an optical hub configured to transmit a digitized bit stream over a digital optical link, a fiber node configured to receive the digitized bit stream over the digital optical link and convert the received digitized bit stream into a delta-sigma demodulated analog signal, and at least one end user configured to receive the delta-sigma demodulated analog signal from the fiber node.\",\n \"In an embodiment, an optical network includes a transmitter portion configured to transmit a digitized stream of symbols over a digital optical link, a mapping unit disposed within the transmitter portion and configured to code the transmitted digitized stream of symbols with a mapping code prior to transmission over the digital optical link, a receiver portion configured to recover the coded stream of symbols from the digital optical link, and a demapping unit disposed within the receiver portion and configured to map the recovered coded stream of symbols into an uncoded digitized signal corresponding to the digitized stream of symbols at the transmitter portion prior to coding by the mapping unit.\",\n \"In an embodiment, a symbol mapping method for a digitized signal is provided.\",\n \"The digitized signal includes a series of transmitted symbols having a Gaussian distribution of symbol amplitude values.\",\n \"The method includes a step of mapping, for at least one input occurrence of a first symbol of the series of transmitted symbols, the first symbol to a second symbol of the series of transmitted symbols.\",\n \"The first symbol has a first symbol amplitude value and the second symbol as a second symbol amplitude value greater than the first symbol amplitude value.\",\n \"The method further includes a step of mapping, for at least one occurrence of the second symbol, the second symbol to the first symbol.\"\n ],\n [\n \"CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser.\",\n \"No.\",\n \"15/847,417, filed Dec. 19, 2017, which claims the benefit of and priority to U.S.\",\n \"Provisional Patent Application Ser.\",\n \"No.\",\n \"62/435,961, filed Dec. 19, 2016.This application also claims the benefit of and priority to U.S.\",\n \"Provisional Patent Application Ser.\",\n \"No.\",\n \"62/448,044, filed Jan. 19, 2017.The disclosures of all of these prior applications are incorporated herein by reference in their entireties.\",\n \"BACKGROUND The field of the disclosure relates generally to fiber communication networks, and more particularly, to digitization techniques in hybrid fiber coaxial networks.\",\n \"Typical hybrid fiber-coaxial (HFC) architectures deploy few long fiber strands from fiber a hub to a node, but often many short fiber strands are deployed to cover the shorter distances that are typical from legacy HFC nodes to end users.\",\n \"Conventional Multiple Service Operators (MSOs) offer a variety of services, including analog/digital TV, video on demand (VoD), telephony, and high speed data internet, over HFC networks that utilize both optical fibers and coaxial cables.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"1 is a schematic illustration of a conventional HFC network 100 operable to provide video, voice, and data services to subscribers.\",\n \"HFC network 100 includes a master headend 102, a hub 104, a fiber node 106, and end users/subscribers 108.An optical fiber 110 carries optical analog signals and connects the link between master headend 102, hub 104, and fiber node 106.A plurality of coaxial cables 112 carry radio frequency (RF) modulated analog electrical signals and connect fiber node 106 to respective end users 108.In operation, fiber node 106 converts the optical analog signals from optical fiber 110 into the RF modulated electrical signals, which are then transported along coaxial cables 112 to end users/subscribers 108.In some instances, HFC network 100 implements a fiber deep architecture.\",\n \"HFC network 100 may further utilize electrical amplifiers 114 respectively disposed along coaxial cables 112 to amplify the RF analog signals to respective end users 108.In HFC network 100, both the optical and electrical signals are in the analog form from hub 104 all the way to the subscriber's home of end user 108.Typically, a cable modem termination system (CMTS) is located at either headend 102 or hub 104, and provides complementary functionality to cable modems (CMs) (not shown) respectively disposed at end users 108.Recently, the Data Over Cable Service Interface Specification (DOCSIS) has been established as an international standard interface that permits the addition of high-bandwidth Internet protocol (IP) data transfer to an existing HFC network, such as HFC network 100.The latest DOCSIS standard, DOCSIS 3.1, offers (1) the opportunity to expand transmitted spectrum beyond the bandwidths that had previously been available, and in both the downstream and upstream directions, and (2) more efficient use of the spectrum itself.\",\n \"However, a DOCSIS 3.1 HFC network (i.e., supporting orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM)), when compared with its previous DOCSIS HFC network counterpart, requires significantly higher system performance for both the upstream and the downstream signals, and particularly with respect to the carrier to noise ratio (CNR) or the modulation error ratio (MER).\",\n \"The DOCSIS 3.1 Physical Layer Specification defines the downstream minimum required CNR performance of OFDM signals with low-density parity-check (LDPC) error correction in additive white Gaussian noise (AWGN) channel as shown in Table 1, below.\",\n \"For example, a typical OFDM quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM) of 1024 (1K-QAM) requires a signal performance of 34 dB CNR, or approximately 41-41.5 decibels (dB) CNR for the 4K-QAM modulation format option in the downstream direction.\",\n \"A similar situation occurs in the DOCSIS 3.1 upstream transmission path, as shown in Table 2, also below.\",\n \"In such analog HFC systems, the quality of the recovered RF signal channel (e.g., at CMs of end users 108) is determined according to the carrier-to-composite noise (CCN), or CCN ratio.\",\n \"The CCN of an HFC fiber link represents the combination of noise components (e.g., shot noise, thermal noise, laser noise (i.e., from hub/headend laser transmission), etc.\",\n \"), the intermodulation noise (e.g., second, third, and higher order components), and the crosstalk noise (e.g., nonlinear fiber interactions, such as four-wave mixing, cross-phase modulation, Raman crosstalk, etc.).\",\n \"Continuous envelope and high peak-to-average power ratio (PAPR) are significant concerns with respect to OFDM signals in particular.\",\n \"That is, OFDM signals are very sensitive to nonlinear intermodulation, especially composite triple beat (CTB).\",\n \"Second-order nonlinear products are out-of-band and are typically filtered.\",\n \"However, most third-order nonlinear products are located in-band, and cause problems by overlapping with existing carriers.\",\n \"TABLE 1 CM minimum CNR performance in AWGN channel Constellation CNR (dB) up CNR (dB) up (QAM) to 1 GHz to 1.0-1.218 GHz 4096 41 41.5 2048 37.0 37.5 1024 34.0 34.0 512 30.5 30.5 256 27.0 27.0 128 24.0 24.0 64 21.0 21.0 16 15.0 15.0 TABLE 2 CMTS minimum CNR performance in AWGN channel Constellation (QAM) CNR (dB) 4096 43.0 2048 39.0 1024 35.5 512 32.5 256 29.0 128 26.0 64 23.0 32 20.0 16 17.0 8 14.0 QPSK 11.0 Accordingly, the link loss and the analog linear distortions significantly limit the achievable link budget of the conventional HFC network.\",\n \"The effect on the achievable link budget is even more pronounced with respect to high-order modulation formats, which target a high data rate.\",\n \"Conventional analog optics technology is unable to keep up with the increasing data demand on legacy HFC networks.\",\n \"Replacing such legacy HFC networks, however, would be very expensive, and thus impractical.\",\n \"BRIEF SUMMARY In an embodiment, an analog signal processor includes a sampling unit configured to (i) filter, in the frequency domain, a received time domain analog signal into a low-frequency end of a corresponding frequency spectrum, (ii) sample the filtered analog signal at a frequency substantially higher than the low-frequency end, and (iii) spread quantization noise over an expanded Nyquist zone of the corresponding frequency spectrum.\",\n \"The processor further includes a noise shaping unit configured to shape the spread quantization noise out of the low-frequency end of the corresponding frequency spectrum such that the filtered analog signal and the shaped quantization noise are substantially separated in the frequency domain, and a quantization unit configured to apply delta-sigma modulation to the filtered analog signal using at least one quantization bit and output a digitized bit stream that substantially follows the amplitude of the received time domain analog signal.\",\n \"In an embodiment, a hybrid fiber coaxial (HFC) network is provided.\",\n \"The network includes an optical hub configured to transmit a digitized bit stream over a digital optical link, a fiber node configured to receive the digitized bit stream over the digital optical link and convert the received digitized bit stream into a delta-sigma demodulated analog signal, and at least one end user configured to receive the delta-sigma demodulated analog signal from the fiber node.\",\n \"In an embodiment, an optical network includes a transmitter portion configured to transmit a digitized stream of symbols over a digital optical link, a mapping unit disposed within the transmitter portion and configured to code the transmitted digitized stream of symbols with a mapping code prior to transmission over the digital optical link, a receiver portion configured to recover the coded stream of symbols from the digital optical link, and a demapping unit disposed within the receiver portion and configured to map the recovered coded stream of symbols into an uncoded digitized signal corresponding to the digitized stream of symbols at the transmitter portion prior to coding by the mapping unit.\",\n \"In an embodiment, a symbol mapping method for a digitized signal is provided.\",\n \"The digitized signal includes a series of transmitted symbols having a Gaussian distribution of symbol amplitude values.\",\n \"The method includes a step of mapping, for at least one input occurrence of a first symbol of the series of transmitted symbols, the first symbol to a second symbol of the series of transmitted symbols.\",\n \"The first symbol has a first symbol amplitude value and the second symbol as a second symbol amplitude value greater than the first symbol amplitude value.\",\n \"The method further includes a step of mapping, for at least one occurrence of the second symbol, the second symbol to the first symbol.\",\n \"BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS These and other features, aspects, and advantages of the present disclosure will become better understood when the following detailed description is read with reference to the accompanying drawings in which like characters represent like parts throughout the drawings, wherein: FIG.\",\n \"1 is a schematic illustration of a conventional HFC network.\",\n \"FIGS.\",\n \"2A-2B are graphical illustrations depicting respective operating principles of a conventional sampling process 200 compared with an exemplary modulation process.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"3 is a graphical illustration depicting an operating principle of a demodulation process for the modulated digitized output signal depicted in FIG.\",\n \"2B, according to an embodiment.\",\n \"FIGS.\",\n \"4A-B are schematic illustrations of an exemplary HFC network utilizing the delta-sigma modulation process depicted in FIG.\",\n \"2B, and the delta-sigma demodulation process depicted in FIG.\",\n \"3.FIGS.\",\n \"5A-B are schematic illustrations of an exemplary digitized distributed network utilizing the delta-sigma modulation process depicted in FIG.\",\n \"2B, and the delta-sigma demodulation process depicted in FIG.\",\n \"3.FIGS.\",\n \"6A-B are schematic illustrations of an exemplary radio frequency over glass network utilizing the delta-sigma modulation process depicted in FIG.\",\n \"2B, and the delta-sigma demodulation process depicted in FIG.\",\n \"3.FIG.\",\n \"7 is a schematic block diagram of an exemplary system-level signal mapping process, according to an embodiment.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"8 is a graphical illustration depicting an unmapped electrical eye diagram of a digitized signal after delta-sigma digitization, according to an embodiment.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"9 is a graphical illustration depicting an electrical eye diagram of a digitized signal after delta-sigma digitization, implementing a flip mapping process.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"10 is a graphical illustration of a flip mapping table that may be implemented with the digitized signal of the electrical eye diagram depicted in FIG.\",\n \"9.FIGS.\",\n \"11A-B are graphical illustrations depicting a comparative result of a transmitted signal with and without implementation of the flip mapping processes depicted in FIGS.\",\n \"9 and 10.FIGS.\",\n \"12A-B are graphical illustrations depicting a comparative result of an electrical eye diagram of a pseudorandom binary sequence PAM4 signal with that of a signal implementing a uniform mapping process, according to an embodiment.\",\n \"FIGS.\",\n \"13A-B are graphical illustrations of alternative symbol mapping tables that may be implemented with the digitized signal of the electrical eye diagram depicted in FIG.\",\n \"12B.\",\n \"FIGS.\",\n \"14A-B are graphical illustrations depicting a comparative result of a signal implementing the uniform mapping process depicted in FIG.\",\n \"13A with a signal implementing the alternative uniform mapping process depicted in FIG.\",\n \"13B.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"15 is a graphical illustration of a symbol table comparing the symbol mapping of the several processes described herein.\",\n \"Unless otherwise indicated, the drawings provided herein are meant to illustrate features of embodiments of this disclosure.\",\n \"These features are believed to be applicable in a wide variety of systems including one or more embodiments of this disclosure.\",\n \"As such, the drawings are not meant to include all conventional features known by those of ordinary skill in the art to be required for the practice of the embodiments disclosed herein.\",\n \"DETAILED DESCRIPTION In the following specification and the claims, reference will be made to a number of terms, which shall be defined to have the following meanings.\",\n \"The singular forms “a,” “an,” and “the” include plural references unless the context clearly dictates otherwise.\",\n \"“Optional” or “optionally” means that the subsequently described event or circumstance may or may not occur, and that the description includes instances where the event occurs and instances where it does not.\",\n \"Approximating language, as used herein throughout the specification and claims, may be applied to modify any quantitative representation that could permissibly vary without resulting in a change in the basic function to which it is related.\",\n \"Accordingly, a value modified by a term or terms, such as “about,” “approximately,” and “substantially,” are not to be limited to the precise value specified.\",\n \"In at least some instances, the approximating language may correspond to the precision of an instrument for measuring the value.\",\n \"Here and throughout the specification and claims, range limitations may be combined and/or interchanged; such ranges are identified and include all the sub-ranges contained therein unless context or language indicates otherwise.\",\n \"According to the embodiments described herein, a digital optical network implements a digital optical link over a digitized distributed network, or utilizing a digitized analog signal over the conventional HFC network.\",\n \"The digital optical network according to the present systems and methods is less affected by link loss, and also realizes a higher tolerance to nonlinear noise from the laser (e.g., of the headend/hub) or the fiber itself when the optical power is above the sensitivity of the receiver (e.g., of an end user).\",\n \"The present digital optical network is therefore advantageously able to realize transmission over longer distances, support wavelengths per fiber, and effectively eliminate optical noise contribution to CNR.\",\n \"Moreover, according to the advantageous techniques described herein, the CMTS and respective CMs may operate at higher orders of modulation format.\",\n \"In the exemplary embodiments, optical digital transmission is accomplished utilizing delta-sigma modulation and demodulation.\",\n \"Key steps in the optical digital transmission process include analog-to-digital (A/D) and digital-to-analog (D/A) conversion.\",\n \"The A/D conversion (ADC) and D/A conversion (DAC) subprocesses involve two important factors: (1) sampling rate; and (2) bit resolution.\",\n \"The minimum sampling rate is generally governed according to the Nyquist Sampling Theorem, whereas the bit resolution it important for determining the quantization noise.\",\n \"In some of the embodiments described below, a DOCSIS digitization scheme, utilizing delta-sigma modulation and demodulation, is applied to variations of a conventional HFC network and implements one or more of (i) oversampling, (ii) decimation filtering, and (iii) quantization noise shaping, to achieve ultra-high resolution and excellent antialiasing filtering.\",\n \"The present embodiments are therefore of particular advantageous use in audio applications, precision temperature measurements, and weighing scales.\",\n \"The present systems and methods are further capable of implementing low-pass filtering that does not demand the processing latency experienced in conventional HFC networks.\",\n \"Furthermore, the present optical digital transmission systems and networks realize even lower latencies than those experienced utilizing conventional ADC/DAC approaches.\",\n \"Low latency is a particularly critical factor in virtual reality and immersive applications that networks of the future will have to support.\",\n \"By leveraging frequency selective digitization, the present embodiments are even further able to advantageously reduce the amount of data required to represent the analog spectrum, such as the analog cable signal of HFC network 100, FIG.\",\n \"1, above.\",\n \"FIGS.\",\n \"2A-2B are graphical illustrations depicting respective operating principles of a conventional sampling process 200 compared with an exemplary modulation process 202, according to an embodiment.\",\n \"Process 200 depicts the operation of a conventional Nyquist-Shannon sampling ADC for an analog signal 204 (shown the time domain).\",\n \"In the exemplary embodiment, process 200 bandwidth-limits analog signal 204 in the corresponding frequency domain (e.g., using a low-pass filter 206, at frequency fB).\",\n \"In the example shown in FIG.\",\n \"2A, quantization noise 208 is uncorrelated with the frequency of the input signal, and is spread evenly over the Nyquist bandwidth fs/2.Process 200 performs Nyquist sampling 210 of analog signal 204 (i.e., at the Nyquist frequency), and quantizes each sample by multiple quantization bits to produce multi-bit quantization signal 212.Since the quantization noise of a Nyquist ADC is approximately Gaussian, as well as uniformly spread over the Nyquist zone, a very large number of quantization bits are needed to ensure the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) (e.g., CNR or MER) of the resulting digitized signals 212.Such a large number of required quantization bits leads to very high requirements for the effective number of bits (ENOB), while also producing a low spectral efficiency and a data rate bottleneck.\",\n \"That is, according to the prior art techniques, a narrow band analog signal can consume tremendous transmission bandwidth after digitization, due to the large number of quantization bits for each sample.\",\n \"These drawbacks of conventional sampling techniques are solved according to exemplary modulation process 202.As depicted in FIG.\",\n \"2B, in exemplary modulation process 202, a processor 214 of an A/D converter (not shown in FIG.\",\n \"2B) applies delta-sigma modulation to exploit an oversampling ADC that utilizes one or two quantization bits on an input signal 216 to generate an output signal 218.In some embodiments, output signal 218 is binary (e.g., one-bit quantization).\",\n \"In other embodiments, output signal 218 is a PAM4 output signal (e.g., two-bit quantization).\",\n \"More particularly, modulation process 202 implements an oversampling subprocess 220, a noise shaping subprocess 222, and a quantization subprocess 224.In oversampling subprocess 220, modulation process 202 samples analog input signal 216 (e.g., a DOCSIS RF signal) at a high frequency, and spreads the quantization noise over an expanded Nyquist zone 226.Modulation process 202 then implements noise shaping subprocess 222 to push the quantization noise out of the signal band.\",\n \"In the example depicted in FIG.\",\n \"2B, a low-pass delta-sigma modulator 228 places analog signal 216 in the low-frequency end of the spectrum, and a noise transfer function 230 functions as a high-pass filter to push the quantization noise out of the signal band to the high frequency end, such that analog signal 216 is separated from the noise in the frequency domain.\",\n \"The delta-sigma modulation technique of modulation process 202 outputs binary (e.g., on/off key (OOK)) signal 218 (1) or non-binary signal 218 (2) (e.g., PAM4 (pulse-amplitude-modulation having four amplitude levels)), depending on one-bit or two-bit quantization, and having a baud rate equal to the oversampling ADC of the subprocess 220.Accordingly, the resulting output binary or non-binary signal 218 generally follows the amplitude of analog input signal 216 in an average sense.\",\n \"According to the advantageous technique of modulation process 202, the output produced using the present delta-sigma modulation techniques represents a high data rate bit stream (e.g., output 218), having an amplitude that generally tracks with the amplitude of the input analog signal (e.g., input signal 216) after a weighted moving average, for example.\",\n \"In the exemplary embodiment, an averaging process implements low-pass filtering, and is thereby capable of smoothing out the high frequency oscillation of the output digitized bit stream.\",\n \"The use of low-pass filtering further advantageously allows for easier and more reliable retrieval, i.e., modulation, of the original analog signal from the output digitized bit stream, as described below with respect to FIG.\",\n \"3.FIG.\",\n \"3 is a graphical illustration depicting an operating principle of a demodulation process 300 for the modulated digitized output signal 218, FIG.\",\n \"2B, above.\",\n \"More specifically, in demodulation process 300, a processor 302 implements delta-sigma demodulation to retrieve an analog signal 304 from digitized bit stream 218, FIG.\",\n \"2B, using a low-pass filter 306.This advantageous technique is significantly simpler in comparison to the conventional Nyquist DAC, which reads the quantization bits of each sample, and converts the read quantization bits to an appropriate output level.\",\n \"A frequency domain diagram 308 illustrates the advantages of the present delta-sigma operating principle, in the frequency domain, over the more laborious conventional Nyquist demodulation techniques.\",\n \"That is, low-pass filter 306 effectively eliminates the out-of-band noise and filters retrieved analog signal 304 at the low frequency end.\",\n \"In this example, as illustrated in FIG.\",\n \"3, retrieved analog signal 304 has an uneven noise floor 310 due to noise shaping.\",\n \"FIGS.\",\n \"4A-B are schematic illustrations of an exemplary digitized HFC network 400 utilizing modulation process 202, FIG.\",\n \"2B, and demodulation process 300, FIG.\",\n \"3.Digitized HFC network 400 is similar to HFC network 100 in overall structure, except that digitized HFC network 400 is configured to implement delta-sigma modulation and demodulation instead of the conventional A/D and D/A conversion techniques.\",\n \"Specifically, HFC network 400 includes a headend 402, a hub 404, a fiber node 406, end users/subscribers 408, and at least one optical fiber 410 connecting the link between headend 402, hub 404, and fiber node 406.Optical fiber 410 is also configured to carry digitized bit streams of the downstream and/or upstream optical signals.\",\n \"A plurality of coaxial cables 412 connect fiber node 406 to respective end users 408, and carry the analog electrical signals therebetween.\",\n \"Digitized HFC network 400 optionally implements amplifiers 414 along coaxial cables 412.In some embodiments, both of the digitized upstream and downstream optical signals are transmitted along the same optical fiber 410.In such instances, hub 404 includes an optical multiplexer/demultiplexer 416 for respectively combining/splitting the downstream and upstream optical signals, and fiber node 406 similarly includes an optical multiplexer/demultiplexer 418.Multiplexers/demultiplexers 416, 418 may be passive devices, such as diplexers, or active configuration units.\",\n \"In other embodiments, the upstream and downstream signals are transmitted along separate fibers, and multiplexing is optional (e.g., where multiple optical signals are transmitted in the same direction).\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"4B illustrates an exemplary architecture 420 for implementing the delta-sigma modulation and demodulation processes of digitized HFC network 400.In operation of architecture 420, a downstream analog signal (e.g., analog signal 216, FIG.\",\n \"2B) from a CMTS 422 of headend 402/hub 404 is converted into a digital signal by a downstream delta-sigma modulator 424 (e.g., using modulation process 202, FIG.\",\n \"2B) for analog signal digitization.\",\n \"In the exemplary embodiment, the downstream analog signal is an analog DOCSIS RF signal from a broadcast service of CMTS 422, or may constitute edge QAM technology or a converged cable access platform (CCAP).\",\n \"A bit stream (e.g., output 218, FIG.\",\n \"2B) generated by downstream modulator 424 drives a downstream digital optical transmitter 426 to transmit the downstream digitized bit stream over optical fiber 410 to be received by a downstream digital optical receiver 428 of fiber node 406.At fiber node 406, a downstream delta-sigma demodulator 430 converts (e.g., by demodulation process 300, FIG.\",\n \"3) the downstream electrical digital bit stream from downstream demodulator 430 back into analog form, where this demodulated downstream analog signal may be further transmitted throughout an existing HFC cable infrastructure, such as over coaxial cables 412, amplifiers 414, and optional taps 432.In further operation of digitized HFC network 400, upstream transmissions are accomplished similarly to the downstream transmissions, but in reverse.\",\n \"That is, fiber node 406 receives an analog RF signal from one or more end users 408.An upstream delta-sigma modulator 434 converts the upstream analog signal into a digital upstream bit stream, which drives an upstream digital optical transmitter 436 of fiber node 406 to transmit the upstream digitized bit stream over optical fiber 410, to be received by an upstream digital optical receiver 438 of hub 404.An upstream delta-sigma demodulator 440 converts the upstream electrical digital bit stream into analog form, which may then be received by CMTS 422.As described above, for upstream transmissions, a different optical wavelength from the downstream transmission may be used.\",\n \"Alternatively, the downstream and upstream digitized bit streams may be separately transmitted over separate optical fibers 410DS and 410US, respectively.\",\n \"In the alternative embodiments, an electrical diplexer 442 and or optical multiplexers/demultiplexers (e.g., elements 416, 418, FIG.\",\n \"4A) may be utilized where node aggregation and/or node splitting is desired.\",\n \"The present embodiments are therefore of particular advantage to fiber-starved network environments faced by many present-day cable operators, where more limited conventional node aggregation and splitting techniques are commonly implemented to maximize fiber utilization.\",\n \"By rendering the delta-sigma modulation and demodulation processes complementary (or the same) in both the downstream and upstream directions, the present techniques may be further advantageously deployed within existing legacy HFC networks, and without requiring significant hardware modifications to the CMTS in the headend/hub, or to the existing infrastructure between the fiber node and end users (i.e., electrical amplifiers, taps, etc.).\",\n \"In the exemplary embodiment illustrated in FIGS.\",\n \"4A-4B, the optical connection between the hub and the fiber node is upgraded to a digital optical link.\",\n \"Through this digital optical link, digitized HFC network 400 is therefore advantageously capable of utilizing several different optical transport technologies, such as direct optical detection or coherent optical detection, depending on the requirement of oversampling rate and SNR for the various transmission conditions (e.g., legacy fiber, distance, etc.)\",\n \"and resulting link capacity.\",\n \"Through these advantageous techniques, the present systems and methods are thus able to achieve significantly longer transmission distances through use of the high-performance, delta-sigma modulation-based digital transmission.\",\n \"At present, transport in the cable environment is asymmetric.\",\n \"Accordingly, the requirements for HFC systems that implement the present delta-sigma modulation techniques may also be applied asymmetrically.\",\n \"According to the delta-sigma modulation techniques described herein though, only the transmitter side experiences increased complexity to the oversampling subprocesses.\",\n \"In contrast, no such complexity is required on the receiver side.\",\n \"That is, implementation costs at the receiver side will be minimal.\",\n \"However, the asymmetry of conventional HFC networks nevertheless allows implementation costs on the transmitter side to be significantly reduced as well.\",\n \"For example, some DOCSIS 3.1 implementations utilize a high-split scenario, such as 1.2 GHz downstream/200 MHz upstream.\",\n \"Accordingly, the costs of transmitting upstream will still be reduced in comparison with costs of transmitting downstream, since the upstream bandwidth is a fraction of the downstream bandwidth.\",\n \"Furthermore, since many end users do not fully utilize the available upstream transport, the sampling needs from a customer perspective might be even lower in practice, and therefore the resulting transmitter implementation costs on the customer side as well.\",\n \"Additionally, the digital optical link of the upgraded node, according to the embodiments illustrated in FIGS.\",\n \"4A-B, achieve significantly improved reliability as compared to conventional techniques that are intended to support higher DOCSIS performance levels.\",\n \"That is, the delta-sigma modulation/demodulation techniques of the present embodiments will have superior reliability over conventional remote-CMTS, remote-PHY, and A/D-D/A digitization approaches.\",\n \"The delta-sigma modulation and demodulation processes described herein therefore have particular applicability to support heterogeneous service environments that include wireless backhaul and business connections according to end user requirements, while greatly simplifying the operational complexity for all end users.\",\n \"FIGS.\",\n \"5A-B are schematic illustrations of an exemplary digitized distributed network 500 utilizing modulation process 202, FIG.\",\n \"2B, and demodulation process 300, FIG.\",\n \"3.As shown in FIG.\",\n \"5A, distributed network 500 is structurally similar to digitized HFC network 400, and includes a headend 502, a hub 504, a fiber node 506, end users/subscribers 508, at least one optical fiber 510, a plurality of coaxial cables 512, and optional amplifiers 514.Distributed network 500 differs though, from digitized HFC network 400 in operation, as explained further below with respect to FIG.\",\n \"5B.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"5B illustrates an exemplary distributed architecture 516 for implementing the delta-sigma modulation and demodulation processes of distributed network 500.Operation of distributed architecture 516 differs from the operation of architecture 420, FIG.\",\n \"4, in that distributed architecture 516 distributes the PHY layer into the HFC network.\",\n \"That is, distributed architecture 516 distributes the PHY layer to fiber node 506 (or the PHY shelf), thereby effectively removing the PHY from a CMTS 518 (i.e., the CCAP Core), for example, thereby further rendering it possible to eliminate the need for an analog laser (not shown) in the headend 502/hub 504.In this embodiment, CMTS 518 is thus functionally converted to digital fiber Ethernet link (e.g., a network aggregation layer for an optical Ethernet or passive optical network (PON)), and optical fiber 510 functionally serves as an optical Ethernet digital fiber.\",\n \"At fiber node 506, a digital optical transceiver 520 receives the digital signals from CMTS 518, at a downstream distributed MAC/PHY layer 522 for conversion, by a downstream delta-sigma demodulator 524, to an analog signal.\",\n \"Similarly, an upstream delta-sigma modulator converts analog signals from end users 508 into digitize signals for an upstream distributed MAC/PHY layer 528 to provide to digital optical transceiver 520 for upstream transport over fiber 510.Similar to architecture 420, FIG.\",\n \"4, distributed architecture 516 may further include a diplexer 530 and at least one tap 532.In this example, distributed architecture 516 advantageously utilizes downstream delta-sigma demodulator 524 as a D/A converter, and upstream delta-sigma modulator 526 as an A/D converter.\",\n \"Therefore, the delta-sigma modulation and demodulation techniques of FIGS.\",\n \"5A-B may be fully implemented in both the upstream and downstream directions, respectively.\",\n \"According to this embodiment, a low-cost demodulation process is provided.\",\n \"The implementation thereof achieves an ultra-high resolution for RF signal conversion, and is capable of utilizing either direct or coherent detection technologies using the optical connection between the headend/hub and fiber node.\",\n \"Through the economic simplification of distributed architecture 516, distributed network 500 requires only one delta-sigma modulator/demodulator pair at fiber node 506 for RF-to-digital conversion.\",\n \"FIGS.\",\n \"6A-B are schematic illustrations of an exemplary radio frequency over glass (RFoG) network 600 utilizing modulation process 202, FIG.\",\n \"2B, and demodulation process 300, FIG.\",\n \"3.As shown in FIG.\",\n \"6A, RFoG network 600 is structurally similar to digitized HFC network 400, and includes a headend 602, a hub 604, a fiber node 606, end users/subscribers 608, at least one optical fiber 610, a plurality of coaxial cables 612, and optional amplifiers 614.RFoG network 600 differs though, from digitized HFC network 400, in that RFoG analog optics technology transmits RF over fiber, instead of coaxial cable, to a terminating unit (e.g., an optical network unit (ONU) or an optical network terminal (ONT), not individually shown) deployed at the respective customer premises of end users 608.FIG.\",\n \"6B illustrates an exemplary RFoG architecture 616 for implementing the delta-sigma modulation and demodulation processes of RFoG network 600.RFoG architecture 616 is similar to architecture 420, FIG.\",\n \"4, and includes a CMTS 618, a downstream delta-sigma modulator 620, a downstream digital optical transmitter 622, a hub diplexer 624 (or multiplexer/demultiplexer), a fiber node diplexer 626 (or multiplexer/demultiplexer), a downstream digital optical receiver 628, a downstream delta-sigma demodulator 630, an upstream delta-sigma modulator 632, an upstream digital optical transmitter 634, an upstream digital optical receiver 636 of hub 604, and an upstream delta-sigma demodulator 638.In the exemplary embodiment, RFoG architecture 616 further includes at least one optical splitter 640 disposed along optical fiber 610.Downstream delta-sigma demodulator 630 and upstream delta-sigma modulator 632 communicate with a customer premises equipment (CPE) 642 of at least one end user 608.According to the advantageous embodiments illustrated in FIGS.\",\n \"6A-B, a significant improvement to the transmission performance of the digital link of RFoG network 600 is achieved by introducing delta-sigma modulation and demodulation processes at both the headend/hub and the customer premises/end users, thereby effectively replacing optical connection with digital transmissions.\",\n \"The architecture and operation of RFoG network 600 is particularly advantageous to customer users having existing home coaxial wiring and/or CPEs; implementation of RFoG network 600 requires no hardware changes to such existing infrastructure.\",\n \"Furthermore, the digital fiber deep architecture of RFoG network 600 further allows the delivered data rate to be increased to end users 608.Where splitter 640 is implemented, the splitting ratio may also be further increased due to the higher power budget margin achievable from such digital transmission links.\",\n \"According to the advantageous systems and methods described above, efficient digitization techniques may be employed over conventional HFC in RFoG networks to significantly expand transport capabilities of existing fiber strands, and without requiring significant hardware modification or costs.\",\n \"The systems and methods described herein utilize existing fiber infrastructures to increase the capacity of such existing infrastructures, but without increasing complexity at the receiver side.\",\n \"The present embodiments also advantageously utilize existing network transmission asymmetry to further reduce complexity at the transmitter side.\",\n \"The present systems and methods thus significantly extend the life of existing fiber infrastructures, and also more efficiently use existing optical wavelengths.\",\n \"Through the techniques described herein, a fiber communication network will realize increased scalability, thereby allowing the network to flexibly grow according to increasing demand from cable subscribers.\",\n \"Exemplary embodiments of analog digitization systems and methods are described above in detail.\",\n \"The systems and methods of this disclosure though, are not limited to only the specific embodiments described herein, but rather, the components and/or steps of their implementation may be utilized independently and separately from other components and/or steps described herein.\",\n \"Additionally, the exemplary embodiments can be implemented and utilized in connection with other access networks utilizing fiber and coaxial transmission.\",\n \"Mapping and DeMapping Digitized Signals for Optical Transmission Digitization of analog signals can significantly improve the achievable SNR/CNR and capacity over digital optical transmission links.\",\n \"As described above, delta-sigma ADC improves over the conventional Nyquist ADC, by featuring high oversampling rate and a small number of quantization bits (1-2 bits).\",\n \"As described above, the conventional Nyquist ADC operates at the Nyquist sampling rate and exploits many quantization bits to suppress the quantization noise, whereas delta-sigma ADC may use only 1 or 2 quantization bits, and rely on the oversampling technique to expand the Nyquist zone.\",\n \"The delta-sigma ADC further exploits noise shaping techniques to move quantization noise out of the signal band and enhance in-band SNR, so that the effective quantization bit number is increased.\",\n \"The embodiments herein and below are described herein particularly with respect to DOCSIS signals (and DOCSIS 3.1), but the present embodiments also provide significant advantages with respect to other multicarrier signals, such as Wi-Fi, WiMAX, UWB, LTE, and 5G wireless signals.\",\n \"The digitization processes of the present embodiments are still further applicable to analog signals for fronthaul and/or backhaul applications.\",\n \"The following embodiments represent systems and methods for symbol mapping of digitized signals at the transmitter side, after delta-sigma digitization (DSD), and the symbol demapping of recovered signals at the receiver side.\",\n \"The remapping processes map the recovered signals to the original digitized signal sequences.\",\n \"The innovative techniques described herein increase system performance, while also reducing costs for deeper nodes and higher bandwidths for customer applications, while leveraging existing optical components and fiber infrastructure.\",\n \"In an exemplary embodiment, for OOK signals generated by 1-bit DSD, a symbol mapping process scrambles the bit sequence to avoid consecutive 0s or 1s, such that the digitized signal not only has equal amount of 0 bits and 1 bits, but also has 0s and 1s evenly distributed in the time sequence to facilitate the optical transmission and clock recovery at digital receiver.\",\n \"For PAM4 signals, on the other hand, generated by 2-bit DSD, a symbol mapping process modifies the distribution of ±1 and ±3 symbols, so that the digitized symbols are equally distributed on ±1s and ±3s for optical transmission link, as described further below.\",\n \"Analog signal utilization is prevalent in HFC networks of the cable television industry.\",\n \"Utilization of analog signals though, is being challenged by the appearance of DOCSIS 3.1.In analog systems, e.g., DOCSIS 3.0 and earlier HFC networks, the quality of received RF signals is determined by the composite carrier to noise ratio (CCNR), which is limited by a combination of noise and nonlinear impairments contributed by both electrical and optical domains.\",\n \"By transforming the signal waveforms from single-carrier to multicarrier OFDM, DOCSIS 3.1 supports higher order modulation formats for improved spectral efficiency, increased data capacity, and more flexible spectral resource allocation.\",\n \"However, OFDM signals feature continuous envelopes and high peak-to-average power ratio (PAPR), which make the OFDM signals vulnerable to transmission impairments and nonlinear distortions.\",\n \"For example, third order distortions, such as composite triple beat (CTB), can produce in-band interference components, which would overlap with the existing OFDM subcarriers and are difficult to filter.\",\n \"Moreover, in order to support the challenging CNR requirements for high order modulation formats (e.g., 1024QAM and above) of DOCSIS 3.1, conventional analog fiber optic technologies have been pushed to their extremes.\",\n \"The achievable link budget of the conventional system is significantly limited by the nonlinear distortion of the analog signals.\",\n \"According to the innovative embodiments described herein, the transmission performance of DOCSIS 3.1 signals in HFC networks is significantly improved by utilizing digital links to leverage existing digital fiber communication technologies in HFC networks, such as coherent data center interconnect (DCI), or intensity modulation-direct detection (IM-DD) PONs.\",\n \"Digital links are more robust against power loss and nonlinear impairments, and the received optical power is maintained above the receiver sensitivity.\",\n \"Through these innovative techniques, increased fiber distance, enlarged coverage of the headend/hub, and enhanced tolerance of transmission impairments our achieved.\",\n \"With digital error-free transportation, the transmission impairments of digital links may be essentially isolated from the quality of received RF signals.\",\n \"That is, the CNR degradation contributed by optical/electrical noise and distortions can be eliminated.\",\n \"Furthermore, by exploiting wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM) technology, the digital optical systems of the present embodiments may further support multiple wavelengths per fiber, thereby allowing for future capacity upgrade.\",\n \"The embodiments described herein are different from the conventional Nyquist digitization, which features symmetric complexity of AD/DA operations on the transmitter/receiver side; the delta-sigma digitization (DSD) techniques of the present embodiments provide asymmetric complexities for AD and DA operations.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"7 is a schematic block diagram of an exemplary system-level signal mapping process 700.In an exemplary embodiment, process 700 is implemented with respect to a coherent optical network system 702, which includes a transmitter portion 704 and a receiver portion 706, in operable communication with each other over an optical transmission link 708 (e.g., for direct or coherent detection).\",\n \"In the exemplary embodiment, transmitter portion 704 represents the headend and or optical hub, and includes a complex, high speed ADC (not shown in FIG.\",\n \"7), which is configured to perform the oversampling, noise shaping, and quantization (1-bit or 2-bit) processes described above to convert the analog input signals to digital outputs (OOK or PAM4, respectively).\",\n \"Also in an exemplary embodiment, receiver portion 706 includes a fiber node and filters (also not shown in FIG.\",\n \"7) configured to perform the DAC processes described above.\",\n \"As described above, process 700 differs from the conventional Nyquist ADC, which eliminates quantization noise by using many quantization bits.\",\n \"In contrast, process 700 may implement delta-sigma ADC to move the quantization noise out-of-band.\",\n \"Accordingly, a low-pass filter (LPF) or bandpass filter (BPF) may be implemented on the side of receiver portion 706 to filter out the desired signal.\",\n \"Simultaneously, or at approximately the same time, the digitized signal may be converted back to its analog waveform by eliminating the out-of-band quantization noise.\",\n \"According to this advantageous configuration, channel frequency demultiplexing and D/A conversion may both the implemented by a single device.\",\n \"This asymmetry of the AD/DA operations of delta-sigma digitization may be further advantageously implemented in point-to-multipoint architectures, such as PONs, mobile fronthaul networks, and HFC networks.\",\n \"In an exemplary embodiment, the complex ADC of process 700 may be centralized in the headend/hub, and shared by multiple fiber nodes.\",\n \"In contrast, the simplified LPF/BPF may be distributed in each fiber node of optical link 708 to function as both the DAC and channel de-multiplexer.\",\n \"According to this advantageous system architecture, the cost and design complexity of fiber nodes may be significantly reduced, but while improving system reliability.\",\n \"In an exemplary embodiment, process 700 is implemented with respect to a DOCSIS 3.1 transmission.\",\n \"DOCSIS 3.1 utilizes OFDM signals, which have a continuous envelope and Gaussian-distributed amplitudes, i.e., there are more small amplitude samples than large amplitude samples.\",\n \"In the exemplary embodiment, after 1-bit delta-sigma digitization, the DOCSIS 3.1 signals are digitized to OOK signals.\",\n \"Although if, in this example, the number of 0 bits and 1 bits will be equal, there will also occur many consecutive 0s or is due to the continuous envelope of input OFDM signals.\",\n \"To improve the transmission performance and facilitate the clock recovery of receiver portion 706, process 700 further implements symbol mapping to scramble the bit sequence and thereby avoid consecutive 0s or 1s.\",\n \"Symbol matching may then be performed, and the digitized signal produced therefrom will have not only equal amount of 0 bits and 1 bits, but also have 0s and 1s therein evenly distributed in the transmitted time sequence.\",\n \"Similarly, after 2-bit delta-sigma digitization, the DOCSIS 3.1 signals may be digitized to PAM4 signals using 4 symbols, i.e., ±1 and ±3.Due to the Gaussian distribution of the input analog signal (e.g., signal 216, FIG.\",\n \"2), the quantity of these four symbols will also have a Gaussian distribution, i.e., there will be more ±1s than there will be ±3s.\",\n \"As described further below, process 700 addresses this distribution issue by adjusting the symbol distribution of the digitized signals two more evenly equalized the quantity of each symbol that is transmitted.\",\n \"According to these advantageous techniques, the present embodiments more fully utilize the capacity of the digital fiber link (e.g., link 708), and maintain zero modification to the commercial DSP algorithms in coherent/IM-DD digital receivers.\",\n \"As described above, these techniques not limited to DOCSIS 3.1, and may be also applied to other transmitted signals, such as Wi-Fi, WiMAX, UWB, LTE, and 5G wireless signals with the support of multicarrier modulation formats.\",\n \"As described further below, process 700 implements mapping and demapping flow techniques (“(2)”) in in addition to the system flow 710 (“(1),” dashed circles) utilizing only the delta-sigma digitization techniques described above.\",\n \"In the exemplary embodiment, for an input analog signal 712, transmitter 704 implements a delta-sigma digitization subprocess 714 to perform ADC on input analog signal 712.When implementing delta-sigma digitization without mapping, process 700 will proceed from delta-sigma digitization subprocess 714 to a digital signal modulation subprocess 716 (e.g., E/O conversion).\",\n \"However, according to the exemplary embodiment, process 700 further includes a digital signal shaping subprocess 718, performed after delta-sigma digitization in subprocess 714, but before digital signal modulation in subprocess 716, to provide a distribution mapping of the digitized signal on the transmitter side, i.e., transmitter portion 704.In further operation, after modulation in subprocess 716, the modulated signal is transmitted over optical transmission link 708.On the receiver side, i.e., receiver portion 706, process 700 then implements a digital signal recovery subprocess 720 (e.g., 0/E conversion and processing).\",\n \"In the case where distribution mapping has not been implemented from subprocess 718, process 700 will proceed from recovery subprocess 722 a delta-sigma demodulation subprocess 722, from which recovered analog signals 724 are obtained.\",\n \"However, according to the exemplary embodiment, process 700 further includes a digital signal unshaping subprocess 726, performed after digital signal recovery in subprocess 720, but before delta-sigma demodulation in subprocess 722, to provide a distribution demapping of the digitized signal on the receiver side, i.e., transmitter portion 706, prior to analog conversion.\",\n \"In the exemplary embodiment, process 700 inserts a symbol mapping subprocess (i.e., subprocess 718) on the transmitter side (i.e., transmitter portion 704) after delta-sigma digitization of input analog signal 712 in subprocess 714.Similarly, process 700 employs a symbol demapping subprocess (i.e., subprocess 726) on the receiver side (i.e., receiver portion 706) to map/demap the signal back to the original signal sequences, and then feed the demapped signal into a DAC (i.e., delta-sigma demodulation subprocess 722) for digital-to-analog conversion.\",\n \"In the exemplary embodiment, a mapping code 728 is communicated from digital signal shaping subprocess 718 to digital signal unshaping process 726 to modify the signal distribution transmitted over optical transmission link 708.In some embodiments, mapping code 728 is transmitted over optical transmission link 708.In other embodiments, mapping code 728 is transmitted over alternative communication channels.\",\n \"According to the exemplary configuration of process 700, because the signal mapping/demapping subprocesses 718/726 are performed according to their own mapping code 728, the need is eliminated to modify existing commercial digital signal recovery algorithms after delta-sigma digitization is performed, or after the signals are transmitted over optical transmission link 708.In some embodiments, the several subprocesses of process 700 are performed by one or more hardware units (e.g., ADC, DAC, modulator, demodulator, mapper, demapper) configured to perform one or more of the respective functions thereof.\",\n \"In other embodiments, the several subprocesses are implemented through software programming of at least one processor of transmitter portion 704 and/or receiver portion 706.In at least one embodiment, the subprocesses are performed by a combination of hardware units and software programming.\",\n \"In an exemplary embodiment, the DAC includes an LPF and/or a BPF.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"8 is a graphical illustration depicting an unmapped electrical eye diagram 800 of a digitized signal after delta-sigma digitization (e.g., subprocess 714, FIG.\",\n \"7).\",\n \"In an exemplary embodiment, eye diagram 800 represents a PAM4 signal after delta-sigma digitization.\",\n \"In this example, the occurrence of +1 and −1 symbols will each have probabilities of p1, whereas the occurrence of +3 and −3 symbols Will each have probabilities of p3, and the total probabilities of all four symbols occurring will be 100%.\",\n \"This total probability may be represented according to the following equation: 2p1+2p3=100% (Eq.\",\n \"1) As described above, OFDM signals follow Gaussian distribution, end result in more small amplitude samples than large amplitude samples.\",\n \"Therefore, in the digitized PAM4 signal, there are much more ±1 symbols (small amplitude) than ±3 symbols (large amplitude), i.e.\",\n \"p1>>p3.Accordingly, as can be seen in eye diagram 800, areas 802 of greater intensity represent the ±1 symbol levels, whereas areas 804 of lesser intensity represent the ±3 symbol levels, due to the unequal distribution.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"9 is a graphical illustration depicting an electrical eye diagram 900 of a digitized signal after delta-sigma digitization, implementing a flip mapping process.\",\n \"In this example, electrical eye diagram 900 represents the PAM4 signal of eye diagram 800 after delta-sigma digitization, and after implementation of a flip mapping subprocess (described further below with respect to FIG.\",\n \"10).\",\n \"In the exemplary embodiment, the flip mapping subprocess of eye diagram 900 maps the ±1 symbols to the ±3 symbols, but with the respective sign unchanged, and vice versa.\",\n \"That is, flip mapping of the symbols occurs as follows: +3→+1; +1→+3; −1→−3; −3→−1.Accordingly, since p1>>p3, after flip mapping, there will be significantly more ±3 symbols than ±1 symbols.\",\n \"Accordingly, as can be seen in eye diagram 900, areas 902 of greater intensity represent the ±3 symbol levels, whereas areas 904 of lesser intensity represent the ±1 symbol levels, in contrast to eye diagram 800.This reversal may be represented according to the following equation: yn=sgn(xn)(4−|xn|) (Eq.\",\n \"2) Where xn is the symbol value of the digitized sequence of n symbols, and yn is the symbol value of the digitized sequence after the flip mapping subprocess is implemented.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"10 is a graphical illustration of a flip mapping table 1000 that may be implemented with the digitized signal of electrical eye diagram 900, FIG.\",\n \"9.Flip mapping table 1000 graphically illustrates the correspondence of flips of the flip mapping subprocess described above with respect to FIG.\",\n \"9.In an exemplary embodiment, flip mapping table 1000 may be implemented in respective databases of the transmitter (i.e., transmitter portion 704, FIG.\",\n \"7) and the receiver (i.e., receiver portion 706, FIG.\",\n \"7) and communicated therebetween as a code (i.e., mapping code 728, FIG.\",\n \"7).\",\n \"FIGS.\",\n \"11A-B are graphical illustrations depicting a comparative result of a transmitted signal with and without implementation of the flip mapping processes depicted in FIGS.\",\n \"9 and 10.Specifically, FIG.\",\n \"11A depicts a transmitted signal 1100 upon which a delta-sigma digitization subprocess has been implemented, but not a mapping subprocess, and FIG.\",\n \"11B depicts a mapped signal 1102, which represents transmitted signal 1100 after a flip mapping subprocess has been implemented thereupon.\",\n \"In this example, signals 1100, 1102 are illustrated as 16QAM 16GBaud signals over a 40-km transmission at 128 Gb/s.\",\n \"Accordingly, as can be seen from a comparison of mapped signal 1102 with the transmitted (unmapped) signal 1100, the signal magnitude smooths significantly around the center frequency after implementation of the flip mapping subprocess.\",\n \"FIGS.\",\n \"12A-B are graphical illustrations depicting a comparative result of a pseudorandom binary sequence (PRBS)-based PAM4 signal with a result of a signal upon which a uniform mapping subprocess (subprocess A, described below) has been implemented.\",\n \"Specifically, FIG.\",\n \"12A depicts an electrical eye diagram 1200 of a PRBS-based PAM4 signal, and FIG.\",\n \"12B depicts an electrical eye diagram 1202 of a signal implementing uniform mapping subprocess A.\",\n \"In an exemplary embodiment, uniform mapping subprocess A utilizes a scrambling code Sn, which represents a periodic pseudo-random bit stream of 0 and 1 values with equal probabilities (i.e., 50% will be 0s, and 50% will be 1s).\",\n \"For an input symbol xn, the value will be flipped when Sn=1, but remain unchanged when Sn=0.Thus, uniform mapping subprocess A maybe implemented together with the flip mapping process described above with respect to FIGS.\",\n \"9 and 10, above.\",\n \"Accordingly, as can be seen from a comparison of eye diagrams 1200 and 1202, after implementation of uniform mapping subprocess A, the respective ±1 and ±3 symbols are equally distributed.\",\n \"That is, eye diagram 1202 of the mapped signal is almost identical with eye diagram 1200 of the PRBS-based PAM4 signal.\",\n \"FIGS.\",\n \"13A-B are graphical illustrations of alternative symbol mapping tables 1300 and 1302, respectively, that may be implemented with the digitized signal of electrical eye diagram 1202, FIG.\",\n \"12B.\",\n \"Symbol mapping table 1300 corresponds to uniform mapping subprocess A, described above with respect to FIGS.\",\n \"12A-B.\",\n \"In the exemplary embodiment, utilizing scrambling code Sn, 50% of the +3 symbols will be mapped to a +1 symbol (e.g., Sn=1), whereas the other half of the +3 symbols will remain unchanged (e.g., Sn=0).\",\n \"The disposition of the +1, −1, and −3 symbols it will be determined similarly, as represented by the following equation for symbol mapping table 1300 (mapping subprocess A): y n = { x n ( S n = 0 ) sgn ( x n ) ( 4 - x n ) ( S n = 1 ) ( Eq .\",\n \" 3 ) Symbol mapping table 1302 is similar to symbol mapping table 1300, but utilizes an additional value for scrambling code Sn.\",\n \"That is, according to symbol mapping table 1302 (for uniform mapping subprocess “B”), scrambling code Sn represents a periodic pseudo-random bit stream of −1, 0, and 1 values with probabilities of 25%, 50% and 25%, respectively (i.e., (i.e., 25% of occurrences will be a −1, 50% of occurrences will be a 0, and 25% of occurrences will be a 1).\",\n \"In this alternative embodiment, for an input symbol xn, the value will be flipped with its sign unchanged when Sn=1, and the value will be flipped with its sign also flipped when when Sn=−1.When Sn=0, both the value and the sign of xn remain unchanged.\",\n \"The resulting values yn may be represented according to the following equation: y n = { x n ( S n = 0 ) sgn ( x n ) ( 4 - x n ) ( S n = 1 ) - sgn ( x n ) ( 4 - x n ) ( S n = - 1 ) ( Eq .\",\n \" 4 ) Looking specifically at the disposition of the +3 symbol, for example, 25% of the +3 symbols will be mapped to a +1 symbol, another 25% of the +3 symbols will be mapped to a −1 symbol, and the remaining 50% of the +3 symbols remain unchanged (i.e., mapped to a +3 symbol).\",\n \"The disposition of the +1, −1, and −3 symbols are similarly determined according to the same calculations.\",\n \"Similar to the implementation of uniform mapping subprocess A, described above with respect to FIGS.\",\n \"12A-B, implementation of uniform mapping subprocess B also equally distributes the ±1 and ±3 symbols after mapping, thereby producing an eye diagram (not shown) that is also almost identical to eye diagram 1200 of the PRBS-based PAM4 signal.\",\n \"That is, an eye diagram produced according to uniform mapping subprocess B will be identical to eye diagram 1202 produced according to uniform mapping subprocess A (and therefore also to I diagram 1200 of the PRBS-based PAM4 signal).\",\n \"Accordingly, both uniform mapping subprocesses A and B May be successfully implemented to modify the symbol distribution to map the respective input signal to a PRBS signal with the statistical accuracy.\",\n \"FIGS.\",\n \"14A-B are graphical illustrations depicting a comparative result of a signal implementing the uniform mapping process depicted in FIG.\",\n \"13A with a signal implementing the alternative uniform mapping process depicted in FIG.\",\n \"13B.\",\n \"Specifically, FIG.\",\n \"13A depicts a transmitted signal 1300 upon which uniform mapping subprocess A has been implemented, and FIG.\",\n \"13B depicts a transmitted signal 1302 upon which uniform mapping subprocess B has been implemented.\",\n \"In this example, signal 1300 is illustrated as a 16QAM 16GBaud signal over a 40-km transmission at 128 Gb/s, and signal 1302 is illustrated as a 16QAM 32GBaud signal over a 40-km transmission at 256 Gb/s.\",\n \"Accordingly, as can be seen from a comparison of signals 1300 and 1302, the different uniform mapping subprocesses may be successfully implemented for similar input signals, but having different symbol rates and data rates.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"15 is a graphical illustration of a symbol table 1500 comparing the symbol mapping techniques of the several mapping subprocesses described above.\",\n \"In this example, the respective probabilities are labeled on each mapping pass (i.e., “Matching A” for uniform mapping subprocess A, and “Matching B” for uniform mapping subprocess B), for each respective scrambling code Sn (“Scrambler A” and “Scrambler B”).\",\n \"As can be seen from symbol table 1500, the respective probabilities of symbol occurrences change according to whether only a delta-sigma digitization subprocess is implemented on the analog signal, or whether a flip mapping subprocess, and or a two-value or a three-value uniform mapping/scrambling subprocess is also implemented.\",\n \"As described with respect to the embodiments above, the mapping and demapping techniques of the present systems and methods significantly improve the quality and capability of a digitized signal transmitted over an optical link.\",\n \"Although specific features of various embodiments of the disclosure may be shown in some drawings and not in others, this is for convenience only.\",\n \"In accordance with the principles of the disclosure, a particular feature shown in a drawing may be referenced and/or claimed in combination with features of the other drawings.\",\n \"Some embodiments involve the use of one or more electronic or computing devices.\",\n \"Such devices typically include a processor or controller, such as a general purpose central processing unit (CPU), a graphics processing unit (GPU), a microcontroller, a reduced instruction set computer (RISC) processor, an application specific integrated circuit (ASIC), a programmable logic circuit (PLC), a field programmable gate array (FPGA), a DSP device, and/or any other circuit or processor capable of executing the functions described herein.\",\n \"The processes described herein may be encoded as executable instructions embodied in a computer readable medium, including, without limitation, a storage device and/or a memory device.\",\n \"Such instructions, when executed by a processor, cause the processor to perform at least a portion of the methods described herein.\",\n \"The above examples are exemplary only, and thus are not intended to limit in any way the definition and/or meaning of the term “processor.” This written description uses examples to disclose the embodiments, including the best mode, and also to enable any person skilled in the art to practice the embodiments, including making and using any devices or systems and performing any incorporated methods.\",\n \"The patentable scope of the disclosure is defined by the claims, and may include other examples that occur to those skilled in the art.\",\n \"Such other examples are intended to be within the scope of the claims if they have structural elements that do not differ from the literal language of the claims, or if they include equivalent structural elements with insubstantial differences from the literal language of the claims.\"\n ]\n]"},"source":{"kind":"string","value":"Patent_15875336"}}},{"rowIdx":4494857,"cells":{"text":{"kind":"list like","value":[["HARD-SIDED LUGGAGE BAG WITH FRONT LID","A hard-sided luggage bag includes at least one shell portion, and has a front side, a back side, and a bottom side extending between the front and back sides.","The least one shell portion encloses a storage compartment and includes an access opening permitting access to the storage compartment.","The access opening is formed in at least part of the front side and is spaced apart from the bottom side.","At least one lid is releasably coupled to the at least one shell portion to cover the access opening."],["1.A hard-sided luggage bag, comprising: at least one shell portion having a front side, a back side, and top, bottom, left and right sides extending generally between the front and back sides, the front and back sides spaced from one another in a depth direction, the top and bottom sides spaced from one another in a height direction, the at least one shell portion enclosing a storage compartment and comprising an access opening permitting access to the storage compartment, the access opening formed in at least part of the front side; and at least one lid releasably coupled to the at least one shell portion to cover the access opening, wherein the at least one lid is releasably joined to the at least one shell portion along a bottom edge of the access opening, wherein the bottom edge is spaced from the bottom side in the height direction, wherein the bottom edge extends across the front side between the left and right sides, wherein the at least one lid is releasably joined to the at least one shell portion along left, top and right edges of the access opening that extend across the respective left, top and right sides of the at least one shell portion, wherein the at least one shell portion comprises a rearward shell portion coupled to a forward shell portion by at least one of a main joint and an expansion section that, in the depth direction, is generally intermediate the front and back sides, the forward shell portion comprising the access opening, wherein, along the left side, a first dimension between an interior edge of the forward shell portion and the left edge of the access opening is less than a second dimension between the left edge of the access opening and the bottom edge of the access opening at the front side, and wherein the first and second dimensions are parallel to the depth direction.","2.The hard-sided luggage bag of claim 1, wherein the shell portions are releasably joined along the main joint by a main closure mechanism, the main joint permitting a first way to access the storage compartment by releasing the main closure mechanism, and the access opening permitting a second way to access the storage compartment, separate from the first way, by releasing a lid closure mechanism.","3.The hard-sided luggage bag of claim 1, wherein the access opening comprises curved bottom corners arranged intermediate of the bottom edge and the left and right edges, and, along the left side, a third dimension between the left edge of the access opening and boundary between the curved corner of the access opening and the bottom edge of the access opening is less than a fourth dimension between the boundary between the curved corner of the access opening and the bottom edge of the access opening at the front side, the third and fourth dimensions being parallel to the depth direction.","4.The hard-sided luggage bag of claim 3, wherein, along the left and right sides, the bottom edge extends parallel to the depth direction between the front side and each of the curved corners.","5.The hard-sided luggage bag of claim 1, wherein the access opening comprises curved bottom corners arranged intermediate of the bottom edge and the left and right edges, and, along the left and right sides, the bottom edge extends parallel to the depth direction between the front side and each of the curved corners.","6.The hard-sided luggage bag of claim 1, wherein the left, top and right sides present a generally uniform dimension in the depth direction so that the storage compartment is of a generally uniform depth over the left, top and right edges of the access opening.","7.The hard-sided luggage bag of claim 1, wherein the at least one lid is releasably joined to the at least one shell portion by a lid closure mechanism, and the lid closure mechanism comprises at least one of a zipper and a clasp.","8.The hard-sided luggage bag of claim 1, wherein the at least one lid comprises at least one shell portion, at least one fabric portion, at least one zippered pocket, or a combination thereof.","9.The hard-sided luggage bag of claim 1, comprising a hinge connecting the at least one lid to the at least one shell portion, and the hinge is arranged along one of the left, bottom, top and right edges of the access opening.","10.The hard-sided luggage bag of claim 1, comprising at least one of a support strap and a gusset connected generally between the at least one lid and the at least one shell portion for maintaining the at least one lid in a partially open position, the at least one of a support strap and a gusset comprises a first member fixed to the at least one lid, and a second member fixed to the at least one shell portion and attached to the first member, and the first and second members are detachable from one another so that the at least one lid is movable to a fully open position.","11.The hard-sided luggage bag of claim 1, comprising a plurality of wheels arranged on the bottom side, the plurality of wheels comprising at least one wheel fixed to the rearward shell portion and at least one wheel fixed to the forward shell portion.","12.The hard-sided luggage bag of claim 1, comprising a divider that is releasably suspended in the storage compartment to divide the storage compartment into at least two substantially separate subcompartments.","13.The hard-sided luggage bag of claim 12, wherein the divider divides the storage compartment into a front subcompartment and a rear subcompartment, and a volume of the front subcompartment is substantially less than a volume of the rear subcompartment.","14.The hard-sided luggage bag of claim 12, wherein the divider is at least partially detachable.","15.The hard-sided luggage bag of claim 12, wherein the divider comprises a zippered pocket.","16.A hard-sided luggage bag, comprising: a rearward shell portion coupled to a forward shell portion, the shell portions together having a front side, a back side spaced from the front side, and top, bottom, left and rights sides extending generally between the front and back sides, the front and back sides spaced from one another in a depth direction, the top and bottom sides spaced from one another in a height direction, the shell portions being coupled by at least one of a main joint and an expansion section that, in the depth direction, is generally intermediate the front and back sides, the shell portions enclosing a storage compartment, the forward shell portion comprising an access opening permitting access to the storage compartment, the access opening formed in at least part of the front side, the access opening comprising a bottom edge that is spaced from the bottom side in the height direction and extends across the front side between the left and right sides, and the access opening comprising left, top and right edges that extend across respective left, top and right sides of the forward shell portion; and a lid coupled to the forward shell portion to cover the access opening and defining a substantial portion of the front side of the bag, the lid releasably joined to the forward shell portion by a lid closure zipper along at least a portion of the bottom, left and top edges of the access opening, wherein, along the left side of the bag at a vertical position that, in the height direction, is generally intermediate the top and bottom sides, a first horizontal dimension between an interior edge of the forward shell portion and the left edge of the access opening is less than a second horizontal dimension between the lid closure zipper at the left edge of the access opening and the front side of the lid.","17.The hard-sided luggage bag of claim 16, wherein the rearward shell portion is coupled to the forward shell portion by at least one of a main joint and an expansion section that, in the depth direction, is generally intermediate the front and back sides.","18.The hard-sided luggage bag of claim 17, wherein the shell portions are releasably joined along the main joint by a main closure zipper, the main joint permitting a first way to access the storage compartment by releasing the main closure zipper, and the access opening permitting a second way to access the storage compartment, separate from the first way, by releasing the lid closure zipper.","19.The hard-sided luggage bag of claim 16, wherein the left, top and right sides present a generally uniform dimension in the depth direction so that the storage compartment is of a generally uniform depth over the left, top and right edges of the access opening.","20.A hard-sided luggage bag, comprising: a rearward shell portion releasably joined to a forward shell portion along a main joint, the shell portions enclosing a storage compartment, the main joint permitting a first way to access the storage compartment by releasing a main closure mechanism, the forward shell portion comprising an access opening permitting a second way to access the storage compartment, separate from the first way, by releasing a lid closure mechanism; and a lid releasably coupled to the forward shell portion to cover the access opening, wherein the lid defines a substantial portion of a front side of the bag, wherein the access opening comprises bottom, left and right edges, wherein the bottom edge is spaced vertically from a bottom side of the bag in a height direction, and extends horizontally across a front side of the forward shell portion, wherein the left and right edges of the access opening extend across respective left and right sides of the forward shell portion, and wherein, along the left side, a first horizontal dimension between an interior edge of the forward shell portion and the left edge of the access opening is less than a second horizontal dimension between the left edge of the access opening and the front side of the bag as defined by the lid."],[" BACKGROUND The following paragraphs are not an admission that anything discussed in them is prior art or part of the knowledge of persons skilled in the art.","Hard-sided luggage has become increasingly popular in recent years.","Hard-sided luggage can provide several benefits versus soft-sided baggage, including attractiveness, durability and light weight.","One important benefit to using hard-sided luggage is that contents tend to be well protected.","Hard-sided luggage can include features such telescoping handles, and swivel wheels that allow for easy maneuvering.","Hard-sided luggage can also include a secure locking mechanism, including TSA-approved locks, for example.","Internally, hard-sided luggage can include features such as dividers, pockets and straps to hold its contents in place.","Hard-sided luggage can be constructed of several different materials, including aluminum, polycarbonate, ABS and polypropylene.","Hard-sided luggage is available in endless colors and designs, and the shells can be scratch-resistant, dent-resistant, and generally waterproof."],[" SUMMARY The following paragraphs are intended to introduce the reader to the more detailed description that follows and not to define or limit the claimed subject matter.","According to an aspect of the present disclosure, a hard-sided luggage bag can include: at least one shell portion having a front side, a back side, and top, bottom, left and right sides extending generally between the front and back sides, the front and back sides spaced from one another in a depth direction, the top and bottom sides spaced from one another in a height direction, the at least one shell portion enclosing a storage compartment and including an access opening permitting access to the storage compartment, the access opening formed in at least part of the front side; and at least one lid releasably coupled to the at least one shell portion to cover the access opening.","The at least one lid can be releasably joined to the at least one shell portion along a bottom edge of the access opening.","The bottom edge can be spaced from the bottom side in the height direction.","The bottom edge can extend across the front side between the left and right sides.","The at least one lid can be releasably joined to the at least one shell portion along left, top and right edges of the access opening that extend across the respective left, top and right sides of the at least one shell portion.","The at least one shell portion can include a rearward shell portion coupled to a forward shell portion by at least one of a main joint and an expansion section that, in the depth direction, is generally intermediate the front and back sides, the forward shell portion including the access opening.","Along the left side, a first dimension between an interior edge of the forward shell portion and the left edge of the access opening can be less than a second dimension between the left edge of the access opening and the bottom edge of the access opening at the front side.","The first and second dimensions can be parallel to the depth direction.","According to an aspect of the present disclosure, a hard-sided luggage bag can include: a rearward shell portion coupled to a forward shell portion, the shell portions together having a front side, a back side spaced from the front side, and top, bottom, left and rights sides extending generally between the front and back sides, the front and back sides spaced from one another in a depth direction, the top and bottom sides spaced from one another in a height direction, the shell portions being coupled by at least one of a main joint and an expansion section that, in the depth direction, is generally intermediate the front and back sides, the shell portions enclosing a storage compartment, the forward shell portion including an access opening permitting access to the storage compartment, the access opening formed in at least part of the front side, the access opening including a bottom edge that is spaced from the bottom side in the height direction and extends across the front side between the left and right sides, and the access opening including left, top and right edges that extend across respective left, top and right sides of the forward shell portion; and a lid coupled to the forward shell portion to cover the access opening and defining a substantial portion of the front side of the bag, the lid releasably joined to the forward shell portion by a lid closure zipper along at least a portion of the bottom, left and top edges of the access opening.","Along the left side of the bag at a vertical position that, in the height direction, is generally intermediate the top and bottom sides, a first horizontal dimension between an interior edge of the forward shell portion and the left edge of the access opening can be less than a second horizontal dimension between the lid closure zipper at the left edge of the access opening and the front side of the lid.","According to an aspect of the present disclosure, a hard-sided luggage bag can include: a rearward shell portion releasably joined to a forward shell portion along a main joint, the shell portions enclosing a storage compartment, the main joint permitting a first way to access the storage compartment by releasing a main closure mechanism, the forward shell portion including an access opening permitting a second way to access the storage compartment, separate from the first way, by releasing a lid closure mechanism; and a lid releasably coupled to the forward shell portion to cover the access opening.","The lid can define a substantial portion of a front side of the bag.","The access opening can include bottom, left and right edges.","The bottom edge can be spaced vertically from a bottom side of the bag in a height direction, and can extend horizontally across a front side of the forward shell portion.","The left and right edges of the access opening can extend across respective left and right sides of the forward shell portion.","Along the left side, a first horizontal dimension between an interior edge of the forward shell portion and the left edge of the access opening can be less than a second horizontal dimension between the left edge of the access opening and the front side of the bag as defined by the lid."],["CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application is a continuation of U.S. application Ser.","No.","14/361,981 filed on May 30, 2014, which is a national stage entry of International Application No.","PCT/CA2013/050078 filed on Feb. 1, 2013, which claims priority from U.S.","Application No.","61/618,384 filed Mar.","30, 2012 and Canadian Application No.","2,785,061 filed Aug. 10, 2012, and the entire contents of each are hereby incorporated herein by reference.","TECHNICAL FIELD The present disclosure relates to hard-sided luggage.","BACKGROUND The following paragraphs are not an admission that anything discussed in them is prior art or part of the knowledge of persons skilled in the art.","Hard-sided luggage has become increasingly popular in recent years.","Hard-sided luggage can provide several benefits versus soft-sided baggage, including attractiveness, durability and light weight.","One important benefit to using hard-sided luggage is that contents tend to be well protected.","Hard-sided luggage can include features such telescoping handles, and swivel wheels that allow for easy maneuvering.","Hard-sided luggage can also include a secure locking mechanism, including TSA-approved locks, for example.","Internally, hard-sided luggage can include features such as dividers, pockets and straps to hold its contents in place.","Hard-sided luggage can be constructed of several different materials, including aluminum, polycarbonate, ABS and polypropylene.","Hard-sided luggage is available in endless colors and designs, and the shells can be scratch-resistant, dent-resistant, and generally waterproof.","SUMMARY The following paragraphs are intended to introduce the reader to the more detailed description that follows and not to define or limit the claimed subject matter.","According to an aspect of the present disclosure, a hard-sided luggage bag can include: at least one shell portion having a front side, a back side, and top, bottom, left and right sides extending generally between the front and back sides, the front and back sides spaced from one another in a depth direction, the top and bottom sides spaced from one another in a height direction, the at least one shell portion enclosing a storage compartment and including an access opening permitting access to the storage compartment, the access opening formed in at least part of the front side; and at least one lid releasably coupled to the at least one shell portion to cover the access opening.","The at least one lid can be releasably joined to the at least one shell portion along a bottom edge of the access opening.","The bottom edge can be spaced from the bottom side in the height direction.","The bottom edge can extend across the front side between the left and right sides.","The at least one lid can be releasably joined to the at least one shell portion along left, top and right edges of the access opening that extend across the respective left, top and right sides of the at least one shell portion.","The at least one shell portion can include a rearward shell portion coupled to a forward shell portion by at least one of a main joint and an expansion section that, in the depth direction, is generally intermediate the front and back sides, the forward shell portion including the access opening.","Along the left side, a first dimension between an interior edge of the forward shell portion and the left edge of the access opening can be less than a second dimension between the left edge of the access opening and the bottom edge of the access opening at the front side.","The first and second dimensions can be parallel to the depth direction.","According to an aspect of the present disclosure, a hard-sided luggage bag can include: a rearward shell portion coupled to a forward shell portion, the shell portions together having a front side, a back side spaced from the front side, and top, bottom, left and rights sides extending generally between the front and back sides, the front and back sides spaced from one another in a depth direction, the top and bottom sides spaced from one another in a height direction, the shell portions being coupled by at least one of a main joint and an expansion section that, in the depth direction, is generally intermediate the front and back sides, the shell portions enclosing a storage compartment, the forward shell portion including an access opening permitting access to the storage compartment, the access opening formed in at least part of the front side, the access opening including a bottom edge that is spaced from the bottom side in the height direction and extends across the front side between the left and right sides, and the access opening including left, top and right edges that extend across respective left, top and right sides of the forward shell portion; and a lid coupled to the forward shell portion to cover the access opening and defining a substantial portion of the front side of the bag, the lid releasably joined to the forward shell portion by a lid closure zipper along at least a portion of the bottom, left and top edges of the access opening.","Along the left side of the bag at a vertical position that, in the height direction, is generally intermediate the top and bottom sides, a first horizontal dimension between an interior edge of the forward shell portion and the left edge of the access opening can be less than a second horizontal dimension between the lid closure zipper at the left edge of the access opening and the front side of the lid.","According to an aspect of the present disclosure, a hard-sided luggage bag can include: a rearward shell portion releasably joined to a forward shell portion along a main joint, the shell portions enclosing a storage compartment, the main joint permitting a first way to access the storage compartment by releasing a main closure mechanism, the forward shell portion including an access opening permitting a second way to access the storage compartment, separate from the first way, by releasing a lid closure mechanism; and a lid releasably coupled to the forward shell portion to cover the access opening.","The lid can define a substantial portion of a front side of the bag.","The access opening can include bottom, left and right edges.","The bottom edge can be spaced vertically from a bottom side of the bag in a height direction, and can extend horizontally across a front side of the forward shell portion.","The left and right edges of the access opening can extend across respective left and right sides of the forward shell portion.","Along the left side, a first horizontal dimension between an interior edge of the forward shell portion and the left edge of the access opening can be less than a second horizontal dimension between the left edge of the access opening and the front side of the bag as defined by the lid.","BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The drawings included herewith are for illustrating various examples of apparatuses and methods of the present disclosure and are not intended to limit the scope of what is taught in any way.","In the drawings: FIGS.","1 and 2 are left side and front views of a first example of a hard-sided luggage bag; FIG.","1A is a detailed view of a portion of the hard-sided luggage bag of FIG.","1; FIG.","3 is a perspective view of the hard-sided luggage bag of FIGS.","1 and 2, shown with a lid in an open position; FIGS.","4, 5, 6 and 7 are top, bottom, right side, and back views of the hard-sided luggage bag of FIGS.","1 and 2; FIG.","8 is a perspective view of a second example of a hard-sided luggage bag; FIG.","9 is a right side view of the hard-sided luggage bag of FIG.","8, shown with a lid in a partially open position; FIG.","10 is a perspective view of the hard-sided luggage bag of FIG.","8, shown with the lid in a fully open position; FIG.","11 is a perspective view of a third example of a hard-sided luggage bag; FIG.","12 is a perspective view of the hard-sided luggage bag of FIG.","11, shown with a lid in an open position; FIG.","13 is a right side view of a fourth example of a hard-sided luggage bag, shown with a lid in a partially open position; FIG.","14 is another right side view of the hard-sided luggage bag of FIG.","13, shown with an expansion section in a released position; FIG.","15 is another right side view of the hard-sided luggage bag of FIG.","13, shown with a main closure mechanism in a released position; and FIG.","16 is a perspective view of the hard-sided luggage bag of FIG.","13, shown with the lid in an open position.","DETAILED DESCRIPTION Various apparatuses or methods are described below to provide an example of an embodiment of each claimed invention.","No embodiment described below limits any claimed invention and any claimed invention may cover apparatuses and methods that differ from those described below.","The claimed inventions are not limited to apparatuses and methods having all of the features of any one apparatus or method described below or to features common to multiple or all of the apparatuses or methods described below.","It is possible that an apparatus or method described below is not an embodiment of any claimed invention.","Any invention disclosed in an apparatus or method described below that is not claimed in this document may be the subject matter of another protective instrument, and the applicant(s), inventor(s) and/or owner(s) do not intend to abandon, disclaim or dedicate to the public any such invention by its disclosure in this document.","Referring to FIGS.","1 and 2, an example of a hard-sided luggage bag is shown generally at 10.The bag 10 extends in a depth direction 12 between a front side 14 and a back side 16.The bag 10 extends in a width direction 18 between a left side 20 and a right side 22.The bag 10 extends in a height direction 24 between a top side 26 and a bottom side 28.In the example illustrated, the bag 10 includes a rearward shell portion 30 and a forward shell portion 32.The shell portions 30, 32 can be generally complementary in size and shape.","The shell portions 30, 32 can be formed of a variety of materials, including, for example but not limited to, aluminum, polycarbonate, ABS, polypropylene, and composites thereof.","The shell portions 30, 32 can include an interior lining formed of fabric material.","Referring particularly to FIG.","3, the shell portions 30, 32 are coupled together to enclose a storage compartment 34.The forward shell portion 32 includes an access opening 36 formed therein.","The access opening 36 permits access to the storage compartment 34.A lid 38 is coupled to the forward shell portion 32.In an open position, as shown in FIG.","3, the lid 38 allows access to the storage compartment 34 through the access opening 36.In a closed position, as shown in FIGS.","1 and 2, the lid 38 covers the access opening 36.In the example illustrated, the lid 38 is shown to be formed of a shell portion, generally in continuity with the forward shell portion 32.In some examples, the lid 38 can include one or more zippered pockets arranged along an interior side thereof.","Alternatively, in soft-sided examples, the lid can be formed of at least one fabric portion (not shown), which can be formed of, for example but not limited to, polyester, nylon or polypropylene fabric materials.","In such examples, the at least one fabric portion can include one or more zippered pockets, that can be accessible from the exterior of the bag.","In other hybrid examples, the lid can be formed of a combination of at least one shell portion and fabric materials.","Furthermore, in yet other examples, the lid can be formed of two portions (or more), that are configured to open and close independently of one another.","In such examples, the lid portions can be releasably joined to one another, e.g., with a zipper or another suitable closure mechanism, roughly midway across the access opening between a bottom edge and a top edge.","Alternatively, the access opening can include two separate sections, separated by a strut element (not shown) that, for example, extends across the access opening between a left edge and a right edge.","In such examples, each of the lids can be releasably joined to the strut element, and coupled to the forward shell portion along one of its edges by respective hinges.","Referring back to FIGS.","1 and 2, and with continued reference to FIG.","3, the lid 38 is releasably joined to the forward shell portion 32 along a bottom edge 40 of the access opening 36.The bottom edge 40 is shown to be spaced apart a first dimension 42 (shown in FIG.","2) from the bottom side 28 in the height direction 24.Thus, in the height direction 24, the access opening 36 has a second dimension 44 (shown in FIG.","2) that is less than a third dimension 46 (shown in FIG.","1) of the bag 10 between the top and bottom sides 26, 28.With the access opening 36 and the lid 38 spaced apart from the bottom side 28 in this manner, a lower portion of the bag 10 can provide a relatively rigid structure, which can be maintained when the lid 38 is in the open position.","In the example illustrated, the bottom edge 40 extends generally across the front side 14 between the left and right sides 20, 22.The lid 38 is further releasably joined to the forward shell portion 32 along a left edge 48, a top edge 50 and a right edge 52 of the access opening 36 that extend generally across the left, top and right sides 20, 26, 22, respectively.","The lid 38 is releasably joined to the forward shell portion 32 along the edges 40, 48, 50, 52 by a lid closure mechanism 54.In the example illustrated, the lid closure mechanism 54 includes a lid zipper 55.The lid 38 is shown to be releasably joined only partly along the left edge 48, as the lid 38 is connected to the forward shell portion 32 generally along the left edge 48 by a hinge 56.In other examples, a hinge connecting the lid 38 and the forward shell portion 32 can be arranged on the bottom edge 40, which can reduce the risk of contents falling out of the access opening 36 if the lid 38 is opened while the bag 10 is disposed in an upright position.","In such examples, the bag 10 can include gussets (not shown), provided alongside the edges 48, 52, to help to prevent contents from falling out of the access opening 36 when the lid 38 is opened and the bag 10 is disposed in the upright position.","In yet other examples, a hinge connecting the lid 38 and the forward shell portion 32 can be arranged on the top edge 50, or on the right edge 52.Various configurations are possible.","In the depth direction 12, the edges 48, 50, 52 are arranged generally adjacent to the front side 14.As shown in FIG.","4, in the depth direction 12, the access opening 36 has a fourth dimension 58 that is substantially less than a fifth dimension 60 of the bag 10 between the back side 14 and the edges 48, 50, 52.Thus, referring back to FIG.","3, users can have access to almost the full depth of the storage compartment 34 through the access opening 36.Furthermore, in some examples, as illustrated, the sides 20, 26, 22 can present a generally uniform dimension in the depth direction 12 so that the storage compartment 34 is of a generally uniform depth over the edges 48, 50, 52 of the access opening 36.Referring to FIGS.","1 and 1A, an interior edge of the forward shell portion 32 defines a vertical line 61, the left edge 48 defines a vertical line 63, and the bottom edge 40 defines a horizontal line 65 and a vertical line 67 at the front side of the bag.","In the example illustrated, the access opening 36 includes a curved bottom corner 69 that is arranged intermediate of the bottom edge 40 and the left edge 48.A vertical line 71 intersects a boundary between the curved bottom corner 69 and the bottom edge 40.The lines 61, 63, 67, 71 are each parallel to the height direction 24, and the line 65 is parallel to the depth direction 12.In the example illustrated, the bottom edge 40 extends horizontally parallel to the depth direction 12 between the front side of the bag and the curved corner 69.As illustrated, a horizontal dimension 73 between the lines 61, 63 is less than a horizontal dimension 75 between the lines 63, 67, and a horizontal dimension 77 between the lines 63, 71 is less than a horizontal dimension 79 between the lines 71, 67.FIG.","6 shows generally the same configuration on the other side of the bag 10.Referring now to FIG.","5, an expansion section 62 is shown to be connected to inner edges 64, 66 of the shell portions 30, 32, respectively.","In the example illustrated, the expansion section 62 includes an expansion zipper 68, which, when released, increases space between the inner edges 64, 66 thereby increasing a depth dimension of the bag 10 (i.e.","in the depth direction 12).","In the example illustrated, the expansion section 62 is shown to be generally intermediate the front and back sides 14, 16 so that, in the depth direction 12, a sixth dimension 70 of the rearward shell portion 30 between the back side 16 and the inner edge 64 is similar to a seventh dimension 72 of the forward shell portion 32 between the inner edge 66 and the front side 14.In this manner, a center of gravity of the bag 10 can remain generally balanced between the sides 14, 16 once the expansion zipper 68 is released.","Furthermore, referring to FIGS.","3, 4 and 5, the expansion section 62 is shown to be generally spaced apart from the access opening 36 and the lid 38, with the edges 40, 48, 50, 52 of the access opening 36 being generally intermediate the expansion section 62 and the front side 14.For users, this can help to reduce confusion between the lid zipper 55 and the expansion zipper 68.Referring now to FIGS.","6 and 7, the bag 10 includes wheels 74 arranged on the bottom side 28.Some or all of the wheels 74 can be swivel wheels.","In the example illustrated, two of the wheels 74 are fixed to the rearward shell portion 30, and two of the wheels 74 are fixed to the forward shell portion 32.With the lid 38 spaced apart from the bottom side 28, the lid 38 can be opened without interfering with the wheels 74.Furthermore, as mentioned above, with the access opening 36 and the lid 38 spaced apart from the bottom side 28, a lower portion of the bag 10 can provide a relatively rigid structure, which can bear the weight of the bag 10 and its contents, and can serve as a stable base for attachment of the wheels 74.In the example illustrated, the bag 10 further includes a top handle 76, a side handle 78 and feet 80.As shown, the top handle 76 can be retractable, and suitable for guiding the bag 10 on the wheels 74.Referring now to FIGS.","8, 9 and 10, an example of a hard-sided luggage bag is shown generally at 110.In the example illustrated, the bag 110 includes a rearward shell portion 130 and a forward shell portion 132.The shell portions 130, 132 can be generally complementary in size and shape.","The shell portions 130, 132 can be formed of a variety of materials, including, for example but not limited to, aluminum, polycarbonate, ABS, polypropylene, and composites thereof.","The shell portions 130, 132 can include an interior lining formed of fabric material.","Referring particularly to FIG.","10, the shell portions 130, 132 are coupled together to enclose a storage compartment 134.The forward shell portion 132 includes an access opening 136 formed therein.","The access opening 136 permits access to the storage compartment 134.A lid 138 is coupled to the forward shell portion 132.In an open position, the lid 138 permits access to the storage compartment 134 through the access opening 136.In a depth direction, edges of the access opening 136 are arranged generally adjacent to a front side of the bag 110.Thus, users can have access to almost the full depth of the storage compartment 134 through the access opening 136.Furthermore, in some examples, as illustrated, the sides of the bag 110 can present a generally uniform dimension in the depth direction so that the storage compartment 134 is of a generally uniform depth over the edges of the access opening 136.In a closed position, as shown in FIG.","8, the lid 138 covers the access opening 136.In the example illustrated, referring again to FIGS.","8, 9 and 10, the lid 138 is shown to be formed of a shell portion, generally in continuity with the forward shell portion 132.Alternatively, in some examples, the lid 138 can be formed of at least one shell portion, at least one fabric portion, or a combination thereof.","The lid 138 is releasably joined to the forward shell portion 132 along edges of the access opening 136 by a lid closure mechanism 154.In the example illustrated, the lid closure mechanism 54 includes a lid zipper 55.The lid 138 is shown to be releasably joined only partly along a bottom edge 140 of the access opening 136 (FIG.","10), as the lid 138 is connected to the forward shell portion 132 generally along the bottom edge 140 by a hinge 156.The hinge 156 is spaced apart from a bottom side of the bag 110 in a height direction.","Referring particularly to FIG.","9, the arrangement of the hinge 156 can help to reduce the risk of contents falling out of the access opening 136 if the lid 138 is opened while the bag 110 is disposed in an upright position.","The bag 110 can include releasable support straps 180 coupled between the lid 138 and the forward shell portion 132.Each of the support straps 180 can include a first member fixed to the lid 138, and a second member fixed to the forward shell portion 132 and attached to the first member.","In some examples, the first and second members of the support straps 180 can be attached to each other with a snap buckle.","The releasable support straps 180 can be configured to maintain the lid 138 in a partially opened position (shown in FIG.","9), as opposed to a fully opened position (shown in FIG.","10), which can also help to reduce the risk of contents falling out of the access opening 136.The rearward shell portion 130 is releasably joined to the forward shell portion 132 along a main joint 182 by a main closure mechanism 183.In the example illustrated, the main closure mechanism 183 includes a main zipper 185.The storage compartment 134 can be accessed by releasing the main closure mechanism 183.Thus, in some examples, the storage compartment 134 can be accessed in two separate ways, namely, through the access opening 136 by releasing the lid closure mechanism 154, or through the main joint 182 by releasing the main closure mechanism 183.The main joint 182 is shown to be generally intermediate front and back sides of the bag 110 so that, once the main closure mechanism 183 is released, the bag 110 can be opened into two roughly equal halves (defined by the rearward shell portion 130 and the forward shell portion 132).","Furthermore, the main zipper 185 is shown to be generally spaced apart from the lid zipper 155, which can help to reduce confusion between the main zipper 185 and the lid zipper 155.A hinge (not shown) can also be provided to connect the shell portions 130, 132 together.","In some examples, referring again to FIG.","10, the bag 110 can include a divider 184, which is shown to be partially detached and flipped to one side of the bag 110.The divider 184 can be planar and flexible, e.g., formed of a fabric material, and can be shaped to correspond with an interior cross-section of the storage compartment 134.The divider 184 can be releasably suspended in the storage compartment 134, for example, by a divider zipper 186, which joins edges of the divider 184 to a flap 188 that is fixed to interior side walls of the storage compartment 134.In some examples, a pocket (not shown) can be arranged within the storage compartment 134 for stowing the divider 184 when it is at least partially detached from the flap 188.When the divider 184 is attached (e.g., by zipping up the divider zipper 186), the divider 184 can divide the storage compartment 134 into two substantially separate subcompartments.","In the example illustrated, the divider 184 divides the storage compartment into a front subcompartment (accessible through the lid 138), and a rear subcompartment (accessible through the main joint 182).","In some examples, a volume of the front subcompartment can be substantially less than a volume of the rear subcompartment.","When the divider 184 is detached, as shown in FIG.","10, generally the full volume of the storage compartment 134 can be accessible to the user by opening either the lid closure mechanism 154 or the main closure mechanism 183.As illustrated, within the storage compartment 134, the bag 110 can further include at least one interior zippered pocket 190, and one or more restraint straps 192.Referring again to FIGS.","8 and 9, the bag 110 is also shown to include wheels 174 arranged on a bottom side, and some or all of the wheels 174 can be swivel wheels.","In the example illustrated, two of the wheels 174 are fixed to the rearward shell portion 130, and two of the wheels 174 are fixed to the forward shell portion 132.The bag 110 can further include a top handle 194, a retractable handle 176, a side handle 178, and feet 180.Referring now to FIGS.","11 and 12, an example of a hard-sided luggage bag is shown generally at 210.In the example illustrated, the bag 210 includes a rearward shell portion 230 and a forward shell portion 232.The shell portions 230, 232 can be generally complementary in size and shape.","The shell portions 230, 232 can be formed of a variety of materials, including, for example but not limited to, aluminum, polycarbonate, ABS, polypropylene, and composites thereof.","The shell portions 230, 232 can include an interior lining formed of fabric material.","Referring particularly to FIG.","12, the shell portions 230, 232 are coupled together to enclose a storage compartment 234.The forward shell portion 232 includes an access opening 236 formed therein.","The access opening 236 permits access to the storage compartment 234.A lid 238 is coupled to the forward shell portion 232.In an open position, the lid 238 allows access to the storage compartment 234 through the access opening 236.In a closed position, as shown in FIG.","11, the lid 238 covers the access opening 236.In the example illustrated, the lid 238 is shown to be formed of a shell portion, and extends generally outwardly relative to the forward shell portion 232.Edges of the access opening 236 are arranged generally adjacent to a front side of the bag 210.Thus, users can have access to almost the full depth of the storage compartment 234 through the access opening 236.Furthermore, the storage compartment 234 is of a generally uniform depth along the edges of the access opening 236.The lid 238 is releasably joined to the forward shell portion 232 along edges of the access opening 236 by a lid closure mechanism 254.In the example illustrated, the lid closure mechanism 254 includes lid clasps 257.In such examples, the lid closure mechanism 254 can also include a rigid frame which extends along edges of the lid 238 and/or the edges of the access opening 236 to ensure that the lid 238 correctly mates with the forward shell portion 232 when closed.","The lid 238 is shown (FIG.","11) releasably joined only partly along the left edge of the access opening 236, as the lid 238 is connected to the forward shell portion 232 generally along the left edge by a hinge 256.The rearward shell portion 230 is releasably joined to the forward shell portion 232 along a main joint 282 by a main closure mechanism 283.In the example illustrated, the main closure mechanism 283 includes main clasps 287.In such examples, the main closure mechanism 283 can also include a rigid frame which extends along inner edges of the shell portions 230, 232 to ensure that they correctly mate when closed.","The storage compartment 234 can be accessed by releasing the main closure mechanism 283.Thus, in some examples, the storage compartment 234 can be accessed in two separate ways, namely, through the access opening 236 by releasing the lid closure mechanism 254, or through the main joint 282 by releasing the main closure mechanism 283.The main joint 282 is shown to be generally intermediate front and back sides of the bag 210 so that, once the main closure mechanism 283 is released, the bag 210 can be opened into two roughly equal halves (defined by the rearward shell portion 230 and the forward shell portion 232).","Furthermore, the lid clasps 257 are shown to be generally spaced apart from the main clasps 287, which can help to reduce confusion between the lid closure mechanism 254 and the main closure mechanism 283.A hinge (not shown) can also be provided to connect the shell portions 230, 232 together.","In the example illustrated, referring particularly to FIG.","12, the bag 210 includes a divider 284.The divider 284 can be planar and flexible, e.g., formed of a fabric material, and can be shaped to correspond with an interior cross-section of the storage compartment 234.The divider 284 can be releasably suspended in the storage compartment 234, for example, by a divider zipper 286, which joins edges of the divider 284 to a flap 288 that is fixed to interior side walls of the storage compartment 234.In some examples, a pocket (not shown) can be arranged within the storage compartment 234 for stowing the divider 284 when it is at least partially detached from the flap 288.When the divider 284 is attached (i.e.","by zipping up the divider zipper 286), the divider 284 can divide the storage compartment 234 into two substantially separate subcompartments.","In the example illustrated, the divider 284 divides the storage compartment 234 into a front subcompartment (accessible through the lid 238), and a rear subcompartment (accessible through the main joint 282).","In some examples, a volume of the front subcompartment can be substantially less than a volume of the rear subcompartment.","When the divider 284 is detached, as shown in FIG.","12, generally the full volume of the storage compartment 234 can be accessible to the user by opening either the lid closure mechanism 254 or the main closure mechanism 283.In the example illustrated, the divider 284 includes a zippered pocket 296.In some examples, the zippered pocket 296 can span generally the full length and width of the divider 284.Furthermore, as illustrated, the lid 238 can include a zippered pocket 298 arranged along an interior side thereof.","The zippered pocket 298 can span generally the full length and width of the lid 238.The bag 210 is shown to include wheels 274 arranged on a bottom side, and some or all of the wheels 274 can be swivel wheels.","In the example illustrated, two of the wheels 274 are fixed to the rearward shell portion 230, and two of the wheels 274 are fixed to the forward shell portion 232.The bag 210 is also shown to include a top handle 294, a retractable handle 276, a side handle 278, and feet 280.Referring now to FIGS.","13, 14, 15 and 16, an example of a hard-sided luggage bag is shown generally at 310.In the example illustrated, the bag 310 includes a rearward shell portion 330 and a forward shell portion 332.The shell portions 330, 332 can be generally complementary in size and shape.","The shell portions 330, 332 can be formed of a variety of materials, including, for example but not limited to, aluminum, polycarbonate, ABS, polypropylene, and composites thereof.","The shell portions 330, 332 can include an interior lining formed of fabric material.","Referring particularly to FIG.","16, the shell portions 330, 332 are coupled together to enclose a storage compartment 334.The forward shell portion 332 includes an access opening 336 formed therein.","The access opening 336 permits access to the storage compartment 334.A lid 338 is coupled to the forward shell portion 332.In an open position, the lid 338 allows access to the storage compartment 334 through the access opening 336.In a depth direction, edges of the access opening 336 are arranged generally adjacent to a front side of the bag 310.Thus, users can have access to almost the full depth of the storage compartment 334 through the access opening 336.Furthermore, in some examples, as illustrated, the sides of the bag 310 can present a generally uniform dimension in the depth direction so that the storage compartment 334 is of a generally uniform depth over the edges of the access opening 336.In a closed position, the lid 338 covers the access opening 336.Referring particularly to FIGS.","13 and 14, the lid 338 is formed of a shell portion, generally in continuity with the forward shell portion 332.Alternatively, in some examples, the lid 338 can be formed of at least one shell portion, at least one fabric portion, or a combination thereof.","The lid 338 is releasably joined to the forward shell portion 332 along edges of the access opening 336 by a lid closure mechanism 354.In the example illustrated, the lid closure mechanism 354 includes a lid zipper 355.The lid 338 is shown to be releasably joined only partly along a bottom edge of the access opening 336, as the lid 338 is connected to the forward shell portion 332 generally along the bottom edge by a hinge 356 (FIG.","16).","The hinge 356 is spaced apart from a bottom side of the bag 310 in a height direction.","The rearward shell portion 330 is releasably joined to the forward shell portion 332 along a main joint 382 by a main closure mechanism 383.In the example illustrated, the main closure mechanism 383 includes a main zipper 385.The storage compartment 334 can be accessed by releasing the main closure mechanism 383.Thus, in some examples, the storage compartment 334 can be accessed in two separate ways, namely, through the access opening 336 by releasing the lid closure mechanism 354, or through the main joint 382 by releasing the main closure mechanism 383.The main joint 382 is shown to be generally intermediate front and back sides of the bag 310 so that, once the main closure mechanism 383 is released, the bag 310 can be opened into two roughly equal halves (defined by the rearward shell portion 330 and the forward shell portion 332).","Furthermore, the main closure mechanism 383 is shown to be generally spaced apart from the lid closure mechanism 354, which can help to reduce confusion between the main zipper 385 and the lid zipper 355.A hinge (not shown) can also be provided to connect the shell portions 330, 332 together.","With continued reference to FIGS.","13 and 14, an expansion section 362 is shown to be connected to an inner edge of the forward shell portion 332 and a forward edge of the main joint 382.In the example illustrated, the expansion section 362 includes an expansion zipper 368, which, when released, increases space between the inner edge of the forward shell portion 332 and the forward edge of the main joint 382, thereby increasing a depth dimension of the bag 310.In the example illustrated, the expansion section 362 is shown to be arranged adjacent to the main joint 382, but generally intermediate front and back sides of the bag 310, so that a center of gravity of the bag 310 can remain generally balanced between the front and back sides once the expansion zipper 368 is released.","In some examples, referring again to FIG.","16, the bag 310 can include a divider 384, which is shown to be partially detached and rolled up to one side of the storage compartment 334.The divider 384 can be planar and flexible, e.g., formed of a fabric material, and can be shaped to correspond with an interior cross-section of the storage compartment 334.The divider 384 can be releasably suspended in the storage compartment 334, for example, by a divider zipper, which joins edges of the divider 384 to one or more flaps that are fixed to interior side walls of the storage compartment 334.In some examples, a pocket (not shown) can be arranged within the storage compartment 334 for stowing the divider 384 when it is at least partially detached from the one or more flaps.","When the divider 384 is attached (e.g., by zipping up the divider zipper), the divider 384 can divide the storage compartment 334 into two substantially separate subcompartments.","In the example illustrated, the divider 384 divides the storage compartment into a front subcompartment (accessible through the lid 338), and a rear subcompartment (accessible through the main joint 382).","In some examples, a volume of the front subcompartment can be substantially less than a volume of the rear subcompartment.","When the divider 384 is detached, as shown in FIG.","16, generally the full volume of the storage compartment 334 can be accessible to the user by opening either the lid closure mechanism 354 or the main closure mechanism 383.In the example illustrated, the hinge 356 being arranged on the bottom edge of the access opening 336 can help to reduce the risk of contents falling out of the access opening 336 if the lid 338 is opened while the bag 310 is disposed in an upright position.","The bag 310 includes gussets provided alongside edges of the access opening 336.In the example illustrated, the gussets are formed by first members 391 fixed to the lid 338, and second members 393 fixed to the forward shell portion 332 and attached to the first members 391.In some examples, the first and second members 391, 393 can be attached using a hook-and-loop fastener.","The first and second members 391, 393 can be configured to maintain the lid 338 in a partially opened position (shown in FIGS.","13, 14 and 15), as opposed to a fully opened position (shown in FIG.","16), which can also help to reduce the risk of contents falling out of the access opening 336.As illustrated, within the storage compartment 334, the bag 310 can further include at least one interior zippered pocket 390, and one or more restraint straps 392.The bag 310 is shown to include wheels 374 arranged on a bottom side, and some or all of the wheels 374 can be swivel wheels.","In the example illustrated, two of the wheels 374 are fixed to the rearward shell portion 330, and two of the wheels 374 are fixed to the forward shell portion 332.The bag 310 is also shown to include a top handle 394, a retractable handle 376, and a side handle 378.While the above description provides examples of one or more apparatuses or methods, it will be appreciated that other apparatuses or methods may be within the scope of the accompanying claims."]],"string":"[\n [\n \"HARD-SIDED LUGGAGE BAG WITH FRONT LID\",\n \"A hard-sided luggage bag includes at least one shell portion, and has a front side, a back side, and a bottom side extending between the front and back sides.\",\n \"The least one shell portion encloses a storage compartment and includes an access opening permitting access to the storage compartment.\",\n \"The access opening is formed in at least part of the front side and is spaced apart from the bottom side.\",\n \"At least one lid is releasably coupled to the at least one shell portion to cover the access opening.\"\n ],\n [\n \"1.A hard-sided luggage bag, comprising: at least one shell portion having a front side, a back side, and top, bottom, left and right sides extending generally between the front and back sides, the front and back sides spaced from one another in a depth direction, the top and bottom sides spaced from one another in a height direction, the at least one shell portion enclosing a storage compartment and comprising an access opening permitting access to the storage compartment, the access opening formed in at least part of the front side; and at least one lid releasably coupled to the at least one shell portion to cover the access opening, wherein the at least one lid is releasably joined to the at least one shell portion along a bottom edge of the access opening, wherein the bottom edge is spaced from the bottom side in the height direction, wherein the bottom edge extends across the front side between the left and right sides, wherein the at least one lid is releasably joined to the at least one shell portion along left, top and right edges of the access opening that extend across the respective left, top and right sides of the at least one shell portion, wherein the at least one shell portion comprises a rearward shell portion coupled to a forward shell portion by at least one of a main joint and an expansion section that, in the depth direction, is generally intermediate the front and back sides, the forward shell portion comprising the access opening, wherein, along the left side, a first dimension between an interior edge of the forward shell portion and the left edge of the access opening is less than a second dimension between the left edge of the access opening and the bottom edge of the access opening at the front side, and wherein the first and second dimensions are parallel to the depth direction.\",\n \"2.The hard-sided luggage bag of claim 1, wherein the shell portions are releasably joined along the main joint by a main closure mechanism, the main joint permitting a first way to access the storage compartment by releasing the main closure mechanism, and the access opening permitting a second way to access the storage compartment, separate from the first way, by releasing a lid closure mechanism.\",\n \"3.The hard-sided luggage bag of claim 1, wherein the access opening comprises curved bottom corners arranged intermediate of the bottom edge and the left and right edges, and, along the left side, a third dimension between the left edge of the access opening and boundary between the curved corner of the access opening and the bottom edge of the access opening is less than a fourth dimension between the boundary between the curved corner of the access opening and the bottom edge of the access opening at the front side, the third and fourth dimensions being parallel to the depth direction.\",\n \"4.The hard-sided luggage bag of claim 3, wherein, along the left and right sides, the bottom edge extends parallel to the depth direction between the front side and each of the curved corners.\",\n \"5.The hard-sided luggage bag of claim 1, wherein the access opening comprises curved bottom corners arranged intermediate of the bottom edge and the left and right edges, and, along the left and right sides, the bottom edge extends parallel to the depth direction between the front side and each of the curved corners.\",\n \"6.The hard-sided luggage bag of claim 1, wherein the left, top and right sides present a generally uniform dimension in the depth direction so that the storage compartment is of a generally uniform depth over the left, top and right edges of the access opening.\",\n \"7.The hard-sided luggage bag of claim 1, wherein the at least one lid is releasably joined to the at least one shell portion by a lid closure mechanism, and the lid closure mechanism comprises at least one of a zipper and a clasp.\",\n \"8.The hard-sided luggage bag of claim 1, wherein the at least one lid comprises at least one shell portion, at least one fabric portion, at least one zippered pocket, or a combination thereof.\",\n \"9.The hard-sided luggage bag of claim 1, comprising a hinge connecting the at least one lid to the at least one shell portion, and the hinge is arranged along one of the left, bottom, top and right edges of the access opening.\",\n \"10.The hard-sided luggage bag of claim 1, comprising at least one of a support strap and a gusset connected generally between the at least one lid and the at least one shell portion for maintaining the at least one lid in a partially open position, the at least one of a support strap and a gusset comprises a first member fixed to the at least one lid, and a second member fixed to the at least one shell portion and attached to the first member, and the first and second members are detachable from one another so that the at least one lid is movable to a fully open position.\",\n \"11.The hard-sided luggage bag of claim 1, comprising a plurality of wheels arranged on the bottom side, the plurality of wheels comprising at least one wheel fixed to the rearward shell portion and at least one wheel fixed to the forward shell portion.\",\n \"12.The hard-sided luggage bag of claim 1, comprising a divider that is releasably suspended in the storage compartment to divide the storage compartment into at least two substantially separate subcompartments.\",\n \"13.The hard-sided luggage bag of claim 12, wherein the divider divides the storage compartment into a front subcompartment and a rear subcompartment, and a volume of the front subcompartment is substantially less than a volume of the rear subcompartment.\",\n \"14.The hard-sided luggage bag of claim 12, wherein the divider is at least partially detachable.\",\n \"15.The hard-sided luggage bag of claim 12, wherein the divider comprises a zippered pocket.\",\n \"16.A hard-sided luggage bag, comprising: a rearward shell portion coupled to a forward shell portion, the shell portions together having a front side, a back side spaced from the front side, and top, bottom, left and rights sides extending generally between the front and back sides, the front and back sides spaced from one another in a depth direction, the top and bottom sides spaced from one another in a height direction, the shell portions being coupled by at least one of a main joint and an expansion section that, in the depth direction, is generally intermediate the front and back sides, the shell portions enclosing a storage compartment, the forward shell portion comprising an access opening permitting access to the storage compartment, the access opening formed in at least part of the front side, the access opening comprising a bottom edge that is spaced from the bottom side in the height direction and extends across the front side between the left and right sides, and the access opening comprising left, top and right edges that extend across respective left, top and right sides of the forward shell portion; and a lid coupled to the forward shell portion to cover the access opening and defining a substantial portion of the front side of the bag, the lid releasably joined to the forward shell portion by a lid closure zipper along at least a portion of the bottom, left and top edges of the access opening, wherein, along the left side of the bag at a vertical position that, in the height direction, is generally intermediate the top and bottom sides, a first horizontal dimension between an interior edge of the forward shell portion and the left edge of the access opening is less than a second horizontal dimension between the lid closure zipper at the left edge of the access opening and the front side of the lid.\",\n \"17.The hard-sided luggage bag of claim 16, wherein the rearward shell portion is coupled to the forward shell portion by at least one of a main joint and an expansion section that, in the depth direction, is generally intermediate the front and back sides.\",\n \"18.The hard-sided luggage bag of claim 17, wherein the shell portions are releasably joined along the main joint by a main closure zipper, the main joint permitting a first way to access the storage compartment by releasing the main closure zipper, and the access opening permitting a second way to access the storage compartment, separate from the first way, by releasing the lid closure zipper.\",\n \"19.The hard-sided luggage bag of claim 16, wherein the left, top and right sides present a generally uniform dimension in the depth direction so that the storage compartment is of a generally uniform depth over the left, top and right edges of the access opening.\",\n \"20.A hard-sided luggage bag, comprising: a rearward shell portion releasably joined to a forward shell portion along a main joint, the shell portions enclosing a storage compartment, the main joint permitting a first way to access the storage compartment by releasing a main closure mechanism, the forward shell portion comprising an access opening permitting a second way to access the storage compartment, separate from the first way, by releasing a lid closure mechanism; and a lid releasably coupled to the forward shell portion to cover the access opening, wherein the lid defines a substantial portion of a front side of the bag, wherein the access opening comprises bottom, left and right edges, wherein the bottom edge is spaced vertically from a bottom side of the bag in a height direction, and extends horizontally across a front side of the forward shell portion, wherein the left and right edges of the access opening extend across respective left and right sides of the forward shell portion, and wherein, along the left side, a first horizontal dimension between an interior edge of the forward shell portion and the left edge of the access opening is less than a second horizontal dimension between the left edge of the access opening and the front side of the bag as defined by the lid.\"\n ],\n [\n \" BACKGROUND The following paragraphs are not an admission that anything discussed in them is prior art or part of the knowledge of persons skilled in the art.\",\n \"Hard-sided luggage has become increasingly popular in recent years.\",\n \"Hard-sided luggage can provide several benefits versus soft-sided baggage, including attractiveness, durability and light weight.\",\n \"One important benefit to using hard-sided luggage is that contents tend to be well protected.\",\n \"Hard-sided luggage can include features such telescoping handles, and swivel wheels that allow for easy maneuvering.\",\n \"Hard-sided luggage can also include a secure locking mechanism, including TSA-approved locks, for example.\",\n \"Internally, hard-sided luggage can include features such as dividers, pockets and straps to hold its contents in place.\",\n \"Hard-sided luggage can be constructed of several different materials, including aluminum, polycarbonate, ABS and polypropylene.\",\n \"Hard-sided luggage is available in endless colors and designs, and the shells can be scratch-resistant, dent-resistant, and generally waterproof.\"\n ],\n [\n \" SUMMARY The following paragraphs are intended to introduce the reader to the more detailed description that follows and not to define or limit the claimed subject matter.\",\n \"According to an aspect of the present disclosure, a hard-sided luggage bag can include: at least one shell portion having a front side, a back side, and top, bottom, left and right sides extending generally between the front and back sides, the front and back sides spaced from one another in a depth direction, the top and bottom sides spaced from one another in a height direction, the at least one shell portion enclosing a storage compartment and including an access opening permitting access to the storage compartment, the access opening formed in at least part of the front side; and at least one lid releasably coupled to the at least one shell portion to cover the access opening.\",\n \"The at least one lid can be releasably joined to the at least one shell portion along a bottom edge of the access opening.\",\n \"The bottom edge can be spaced from the bottom side in the height direction.\",\n \"The bottom edge can extend across the front side between the left and right sides.\",\n \"The at least one lid can be releasably joined to the at least one shell portion along left, top and right edges of the access opening that extend across the respective left, top and right sides of the at least one shell portion.\",\n \"The at least one shell portion can include a rearward shell portion coupled to a forward shell portion by at least one of a main joint and an expansion section that, in the depth direction, is generally intermediate the front and back sides, the forward shell portion including the access opening.\",\n \"Along the left side, a first dimension between an interior edge of the forward shell portion and the left edge of the access opening can be less than a second dimension between the left edge of the access opening and the bottom edge of the access opening at the front side.\",\n \"The first and second dimensions can be parallel to the depth direction.\",\n \"According to an aspect of the present disclosure, a hard-sided luggage bag can include: a rearward shell portion coupled to a forward shell portion, the shell portions together having a front side, a back side spaced from the front side, and top, bottom, left and rights sides extending generally between the front and back sides, the front and back sides spaced from one another in a depth direction, the top and bottom sides spaced from one another in a height direction, the shell portions being coupled by at least one of a main joint and an expansion section that, in the depth direction, is generally intermediate the front and back sides, the shell portions enclosing a storage compartment, the forward shell portion including an access opening permitting access to the storage compartment, the access opening formed in at least part of the front side, the access opening including a bottom edge that is spaced from the bottom side in the height direction and extends across the front side between the left and right sides, and the access opening including left, top and right edges that extend across respective left, top and right sides of the forward shell portion; and a lid coupled to the forward shell portion to cover the access opening and defining a substantial portion of the front side of the bag, the lid releasably joined to the forward shell portion by a lid closure zipper along at least a portion of the bottom, left and top edges of the access opening.\",\n \"Along the left side of the bag at a vertical position that, in the height direction, is generally intermediate the top and bottom sides, a first horizontal dimension between an interior edge of the forward shell portion and the left edge of the access opening can be less than a second horizontal dimension between the lid closure zipper at the left edge of the access opening and the front side of the lid.\",\n \"According to an aspect of the present disclosure, a hard-sided luggage bag can include: a rearward shell portion releasably joined to a forward shell portion along a main joint, the shell portions enclosing a storage compartment, the main joint permitting a first way to access the storage compartment by releasing a main closure mechanism, the forward shell portion including an access opening permitting a second way to access the storage compartment, separate from the first way, by releasing a lid closure mechanism; and a lid releasably coupled to the forward shell portion to cover the access opening.\",\n \"The lid can define a substantial portion of a front side of the bag.\",\n \"The access opening can include bottom, left and right edges.\",\n \"The bottom edge can be spaced vertically from a bottom side of the bag in a height direction, and can extend horizontally across a front side of the forward shell portion.\",\n \"The left and right edges of the access opening can extend across respective left and right sides of the forward shell portion.\",\n \"Along the left side, a first horizontal dimension between an interior edge of the forward shell portion and the left edge of the access opening can be less than a second horizontal dimension between the left edge of the access opening and the front side of the bag as defined by the lid.\"\n ],\n [\n \"CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application is a continuation of U.S. application Ser.\",\n \"No.\",\n \"14/361,981 filed on May 30, 2014, which is a national stage entry of International Application No.\",\n \"PCT/CA2013/050078 filed on Feb. 1, 2013, which claims priority from U.S.\",\n \"Application No.\",\n \"61/618,384 filed Mar.\",\n \"30, 2012 and Canadian Application No.\",\n \"2,785,061 filed Aug. 10, 2012, and the entire contents of each are hereby incorporated herein by reference.\",\n \"TECHNICAL FIELD The present disclosure relates to hard-sided luggage.\",\n \"BACKGROUND The following paragraphs are not an admission that anything discussed in them is prior art or part of the knowledge of persons skilled in the art.\",\n \"Hard-sided luggage has become increasingly popular in recent years.\",\n \"Hard-sided luggage can provide several benefits versus soft-sided baggage, including attractiveness, durability and light weight.\",\n \"One important benefit to using hard-sided luggage is that contents tend to be well protected.\",\n \"Hard-sided luggage can include features such telescoping handles, and swivel wheels that allow for easy maneuvering.\",\n \"Hard-sided luggage can also include a secure locking mechanism, including TSA-approved locks, for example.\",\n \"Internally, hard-sided luggage can include features such as dividers, pockets and straps to hold its contents in place.\",\n \"Hard-sided luggage can be constructed of several different materials, including aluminum, polycarbonate, ABS and polypropylene.\",\n \"Hard-sided luggage is available in endless colors and designs, and the shells can be scratch-resistant, dent-resistant, and generally waterproof.\",\n \"SUMMARY The following paragraphs are intended to introduce the reader to the more detailed description that follows and not to define or limit the claimed subject matter.\",\n \"According to an aspect of the present disclosure, a hard-sided luggage bag can include: at least one shell portion having a front side, a back side, and top, bottom, left and right sides extending generally between the front and back sides, the front and back sides spaced from one another in a depth direction, the top and bottom sides spaced from one another in a height direction, the at least one shell portion enclosing a storage compartment and including an access opening permitting access to the storage compartment, the access opening formed in at least part of the front side; and at least one lid releasably coupled to the at least one shell portion to cover the access opening.\",\n \"The at least one lid can be releasably joined to the at least one shell portion along a bottom edge of the access opening.\",\n \"The bottom edge can be spaced from the bottom side in the height direction.\",\n \"The bottom edge can extend across the front side between the left and right sides.\",\n \"The at least one lid can be releasably joined to the at least one shell portion along left, top and right edges of the access opening that extend across the respective left, top and right sides of the at least one shell portion.\",\n \"The at least one shell portion can include a rearward shell portion coupled to a forward shell portion by at least one of a main joint and an expansion section that, in the depth direction, is generally intermediate the front and back sides, the forward shell portion including the access opening.\",\n \"Along the left side, a first dimension between an interior edge of the forward shell portion and the left edge of the access opening can be less than a second dimension between the left edge of the access opening and the bottom edge of the access opening at the front side.\",\n \"The first and second dimensions can be parallel to the depth direction.\",\n \"According to an aspect of the present disclosure, a hard-sided luggage bag can include: a rearward shell portion coupled to a forward shell portion, the shell portions together having a front side, a back side spaced from the front side, and top, bottom, left and rights sides extending generally between the front and back sides, the front and back sides spaced from one another in a depth direction, the top and bottom sides spaced from one another in a height direction, the shell portions being coupled by at least one of a main joint and an expansion section that, in the depth direction, is generally intermediate the front and back sides, the shell portions enclosing a storage compartment, the forward shell portion including an access opening permitting access to the storage compartment, the access opening formed in at least part of the front side, the access opening including a bottom edge that is spaced from the bottom side in the height direction and extends across the front side between the left and right sides, and the access opening including left, top and right edges that extend across respective left, top and right sides of the forward shell portion; and a lid coupled to the forward shell portion to cover the access opening and defining a substantial portion of the front side of the bag, the lid releasably joined to the forward shell portion by a lid closure zipper along at least a portion of the bottom, left and top edges of the access opening.\",\n \"Along the left side of the bag at a vertical position that, in the height direction, is generally intermediate the top and bottom sides, a first horizontal dimension between an interior edge of the forward shell portion and the left edge of the access opening can be less than a second horizontal dimension between the lid closure zipper at the left edge of the access opening and the front side of the lid.\",\n \"According to an aspect of the present disclosure, a hard-sided luggage bag can include: a rearward shell portion releasably joined to a forward shell portion along a main joint, the shell portions enclosing a storage compartment, the main joint permitting a first way to access the storage compartment by releasing a main closure mechanism, the forward shell portion including an access opening permitting a second way to access the storage compartment, separate from the first way, by releasing a lid closure mechanism; and a lid releasably coupled to the forward shell portion to cover the access opening.\",\n \"The lid can define a substantial portion of a front side of the bag.\",\n \"The access opening can include bottom, left and right edges.\",\n \"The bottom edge can be spaced vertically from a bottom side of the bag in a height direction, and can extend horizontally across a front side of the forward shell portion.\",\n \"The left and right edges of the access opening can extend across respective left and right sides of the forward shell portion.\",\n \"Along the left side, a first horizontal dimension between an interior edge of the forward shell portion and the left edge of the access opening can be less than a second horizontal dimension between the left edge of the access opening and the front side of the bag as defined by the lid.\",\n \"BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The drawings included herewith are for illustrating various examples of apparatuses and methods of the present disclosure and are not intended to limit the scope of what is taught in any way.\",\n \"In the drawings: FIGS.\",\n \"1 and 2 are left side and front views of a first example of a hard-sided luggage bag; FIG.\",\n \"1A is a detailed view of a portion of the hard-sided luggage bag of FIG.\",\n \"1; FIG.\",\n \"3 is a perspective view of the hard-sided luggage bag of FIGS.\",\n \"1 and 2, shown with a lid in an open position; FIGS.\",\n \"4, 5, 6 and 7 are top, bottom, right side, and back views of the hard-sided luggage bag of FIGS.\",\n \"1 and 2; FIG.\",\n \"8 is a perspective view of a second example of a hard-sided luggage bag; FIG.\",\n \"9 is a right side view of the hard-sided luggage bag of FIG.\",\n \"8, shown with a lid in a partially open position; FIG.\",\n \"10 is a perspective view of the hard-sided luggage bag of FIG.\",\n \"8, shown with the lid in a fully open position; FIG.\",\n \"11 is a perspective view of a third example of a hard-sided luggage bag; FIG.\",\n \"12 is a perspective view of the hard-sided luggage bag of FIG.\",\n \"11, shown with a lid in an open position; FIG.\",\n \"13 is a right side view of a fourth example of a hard-sided luggage bag, shown with a lid in a partially open position; FIG.\",\n \"14 is another right side view of the hard-sided luggage bag of FIG.\",\n \"13, shown with an expansion section in a released position; FIG.\",\n \"15 is another right side view of the hard-sided luggage bag of FIG.\",\n \"13, shown with a main closure mechanism in a released position; and FIG.\",\n \"16 is a perspective view of the hard-sided luggage bag of FIG.\",\n \"13, shown with the lid in an open position.\",\n \"DETAILED DESCRIPTION Various apparatuses or methods are described below to provide an example of an embodiment of each claimed invention.\",\n \"No embodiment described below limits any claimed invention and any claimed invention may cover apparatuses and methods that differ from those described below.\",\n \"The claimed inventions are not limited to apparatuses and methods having all of the features of any one apparatus or method described below or to features common to multiple or all of the apparatuses or methods described below.\",\n \"It is possible that an apparatus or method described below is not an embodiment of any claimed invention.\",\n \"Any invention disclosed in an apparatus or method described below that is not claimed in this document may be the subject matter of another protective instrument, and the applicant(s), inventor(s) and/or owner(s) do not intend to abandon, disclaim or dedicate to the public any such invention by its disclosure in this document.\",\n \"Referring to FIGS.\",\n \"1 and 2, an example of a hard-sided luggage bag is shown generally at 10.The bag 10 extends in a depth direction 12 between a front side 14 and a back side 16.The bag 10 extends in a width direction 18 between a left side 20 and a right side 22.The bag 10 extends in a height direction 24 between a top side 26 and a bottom side 28.In the example illustrated, the bag 10 includes a rearward shell portion 30 and a forward shell portion 32.The shell portions 30, 32 can be generally complementary in size and shape.\",\n \"The shell portions 30, 32 can be formed of a variety of materials, including, for example but not limited to, aluminum, polycarbonate, ABS, polypropylene, and composites thereof.\",\n \"The shell portions 30, 32 can include an interior lining formed of fabric material.\",\n \"Referring particularly to FIG.\",\n \"3, the shell portions 30, 32 are coupled together to enclose a storage compartment 34.The forward shell portion 32 includes an access opening 36 formed therein.\",\n \"The access opening 36 permits access to the storage compartment 34.A lid 38 is coupled to the forward shell portion 32.In an open position, as shown in FIG.\",\n \"3, the lid 38 allows access to the storage compartment 34 through the access opening 36.In a closed position, as shown in FIGS.\",\n \"1 and 2, the lid 38 covers the access opening 36.In the example illustrated, the lid 38 is shown to be formed of a shell portion, generally in continuity with the forward shell portion 32.In some examples, the lid 38 can include one or more zippered pockets arranged along an interior side thereof.\",\n \"Alternatively, in soft-sided examples, the lid can be formed of at least one fabric portion (not shown), which can be formed of, for example but not limited to, polyester, nylon or polypropylene fabric materials.\",\n \"In such examples, the at least one fabric portion can include one or more zippered pockets, that can be accessible from the exterior of the bag.\",\n \"In other hybrid examples, the lid can be formed of a combination of at least one shell portion and fabric materials.\",\n \"Furthermore, in yet other examples, the lid can be formed of two portions (or more), that are configured to open and close independently of one another.\",\n \"In such examples, the lid portions can be releasably joined to one another, e.g., with a zipper or another suitable closure mechanism, roughly midway across the access opening between a bottom edge and a top edge.\",\n \"Alternatively, the access opening can include two separate sections, separated by a strut element (not shown) that, for example, extends across the access opening between a left edge and a right edge.\",\n \"In such examples, each of the lids can be releasably joined to the strut element, and coupled to the forward shell portion along one of its edges by respective hinges.\",\n \"Referring back to FIGS.\",\n \"1 and 2, and with continued reference to FIG.\",\n \"3, the lid 38 is releasably joined to the forward shell portion 32 along a bottom edge 40 of the access opening 36.The bottom edge 40 is shown to be spaced apart a first dimension 42 (shown in FIG.\",\n \"2) from the bottom side 28 in the height direction 24.Thus, in the height direction 24, the access opening 36 has a second dimension 44 (shown in FIG.\",\n \"2) that is less than a third dimension 46 (shown in FIG.\",\n \"1) of the bag 10 between the top and bottom sides 26, 28.With the access opening 36 and the lid 38 spaced apart from the bottom side 28 in this manner, a lower portion of the bag 10 can provide a relatively rigid structure, which can be maintained when the lid 38 is in the open position.\",\n \"In the example illustrated, the bottom edge 40 extends generally across the front side 14 between the left and right sides 20, 22.The lid 38 is further releasably joined to the forward shell portion 32 along a left edge 48, a top edge 50 and a right edge 52 of the access opening 36 that extend generally across the left, top and right sides 20, 26, 22, respectively.\",\n \"The lid 38 is releasably joined to the forward shell portion 32 along the edges 40, 48, 50, 52 by a lid closure mechanism 54.In the example illustrated, the lid closure mechanism 54 includes a lid zipper 55.The lid 38 is shown to be releasably joined only partly along the left edge 48, as the lid 38 is connected to the forward shell portion 32 generally along the left edge 48 by a hinge 56.In other examples, a hinge connecting the lid 38 and the forward shell portion 32 can be arranged on the bottom edge 40, which can reduce the risk of contents falling out of the access opening 36 if the lid 38 is opened while the bag 10 is disposed in an upright position.\",\n \"In such examples, the bag 10 can include gussets (not shown), provided alongside the edges 48, 52, to help to prevent contents from falling out of the access opening 36 when the lid 38 is opened and the bag 10 is disposed in the upright position.\",\n \"In yet other examples, a hinge connecting the lid 38 and the forward shell portion 32 can be arranged on the top edge 50, or on the right edge 52.Various configurations are possible.\",\n \"In the depth direction 12, the edges 48, 50, 52 are arranged generally adjacent to the front side 14.As shown in FIG.\",\n \"4, in the depth direction 12, the access opening 36 has a fourth dimension 58 that is substantially less than a fifth dimension 60 of the bag 10 between the back side 14 and the edges 48, 50, 52.Thus, referring back to FIG.\",\n \"3, users can have access to almost the full depth of the storage compartment 34 through the access opening 36.Furthermore, in some examples, as illustrated, the sides 20, 26, 22 can present a generally uniform dimension in the depth direction 12 so that the storage compartment 34 is of a generally uniform depth over the edges 48, 50, 52 of the access opening 36.Referring to FIGS.\",\n \"1 and 1A, an interior edge of the forward shell portion 32 defines a vertical line 61, the left edge 48 defines a vertical line 63, and the bottom edge 40 defines a horizontal line 65 and a vertical line 67 at the front side of the bag.\",\n \"In the example illustrated, the access opening 36 includes a curved bottom corner 69 that is arranged intermediate of the bottom edge 40 and the left edge 48.A vertical line 71 intersects a boundary between the curved bottom corner 69 and the bottom edge 40.The lines 61, 63, 67, 71 are each parallel to the height direction 24, and the line 65 is parallel to the depth direction 12.In the example illustrated, the bottom edge 40 extends horizontally parallel to the depth direction 12 between the front side of the bag and the curved corner 69.As illustrated, a horizontal dimension 73 between the lines 61, 63 is less than a horizontal dimension 75 between the lines 63, 67, and a horizontal dimension 77 between the lines 63, 71 is less than a horizontal dimension 79 between the lines 71, 67.FIG.\",\n \"6 shows generally the same configuration on the other side of the bag 10.Referring now to FIG.\",\n \"5, an expansion section 62 is shown to be connected to inner edges 64, 66 of the shell portions 30, 32, respectively.\",\n \"In the example illustrated, the expansion section 62 includes an expansion zipper 68, which, when released, increases space between the inner edges 64, 66 thereby increasing a depth dimension of the bag 10 (i.e.\",\n \"in the depth direction 12).\",\n \"In the example illustrated, the expansion section 62 is shown to be generally intermediate the front and back sides 14, 16 so that, in the depth direction 12, a sixth dimension 70 of the rearward shell portion 30 between the back side 16 and the inner edge 64 is similar to a seventh dimension 72 of the forward shell portion 32 between the inner edge 66 and the front side 14.In this manner, a center of gravity of the bag 10 can remain generally balanced between the sides 14, 16 once the expansion zipper 68 is released.\",\n \"Furthermore, referring to FIGS.\",\n \"3, 4 and 5, the expansion section 62 is shown to be generally spaced apart from the access opening 36 and the lid 38, with the edges 40, 48, 50, 52 of the access opening 36 being generally intermediate the expansion section 62 and the front side 14.For users, this can help to reduce confusion between the lid zipper 55 and the expansion zipper 68.Referring now to FIGS.\",\n \"6 and 7, the bag 10 includes wheels 74 arranged on the bottom side 28.Some or all of the wheels 74 can be swivel wheels.\",\n \"In the example illustrated, two of the wheels 74 are fixed to the rearward shell portion 30, and two of the wheels 74 are fixed to the forward shell portion 32.With the lid 38 spaced apart from the bottom side 28, the lid 38 can be opened without interfering with the wheels 74.Furthermore, as mentioned above, with the access opening 36 and the lid 38 spaced apart from the bottom side 28, a lower portion of the bag 10 can provide a relatively rigid structure, which can bear the weight of the bag 10 and its contents, and can serve as a stable base for attachment of the wheels 74.In the example illustrated, the bag 10 further includes a top handle 76, a side handle 78 and feet 80.As shown, the top handle 76 can be retractable, and suitable for guiding the bag 10 on the wheels 74.Referring now to FIGS.\",\n \"8, 9 and 10, an example of a hard-sided luggage bag is shown generally at 110.In the example illustrated, the bag 110 includes a rearward shell portion 130 and a forward shell portion 132.The shell portions 130, 132 can be generally complementary in size and shape.\",\n \"The shell portions 130, 132 can be formed of a variety of materials, including, for example but not limited to, aluminum, polycarbonate, ABS, polypropylene, and composites thereof.\",\n \"The shell portions 130, 132 can include an interior lining formed of fabric material.\",\n \"Referring particularly to FIG.\",\n \"10, the shell portions 130, 132 are coupled together to enclose a storage compartment 134.The forward shell portion 132 includes an access opening 136 formed therein.\",\n \"The access opening 136 permits access to the storage compartment 134.A lid 138 is coupled to the forward shell portion 132.In an open position, the lid 138 permits access to the storage compartment 134 through the access opening 136.In a depth direction, edges of the access opening 136 are arranged generally adjacent to a front side of the bag 110.Thus, users can have access to almost the full depth of the storage compartment 134 through the access opening 136.Furthermore, in some examples, as illustrated, the sides of the bag 110 can present a generally uniform dimension in the depth direction so that the storage compartment 134 is of a generally uniform depth over the edges of the access opening 136.In a closed position, as shown in FIG.\",\n \"8, the lid 138 covers the access opening 136.In the example illustrated, referring again to FIGS.\",\n \"8, 9 and 10, the lid 138 is shown to be formed of a shell portion, generally in continuity with the forward shell portion 132.Alternatively, in some examples, the lid 138 can be formed of at least one shell portion, at least one fabric portion, or a combination thereof.\",\n \"The lid 138 is releasably joined to the forward shell portion 132 along edges of the access opening 136 by a lid closure mechanism 154.In the example illustrated, the lid closure mechanism 54 includes a lid zipper 55.The lid 138 is shown to be releasably joined only partly along a bottom edge 140 of the access opening 136 (FIG.\",\n \"10), as the lid 138 is connected to the forward shell portion 132 generally along the bottom edge 140 by a hinge 156.The hinge 156 is spaced apart from a bottom side of the bag 110 in a height direction.\",\n \"Referring particularly to FIG.\",\n \"9, the arrangement of the hinge 156 can help to reduce the risk of contents falling out of the access opening 136 if the lid 138 is opened while the bag 110 is disposed in an upright position.\",\n \"The bag 110 can include releasable support straps 180 coupled between the lid 138 and the forward shell portion 132.Each of the support straps 180 can include a first member fixed to the lid 138, and a second member fixed to the forward shell portion 132 and attached to the first member.\",\n \"In some examples, the first and second members of the support straps 180 can be attached to each other with a snap buckle.\",\n \"The releasable support straps 180 can be configured to maintain the lid 138 in a partially opened position (shown in FIG.\",\n \"9), as opposed to a fully opened position (shown in FIG.\",\n \"10), which can also help to reduce the risk of contents falling out of the access opening 136.The rearward shell portion 130 is releasably joined to the forward shell portion 132 along a main joint 182 by a main closure mechanism 183.In the example illustrated, the main closure mechanism 183 includes a main zipper 185.The storage compartment 134 can be accessed by releasing the main closure mechanism 183.Thus, in some examples, the storage compartment 134 can be accessed in two separate ways, namely, through the access opening 136 by releasing the lid closure mechanism 154, or through the main joint 182 by releasing the main closure mechanism 183.The main joint 182 is shown to be generally intermediate front and back sides of the bag 110 so that, once the main closure mechanism 183 is released, the bag 110 can be opened into two roughly equal halves (defined by the rearward shell portion 130 and the forward shell portion 132).\",\n \"Furthermore, the main zipper 185 is shown to be generally spaced apart from the lid zipper 155, which can help to reduce confusion between the main zipper 185 and the lid zipper 155.A hinge (not shown) can also be provided to connect the shell portions 130, 132 together.\",\n \"In some examples, referring again to FIG.\",\n \"10, the bag 110 can include a divider 184, which is shown to be partially detached and flipped to one side of the bag 110.The divider 184 can be planar and flexible, e.g., formed of a fabric material, and can be shaped to correspond with an interior cross-section of the storage compartment 134.The divider 184 can be releasably suspended in the storage compartment 134, for example, by a divider zipper 186, which joins edges of the divider 184 to a flap 188 that is fixed to interior side walls of the storage compartment 134.In some examples, a pocket (not shown) can be arranged within the storage compartment 134 for stowing the divider 184 when it is at least partially detached from the flap 188.When the divider 184 is attached (e.g., by zipping up the divider zipper 186), the divider 184 can divide the storage compartment 134 into two substantially separate subcompartments.\",\n \"In the example illustrated, the divider 184 divides the storage compartment into a front subcompartment (accessible through the lid 138), and a rear subcompartment (accessible through the main joint 182).\",\n \"In some examples, a volume of the front subcompartment can be substantially less than a volume of the rear subcompartment.\",\n \"When the divider 184 is detached, as shown in FIG.\",\n \"10, generally the full volume of the storage compartment 134 can be accessible to the user by opening either the lid closure mechanism 154 or the main closure mechanism 183.As illustrated, within the storage compartment 134, the bag 110 can further include at least one interior zippered pocket 190, and one or more restraint straps 192.Referring again to FIGS.\",\n \"8 and 9, the bag 110 is also shown to include wheels 174 arranged on a bottom side, and some or all of the wheels 174 can be swivel wheels.\",\n \"In the example illustrated, two of the wheels 174 are fixed to the rearward shell portion 130, and two of the wheels 174 are fixed to the forward shell portion 132.The bag 110 can further include a top handle 194, a retractable handle 176, a side handle 178, and feet 180.Referring now to FIGS.\",\n \"11 and 12, an example of a hard-sided luggage bag is shown generally at 210.In the example illustrated, the bag 210 includes a rearward shell portion 230 and a forward shell portion 232.The shell portions 230, 232 can be generally complementary in size and shape.\",\n \"The shell portions 230, 232 can be formed of a variety of materials, including, for example but not limited to, aluminum, polycarbonate, ABS, polypropylene, and composites thereof.\",\n \"The shell portions 230, 232 can include an interior lining formed of fabric material.\",\n \"Referring particularly to FIG.\",\n \"12, the shell portions 230, 232 are coupled together to enclose a storage compartment 234.The forward shell portion 232 includes an access opening 236 formed therein.\",\n \"The access opening 236 permits access to the storage compartment 234.A lid 238 is coupled to the forward shell portion 232.In an open position, the lid 238 allows access to the storage compartment 234 through the access opening 236.In a closed position, as shown in FIG.\",\n \"11, the lid 238 covers the access opening 236.In the example illustrated, the lid 238 is shown to be formed of a shell portion, and extends generally outwardly relative to the forward shell portion 232.Edges of the access opening 236 are arranged generally adjacent to a front side of the bag 210.Thus, users can have access to almost the full depth of the storage compartment 234 through the access opening 236.Furthermore, the storage compartment 234 is of a generally uniform depth along the edges of the access opening 236.The lid 238 is releasably joined to the forward shell portion 232 along edges of the access opening 236 by a lid closure mechanism 254.In the example illustrated, the lid closure mechanism 254 includes lid clasps 257.In such examples, the lid closure mechanism 254 can also include a rigid frame which extends along edges of the lid 238 and/or the edges of the access opening 236 to ensure that the lid 238 correctly mates with the forward shell portion 232 when closed.\",\n \"The lid 238 is shown (FIG.\",\n \"11) releasably joined only partly along the left edge of the access opening 236, as the lid 238 is connected to the forward shell portion 232 generally along the left edge by a hinge 256.The rearward shell portion 230 is releasably joined to the forward shell portion 232 along a main joint 282 by a main closure mechanism 283.In the example illustrated, the main closure mechanism 283 includes main clasps 287.In such examples, the main closure mechanism 283 can also include a rigid frame which extends along inner edges of the shell portions 230, 232 to ensure that they correctly mate when closed.\",\n \"The storage compartment 234 can be accessed by releasing the main closure mechanism 283.Thus, in some examples, the storage compartment 234 can be accessed in two separate ways, namely, through the access opening 236 by releasing the lid closure mechanism 254, or through the main joint 282 by releasing the main closure mechanism 283.The main joint 282 is shown to be generally intermediate front and back sides of the bag 210 so that, once the main closure mechanism 283 is released, the bag 210 can be opened into two roughly equal halves (defined by the rearward shell portion 230 and the forward shell portion 232).\",\n \"Furthermore, the lid clasps 257 are shown to be generally spaced apart from the main clasps 287, which can help to reduce confusion between the lid closure mechanism 254 and the main closure mechanism 283.A hinge (not shown) can also be provided to connect the shell portions 230, 232 together.\",\n \"In the example illustrated, referring particularly to FIG.\",\n \"12, the bag 210 includes a divider 284.The divider 284 can be planar and flexible, e.g., formed of a fabric material, and can be shaped to correspond with an interior cross-section of the storage compartment 234.The divider 284 can be releasably suspended in the storage compartment 234, for example, by a divider zipper 286, which joins edges of the divider 284 to a flap 288 that is fixed to interior side walls of the storage compartment 234.In some examples, a pocket (not shown) can be arranged within the storage compartment 234 for stowing the divider 284 when it is at least partially detached from the flap 288.When the divider 284 is attached (i.e.\",\n \"by zipping up the divider zipper 286), the divider 284 can divide the storage compartment 234 into two substantially separate subcompartments.\",\n \"In the example illustrated, the divider 284 divides the storage compartment 234 into a front subcompartment (accessible through the lid 238), and a rear subcompartment (accessible through the main joint 282).\",\n \"In some examples, a volume of the front subcompartment can be substantially less than a volume of the rear subcompartment.\",\n \"When the divider 284 is detached, as shown in FIG.\",\n \"12, generally the full volume of the storage compartment 234 can be accessible to the user by opening either the lid closure mechanism 254 or the main closure mechanism 283.In the example illustrated, the divider 284 includes a zippered pocket 296.In some examples, the zippered pocket 296 can span generally the full length and width of the divider 284.Furthermore, as illustrated, the lid 238 can include a zippered pocket 298 arranged along an interior side thereof.\",\n \"The zippered pocket 298 can span generally the full length and width of the lid 238.The bag 210 is shown to include wheels 274 arranged on a bottom side, and some or all of the wheels 274 can be swivel wheels.\",\n \"In the example illustrated, two of the wheels 274 are fixed to the rearward shell portion 230, and two of the wheels 274 are fixed to the forward shell portion 232.The bag 210 is also shown to include a top handle 294, a retractable handle 276, a side handle 278, and feet 280.Referring now to FIGS.\",\n \"13, 14, 15 and 16, an example of a hard-sided luggage bag is shown generally at 310.In the example illustrated, the bag 310 includes a rearward shell portion 330 and a forward shell portion 332.The shell portions 330, 332 can be generally complementary in size and shape.\",\n \"The shell portions 330, 332 can be formed of a variety of materials, including, for example but not limited to, aluminum, polycarbonate, ABS, polypropylene, and composites thereof.\",\n \"The shell portions 330, 332 can include an interior lining formed of fabric material.\",\n \"Referring particularly to FIG.\",\n \"16, the shell portions 330, 332 are coupled together to enclose a storage compartment 334.The forward shell portion 332 includes an access opening 336 formed therein.\",\n \"The access opening 336 permits access to the storage compartment 334.A lid 338 is coupled to the forward shell portion 332.In an open position, the lid 338 allows access to the storage compartment 334 through the access opening 336.In a depth direction, edges of the access opening 336 are arranged generally adjacent to a front side of the bag 310.Thus, users can have access to almost the full depth of the storage compartment 334 through the access opening 336.Furthermore, in some examples, as illustrated, the sides of the bag 310 can present a generally uniform dimension in the depth direction so that the storage compartment 334 is of a generally uniform depth over the edges of the access opening 336.In a closed position, the lid 338 covers the access opening 336.Referring particularly to FIGS.\",\n \"13 and 14, the lid 338 is formed of a shell portion, generally in continuity with the forward shell portion 332.Alternatively, in some examples, the lid 338 can be formed of at least one shell portion, at least one fabric portion, or a combination thereof.\",\n \"The lid 338 is releasably joined to the forward shell portion 332 along edges of the access opening 336 by a lid closure mechanism 354.In the example illustrated, the lid closure mechanism 354 includes a lid zipper 355.The lid 338 is shown to be releasably joined only partly along a bottom edge of the access opening 336, as the lid 338 is connected to the forward shell portion 332 generally along the bottom edge by a hinge 356 (FIG.\",\n \"16).\",\n \"The hinge 356 is spaced apart from a bottom side of the bag 310 in a height direction.\",\n \"The rearward shell portion 330 is releasably joined to the forward shell portion 332 along a main joint 382 by a main closure mechanism 383.In the example illustrated, the main closure mechanism 383 includes a main zipper 385.The storage compartment 334 can be accessed by releasing the main closure mechanism 383.Thus, in some examples, the storage compartment 334 can be accessed in two separate ways, namely, through the access opening 336 by releasing the lid closure mechanism 354, or through the main joint 382 by releasing the main closure mechanism 383.The main joint 382 is shown to be generally intermediate front and back sides of the bag 310 so that, once the main closure mechanism 383 is released, the bag 310 can be opened into two roughly equal halves (defined by the rearward shell portion 330 and the forward shell portion 332).\",\n \"Furthermore, the main closure mechanism 383 is shown to be generally spaced apart from the lid closure mechanism 354, which can help to reduce confusion between the main zipper 385 and the lid zipper 355.A hinge (not shown) can also be provided to connect the shell portions 330, 332 together.\",\n \"With continued reference to FIGS.\",\n \"13 and 14, an expansion section 362 is shown to be connected to an inner edge of the forward shell portion 332 and a forward edge of the main joint 382.In the example illustrated, the expansion section 362 includes an expansion zipper 368, which, when released, increases space between the inner edge of the forward shell portion 332 and the forward edge of the main joint 382, thereby increasing a depth dimension of the bag 310.In the example illustrated, the expansion section 362 is shown to be arranged adjacent to the main joint 382, but generally intermediate front and back sides of the bag 310, so that a center of gravity of the bag 310 can remain generally balanced between the front and back sides once the expansion zipper 368 is released.\",\n \"In some examples, referring again to FIG.\",\n \"16, the bag 310 can include a divider 384, which is shown to be partially detached and rolled up to one side of the storage compartment 334.The divider 384 can be planar and flexible, e.g., formed of a fabric material, and can be shaped to correspond with an interior cross-section of the storage compartment 334.The divider 384 can be releasably suspended in the storage compartment 334, for example, by a divider zipper, which joins edges of the divider 384 to one or more flaps that are fixed to interior side walls of the storage compartment 334.In some examples, a pocket (not shown) can be arranged within the storage compartment 334 for stowing the divider 384 when it is at least partially detached from the one or more flaps.\",\n \"When the divider 384 is attached (e.g., by zipping up the divider zipper), the divider 384 can divide the storage compartment 334 into two substantially separate subcompartments.\",\n \"In the example illustrated, the divider 384 divides the storage compartment into a front subcompartment (accessible through the lid 338), and a rear subcompartment (accessible through the main joint 382).\",\n \"In some examples, a volume of the front subcompartment can be substantially less than a volume of the rear subcompartment.\",\n \"When the divider 384 is detached, as shown in FIG.\",\n \"16, generally the full volume of the storage compartment 334 can be accessible to the user by opening either the lid closure mechanism 354 or the main closure mechanism 383.In the example illustrated, the hinge 356 being arranged on the bottom edge of the access opening 336 can help to reduce the risk of contents falling out of the access opening 336 if the lid 338 is opened while the bag 310 is disposed in an upright position.\",\n \"The bag 310 includes gussets provided alongside edges of the access opening 336.In the example illustrated, the gussets are formed by first members 391 fixed to the lid 338, and second members 393 fixed to the forward shell portion 332 and attached to the first members 391.In some examples, the first and second members 391, 393 can be attached using a hook-and-loop fastener.\",\n \"The first and second members 391, 393 can be configured to maintain the lid 338 in a partially opened position (shown in FIGS.\",\n \"13, 14 and 15), as opposed to a fully opened position (shown in FIG.\",\n \"16), which can also help to reduce the risk of contents falling out of the access opening 336.As illustrated, within the storage compartment 334, the bag 310 can further include at least one interior zippered pocket 390, and one or more restraint straps 392.The bag 310 is shown to include wheels 374 arranged on a bottom side, and some or all of the wheels 374 can be swivel wheels.\",\n \"In the example illustrated, two of the wheels 374 are fixed to the rearward shell portion 330, and two of the wheels 374 are fixed to the forward shell portion 332.The bag 310 is also shown to include a top handle 394, a retractable handle 376, and a side handle 378.While the above description provides examples of one or more apparatuses or methods, it will be appreciated that other apparatuses or methods may be within the scope of the accompanying claims.\"\n ]\n]"},"source":{"kind":"string","value":"Patent_15875338"}}},{"rowIdx":4494858,"cells":{"text":{"kind":"list like","value":[["TISSUE STOP FOR SURGICAL INSTRUMENT","A surgical instrument for surgically joining a tissue includes a handle assembly, an elongate portion extending distally from the handle assembly, a pair of opposed jaw members, and a tissue stop.","The tissue stop is mechanically engaged with a first jaw member and is configured to retain the tissue between the jaw members.","The tissue stop is movable between a first position, where a stopping portion of the tissue stop is disposed between a tissue-contacting surface of the first jaw member and a tissue-contacting surface of the second jaw member, and a second position, where the stopping portion is between the tissue-contacting surface of the first jaw member and a lower surface of the first jaw member.","A portion of the tissue stop is made of stamped metal section and a portion of the tissue stop is made of an overmolded plastic section."],["1.","(canceled) 2.A surgical instrument for surgically joining tissue, comprising: a handle assembly; an elongate portion extending from the handle assembly; a pair of opposed jaw members operatively coupled to the elongate portion and extending therefrom; and a tissue stop mechanically coupled to one of the pair of opposed jaw members such that at least a portion of the tissue stop is movable relative to the one of the pair of opposed jaw members and along a tissue contacting surface of the one of the pair of opposed jaw members.","3.The surgical instrument of claim 2, wherein the plane is parallel with a longitudinal axis defined by the elongate portion.","4.The surgical instrument of claim 2, wherein the tissue stop includes a first portion made of stamped metal and a second portion made of plastic overmolded onto the first portion.","5.The surgical instrument of claim 2, wherein the tissue stop includes a stopping portion disposable between a tissue-contacting surface of the one of the pair of opposed jaw members and a tissue-contacting surface of another of the pair of opposed jaw members.","6.The surgical instrument of claim 5, wherein the tissue stop includes a pair of lateral walls.","7.The surgical instrument of claim 6, wherein the stopping portion is disposed on a proximal edge of each of the pair of lateral walls.","8.The surgical instrument of claim 2, wherein the tissue stop includes a distal portion pivotably engaged with the one of the pair of opposed jaw members.","9.The surgical instrument according to claim 2, wherein the tissue stop is mechanically coupled to an end of the one of the pair of opposed jaw members 10.A jaw member of a surgical end effector, the jaw member comprising: a curved body having a tissue-contacting surface, the tissue-contacting surface defining a plane; and a tissue stop slidably coupled to the curved body such that at least a portion of the tissue stop is slidable along the plane of the tissue-contacting surface of the curved body.","11.The jaw member of claim 10, wherein the plane extends along a length of the curved body.","12.The jaw member of claim 10, wherein the tissue stop includes a stopping portion disposable on a tissue-contacting surface of the curved body.","13.The jaw member of claim 12, wherein the tissue stop includes a pair of lateral walls.","14.The jaw member of claim 13, wherein the stopping portion is disposed on a proximal edge of each of the pair of lateral walls.","15.The jaw member of claim 10, wherein the tissue stop includes a first portion made of stamped metal and a second portion made of plastic overmolded onto the first portion.","16.The jaw member of claim 10, wherein the tissue stop includes a proximal portion pivotably engaged with the curved body.","17.The jaw member of claim 10, wherein the tissue stop is slidably coupled to an end of the curved body."],[" BACKGROUND "],[" SUMMARY The present disclosure relates to a surgical instrument for surgically joining a tissue is disclosed.","The surgical instrument comprises a handle assembly, an elongate portion, a pair of opposed jaw members, and a tissue stop.","The handle assembly includes a movable handle.","The elongate portion extends distally from the handle assembly and defines a longitudinal axis.","The pair of opposed jaw members are operatively coupled to the elongate portion and extend distally therefrom.","The pair of opposed jaw members includes a first jaw member and a second jaw member.","The tissue stop is mechanically engaged with the first jaw member and is configured to retain the tissue between the pair of opposed jaw members.","The tissue stop is movable between a first position, where a stopping portion of the tissue stop is disposed between a tissue-contacting surface of the first jaw member and a tissue-contacting surface of the second jaw member, and a second position, where the stopping portion is between the tissue-contacting surface of the first jaw member and a lower surface of the first jaw member.","A portion of the tissue stop is made of stamped metal section and a portion of the tissue stop is made of an overmolded plastic section.","In disclosed embodiments, the stopping portion of the tissue stop includes a scalloped portion.","In disclosed embodiment, the scalloped portion of the tissue stop includes a plurality of spaced-apart semi-circular indents.","In disclosed embodiments, the tissue stop includes a pair of lateral walls.","In disclosed embodiments, the stopping portion is disposed on a proximal edge of each lateral wall.","The present disclosure also relates to a loading unit configured for releasable engagement with a surgical instrument.","The loading unit comprises a body portion, a pair of jaw members, and a tissue stop.","The body portion defines a longitudinal axis and includes a proximal portion configured for releasable engagement with an elongate portion of the surgical instrument.","The pair of jaw members extends distally from the body portion.","At least one of the jaw members is movable with respect to the other between an open position and an approximated position engaging a body tissue therebetween.","The pair of jaw members includes a first jaw member and a second jaw member.","The tissue stop is mechanically engaged with the first jaw member and is configured to retain the tissue between the pair of opposed jaw members.","The tissue stop is movable between a first position, where a stopping portion of the tissue stop is disposed between a tissue-contacting surface of the first jaw member and a tissue-contacting surface of the second jaw member, and a second position, where the stopping portion is between the tissue-contacting surface of the first jaw member and a lower surface of the first jaw member.","A portion of the tissue stop is made of stamped metal section and a portion of the tissue stop is made of an overmolded plastic section.","In disclosed embodiments, the stopping portion of the tissue stop of the loading unit includes a scalloped portion.","In disclosed embodiment, the scalloped portion of the tissue stop includes a plurality of spaced-apart semi-circular indents.","In disclosed embodiments, the tissue stop of the loading unit includes a pair of lateral walls.","In disclosed embodiments, the stopping portion is disposed on a proximal edge of each lateral wall.","The present disclosure also relates to a tissue stop for use with a surgical instrument.","The tissue stop comprises a stamped metal portion and an overmolded plastic portion.","The tissue stop is mechanically engaged with a jaw member of the surgical instrument and is configured to retain the tissue between opposed jaw members of the surgical instrument.","In disclosed embodiments, the tissue stop includes a pair of lateral walls.","In disclosed embodiments, a stopping portion is disposed on a proximal edge of each lateral wall.","In disclosed embodiments, the stopping portion includes a scalloped portion.","In disclosed embodiments, the scalloped portion of the tissue stop includes a plurality of spaced-apart semi-circular indents."],["CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION This is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser.","No.","14/493,483, filed Sep. 23, 2014, which is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser.","No.","13/208,447, filed on Aug. 12, 2011 (now U.S. Pat.","No.","8,899,461), which claims priority to, and the benefit of, U.S.","Provisional Patent Application Ser.","No.","61/388,650, filed on Oct. 1, 2010, the entire contents of each of which is incorporated herein by reference.","BACKGROUND Technical Field The present disclosure relates generally to surgical instruments and, more specifically, to surgical instruments for surgically joining tissue.","Background of Related Art Surgical stapling instruments used for applying parallel rows of staples through compressed living tissue are well known in the art.","These surgical instruments are commonly employed for closing tissue or organs prior to transaction or resection, for occluding organs in thoracic and abdominal procedures, and for fastening tissue in anastomoses.","Typically, such surgical stapling instruments include an anvil assembly, a cartridge assembly for supporting an array of surgical staples, an approximation mechanism for approximating the anvil and cartridge and anvil assemblies, and a firing mechanism for ejecting the surgical staples from the cartridge assembly.","In use, a surgeon generally initially approximates the anvil and cartridge members.","Next, the surgeon can fire the instrument to place staples in tissue.","Additionally, the surgeon may use the same instrument or a separate instrument to cut the tissue adjacent or between the row(s) of staples.","In certain surgical stapling instruments, the instrument sequentially ejects the staples from the staple cartridge while the anvil and cartridge are approximated.","The staples are driven through the tissue and formed against the anvil.","SUMMARY The present disclosure relates to a surgical instrument for surgically joining a tissue is disclosed.","The surgical instrument comprises a handle assembly, an elongate portion, a pair of opposed jaw members, and a tissue stop.","The handle assembly includes a movable handle.","The elongate portion extends distally from the handle assembly and defines a longitudinal axis.","The pair of opposed jaw members are operatively coupled to the elongate portion and extend distally therefrom.","The pair of opposed jaw members includes a first jaw member and a second jaw member.","The tissue stop is mechanically engaged with the first jaw member and is configured to retain the tissue between the pair of opposed jaw members.","The tissue stop is movable between a first position, where a stopping portion of the tissue stop is disposed between a tissue-contacting surface of the first jaw member and a tissue-contacting surface of the second jaw member, and a second position, where the stopping portion is between the tissue-contacting surface of the first jaw member and a lower surface of the first jaw member.","A portion of the tissue stop is made of stamped metal section and a portion of the tissue stop is made of an overmolded plastic section.","In disclosed embodiments, the stopping portion of the tissue stop includes a scalloped portion.","In disclosed embodiment, the scalloped portion of the tissue stop includes a plurality of spaced-apart semi-circular indents.","In disclosed embodiments, the tissue stop includes a pair of lateral walls.","In disclosed embodiments, the stopping portion is disposed on a proximal edge of each lateral wall.","The present disclosure also relates to a loading unit configured for releasable engagement with a surgical instrument.","The loading unit comprises a body portion, a pair of jaw members, and a tissue stop.","The body portion defines a longitudinal axis and includes a proximal portion configured for releasable engagement with an elongate portion of the surgical instrument.","The pair of jaw members extends distally from the body portion.","At least one of the jaw members is movable with respect to the other between an open position and an approximated position engaging a body tissue therebetween.","The pair of jaw members includes a first jaw member and a second jaw member.","The tissue stop is mechanically engaged with the first jaw member and is configured to retain the tissue between the pair of opposed jaw members.","The tissue stop is movable between a first position, where a stopping portion of the tissue stop is disposed between a tissue-contacting surface of the first jaw member and a tissue-contacting surface of the second jaw member, and a second position, where the stopping portion is between the tissue-contacting surface of the first jaw member and a lower surface of the first jaw member.","A portion of the tissue stop is made of stamped metal section and a portion of the tissue stop is made of an overmolded plastic section.","In disclosed embodiments, the stopping portion of the tissue stop of the loading unit includes a scalloped portion.","In disclosed embodiment, the scalloped portion of the tissue stop includes a plurality of spaced-apart semi-circular indents.","In disclosed embodiments, the tissue stop of the loading unit includes a pair of lateral walls.","In disclosed embodiments, the stopping portion is disposed on a proximal edge of each lateral wall.","The present disclosure also relates to a tissue stop for use with a surgical instrument.","The tissue stop comprises a stamped metal portion and an overmolded plastic portion.","The tissue stop is mechanically engaged with a jaw member of the surgical instrument and is configured to retain the tissue between opposed jaw members of the surgical instrument.","In disclosed embodiments, the tissue stop includes a pair of lateral walls.","In disclosed embodiments, a stopping portion is disposed on a proximal edge of each lateral wall.","In disclosed embodiments, the stopping portion includes a scalloped portion.","In disclosed embodiments, the scalloped portion of the tissue stop includes a plurality of spaced-apart semi-circular indents.","BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF FIGURES Various embodiments of the presently disclosed surgical instrument are disclosed herein with reference to the drawings, wherein: FIG.","1 is a perspective view of a surgical instrument in accordance with the present disclosure; FIG.","2 is a perspective view of a loading unit of the surgical instrument of FIG.","1; FIG.","3 is a perspective view of the area of detail of FIG.","2 illustrating a tissue stop; FIG.","4 is a perspective exploded view of a distal portion of a jaw member of the surgical instrument including the tissue stop of FIG.","3; FIG.","5 is a longitudinal cross-sectional view of the tissue stop mechanically engaged with the jaw members of the surgical instrument; FIG.","6 is a side view of a portion of the jaw members and the tissue stop prior to insertion of tissue; FIGS.","7-9 are longitudinal cross-sectional views of a portion of jaw members and a tissue stop interacting with the tissue at various stages of operation in accordance with another embodiment of the present disclosure; FIG.","10 is a perspective assembly view of a loading unit in accordance with another embodiment of the present disclosure; FIGS.","11 and 12 are perspective views of a tissue stop including a stamped metal portion and an overmolded plastic portion for use with the surgical instrument of FIG.","1 in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure; FIG.","13 is a perspective view of a stamped metal portion of the tissue stop of FIGS.","11 and 12; and FIGS.","14-17 are various views of the stamped metal portion of the tissue stop of FIGS.","11 and 12.DETAILED DESCRIPTION Embodiments of the presently disclosed surgical instrument are described in detail with reference to the drawings, wherein like reference numerals designate similar or identical elements in each of the several views.","In the drawings and the description that follows, the term “proximal” refers to the end of the surgical instrument that is closest to the operator, whereas the term “distal” refers to the end of the surgical instrument that is farthest from the operator.","As appreciated by one skilled in the art, the depicted surgical instrument fires staples, but it may be adapted to fire any other suitable fastener such as clips and two-part fasteners.","Additionally, the disclosed tissue stop may be used with an electrosurgical forceps.","Further details of electrosurgical forceps are described in commonly-owned patent application Ser.","No.","10/369,894, filed on Feb. 20, 2003, entitled VESSEL SEALER AND DIVIDER AND METHOD OF MANUFACTURING THE SAME, the entire contents of which are hereby incorporated by reference herein.","With reference to FIG.","1, reference numeral 100 designates an embodiment of the presently disclosed surgical instrument.","In the interest of brevity, the present disclosure focuses on an end effector and a tissue stop of surgical instrument 100.U.S.","Pat.","No.","8,033,442, filed on Nov. 28, 2007; U.S. Pat.","No.","8,393,513, filed on Jan. 9, 2008; U.S. Pat.","No.","7,568,604, filed on Jan. 24, 2008; U.S. Pat.","No.","7,565,993, filed on Oct. 15, 2007; and U.S. Patent Application Publication No.","2007/0187456, filed on Apr.","10, 2007, the entire contents of each of which is hereby incorporated by reference herein, describe in detail the structure and operation of other surgical fastening assemblies.","Surgical instrument 100 disclosed in the illustrated embodiments is configured to clamp, fasten, and/or cut tissue.","In general, surgical instrument 100 includes a handle assembly 110, an elongate portion 120 extending distally from handle assembly 110 and defining a longitudinal axis “A-A,” and a loading unit 180 (collectively referring to a single use loading unit (“SULU”) and a disposable loading unit (“DLU”)), as shown in FIG.","1.With reference to FIG.","2, loading unit 180 includes a proximal body portion 156, and a tool assembly 150.Proximal body portion 156 is configured to releasably attach to elongate portion 120 of surgical instrument 100 using a variety of attachment features, such as, for example, a bayonet coupling, latch, detent or snap-fit.","In other embodiments, the instrument has jaws that are permanently attached to the elongate portion, and a replaceable cartridge, such as a staple cartridge, can be loaded, removed and reloaded in one of the jaws.","Tool assembly 150 includes end effector 154 and a tissue stop 170.End effector 154, which is disposed adjacent distal portion 124 of body portion 156, includes a first jaw member 130 and a second jaw member 140.As shown in FIGS.","1 and 2, each of first and second jaw members 130, 140 is longitudinally curved with respect to the longitudinal axis “A-A.” The curved jaw members, as compared to straight jaw members, may help facilitate access to lower pelvic regions, e.g., during lower anterior resection (“LAR”).","Additionally, the inclusion of curved jaw members may allow increased visualization to a surgical site and may also allow more room for a surgeon to manipulate target tissue or the jaw members themselves with his or her hand.","While the illustrated embodiment depict the jaw members as being curved, it is envisioned and within the scope of the present disclosure that the tissue stop 170 may be used with linear jaw members.","At least one of the jaw members 130, 140 is adapted to move relative to the other jaw member (130 or 140) between spaced and approximated positions.","In the illustrated embodiment, first jaw member 130 contains a cartridge assembly 132, and second jaw member 140 includes an anvil assembly 142.Cartridge assembly 132 moves with respect to anvil assembly 142 between spaced and approximated positions upon actuation of a movable handle 112, for example.","While cartridge assembly 132 is shown as pivotally movable with respect to anvil assembly 142, anvil assembly 142 may be pivotally mounted with respect to the cartridge assembly 132.Handle assembly 110 includes a stationary handle 114 and movable handle 112.Movable handle 112 is adapted to move pivotally towards or away from stationary handle 114.Further, movable handle 112 is operatively connected to anvil assembly 142 through a mechanism adapted to convert at least a partial actuation of movable handle 112 into a pivoting motion of at least one of cartridge assembly 132 and anvil assembly 142 between spaced and approximated positions.","As recognized by one skilled in the art, any conventional actuation mechanism may be employed to operatively couple movable handle 112 to tool assembly 150.With reference to FIG.","2, cartridge assembly 132 has a tissue-contacting surface 134 and a plurality of fastener retaining slots 136.Tissue-contacting surface 134 generally faces anvil assembly 142 and, during operation, engages tissue when the anvil assembly 142 is approximated with cartridge assembly 132.Fastener retaining slots 136 are arranged in rows along tissue contacting surface 134 and each fastener retaining slot 136 is adapted to releasably hold a fastener (not shown).","For example, when movable handle 112 is pivoted toward stationary handle 114, the fasteners are ejected from fastener retaining slots 136 and move towards anvil assembly 142.Cartridge assembly 132 also includes a knife channel 138 (FIG.","3) adapted to slidably receive a knife (not shown) or any other suitable cutting tool.","Knife channel 138 is defined in the staple cartridge, is disposed between rows of fastener retaining slots 136, and extends along tissue-contacting surface 134.In operation, the knife slides through the knife channel 138 when movable handle 112 pivots towards stationary handle 114.Alternatively, other mechanisms can be used to drive the knife through knife channel 138.In disclosed embodiments, handle assembly 110 contains an actuation mechanism for deploying the fasteners from fastener retaining slots 136 and advancing a knife along knife channel 138.This actuation mechanism includes a firing rod (not shown) operatively connected to movable handle 112.In operation, pivoting movable handle 112 toward stationary handle 114 causes firing rod to advance distally.","Firing rod is in turn operatively coupled to an axial drive assembly at least partially positioned within tool assembly 150.Axial drive assembly is configured to move distally in response to a distal translation of firing rod.","The axial drive assembly includes a drive beam that incorporates the knife, an upper member, and a lower member.","As the upper member of the drive beam engages the anvil assembly and the lower member of the drive beam engages the cartridge assembly, the distal translation of axial drive assembly causes the anvil assembly 142 to pivot toward the cartridge assembly 132.In addition, the axial drive assembly pushes an actuation sled disposed within the cartridge assembly 132 in a distal direction, while the actuation sled translates distally through end effector 154.As the actuation sled advances distally through the cartridge assembly 132, this actuation sled urges the fasteners out of the fastener retaining slots 136.In certain embodiments, axial drive assembly includes a knife or blade mounted on a distal portion thereof.","In operation, the drive beam, including the knife, moves through the knife channel 138 when axial drive assembly moves distally through end effector 154.Further details of an endoscopic surgical stapling instrument are described in detail in commonly-owned U.S. Pat.","No.","6,953,139 to Milliman et al., the entire contents of which are hereby incorporated by reference herein.","However, it is also envisioned that other methods of approximating the jaw members are also usable, including sliding a clamp bar (not shown).","Other methods of ejecting the fasteners are contemplated, such as cam bars, are contemplated.","With reference to FIGS.","3 and 4, tissue stop 170 is movably disposed at least partially within a recess 164 defined in a distal portion of jaw member 130.The term “distal” typically refers to that part or component of the instrument that is farther away from the user.","As used herein, the terms “distal” and “proximal” will take into account the curvature of curved parts of the surgical instrument of the present disclosure.","For example, “distal” will refer to the portion of the curved part that is farthest from the user, along a trajectory defined by the curved part.","That is, while an intermediate portion of a curved part may be farther from the user during use, the portion of the curved part that is farthest along its longitudinal axis is considered “distal.” The distal portion of jaw member 130 defines recess 164 and includes a proximal wall 165, a pair of side walls 166, 168 and a lower surface 169.Tissue stop 170 includes a body 172 having an upper, tissue-contacting surface 174, a pair of lateral walls 176, 178, and a stopping portion 182 configured and adapted to engage tissue (e.g., tissue that is distally directed from between the jaw members).","A pair of camming pins, including a proximal camming pin 184 and a distal camming pin 186, is also disclosed.","Each camming pin 184, 186 is configured to extend transversely through both lateral walls 176, 178 of body 172.Proximal camming pin 184 is configured to extend through a first pair of holes 177 of body 172 (only a single hole 177 is shown on lateral wall 176; the hole that is disposed through lateral wall 178 is not visible in FIG.","4), and is configured to engage a pair of proximal cam slots 196, which extend at least partially through each side wall 166, 168 of recess 164.Distal camming pin 186 is configured extend through a second pair of holes 179 of body 172 (only a single hole 179 is shown on lateral wall 176; the hole that is disposed through lateral wall 178 is not visible in FIG.","4), and is configured to engage a pair of distal cam slots 198, which extend at least partially through each side wall 166, 168 of recess 164.As can be appreciated, the engagement between camming pins 184, 186, jaw member 130, and tissue stop 170 movably secure tissue stop 170 to jaw member 130.In the illustrated embodiments, distal cam slots 198 are substantially parallel to tissue-contacting surface 134 of jaw member 130, and proximal cam slots 196 form an angle with respect to tissue-contacting surface 134 of jaw member 130.It is envisioned that proximal cam slots 196 include at least one curved portion, at least one linear portion, or combinations of at least one curved and at least one linear portion.","The illustrated configuration of cam slots 196, 198 allows tissue stopping portion 182 to be movable in and out of recess 164 adjacent proximal wall 165 with a reduced clearance gap “G” therebetween (see FIG.","5).","It is also envisioned that gap “G” may be minimized at every moment when tissue stop 170 moves from the first position to the second position.","Other cam arrangements can be used to connect the tissue stop to the jaw.","The cam can be shaped to maximize the height of the tissue stop when the tissue stop is extended from the jaw (the first position) and/or minimize the space within the jaw occupied by the tissue stop when the tissue stop is in the retracted, second position.","As shown in FIG.","5, tissue stop 170 also includes a biasing member 173.Biasing member 173 is configured to mechanically engage camming pin 186 and to mechanically engage a support pin 158 that extends through an opening 190 (see FIG.","4) on each side wall 166, 168 of jaw member 130.However, it is also contemplated that any other retaining member, such as, for example, a post, may replace support pin 158 to retain one end of biasing member 173.Biasing member 173 urges distal camming pin 186 to its proximal-most position within camming slots 198.In response to the distal camming pin 186 being proximally urged, proximal camming pin 184 is also proximally urged due to the mechanical relationship between camming pins 184, 186, biasing member 173, and tissue stop 170.When camming pins 184, 186 are in their proximal-most positions within camming slots 196, 198, respectively, tissue stop 170 is located in a first position, in which stopping portion 182 is exposed and extends at least partially out of recess 164, i.e., disposed between tissue-contacting surfaces 134, 135 of cartridge and anvil assemblies 132, 142, respectively (see FIG.","5, for example).","Tissue stop 170 is movable between the first position, as shown in FIG.","5, and a second position, as illustrated in FIG.","8.In the first position which corresponds to when jaw members 130, 140 are in an open position, at least a portion (e.g., a majority, or the entire portion) of stopping portion 182 is exposed out of recess 164.The approximation of the jaw members 130, 140 causes tissue stop 170 to move towards its second position.","That is, as one jaw member (e.g., jaw member 140) moves towards the other jaw member (e.g., jaw member 130), tissue-contacting surface 135 contacts tissue-contacting surface 174 of tissue stop 170, and physically urges tissue stop 170 towards its second position against the bias of biasing member 173.In the second position which corresponds to when jaw members 130, 140 are in the approximated position, a majority (e.g., the entirety) of stopping portion 182 is disposed within recess 164.In this embodiment, when tissue stop 170 is disposed in the first position, stopping portion 182 is orthogonally disposed (e.g., substantially perpendicular) relative to tissue-contacting surface 134.As can be appreciated, such an orientation may help impede tissue from distally escaping tool assembly 150.In other embodiments, the instrument can include an actuator that is connected to the tissue stop so that the user can move the tissue stop between the first and second positions by manipulating a button or lever.","Such actuator may also include a lock and/or latch for locking the position of the tissue stop.","In use, a surgeon initially positions surgical stapling instrument 100 adjacent a target tissue as shown in FIG.","6.Here, tissue stop 170 is in the first position where the jaw members 130, 140 are in an open position and at least a portion of stopping portion 182 is exposed out of recess 164.Then tissue “T” is introduced into tool assembly 150, between jaw members 130, 140.The angle defined by upper tissue-contacting surface 174 of tissue stop 170 facilitates introduction of tissue “T” into tool assembly 150 in the general direction of arrow “B,” as seen in FIG.","6.As tissue “T” is proximally inserted into tool assembly 150, tissue “T” comes into contact with tissue stop 170 and may force at least a portion of stopping portion 182 into recess 164 in the general direction of arrow “C” as shown in FIG.","7.In certain embodiments, the tissue stop has a sloped surface facing the open end of the jaws to encourage the tissue to move the tissue stop.","Alternatively, tissue “T” may be proximally inserted between the jaw members 130, 140 by moving in the space between the tissue-contacting surface 135 of jaw member 140 and tissue-contacting surface 174 of tissue stop 170 without necessarily contacting stop member 170.When moved towards its second position, tissue stopping portion 182 moves in the general direction of arrow “C” (FIG.","7).","As tissue stopping portion 182 is translated in the general direction of arrow “C,” distal camming pin 186 distally translates along distal camming slot 198 in the general direction of arrow “E” (FIG.","7), while proximal camming pin 184 slides distally along proximal camming slot 184 in the general direction of arrow “D” (FIG.","7).","After the surgeon has placed at least a portion of tissue “T” between jaw members 130, 140, the surgeon can actuate an approximation mechanism, e.g., by pivoting movable handle 112 towards stationary handle 114 to approximate anvil assembly 142 towards cartridge assembly 132, to capture tissue “T” between tissue-contacting surfaces 134, 135 as shown in FIG.","8.Here, a proximal portion of tissue-contacting surface 174 of tissue stop 170 is substantially flush with tissue-contacting surface 134 of cartridge assembly 132, and anvil assembly 142 exerts a force against stop member 170 (through tissue “T”) toward recess 164.In response to the force exerted by the anvil assembly 142 on tissue stop 170, camming pin 186 translates farther distally along camming slot 198 in the general direction of arrow “E” until the camming pin 186 is in the distal-most portion of camming slot 198.Additionally, camming pin 184 slides farther distally along camming slot 196 in the general direction of arrow “H” (FIG.","8) until camming pin 184 reaches the distal-most portion of camming slot 196, against the bias of biasing member 173.Tissue “T” is now interposed between jaw members 130, 140 and may be pushed farther proximally by surgeon in the general direction of arrow “F” (FIGS.","7-9).","As a distal end of tissue “T” is pushed proximally of tissue stop 170 in the general direction of “F,” the biasing force exerted by biasing member 173 pushes tissue stop 170 in the general direction of arrow “I,” towards (and possibly against) tissue-contacting surface 135 of anvil assembly 142.Here, camming pins 184, 186 have moved proximally along camming slots 196, 198, respectively, proportional to the thickness of tissue “T.” In the embodiment illustrated in FIG.","9, tissue stop 170 is in contact with tissue-contacting surface 135 and is located distally of tissue “T,” thereby impeding or preventing any distal escape of tissue “T.” At this time, the surgeon may perform a surgical procedure on tissue “T,” e.g., staple, seal and/or cut tissue “T.” After performing the surgical procedure, jaw member 140 is moved away from jaw member 130, and tissue stop 170 returns to its first position in response to the biasing force.","With reference to FIG.","10, a loading unit 500 in accordance with another embodiment of the present disclosure is illustrated.","Loading unit 500 includes a proximal body portion 556 and a tool assembly 550.Proximal body potion 556 is releasably attachable to a distal end of elongate portion 120.Tool assembly 550 includes a pair of jaw members including an anvil assembly 542 and a cartridge assembly 532.In particular, cartridge assembly 532 is pivotal in relation to anvil assembly and is movable between an open or unclamped position and a closed or approximated position.","Anvil assembly 542 includes a longitudinally curved anvil cover 543 and a longitudinally curved anvil plate 544, which defines a plurality of staple forming depressions.","When tool assembly 550 is in the approximated position, staple forming depressions are positioned in juxtaposed alignment with cartridge assembly 532.Cartridge assembly 532 includes a longitudinally curved carrier 537, which receives a longitudinally curved cartridge 518 via, for example, a snap-fit connection.","Cartridge 518 includes a pair of support struts 519 which rest on sidewalls 539 of carrier 537 to stabilize cartridge 518 on carrier 537.An external surface of carrier 537 includes an angled cam surface 516a.","Cartridge 518 defines a plurality of laterally spaced staple retention slots 536.Each slot 536 is configured to receive a staple 630 therein.","Cartridge 518 includes a central longitudinally curved slot 538.As an actuation sled 541 moves through cartridge 518, cam wedges 541a of actuation sled 541 sequentially engage pushers 632 to move pushers 632 vertically within staple retention slots 536 and eject staples 630 into staple forming depressions of anvil plate 544.Subsequent to the ejection of staples 630 from retention slots 536, a cutting edge 606a of dynamic clamping member 606 severs the stapled tissue as cutting edge 606a travels through curved slot 538 of cartridge 518.With continued reference to FIG.","10, proximal body portion 556 includes an inner body 503 formed from molded half-sections 503a and 503b and a drive assembly 560.Proximal body portion 556 is coupled to tool assembly 550 by a mounting assembly 570.Mounting assembly 570 has a pair of extensions 576 which extend into a proximal end of carrier 537.Each extension 576 has a transverse bore 578 which is aligned with holes 516A of carrier 539 such that mounting assembly 570 is pivotally secured to cartridge 518 with carrier 539.Mounting assembly 570 is fixedly secured to half-section 503a by a pair of vertical protrusions 584.Vertical protrusions 584 extend upwardly from mounting assembly 570 and frictionally fit into corresponding recesses in half-section 503a.","Anvil cover 543 includes a proximally extending finger 588 having a pair of cutouts 589 formed therein.","Cutouts 589 are positioned on each lateral side of finger 588 to help secure anvil cover to half-section 503a.","Half-section 503a includes a channel 505 that includes a pair of protrusions 505a.","Finger 588 of anvil cover mechanically engages channel 505 of half-section 503a, such that cutouts 589 are aligned with protrusions 505a.","An outer sleeve 602 covers the finger 588 and channel 505.The configuration of finger 588 and channel 505 facilitates a secure connection between anvil cover 543 and half-section 503a.","Moreover, this connection results in a non-movable (e.g., non-pivotable) anvil assembly 542 with respect to proximal body portion 556.Drive assembly 560 includes a flexible drive beam 604 which is constructed from three stacked metallic sheets 604a-c and a proximal engagement portion 608.At least a portion of drive beam 604 is sufficiently flexible to be advanced through the curvature of the tool assembly 550.Drive beam 604 has a distal end which is secured to a dynamic clamping member 606.Dynamic clamping member 606 includes a knife or cutting edge 606a at a distal face of vertical strut 606d.","Loading unit 500 includes a tissue stop 770 movably disposed at least partially within a recess 764 defined in a distal portion of cartridge 518.Recess 764 is defined by a proximal wall 765, a pair of side walls 766, 768 and a lower surface.","Tissue stop 770 includes a body 772 having an upper, tissue-contacting surface, a pair of lateral walls and a stopping portion 782 configured and adapted to engage tissue.","A proximal camming pin 758 and a distal camming pin 786 are each configured to extend transversely through both lateral walls 766, 768 of body 772.Proximal camming pin 758 is configured to extend through a first through hole 777 of body 772, and is configured to engage a pair of proximal cam slots 796, which extend at least partially through each side wall 766, 768.Distal camming pin 786 is configured to extend through a second through hole 779 of body 772, and is configured to engage a pair of distal cam slots 798, which extend at least partially through each side wall 766, 768.It is also contemplated that at least one 796, 798 is only defined in one of the side walls 766, 768.Tissue stop 770 also includes a biasing member 773.Biasing member 773 is configured to mechanically engage camming pin 786 and to mechanically engage a support pin 784 that extends through an opening 790 (see FIG.","4) on each side wall 766, 768 of cartridge assembly 532.Biasing member 773 urges distal camming pin 786 to its proximal-most position within camming slots 798.In response to the urging of distal camming pin 786 in the proximal direction, proximal camming pin 758 is also proximally urged due to the mechanical relationship between camming pins 758, 786, biasing member 773, and tissue stop 770.When camming pins 758, 786 are in their proximal-most positions within camming slots 796, 798, respectively, stopping portion 782 is exposed and extends at least partially out of recess 764.The operation of loading unit 500 is substantially similar to those described above and will be omitted in the interest of brevity.","With reference to FIGS.","11-17, a tissue stop 1000 in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure is illustrated.","Tissue stop 1000 is made of two parts: a stamped metal section 1100 and an overmolded plastic section 1200.The stamped metal section 1100 is illustrated in FIGS.","13-17, and the overmolded plastic section 1200, which at least partially covers the stamped metal section 1100, is illustrated in FIGS.","11-12.The multiple piece design of the tissue stop 1000 provides the strength of the metal while allowing complex geometries that are suitable for plastic injection molding.","While particular portions of tissue stop 1000 are shown being made from stamped metal, it is envisioned and within the scope of the present disclosure that the stamped metal portion 1100 can include a greater or lesser portion of the entire tissue stop 1000.Likewise, the overmolded plastic section 1200 may also include a greater or lesser portion of the entire tissue stop 1000 than what is illustrated.","Tissue stop 1000 includes a body 1010 having an upper, tissue-contacting surface 1020, a pair of lateral walls 1030, 1040, and a stopping portion 1050 configured and adapted to engage tissue (e.g., tissue that is distally directed from between the jaw members).","Stopping portion 1050 of tissue stop 1000 includes a scalloped portion 1060 including a plurality of spaced-apart semi-circular indents.","More specifically, scalloped portion 1060 is disposed on a proximal edge of each lateral wall 1030, 1040.As can be appreciated, scalloped portion 1060 is configured to help prevent tissue from sliding with respect to tissue stop 1000.Tissue stop 1000 is usable with the camming pins 184, 186, as discussed above with reference to tissue stop 170, and tissue stop 1000 may also include a pivoting protrusion 1400 extending transversely from body 1010, as shown in FIGS.","11 and 12.Pivoting protrusion 1400 is configured to pivotably engage a portion of the cartridge assembly to enable pivotal movement therebetween.","Additionally, in disclosed embodiments, the surgical instrument 100 and loading unit 180 described in connection with FIGS.","1 through 10 includes the stamped/molded tissue stop 1000.It will be understood that various modifications may be made to the embodiments of the presently disclosed surgical instruments.","Therefore, the above description should not be construed as limiting, but merely as exemplifications of embodiments.","Those skilled in the art will envision other modifications within the scope and spirit of the present disclosure."]],"string":"[\n [\n \"TISSUE STOP FOR SURGICAL INSTRUMENT\",\n \"A surgical instrument for surgically joining a tissue includes a handle assembly, an elongate portion extending distally from the handle assembly, a pair of opposed jaw members, and a tissue stop.\",\n \"The tissue stop is mechanically engaged with a first jaw member and is configured to retain the tissue between the jaw members.\",\n \"The tissue stop is movable between a first position, where a stopping portion of the tissue stop is disposed between a tissue-contacting surface of the first jaw member and a tissue-contacting surface of the second jaw member, and a second position, where the stopping portion is between the tissue-contacting surface of the first jaw member and a lower surface of the first jaw member.\",\n \"A portion of the tissue stop is made of stamped metal section and a portion of the tissue stop is made of an overmolded plastic section.\"\n ],\n [\n \"1.\",\n \"(canceled) 2.A surgical instrument for surgically joining tissue, comprising: a handle assembly; an elongate portion extending from the handle assembly; a pair of opposed jaw members operatively coupled to the elongate portion and extending therefrom; and a tissue stop mechanically coupled to one of the pair of opposed jaw members such that at least a portion of the tissue stop is movable relative to the one of the pair of opposed jaw members and along a tissue contacting surface of the one of the pair of opposed jaw members.\",\n \"3.The surgical instrument of claim 2, wherein the plane is parallel with a longitudinal axis defined by the elongate portion.\",\n \"4.The surgical instrument of claim 2, wherein the tissue stop includes a first portion made of stamped metal and a second portion made of plastic overmolded onto the first portion.\",\n \"5.The surgical instrument of claim 2, wherein the tissue stop includes a stopping portion disposable between a tissue-contacting surface of the one of the pair of opposed jaw members and a tissue-contacting surface of another of the pair of opposed jaw members.\",\n \"6.The surgical instrument of claim 5, wherein the tissue stop includes a pair of lateral walls.\",\n \"7.The surgical instrument of claim 6, wherein the stopping portion is disposed on a proximal edge of each of the pair of lateral walls.\",\n \"8.The surgical instrument of claim 2, wherein the tissue stop includes a distal portion pivotably engaged with the one of the pair of opposed jaw members.\",\n \"9.The surgical instrument according to claim 2, wherein the tissue stop is mechanically coupled to an end of the one of the pair of opposed jaw members 10.A jaw member of a surgical end effector, the jaw member comprising: a curved body having a tissue-contacting surface, the tissue-contacting surface defining a plane; and a tissue stop slidably coupled to the curved body such that at least a portion of the tissue stop is slidable along the plane of the tissue-contacting surface of the curved body.\",\n \"11.The jaw member of claim 10, wherein the plane extends along a length of the curved body.\",\n \"12.The jaw member of claim 10, wherein the tissue stop includes a stopping portion disposable on a tissue-contacting surface of the curved body.\",\n \"13.The jaw member of claim 12, wherein the tissue stop includes a pair of lateral walls.\",\n \"14.The jaw member of claim 13, wherein the stopping portion is disposed on a proximal edge of each of the pair of lateral walls.\",\n \"15.The jaw member of claim 10, wherein the tissue stop includes a first portion made of stamped metal and a second portion made of plastic overmolded onto the first portion.\",\n \"16.The jaw member of claim 10, wherein the tissue stop includes a proximal portion pivotably engaged with the curved body.\",\n \"17.The jaw member of claim 10, wherein the tissue stop is slidably coupled to an end of the curved body.\"\n ],\n [\n \" BACKGROUND \"\n ],\n [\n \" SUMMARY The present disclosure relates to a surgical instrument for surgically joining a tissue is disclosed.\",\n \"The surgical instrument comprises a handle assembly, an elongate portion, a pair of opposed jaw members, and a tissue stop.\",\n \"The handle assembly includes a movable handle.\",\n \"The elongate portion extends distally from the handle assembly and defines a longitudinal axis.\",\n \"The pair of opposed jaw members are operatively coupled to the elongate portion and extend distally therefrom.\",\n \"The pair of opposed jaw members includes a first jaw member and a second jaw member.\",\n \"The tissue stop is mechanically engaged with the first jaw member and is configured to retain the tissue between the pair of opposed jaw members.\",\n \"The tissue stop is movable between a first position, where a stopping portion of the tissue stop is disposed between a tissue-contacting surface of the first jaw member and a tissue-contacting surface of the second jaw member, and a second position, where the stopping portion is between the tissue-contacting surface of the first jaw member and a lower surface of the first jaw member.\",\n \"A portion of the tissue stop is made of stamped metal section and a portion of the tissue stop is made of an overmolded plastic section.\",\n \"In disclosed embodiments, the stopping portion of the tissue stop includes a scalloped portion.\",\n \"In disclosed embodiment, the scalloped portion of the tissue stop includes a plurality of spaced-apart semi-circular indents.\",\n \"In disclosed embodiments, the tissue stop includes a pair of lateral walls.\",\n \"In disclosed embodiments, the stopping portion is disposed on a proximal edge of each lateral wall.\",\n \"The present disclosure also relates to a loading unit configured for releasable engagement with a surgical instrument.\",\n \"The loading unit comprises a body portion, a pair of jaw members, and a tissue stop.\",\n \"The body portion defines a longitudinal axis and includes a proximal portion configured for releasable engagement with an elongate portion of the surgical instrument.\",\n \"The pair of jaw members extends distally from the body portion.\",\n \"At least one of the jaw members is movable with respect to the other between an open position and an approximated position engaging a body tissue therebetween.\",\n \"The pair of jaw members includes a first jaw member and a second jaw member.\",\n \"The tissue stop is mechanically engaged with the first jaw member and is configured to retain the tissue between the pair of opposed jaw members.\",\n \"The tissue stop is movable between a first position, where a stopping portion of the tissue stop is disposed between a tissue-contacting surface of the first jaw member and a tissue-contacting surface of the second jaw member, and a second position, where the stopping portion is between the tissue-contacting surface of the first jaw member and a lower surface of the first jaw member.\",\n \"A portion of the tissue stop is made of stamped metal section and a portion of the tissue stop is made of an overmolded plastic section.\",\n \"In disclosed embodiments, the stopping portion of the tissue stop of the loading unit includes a scalloped portion.\",\n \"In disclosed embodiment, the scalloped portion of the tissue stop includes a plurality of spaced-apart semi-circular indents.\",\n \"In disclosed embodiments, the tissue stop of the loading unit includes a pair of lateral walls.\",\n \"In disclosed embodiments, the stopping portion is disposed on a proximal edge of each lateral wall.\",\n \"The present disclosure also relates to a tissue stop for use with a surgical instrument.\",\n \"The tissue stop comprises a stamped metal portion and an overmolded plastic portion.\",\n \"The tissue stop is mechanically engaged with a jaw member of the surgical instrument and is configured to retain the tissue between opposed jaw members of the surgical instrument.\",\n \"In disclosed embodiments, the tissue stop includes a pair of lateral walls.\",\n \"In disclosed embodiments, a stopping portion is disposed on a proximal edge of each lateral wall.\",\n \"In disclosed embodiments, the stopping portion includes a scalloped portion.\",\n \"In disclosed embodiments, the scalloped portion of the tissue stop includes a plurality of spaced-apart semi-circular indents.\"\n ],\n [\n \"CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION This is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser.\",\n \"No.\",\n \"14/493,483, filed Sep. 23, 2014, which is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser.\",\n \"No.\",\n \"13/208,447, filed on Aug. 12, 2011 (now U.S. Pat.\",\n \"No.\",\n \"8,899,461), which claims priority to, and the benefit of, U.S.\",\n \"Provisional Patent Application Ser.\",\n \"No.\",\n \"61/388,650, filed on Oct. 1, 2010, the entire contents of each of which is incorporated herein by reference.\",\n \"BACKGROUND Technical Field The present disclosure relates generally to surgical instruments and, more specifically, to surgical instruments for surgically joining tissue.\",\n \"Background of Related Art Surgical stapling instruments used for applying parallel rows of staples through compressed living tissue are well known in the art.\",\n \"These surgical instruments are commonly employed for closing tissue or organs prior to transaction or resection, for occluding organs in thoracic and abdominal procedures, and for fastening tissue in anastomoses.\",\n \"Typically, such surgical stapling instruments include an anvil assembly, a cartridge assembly for supporting an array of surgical staples, an approximation mechanism for approximating the anvil and cartridge and anvil assemblies, and a firing mechanism for ejecting the surgical staples from the cartridge assembly.\",\n \"In use, a surgeon generally initially approximates the anvil and cartridge members.\",\n \"Next, the surgeon can fire the instrument to place staples in tissue.\",\n \"Additionally, the surgeon may use the same instrument or a separate instrument to cut the tissue adjacent or between the row(s) of staples.\",\n \"In certain surgical stapling instruments, the instrument sequentially ejects the staples from the staple cartridge while the anvil and cartridge are approximated.\",\n \"The staples are driven through the tissue and formed against the anvil.\",\n \"SUMMARY The present disclosure relates to a surgical instrument for surgically joining a tissue is disclosed.\",\n \"The surgical instrument comprises a handle assembly, an elongate portion, a pair of opposed jaw members, and a tissue stop.\",\n \"The handle assembly includes a movable handle.\",\n \"The elongate portion extends distally from the handle assembly and defines a longitudinal axis.\",\n \"The pair of opposed jaw members are operatively coupled to the elongate portion and extend distally therefrom.\",\n \"The pair of opposed jaw members includes a first jaw member and a second jaw member.\",\n \"The tissue stop is mechanically engaged with the first jaw member and is configured to retain the tissue between the pair of opposed jaw members.\",\n \"The tissue stop is movable between a first position, where a stopping portion of the tissue stop is disposed between a tissue-contacting surface of the first jaw member and a tissue-contacting surface of the second jaw member, and a second position, where the stopping portion is between the tissue-contacting surface of the first jaw member and a lower surface of the first jaw member.\",\n \"A portion of the tissue stop is made of stamped metal section and a portion of the tissue stop is made of an overmolded plastic section.\",\n \"In disclosed embodiments, the stopping portion of the tissue stop includes a scalloped portion.\",\n \"In disclosed embodiment, the scalloped portion of the tissue stop includes a plurality of spaced-apart semi-circular indents.\",\n \"In disclosed embodiments, the tissue stop includes a pair of lateral walls.\",\n \"In disclosed embodiments, the stopping portion is disposed on a proximal edge of each lateral wall.\",\n \"The present disclosure also relates to a loading unit configured for releasable engagement with a surgical instrument.\",\n \"The loading unit comprises a body portion, a pair of jaw members, and a tissue stop.\",\n \"The body portion defines a longitudinal axis and includes a proximal portion configured for releasable engagement with an elongate portion of the surgical instrument.\",\n \"The pair of jaw members extends distally from the body portion.\",\n \"At least one of the jaw members is movable with respect to the other between an open position and an approximated position engaging a body tissue therebetween.\",\n \"The pair of jaw members includes a first jaw member and a second jaw member.\",\n \"The tissue stop is mechanically engaged with the first jaw member and is configured to retain the tissue between the pair of opposed jaw members.\",\n \"The tissue stop is movable between a first position, where a stopping portion of the tissue stop is disposed between a tissue-contacting surface of the first jaw member and a tissue-contacting surface of the second jaw member, and a second position, where the stopping portion is between the tissue-contacting surface of the first jaw member and a lower surface of the first jaw member.\",\n \"A portion of the tissue stop is made of stamped metal section and a portion of the tissue stop is made of an overmolded plastic section.\",\n \"In disclosed embodiments, the stopping portion of the tissue stop of the loading unit includes a scalloped portion.\",\n \"In disclosed embodiment, the scalloped portion of the tissue stop includes a plurality of spaced-apart semi-circular indents.\",\n \"In disclosed embodiments, the tissue stop of the loading unit includes a pair of lateral walls.\",\n \"In disclosed embodiments, the stopping portion is disposed on a proximal edge of each lateral wall.\",\n \"The present disclosure also relates to a tissue stop for use with a surgical instrument.\",\n \"The tissue stop comprises a stamped metal portion and an overmolded plastic portion.\",\n \"The tissue stop is mechanically engaged with a jaw member of the surgical instrument and is configured to retain the tissue between opposed jaw members of the surgical instrument.\",\n \"In disclosed embodiments, the tissue stop includes a pair of lateral walls.\",\n \"In disclosed embodiments, a stopping portion is disposed on a proximal edge of each lateral wall.\",\n \"In disclosed embodiments, the stopping portion includes a scalloped portion.\",\n \"In disclosed embodiments, the scalloped portion of the tissue stop includes a plurality of spaced-apart semi-circular indents.\",\n \"BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF FIGURES Various embodiments of the presently disclosed surgical instrument are disclosed herein with reference to the drawings, wherein: FIG.\",\n \"1 is a perspective view of a surgical instrument in accordance with the present disclosure; FIG.\",\n \"2 is a perspective view of a loading unit of the surgical instrument of FIG.\",\n \"1; FIG.\",\n \"3 is a perspective view of the area of detail of FIG.\",\n \"2 illustrating a tissue stop; FIG.\",\n \"4 is a perspective exploded view of a distal portion of a jaw member of the surgical instrument including the tissue stop of FIG.\",\n \"3; FIG.\",\n \"5 is a longitudinal cross-sectional view of the tissue stop mechanically engaged with the jaw members of the surgical instrument; FIG.\",\n \"6 is a side view of a portion of the jaw members and the tissue stop prior to insertion of tissue; FIGS.\",\n \"7-9 are longitudinal cross-sectional views of a portion of jaw members and a tissue stop interacting with the tissue at various stages of operation in accordance with another embodiment of the present disclosure; FIG.\",\n \"10 is a perspective assembly view of a loading unit in accordance with another embodiment of the present disclosure; FIGS.\",\n \"11 and 12 are perspective views of a tissue stop including a stamped metal portion and an overmolded plastic portion for use with the surgical instrument of FIG.\",\n \"1 in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure; FIG.\",\n \"13 is a perspective view of a stamped metal portion of the tissue stop of FIGS.\",\n \"11 and 12; and FIGS.\",\n \"14-17 are various views of the stamped metal portion of the tissue stop of FIGS.\",\n \"11 and 12.DETAILED DESCRIPTION Embodiments of the presently disclosed surgical instrument are described in detail with reference to the drawings, wherein like reference numerals designate similar or identical elements in each of the several views.\",\n \"In the drawings and the description that follows, the term “proximal” refers to the end of the surgical instrument that is closest to the operator, whereas the term “distal” refers to the end of the surgical instrument that is farthest from the operator.\",\n \"As appreciated by one skilled in the art, the depicted surgical instrument fires staples, but it may be adapted to fire any other suitable fastener such as clips and two-part fasteners.\",\n \"Additionally, the disclosed tissue stop may be used with an electrosurgical forceps.\",\n \"Further details of electrosurgical forceps are described in commonly-owned patent application Ser.\",\n \"No.\",\n \"10/369,894, filed on Feb. 20, 2003, entitled VESSEL SEALER AND DIVIDER AND METHOD OF MANUFACTURING THE SAME, the entire contents of which are hereby incorporated by reference herein.\",\n \"With reference to FIG.\",\n \"1, reference numeral 100 designates an embodiment of the presently disclosed surgical instrument.\",\n \"In the interest of brevity, the present disclosure focuses on an end effector and a tissue stop of surgical instrument 100.U.S.\",\n \"Pat.\",\n \"No.\",\n \"8,033,442, filed on Nov. 28, 2007; U.S. Pat.\",\n \"No.\",\n \"8,393,513, filed on Jan. 9, 2008; U.S. Pat.\",\n \"No.\",\n \"7,568,604, filed on Jan. 24, 2008; U.S. Pat.\",\n \"No.\",\n \"7,565,993, filed on Oct. 15, 2007; and U.S. Patent Application Publication No.\",\n \"2007/0187456, filed on Apr.\",\n \"10, 2007, the entire contents of each of which is hereby incorporated by reference herein, describe in detail the structure and operation of other surgical fastening assemblies.\",\n \"Surgical instrument 100 disclosed in the illustrated embodiments is configured to clamp, fasten, and/or cut tissue.\",\n \"In general, surgical instrument 100 includes a handle assembly 110, an elongate portion 120 extending distally from handle assembly 110 and defining a longitudinal axis “A-A,” and a loading unit 180 (collectively referring to a single use loading unit (“SULU”) and a disposable loading unit (“DLU”)), as shown in FIG.\",\n \"1.With reference to FIG.\",\n \"2, loading unit 180 includes a proximal body portion 156, and a tool assembly 150.Proximal body portion 156 is configured to releasably attach to elongate portion 120 of surgical instrument 100 using a variety of attachment features, such as, for example, a bayonet coupling, latch, detent or snap-fit.\",\n \"In other embodiments, the instrument has jaws that are permanently attached to the elongate portion, and a replaceable cartridge, such as a staple cartridge, can be loaded, removed and reloaded in one of the jaws.\",\n \"Tool assembly 150 includes end effector 154 and a tissue stop 170.End effector 154, which is disposed adjacent distal portion 124 of body portion 156, includes a first jaw member 130 and a second jaw member 140.As shown in FIGS.\",\n \"1 and 2, each of first and second jaw members 130, 140 is longitudinally curved with respect to the longitudinal axis “A-A.” The curved jaw members, as compared to straight jaw members, may help facilitate access to lower pelvic regions, e.g., during lower anterior resection (“LAR”).\",\n \"Additionally, the inclusion of curved jaw members may allow increased visualization to a surgical site and may also allow more room for a surgeon to manipulate target tissue or the jaw members themselves with his or her hand.\",\n \"While the illustrated embodiment depict the jaw members as being curved, it is envisioned and within the scope of the present disclosure that the tissue stop 170 may be used with linear jaw members.\",\n \"At least one of the jaw members 130, 140 is adapted to move relative to the other jaw member (130 or 140) between spaced and approximated positions.\",\n \"In the illustrated embodiment, first jaw member 130 contains a cartridge assembly 132, and second jaw member 140 includes an anvil assembly 142.Cartridge assembly 132 moves with respect to anvil assembly 142 between spaced and approximated positions upon actuation of a movable handle 112, for example.\",\n \"While cartridge assembly 132 is shown as pivotally movable with respect to anvil assembly 142, anvil assembly 142 may be pivotally mounted with respect to the cartridge assembly 132.Handle assembly 110 includes a stationary handle 114 and movable handle 112.Movable handle 112 is adapted to move pivotally towards or away from stationary handle 114.Further, movable handle 112 is operatively connected to anvil assembly 142 through a mechanism adapted to convert at least a partial actuation of movable handle 112 into a pivoting motion of at least one of cartridge assembly 132 and anvil assembly 142 between spaced and approximated positions.\",\n \"As recognized by one skilled in the art, any conventional actuation mechanism may be employed to operatively couple movable handle 112 to tool assembly 150.With reference to FIG.\",\n \"2, cartridge assembly 132 has a tissue-contacting surface 134 and a plurality of fastener retaining slots 136.Tissue-contacting surface 134 generally faces anvil assembly 142 and, during operation, engages tissue when the anvil assembly 142 is approximated with cartridge assembly 132.Fastener retaining slots 136 are arranged in rows along tissue contacting surface 134 and each fastener retaining slot 136 is adapted to releasably hold a fastener (not shown).\",\n \"For example, when movable handle 112 is pivoted toward stationary handle 114, the fasteners are ejected from fastener retaining slots 136 and move towards anvil assembly 142.Cartridge assembly 132 also includes a knife channel 138 (FIG.\",\n \"3) adapted to slidably receive a knife (not shown) or any other suitable cutting tool.\",\n \"Knife channel 138 is defined in the staple cartridge, is disposed between rows of fastener retaining slots 136, and extends along tissue-contacting surface 134.In operation, the knife slides through the knife channel 138 when movable handle 112 pivots towards stationary handle 114.Alternatively, other mechanisms can be used to drive the knife through knife channel 138.In disclosed embodiments, handle assembly 110 contains an actuation mechanism for deploying the fasteners from fastener retaining slots 136 and advancing a knife along knife channel 138.This actuation mechanism includes a firing rod (not shown) operatively connected to movable handle 112.In operation, pivoting movable handle 112 toward stationary handle 114 causes firing rod to advance distally.\",\n \"Firing rod is in turn operatively coupled to an axial drive assembly at least partially positioned within tool assembly 150.Axial drive assembly is configured to move distally in response to a distal translation of firing rod.\",\n \"The axial drive assembly includes a drive beam that incorporates the knife, an upper member, and a lower member.\",\n \"As the upper member of the drive beam engages the anvil assembly and the lower member of the drive beam engages the cartridge assembly, the distal translation of axial drive assembly causes the anvil assembly 142 to pivot toward the cartridge assembly 132.In addition, the axial drive assembly pushes an actuation sled disposed within the cartridge assembly 132 in a distal direction, while the actuation sled translates distally through end effector 154.As the actuation sled advances distally through the cartridge assembly 132, this actuation sled urges the fasteners out of the fastener retaining slots 136.In certain embodiments, axial drive assembly includes a knife or blade mounted on a distal portion thereof.\",\n \"In operation, the drive beam, including the knife, moves through the knife channel 138 when axial drive assembly moves distally through end effector 154.Further details of an endoscopic surgical stapling instrument are described in detail in commonly-owned U.S. Pat.\",\n \"No.\",\n \"6,953,139 to Milliman et al., the entire contents of which are hereby incorporated by reference herein.\",\n \"However, it is also envisioned that other methods of approximating the jaw members are also usable, including sliding a clamp bar (not shown).\",\n \"Other methods of ejecting the fasteners are contemplated, such as cam bars, are contemplated.\",\n \"With reference to FIGS.\",\n \"3 and 4, tissue stop 170 is movably disposed at least partially within a recess 164 defined in a distal portion of jaw member 130.The term “distal” typically refers to that part or component of the instrument that is farther away from the user.\",\n \"As used herein, the terms “distal” and “proximal” will take into account the curvature of curved parts of the surgical instrument of the present disclosure.\",\n \"For example, “distal” will refer to the portion of the curved part that is farthest from the user, along a trajectory defined by the curved part.\",\n \"That is, while an intermediate portion of a curved part may be farther from the user during use, the portion of the curved part that is farthest along its longitudinal axis is considered “distal.” The distal portion of jaw member 130 defines recess 164 and includes a proximal wall 165, a pair of side walls 166, 168 and a lower surface 169.Tissue stop 170 includes a body 172 having an upper, tissue-contacting surface 174, a pair of lateral walls 176, 178, and a stopping portion 182 configured and adapted to engage tissue (e.g., tissue that is distally directed from between the jaw members).\",\n \"A pair of camming pins, including a proximal camming pin 184 and a distal camming pin 186, is also disclosed.\",\n \"Each camming pin 184, 186 is configured to extend transversely through both lateral walls 176, 178 of body 172.Proximal camming pin 184 is configured to extend through a first pair of holes 177 of body 172 (only a single hole 177 is shown on lateral wall 176; the hole that is disposed through lateral wall 178 is not visible in FIG.\",\n \"4), and is configured to engage a pair of proximal cam slots 196, which extend at least partially through each side wall 166, 168 of recess 164.Distal camming pin 186 is configured extend through a second pair of holes 179 of body 172 (only a single hole 179 is shown on lateral wall 176; the hole that is disposed through lateral wall 178 is not visible in FIG.\",\n \"4), and is configured to engage a pair of distal cam slots 198, which extend at least partially through each side wall 166, 168 of recess 164.As can be appreciated, the engagement between camming pins 184, 186, jaw member 130, and tissue stop 170 movably secure tissue stop 170 to jaw member 130.In the illustrated embodiments, distal cam slots 198 are substantially parallel to tissue-contacting surface 134 of jaw member 130, and proximal cam slots 196 form an angle with respect to tissue-contacting surface 134 of jaw member 130.It is envisioned that proximal cam slots 196 include at least one curved portion, at least one linear portion, or combinations of at least one curved and at least one linear portion.\",\n \"The illustrated configuration of cam slots 196, 198 allows tissue stopping portion 182 to be movable in and out of recess 164 adjacent proximal wall 165 with a reduced clearance gap “G” therebetween (see FIG.\",\n \"5).\",\n \"It is also envisioned that gap “G” may be minimized at every moment when tissue stop 170 moves from the first position to the second position.\",\n \"Other cam arrangements can be used to connect the tissue stop to the jaw.\",\n \"The cam can be shaped to maximize the height of the tissue stop when the tissue stop is extended from the jaw (the first position) and/or minimize the space within the jaw occupied by the tissue stop when the tissue stop is in the retracted, second position.\",\n \"As shown in FIG.\",\n \"5, tissue stop 170 also includes a biasing member 173.Biasing member 173 is configured to mechanically engage camming pin 186 and to mechanically engage a support pin 158 that extends through an opening 190 (see FIG.\",\n \"4) on each side wall 166, 168 of jaw member 130.However, it is also contemplated that any other retaining member, such as, for example, a post, may replace support pin 158 to retain one end of biasing member 173.Biasing member 173 urges distal camming pin 186 to its proximal-most position within camming slots 198.In response to the distal camming pin 186 being proximally urged, proximal camming pin 184 is also proximally urged due to the mechanical relationship between camming pins 184, 186, biasing member 173, and tissue stop 170.When camming pins 184, 186 are in their proximal-most positions within camming slots 196, 198, respectively, tissue stop 170 is located in a first position, in which stopping portion 182 is exposed and extends at least partially out of recess 164, i.e., disposed between tissue-contacting surfaces 134, 135 of cartridge and anvil assemblies 132, 142, respectively (see FIG.\",\n \"5, for example).\",\n \"Tissue stop 170 is movable between the first position, as shown in FIG.\",\n \"5, and a second position, as illustrated in FIG.\",\n \"8.In the first position which corresponds to when jaw members 130, 140 are in an open position, at least a portion (e.g., a majority, or the entire portion) of stopping portion 182 is exposed out of recess 164.The approximation of the jaw members 130, 140 causes tissue stop 170 to move towards its second position.\",\n \"That is, as one jaw member (e.g., jaw member 140) moves towards the other jaw member (e.g., jaw member 130), tissue-contacting surface 135 contacts tissue-contacting surface 174 of tissue stop 170, and physically urges tissue stop 170 towards its second position against the bias of biasing member 173.In the second position which corresponds to when jaw members 130, 140 are in the approximated position, a majority (e.g., the entirety) of stopping portion 182 is disposed within recess 164.In this embodiment, when tissue stop 170 is disposed in the first position, stopping portion 182 is orthogonally disposed (e.g., substantially perpendicular) relative to tissue-contacting surface 134.As can be appreciated, such an orientation may help impede tissue from distally escaping tool assembly 150.In other embodiments, the instrument can include an actuator that is connected to the tissue stop so that the user can move the tissue stop between the first and second positions by manipulating a button or lever.\",\n \"Such actuator may also include a lock and/or latch for locking the position of the tissue stop.\",\n \"In use, a surgeon initially positions surgical stapling instrument 100 adjacent a target tissue as shown in FIG.\",\n \"6.Here, tissue stop 170 is in the first position where the jaw members 130, 140 are in an open position and at least a portion of stopping portion 182 is exposed out of recess 164.Then tissue “T” is introduced into tool assembly 150, between jaw members 130, 140.The angle defined by upper tissue-contacting surface 174 of tissue stop 170 facilitates introduction of tissue “T” into tool assembly 150 in the general direction of arrow “B,” as seen in FIG.\",\n \"6.As tissue “T” is proximally inserted into tool assembly 150, tissue “T” comes into contact with tissue stop 170 and may force at least a portion of stopping portion 182 into recess 164 in the general direction of arrow “C” as shown in FIG.\",\n \"7.In certain embodiments, the tissue stop has a sloped surface facing the open end of the jaws to encourage the tissue to move the tissue stop.\",\n \"Alternatively, tissue “T” may be proximally inserted between the jaw members 130, 140 by moving in the space between the tissue-contacting surface 135 of jaw member 140 and tissue-contacting surface 174 of tissue stop 170 without necessarily contacting stop member 170.When moved towards its second position, tissue stopping portion 182 moves in the general direction of arrow “C” (FIG.\",\n \"7).\",\n \"As tissue stopping portion 182 is translated in the general direction of arrow “C,” distal camming pin 186 distally translates along distal camming slot 198 in the general direction of arrow “E” (FIG.\",\n \"7), while proximal camming pin 184 slides distally along proximal camming slot 184 in the general direction of arrow “D” (FIG.\",\n \"7).\",\n \"After the surgeon has placed at least a portion of tissue “T” between jaw members 130, 140, the surgeon can actuate an approximation mechanism, e.g., by pivoting movable handle 112 towards stationary handle 114 to approximate anvil assembly 142 towards cartridge assembly 132, to capture tissue “T” between tissue-contacting surfaces 134, 135 as shown in FIG.\",\n \"8.Here, a proximal portion of tissue-contacting surface 174 of tissue stop 170 is substantially flush with tissue-contacting surface 134 of cartridge assembly 132, and anvil assembly 142 exerts a force against stop member 170 (through tissue “T”) toward recess 164.In response to the force exerted by the anvil assembly 142 on tissue stop 170, camming pin 186 translates farther distally along camming slot 198 in the general direction of arrow “E” until the camming pin 186 is in the distal-most portion of camming slot 198.Additionally, camming pin 184 slides farther distally along camming slot 196 in the general direction of arrow “H” (FIG.\",\n \"8) until camming pin 184 reaches the distal-most portion of camming slot 196, against the bias of biasing member 173.Tissue “T” is now interposed between jaw members 130, 140 and may be pushed farther proximally by surgeon in the general direction of arrow “F” (FIGS.\",\n \"7-9).\",\n \"As a distal end of tissue “T” is pushed proximally of tissue stop 170 in the general direction of “F,” the biasing force exerted by biasing member 173 pushes tissue stop 170 in the general direction of arrow “I,” towards (and possibly against) tissue-contacting surface 135 of anvil assembly 142.Here, camming pins 184, 186 have moved proximally along camming slots 196, 198, respectively, proportional to the thickness of tissue “T.” In the embodiment illustrated in FIG.\",\n \"9, tissue stop 170 is in contact with tissue-contacting surface 135 and is located distally of tissue “T,” thereby impeding or preventing any distal escape of tissue “T.” At this time, the surgeon may perform a surgical procedure on tissue “T,” e.g., staple, seal and/or cut tissue “T.” After performing the surgical procedure, jaw member 140 is moved away from jaw member 130, and tissue stop 170 returns to its first position in response to the biasing force.\",\n \"With reference to FIG.\",\n \"10, a loading unit 500 in accordance with another embodiment of the present disclosure is illustrated.\",\n \"Loading unit 500 includes a proximal body portion 556 and a tool assembly 550.Proximal body potion 556 is releasably attachable to a distal end of elongate portion 120.Tool assembly 550 includes a pair of jaw members including an anvil assembly 542 and a cartridge assembly 532.In particular, cartridge assembly 532 is pivotal in relation to anvil assembly and is movable between an open or unclamped position and a closed or approximated position.\",\n \"Anvil assembly 542 includes a longitudinally curved anvil cover 543 and a longitudinally curved anvil plate 544, which defines a plurality of staple forming depressions.\",\n \"When tool assembly 550 is in the approximated position, staple forming depressions are positioned in juxtaposed alignment with cartridge assembly 532.Cartridge assembly 532 includes a longitudinally curved carrier 537, which receives a longitudinally curved cartridge 518 via, for example, a snap-fit connection.\",\n \"Cartridge 518 includes a pair of support struts 519 which rest on sidewalls 539 of carrier 537 to stabilize cartridge 518 on carrier 537.An external surface of carrier 537 includes an angled cam surface 516a.\",\n \"Cartridge 518 defines a plurality of laterally spaced staple retention slots 536.Each slot 536 is configured to receive a staple 630 therein.\",\n \"Cartridge 518 includes a central longitudinally curved slot 538.As an actuation sled 541 moves through cartridge 518, cam wedges 541a of actuation sled 541 sequentially engage pushers 632 to move pushers 632 vertically within staple retention slots 536 and eject staples 630 into staple forming depressions of anvil plate 544.Subsequent to the ejection of staples 630 from retention slots 536, a cutting edge 606a of dynamic clamping member 606 severs the stapled tissue as cutting edge 606a travels through curved slot 538 of cartridge 518.With continued reference to FIG.\",\n \"10, proximal body portion 556 includes an inner body 503 formed from molded half-sections 503a and 503b and a drive assembly 560.Proximal body portion 556 is coupled to tool assembly 550 by a mounting assembly 570.Mounting assembly 570 has a pair of extensions 576 which extend into a proximal end of carrier 537.Each extension 576 has a transverse bore 578 which is aligned with holes 516A of carrier 539 such that mounting assembly 570 is pivotally secured to cartridge 518 with carrier 539.Mounting assembly 570 is fixedly secured to half-section 503a by a pair of vertical protrusions 584.Vertical protrusions 584 extend upwardly from mounting assembly 570 and frictionally fit into corresponding recesses in half-section 503a.\",\n \"Anvil cover 543 includes a proximally extending finger 588 having a pair of cutouts 589 formed therein.\",\n \"Cutouts 589 are positioned on each lateral side of finger 588 to help secure anvil cover to half-section 503a.\",\n \"Half-section 503a includes a channel 505 that includes a pair of protrusions 505a.\",\n \"Finger 588 of anvil cover mechanically engages channel 505 of half-section 503a, such that cutouts 589 are aligned with protrusions 505a.\",\n \"An outer sleeve 602 covers the finger 588 and channel 505.The configuration of finger 588 and channel 505 facilitates a secure connection between anvil cover 543 and half-section 503a.\",\n \"Moreover, this connection results in a non-movable (e.g., non-pivotable) anvil assembly 542 with respect to proximal body portion 556.Drive assembly 560 includes a flexible drive beam 604 which is constructed from three stacked metallic sheets 604a-c and a proximal engagement portion 608.At least a portion of drive beam 604 is sufficiently flexible to be advanced through the curvature of the tool assembly 550.Drive beam 604 has a distal end which is secured to a dynamic clamping member 606.Dynamic clamping member 606 includes a knife or cutting edge 606a at a distal face of vertical strut 606d.\",\n \"Loading unit 500 includes a tissue stop 770 movably disposed at least partially within a recess 764 defined in a distal portion of cartridge 518.Recess 764 is defined by a proximal wall 765, a pair of side walls 766, 768 and a lower surface.\",\n \"Tissue stop 770 includes a body 772 having an upper, tissue-contacting surface, a pair of lateral walls and a stopping portion 782 configured and adapted to engage tissue.\",\n \"A proximal camming pin 758 and a distal camming pin 786 are each configured to extend transversely through both lateral walls 766, 768 of body 772.Proximal camming pin 758 is configured to extend through a first through hole 777 of body 772, and is configured to engage a pair of proximal cam slots 796, which extend at least partially through each side wall 766, 768.Distal camming pin 786 is configured to extend through a second through hole 779 of body 772, and is configured to engage a pair of distal cam slots 798, which extend at least partially through each side wall 766, 768.It is also contemplated that at least one 796, 798 is only defined in one of the side walls 766, 768.Tissue stop 770 also includes a biasing member 773.Biasing member 773 is configured to mechanically engage camming pin 786 and to mechanically engage a support pin 784 that extends through an opening 790 (see FIG.\",\n \"4) on each side wall 766, 768 of cartridge assembly 532.Biasing member 773 urges distal camming pin 786 to its proximal-most position within camming slots 798.In response to the urging of distal camming pin 786 in the proximal direction, proximal camming pin 758 is also proximally urged due to the mechanical relationship between camming pins 758, 786, biasing member 773, and tissue stop 770.When camming pins 758, 786 are in their proximal-most positions within camming slots 796, 798, respectively, stopping portion 782 is exposed and extends at least partially out of recess 764.The operation of loading unit 500 is substantially similar to those described above and will be omitted in the interest of brevity.\",\n \"With reference to FIGS.\",\n \"11-17, a tissue stop 1000 in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure is illustrated.\",\n \"Tissue stop 1000 is made of two parts: a stamped metal section 1100 and an overmolded plastic section 1200.The stamped metal section 1100 is illustrated in FIGS.\",\n \"13-17, and the overmolded plastic section 1200, which at least partially covers the stamped metal section 1100, is illustrated in FIGS.\",\n \"11-12.The multiple piece design of the tissue stop 1000 provides the strength of the metal while allowing complex geometries that are suitable for plastic injection molding.\",\n \"While particular portions of tissue stop 1000 are shown being made from stamped metal, it is envisioned and within the scope of the present disclosure that the stamped metal portion 1100 can include a greater or lesser portion of the entire tissue stop 1000.Likewise, the overmolded plastic section 1200 may also include a greater or lesser portion of the entire tissue stop 1000 than what is illustrated.\",\n \"Tissue stop 1000 includes a body 1010 having an upper, tissue-contacting surface 1020, a pair of lateral walls 1030, 1040, and a stopping portion 1050 configured and adapted to engage tissue (e.g., tissue that is distally directed from between the jaw members).\",\n \"Stopping portion 1050 of tissue stop 1000 includes a scalloped portion 1060 including a plurality of spaced-apart semi-circular indents.\",\n \"More specifically, scalloped portion 1060 is disposed on a proximal edge of each lateral wall 1030, 1040.As can be appreciated, scalloped portion 1060 is configured to help prevent tissue from sliding with respect to tissue stop 1000.Tissue stop 1000 is usable with the camming pins 184, 186, as discussed above with reference to tissue stop 170, and tissue stop 1000 may also include a pivoting protrusion 1400 extending transversely from body 1010, as shown in FIGS.\",\n \"11 and 12.Pivoting protrusion 1400 is configured to pivotably engage a portion of the cartridge assembly to enable pivotal movement therebetween.\",\n \"Additionally, in disclosed embodiments, the surgical instrument 100 and loading unit 180 described in connection with FIGS.\",\n \"1 through 10 includes the stamped/molded tissue stop 1000.It will be understood that various modifications may be made to the embodiments of the presently disclosed surgical instruments.\",\n \"Therefore, the above description should not be construed as limiting, but merely as exemplifications of embodiments.\",\n \"Those skilled in the art will envision other modifications within the scope and spirit of the present disclosure.\"\n ]\n]"},"source":{"kind":"string","value":"Patent_15875344"}}},{"rowIdx":4494859,"cells":{"text":{"kind":"list like","value":[["Device, System, and Method for Supplying Fire Suppressing Agent to the Interior of a Container for an Extended Duration","A method for supplying fire suppressing agent to the interior of a container for an extended duration includes detecting sensor signals indicative of a temperature associated with a container, determining via a controller that the fire suppressing agent should be supplied to the interior of the container based at least in part on the sensor signals, and initiating via the controller expulsion of fire suppressing agent from a chamber containing fire suppressing agent.","The method may further include puncturing a surface of the container with a puncture mechanism to provide flow communication between the chamber and the interior of the container to permit supply of fire suppressing agent into the interior of the container at a first time, initiating via the controller expulsion of fire suppressing agent from a second chamber containing fire suppressing agent at a second time after the first time, and supplying fire suppressing agent from the second chamber into the interior of the container."],["1-24.","(canceled) 25.A method for supplying fire suppressing agent to the interior of a container for an extended duration, the method comprising: detecting sensor signals indicative of a temperature associated with a container; determining via a controller that the fire suppressing agent should be supplied to the interior of the container based at least in part on the sensor signals; initiating via the controller expulsion of fire suppressing agent from a chamber containing fire suppressing agent; puncturing a surface of the container with a puncture mechanism to provide flow communication between the chamber and the interior of the container to permit supply of fire suppressing agent into the interior of the container at a first time; initiating via the controller expulsion of fire suppressing agent from a second chamber containing fire suppressing agent at a second time after the first time; and supplying fire suppressing agent from the second chamber into the interior of the container.","26.The method of claim 25, further comprising initiating the expulsion of fire suppressing agent from the chamber containing fire suppressing agent via an igniter configured to receive an activation signal from the controller.","27.The method of claim 25, further comprising alerting a user of the expulsion of fire suppressing agent via an alerting system at a location remote from the container.","28.The method of claim 27, wherein the location remote from the container comprises an aircraft cockpit."],[" BACKGROUND OF THE DISCLOSURE Cargo may be transported to its destination using one or more of several different types of vehicles, including, for example, ships, trains, aircraft, and trucks.","Such cargo is transported while located in the interior of cargo areas.","In some cases, cargo may include hazardous, easily flammable, and/or easily combustible materials that may render transport dangerous to the cargo itself, as well as to the vehicle transporting the cargo and operators of the vehicle.","In many instances, cargo may be carried in an area separated from an operator controlling the vehicle.","As a result, an operator may be unaware of a fire or explosion that has occurred within a cargo container or within the cargo area.","Moreover, due to the nature of a cargo vehicle, there may be a limited supply of fire suppressant available.","For example, aboard a cargo aircraft, the weight of any fire suppressant may limit the amount of fire suppressant that may be carried for suppressing fires.","Therefore, it may be desirable to limit the amount of fire suppressant used to extinguish a fire in order to reduce the weight carried by the aircraft by focusing any release of fire suppressant on the particular area in need of fire suppressant, rather than merely releasing a large enough amount of suppressant to flood the entire cargo area.","Furthermore, the fire suppressant itself may be harmful to some types of cargo.","Therefore, it may be desirable to limit the release of fire suppressant to the location in need of fire suppression, so as to limit the spoilage of cargo not in need of fire suppressant.","Because cargo areas experiencing a fire may be located remotely from cargo vehicle operators (i.e., the cargo may be located in an unoccupied and/or difficult to access portion of the vehicle), it may be more difficult to provide fire suppressant to an area experiencing a fire in a timely manner.","Therefore, it may be desirable to provide a system for supplying fire suppressant remotely and in a timely manner.","One example of a cargo vehicle having an operator located relatively remotely from the cargo area is an aircraft.","The majority of cargo carried by modern aircraft is transported in cargo containers or on cargo pallets.","The containers are generally referred to generically as Unit Load Devices (“ULDs”).","For safety considerations, ULDs must often be configured to engage an aircraft cargo locking system in order to restrain the cargo containers under various flight, ground load, and/or emergency conditions.","Under federal air regulations, ULDs are considered aircraft appliances, are Federal Aviation Administration (FAA)-certified for a specific type of aircraft, and are typically manufactured to specifications contained in National Aerospace Standard (NAS) 3610.In the cargo aircraft example, while some cargo areas may be conventionally equipped with fire extinguishing bottles intended for manual operation, few cargo containers may be accessible to flight crews during a flight, thereby possibly rendering it difficult to manually extinguish a fire located in an aircraft cargo area using fire extinguishing bottles.","In addition, fires may occur inside cargo containers, and if those fires are not suppressed or extinguished, they may breach the walls of the container and spread throughout the cargo area.","However, it may be difficult, if not impossible, to suppress or extinguish a fire inside a container without discharging fire suppressant into the interior of the container.","Thus, it may be desirable to provide a system for suppressing a fire associated with a container for which a fire has been detected.","In addition, it may be desirable to provide a system for supplying fire suppressant inside the container.","Further, it may be desirable to provide a system for supplying a fire suppressant inside the container for an extended period of time or duration of time, for example, so that a cargo aircraft may safely land before a fire spreads throughout the cargo area.","Such a fire suppression system or plurality of systems may be located either in one area of a cargo area, such as a “high risk” area containing particularly hazardous materials, or throughout the cargo area.","Problems associated with detecting and/or suppressing fires are not limited to the cargo transportation industry.","Similar problems may arise, for example, wherever cargo and/or other articles are stored in a location that is remote from a person supervising the cargo or other articles, such as in a storage facility.","Thus, in a broad variety of situations, it may be desirable to remotely detect and/or remotely suppress a fire.","In many applications, it may be impractical or inefficient to store a fire suppression system directly in a container such as a ULD.","For instance, containers may be subjected to harsh environments, including extreme cold and heat, shock, vibration, and general abuse.","As a result, providing a fire suppression system in each individual container may be impractical due, for example, to accelerated degradation or failure of such systems over time.","Moreover, a given company in the cargo freight industry may use thousands of containers, and the cost of equipping each container with a fire suppression system may be prohibitive.","Installing, maintaining, and removing the fire suppression system of each container could also be impractical and uneconomical.","As a result, there are many possible drawbacks to providing fire suppressing systems in a large number of containers.","In addition, existing technologies and techniques may only provide a limited fire suppressing window.","For example, some methods may be a one-time solution, such as devices that supply a fire suppressing agent into a container during a single application.","When a fire suppressing agent leaks out of or disperses from a ULD after introduction into the ULD, the fire may grow again and breach the ULD, potentially spreading to surrounding cargo.","This may severely limit the time available for a flight crew to safely land a cargo aircraft, for example.","Some tests have shown that a single application of fire suppressing agent into a container may be effective for twenty minutes or less.","This may be inadequate, for example, for a cargo aircraft during a transoceanic flight, where it may take several hours to fly to the closest airport suitable for landing.","Therefore, it may be desirable to provide a consistent or repeated supply of fire suppressing agent to a container over an extended duration."],[" SUMMARY In the following description, certain aspects and embodiments of a device for supplying fire suppressing agent to the interior of a container for an extended duration will become evident.","It should be understood that the aspects and embodiments, in their broadest sense, could be practiced without having one or more features of these aspects and embodiments.","It should be understood that these aspects and embodiments are merely exemplary.","One aspect of the disclosure relates to a device for supplying fire suppressing agent to the interior of a container for an extended duration.","The device may include a plurality of chambers configured to contain and selectively expel fire suppressing agent, a puncture mechanism configured to puncture a container, and a manifold in flow communication with the plurality of chambers and the puncture mechanism.","The device may further include a controller configured to initiate expulsion of the fire suppressing agent from the chambers in a controlled manner.","The device may be configured such that the fire suppressing agent may be first expelled from a first one of the plurality of chambers at a first time, and the fire suppressing agent may be expelled from a second one of the plurality of chambers at a second time that is later than the first time.","As used herein, the term “fire” is not necessarily limited to a fire having visible flames.","Rather, the term “fire” is used in a broad sense and may be used to describe situations in which an object and/or surface is exhibiting a higher temperature than desired or considered to be unsafe to a person having skill in the art, such as, for example, a situation in which an object and/or surface is smoldering, smoking, and/or is hot to the touch.","According to another aspect, a system for supplying fire suppressing agent to the interior of a container for an extended duration may include a plurality of chambers configured to contain and selectively expel fire suppressing agent, a puncture mechanism configured to puncture a container, and a manifold in flow communication with the plurality of chambers and the puncture mechanism.","The system may further include a sensor configured to provide signals indicative of a temperature associated with a container to a controller configured to initiate expulsion of fire suppressing agent from the chambers in a controlled manner.","The system may be configured such that the fire suppressing agent may be first expelled from a first one of the plurality of chambers at a first time, and the fire suppressing agent may be expelled from a second one of the plurality of chambers at a second time that is later than the first time.","The puncture mechanism may be configured to extend and puncture a container after expulsion of the fire suppressing agent.","According to a further aspect, a method for supplying fire suppressing agent to the interior of a container for an extended duration may include detecting sensor signals indicative of a temperature associated with a container, determining via a controller that the fire suppressing agent should be supplied to the interior of the container based at least in part on the sensor signals, and initiating via the controller expulsion of fire suppressing agent from a chamber containing fire suppressing agent.","The method may further include puncturing a surface of the container with a puncture mechanism to provide flow communication between the chamber and the interior of the container to permit supply of fire suppressing agent into the interior of the container at a first time.","The method may further include initiating, via the controller, expulsion of fire suppressing agent from a second chamber containing fire suppressing agent at a second time after the first time.","The method may further include supplying fire suppressing agent from the second chamber into the interior of the container.","It is to be understood that both the foregoing general description and the following detailed description are exemplary and explanatory only and are not restrictive of the invention, as claimed.","The accompanying drawings, which are incorporated in and constitute a part of this specification, illustrate several exemplary embodiments and together with the description, may serve to explain the principles of the disclosure."],["RELATED APPLICATION This application claims the benefit of priority under 35 U.S.C.","§ 119(e) of U.S.","Provisional Application No.","61/952,503, filed Mar.","13, 2014, the disclosure of which is incorporated herein by reference.","FIELD OF THE DISCLOSURE The present disclosure relates to systems and methods for suppressing fires.","In particular, the present disclosure relates to systems and methods for suppressing fires associated with containers.","BACKGROUND OF THE DISCLOSURE Cargo may be transported to its destination using one or more of several different types of vehicles, including, for example, ships, trains, aircraft, and trucks.","Such cargo is transported while located in the interior of cargo areas.","In some cases, cargo may include hazardous, easily flammable, and/or easily combustible materials that may render transport dangerous to the cargo itself, as well as to the vehicle transporting the cargo and operators of the vehicle.","In many instances, cargo may be carried in an area separated from an operator controlling the vehicle.","As a result, an operator may be unaware of a fire or explosion that has occurred within a cargo container or within the cargo area.","Moreover, due to the nature of a cargo vehicle, there may be a limited supply of fire suppressant available.","For example, aboard a cargo aircraft, the weight of any fire suppressant may limit the amount of fire suppressant that may be carried for suppressing fires.","Therefore, it may be desirable to limit the amount of fire suppressant used to extinguish a fire in order to reduce the weight carried by the aircraft by focusing any release of fire suppressant on the particular area in need of fire suppressant, rather than merely releasing a large enough amount of suppressant to flood the entire cargo area.","Furthermore, the fire suppressant itself may be harmful to some types of cargo.","Therefore, it may be desirable to limit the release of fire suppressant to the location in need of fire suppression, so as to limit the spoilage of cargo not in need of fire suppressant.","Because cargo areas experiencing a fire may be located remotely from cargo vehicle operators (i.e., the cargo may be located in an unoccupied and/or difficult to access portion of the vehicle), it may be more difficult to provide fire suppressant to an area experiencing a fire in a timely manner.","Therefore, it may be desirable to provide a system for supplying fire suppressant remotely and in a timely manner.","One example of a cargo vehicle having an operator located relatively remotely from the cargo area is an aircraft.","The majority of cargo carried by modern aircraft is transported in cargo containers or on cargo pallets.","The containers are generally referred to generically as Unit Load Devices (“ULDs”).","For safety considerations, ULDs must often be configured to engage an aircraft cargo locking system in order to restrain the cargo containers under various flight, ground load, and/or emergency conditions.","Under federal air regulations, ULDs are considered aircraft appliances, are Federal Aviation Administration (FAA)-certified for a specific type of aircraft, and are typically manufactured to specifications contained in National Aerospace Standard (NAS) 3610.In the cargo aircraft example, while some cargo areas may be conventionally equipped with fire extinguishing bottles intended for manual operation, few cargo containers may be accessible to flight crews during a flight, thereby possibly rendering it difficult to manually extinguish a fire located in an aircraft cargo area using fire extinguishing bottles.","In addition, fires may occur inside cargo containers, and if those fires are not suppressed or extinguished, they may breach the walls of the container and spread throughout the cargo area.","However, it may be difficult, if not impossible, to suppress or extinguish a fire inside a container without discharging fire suppressant into the interior of the container.","Thus, it may be desirable to provide a system for suppressing a fire associated with a container for which a fire has been detected.","In addition, it may be desirable to provide a system for supplying fire suppressant inside the container.","Further, it may be desirable to provide a system for supplying a fire suppressant inside the container for an extended period of time or duration of time, for example, so that a cargo aircraft may safely land before a fire spreads throughout the cargo area.","Such a fire suppression system or plurality of systems may be located either in one area of a cargo area, such as a “high risk” area containing particularly hazardous materials, or throughout the cargo area.","Problems associated with detecting and/or suppressing fires are not limited to the cargo transportation industry.","Similar problems may arise, for example, wherever cargo and/or other articles are stored in a location that is remote from a person supervising the cargo or other articles, such as in a storage facility.","Thus, in a broad variety of situations, it may be desirable to remotely detect and/or remotely suppress a fire.","In many applications, it may be impractical or inefficient to store a fire suppression system directly in a container such as a ULD.","For instance, containers may be subjected to harsh environments, including extreme cold and heat, shock, vibration, and general abuse.","As a result, providing a fire suppression system in each individual container may be impractical due, for example, to accelerated degradation or failure of such systems over time.","Moreover, a given company in the cargo freight industry may use thousands of containers, and the cost of equipping each container with a fire suppression system may be prohibitive.","Installing, maintaining, and removing the fire suppression system of each container could also be impractical and uneconomical.","As a result, there are many possible drawbacks to providing fire suppressing systems in a large number of containers.","In addition, existing technologies and techniques may only provide a limited fire suppressing window.","For example, some methods may be a one-time solution, such as devices that supply a fire suppressing agent into a container during a single application.","When a fire suppressing agent leaks out of or disperses from a ULD after introduction into the ULD, the fire may grow again and breach the ULD, potentially spreading to surrounding cargo.","This may severely limit the time available for a flight crew to safely land a cargo aircraft, for example.","Some tests have shown that a single application of fire suppressing agent into a container may be effective for twenty minutes or less.","This may be inadequate, for example, for a cargo aircraft during a transoceanic flight, where it may take several hours to fly to the closest airport suitable for landing.","Therefore, it may be desirable to provide a consistent or repeated supply of fire suppressing agent to a container over an extended duration.","SUMMARY In the following description, certain aspects and embodiments of a device for supplying fire suppressing agent to the interior of a container for an extended duration will become evident.","It should be understood that the aspects and embodiments, in their broadest sense, could be practiced without having one or more features of these aspects and embodiments.","It should be understood that these aspects and embodiments are merely exemplary.","One aspect of the disclosure relates to a device for supplying fire suppressing agent to the interior of a container for an extended duration.","The device may include a plurality of chambers configured to contain and selectively expel fire suppressing agent, a puncture mechanism configured to puncture a container, and a manifold in flow communication with the plurality of chambers and the puncture mechanism.","The device may further include a controller configured to initiate expulsion of the fire suppressing agent from the chambers in a controlled manner.","The device may be configured such that the fire suppressing agent may be first expelled from a first one of the plurality of chambers at a first time, and the fire suppressing agent may be expelled from a second one of the plurality of chambers at a second time that is later than the first time.","As used herein, the term “fire” is not necessarily limited to a fire having visible flames.","Rather, the term “fire” is used in a broad sense and may be used to describe situations in which an object and/or surface is exhibiting a higher temperature than desired or considered to be unsafe to a person having skill in the art, such as, for example, a situation in which an object and/or surface is smoldering, smoking, and/or is hot to the touch.","According to another aspect, a system for supplying fire suppressing agent to the interior of a container for an extended duration may include a plurality of chambers configured to contain and selectively expel fire suppressing agent, a puncture mechanism configured to puncture a container, and a manifold in flow communication with the plurality of chambers and the puncture mechanism.","The system may further include a sensor configured to provide signals indicative of a temperature associated with a container to a controller configured to initiate expulsion of fire suppressing agent from the chambers in a controlled manner.","The system may be configured such that the fire suppressing agent may be first expelled from a first one of the plurality of chambers at a first time, and the fire suppressing agent may be expelled from a second one of the plurality of chambers at a second time that is later than the first time.","The puncture mechanism may be configured to extend and puncture a container after expulsion of the fire suppressing agent.","According to a further aspect, a method for supplying fire suppressing agent to the interior of a container for an extended duration may include detecting sensor signals indicative of a temperature associated with a container, determining via a controller that the fire suppressing agent should be supplied to the interior of the container based at least in part on the sensor signals, and initiating via the controller expulsion of fire suppressing agent from a chamber containing fire suppressing agent.","The method may further include puncturing a surface of the container with a puncture mechanism to provide flow communication between the chamber and the interior of the container to permit supply of fire suppressing agent into the interior of the container at a first time.","The method may further include initiating, via the controller, expulsion of fire suppressing agent from a second chamber containing fire suppressing agent at a second time after the first time.","The method may further include supplying fire suppressing agent from the second chamber into the interior of the container.","It is to be understood that both the foregoing general description and the following detailed description are exemplary and explanatory only and are not restrictive of the invention, as claimed.","The accompanying drawings, which are incorporated in and constitute a part of this specification, illustrate several exemplary embodiments and together with the description, may serve to explain the principles of the disclosure.","BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG.","1 is a schematic, cut-away, perspective view of an exemplary vehicle; FIG.","2 is a schematic, cut-away, front view of an exemplary embodiment of a system for supplying fire suppressing agent to the interior of a container in an exemplary cargo area; FIG.","3 is a schematic, partial cut-away, top view of an exemplary embodiment of a system for supplying fire suppressing agent to the interior of a container; FIG.","4 is a schematic, cut-away, top view of an exemplary embodiment of a chamber containing a fire suppressing agent; FIG.","5 is a schematic, partial cut-away, side view of an exemplary embodiment of a system for supplying fire suppressing agent to the interior of a container during operation in an initial, non-deployed configuration; FIG.","6 is a schematic, partial cut-away, side view of an exemplary embodiment of a system for supplying fire suppressing agent to the interior of a container during operation in a partially-deployed configuration; FIG.","7 is a schematic, partial cut-away, side view of an exemplary embodiment of a system for supplying fire suppressing agent to the interior of a container during operation in a fully-deployed configuration; FIG.","8 is a schematic, partial cut-away, side view of an exemplary embodiment of a puncture mechanism during operation with an exemplary pressure plug removed; FIG.","9 is a schematic, partial cut-away, side view of an exemplary embodiment of a pressure plug assembly in a non-extended configuration; FIG.","10 is a schematic, partial cut-away, side view of an exemplary embodiment of a pressure plug assembly in a fully-extended configuration; FIG.","11 is a schematic, top view of an exemplary embodiment of a puncture mechanism; FIG.","12 is a schematic, partial cut-away, side view of an exemplary embodiment of a puncture mechanism during operation with an exemplary pressure plug; FIG.","13 is a schematic, top view of an exemplary embodiment of a removable puncture tip; and FIG.","14 is a schematic, partial cut-away, side view of an exemplary embodiment of a removable puncture tip.","DESCRIPTION OF EXEMPLARY EMBODIMENTS Reference will now be made in detail to exemplary embodiments, which are illustrated in the accompanying drawings.","Wherever possible, the same reference numbers will be used throughout the drawings to refer to the same or like parts.","FIG.","1 shows an exemplary vehicle 10 for transporting containers.","The vehicle 10 may include a body 12 defining an interior 14 of the vehicle, a deck 16 within the body 14, the deck 16 being configured to support a plurality of containers 18, and a ceiling 20 spaced above the deck 16.FIG.","2 is a cross-sectional view of the exemplary vehicle 10 of FIG.","1.The vehicle 10 may include a system 22 for supplying fire suppressing agent 32 (see FIG.","3) to the interior of a container 18 supported by the deck 16.The system 22 may be attached, for example, to the ceiling 20 above at least one location configured to receive a container 18.The system 22 may include a sensor 24 and a controller 26.The system 22 may further include at least two chambers 30 containing a fire suppressing agent 32, a puncture mechanism 34 with a conveyance tube 36 and a puncture tip 38 (see FIG.","5), and a manifold 40 connecting the chambers 30 to the puncture mechanism 34 that allows for flow of the fire suppressing agent 32 from a chamber 30 to the puncture mechanism 34 during operation of the system 22.In the exemplary embodiment shown, each chamber 30 is coupled to the manifold 40, for example, via a threaded screw connection 42.The fire suppressing agent 32 may include any suitable substance or combination of substances.","For example, the fire suppressing agent 32 may include, for example, a pyro-propellant configured to both generate driving pressure and provide a fire extinguishing or fire suppressing gas or aerosol.","For example, the fire suppressing agent 32 may include one or more of sodium azide, 5-amino tetrazole, potassium 5-amino tetrazole, guanidine nitrate, potassium chlorate, potassium nitrate, potassium perchlorate, strontium nitrate, copper nitrate (basic), copper oxide (black), ammonium perchlorate, or a LOVA propellant.","Other substances having similar characteristics are contemplated for use as the fire suppressing agent 32.Additionally, the fire suppressing agent 32 may employ byproducts of chemical reactions, such as, for example, producing potassium carbonate through a combustion reaction in the form of a finely-dispersed, micro-pulverized aerosol.","In the exemplary embodiment shown in FIG.","3, the chambers 30 are arranged about the manifold 40 in a circumferential manner.","The system 22 may be configured such that only a single chamber 30 discharges a fire suppressing agent 32 into the manifold 40 at a given time.","The controller 26 may be configured to control ignition of the fire suppressing agent 32 within each chamber 30 according to an ignition schedule, such that fire suppressing agent 32 may be supplied to a container 18 over an extended duration by releasing the fire suppressing agent 32 from a plurality of the chambers 30 at spaced time intervals.","The activation rate of each chamber 30 and/or the discharge rate of fire suppressing agent 32 from each chamber 30 may be controlled by the controller 26.For example, the controller 26 may include a timer using fixed time intervals, a sensory input-based program, or any other suitable time-regulating mechanism.","The sensor 24 may be configured to detect undesirably high temperatures, such as from a fire within a container 18.The sensor 24 may be any suitable fire-detection mechanism, such as a thermal sensor, a smoke detector, or thermally sensitive materials.","In some embodiments, the sensor 24 is in communication with the controller 26, for example, via hard-wiring and/or a wireless communication link.","In the event that the sensor 24 detects a fire, such as through an elevated temperature reading or by detecting smoke, the sensor 24 is configured to send a signal detectable by the controller 26.The controller 26 may include one or more processors, microprocessors, central processing units, on-board computers, electronic control modules, and/or any other computing and control devices known to those skilled in the art.","The controller 26 may be configured to run one or more software programs or applications stored in a memory location, read from a computer-readable medium, and/or accessed from an external device operatively coupled to the controller 26 by any suitable communications network.","After receiving the signal from the sensor 24, the controller 26 may use any suitable means, such as software programming, mechanical components, or chemical reactions, to initiate operation of the system 22.Initiating operation may be accomplished, for example, via sending an activation signal to an igniter 44 located within a chamber 30 containing the fire suppressing agent 32, for example, as shown in FIG.","4.When exposed to heat from the igniter 44, the fire suppressing agent 32 may undergo a chemical reaction, rapidly expanding and increasing pressure within the chamber 30.According to some embodiments, following activation of the igniter 44, the controller 26 sends a signal to a reporting unit (not shown) notifying a user that the system is operating, such as to a remote flight crew within an aircraft cockpit.","It is contemplated that other mechanisms and methods may be used to trigger release of fire suppressing agent 32.FIG.","5 shows an exemplary system 22 immediately following activation.","Following activation of the igniter 44, which may provide, for example, an igniter flame 45 in the chamber, the fire suppressing agent 32 heats and expands within the chamber 30.One or more pressure control plugs 46 located in a passage 48 between the chamber 30 and the manifold 40 may be displaced, dislodged, or otherwise removed by pressure from the expanding fire suppressing agent 32.","(To illustrate the presence and flow of the expanding fire suppressing agent 32, a darker shade is used in FIGS.","5-7 for the activated fire suppressing agent 32 than for unactivated fire suppressing agent 33 in an unactivated chamber 30).","The pressure control plug 46 may be formed from any suitable material as long as it prevents external pressure and heat from affecting an inactive chamber 30 (i.e., while the system is not activated).","As shown in FIG.","6, once a pressure control plug 46 is dislodged, the chamber 30 may be placed in flow communication with the manifold 40, and the fire suppressing agent 32 may flow out of the chamber 30 and into the manifold 40.The fire suppressing agent 32 may continue to expand while pressurizing the interior space of the manifold 40.FIG.","6 shows the fire suppressing agent 32 as it expands within the manifold 40, further exerting force upon a pressure disk 50 located at the interface between the manifold 40 and the puncture mechanism 34.","(Arrows are used in FIGS.","6-8 to schematically indicate the flow of the fire suppressing agent 32.)","The force exerted upon the pressure disk 50 may cause the puncture tip 38, initially located in a retracted position within a conveyance tube 36 of the puncture mechanism 34, to extend along the conveyance tube 36.The puncture tip 38 may include an angled piercing edge 39, a puncture tip opening 41, and a puncture tip side port 71.The puncture tip 38 may extend to a certain point, such as until the puncture tip 38 reaches one or more guide stops (not shown) on the conveyance tube 36.When the puncture tip 38 strikes the container 18, pressure may continue to build up on the pressure disk 50 as a result of the expanding fire suppressing agent 32, which may increase the force upon the puncture tip 38 through the pressure disk 50, thereby causing the puncture tip 38 to penetrate an exterior wall of a container 18.In some embodiments, the conveyance tube 36 further includes a locking mechanism (not shown) that locks the puncture tip 38 at its furthest-traveled position, thereby preventing the puncture tip 38 from contacting an object and bouncing back into the conveyance tube 36.The locking mechanism maximizes the likelihood of successful container 18 penetration, minimizing the possible waste of fire suppressing agent 32 during operation of the system 22.As shown in FIGS.","7 and 8, as the puncture tip 38 translates along the extent of the conveyance tube 36, but before the puncture tip 38 reaches its maximum extension, a pressure plug 52 located on the pressure disk 50 may be displaced by a pressure plug cable 54 fastened to the interior of the manifold 40.Displacement of the pressure plug 52 exposes an orifice 56 within the pressure disk 50 that allows the fire suppressing agent 32 to flow from the manifold 40 to the conveyance tube 36 through the orifice 56.The puncture tip 38 penetrates the skin of a container 18 before the pressure plug 52 is displaced from the pressure disk 50, thereby allowing the fire suppressing agent 32 to flow through the conveyance tube 36 and into the interior of the container 18 through the puncture tip opening 41 and/or the puncture tip side port 71.","(The flow of fire suppressing agent 32 through the conveyance tube 36 is shown with schematic arrows in FIG.","8).","In the exemplary embodiment shown in FIG.","9, the pressure plug cable 54 may be initially coiled within a pressure plug cable sleeve 58 located within the manifold 40.The pressure plug cable sleeve 58 protects the pressure plug cable 54 from damage or deformation during the initial expansion of the fire suppressing agent 32 within the manifold 40.The pressure plug 52 is displaced by the pressure plug cable 54 when the pressure plug cable 54 reaches its full extension, such as when the puncture tip 38 translates within the conveyance tube 36 away from the manifold 40 to a certain distance from the manifold 40.An exemplary embodiment of a fully-extended pressure plug cable 54 attached to a pressure plug 52 is shown in FIG.","10.The pressure plug cable 54 may be made of any suitable material, such as stainless steel or other materials having similar characteristics.","Collectively, the pressure plug 52, pressure plug cable 54, and pressure plug cable sleeve 58 form a pressure plug assembly 59.Pressure may mount within the manifold 40 and/or chamber 30 if the puncture tip 38 does not translate far enough within the conveyance tube 36 to displace the pressure plug 52 from the pressure disk 50 via the pressure plug cable 54.To alleviate such pressure before it causes damage to the manifold 40 and/or chamber 30, the pressure disk 50 may further include an emergency pressure release valve 60.In the exemplary embodiments shown in FIGS.","11 and 12, the emergency pressure release valve 60 on the pressure disk 50 may include a pressure plate 62, springs 64, and ports 66.The ports 66 of the emergency pressure valve 60 may allow the fire suppressing agent 32 to bypass the orifice 56 that would otherwise be exposed by displacement of the pressure plug 52, and the fire suppressing agent 32, through the ports 66, may then exert pressure upon the pressure plate 62.In the exemplary embodiments shown, the pressure plate 62 is connected to the pressure disk 50 by springs 64, and includes a pressure plate orifice 68 in the center of the pressure plate 62 configured to allow the fire suppressing agent 32 to flow through the pressure plate 62 without impediment upon removal of the pressure plug 52 by the pressure plug cable 54.The pressure plate 62 may block the flow of any fire suppressing agent 32 traveling through the ports 66 if the pressure plug 52 remains in place, however, until the pressure from the fire suppressing agent 32 in the ports 66 directed against the pressure plate 62 exerts sufficient force to displace the pressure plate 52.The strength of the springs 64, which dictates the force required for displacement of the pressure plate 62, may be determined, for example, by considering the critical system pressure and a factor of safety, and may be selected to permit the pressure plate 62 to separate from the pressure disk 50 prior to any pressure damage occurring to the manifold 40 or chambers 30.In the exemplary embodiment shown in FIG.","12, when the fire suppressing agent 32 within the manifold 40 exerts sufficient pressure against the pressure plate 62 and stretches the springs 64, thereby displacing the pressure plate 62, the fire suppressing agent 32 enters the conveyance tube 36 through the pressure plate orifice 68, even if the puncture tip 38 is not fully extended.","(The flow of the fire suppressing agent 32 is schematically shown with arrows).","The use of springs 64 is exemplary, and the pressure plate 62 may be displaced by alternative mechanisms, such as valves or electrical pressure transducers (not shown).","In the exemplary embodiments shown in FIGS.","13 and 14, the puncture mechanism 34 may further include a puncture tip disconnect 70 that allows for easy removal of the puncture tip 38 from the conveyance tube 36 after operation of the system 22.The puncture tip disconnect 70 may allow the puncture tip 38, for example, to remain in the container 18 following penetration of the container 18 until the puncture tip 38 can be safely removed during inspection.","The system 22 may further include a heat sink 72 configured to cool the fire suppressing agent 32 after ignition and before the fire suppressing agent 32 enters one or more of the manifold 40, puncture mechanism 34, and container 18.The heat sink 72 may be formed from any suitable material in an arrangement with high surface area and high thermal conductivity, such as, for example, a series of baffles or an array of fins.","The heat sink 72 may be provided in one or more of the chamber 30, manifold 40, or conveyance tube 36.Other embodiments of the invention will be apparent to those skilled in the art from consideration of the specification and practice of the invention disclosed herein.","It is intended that the specification and examples be considered as exemplary only, with a true scope and spirit of the invention being indicated by the following claims."]],"string":"[\n [\n \"Device, System, and Method for Supplying Fire Suppressing Agent to the Interior of a Container for an Extended Duration\",\n \"A method for supplying fire suppressing agent to the interior of a container for an extended duration includes detecting sensor signals indicative of a temperature associated with a container, determining via a controller that the fire suppressing agent should be supplied to the interior of the container based at least in part on the sensor signals, and initiating via the controller expulsion of fire suppressing agent from a chamber containing fire suppressing agent.\",\n \"The method may further include puncturing a surface of the container with a puncture mechanism to provide flow communication between the chamber and the interior of the container to permit supply of fire suppressing agent into the interior of the container at a first time, initiating via the controller expulsion of fire suppressing agent from a second chamber containing fire suppressing agent at a second time after the first time, and supplying fire suppressing agent from the second chamber into the interior of the container.\"\n ],\n [\n \"1-24.\",\n \"(canceled) 25.A method for supplying fire suppressing agent to the interior of a container for an extended duration, the method comprising: detecting sensor signals indicative of a temperature associated with a container; determining via a controller that the fire suppressing agent should be supplied to the interior of the container based at least in part on the sensor signals; initiating via the controller expulsion of fire suppressing agent from a chamber containing fire suppressing agent; puncturing a surface of the container with a puncture mechanism to provide flow communication between the chamber and the interior of the container to permit supply of fire suppressing agent into the interior of the container at a first time; initiating via the controller expulsion of fire suppressing agent from a second chamber containing fire suppressing agent at a second time after the first time; and supplying fire suppressing agent from the second chamber into the interior of the container.\",\n \"26.The method of claim 25, further comprising initiating the expulsion of fire suppressing agent from the chamber containing fire suppressing agent via an igniter configured to receive an activation signal from the controller.\",\n \"27.The method of claim 25, further comprising alerting a user of the expulsion of fire suppressing agent via an alerting system at a location remote from the container.\",\n \"28.The method of claim 27, wherein the location remote from the container comprises an aircraft cockpit.\"\n ],\n [\n \" BACKGROUND OF THE DISCLOSURE Cargo may be transported to its destination using one or more of several different types of vehicles, including, for example, ships, trains, aircraft, and trucks.\",\n \"Such cargo is transported while located in the interior of cargo areas.\",\n \"In some cases, cargo may include hazardous, easily flammable, and/or easily combustible materials that may render transport dangerous to the cargo itself, as well as to the vehicle transporting the cargo and operators of the vehicle.\",\n \"In many instances, cargo may be carried in an area separated from an operator controlling the vehicle.\",\n \"As a result, an operator may be unaware of a fire or explosion that has occurred within a cargo container or within the cargo area.\",\n \"Moreover, due to the nature of a cargo vehicle, there may be a limited supply of fire suppressant available.\",\n \"For example, aboard a cargo aircraft, the weight of any fire suppressant may limit the amount of fire suppressant that may be carried for suppressing fires.\",\n \"Therefore, it may be desirable to limit the amount of fire suppressant used to extinguish a fire in order to reduce the weight carried by the aircraft by focusing any release of fire suppressant on the particular area in need of fire suppressant, rather than merely releasing a large enough amount of suppressant to flood the entire cargo area.\",\n \"Furthermore, the fire suppressant itself may be harmful to some types of cargo.\",\n \"Therefore, it may be desirable to limit the release of fire suppressant to the location in need of fire suppression, so as to limit the spoilage of cargo not in need of fire suppressant.\",\n \"Because cargo areas experiencing a fire may be located remotely from cargo vehicle operators (i.e., the cargo may be located in an unoccupied and/or difficult to access portion of the vehicle), it may be more difficult to provide fire suppressant to an area experiencing a fire in a timely manner.\",\n \"Therefore, it may be desirable to provide a system for supplying fire suppressant remotely and in a timely manner.\",\n \"One example of a cargo vehicle having an operator located relatively remotely from the cargo area is an aircraft.\",\n \"The majority of cargo carried by modern aircraft is transported in cargo containers or on cargo pallets.\",\n \"The containers are generally referred to generically as Unit Load Devices (“ULDs”).\",\n \"For safety considerations, ULDs must often be configured to engage an aircraft cargo locking system in order to restrain the cargo containers under various flight, ground load, and/or emergency conditions.\",\n \"Under federal air regulations, ULDs are considered aircraft appliances, are Federal Aviation Administration (FAA)-certified for a specific type of aircraft, and are typically manufactured to specifications contained in National Aerospace Standard (NAS) 3610.In the cargo aircraft example, while some cargo areas may be conventionally equipped with fire extinguishing bottles intended for manual operation, few cargo containers may be accessible to flight crews during a flight, thereby possibly rendering it difficult to manually extinguish a fire located in an aircraft cargo area using fire extinguishing bottles.\",\n \"In addition, fires may occur inside cargo containers, and if those fires are not suppressed or extinguished, they may breach the walls of the container and spread throughout the cargo area.\",\n \"However, it may be difficult, if not impossible, to suppress or extinguish a fire inside a container without discharging fire suppressant into the interior of the container.\",\n \"Thus, it may be desirable to provide a system for suppressing a fire associated with a container for which a fire has been detected.\",\n \"In addition, it may be desirable to provide a system for supplying fire suppressant inside the container.\",\n \"Further, it may be desirable to provide a system for supplying a fire suppressant inside the container for an extended period of time or duration of time, for example, so that a cargo aircraft may safely land before a fire spreads throughout the cargo area.\",\n \"Such a fire suppression system or plurality of systems may be located either in one area of a cargo area, such as a “high risk” area containing particularly hazardous materials, or throughout the cargo area.\",\n \"Problems associated with detecting and/or suppressing fires are not limited to the cargo transportation industry.\",\n \"Similar problems may arise, for example, wherever cargo and/or other articles are stored in a location that is remote from a person supervising the cargo or other articles, such as in a storage facility.\",\n \"Thus, in a broad variety of situations, it may be desirable to remotely detect and/or remotely suppress a fire.\",\n \"In many applications, it may be impractical or inefficient to store a fire suppression system directly in a container such as a ULD.\",\n \"For instance, containers may be subjected to harsh environments, including extreme cold and heat, shock, vibration, and general abuse.\",\n \"As a result, providing a fire suppression system in each individual container may be impractical due, for example, to accelerated degradation or failure of such systems over time.\",\n \"Moreover, a given company in the cargo freight industry may use thousands of containers, and the cost of equipping each container with a fire suppression system may be prohibitive.\",\n \"Installing, maintaining, and removing the fire suppression system of each container could also be impractical and uneconomical.\",\n \"As a result, there are many possible drawbacks to providing fire suppressing systems in a large number of containers.\",\n \"In addition, existing technologies and techniques may only provide a limited fire suppressing window.\",\n \"For example, some methods may be a one-time solution, such as devices that supply a fire suppressing agent into a container during a single application.\",\n \"When a fire suppressing agent leaks out of or disperses from a ULD after introduction into the ULD, the fire may grow again and breach the ULD, potentially spreading to surrounding cargo.\",\n \"This may severely limit the time available for a flight crew to safely land a cargo aircraft, for example.\",\n \"Some tests have shown that a single application of fire suppressing agent into a container may be effective for twenty minutes or less.\",\n \"This may be inadequate, for example, for a cargo aircraft during a transoceanic flight, where it may take several hours to fly to the closest airport suitable for landing.\",\n \"Therefore, it may be desirable to provide a consistent or repeated supply of fire suppressing agent to a container over an extended duration.\"\n ],\n [\n \" SUMMARY In the following description, certain aspects and embodiments of a device for supplying fire suppressing agent to the interior of a container for an extended duration will become evident.\",\n \"It should be understood that the aspects and embodiments, in their broadest sense, could be practiced without having one or more features of these aspects and embodiments.\",\n \"It should be understood that these aspects and embodiments are merely exemplary.\",\n \"One aspect of the disclosure relates to a device for supplying fire suppressing agent to the interior of a container for an extended duration.\",\n \"The device may include a plurality of chambers configured to contain and selectively expel fire suppressing agent, a puncture mechanism configured to puncture a container, and a manifold in flow communication with the plurality of chambers and the puncture mechanism.\",\n \"The device may further include a controller configured to initiate expulsion of the fire suppressing agent from the chambers in a controlled manner.\",\n \"The device may be configured such that the fire suppressing agent may be first expelled from a first one of the plurality of chambers at a first time, and the fire suppressing agent may be expelled from a second one of the plurality of chambers at a second time that is later than the first time.\",\n \"As used herein, the term “fire” is not necessarily limited to a fire having visible flames.\",\n \"Rather, the term “fire” is used in a broad sense and may be used to describe situations in which an object and/or surface is exhibiting a higher temperature than desired or considered to be unsafe to a person having skill in the art, such as, for example, a situation in which an object and/or surface is smoldering, smoking, and/or is hot to the touch.\",\n \"According to another aspect, a system for supplying fire suppressing agent to the interior of a container for an extended duration may include a plurality of chambers configured to contain and selectively expel fire suppressing agent, a puncture mechanism configured to puncture a container, and a manifold in flow communication with the plurality of chambers and the puncture mechanism.\",\n \"The system may further include a sensor configured to provide signals indicative of a temperature associated with a container to a controller configured to initiate expulsion of fire suppressing agent from the chambers in a controlled manner.\",\n \"The system may be configured such that the fire suppressing agent may be first expelled from a first one of the plurality of chambers at a first time, and the fire suppressing agent may be expelled from a second one of the plurality of chambers at a second time that is later than the first time.\",\n \"The puncture mechanism may be configured to extend and puncture a container after expulsion of the fire suppressing agent.\",\n \"According to a further aspect, a method for supplying fire suppressing agent to the interior of a container for an extended duration may include detecting sensor signals indicative of a temperature associated with a container, determining via a controller that the fire suppressing agent should be supplied to the interior of the container based at least in part on the sensor signals, and initiating via the controller expulsion of fire suppressing agent from a chamber containing fire suppressing agent.\",\n \"The method may further include puncturing a surface of the container with a puncture mechanism to provide flow communication between the chamber and the interior of the container to permit supply of fire suppressing agent into the interior of the container at a first time.\",\n \"The method may further include initiating, via the controller, expulsion of fire suppressing agent from a second chamber containing fire suppressing agent at a second time after the first time.\",\n \"The method may further include supplying fire suppressing agent from the second chamber into the interior of the container.\",\n \"It is to be understood that both the foregoing general description and the following detailed description are exemplary and explanatory only and are not restrictive of the invention, as claimed.\",\n \"The accompanying drawings, which are incorporated in and constitute a part of this specification, illustrate several exemplary embodiments and together with the description, may serve to explain the principles of the disclosure.\"\n ],\n [\n \"RELATED APPLICATION This application claims the benefit of priority under 35 U.S.C.\",\n \"§ 119(e) of U.S.\",\n \"Provisional Application No.\",\n \"61/952,503, filed Mar.\",\n \"13, 2014, the disclosure of which is incorporated herein by reference.\",\n \"FIELD OF THE DISCLOSURE The present disclosure relates to systems and methods for suppressing fires.\",\n \"In particular, the present disclosure relates to systems and methods for suppressing fires associated with containers.\",\n \"BACKGROUND OF THE DISCLOSURE Cargo may be transported to its destination using one or more of several different types of vehicles, including, for example, ships, trains, aircraft, and trucks.\",\n \"Such cargo is transported while located in the interior of cargo areas.\",\n \"In some cases, cargo may include hazardous, easily flammable, and/or easily combustible materials that may render transport dangerous to the cargo itself, as well as to the vehicle transporting the cargo and operators of the vehicle.\",\n \"In many instances, cargo may be carried in an area separated from an operator controlling the vehicle.\",\n \"As a result, an operator may be unaware of a fire or explosion that has occurred within a cargo container or within the cargo area.\",\n \"Moreover, due to the nature of a cargo vehicle, there may be a limited supply of fire suppressant available.\",\n \"For example, aboard a cargo aircraft, the weight of any fire suppressant may limit the amount of fire suppressant that may be carried for suppressing fires.\",\n \"Therefore, it may be desirable to limit the amount of fire suppressant used to extinguish a fire in order to reduce the weight carried by the aircraft by focusing any release of fire suppressant on the particular area in need of fire suppressant, rather than merely releasing a large enough amount of suppressant to flood the entire cargo area.\",\n \"Furthermore, the fire suppressant itself may be harmful to some types of cargo.\",\n \"Therefore, it may be desirable to limit the release of fire suppressant to the location in need of fire suppression, so as to limit the spoilage of cargo not in need of fire suppressant.\",\n \"Because cargo areas experiencing a fire may be located remotely from cargo vehicle operators (i.e., the cargo may be located in an unoccupied and/or difficult to access portion of the vehicle), it may be more difficult to provide fire suppressant to an area experiencing a fire in a timely manner.\",\n \"Therefore, it may be desirable to provide a system for supplying fire suppressant remotely and in a timely manner.\",\n \"One example of a cargo vehicle having an operator located relatively remotely from the cargo area is an aircraft.\",\n \"The majority of cargo carried by modern aircraft is transported in cargo containers or on cargo pallets.\",\n \"The containers are generally referred to generically as Unit Load Devices (“ULDs”).\",\n \"For safety considerations, ULDs must often be configured to engage an aircraft cargo locking system in order to restrain the cargo containers under various flight, ground load, and/or emergency conditions.\",\n \"Under federal air regulations, ULDs are considered aircraft appliances, are Federal Aviation Administration (FAA)-certified for a specific type of aircraft, and are typically manufactured to specifications contained in National Aerospace Standard (NAS) 3610.In the cargo aircraft example, while some cargo areas may be conventionally equipped with fire extinguishing bottles intended for manual operation, few cargo containers may be accessible to flight crews during a flight, thereby possibly rendering it difficult to manually extinguish a fire located in an aircraft cargo area using fire extinguishing bottles.\",\n \"In addition, fires may occur inside cargo containers, and if those fires are not suppressed or extinguished, they may breach the walls of the container and spread throughout the cargo area.\",\n \"However, it may be difficult, if not impossible, to suppress or extinguish a fire inside a container without discharging fire suppressant into the interior of the container.\",\n \"Thus, it may be desirable to provide a system for suppressing a fire associated with a container for which a fire has been detected.\",\n \"In addition, it may be desirable to provide a system for supplying fire suppressant inside the container.\",\n \"Further, it may be desirable to provide a system for supplying a fire suppressant inside the container for an extended period of time or duration of time, for example, so that a cargo aircraft may safely land before a fire spreads throughout the cargo area.\",\n \"Such a fire suppression system or plurality of systems may be located either in one area of a cargo area, such as a “high risk” area containing particularly hazardous materials, or throughout the cargo area.\",\n \"Problems associated with detecting and/or suppressing fires are not limited to the cargo transportation industry.\",\n \"Similar problems may arise, for example, wherever cargo and/or other articles are stored in a location that is remote from a person supervising the cargo or other articles, such as in a storage facility.\",\n \"Thus, in a broad variety of situations, it may be desirable to remotely detect and/or remotely suppress a fire.\",\n \"In many applications, it may be impractical or inefficient to store a fire suppression system directly in a container such as a ULD.\",\n \"For instance, containers may be subjected to harsh environments, including extreme cold and heat, shock, vibration, and general abuse.\",\n \"As a result, providing a fire suppression system in each individual container may be impractical due, for example, to accelerated degradation or failure of such systems over time.\",\n \"Moreover, a given company in the cargo freight industry may use thousands of containers, and the cost of equipping each container with a fire suppression system may be prohibitive.\",\n \"Installing, maintaining, and removing the fire suppression system of each container could also be impractical and uneconomical.\",\n \"As a result, there are many possible drawbacks to providing fire suppressing systems in a large number of containers.\",\n \"In addition, existing technologies and techniques may only provide a limited fire suppressing window.\",\n \"For example, some methods may be a one-time solution, such as devices that supply a fire suppressing agent into a container during a single application.\",\n \"When a fire suppressing agent leaks out of or disperses from a ULD after introduction into the ULD, the fire may grow again and breach the ULD, potentially spreading to surrounding cargo.\",\n \"This may severely limit the time available for a flight crew to safely land a cargo aircraft, for example.\",\n \"Some tests have shown that a single application of fire suppressing agent into a container may be effective for twenty minutes or less.\",\n \"This may be inadequate, for example, for a cargo aircraft during a transoceanic flight, where it may take several hours to fly to the closest airport suitable for landing.\",\n \"Therefore, it may be desirable to provide a consistent or repeated supply of fire suppressing agent to a container over an extended duration.\",\n \"SUMMARY In the following description, certain aspects and embodiments of a device for supplying fire suppressing agent to the interior of a container for an extended duration will become evident.\",\n \"It should be understood that the aspects and embodiments, in their broadest sense, could be practiced without having one or more features of these aspects and embodiments.\",\n \"It should be understood that these aspects and embodiments are merely exemplary.\",\n \"One aspect of the disclosure relates to a device for supplying fire suppressing agent to the interior of a container for an extended duration.\",\n \"The device may include a plurality of chambers configured to contain and selectively expel fire suppressing agent, a puncture mechanism configured to puncture a container, and a manifold in flow communication with the plurality of chambers and the puncture mechanism.\",\n \"The device may further include a controller configured to initiate expulsion of the fire suppressing agent from the chambers in a controlled manner.\",\n \"The device may be configured such that the fire suppressing agent may be first expelled from a first one of the plurality of chambers at a first time, and the fire suppressing agent may be expelled from a second one of the plurality of chambers at a second time that is later than the first time.\",\n \"As used herein, the term “fire” is not necessarily limited to a fire having visible flames.\",\n \"Rather, the term “fire” is used in a broad sense and may be used to describe situations in which an object and/or surface is exhibiting a higher temperature than desired or considered to be unsafe to a person having skill in the art, such as, for example, a situation in which an object and/or surface is smoldering, smoking, and/or is hot to the touch.\",\n \"According to another aspect, a system for supplying fire suppressing agent to the interior of a container for an extended duration may include a plurality of chambers configured to contain and selectively expel fire suppressing agent, a puncture mechanism configured to puncture a container, and a manifold in flow communication with the plurality of chambers and the puncture mechanism.\",\n \"The system may further include a sensor configured to provide signals indicative of a temperature associated with a container to a controller configured to initiate expulsion of fire suppressing agent from the chambers in a controlled manner.\",\n \"The system may be configured such that the fire suppressing agent may be first expelled from a first one of the plurality of chambers at a first time, and the fire suppressing agent may be expelled from a second one of the plurality of chambers at a second time that is later than the first time.\",\n \"The puncture mechanism may be configured to extend and puncture a container after expulsion of the fire suppressing agent.\",\n \"According to a further aspect, a method for supplying fire suppressing agent to the interior of a container for an extended duration may include detecting sensor signals indicative of a temperature associated with a container, determining via a controller that the fire suppressing agent should be supplied to the interior of the container based at least in part on the sensor signals, and initiating via the controller expulsion of fire suppressing agent from a chamber containing fire suppressing agent.\",\n \"The method may further include puncturing a surface of the container with a puncture mechanism to provide flow communication between the chamber and the interior of the container to permit supply of fire suppressing agent into the interior of the container at a first time.\",\n \"The method may further include initiating, via the controller, expulsion of fire suppressing agent from a second chamber containing fire suppressing agent at a second time after the first time.\",\n \"The method may further include supplying fire suppressing agent from the second chamber into the interior of the container.\",\n \"It is to be understood that both the foregoing general description and the following detailed description are exemplary and explanatory only and are not restrictive of the invention, as claimed.\",\n \"The accompanying drawings, which are incorporated in and constitute a part of this specification, illustrate several exemplary embodiments and together with the description, may serve to explain the principles of the disclosure.\",\n \"BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG.\",\n \"1 is a schematic, cut-away, perspective view of an exemplary vehicle; FIG.\",\n \"2 is a schematic, cut-away, front view of an exemplary embodiment of a system for supplying fire suppressing agent to the interior of a container in an exemplary cargo area; FIG.\",\n \"3 is a schematic, partial cut-away, top view of an exemplary embodiment of a system for supplying fire suppressing agent to the interior of a container; FIG.\",\n \"4 is a schematic, cut-away, top view of an exemplary embodiment of a chamber containing a fire suppressing agent; FIG.\",\n \"5 is a schematic, partial cut-away, side view of an exemplary embodiment of a system for supplying fire suppressing agent to the interior of a container during operation in an initial, non-deployed configuration; FIG.\",\n \"6 is a schematic, partial cut-away, side view of an exemplary embodiment of a system for supplying fire suppressing agent to the interior of a container during operation in a partially-deployed configuration; FIG.\",\n \"7 is a schematic, partial cut-away, side view of an exemplary embodiment of a system for supplying fire suppressing agent to the interior of a container during operation in a fully-deployed configuration; FIG.\",\n \"8 is a schematic, partial cut-away, side view of an exemplary embodiment of a puncture mechanism during operation with an exemplary pressure plug removed; FIG.\",\n \"9 is a schematic, partial cut-away, side view of an exemplary embodiment of a pressure plug assembly in a non-extended configuration; FIG.\",\n \"10 is a schematic, partial cut-away, side view of an exemplary embodiment of a pressure plug assembly in a fully-extended configuration; FIG.\",\n \"11 is a schematic, top view of an exemplary embodiment of a puncture mechanism; FIG.\",\n \"12 is a schematic, partial cut-away, side view of an exemplary embodiment of a puncture mechanism during operation with an exemplary pressure plug; FIG.\",\n \"13 is a schematic, top view of an exemplary embodiment of a removable puncture tip; and FIG.\",\n \"14 is a schematic, partial cut-away, side view of an exemplary embodiment of a removable puncture tip.\",\n \"DESCRIPTION OF EXEMPLARY EMBODIMENTS Reference will now be made in detail to exemplary embodiments, which are illustrated in the accompanying drawings.\",\n \"Wherever possible, the same reference numbers will be used throughout the drawings to refer to the same or like parts.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"1 shows an exemplary vehicle 10 for transporting containers.\",\n \"The vehicle 10 may include a body 12 defining an interior 14 of the vehicle, a deck 16 within the body 14, the deck 16 being configured to support a plurality of containers 18, and a ceiling 20 spaced above the deck 16.FIG.\",\n \"2 is a cross-sectional view of the exemplary vehicle 10 of FIG.\",\n \"1.The vehicle 10 may include a system 22 for supplying fire suppressing agent 32 (see FIG.\",\n \"3) to the interior of a container 18 supported by the deck 16.The system 22 may be attached, for example, to the ceiling 20 above at least one location configured to receive a container 18.The system 22 may include a sensor 24 and a controller 26.The system 22 may further include at least two chambers 30 containing a fire suppressing agent 32, a puncture mechanism 34 with a conveyance tube 36 and a puncture tip 38 (see FIG.\",\n \"5), and a manifold 40 connecting the chambers 30 to the puncture mechanism 34 that allows for flow of the fire suppressing agent 32 from a chamber 30 to the puncture mechanism 34 during operation of the system 22.In the exemplary embodiment shown, each chamber 30 is coupled to the manifold 40, for example, via a threaded screw connection 42.The fire suppressing agent 32 may include any suitable substance or combination of substances.\",\n \"For example, the fire suppressing agent 32 may include, for example, a pyro-propellant configured to both generate driving pressure and provide a fire extinguishing or fire suppressing gas or aerosol.\",\n \"For example, the fire suppressing agent 32 may include one or more of sodium azide, 5-amino tetrazole, potassium 5-amino tetrazole, guanidine nitrate, potassium chlorate, potassium nitrate, potassium perchlorate, strontium nitrate, copper nitrate (basic), copper oxide (black), ammonium perchlorate, or a LOVA propellant.\",\n \"Other substances having similar characteristics are contemplated for use as the fire suppressing agent 32.Additionally, the fire suppressing agent 32 may employ byproducts of chemical reactions, such as, for example, producing potassium carbonate through a combustion reaction in the form of a finely-dispersed, micro-pulverized aerosol.\",\n \"In the exemplary embodiment shown in FIG.\",\n \"3, the chambers 30 are arranged about the manifold 40 in a circumferential manner.\",\n \"The system 22 may be configured such that only a single chamber 30 discharges a fire suppressing agent 32 into the manifold 40 at a given time.\",\n \"The controller 26 may be configured to control ignition of the fire suppressing agent 32 within each chamber 30 according to an ignition schedule, such that fire suppressing agent 32 may be supplied to a container 18 over an extended duration by releasing the fire suppressing agent 32 from a plurality of the chambers 30 at spaced time intervals.\",\n \"The activation rate of each chamber 30 and/or the discharge rate of fire suppressing agent 32 from each chamber 30 may be controlled by the controller 26.For example, the controller 26 may include a timer using fixed time intervals, a sensory input-based program, or any other suitable time-regulating mechanism.\",\n \"The sensor 24 may be configured to detect undesirably high temperatures, such as from a fire within a container 18.The sensor 24 may be any suitable fire-detection mechanism, such as a thermal sensor, a smoke detector, or thermally sensitive materials.\",\n \"In some embodiments, the sensor 24 is in communication with the controller 26, for example, via hard-wiring and/or a wireless communication link.\",\n \"In the event that the sensor 24 detects a fire, such as through an elevated temperature reading or by detecting smoke, the sensor 24 is configured to send a signal detectable by the controller 26.The controller 26 may include one or more processors, microprocessors, central processing units, on-board computers, electronic control modules, and/or any other computing and control devices known to those skilled in the art.\",\n \"The controller 26 may be configured to run one or more software programs or applications stored in a memory location, read from a computer-readable medium, and/or accessed from an external device operatively coupled to the controller 26 by any suitable communications network.\",\n \"After receiving the signal from the sensor 24, the controller 26 may use any suitable means, such as software programming, mechanical components, or chemical reactions, to initiate operation of the system 22.Initiating operation may be accomplished, for example, via sending an activation signal to an igniter 44 located within a chamber 30 containing the fire suppressing agent 32, for example, as shown in FIG.\",\n \"4.When exposed to heat from the igniter 44, the fire suppressing agent 32 may undergo a chemical reaction, rapidly expanding and increasing pressure within the chamber 30.According to some embodiments, following activation of the igniter 44, the controller 26 sends a signal to a reporting unit (not shown) notifying a user that the system is operating, such as to a remote flight crew within an aircraft cockpit.\",\n \"It is contemplated that other mechanisms and methods may be used to trigger release of fire suppressing agent 32.FIG.\",\n \"5 shows an exemplary system 22 immediately following activation.\",\n \"Following activation of the igniter 44, which may provide, for example, an igniter flame 45 in the chamber, the fire suppressing agent 32 heats and expands within the chamber 30.One or more pressure control plugs 46 located in a passage 48 between the chamber 30 and the manifold 40 may be displaced, dislodged, or otherwise removed by pressure from the expanding fire suppressing agent 32.\",\n \"(To illustrate the presence and flow of the expanding fire suppressing agent 32, a darker shade is used in FIGS.\",\n \"5-7 for the activated fire suppressing agent 32 than for unactivated fire suppressing agent 33 in an unactivated chamber 30).\",\n \"The pressure control plug 46 may be formed from any suitable material as long as it prevents external pressure and heat from affecting an inactive chamber 30 (i.e., while the system is not activated).\",\n \"As shown in FIG.\",\n \"6, once a pressure control plug 46 is dislodged, the chamber 30 may be placed in flow communication with the manifold 40, and the fire suppressing agent 32 may flow out of the chamber 30 and into the manifold 40.The fire suppressing agent 32 may continue to expand while pressurizing the interior space of the manifold 40.FIG.\",\n \"6 shows the fire suppressing agent 32 as it expands within the manifold 40, further exerting force upon a pressure disk 50 located at the interface between the manifold 40 and the puncture mechanism 34.\",\n \"(Arrows are used in FIGS.\",\n \"6-8 to schematically indicate the flow of the fire suppressing agent 32.)\",\n \"The force exerted upon the pressure disk 50 may cause the puncture tip 38, initially located in a retracted position within a conveyance tube 36 of the puncture mechanism 34, to extend along the conveyance tube 36.The puncture tip 38 may include an angled piercing edge 39, a puncture tip opening 41, and a puncture tip side port 71.The puncture tip 38 may extend to a certain point, such as until the puncture tip 38 reaches one or more guide stops (not shown) on the conveyance tube 36.When the puncture tip 38 strikes the container 18, pressure may continue to build up on the pressure disk 50 as a result of the expanding fire suppressing agent 32, which may increase the force upon the puncture tip 38 through the pressure disk 50, thereby causing the puncture tip 38 to penetrate an exterior wall of a container 18.In some embodiments, the conveyance tube 36 further includes a locking mechanism (not shown) that locks the puncture tip 38 at its furthest-traveled position, thereby preventing the puncture tip 38 from contacting an object and bouncing back into the conveyance tube 36.The locking mechanism maximizes the likelihood of successful container 18 penetration, minimizing the possible waste of fire suppressing agent 32 during operation of the system 22.As shown in FIGS.\",\n \"7 and 8, as the puncture tip 38 translates along the extent of the conveyance tube 36, but before the puncture tip 38 reaches its maximum extension, a pressure plug 52 located on the pressure disk 50 may be displaced by a pressure plug cable 54 fastened to the interior of the manifold 40.Displacement of the pressure plug 52 exposes an orifice 56 within the pressure disk 50 that allows the fire suppressing agent 32 to flow from the manifold 40 to the conveyance tube 36 through the orifice 56.The puncture tip 38 penetrates the skin of a container 18 before the pressure plug 52 is displaced from the pressure disk 50, thereby allowing the fire suppressing agent 32 to flow through the conveyance tube 36 and into the interior of the container 18 through the puncture tip opening 41 and/or the puncture tip side port 71.\",\n \"(The flow of fire suppressing agent 32 through the conveyance tube 36 is shown with schematic arrows in FIG.\",\n \"8).\",\n \"In the exemplary embodiment shown in FIG.\",\n \"9, the pressure plug cable 54 may be initially coiled within a pressure plug cable sleeve 58 located within the manifold 40.The pressure plug cable sleeve 58 protects the pressure plug cable 54 from damage or deformation during the initial expansion of the fire suppressing agent 32 within the manifold 40.The pressure plug 52 is displaced by the pressure plug cable 54 when the pressure plug cable 54 reaches its full extension, such as when the puncture tip 38 translates within the conveyance tube 36 away from the manifold 40 to a certain distance from the manifold 40.An exemplary embodiment of a fully-extended pressure plug cable 54 attached to a pressure plug 52 is shown in FIG.\",\n \"10.The pressure plug cable 54 may be made of any suitable material, such as stainless steel or other materials having similar characteristics.\",\n \"Collectively, the pressure plug 52, pressure plug cable 54, and pressure plug cable sleeve 58 form a pressure plug assembly 59.Pressure may mount within the manifold 40 and/or chamber 30 if the puncture tip 38 does not translate far enough within the conveyance tube 36 to displace the pressure plug 52 from the pressure disk 50 via the pressure plug cable 54.To alleviate such pressure before it causes damage to the manifold 40 and/or chamber 30, the pressure disk 50 may further include an emergency pressure release valve 60.In the exemplary embodiments shown in FIGS.\",\n \"11 and 12, the emergency pressure release valve 60 on the pressure disk 50 may include a pressure plate 62, springs 64, and ports 66.The ports 66 of the emergency pressure valve 60 may allow the fire suppressing agent 32 to bypass the orifice 56 that would otherwise be exposed by displacement of the pressure plug 52, and the fire suppressing agent 32, through the ports 66, may then exert pressure upon the pressure plate 62.In the exemplary embodiments shown, the pressure plate 62 is connected to the pressure disk 50 by springs 64, and includes a pressure plate orifice 68 in the center of the pressure plate 62 configured to allow the fire suppressing agent 32 to flow through the pressure plate 62 without impediment upon removal of the pressure plug 52 by the pressure plug cable 54.The pressure plate 62 may block the flow of any fire suppressing agent 32 traveling through the ports 66 if the pressure plug 52 remains in place, however, until the pressure from the fire suppressing agent 32 in the ports 66 directed against the pressure plate 62 exerts sufficient force to displace the pressure plate 52.The strength of the springs 64, which dictates the force required for displacement of the pressure plate 62, may be determined, for example, by considering the critical system pressure and a factor of safety, and may be selected to permit the pressure plate 62 to separate from the pressure disk 50 prior to any pressure damage occurring to the manifold 40 or chambers 30.In the exemplary embodiment shown in FIG.\",\n \"12, when the fire suppressing agent 32 within the manifold 40 exerts sufficient pressure against the pressure plate 62 and stretches the springs 64, thereby displacing the pressure plate 62, the fire suppressing agent 32 enters the conveyance tube 36 through the pressure plate orifice 68, even if the puncture tip 38 is not fully extended.\",\n \"(The flow of the fire suppressing agent 32 is schematically shown with arrows).\",\n \"The use of springs 64 is exemplary, and the pressure plate 62 may be displaced by alternative mechanisms, such as valves or electrical pressure transducers (not shown).\",\n \"In the exemplary embodiments shown in FIGS.\",\n \"13 and 14, the puncture mechanism 34 may further include a puncture tip disconnect 70 that allows for easy removal of the puncture tip 38 from the conveyance tube 36 after operation of the system 22.The puncture tip disconnect 70 may allow the puncture tip 38, for example, to remain in the container 18 following penetration of the container 18 until the puncture tip 38 can be safely removed during inspection.\",\n \"The system 22 may further include a heat sink 72 configured to cool the fire suppressing agent 32 after ignition and before the fire suppressing agent 32 enters one or more of the manifold 40, puncture mechanism 34, and container 18.The heat sink 72 may be formed from any suitable material in an arrangement with high surface area and high thermal conductivity, such as, for example, a series of baffles or an array of fins.\",\n \"The heat sink 72 may be provided in one or more of the chamber 30, manifold 40, or conveyance tube 36.Other embodiments of the invention will be apparent to those skilled in the art from consideration of the specification and practice of the invention disclosed herein.\",\n \"It is intended that the specification and examples be considered as exemplary only, with a true scope and spirit of the invention being indicated by the following claims.\"\n ]\n]"},"source":{"kind":"string","value":"Patent_15875345"}}},{"rowIdx":4494860,"cells":{"text":{"kind":"list like","value":[["Sample Collection Device and Methods for Nucleic Acid Preservation","The present application generally relates to methods and compositions for biological sample collection, including a sample collection device directed to the use of a flammable solvent-free based composition for preservation, stabilization, and transportation of nucleic acids from biological samples for long-term room temperature storage."],["1.A device for preserving nucleic acids from a biological sample in a subject comprising: (a) a main body forming a central portion of the device and having a sample collection element rigidly fixed thereto and extending coaxially therefrom; (b) a first container removably engaged with the main body to form a first sealed cavity that contains the sample collection element, the first container also being at least substantially coaxial with the main body and forming a first end of the device; and, (c) a second container removably engaged with the main body to form a second sealed cavity, the second container also being at least substantially coaxial with the main body, forming a second end of the device, and having a partition disposed within the second sealed cavity and traversing the entire cross-sectional area of the second container to form a first compartment and a second compartment within the second sealed cavity; wherein the first compartment is proximal to the main body comparative to the second compartment and the second compartment is distal to the main body comparative to the first compartment, wherein the first compartment contains a first preservative that is operatively coupled to the interior surface of the second container, wherein the second compartment contains a quantity of a second preservative, and wherein the partition prohibits the quantity of the second preservative from entering the first compartment.","2.The device of claim 1, wherein the biological sample is saliva.","3.The device of claim 1, wherein the sample collection element is a brush.","4.The device of claim 1, wherein the interior surface of the second container is a perflourinated polymer.","5.The device of claim 1, wherein the first preservative comprises a proteolytic enzyme selected from the group consisting of proteinases, proteases, subtilisins and subtilases.","6.The device of claim 5, wherein the proteolytic enzyme is proteinase K. 7.The device of claim 1, wherein the second preservative comprises an anionic surfactant.","8.The device of claim 7, wherein the anionic surfactant is selected from the group consisting of alkyl sulfates, alkyl ether sulfates, olefin sulfonates, alkyl sulfoacetates, alkyl ether sulfoacetates, alkyl sulfosuccinates, alkyl ether sulfosuccinates, and mixtures thereof.","9.The device of claim 7, wherein the anionic surfactant is lithium dodecyl sulfate.","10.The device of claim 1, further comprising a barcode for sample identification.","11.A method of preserving nucleic acids using a device according to claim 1 from a biological sample in a subject comprising: (a) collecting the sample from the subject with a sample collection element; (b) introducing the sample collection element into the second container; (c) contacting the sample with the first preservative to form a liquid sample; (d) contacting the liquid sample with the second preservative; and, (e) sealing the second container thereby forming a preserved biological sample for storage at room temperature.","12.A method for processing nucleic acids from a biological sample for chemical or biochemical analysis, the method comprising: (a) providing a device comprising: (i) a main body forming a central portion of the device and having a sample collection element rigidly fixed thereto and extending coaxially therefrom; (ii) a first container removably engaged with the main body to form a first sealed cavity that contains the sample collection element, the first container also being at least substantially coaxial with the main body and forming a first end of the device; and, (iii) a second container removably engaged with the main body to form a second sealed cavity, the second container also being at least substantially coaxial with the main body, forming a second end of the device, and having a partition disposed within the second sealed cavity and traversing the entire cross-sectional area of the second container to form a first compartment and a second compartment within the second sealed cavity; wherein the first compartment is proximal to the main body comparative to the second compartment and the second compartment is distal to the main body comparative to the first compartment, wherein the first compartment contains a first preservative that is operatively coupled to the interior surface of the second container, wherein the second compartment contains a second preservative, and wherein the partition prohibits the second preservative from entering the first compartment; (b) extracting nucleic acids from the second container; and, (c) performing chemical or biochemical analysis of the nucleic acids.","13.The method of claim 12, wherein the biological sample is saliva.","14.The method of claim 12, wherein the sample collection element is a brush.","15.The method of claim 12, wherein the interior surface of the second container is a perflourinated polymer.","16.The method of claim 12, wherein the first preservative comprises a proteolytic enzyme selected from the group consisting of proteinases, proteases, subtilisins and subtilases.","17.The method of claim 12, wherein the proteolytic enzyme is proteinase K. 18.The method of claim 12, wherein the second preservative comprises an anionic surfactant.","19.The method of claim 12, wherein the anionic surfactant is selected from the group consisting of alkyl sulfates, alkyl ether sulfates, olefin sulfonates, alkyl sulfoacetates, alkyl ether sulfoacetates, alkyl sulfosuccinates, alkyl ether sulfosuccinates, and mixtures thereof.","20.The method of claim 12, further comprising a barcode for sample identification."],[" BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION The present application generally relates to methods and compositions for biological sample collection and preservation, including sample collection devices involving the use of flammable solvent-free compositions for preservation, stabilization, and transportation of nucleic acids from biological samples for short-term or long-term storage at room temperature or other temperatures above or below room temperature.","Embodiments described herein feature a device for collecting biological samples such as saliva containing nucleic acids, a preservative composition affixed directly to the device or to a carrier substrate and placed within the device, and a liquid preservative composition contained within the device such that the biological samples come into contact with flammable solvent-free preservative compositions.","Sample collection and preservation of biological samples, especially samples needed for collection of nucleic acids, generally exist in laboratory settings where any combination of preservation methods and storage solutions can be employed with limited practical obstacles.","However, these compositions and methods are limited in point-of-care settings where the devices with compositions for preservation are shipped to end-users who then must collect and then ship the biological samples for testing.","Biological samples may be utilized to test patients for a variety of medical conditions, genetic tendencies or propensities or measure in research subjects a variety of experimental variables in a non-invasive or minimally-invasive manner However, existing solutions for the collection and long-term storage of biological samples suffer from several disadvantages, especially those that involve flammable solvent-based preservatives.","For the collection and storage of saliva samples for example, existing collection devices generally use preservative compounds in liquid forms that comprise flammable solvents such as ethanol.","Flammable solvents such as ethanol complicate the manufacturing process for the insertion of the liquid in a safe and practical way, and introduce additional risks when shipping, transporting or storing existing collection devices.","There is an unmet need for a user-friendly sample collection device that allows even inexperienced users of all ages to easily and reliably collect, store and transport biological samples for DNA analysis, such as saliva, in over-the-counter or research settings while avoiding the risks and disadvantages of flammable solvent-based sample preservatives.","There is also an unmet need for improved preservation of nucleic acids relative to transportation and storage prior to its extraction in order to assure high quality nucleic acids.","Furthermore, it would be desirable to have a device that is safe, compact and easy to use in over-the-counter or home-based applications and that is not rated as flammable, as is typical of devices that include flammable solvents such as ethanol in solvent-based preservatives.","Therefore, there currently exists a need for a device and associated method that is easy to use and uses dry and/or liquid preservative chemistry to avoid the disadvantages of flammable solvent-based chemistry preservatives."],[" SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION Described herein are methods and compositions for biological sample collection, including a sample collection device directed to the use of a flammable solvent-free composition for preservation, stabilization, and transportation of nucleic acids from biological samples for short-term or long-term storage at various temperatures.","A first aspect of the subject matter described herein provides a device for preserving nucleic acids from a biological sample in a subject comprising: a main body forming a central portion of the device and having a sample collection element rigidly fixed thereto and extending coaxially therefrom; a first container removably engaged with the main body to form a first sealed cavity that contains the sample collection element, the first container also being at least substantially coaxial with the main body and forming a first end of the device; and, a second container removably engaged with the main body to form a second sealed cavity, the second container also being at least substantially coaxial with the main body, forming a second end of the device, and having a partition disposed within the second sealed cavity and traversing the entire cross-sectional area of the second container to form a first compartment and a second compartment within the second sealed cavity; wherein the first compartment is proximal to the main body comparative to the second compartment and the second compartment is distal to the main body comparative to the first compartment, wherein the first compartment contains a first preservative that is operatively coupled to the interior surface of the second container, wherein the second compartment contains a quantity of second preservative, and wherein the partition prohibits the quantity of the second preservative from entering the first compartment.","In an embodiment, the present application provides a device for preserving nucleic acids from a biological sample in a subject wherein the biological sample is saliva.","In another embodiment, the device for preserving nucleic acids from a biological sample in a subject comprises a sample collection element, wherein the element is a brush.","In an embodiment, the interior surface of the second container of the device is a perfluorinated polymer.","In another embodiment, the first preservative of the device comprises a proteolytic enzyme selected from the group consisting of proteinases, proteases, subtilisins and subtilases.","In a further embodiment, the proteolytic enzyme is proteinase K. In another embodiment, the second preservative of the device comprises and anionic surfactant.","In a further embodiment, the anionic surfactant is selected from the group consisting of alkyl sulfates, alkyl ether sulfates, olefin sulfonates, alkyl sulfoacetates, alkyl ether sulfoacetates, alkyl sulfosuccinates, alkyl ether sulfosuccinates, and mixtures thereof.","In another embodiment, the anionic surfactant is lithium dodecyl sulfate.","In an embodiment, the present application provides a device for preserving nucleic acids from a biological sample in a subject further comprising a barcode for sample identification.","In another embodiment, the barcode for sample identification is affixed to the device for preserving nucleic acids from a biological sample in a subject.","In an embodiment, the present application provides method of preserving nucleic acids using a device described herein from a biological sample in a subject comprising: collecting the sample from the subject with a sample collection element; introducing the sample collection element into the second container; contacting the sample with the first preservative to form a liquid sample; contacting the liquid sample with a second preservative; and, sealing the second container thereby forming a preserved biological sample for storage at room temperature.","In another aspect of the invention, the present application provides a method for processing nucleic acids from a biological sample for chemical or biochemical analysis, the method comprising: providing a device comprising: (i) a main body forming a central portion of the device and having a sample collection element rigidly fixed thereto and extending coaxially therefrom; (ii) a first container removably engaged with the main body to form a first sealed cavity that contains the sample collection element, the first container also being at least substantially coaxial with the main body and forming a first end of the device; and, (iii) a second container removably engaged with the main body to form a second sealed cavity, the second container also being at least substantially coaxial with the main body, forming a second end of the device, and having a partition disposed within the second sealed cavity and traversing the entire cross-sectional area of the second container to form a first compartment and a second compartment within the second sealed cavity; wherein the first compartment is proximal to the main body comparative to the second compartment and the second compartment is distal to the main body comparative to the first compartment, wherein the first compartment contains a first preservative that is operatively coupled to the interior surface of the second container, wherein the second compartment contains a quantity of a second preservative, and wherein the partition prohibits the quantity of the second preservative from entering the first compartment; extracting nucleic acids from the second container; and, performing chemical or biochemical analysis of the nucleic acids.","In an embodiment, the present application provides a method for processing nucleic acids from a biological sample in a subject wherein the biological sample is saliva.","In another embodiment, the method for processing nucleic acids from a biological sample in a subject comprises a sample collection element, wherein the element is a brush.","In an embodiment, the interior surface of the second container of the method is a perfluorinated polymer.","In another embodiment, the first preservative of the method comprises a proteolytic enzyme selected from the group consisting of proteinases, proteases, subtilisins and subtilases.","In a further embodiment, the proteolytic enzyme is proteinase K. In another embodiment, the second preservative of the device is an anionic surfactant.","In a further embodiment, the anionic surfactant is selected from the group consisting of alkyl sulfates, alkyl ether sulfates, olefin sulfonates, alkyl sulfoacetates, alkyl ether sulfoacetates, alkyl sulfosuccinates, alkyl ether sulfosuccinates, and mixtures thereof.","In another embodiment, the the anionic surfactant is lithium dodecyl sulfate.","In an embodiment, the present application provides a method for processing nucleic acids from a biological sample in a subject further comprising a barcode for sample identification.","In another embodiment, the barcode for sample identification.","Accordingly, it is an object of the invention not to encompass within the invention any previously known product, process of making the product, or method of using the product such that Applicants reserve the right and hereby disclose a disclaimer of any previously known product, process, or method.","All publications, patents, and patent applications mentioned in this specification are herein incorporated by reference to the same extent as if each individual publication, patent, or patent application was specifically and individually indicated to be incorporated by reference."],["CROSS-REFERENCE This application is a continuation-in-part of U.S. application Ser.","No.","15/615,761 filed Jun.","6, 2017, which claims priority to U.S. provisional application Ser.","No.","62/345,921, filed Jun.","3, 2016, the contents of which are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety.","BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION The present application generally relates to methods and compositions for biological sample collection and preservation, including sample collection devices involving the use of flammable solvent-free compositions for preservation, stabilization, and transportation of nucleic acids from biological samples for short-term or long-term storage at room temperature or other temperatures above or below room temperature.","Embodiments described herein feature a device for collecting biological samples such as saliva containing nucleic acids, a preservative composition affixed directly to the device or to a carrier substrate and placed within the device, and a liquid preservative composition contained within the device such that the biological samples come into contact with flammable solvent-free preservative compositions.","Sample collection and preservation of biological samples, especially samples needed for collection of nucleic acids, generally exist in laboratory settings where any combination of preservation methods and storage solutions can be employed with limited practical obstacles.","However, these compositions and methods are limited in point-of-care settings where the devices with compositions for preservation are shipped to end-users who then must collect and then ship the biological samples for testing.","Biological samples may be utilized to test patients for a variety of medical conditions, genetic tendencies or propensities or measure in research subjects a variety of experimental variables in a non-invasive or minimally-invasive manner However, existing solutions for the collection and long-term storage of biological samples suffer from several disadvantages, especially those that involve flammable solvent-based preservatives.","For the collection and storage of saliva samples for example, existing collection devices generally use preservative compounds in liquid forms that comprise flammable solvents such as ethanol.","Flammable solvents such as ethanol complicate the manufacturing process for the insertion of the liquid in a safe and practical way, and introduce additional risks when shipping, transporting or storing existing collection devices.","There is an unmet need for a user-friendly sample collection device that allows even inexperienced users of all ages to easily and reliably collect, store and transport biological samples for DNA analysis, such as saliva, in over-the-counter or research settings while avoiding the risks and disadvantages of flammable solvent-based sample preservatives.","There is also an unmet need for improved preservation of nucleic acids relative to transportation and storage prior to its extraction in order to assure high quality nucleic acids.","Furthermore, it would be desirable to have a device that is safe, compact and easy to use in over-the-counter or home-based applications and that is not rated as flammable, as is typical of devices that include flammable solvents such as ethanol in solvent-based preservatives.","Therefore, there currently exists a need for a device and associated method that is easy to use and uses dry and/or liquid preservative chemistry to avoid the disadvantages of flammable solvent-based chemistry preservatives.","SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION Described herein are methods and compositions for biological sample collection, including a sample collection device directed to the use of a flammable solvent-free composition for preservation, stabilization, and transportation of nucleic acids from biological samples for short-term or long-term storage at various temperatures.","A first aspect of the subject matter described herein provides a device for preserving nucleic acids from a biological sample in a subject comprising: a main body forming a central portion of the device and having a sample collection element rigidly fixed thereto and extending coaxially therefrom; a first container removably engaged with the main body to form a first sealed cavity that contains the sample collection element, the first container also being at least substantially coaxial with the main body and forming a first end of the device; and, a second container removably engaged with the main body to form a second sealed cavity, the second container also being at least substantially coaxial with the main body, forming a second end of the device, and having a partition disposed within the second sealed cavity and traversing the entire cross-sectional area of the second container to form a first compartment and a second compartment within the second sealed cavity; wherein the first compartment is proximal to the main body comparative to the second compartment and the second compartment is distal to the main body comparative to the first compartment, wherein the first compartment contains a first preservative that is operatively coupled to the interior surface of the second container, wherein the second compartment contains a quantity of second preservative, and wherein the partition prohibits the quantity of the second preservative from entering the first compartment.","In an embodiment, the present application provides a device for preserving nucleic acids from a biological sample in a subject wherein the biological sample is saliva.","In another embodiment, the device for preserving nucleic acids from a biological sample in a subject comprises a sample collection element, wherein the element is a brush.","In an embodiment, the interior surface of the second container of the device is a perfluorinated polymer.","In another embodiment, the first preservative of the device comprises a proteolytic enzyme selected from the group consisting of proteinases, proteases, subtilisins and subtilases.","In a further embodiment, the proteolytic enzyme is proteinase K. In another embodiment, the second preservative of the device comprises and anionic surfactant.","In a further embodiment, the anionic surfactant is selected from the group consisting of alkyl sulfates, alkyl ether sulfates, olefin sulfonates, alkyl sulfoacetates, alkyl ether sulfoacetates, alkyl sulfosuccinates, alkyl ether sulfosuccinates, and mixtures thereof.","In another embodiment, the anionic surfactant is lithium dodecyl sulfate.","In an embodiment, the present application provides a device for preserving nucleic acids from a biological sample in a subject further comprising a barcode for sample identification.","In another embodiment, the barcode for sample identification is affixed to the device for preserving nucleic acids from a biological sample in a subject.","In an embodiment, the present application provides method of preserving nucleic acids using a device described herein from a biological sample in a subject comprising: collecting the sample from the subject with a sample collection element; introducing the sample collection element into the second container; contacting the sample with the first preservative to form a liquid sample; contacting the liquid sample with a second preservative; and, sealing the second container thereby forming a preserved biological sample for storage at room temperature.","In another aspect of the invention, the present application provides a method for processing nucleic acids from a biological sample for chemical or biochemical analysis, the method comprising: providing a device comprising: (i) a main body forming a central portion of the device and having a sample collection element rigidly fixed thereto and extending coaxially therefrom; (ii) a first container removably engaged with the main body to form a first sealed cavity that contains the sample collection element, the first container also being at least substantially coaxial with the main body and forming a first end of the device; and, (iii) a second container removably engaged with the main body to form a second sealed cavity, the second container also being at least substantially coaxial with the main body, forming a second end of the device, and having a partition disposed within the second sealed cavity and traversing the entire cross-sectional area of the second container to form a first compartment and a second compartment within the second sealed cavity; wherein the first compartment is proximal to the main body comparative to the second compartment and the second compartment is distal to the main body comparative to the first compartment, wherein the first compartment contains a first preservative that is operatively coupled to the interior surface of the second container, wherein the second compartment contains a quantity of a second preservative, and wherein the partition prohibits the quantity of the second preservative from entering the first compartment; extracting nucleic acids from the second container; and, performing chemical or biochemical analysis of the nucleic acids.","In an embodiment, the present application provides a method for processing nucleic acids from a biological sample in a subject wherein the biological sample is saliva.","In another embodiment, the method for processing nucleic acids from a biological sample in a subject comprises a sample collection element, wherein the element is a brush.","In an embodiment, the interior surface of the second container of the method is a perfluorinated polymer.","In another embodiment, the first preservative of the method comprises a proteolytic enzyme selected from the group consisting of proteinases, proteases, subtilisins and subtilases.","In a further embodiment, the proteolytic enzyme is proteinase K. In another embodiment, the second preservative of the device is an anionic surfactant.","In a further embodiment, the anionic surfactant is selected from the group consisting of alkyl sulfates, alkyl ether sulfates, olefin sulfonates, alkyl sulfoacetates, alkyl ether sulfoacetates, alkyl sulfosuccinates, alkyl ether sulfosuccinates, and mixtures thereof.","In another embodiment, the the anionic surfactant is lithium dodecyl sulfate.","In an embodiment, the present application provides a method for processing nucleic acids from a biological sample in a subject further comprising a barcode for sample identification.","In another embodiment, the barcode for sample identification.","Accordingly, it is an object of the invention not to encompass within the invention any previously known product, process of making the product, or method of using the product such that Applicants reserve the right and hereby disclose a disclaimer of any previously known product, process, or method.","All publications, patents, and patent applications mentioned in this specification are herein incorporated by reference to the same extent as if each individual publication, patent, or patent application was specifically and individually indicated to be incorporated by reference.","BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The following detailed description, given by way of example, but not intended to limit the disclosure solely to the specific embodiments described, may best be understood in conjunction with the accompanying drawings.","FIG.","1 illustrates a perspective view of a sample collection device according to some embodiments of the disclosure.","FIG.","2 illustrates an exploded perspective view of the sample collection device shown in FIG.","1 according to some embodiments of the disclosure.","FIG.","3 illustrates a perspective view of the sample collection device shown in FIG.","1 with one container removed and a sample collection element exposed according to some embodiments of the disclosure.","FIG.","4 illustrates a perspective view of the sample collection element partially inserted into a second container of the sample collection device according to some embodiments of the disclosure.","FIG.","5 illustrates a cross-sectional view of a main body of the sample collection device according to some embodiments of the disclosure.","FIG.","6 illustrates a perspective view of a sample collection device having an elongated handle according to some embodiments of the disclosure.","FIG.","7 illustrates a series of views showing an embodiment of the device in operation, where each step is numbered sequentially, according to embodiments of the disclosure.","DETAILED DESCRIPTION The present application generally relates to methods and compositions for biological sample collection, including a sample collection device directed to the preservation and stabilization of nucleic acids from biological samples for long-term storage.","The application provides a composition for use in a biological sample collection device with a flammable solvent-free preservative that affords practical manufacturing, transportation, and end-user advantages.","Moreover, Applicant has discovered a composition which, when combined with the biological sample, provides increased resistance to sample degradation under dry, room-temperature conditions for periods of three years or greater.","Depending upon the application (e.g., feces collection, saliva collection, etc.","), different embodiments of the sample collection device may contain various preservatives, lysing beads and swab treatments.","The preservatives may cease metabolic activity, lyse cells, and preserves the nucleic acids for later extraction.","Further, the preservatives prevent any unwanted growth of microbes in the sample collection device during shipment or storage.","Certain specific details are set forth in order to provide a thorough understanding of various embodiments described herein.","However, one skilled in the art will understand that the subject matter of the present disclosure may be practiced without these details.","Unless the context requires otherwise, throughout the present specification and claims, the word “comprise” and variations thereof, such as, “comprises” and “comprising” are to be construed in an open, inclusive sense (i.e., as “including, but not limited to”).","Reference throughout this specification to “one embodiment” or “an embodiment” means that a particular feature, structure or characteristic described in connection with the embodiment is included in at least one embodiment described herein.","Thus, the appearances of the phrases “in one embodiment” or “in an embodiment” in various places throughout this specification are not necessarily all referring to the same embodiment.","Furthermore, the particular features, structures, or characteristics may be combined in any suitable manner in one or more embodiments.","Referring to FIG.","1, the illustration provides an embodiment of a sample collection device 1 in a closed position where a main body (70) is removably engaged with a first container (90) and removably engaged with a second container (10).","The first container (90) and second container (10) may be substantially rigid, for example, manufactured from a plastic material.","Main body (70) may include a sample collection element comprising a shaft (80) having an end portion covered with absorbent material (100).","In some embodiments the absorbent material may be flock.","In some embodiments the shaft (80) may be comprised of multiple elements and include a swab or a cotton swab portion or element removably or permanently attached thereto.","The sample collection element, specifically the end of the element, having the absorbent material (100) should enable the end-user to obtain the biological sample, such as saliva, from a surface, such as the inside of a buccal cavity, in a minimally-invasive manner.","As illustrated in FIGS.","1 and 2, main body (70) may be configured with a first end (72) and a second end (74).","First end (72) may be removably engaged with a first container (90) by way of threaded engagement, such as screw threads or plastic threads (110) as depicted in FIG.","2 on first container (90).","Second end (74) of main body (70) may be removably engaged with a second container (10), similarly by way of threaded engagement, such as screw threads or plastic threads (110) as depicted in FIG.","2 on second container (10).","It will be understood that within the first end (72) and within the second end (74) of main body (70) there are engaging threads to engage with each of the first container (90) and second container (10), respectively, as shown for example in FIG.","3.First container (90) and second container (10) may include in some embodiments a ridge (60) that provides for mating engagement and a tight fit of each container against main body (70).","Embodiments of main body (70) may include at the second end (74) an extension (150) having a groove (140) and a seal (120), such as for example, an O-ring or gasket provided therein, as shown in FIGS.","2 and 3.When main body (70) and second container (10) are threadably engaged, as shown in FIG.","1, the seal (120) provides for a first compartment (12) and a second compartment (14) within second container (10).","In an embodiment of the invention, the seal (120) may be an elastomer, butadiene rubber, butyl rubber, perfluoroelastomer, silicone rubber, polytetrafluoroethylene, polyisoprene, nitrile rubber, or styrene-butadiene rubber.","In an embodiment, the second container (10) may have a conically-shaped end (20) as shown in FIGS.","1 and 2.Conically-shaped end (20) may be situated in the second compartment (14).","As illustrated in FIGS.","1 and 2, second container (10) also has an interior surface (30).","In an embodiment, interior surface (30) may include a perfluorinated polymer.","In an embodiment, the perfluorinated polymer is fluorinated polyethylene.","Referring to FIGS.","1 and 2, first end (72) of main body (70) is illustrated with shaft (80) having absorbent material (100) extending therefrom.","Shaft (80) may be rigidly (e.g., permanently) affixed or removably affixed to main body (70).","In an embodiment, shaft (80) may be configured with a slanted end as exemplified in FIGS.","1 and 2.In an embodiment, the end of shaft (80) may include comprise an indentation (130).","Referring to FIGS.","1 and 2, an end-user may receive the sample collection device 1 in the closed position as shown in FIG.","1.It is contemplated that the end-user will unscrew the first container (90) from the main body (70) exposing the sample collection element comprised of shaft (80) with absorbent material (100), wherein the end-user may use the sample collection element to collect saliva in the buccal cavity.","As shown in FIG.","5, it is contemplated that the sample collection element is connected to both the double-ended cap and the first container (90) in order to provide a longer protruding sample collection element.","In an embodiment, the exterior surface of each container includes vertical ridges (40) for gripping.","Referring to FIG.","4, once the biological sample is collected on to the absorbent material (100) of the sample collection element, the end-user will remove (e.g., unthread) the second container (10) from the main body (70) (if not already removed) and thereafter insert the sample collection element into the second container (10), for example, by threadably engaging the first end (72) of the main body (70) with the threads (110) of the second container (10), as shown in FIG.","4.During insertion of sample collection element into second container (10), the sample collection element, and in particular absorbent material (100) will first scrape against or otherwise contact with the interior surface (30) of second container (10) within the first compartment (12) and then, subsequently, the second compartment (14).","In an embodiment, the interior surface (30) of the first compartment (12) of the second container (10) comprises a first preservative.","In another embodiment, the first preservative is affixed to a substrate which is operably connected to the interior surface (30).","In a further embodiment, the substrate may be, but not limited to, paper.","In another embodiment, the substrate may be chromatography paper.","In an embodiment, the second compartment (14) of second container (10) comprises second preservative.","When second container (10) is threadably engaged with the second end (74) of main body (70), such that extension (150) protrudes into second container (10), seal (120) of extension (150) is tightly pressed against or otherwise in contact with the interior surface (30) of second container (10) such that first compartment (12) and second compartment (14) are wholly sealed from each other.","As a result, the second preservative contained within second compartment (14) does not and cannot enter first compartment (12) so as to contact the first preservative contained on the interior surface (30) of second container (10) that is located and isolated within first compartment (12).","FIG.","5 shows a cross-sectional view of an embodiment of the main body (70) having a sample collection element, a first end (72), a second end (74) and an extension (150).","FIG.","6 shows an embodiment of a sample collection device according to the subject matter described herein having an extended handle (160) which may be used in instances of sample collection from large mammals, such as a cow or horse.","The handle is removably engaged with the first container (90), for example by threaded engagement, snap engagement or a press fit.","FIG.","7 shows a series of views showing an embodiment of the device in operation.","Step 1 shows the device after it is removed from any packaging and is ready for use.","Step 2 shows the device with the first container (90) unscrewed or detached from the main body (70) to expose the shaft (80), including absorbent material (100).","Step 3 shows the shaft (80) and absorbent material (100) ready for use, where the main body (70) and either container (90) or (10) as shown in FIG.","3 can be grasped as the handle for ease of manipulation.","Step 4 shows the shaft (80), absorbent material (100) and main body (70) inverted such that the sample containing element can come into contact with the first preservative and be submerged in the second preservative by way of insertion into the second container (10).","Once submerged, main body (70) can be tightened to seal to second container (10).","Step 5 shows the device completely closed.","First container (90) may either be discarded or it can be reattached to the main body to eliminate any sampling site waste.","The device is then ready for transport.","As used herein, and unless noted to the contrary, the following terms and phrases have the meaning noted below.","The term “biological sample”, as used herein, refers to a specimen of matter from an animal, such as saliva, sputum, serum, plasma, blood, urine, mucus, semen, feces, products of lactation or menstruation, tears, or lymph.","The term “sample collection element”, as used herein, refers to a brush, a swab, a damp swab, or a flock.","The term “proteolytic enzyme”, as used herein, refers to proteinases, proteases, subtilisins, and subtilases.","As used herein, proteolytic enzymes may include, but is not limited to, proteinase K, endoproteinase trypsin, chymotrypsin, endoproteinase Asp-N, endoproteinase Arg-C, endoproteinase Glu-C, endoproteinase Lys-C, pepsin, thermolysin, elastase, papain, cloastripain, exopeptidase, carboxypeptidase A, carboxypeptidase B, carboxypeptidase P, carboxypeptidase Y, cathepsin C, acylamino-acid-releaseing enzyme, pyroglutamate, subtilisin, or aminopeptidase.","The use of a surfactant in pharmaceutical compositions is well-known to the skilled person.","For convenience, reference is made to Remington: The Science and Practice of Pharmacy, 19th edition, 1995.Anionic surfactants may be selected from the group of: chenodeoxycholic acid, chenodeoxycholic acid sodium salt, cholic acid, dehydrocholic acid, deoxycholic acid, deoxycholic acid methyl ester, digitonin, digitoxigenin, N,N-dimethyldodecylamine N-oxide, docusate sodium, glycochenodeoxycholic acid sodium, glycocholic acid hydrate, glycodeoxycholic acid monohydrate, glycodeoxycholic acid sodium salt, glycolithocholic acid 3-sulfate disodium salt, glycolithocholic acid ethyl ester, N-lauroylsarcosine sodium salt, N-lauroylsarcosine sodium salt, N-lauroylsarcosine, N-lauroylsarcosine, lithium dodecyl sulfate, lugol, 1-octanesulfonic acid sodium salt, sodium 1-butanesulfonate, sodium 1-decanesulfonate, sodium 1-dodecanesulfonate, sodium 1-heptanesulfonate, sodium 1-nonanesulfonate, sodium 1-propanesulfonate monohydrate, sodium 2-bromoethanesulfonate, sodium cholate hydrate, ox or sheep bile, sodium cholate hydrate, sodium choleate, sodium deoxycholate, sodium dodecyl sulfate, sodium dodecyl sulfate, sodium hexanesulfonate, sodium octyl sulfate, sodium pentanesulfonate, sodium taurocholate, taurochenodeoxycholic acid sodium salt, taurodeoxycholic acid sodium salt monohydrate, taurolithocholic acid 3-sulfate disodium salt, tauroursodeoxycholic acid sodium salt, Trizma® dodecyl sulfate, DSS (docusate sodium, CAS registry no [577-11-7]), docusate calcium, CAS registry no [128-49-4]), docusate potassium, CAS registry no [7491-09-0]), SDS (sodium dodecyl sulfate or sodium lauryl sulfate), dodecylphosphocholine (FOS-choline-12), decylphosphocholine (FOS-choline-10), nonylphosphocholine (FOS-choline-9), dipalmitoyl phosphatidic acid, sodium caprylate, and/or ursodeoxycholic acid.","Cationic surfactants may be selected from the group of: alkyltrimethylammonium bromide, benzalkonium chloride, benzyldimethylhexadecylammonium chloride, benzyldimethyltetradecylammonium chloride, benzyltrimethylammonium tetrachloroiodate, dimethyldioctadecylammonium bromide, dodecylethyldimethylammonium bromide, dodecyltrimethylammonium bromide, dodecyltrimethylammonium bromide, ethylhexadecyldimethylammonium bromide, hexadecyltrimethylammonium bromide, hexadecyltrimethylammonium chloride, polyoxyethylene-(10)-N-tallow-1,3-diaminopropane, thonzonium bromide, and/or trimethyl(tetradecyl)ammonium bromide.","In some embodiments, a formulation of the second preservative contained in second container (10) may include protease inhibitors such as EDTA (ethylenediamine tetraacetic acid) and benzamidine HCl, but other commercially available protease inhibitors may also be used.","The use of a protease inhibitor is particular useful in pharmaceutical compositions comprising zymogens of proteases in order to inhibit autocatalysis.","The term “stabilized formulation” refers to a formulation with increased physical stability, increased chemical stability or increased physical and chemical stability.","The term “physical stability” of the protein formulation as used herein refers to the tendency of the protein to form biologically inactive and/or insoluble aggregates of the protein as a result of exposure of the protein to thermo-mechanical stresses and/or interaction with interfaces and surfaces that are destabilizing, such as hydrophobic surfaces and interfaces.","An “alkyl” group refers to an aliphatic hydrocarbon group.","The alkyl groups may or may not include units of unsaturation.","The alkyl moiety may be a “saturated alkyl” group, which means that it does not contain any units of unsaturation (i.e.","a carbon-carbon double bond or a carbon-carbon triple bond).","The alkyl group may also be an “unsaturated alkyl” moiety, which means that it contains at least one unit of unsaturation.","The alkyl moiety, whether saturated or unsaturated, may be branched, straight chain, or cyclic.","By way of example only, an alkyl chain is selected from the group consisting of methyl, ethyl, n-propyl, iso-propyl, n-butyl, iso-butyl, sec-butyl, t-butyl, n-pentyl, iso-pentyl, neo-pentyl, hexyl, propen-3-yl (allyl), cyclopropylmethyl, cyclobutylmethyl, cyclopentylmethyl, cyclohexylmethyl.","Alkyl groups can be substituted or unsubstituted.","Depending on the structure, an alkyl group can be a monoradical or a diradical (i.e., an alkylene group).","A “patient,” “subject,” or “end-user” is a vertebrate, preferably a mammal, and often a human.","Mammals include, but are not limited to, humans, non-human primates, experimental model animals (e.g., mice and rats), agriculturally important animals, and pets.","EXAMPLES The following examples are offered for purposes of illustration, and are not intended to limit the scope of the claims provided herein.","All literature citations in these examples and throughout this specification are incorporated herein by references for all legal purposes to be served thereby.","In some aspect of the subject matter described herein, the application provides a composition for use in a device for collection and preservation of biological samples.","A sample collection element having a brush or swab, or damp swab (e.g., flock) may be used to collect a biological sample, such as saliva, from an orifice, such as the buccal cavity.","Some devices in the field have used collection vials where the end-user must spit into the vial.","These devices thus require a large amount of saliva, which is difficult for some subjects to provide, especially young subjects.","Applicant found that the use of a sample collection element such as a swab provides more discrete action and broader patient population application.","In an embodiment of a procedure for operating the device, the end-user will receive the device in the closed position as illustrated in FIG.","1, wherein main body (70) is removably connected to a first container (90) and a second container (10).","The end-user may either remove the second-container from the main body prior to collection of the biological sample or after collection.","The end-user will obtain a biological sample using the sample collection element, wherein the biological sample will either adhere or absorb to the end of the element (100).","Second container (10) may be engaged to main body (70) as illustrated in FIG.","3 to provide a handle for sample collection.","In an embodiment, a handle may be used to provide a longer handle for sample collection as illustrated in FIG.","6.In an aspect of the operating procedure, an extension (150) having a seal (120) projects into second container (10) to form a first compartment (12) and a second compartment (14) that are sealed off from one another so as to prohibit any fluid communication therebetween.","When second container (10) and main body (70) are separated, for example by unthreading one from the other, the first compartment (12) and second compartment (14) are no longer sealed off and fluid communication therebetween is permitted.","In a further aspect, the sample collection element is introduced into the second container (10), wherein the biological sample that has been collected on the absorbent material (100) of the shaft (80) of the sample collection element is put into contacted with a first preservative located on the interior surface (30) of the first compartment (12) of second container (10).","The second container of the sample collection device provides a tight fit around shaft (80) such that the sample collection element scours the interior surface of the first compartment (12) where the absorbent material (100) is coated with Ingredient H, e.g, proteinase K. The sample collection continues to move further into the container into the second compartment (14) wherein the absorbent material is submerged in the second compartment.","In an embodiment, the first container and second container comprise a polyfluorinated polymer on the interior surface.","In an aspect of the operating procedure, the fluorinated polymer of the interior surface (30) allows the higher adhesion of the preservatives, such as proteinase K. In an embodiment the dry preservative comprises a blend of reagents and enzymes that allow for complete lysis and stabilization of the nucleic acids DNA and RNA, ease of transportation and long-term storage of samples under ambient conditions prior to chemical or biological analysis.","The ingredients of the preservative may comprise the following: Ingredient A—enzyme denaturation, including nucleases, DNase enzymes (deoxyribonuclease), and the like; Ingredient B—metal chelating cofactors required by DNase enzymes; Ingredient C—enzyme denaturing agents that helps reduce viscosity of saliva along with other supporting chemicals; Ingredient D—hydration agent; Ingredient E—pH buffer; Ingredient F—DNA and RNA precipitation agent; Ingredient G—a chemical which modifies sample viscosity and surface tension; Ingredient H—sample nuclease digestion agent.","In an embodiment, the ingredients are combined to form two separate preservatives.","In another embodiment, the first preservative comprising ingredients A through F may also comprise ingredient G. In an embodiment, the second preservative comprises ingredient H and may also comprise ingredient F and/or G. Ingredient A may be a substance such as lithium dodecyl sulfate or similar.","Applicant found that use of ingredient A, such as lithium dodecyl sulfate (LDS), prevented the composition from precipitating at low temperatures once the liquid sample was formed.","Applicant found that other substances generally used in the art precipitate out of solution at temperatures below 17° C. and then unable to go back into solution unless the pH ranges from 10-11.Ingredient B may be a substance such as 1,2-cyclohexanediaminetetraacetic acid (CDTA), ethylenediaminetetracetic acid (EDTA) or similar.","Ingredient C may be a substance such as urea or similar.","Ingredient D may be a substance such as 1,2-propanediol or similar.","Ingredient E may include Tris (around 100 mM concentration) and NaCl (around 0.3 M final concentration).","In an alternate embodiment, NaOAc (sodium acetate) may be used in place of NaCl.","Ingredient F may be a substance such as polyethylene glycol 8000 or similar.","Applicant found that use of Ingredient F, such as polyethylene glycol (PEG) which may be used independently in the first preservative and in the second preservative, afforded a significantly higher concentration of nucleic acids upon extraction.","In an embodiment of the application, polyethylene gycol is used in range of 30-40 w/w %.","With the use of 30-40% w/w of PEG, the shelf-life or preservation period afforded at least three (3) years under dry, room-temperature conditions.","Moreover, the use of polyethylene glycol is not known to be used in commercial kits for the purpose of obtaining a higher nucleic acid concentration.","Thus, the composition provides a low-cost, safe, and efficient chemical which synergistically provides a significantly higher amount of nucleic acid extraction and long-term storage of at least three years under ambient conditions.","Ingredient G may be a surfactant such as hexadecyltrimethylammonium chloride or similar.","The use of Ingredient G (e.g., hexadecyltrimethylammonium chloride) affords, amongst several uses, an antibacterial agent.","The use of Ingredient G also provides an agent for reducing the viscosity of the biological sample.","It is understood by one of skill in the art, that biological samples, such as saliva, are viscous due to the mucopolysaccharides which therefore make testing of these samples difficult.","Previously known techniques used in laboratory settings include centrifugation and filtration.","In an aspect of the operating procedure, the nucleic acids encompassed by the saliva must become “exposed” in order for the preservatives to react with the nucleic acids.","Without being bound to any one theory, viscosity reduction by Ingredient G is caused by the chemical interaction between the polyanionic mucopolysaccharides (comprising neuraminic acid and sulfated residues).","For example, electrostatic interaction between hexadecyltrimethylammonium chloride and saliva mucopolysaccharides produces an insoluble aggregate.","When the hydrated chloride ion is displaced by the anionic mucopolysaccharide, the quaternary ammonium complex becomes insoluble.","In an embodiment of the invention, hexadecyltrimethylammonium chloride is used in approximately 0.01±0.005 M concentration.","Ingredient H may be a substance such as Proteinase K or similar.","In some embodiments, Ingredient H may be located in the second container (10) in the first compartment (12).","The ingredient, such as proteinase K, is kept separate from the second preservative until the sample collection element is inserted and submerged into the second compartment (14).","In an embodiment of the invention, the composition comprises sodium chloride (NaCl).","The use of NaCl improves the ability of the preservative to handle elevated temperatures and improves shelf-life.","Applicant found that the sample will brown (i.e., residual proteins are browning) at elevated temperatures.","The addition of NaCl causes large DNA to precipitate out prior to extraction.","Thus, the use of NaCl interferes with browning; provides DNA preservation; assists precipitation of large, undigested DNA; and is especially compatible with ingredient A (e.g., LDS).","In an embodiment of the invention, NaCl is used in the range of approximately 0.3 to 0.5 M in solution.","The examples and embodiments described herein are for illustrative purposes only and in some embodiments, various modifications or changes are to be included within the purview of disclosure and scope of the appended claims."]],"string":"[\n [\n \"Sample Collection Device and Methods for Nucleic Acid Preservation\",\n \"The present application generally relates to methods and compositions for biological sample collection, including a sample collection device directed to the use of a flammable solvent-free based composition for preservation, stabilization, and transportation of nucleic acids from biological samples for long-term room temperature storage.\"\n ],\n [\n \"1.A device for preserving nucleic acids from a biological sample in a subject comprising: (a) a main body forming a central portion of the device and having a sample collection element rigidly fixed thereto and extending coaxially therefrom; (b) a first container removably engaged with the main body to form a first sealed cavity that contains the sample collection element, the first container also being at least substantially coaxial with the main body and forming a first end of the device; and, (c) a second container removably engaged with the main body to form a second sealed cavity, the second container also being at least substantially coaxial with the main body, forming a second end of the device, and having a partition disposed within the second sealed cavity and traversing the entire cross-sectional area of the second container to form a first compartment and a second compartment within the second sealed cavity; wherein the first compartment is proximal to the main body comparative to the second compartment and the second compartment is distal to the main body comparative to the first compartment, wherein the first compartment contains a first preservative that is operatively coupled to the interior surface of the second container, wherein the second compartment contains a quantity of a second preservative, and wherein the partition prohibits the quantity of the second preservative from entering the first compartment.\",\n \"2.The device of claim 1, wherein the biological sample is saliva.\",\n \"3.The device of claim 1, wherein the sample collection element is a brush.\",\n \"4.The device of claim 1, wherein the interior surface of the second container is a perflourinated polymer.\",\n \"5.The device of claim 1, wherein the first preservative comprises a proteolytic enzyme selected from the group consisting of proteinases, proteases, subtilisins and subtilases.\",\n \"6.The device of claim 5, wherein the proteolytic enzyme is proteinase K. 7.The device of claim 1, wherein the second preservative comprises an anionic surfactant.\",\n \"8.The device of claim 7, wherein the anionic surfactant is selected from the group consisting of alkyl sulfates, alkyl ether sulfates, olefin sulfonates, alkyl sulfoacetates, alkyl ether sulfoacetates, alkyl sulfosuccinates, alkyl ether sulfosuccinates, and mixtures thereof.\",\n \"9.The device of claim 7, wherein the anionic surfactant is lithium dodecyl sulfate.\",\n \"10.The device of claim 1, further comprising a barcode for sample identification.\",\n \"11.A method of preserving nucleic acids using a device according to claim 1 from a biological sample in a subject comprising: (a) collecting the sample from the subject with a sample collection element; (b) introducing the sample collection element into the second container; (c) contacting the sample with the first preservative to form a liquid sample; (d) contacting the liquid sample with the second preservative; and, (e) sealing the second container thereby forming a preserved biological sample for storage at room temperature.\",\n \"12.A method for processing nucleic acids from a biological sample for chemical or biochemical analysis, the method comprising: (a) providing a device comprising: (i) a main body forming a central portion of the device and having a sample collection element rigidly fixed thereto and extending coaxially therefrom; (ii) a first container removably engaged with the main body to form a first sealed cavity that contains the sample collection element, the first container also being at least substantially coaxial with the main body and forming a first end of the device; and, (iii) a second container removably engaged with the main body to form a second sealed cavity, the second container also being at least substantially coaxial with the main body, forming a second end of the device, and having a partition disposed within the second sealed cavity and traversing the entire cross-sectional area of the second container to form a first compartment and a second compartment within the second sealed cavity; wherein the first compartment is proximal to the main body comparative to the second compartment and the second compartment is distal to the main body comparative to the first compartment, wherein the first compartment contains a first preservative that is operatively coupled to the interior surface of the second container, wherein the second compartment contains a second preservative, and wherein the partition prohibits the second preservative from entering the first compartment; (b) extracting nucleic acids from the second container; and, (c) performing chemical or biochemical analysis of the nucleic acids.\",\n \"13.The method of claim 12, wherein the biological sample is saliva.\",\n \"14.The method of claim 12, wherein the sample collection element is a brush.\",\n \"15.The method of claim 12, wherein the interior surface of the second container is a perflourinated polymer.\",\n \"16.The method of claim 12, wherein the first preservative comprises a proteolytic enzyme selected from the group consisting of proteinases, proteases, subtilisins and subtilases.\",\n \"17.The method of claim 12, wherein the proteolytic enzyme is proteinase K. 18.The method of claim 12, wherein the second preservative comprises an anionic surfactant.\",\n \"19.The method of claim 12, wherein the anionic surfactant is selected from the group consisting of alkyl sulfates, alkyl ether sulfates, olefin sulfonates, alkyl sulfoacetates, alkyl ether sulfoacetates, alkyl sulfosuccinates, alkyl ether sulfosuccinates, and mixtures thereof.\",\n \"20.The method of claim 12, further comprising a barcode for sample identification.\"\n ],\n [\n \" BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION The present application generally relates to methods and compositions for biological sample collection and preservation, including sample collection devices involving the use of flammable solvent-free compositions for preservation, stabilization, and transportation of nucleic acids from biological samples for short-term or long-term storage at room temperature or other temperatures above or below room temperature.\",\n \"Embodiments described herein feature a device for collecting biological samples such as saliva containing nucleic acids, a preservative composition affixed directly to the device or to a carrier substrate and placed within the device, and a liquid preservative composition contained within the device such that the biological samples come into contact with flammable solvent-free preservative compositions.\",\n \"Sample collection and preservation of biological samples, especially samples needed for collection of nucleic acids, generally exist in laboratory settings where any combination of preservation methods and storage solutions can be employed with limited practical obstacles.\",\n \"However, these compositions and methods are limited in point-of-care settings where the devices with compositions for preservation are shipped to end-users who then must collect and then ship the biological samples for testing.\",\n \"Biological samples may be utilized to test patients for a variety of medical conditions, genetic tendencies or propensities or measure in research subjects a variety of experimental variables in a non-invasive or minimally-invasive manner However, existing solutions for the collection and long-term storage of biological samples suffer from several disadvantages, especially those that involve flammable solvent-based preservatives.\",\n \"For the collection and storage of saliva samples for example, existing collection devices generally use preservative compounds in liquid forms that comprise flammable solvents such as ethanol.\",\n \"Flammable solvents such as ethanol complicate the manufacturing process for the insertion of the liquid in a safe and practical way, and introduce additional risks when shipping, transporting or storing existing collection devices.\",\n \"There is an unmet need for a user-friendly sample collection device that allows even inexperienced users of all ages to easily and reliably collect, store and transport biological samples for DNA analysis, such as saliva, in over-the-counter or research settings while avoiding the risks and disadvantages of flammable solvent-based sample preservatives.\",\n \"There is also an unmet need for improved preservation of nucleic acids relative to transportation and storage prior to its extraction in order to assure high quality nucleic acids.\",\n \"Furthermore, it would be desirable to have a device that is safe, compact and easy to use in over-the-counter or home-based applications and that is not rated as flammable, as is typical of devices that include flammable solvents such as ethanol in solvent-based preservatives.\",\n \"Therefore, there currently exists a need for a device and associated method that is easy to use and uses dry and/or liquid preservative chemistry to avoid the disadvantages of flammable solvent-based chemistry preservatives.\"\n ],\n [\n \" SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION Described herein are methods and compositions for biological sample collection, including a sample collection device directed to the use of a flammable solvent-free composition for preservation, stabilization, and transportation of nucleic acids from biological samples for short-term or long-term storage at various temperatures.\",\n \"A first aspect of the subject matter described herein provides a device for preserving nucleic acids from a biological sample in a subject comprising: a main body forming a central portion of the device and having a sample collection element rigidly fixed thereto and extending coaxially therefrom; a first container removably engaged with the main body to form a first sealed cavity that contains the sample collection element, the first container also being at least substantially coaxial with the main body and forming a first end of the device; and, a second container removably engaged with the main body to form a second sealed cavity, the second container also being at least substantially coaxial with the main body, forming a second end of the device, and having a partition disposed within the second sealed cavity and traversing the entire cross-sectional area of the second container to form a first compartment and a second compartment within the second sealed cavity; wherein the first compartment is proximal to the main body comparative to the second compartment and the second compartment is distal to the main body comparative to the first compartment, wherein the first compartment contains a first preservative that is operatively coupled to the interior surface of the second container, wherein the second compartment contains a quantity of second preservative, and wherein the partition prohibits the quantity of the second preservative from entering the first compartment.\",\n \"In an embodiment, the present application provides a device for preserving nucleic acids from a biological sample in a subject wherein the biological sample is saliva.\",\n \"In another embodiment, the device for preserving nucleic acids from a biological sample in a subject comprises a sample collection element, wherein the element is a brush.\",\n \"In an embodiment, the interior surface of the second container of the device is a perfluorinated polymer.\",\n \"In another embodiment, the first preservative of the device comprises a proteolytic enzyme selected from the group consisting of proteinases, proteases, subtilisins and subtilases.\",\n \"In a further embodiment, the proteolytic enzyme is proteinase K. In another embodiment, the second preservative of the device comprises and anionic surfactant.\",\n \"In a further embodiment, the anionic surfactant is selected from the group consisting of alkyl sulfates, alkyl ether sulfates, olefin sulfonates, alkyl sulfoacetates, alkyl ether sulfoacetates, alkyl sulfosuccinates, alkyl ether sulfosuccinates, and mixtures thereof.\",\n \"In another embodiment, the anionic surfactant is lithium dodecyl sulfate.\",\n \"In an embodiment, the present application provides a device for preserving nucleic acids from a biological sample in a subject further comprising a barcode for sample identification.\",\n \"In another embodiment, the barcode for sample identification is affixed to the device for preserving nucleic acids from a biological sample in a subject.\",\n \"In an embodiment, the present application provides method of preserving nucleic acids using a device described herein from a biological sample in a subject comprising: collecting the sample from the subject with a sample collection element; introducing the sample collection element into the second container; contacting the sample with the first preservative to form a liquid sample; contacting the liquid sample with a second preservative; and, sealing the second container thereby forming a preserved biological sample for storage at room temperature.\",\n \"In another aspect of the invention, the present application provides a method for processing nucleic acids from a biological sample for chemical or biochemical analysis, the method comprising: providing a device comprising: (i) a main body forming a central portion of the device and having a sample collection element rigidly fixed thereto and extending coaxially therefrom; (ii) a first container removably engaged with the main body to form a first sealed cavity that contains the sample collection element, the first container also being at least substantially coaxial with the main body and forming a first end of the device; and, (iii) a second container removably engaged with the main body to form a second sealed cavity, the second container also being at least substantially coaxial with the main body, forming a second end of the device, and having a partition disposed within the second sealed cavity and traversing the entire cross-sectional area of the second container to form a first compartment and a second compartment within the second sealed cavity; wherein the first compartment is proximal to the main body comparative to the second compartment and the second compartment is distal to the main body comparative to the first compartment, wherein the first compartment contains a first preservative that is operatively coupled to the interior surface of the second container, wherein the second compartment contains a quantity of a second preservative, and wherein the partition prohibits the quantity of the second preservative from entering the first compartment; extracting nucleic acids from the second container; and, performing chemical or biochemical analysis of the nucleic acids.\",\n \"In an embodiment, the present application provides a method for processing nucleic acids from a biological sample in a subject wherein the biological sample is saliva.\",\n \"In another embodiment, the method for processing nucleic acids from a biological sample in a subject comprises a sample collection element, wherein the element is a brush.\",\n \"In an embodiment, the interior surface of the second container of the method is a perfluorinated polymer.\",\n \"In another embodiment, the first preservative of the method comprises a proteolytic enzyme selected from the group consisting of proteinases, proteases, subtilisins and subtilases.\",\n \"In a further embodiment, the proteolytic enzyme is proteinase K. In another embodiment, the second preservative of the device is an anionic surfactant.\",\n \"In a further embodiment, the anionic surfactant is selected from the group consisting of alkyl sulfates, alkyl ether sulfates, olefin sulfonates, alkyl sulfoacetates, alkyl ether sulfoacetates, alkyl sulfosuccinates, alkyl ether sulfosuccinates, and mixtures thereof.\",\n \"In another embodiment, the the anionic surfactant is lithium dodecyl sulfate.\",\n \"In an embodiment, the present application provides a method for processing nucleic acids from a biological sample in a subject further comprising a barcode for sample identification.\",\n \"In another embodiment, the barcode for sample identification.\",\n \"Accordingly, it is an object of the invention not to encompass within the invention any previously known product, process of making the product, or method of using the product such that Applicants reserve the right and hereby disclose a disclaimer of any previously known product, process, or method.\",\n \"All publications, patents, and patent applications mentioned in this specification are herein incorporated by reference to the same extent as if each individual publication, patent, or patent application was specifically and individually indicated to be incorporated by reference.\"\n ],\n [\n \"CROSS-REFERENCE This application is a continuation-in-part of U.S. application Ser.\",\n \"No.\",\n \"15/615,761 filed Jun.\",\n \"6, 2017, which claims priority to U.S. provisional application Ser.\",\n \"No.\",\n \"62/345,921, filed Jun.\",\n \"3, 2016, the contents of which are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety.\",\n \"BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION The present application generally relates to methods and compositions for biological sample collection and preservation, including sample collection devices involving the use of flammable solvent-free compositions for preservation, stabilization, and transportation of nucleic acids from biological samples for short-term or long-term storage at room temperature or other temperatures above or below room temperature.\",\n \"Embodiments described herein feature a device for collecting biological samples such as saliva containing nucleic acids, a preservative composition affixed directly to the device or to a carrier substrate and placed within the device, and a liquid preservative composition contained within the device such that the biological samples come into contact with flammable solvent-free preservative compositions.\",\n \"Sample collection and preservation of biological samples, especially samples needed for collection of nucleic acids, generally exist in laboratory settings where any combination of preservation methods and storage solutions can be employed with limited practical obstacles.\",\n \"However, these compositions and methods are limited in point-of-care settings where the devices with compositions for preservation are shipped to end-users who then must collect and then ship the biological samples for testing.\",\n \"Biological samples may be utilized to test patients for a variety of medical conditions, genetic tendencies or propensities or measure in research subjects a variety of experimental variables in a non-invasive or minimally-invasive manner However, existing solutions for the collection and long-term storage of biological samples suffer from several disadvantages, especially those that involve flammable solvent-based preservatives.\",\n \"For the collection and storage of saliva samples for example, existing collection devices generally use preservative compounds in liquid forms that comprise flammable solvents such as ethanol.\",\n \"Flammable solvents such as ethanol complicate the manufacturing process for the insertion of the liquid in a safe and practical way, and introduce additional risks when shipping, transporting or storing existing collection devices.\",\n \"There is an unmet need for a user-friendly sample collection device that allows even inexperienced users of all ages to easily and reliably collect, store and transport biological samples for DNA analysis, such as saliva, in over-the-counter or research settings while avoiding the risks and disadvantages of flammable solvent-based sample preservatives.\",\n \"There is also an unmet need for improved preservation of nucleic acids relative to transportation and storage prior to its extraction in order to assure high quality nucleic acids.\",\n \"Furthermore, it would be desirable to have a device that is safe, compact and easy to use in over-the-counter or home-based applications and that is not rated as flammable, as is typical of devices that include flammable solvents such as ethanol in solvent-based preservatives.\",\n \"Therefore, there currently exists a need for a device and associated method that is easy to use and uses dry and/or liquid preservative chemistry to avoid the disadvantages of flammable solvent-based chemistry preservatives.\",\n \"SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION Described herein are methods and compositions for biological sample collection, including a sample collection device directed to the use of a flammable solvent-free composition for preservation, stabilization, and transportation of nucleic acids from biological samples for short-term or long-term storage at various temperatures.\",\n \"A first aspect of the subject matter described herein provides a device for preserving nucleic acids from a biological sample in a subject comprising: a main body forming a central portion of the device and having a sample collection element rigidly fixed thereto and extending coaxially therefrom; a first container removably engaged with the main body to form a first sealed cavity that contains the sample collection element, the first container also being at least substantially coaxial with the main body and forming a first end of the device; and, a second container removably engaged with the main body to form a second sealed cavity, the second container also being at least substantially coaxial with the main body, forming a second end of the device, and having a partition disposed within the second sealed cavity and traversing the entire cross-sectional area of the second container to form a first compartment and a second compartment within the second sealed cavity; wherein the first compartment is proximal to the main body comparative to the second compartment and the second compartment is distal to the main body comparative to the first compartment, wherein the first compartment contains a first preservative that is operatively coupled to the interior surface of the second container, wherein the second compartment contains a quantity of second preservative, and wherein the partition prohibits the quantity of the second preservative from entering the first compartment.\",\n \"In an embodiment, the present application provides a device for preserving nucleic acids from a biological sample in a subject wherein the biological sample is saliva.\",\n \"In another embodiment, the device for preserving nucleic acids from a biological sample in a subject comprises a sample collection element, wherein the element is a brush.\",\n \"In an embodiment, the interior surface of the second container of the device is a perfluorinated polymer.\",\n \"In another embodiment, the first preservative of the device comprises a proteolytic enzyme selected from the group consisting of proteinases, proteases, subtilisins and subtilases.\",\n \"In a further embodiment, the proteolytic enzyme is proteinase K. In another embodiment, the second preservative of the device comprises and anionic surfactant.\",\n \"In a further embodiment, the anionic surfactant is selected from the group consisting of alkyl sulfates, alkyl ether sulfates, olefin sulfonates, alkyl sulfoacetates, alkyl ether sulfoacetates, alkyl sulfosuccinates, alkyl ether sulfosuccinates, and mixtures thereof.\",\n \"In another embodiment, the anionic surfactant is lithium dodecyl sulfate.\",\n \"In an embodiment, the present application provides a device for preserving nucleic acids from a biological sample in a subject further comprising a barcode for sample identification.\",\n \"In another embodiment, the barcode for sample identification is affixed to the device for preserving nucleic acids from a biological sample in a subject.\",\n \"In an embodiment, the present application provides method of preserving nucleic acids using a device described herein from a biological sample in a subject comprising: collecting the sample from the subject with a sample collection element; introducing the sample collection element into the second container; contacting the sample with the first preservative to form a liquid sample; contacting the liquid sample with a second preservative; and, sealing the second container thereby forming a preserved biological sample for storage at room temperature.\",\n \"In another aspect of the invention, the present application provides a method for processing nucleic acids from a biological sample for chemical or biochemical analysis, the method comprising: providing a device comprising: (i) a main body forming a central portion of the device and having a sample collection element rigidly fixed thereto and extending coaxially therefrom; (ii) a first container removably engaged with the main body to form a first sealed cavity that contains the sample collection element, the first container also being at least substantially coaxial with the main body and forming a first end of the device; and, (iii) a second container removably engaged with the main body to form a second sealed cavity, the second container also being at least substantially coaxial with the main body, forming a second end of the device, and having a partition disposed within the second sealed cavity and traversing the entire cross-sectional area of the second container to form a first compartment and a second compartment within the second sealed cavity; wherein the first compartment is proximal to the main body comparative to the second compartment and the second compartment is distal to the main body comparative to the first compartment, wherein the first compartment contains a first preservative that is operatively coupled to the interior surface of the second container, wherein the second compartment contains a quantity of a second preservative, and wherein the partition prohibits the quantity of the second preservative from entering the first compartment; extracting nucleic acids from the second container; and, performing chemical or biochemical analysis of the nucleic acids.\",\n \"In an embodiment, the present application provides a method for processing nucleic acids from a biological sample in a subject wherein the biological sample is saliva.\",\n \"In another embodiment, the method for processing nucleic acids from a biological sample in a subject comprises a sample collection element, wherein the element is a brush.\",\n \"In an embodiment, the interior surface of the second container of the method is a perfluorinated polymer.\",\n \"In another embodiment, the first preservative of the method comprises a proteolytic enzyme selected from the group consisting of proteinases, proteases, subtilisins and subtilases.\",\n \"In a further embodiment, the proteolytic enzyme is proteinase K. In another embodiment, the second preservative of the device is an anionic surfactant.\",\n \"In a further embodiment, the anionic surfactant is selected from the group consisting of alkyl sulfates, alkyl ether sulfates, olefin sulfonates, alkyl sulfoacetates, alkyl ether sulfoacetates, alkyl sulfosuccinates, alkyl ether sulfosuccinates, and mixtures thereof.\",\n \"In another embodiment, the the anionic surfactant is lithium dodecyl sulfate.\",\n \"In an embodiment, the present application provides a method for processing nucleic acids from a biological sample in a subject further comprising a barcode for sample identification.\",\n \"In another embodiment, the barcode for sample identification.\",\n \"Accordingly, it is an object of the invention not to encompass within the invention any previously known product, process of making the product, or method of using the product such that Applicants reserve the right and hereby disclose a disclaimer of any previously known product, process, or method.\",\n \"All publications, patents, and patent applications mentioned in this specification are herein incorporated by reference to the same extent as if each individual publication, patent, or patent application was specifically and individually indicated to be incorporated by reference.\",\n \"BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The following detailed description, given by way of example, but not intended to limit the disclosure solely to the specific embodiments described, may best be understood in conjunction with the accompanying drawings.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"1 illustrates a perspective view of a sample collection device according to some embodiments of the disclosure.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"2 illustrates an exploded perspective view of the sample collection device shown in FIG.\",\n \"1 according to some embodiments of the disclosure.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"3 illustrates a perspective view of the sample collection device shown in FIG.\",\n \"1 with one container removed and a sample collection element exposed according to some embodiments of the disclosure.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"4 illustrates a perspective view of the sample collection element partially inserted into a second container of the sample collection device according to some embodiments of the disclosure.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"5 illustrates a cross-sectional view of a main body of the sample collection device according to some embodiments of the disclosure.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"6 illustrates a perspective view of a sample collection device having an elongated handle according to some embodiments of the disclosure.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"7 illustrates a series of views showing an embodiment of the device in operation, where each step is numbered sequentially, according to embodiments of the disclosure.\",\n \"DETAILED DESCRIPTION The present application generally relates to methods and compositions for biological sample collection, including a sample collection device directed to the preservation and stabilization of nucleic acids from biological samples for long-term storage.\",\n \"The application provides a composition for use in a biological sample collection device with a flammable solvent-free preservative that affords practical manufacturing, transportation, and end-user advantages.\",\n \"Moreover, Applicant has discovered a composition which, when combined with the biological sample, provides increased resistance to sample degradation under dry, room-temperature conditions for periods of three years or greater.\",\n \"Depending upon the application (e.g., feces collection, saliva collection, etc.\",\n \"), different embodiments of the sample collection device may contain various preservatives, lysing beads and swab treatments.\",\n \"The preservatives may cease metabolic activity, lyse cells, and preserves the nucleic acids for later extraction.\",\n \"Further, the preservatives prevent any unwanted growth of microbes in the sample collection device during shipment or storage.\",\n \"Certain specific details are set forth in order to provide a thorough understanding of various embodiments described herein.\",\n \"However, one skilled in the art will understand that the subject matter of the present disclosure may be practiced without these details.\",\n \"Unless the context requires otherwise, throughout the present specification and claims, the word “comprise” and variations thereof, such as, “comprises” and “comprising” are to be construed in an open, inclusive sense (i.e., as “including, but not limited to”).\",\n \"Reference throughout this specification to “one embodiment” or “an embodiment” means that a particular feature, structure or characteristic described in connection with the embodiment is included in at least one embodiment described herein.\",\n \"Thus, the appearances of the phrases “in one embodiment” or “in an embodiment” in various places throughout this specification are not necessarily all referring to the same embodiment.\",\n \"Furthermore, the particular features, structures, or characteristics may be combined in any suitable manner in one or more embodiments.\",\n \"Referring to FIG.\",\n \"1, the illustration provides an embodiment of a sample collection device 1 in a closed position where a main body (70) is removably engaged with a first container (90) and removably engaged with a second container (10).\",\n \"The first container (90) and second container (10) may be substantially rigid, for example, manufactured from a plastic material.\",\n \"Main body (70) may include a sample collection element comprising a shaft (80) having an end portion covered with absorbent material (100).\",\n \"In some embodiments the absorbent material may be flock.\",\n \"In some embodiments the shaft (80) may be comprised of multiple elements and include a swab or a cotton swab portion or element removably or permanently attached thereto.\",\n \"The sample collection element, specifically the end of the element, having the absorbent material (100) should enable the end-user to obtain the biological sample, such as saliva, from a surface, such as the inside of a buccal cavity, in a minimally-invasive manner.\",\n \"As illustrated in FIGS.\",\n \"1 and 2, main body (70) may be configured with a first end (72) and a second end (74).\",\n \"First end (72) may be removably engaged with a first container (90) by way of threaded engagement, such as screw threads or plastic threads (110) as depicted in FIG.\",\n \"2 on first container (90).\",\n \"Second end (74) of main body (70) may be removably engaged with a second container (10), similarly by way of threaded engagement, such as screw threads or plastic threads (110) as depicted in FIG.\",\n \"2 on second container (10).\",\n \"It will be understood that within the first end (72) and within the second end (74) of main body (70) there are engaging threads to engage with each of the first container (90) and second container (10), respectively, as shown for example in FIG.\",\n \"3.First container (90) and second container (10) may include in some embodiments a ridge (60) that provides for mating engagement and a tight fit of each container against main body (70).\",\n \"Embodiments of main body (70) may include at the second end (74) an extension (150) having a groove (140) and a seal (120), such as for example, an O-ring or gasket provided therein, as shown in FIGS.\",\n \"2 and 3.When main body (70) and second container (10) are threadably engaged, as shown in FIG.\",\n \"1, the seal (120) provides for a first compartment (12) and a second compartment (14) within second container (10).\",\n \"In an embodiment of the invention, the seal (120) may be an elastomer, butadiene rubber, butyl rubber, perfluoroelastomer, silicone rubber, polytetrafluoroethylene, polyisoprene, nitrile rubber, or styrene-butadiene rubber.\",\n \"In an embodiment, the second container (10) may have a conically-shaped end (20) as shown in FIGS.\",\n \"1 and 2.Conically-shaped end (20) may be situated in the second compartment (14).\",\n \"As illustrated in FIGS.\",\n \"1 and 2, second container (10) also has an interior surface (30).\",\n \"In an embodiment, interior surface (30) may include a perfluorinated polymer.\",\n \"In an embodiment, the perfluorinated polymer is fluorinated polyethylene.\",\n \"Referring to FIGS.\",\n \"1 and 2, first end (72) of main body (70) is illustrated with shaft (80) having absorbent material (100) extending therefrom.\",\n \"Shaft (80) may be rigidly (e.g., permanently) affixed or removably affixed to main body (70).\",\n \"In an embodiment, shaft (80) may be configured with a slanted end as exemplified in FIGS.\",\n \"1 and 2.In an embodiment, the end of shaft (80) may include comprise an indentation (130).\",\n \"Referring to FIGS.\",\n \"1 and 2, an end-user may receive the sample collection device 1 in the closed position as shown in FIG.\",\n \"1.It is contemplated that the end-user will unscrew the first container (90) from the main body (70) exposing the sample collection element comprised of shaft (80) with absorbent material (100), wherein the end-user may use the sample collection element to collect saliva in the buccal cavity.\",\n \"As shown in FIG.\",\n \"5, it is contemplated that the sample collection element is connected to both the double-ended cap and the first container (90) in order to provide a longer protruding sample collection element.\",\n \"In an embodiment, the exterior surface of each container includes vertical ridges (40) for gripping.\",\n \"Referring to FIG.\",\n \"4, once the biological sample is collected on to the absorbent material (100) of the sample collection element, the end-user will remove (e.g., unthread) the second container (10) from the main body (70) (if not already removed) and thereafter insert the sample collection element into the second container (10), for example, by threadably engaging the first end (72) of the main body (70) with the threads (110) of the second container (10), as shown in FIG.\",\n \"4.During insertion of sample collection element into second container (10), the sample collection element, and in particular absorbent material (100) will first scrape against or otherwise contact with the interior surface (30) of second container (10) within the first compartment (12) and then, subsequently, the second compartment (14).\",\n \"In an embodiment, the interior surface (30) of the first compartment (12) of the second container (10) comprises a first preservative.\",\n \"In another embodiment, the first preservative is affixed to a substrate which is operably connected to the interior surface (30).\",\n \"In a further embodiment, the substrate may be, but not limited to, paper.\",\n \"In another embodiment, the substrate may be chromatography paper.\",\n \"In an embodiment, the second compartment (14) of second container (10) comprises second preservative.\",\n \"When second container (10) is threadably engaged with the second end (74) of main body (70), such that extension (150) protrudes into second container (10), seal (120) of extension (150) is tightly pressed against or otherwise in contact with the interior surface (30) of second container (10) such that first compartment (12) and second compartment (14) are wholly sealed from each other.\",\n \"As a result, the second preservative contained within second compartment (14) does not and cannot enter first compartment (12) so as to contact the first preservative contained on the interior surface (30) of second container (10) that is located and isolated within first compartment (12).\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"5 shows a cross-sectional view of an embodiment of the main body (70) having a sample collection element, a first end (72), a second end (74) and an extension (150).\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"6 shows an embodiment of a sample collection device according to the subject matter described herein having an extended handle (160) which may be used in instances of sample collection from large mammals, such as a cow or horse.\",\n \"The handle is removably engaged with the first container (90), for example by threaded engagement, snap engagement or a press fit.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"7 shows a series of views showing an embodiment of the device in operation.\",\n \"Step 1 shows the device after it is removed from any packaging and is ready for use.\",\n \"Step 2 shows the device with the first container (90) unscrewed or detached from the main body (70) to expose the shaft (80), including absorbent material (100).\",\n \"Step 3 shows the shaft (80) and absorbent material (100) ready for use, where the main body (70) and either container (90) or (10) as shown in FIG.\",\n \"3 can be grasped as the handle for ease of manipulation.\",\n \"Step 4 shows the shaft (80), absorbent material (100) and main body (70) inverted such that the sample containing element can come into contact with the first preservative and be submerged in the second preservative by way of insertion into the second container (10).\",\n \"Once submerged, main body (70) can be tightened to seal to second container (10).\",\n \"Step 5 shows the device completely closed.\",\n \"First container (90) may either be discarded or it can be reattached to the main body to eliminate any sampling site waste.\",\n \"The device is then ready for transport.\",\n \"As used herein, and unless noted to the contrary, the following terms and phrases have the meaning noted below.\",\n \"The term “biological sample”, as used herein, refers to a specimen of matter from an animal, such as saliva, sputum, serum, plasma, blood, urine, mucus, semen, feces, products of lactation or menstruation, tears, or lymph.\",\n \"The term “sample collection element”, as used herein, refers to a brush, a swab, a damp swab, or a flock.\",\n \"The term “proteolytic enzyme”, as used herein, refers to proteinases, proteases, subtilisins, and subtilases.\",\n \"As used herein, proteolytic enzymes may include, but is not limited to, proteinase K, endoproteinase trypsin, chymotrypsin, endoproteinase Asp-N, endoproteinase Arg-C, endoproteinase Glu-C, endoproteinase Lys-C, pepsin, thermolysin, elastase, papain, cloastripain, exopeptidase, carboxypeptidase A, carboxypeptidase B, carboxypeptidase P, carboxypeptidase Y, cathepsin C, acylamino-acid-releaseing enzyme, pyroglutamate, subtilisin, or aminopeptidase.\",\n \"The use of a surfactant in pharmaceutical compositions is well-known to the skilled person.\",\n \"For convenience, reference is made to Remington: The Science and Practice of Pharmacy, 19th edition, 1995.Anionic surfactants may be selected from the group of: chenodeoxycholic acid, chenodeoxycholic acid sodium salt, cholic acid, dehydrocholic acid, deoxycholic acid, deoxycholic acid methyl ester, digitonin, digitoxigenin, N,N-dimethyldodecylamine N-oxide, docusate sodium, glycochenodeoxycholic acid sodium, glycocholic acid hydrate, glycodeoxycholic acid monohydrate, glycodeoxycholic acid sodium salt, glycolithocholic acid 3-sulfate disodium salt, glycolithocholic acid ethyl ester, N-lauroylsarcosine sodium salt, N-lauroylsarcosine sodium salt, N-lauroylsarcosine, N-lauroylsarcosine, lithium dodecyl sulfate, lugol, 1-octanesulfonic acid sodium salt, sodium 1-butanesulfonate, sodium 1-decanesulfonate, sodium 1-dodecanesulfonate, sodium 1-heptanesulfonate, sodium 1-nonanesulfonate, sodium 1-propanesulfonate monohydrate, sodium 2-bromoethanesulfonate, sodium cholate hydrate, ox or sheep bile, sodium cholate hydrate, sodium choleate, sodium deoxycholate, sodium dodecyl sulfate, sodium dodecyl sulfate, sodium hexanesulfonate, sodium octyl sulfate, sodium pentanesulfonate, sodium taurocholate, taurochenodeoxycholic acid sodium salt, taurodeoxycholic acid sodium salt monohydrate, taurolithocholic acid 3-sulfate disodium salt, tauroursodeoxycholic acid sodium salt, Trizma® dodecyl sulfate, DSS (docusate sodium, CAS registry no [577-11-7]), docusate calcium, CAS registry no [128-49-4]), docusate potassium, CAS registry no [7491-09-0]), SDS (sodium dodecyl sulfate or sodium lauryl sulfate), dodecylphosphocholine (FOS-choline-12), decylphosphocholine (FOS-choline-10), nonylphosphocholine (FOS-choline-9), dipalmitoyl phosphatidic acid, sodium caprylate, and/or ursodeoxycholic acid.\",\n \"Cationic surfactants may be selected from the group of: alkyltrimethylammonium bromide, benzalkonium chloride, benzyldimethylhexadecylammonium chloride, benzyldimethyltetradecylammonium chloride, benzyltrimethylammonium tetrachloroiodate, dimethyldioctadecylammonium bromide, dodecylethyldimethylammonium bromide, dodecyltrimethylammonium bromide, dodecyltrimethylammonium bromide, ethylhexadecyldimethylammonium bromide, hexadecyltrimethylammonium bromide, hexadecyltrimethylammonium chloride, polyoxyethylene-(10)-N-tallow-1,3-diaminopropane, thonzonium bromide, and/or trimethyl(tetradecyl)ammonium bromide.\",\n \"In some embodiments, a formulation of the second preservative contained in second container (10) may include protease inhibitors such as EDTA (ethylenediamine tetraacetic acid) and benzamidine HCl, but other commercially available protease inhibitors may also be used.\",\n \"The use of a protease inhibitor is particular useful in pharmaceutical compositions comprising zymogens of proteases in order to inhibit autocatalysis.\",\n \"The term “stabilized formulation” refers to a formulation with increased physical stability, increased chemical stability or increased physical and chemical stability.\",\n \"The term “physical stability” of the protein formulation as used herein refers to the tendency of the protein to form biologically inactive and/or insoluble aggregates of the protein as a result of exposure of the protein to thermo-mechanical stresses and/or interaction with interfaces and surfaces that are destabilizing, such as hydrophobic surfaces and interfaces.\",\n \"An “alkyl” group refers to an aliphatic hydrocarbon group.\",\n \"The alkyl groups may or may not include units of unsaturation.\",\n \"The alkyl moiety may be a “saturated alkyl” group, which means that it does not contain any units of unsaturation (i.e.\",\n \"a carbon-carbon double bond or a carbon-carbon triple bond).\",\n \"The alkyl group may also be an “unsaturated alkyl” moiety, which means that it contains at least one unit of unsaturation.\",\n \"The alkyl moiety, whether saturated or unsaturated, may be branched, straight chain, or cyclic.\",\n \"By way of example only, an alkyl chain is selected from the group consisting of methyl, ethyl, n-propyl, iso-propyl, n-butyl, iso-butyl, sec-butyl, t-butyl, n-pentyl, iso-pentyl, neo-pentyl, hexyl, propen-3-yl (allyl), cyclopropylmethyl, cyclobutylmethyl, cyclopentylmethyl, cyclohexylmethyl.\",\n \"Alkyl groups can be substituted or unsubstituted.\",\n \"Depending on the structure, an alkyl group can be a monoradical or a diradical (i.e., an alkylene group).\",\n \"A “patient,” “subject,” or “end-user” is a vertebrate, preferably a mammal, and often a human.\",\n \"Mammals include, but are not limited to, humans, non-human primates, experimental model animals (e.g., mice and rats), agriculturally important animals, and pets.\",\n \"EXAMPLES The following examples are offered for purposes of illustration, and are not intended to limit the scope of the claims provided herein.\",\n \"All literature citations in these examples and throughout this specification are incorporated herein by references for all legal purposes to be served thereby.\",\n \"In some aspect of the subject matter described herein, the application provides a composition for use in a device for collection and preservation of biological samples.\",\n \"A sample collection element having a brush or swab, or damp swab (e.g., flock) may be used to collect a biological sample, such as saliva, from an orifice, such as the buccal cavity.\",\n \"Some devices in the field have used collection vials where the end-user must spit into the vial.\",\n \"These devices thus require a large amount of saliva, which is difficult for some subjects to provide, especially young subjects.\",\n \"Applicant found that the use of a sample collection element such as a swab provides more discrete action and broader patient population application.\",\n \"In an embodiment of a procedure for operating the device, the end-user will receive the device in the closed position as illustrated in FIG.\",\n \"1, wherein main body (70) is removably connected to a first container (90) and a second container (10).\",\n \"The end-user may either remove the second-container from the main body prior to collection of the biological sample or after collection.\",\n \"The end-user will obtain a biological sample using the sample collection element, wherein the biological sample will either adhere or absorb to the end of the element (100).\",\n \"Second container (10) may be engaged to main body (70) as illustrated in FIG.\",\n \"3 to provide a handle for sample collection.\",\n \"In an embodiment, a handle may be used to provide a longer handle for sample collection as illustrated in FIG.\",\n \"6.In an aspect of the operating procedure, an extension (150) having a seal (120) projects into second container (10) to form a first compartment (12) and a second compartment (14) that are sealed off from one another so as to prohibit any fluid communication therebetween.\",\n \"When second container (10) and main body (70) are separated, for example by unthreading one from the other, the first compartment (12) and second compartment (14) are no longer sealed off and fluid communication therebetween is permitted.\",\n \"In a further aspect, the sample collection element is introduced into the second container (10), wherein the biological sample that has been collected on the absorbent material (100) of the shaft (80) of the sample collection element is put into contacted with a first preservative located on the interior surface (30) of the first compartment (12) of second container (10).\",\n \"The second container of the sample collection device provides a tight fit around shaft (80) such that the sample collection element scours the interior surface of the first compartment (12) where the absorbent material (100) is coated with Ingredient H, e.g, proteinase K. The sample collection continues to move further into the container into the second compartment (14) wherein the absorbent material is submerged in the second compartment.\",\n \"In an embodiment, the first container and second container comprise a polyfluorinated polymer on the interior surface.\",\n \"In an aspect of the operating procedure, the fluorinated polymer of the interior surface (30) allows the higher adhesion of the preservatives, such as proteinase K. In an embodiment the dry preservative comprises a blend of reagents and enzymes that allow for complete lysis and stabilization of the nucleic acids DNA and RNA, ease of transportation and long-term storage of samples under ambient conditions prior to chemical or biological analysis.\",\n \"The ingredients of the preservative may comprise the following: Ingredient A—enzyme denaturation, including nucleases, DNase enzymes (deoxyribonuclease), and the like; Ingredient B—metal chelating cofactors required by DNase enzymes; Ingredient C—enzyme denaturing agents that helps reduce viscosity of saliva along with other supporting chemicals; Ingredient D—hydration agent; Ingredient E—pH buffer; Ingredient F—DNA and RNA precipitation agent; Ingredient G—a chemical which modifies sample viscosity and surface tension; Ingredient H—sample nuclease digestion agent.\",\n \"In an embodiment, the ingredients are combined to form two separate preservatives.\",\n \"In another embodiment, the first preservative comprising ingredients A through F may also comprise ingredient G. In an embodiment, the second preservative comprises ingredient H and may also comprise ingredient F and/or G. Ingredient A may be a substance such as lithium dodecyl sulfate or similar.\",\n \"Applicant found that use of ingredient A, such as lithium dodecyl sulfate (LDS), prevented the composition from precipitating at low temperatures once the liquid sample was formed.\",\n \"Applicant found that other substances generally used in the art precipitate out of solution at temperatures below 17° C. and then unable to go back into solution unless the pH ranges from 10-11.Ingredient B may be a substance such as 1,2-cyclohexanediaminetetraacetic acid (CDTA), ethylenediaminetetracetic acid (EDTA) or similar.\",\n \"Ingredient C may be a substance such as urea or similar.\",\n \"Ingredient D may be a substance such as 1,2-propanediol or similar.\",\n \"Ingredient E may include Tris (around 100 mM concentration) and NaCl (around 0.3 M final concentration).\",\n \"In an alternate embodiment, NaOAc (sodium acetate) may be used in place of NaCl.\",\n \"Ingredient F may be a substance such as polyethylene glycol 8000 or similar.\",\n \"Applicant found that use of Ingredient F, such as polyethylene glycol (PEG) which may be used independently in the first preservative and in the second preservative, afforded a significantly higher concentration of nucleic acids upon extraction.\",\n \"In an embodiment of the application, polyethylene gycol is used in range of 30-40 w/w %.\",\n \"With the use of 30-40% w/w of PEG, the shelf-life or preservation period afforded at least three (3) years under dry, room-temperature conditions.\",\n \"Moreover, the use of polyethylene glycol is not known to be used in commercial kits for the purpose of obtaining a higher nucleic acid concentration.\",\n \"Thus, the composition provides a low-cost, safe, and efficient chemical which synergistically provides a significantly higher amount of nucleic acid extraction and long-term storage of at least three years under ambient conditions.\",\n \"Ingredient G may be a surfactant such as hexadecyltrimethylammonium chloride or similar.\",\n \"The use of Ingredient G (e.g., hexadecyltrimethylammonium chloride) affords, amongst several uses, an antibacterial agent.\",\n \"The use of Ingredient G also provides an agent for reducing the viscosity of the biological sample.\",\n \"It is understood by one of skill in the art, that biological samples, such as saliva, are viscous due to the mucopolysaccharides which therefore make testing of these samples difficult.\",\n \"Previously known techniques used in laboratory settings include centrifugation and filtration.\",\n \"In an aspect of the operating procedure, the nucleic acids encompassed by the saliva must become “exposed” in order for the preservatives to react with the nucleic acids.\",\n \"Without being bound to any one theory, viscosity reduction by Ingredient G is caused by the chemical interaction between the polyanionic mucopolysaccharides (comprising neuraminic acid and sulfated residues).\",\n \"For example, electrostatic interaction between hexadecyltrimethylammonium chloride and saliva mucopolysaccharides produces an insoluble aggregate.\",\n \"When the hydrated chloride ion is displaced by the anionic mucopolysaccharide, the quaternary ammonium complex becomes insoluble.\",\n \"In an embodiment of the invention, hexadecyltrimethylammonium chloride is used in approximately 0.01±0.005 M concentration.\",\n \"Ingredient H may be a substance such as Proteinase K or similar.\",\n \"In some embodiments, Ingredient H may be located in the second container (10) in the first compartment (12).\",\n \"The ingredient, such as proteinase K, is kept separate from the second preservative until the sample collection element is inserted and submerged into the second compartment (14).\",\n \"In an embodiment of the invention, the composition comprises sodium chloride (NaCl).\",\n \"The use of NaCl improves the ability of the preservative to handle elevated temperatures and improves shelf-life.\",\n \"Applicant found that the sample will brown (i.e., residual proteins are browning) at elevated temperatures.\",\n \"The addition of NaCl causes large DNA to precipitate out prior to extraction.\",\n \"Thus, the use of NaCl interferes with browning; provides DNA preservation; assists precipitation of large, undigested DNA; and is especially compatible with ingredient A (e.g., LDS).\",\n \"In an embodiment of the invention, NaCl is used in the range of approximately 0.3 to 0.5 M in solution.\",\n \"The examples and embodiments described herein are for illustrative purposes only and in some embodiments, various modifications or changes are to be included within the purview of disclosure and scope of the appended claims.\"\n ]\n]"},"source":{"kind":"string","value":"Patent_15875363"}}},{"rowIdx":4494861,"cells":{"text":{"kind":"list like","value":[["CURRENT SENSOR POSITIONING ERROR CORRECTION USING AUXILIARY HALL CELLS","A current sensor may comprise a first Hall cell, a second Hall cell, a third Hall cell, a fourth Hall cell, and a fifth Hall cell to a set of magnetic field values associated with a magnetic field generated by a current passing through a current rail.","The second Hall cell may be positioned at a first distance from the first Hall cell, and the third Hall cell may be positioned at a second distance from the first Hall cell such that the third Hall cell is positioned between the first Hall cell and the second Hall cell.","The fourth Hall cell may be positioned adjacent to the first Hall cell, and the fifth Hall cell may be positioned at a third distance from the fourth Hall cell.","The magnetic field values may be used to determine an amount of current associated with the current passing through the current rail."],["1-20.","(canceled) 21.A magnetic current sensor, comprising: a first primary Hall cell to sense a first magnetic field value, the first magnetic field value being associated with a magnetic field generated by a current passing through a current rail; a second primary Hall cell to sense a second magnetic field value, the second magnetic field value being associated with the magnetic field generated by the current passing through the current rail, and the second primary Hall cell being positioned along an axis at a first distance from the first primary Hall cell, the axis being in a direction substantially perpendicular to the current passing through the current rail, and a midpoint of the current rail and a midpoint of the first distance between the first primary Hall cell and the second primary Hall cell not being aligned and being separated by a particular distance along the axis; and an auxiliary Hall cell to sense a third magnetic field value, the auxiliary Hall cell being positioned along the axis at a second distance from the first primary Hall cell, the second distance being less than the first distance such that the auxiliary Hall cell is positioned along the axis and between the first primary Hall cell and the second primary Hall cell, and the first magnetic field value, the second magnetic field value, and the third magnetic field value being used to determine an amount of current associated with the current passing through the current rail that compensates for the midpoint of the current rail and the midpoint of the first distance between the first primary Hall cell and the second primary Hall cell not being aligned and being separated by the particular distance along the axis.","22.The magnetic current sensor of claim 21, further comprising: one or more components to: derive a differential Hall signal based on the first magnetic field value and the second magnetic field value; derive an auxiliary Hall signal based on the third magnetic field value; determine a corrected differential Hall signal based on the differential Hall signal and the auxiliary Hall signal; and determine the amount of current, associated with the current passing through the current rail, based on the corrected differential Hall signal.","23.The magnetic current sensor of claim 22, where the one or more components are to: determine, based on the differential Hall signal and the auxiliary Hall signal, information that identifies a horizontal positioning error associated with attaching the magnetic current sensor in a position relative to the current rail; and store the information that identifies the horizontal positioning error.","24.The magnetic current sensor of claim 22, where the one or more components, when determining the corrected differential Hall signal, are to: determine the corrected differential Hall signal based on the differential Hall signal, the auxiliary Hall signal, and a constant associated with the current rail.","25.The magnetic current sensor of claim 22, where the one or more components, when determining the corrected differential Hall signal, are to: determine the corrected differential Hall signal UMainComp based on: U MainComp = U Main · ( 1 + α · ( S 0 · U Aux β · U Main ) 2 ) where α, β, and S0 represent constants associated with current rail, UMain represents the differential Hall signal, and UAux represents the auxiliary Hall signal.","26.The magnetic current sensor of claim 21, where the second distance is equal to one-half of the first distance.","27.The magnetic current sensor of claim 21, where the second distance is a distance that is less than one-half of the first distance or the second distance is a distance that is greater than one-half of the first distance.","28.The magnetic current sensor of claim 21, where the current rail is a symmetric current rail and the magnetic current sensor is attached in a position relative to the symmetric current rail.","29.The magnetic current sensor of claim 21, where the particular distance is within a horizontal positioning tolerance associated with attaching the magnetic current sensor in a position relative to the current rail.","30.The magnetic current sensor of claim 21, where the current rail includes an electrically conductive track between two or more electronic components.","31.A method, comprising: sensing, by a first primary Hall cell of a magnetic current sensor, a first magnetic field value, the first magnetic field value being associated with a magnetic field generated by a current passing through a current rail; sensing, by a second primary Hall cell, a second magnetic field value, the second magnetic field value being associated with the magnetic field generated by the current passing through the current rail, and the second primary Hall cell being positioned along an axis at a first distance from the first primary Hall cell, the axis being in a direction substantially perpendicular to the current passing through the current rail, and a midpoint of the current rail and a midpoint of the first distance between the first primary Hall cell and the second primary Hall cell not being aligned and being separated by a particular distance along the axis; sensing, by an auxiliary Hall cell, a third magnetic field value, the auxiliary Hall cell being positioned along the axis at a second distance from the first primary Hall cell, the second distance being less than the first distance such that the auxiliary Hall cell is positioned along the axis and between the first primary Hall cell and the second primary Hall cell; and determining, by a processor, an amount of current associated with the current passing through the current rail, based on the first magnetic field value, the second magnetic field value, and the third magnetic field value, that compensates for the midpoint of the current rail and the midpoint of the first distance between the first primary Hall cell and the second primary Hall cell not being aligned and being separated by the particular distance along the axis.","32.The method of claim 31, where determining the amount of current includes: deriving a differential Hall signal based on the first magnetic field value and the second magnetic field value; deriving an auxiliary Hall signal based on the third magnetic field value; determining a corrected differential Hall signal based on the differential Hall signal and the auxiliary Hall signal; and determining the amount of current, associated with the current passing through the current rail, based on the corrected differential Hall signal.","33.The method of claim 32, further comprising: determining, based on the differential Hall signal and the auxiliary Hall signal, information that identifies a horizontal positioning error associated with attaching the magnetic current sensor in a position relative to the current rail; and storing the information that identifies the horizontal positioning error.","34.The method of claim 32, where determining the corrected differential Hall signal includes: determining the corrected differential Hall signal based on the differential Hall signal, the auxiliary Hall signal, and a constant associated with the current rail.","35.The method of claim 32, where determining the corrected differential Hall signal includes: determining the corrected differential Hall signal UMainComp based on: U MainComp = U Main · ( 1 + α · ( S 0 · U Aux β · U Main ) 2 ) where α, β, and S0 represent constants associated with current rail, UMain represents the differential Hall signal, and UAux represents the auxiliary Hall signal.","36.The method of claim 31, where the second distance is equal to one-half of the first distance.","37.The method of claim 31, where the second distance is a distance that is less than one-half of the first distance or the second distance is a distance that is greater than one-half of the first distance.","38.The method of claim 31, where the current rail is a symmetric current rail and the magnetic current sensor is attached in a position relative to the symmetric current rail.","39.The method of claim 31, where the particular distance is within a horizontal positioning tolerance associated with attaching the magnetic current sensor in a position relative to the current rail.","40.The method of claim 31, where the current rail includes an electrically conductive track between two or more electronic components."],[" BACKGROUND A magnetic current sensor may determine an amount of current based on sensing a magnetic field, generated by the current, and based on the fact that the generated magnetic field is proportional to the amount of current.","Since no galvanic coupling is needed, voltage isolation between a low voltage signal processing circuit and a high voltage current rail is possible up to several kilovolts."],[" SUMMARY According to some possible implementations, a magnetic current sensor may comprise: a first primary Hall cell to sense a first magnetic field value, where the first magnetic field value may be associated with a magnetic field generated by a current passing through a current rail; a second primary Hall cell to sense a second magnetic field value, where the second magnetic field value may be associated with the magnetic field generated by the current passing through the current rail, and where the second primary Hall cell may be positioned along an axis at a first distance from the first primary Hall cell, where the axis may be in a direction substantially perpendicular to the current passing through the current rail; and an auxiliary Hall cell to sense a third magnetic field value, where the auxiliary Hall cell may be positioned along the axis at a second distance from the first primary Hall cell, where the second distance may be less than the first distance such that the auxiliary Hall cell is positioned along the axis and between the first primary Hall cell and the second primary Hall cell, and where the first magnetic field value, the second magnetic field value, and the third magnetic field value may be used to determine an amount of current associated with the current passing through the current rail.","According to some possible implementations, a magnetic current sensor, may comprise: a first primary Hall cell to sense a first magnetic field value, where the first magnetic field value may be associated with a magnetic field generated by a current passing through a current rail; a second primary Hall cell to sense a second magnetic field value, where the second magnetic field value may be associated with the magnetic field generated by the current passing through the current rail, and where the second primary Hall cell may be positioned along an axis at a first distance from the first primary Hall cell, where the axis may be in a direction substantially perpendicular to the current passing through the current rail; a first auxiliary Hall cell to sense a third magnetic field value, where the third magnetic field value may be associated with the magnetic field generated by the current passing through the current rail, where the first auxiliary Hall cell may be positioned adjacent to the first primary Hall cell in a direction substantially parallel to a direction of the current; and a second auxiliary Hall cell to sense a fourth magnetic field value, where the fourth magnetic field value may be associated with the magnetic field generated by the current passing through the current rail, where the second auxiliary Hall cell may be positioned along the axis at a second distance from the first auxiliary Hall cell in a direction substantially perpendicular to the current passing through the current rail, and where the first magnetic field value, the second magnetic field value, the third magnetic field value, and the fourth magnetic field value may be used to determine an amount of current associated with the current passing through the current rail.","According to some possible implementations, a method may comprise: sensing, by a first Hall cell included in a current sensor, a first magnetic field value associated with a magnetic field generated by a current passing through a current rail; sensing, by a second Hall cell included in the current sensor, a second magnetic field value associated with the magnetic field generated by the current passing through the current rail, where the second Hall cell may be located on an axis and at a first distance from the first Hall cell, where the axis may be substantially perpendicular to the current and substantially parallel to a face of the current rail; sensing, by a third Hall cell included in the current sensor, a third magnetic field value associated with the magnetic field generated by the current passing through the current rail, where the third Hall cell may be located on the axis and at a second distance from the first Hall cell, where the second distance may be less than the first distance such that the third Hall cell is located on the axis and between the first Hall cell and the second Hall cell; sensing, by a fourth Hall cell included in the current sensor, a fourth magnetic field value associated with the magnetic field generated by the current passing through the current rail, where the fourth Hall cell may be located adjacent to the first Hall cell in a direction substantially parallel to a direction of the current; sensing, by a fifth Hall cell included in the current sensor, a fifth magnetic field value associated with the magnetic field generated by the current passing through the current rail, where the fifth Hall cell may be located on the axis and at a third distance from the fourth Hall cell in a direction substantially perpendicular to the current passing through the current rail; deriving, by the current sensor, a differential Hall signal based on the first magnetic field value and the second magnetic field value; deriving, by the current sensor, a first auxiliary Hall signal based on the third magnetic field value; deriving, by the current sensor, a second auxiliary Hall signal based on the fourth magnetic field value and the fifth magnetic field value; determining, by the current sensor, a corrected differential Hall signal based on the differential Hall signal, the first auxiliary Hall signal, and the second auxiliary Hall signal; and determining, by the current sensor, an amount of current, associated with the current passing through the current rail, based on the corrected differential Hall signal."],["BACKGROUND A magnetic current sensor may determine an amount of current based on sensing a magnetic field, generated by the current, and based on the fact that the generated magnetic field is proportional to the amount of current.","Since no galvanic coupling is needed, voltage isolation between a low voltage signal processing circuit and a high voltage current rail is possible up to several kilovolts.","SUMMARY According to some possible implementations, a magnetic current sensor may comprise: a first primary Hall cell to sense a first magnetic field value, where the first magnetic field value may be associated with a magnetic field generated by a current passing through a current rail; a second primary Hall cell to sense a second magnetic field value, where the second magnetic field value may be associated with the magnetic field generated by the current passing through the current rail, and where the second primary Hall cell may be positioned along an axis at a first distance from the first primary Hall cell, where the axis may be in a direction substantially perpendicular to the current passing through the current rail; and an auxiliary Hall cell to sense a third magnetic field value, where the auxiliary Hall cell may be positioned along the axis at a second distance from the first primary Hall cell, where the second distance may be less than the first distance such that the auxiliary Hall cell is positioned along the axis and between the first primary Hall cell and the second primary Hall cell, and where the first magnetic field value, the second magnetic field value, and the third magnetic field value may be used to determine an amount of current associated with the current passing through the current rail.","According to some possible implementations, a magnetic current sensor, may comprise: a first primary Hall cell to sense a first magnetic field value, where the first magnetic field value may be associated with a magnetic field generated by a current passing through a current rail; a second primary Hall cell to sense a second magnetic field value, where the second magnetic field value may be associated with the magnetic field generated by the current passing through the current rail, and where the second primary Hall cell may be positioned along an axis at a first distance from the first primary Hall cell, where the axis may be in a direction substantially perpendicular to the current passing through the current rail; a first auxiliary Hall cell to sense a third magnetic field value, where the third magnetic field value may be associated with the magnetic field generated by the current passing through the current rail, where the first auxiliary Hall cell may be positioned adjacent to the first primary Hall cell in a direction substantially parallel to a direction of the current; and a second auxiliary Hall cell to sense a fourth magnetic field value, where the fourth magnetic field value may be associated with the magnetic field generated by the current passing through the current rail, where the second auxiliary Hall cell may be positioned along the axis at a second distance from the first auxiliary Hall cell in a direction substantially perpendicular to the current passing through the current rail, and where the first magnetic field value, the second magnetic field value, the third magnetic field value, and the fourth magnetic field value may be used to determine an amount of current associated with the current passing through the current rail.","According to some possible implementations, a method may comprise: sensing, by a first Hall cell included in a current sensor, a first magnetic field value associated with a magnetic field generated by a current passing through a current rail; sensing, by a second Hall cell included in the current sensor, a second magnetic field value associated with the magnetic field generated by the current passing through the current rail, where the second Hall cell may be located on an axis and at a first distance from the first Hall cell, where the axis may be substantially perpendicular to the current and substantially parallel to a face of the current rail; sensing, by a third Hall cell included in the current sensor, a third magnetic field value associated with the magnetic field generated by the current passing through the current rail, where the third Hall cell may be located on the axis and at a second distance from the first Hall cell, where the second distance may be less than the first distance such that the third Hall cell is located on the axis and between the first Hall cell and the second Hall cell; sensing, by a fourth Hall cell included in the current sensor, a fourth magnetic field value associated with the magnetic field generated by the current passing through the current rail, where the fourth Hall cell may be located adjacent to the first Hall cell in a direction substantially parallel to a direction of the current; sensing, by a fifth Hall cell included in the current sensor, a fifth magnetic field value associated with the magnetic field generated by the current passing through the current rail, where the fifth Hall cell may be located on the axis and at a third distance from the fourth Hall cell in a direction substantially perpendicular to the current passing through the current rail; deriving, by the current sensor, a differential Hall signal based on the first magnetic field value and the second magnetic field value; deriving, by the current sensor, a first auxiliary Hall signal based on the third magnetic field value; deriving, by the current sensor, a second auxiliary Hall signal based on the fourth magnetic field value and the fifth magnetic field value; determining, by the current sensor, a corrected differential Hall signal based on the differential Hall signal, the first auxiliary Hall signal, and the second auxiliary Hall signal; and determining, by the current sensor, an amount of current, associated with the current passing through the current rail, based on the corrected differential Hall signal.","BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIGS.","1A-ID are diagrams of an overview of an example implementation described herein; FIG.","2 is a diagram of an example environment in which apparatuses described herein may be implemented; FIG.","3 is a diagram of example components of a magnetic current sensor included in the example environment of FIG.","2; FIGS.","4A-4C are diagrams of example components of a Hall differential component included in the example magnetic current sensor of FIG.","3; FIG.","5 is a diagram that shows an example cross section of an external current rail with respect to a vertical magnetic field and a horizontal magnetic field; FIG.","6 is a graphical representation showing an example of how a vertical magnetic field and a horizontal magnetic field vary with respect to an x-coordinate perpendicular to current passing through an external current rail; FIGS.","7 and 8 are diagrams that show an example of dependency of a differential magnetic field, sensed by a set of primary Hall cells, with respect to a horizontal positioning error; FIG.","9 is a graphical representation that shows an example of a compensated differential magnetic field with respect to horizontal positioning error in relation to a symmetric external current rail: FIG.","10 is a graphical representation of an example of an uncompensated horizontal positioning sensitivity error and a compensated horizontal positioning sensitivity error for a symmetric external current rail; FIG.","11 is a graphical representation that shows an example of a compensated differential magnetic field with respect to horizontal positioning tolerance in relation to an asymmetric current rail; FIG.","12 is a graphical representation of an example of an uncompensated horizontal positioning sensitivity error and a compensated horizontal positioning sensitivity error for an asymmetric external current rail; FIG.","13 is a graphical representation of an example of a compensated vertical differential magnetic field with respect to a background field correction; FIG.","14 is a graphical representation of an example of an uncompensated horizontal positioning sensitivity error and a compensated horizontal positioning sensitivity error with respect to a background field correction; FIG.","15 is a diagram that shows an example of dependency of a vertical differential magnetic field, sensed by a set of primary Hall cells, with respect to a vertical positioning error; FIG.","16 is a graphical representation of an example of a combined magnetic field, determined based on a vertical differential magnetic field and a horizontal magnetic field, that is independent of vertical positioning error; FIGS.","17A and 17B are block diagrams showing example circuitry associated with combining a vertical differential Hall signal and an auxiliary horizontal Hall signal in order to compensate for a vertical positioning error; and FIGS.","18A and 18B are flow charts of an example process for determining an amount of current, associated with a current passing through a current rail, using a differential Hall signal that has been corrected in order to compensate for a horizontal positioning error and a vertical positioning error associated with attaching a current sensor to the current rail.","DETAILED DESCRIPTION The following detailed description of example implementations refers to the accompanying drawings.","The same reference numbers in different drawings may identify the same or similar elements.","A differential-Hall based magnetic current sensor may make use of an external current rail (e.g., a trace on a printed circuit board (PCB) plate to which the magnetic current sensor is attached, positioned adjacent to, etc.)","in order to determine an amount of current passing through the current rail.","The magnetic current sensor may be positioned relative to and attached (e.g., soldered) to the current rail such that two primary Hall cells (e.g., lateral Hall cells included in the magnetic current sensor) are located relative to opposite sides of the current rail (e.g., opposite sides of the center of a symmetric current rail).","The primary Hall cells may sense opposite vertical magnetic field values (e.g., associated with a magnetic field generated by the current as the current passes through the current rail) on the opposite sides of the current rail, and may determine the amount of current passing through the current rail based on a vertical differential Hall signal derived from the sensed vertical magnetic field values.","However, the vertical differential Hall signal, derived from the vertical magnetic field values, may be sensitive to placement of the magnetic current sensor on the current rail.","For example, if the magnetic current sensor is positioned such that the primary Hall cells are not horizontally equidistant (e.g., in an x-direction on the face of the current rail and substantially perpendicular to the direction of the current) from the center of a symmetric current rail, then the derived vertical differential Hall signal may be affected such that the magnetic current sensor may inaccurately determine the amount of current passing through the current rail.","Such a positioning error may be referred to as a horizontal positioning error.","In some cases, an assembly process associated with attaching the magnetic current sensor in a position relative to the current rail may allow for a horizontal positioning tolerance (e.g., ±100 micrometers (μm).","±200 μm, etc.)","in the x-direction.","As another example, if the magnetic current sensor is positioned such that the primary Hall cells are not vertically separated from the current rail by a known distance (e.g., in a z-direction away from the current rail and substantially perpendicular to the face of the current rail), then the derived vertical differential Hall signal may also be affected such that the magnetic current sensor may inaccurately determine the amount of current passing through the current rail.","Such a positioning error may be referred to as a vertical positioning error.","In some cases, an assembly process associated with attaching the magnetic current sensor in a position relative to the current rail may allow for a vertical positioning tolerance (e.g., ±65 μm, etc.)","in the z-direction.","Moreover, vertical positioning error may be introduced after the current sensor is attached to the current rail (e.g., due to swelling).","One technique that may be used to correct the vertical differential Hall signal is to implement End-of-Line (EOL) calibration after the magnetic current sensor is (fixedly) placed relative to the current rail.","EOL calibration may include forcing a known current through the current rail in both directions (e.g., in order to cancel potential sensor-offset effects), and calculating a gain correction factor as a ratio of a target vertical differential Hall signal (e.g., known based on the known current) and an actual vertical differential Hall signal (e.g., derived by the magnetic current sensor).","The gain correction factor may then be used to adjust a compensation constant (e.g., stored in an Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory (EEPROM) in the magnetic current sensor, on a micro-controller configured to process the differential Hall signal, etc.","), and the compensation constant may, during application, automatically and continuously be applied to the derived vertical differential Hall signal in order to cancel the differential Hall signal error (e.g., due to horizontal positioning error or due to vertical positioning error) that may otherwise arise.","However, implementing such an EOL calibration process may increase a variety of costs associated with the magnetic current sensor (e.g., additional testing time, additional equipment costs, increased production complexity, etc.).","Moreover.","EOL calibration may be ineffective with respect to correcting vertical positioning error that is introduced at a later time (e.g., due to swelling after the current sensor is installed).","Implementations described herein may provide a magnetic current sensor that includes one or more auxiliary Hall cells (e.g., lateral Hall cells and/or vertical Hall cells), positioned with respect to two primary Hall cells, that may sense magnetic field values, associated with a magnetic field generated by a current passing through a current rail.","Information associated with the magnetic field values sensed by the one or more auxiliary Hall cells may then be used to correct a differential Hall signal error that arises due to a horizontal positioning error and/or a vertical positioning error associated with attaching the magnetic current sensor in a position relative to the current rail.","FIGS.","1A-1D are diagrams of an overview of an example implementation 100 described herein.","For the purposes of example implementation 100, assume that a magnetic current sensor is attached in a position relative to a symmetrical current rail (e.g., a current rail with a constant width in a direction perpendicular to the current) that is external to the magnetic current sensor and that has a width w. Further, assume that the magnetic current sensor includes a pair of primary Hall cells (e.g., lateral Hall cells) separated by a particular horizontal distance (e.g., dT).","As shown in FIG.","1A, the magnetic current sensor may be positioned in a position relative to the current rail such that the midpoint of the current rail (e.g., w midpoint) is not aligned with the midpoint of the distance between the pair of primary Hall cells (e.g., dT midpoint), but within a horizontal positioning tolerance associated with attaching the magnetic current sensor in a position relative to the current rail.","As shown, the magnetic current sensor may be positioned such that the w midpoint and dT midpoint are separated by a particular horizontal distance (e.g., Δx).","As further shown, during operation, the primary Hall cells may sense opposite vertical magnetic field values (e.g., magnetic field BZ1 and magnetic field BZ2) when an unknown current passes through the current rail.","As further shown, the magnetic current sensor may derive a vertical differential Hall signal based on the magnetic field values sensed by the primary Hall cells, and may determine an amount of current based on the derived vertical differential Hall signal.","However, since dT midpoint and w midpoint are separated by Δx, and since no correction was made to adjust the vertical differential Hall signal derived in order to compensate for Δx, the amount of current determined by the magnetic current sensor may be inaccurate.","In order to solve this problem without implementing EOL calibration, an auxiliary lateral Hall cell (e.g., an additional Hall cell associated with measuring a vertical magnetic field) may be included in the magnetic current sensor.","As shown in FIG.","1B, assume that, instead of including only two primary Hall cells separated by a particular distance dT, the magnetic current sensor includes an auxiliary lateral Hall cell (e.g., an auxiliary Hall cell configured to sense a vertical magnetic field) positioned between the two primary Hall cells.","As shown, the auxiliary lateral Hall cell may be positioned such that the auxiliary lateral Hall cell lies at dT midpoint (i.e., the auxiliary lateral Hall cell may lie halfway between the two primary Hall cells).","In some implementations, the auxiliary lateral Hall cell may be positioned at another location between the two primary Hall cells (i.e., the auxiliary lateral Hall cell may be positioned at a location between the primary Hall cells other than at dT midpoint).","As further shown, during operation, the primary Hall cells may sense opposite vertical magnetic field values (e.g., magnetic field BZ1 and magnetic field BZ2) when an unknown current passes through the current rail, and the auxiliary lateral Hall cell may sense another vertical magnetic field value (e.g., magnetic field BZC) at dT midpoint.","As further shown, the magnetic current sensor may derive a vertical differential Hall signal based on the vertical magnetic field values sensed by the primary Hall cells, and may derive an auxiliary vertical Hall signal based on the vertical magnetic field value sensed by the auxiliary lateral Hall cell.","As further shown, the magnetic current sensor may then determine a corrected vertical differential Hall signal based on the vertical differential Hall signal and the auxiliary vertical Hall signal (e.g., without EOL calibration), and may determine the amount of current, accordingly.","In this way, a magnetic current sensor may include an auxiliary lateral Hall cell positioned between two primary Hall cells.","The auxiliary lateral Hall cell may sense a vertical magnetic field value, associated with a magnetic field generated by a current passing through a current rail, at a position between the two primary Hall cells.","The vertical magnetic field value, sensed by the auxiliary lateral Hall cell, may then be used to correct a vertical differential Hall signal error that arises due to a horizontal positioning error associated with attaching the magnetic current sensor in a position relative to the current rail.","For the purposes of FIG.","1C, once again assume that the magnetic current sensor is attached in a position relative to a symmetrical current rail that is external to the magnetic current sensor and that has a width w. Further, assume that the magnetic current sensor includes a pair of primary Hall cells separated from a face of the current rail by a particular vertical distance (e.g., zT).","As shown in FIG.","1C, the magnetic current sensor may be vertically positioned in a position relative to the current rail such that the pair of primary Hall cells is separated from a face of the current rail by zT.","However, as shown, zT may comprise a known vertical distance associated with the geometry of the magnetic current sensor (e.g., z0) and an unknown vertical distance associated with a vertical positioning error (e.g., Δz).","As further shown, during operation, the primary Hall cells may sense opposite vertical magnetic field values (e.g., magnetic field BZ1 and magnetic field BZ2) when an unknown current passes through the current rail.","As further shown, the magnetic current sensor may derive a vertical differential Hall signal based on the magnetic field values sensed by the primary Hall cells, and may determine an amount of current based on the derived vertical differential Hall signal.","However, since zT is not equal to z0 (e.g., due to the Δz vertical positioning error), and since no correction was made to adjust the vertical differential Hall signal derived in order to compensate for Δz, the amount of current determined by the magnetic current sensor may be inaccurate.","In order to solve this problem without implementing EOL calibration, a set of auxiliary vertical Hall cells (e.g., a set of Hall cells associated with measuring a horizontal magnetic field) may be included in the magnetic current sensor.","As shown in FIG.","1D, assume that, instead of including only two primary Hall cells, the magnetic current sensor includes a set of three auxiliary vertical Hall cells (e.g., a set of auxiliary vertical Hall cells configured to sense a horizontal magnetic field).","As shown, the set of auxiliary vertical Hall cells may be positioned such that a first auxiliary vertical Hall cell and a second auxiliary vertical Hall cell are adjacent to the two primary Hall cells (e.g., in a y-direction along the current rail), and such that a third auxiliary vertical Hall cell is positioned between the first auxiliary vertical Hall cell and the second auxiliary vertical Hall cell (e.g., at dT midpoint).","In some implementations, the auxiliary vertical Hall cells may be positioned in another manner (e.g., such that the third auxiliary vertical Hall cell does not lie at dT midpoint between the first auxiliary vertical Hall cell and the second auxiliary vertical Hall cell).","In some implementations, the second auxiliary vertical Hall cell may be optional, as further described below.","As further shown, during operation, the primary Hall cells may sense opposite vertical magnetic field values (e.g., magnetic field BZ1 and magnetic field BZ2) when an unknown current passes through the current rail, and the first auxiliary vertical Hall cell, the second auxiliary vertical Hall cell, and the third auxiliary vertical Hall cell may sense a first horizontal magnetic field value (e.g., magnetic field BX1), a second horizontal magnetic field value (e.g., magnetic field BX2), and a third horizontal magnetic field value (e.g., magnetic field BXC), respectively.","As further shown, the magnetic current sensor may derive a vertical differential Hall signal based on the vertical magnetic field values sensed by the primary Hall cells, and may derive an auxiliary horizontal Hall signal based on the horizontal magnetic field values sensed by the set of auxiliary vertical Hall cells.","As further shown, the magnetic current sensor may then determine a corrected vertical differential Hall signal based on the vertical differential Hall signal and the auxiliary horizontal Hall signal (e.g., without EOL calibration), and may determine the amount of current, accordingly.","In this way, a magnetic current sensor may include a set of auxiliary vertical Hall cells positioned with respect to two primary Hall cells.","The set of auxiliary vertical Hall cells may sense a set of horizontal magnetic field values, associated with a magnetic field generated by a current passing through a current rail.","The set of horizontal magnetic field values, sensed by the set of auxiliary vertical Hall cells, may then be used to correct a vertical differential Hall signal error that arises due to a vertical positioning error associated with attaching the magnetic current sensor in a position relative to the current rail.","In some implementations, the magnetic current sensor may include the auxiliary lateral Hall cell and the set of auxiliary vertical Hall cells, as described below.","In this way, the magnetic current sensor may be capable of compensating for both a horizontal positioning error and a vertical positioning error associated with attaching the magnetic current sensor to the current rail.","FIG.","2 is a diagram of an example environment 200 in which apparatuses described herein may be implemented.","As shown in FIG.","2, environment 200 may include an external current rail 210, a galvanic isolation component 220, and a magnetic current sensor 230.External current rail 210 may include an electrically conductive track between two or more electronic components.","For example, external current rail 210 may include a trace on a PCB that connects two components of an electrical circuit.","In some implementations, a current may pass through external current rail 210 (e.g., from one electrical component to another electrical component, from a current source to an electrical component, etc.).","Galvanic isolation component 220 may include a component that isolates magnetic current sensor 230 from external current rail 210 such that current, passing through external current rail 210, may not flow into magnetic current sensor 230.In some implementations, galvanic isolation 220 may be placed (e.g., between external current rail 210 and magnetic current sensor 230) such that magnetic current sensor 230 is capable of sensing a magnetic field generated by the current passing through external current rail 210.Magnetic current sensor 230 may include a sensor designed to determine an amount of current passing through external current rail 210.For example, magnetic current sensor 230 may determine the amount of current passing through external current rail 210 based on sensing a magnetic field generated by the current.","In some implementations, magnetic current sensor 230 may be positioned such that magnetic current sensor 230 is separated from external current rail 210 by galvanic isolation component 220.In some implementations, magnetic current sensor 230 may include a differential Hall component (e.g., including a pair of primary Hall cells, an auxiliary lateral Hall cell, and/or a set of auxiliary vertical Hall cells) associated with sensing the magnetic field generated by the current, and one or more other components.","Additional details regarding magnetic current sensor 230 are described below with regard to FIG.","3.In some implementations, magnetic current sensor 230 may be housed in package comprising a semiconductor chip.","The number and arrangement of apparatuses shown in FIG.","2 are provided as an example.","In practice, there may be additional apparatuses, fewer apparatuses, different apparatuses, or differently arranged apparatuses than those shown in FIG.","2.Furthermore, two or more apparatuses shown in FIG.","2 may be implemented within a single apparatus, or a single apparatus shown in FIG.","2 may be implemented as multiple, distributed apparatuses.","Additionally, or alternatively, a set of apparatuses (e.g., one or more apparatuses) of environment 200 may perform one or more functions described as being performed by another set of apparatuses of environment 200.FIG.","3 is a diagram of example components of a magnetic current sensor 230 included in the example environment 200 of FIG.","2.As shown, magnetic current sensor 230 may include a differential Hall component 310, an analog-to-digital convertor (ADC) 320, a digital signal processor (DSP) 330, a memory component 340, and a digital interface 350.Differential Hall component 310 may include a component designed to sense a magnetic field generated by a current passing through external current rail 210.In some implementations, differential Hall component may include a pair of primary Hall cells, an auxiliary lateral Hall cell, and a set of auxiliary vertical Hall cells.","Each Hall cell may be capable of sensing a magnetic field value (e.g., a vertical magnetic field value or a horizontal magnetic field value).","In some implementations, each Hall cell may provide information associated with the sensed magnetic field values to ADC 320.Alternatively, differential Hall cell component 310 may process analog signals, associated with the sensed magnetic fields (e.g., without analog-to-digital conversion by ADC 320) in order to determine a corrected differential Hall signal.","Additional details regarding differential Hall component 310 are described below with regard to FIG.","4.ADC 320 may include an analog-to-digital converter that converts an analog signal (e.g., a voltage signal) from differential Hall component 310 to a digital signal.","For example, ADC 320 may convert analog signals, received from differential Hall component 310, into digital signals to be processed by DSP 330.ADC 320 may provide the digital signals to DSP 330.In some implementations, magnetic current sensor 230 may include one or more ADCs 320.DSP 330 may include a digital signal processing device or a collection of digital signal processing devices.","In some implementations, DSP 330 may receive a digital signal from ADC 320 and may process the digital signal to form an output (e.g., information that identifies the amount of current passing through external current rail 210, information associated with the differential Hall signal, information associated with the auxiliary Hall signal, etc.).","For example, DSP 330 may derive and/or receive a digital signal corresponding to a vertical magnetic field value sensed by primary Hall cell(s), the auxiliary lateral Hall cell, and/or the set of auxiliary vertical Hall cells.","DSP 330 may determine a corrected differential Hall signal based on the derived and/or received digital signal(s), and may provide information associated with the corrected differential Hall signal.","While implementations described herein are described in the context of DSP 330 performing processing on digital signals corresponding to sensed magnetic field values, in some implementations, another component of magnetic sensor may perform a similar type of processing.","For example, differential Hall component 310 may perform processing on analog signals corresponding to sensed magnetic field values (e.g., before analog-to-digital conversion is performed).","Memory 340 may include a read only memory (ROM) (e.g., an EEPROM), a random access memory (RAM), and/or another type of dynamic or static storage device (e.g., a flash memory, a magnetic memory, an optical memory, etc.)","that stores information and/or instructions for use by magnetic current sensor 230.In some implementations, memory component 340 may store a compensation constant that is to be applied during processing performed by DSP 330.Digital interface 350 may include an interface via which magnetic current sensor 230 may receive and/or provide information from and/or to another device, such as information associated with an amount of current determined by magnetic current sensor 230.For example, digital interface may provide the output determined by DSP 330, that identifies the amount of current passing through external current rail 210.The number and arrangement of components shown in FIG.","3 are provided as an example.","In practice, magnetic current sensor 230 may include additional components, fewer components, different components, or differently arranged components than those shown in FIG.","3.Additionally, or alternatively, a set of components (e.g., one or more components) of magnetic current sensor 230 may perform one or more functions described as being performed by another set of components of magnetic current sensor 230.FIGS.","4A-4C are diagrams of example components of a differential Hall component 310 included in the example magnetic current sensor 230 of FIG.","3.As shown in FIG.","4A, one example differential Hall component 310 may include a set of two primary Hall cells 410 (e.g., primary Hall cell 410-1 and primary Hall cell 410-2), and an auxiliary lateral Hall cell 420.Primary Hall cell 410 may include a transducer designed to provide an output in response to sensing a vertical magnetic field value corresponding to a current travelling through external current rail 210.For example, primary Hall cell 410 may provide a vertical magnetic field value that allows magnetic current sensor 230 (e.g., DSP 330, differential Hall component 310) to derive (e.g., based on vertical magnetic field values provided by two primary Hall cells 410) a vertical differential Hall signal that corresponds to the current passing through external current rail 210.Auxiliary lateral Hall cell 420 may include a transducer designed to provide an output in response to sensing a vertical magnetic field value associated with correcting a vertical differential Hall signal in order to compensate for a horizontal positioning error associated with attaching magnetic current sensor 230 to external current rail 210.For example, auxiliary lateral Hall cell 420 may provide an output that allows magnetic current sensor 230 (e.g., DSP 330, differential Hall component 310) to derive an auxiliary vertical Hall signal and/or correct the vertical differential Hall signal based on the derived auxiliary vertical Hall signal.","In some implementations, auxiliary lateral Hall cell 420 may be positioned between primary Hall cell 410-1 and primary Hall cell 410-2.For example, as shown in FIG.","4A, auxiliary lateral Hall cell 420 may be positioned such that auxiliary lateral Hall cell 420 lies at a first distance (e.g., d1) from primary Hall cell 410-1 and a second distance (e.g., d2) from primary Hall cell 410-2 (e.g., where d1+d2=dT).","In some implementations, d1 may equal to d2 (i.e., auxiliary lateral Hall cell 420 may be positioned halfway between primary Hall cell 410-1 and primary Hall cell 410-2).","Alternatively, d1 may not be equal to d2 (i.e., auxiliary lateral Hall cell 420 may not be positioned halfway between primary Hall cell 410-1 and primary Hall cell 410-2).","Additionally, while FIG.","4A shows distance dT as a distance that is greater than the width of external current rail 210 (e.g., w), in some implementations, dT may be less than or equal to w. Additionally, while FIG.","4A shows primary Hall cell 410-1, primary Hall cell 410-2, and auxiliary lateral Hall cell 420 as being centered with respect to a y-axis, in some implementations, Hall cell 410-1, primary Hall cell 410-2, or auxiliary lateral Hall cell 420 may not be centered with respect to the y-axis.","In some implementations, as described below, primary Hall cell 410-1, primary Hall cell 410-2, and auxiliary lateral Hall cell 420 may allow magnetic current sensor 230 (e.g., DSP 330, differential Hall component 310) to determine an amount of current, passing through external current rail 210, based on a corrected vertical differential Hall signal that has been corrected to compensate for a horizontal positioning error associated with attaching magnetic current sensor 230 in a position relative to external current rail 210.As shown in FIG.","4B, another example differential Hall component 310 may include two primary Hall cells 410, and a set of auxiliary vertical Hall cells 430 (e.g., auxiliary vertical Hall cell 430-1, auxiliary vertical Hall cell 430-2, and auxiliary vertical Hall cell 430-3).","Auxiliary vertical Hall cells 430 may include a transducer designed to provide an output in response to sensing a horizontal magnetic field value associated with correcting a vertical differential Hall signal in order to compensate for a vertical positioning error associated with attaching magnetic current sensor 230 to external current rail 210.For example, auxiliary vertical Hall cells 430 may provide outputs that allow magnetic current sensor 230 (e.g., DSP 330, differential Hall component 310) to derive an auxiliary horizontal Hall signal and/or correct the vertical differential Hall signal based on the derived auxiliary horizontal Hall signal.","In some implementations, auxiliary vertical Hall cell 430-1 and 430-2 may be positioned adjacent to primary Hall cell 410-1 and primary Hall cell 410-2, respectively.","For example, as shown in FIG.","4B, auxiliary vertical Hall cell 430-1 may be positioned adjacent to primary Hall cell 410-1 along a y-axis (e.g., an axis that runs parallel to the current along aface of external current rail).","Similarly, as shown, auxiliary vertical Hall cell 430-2 may be positioned adjacent to primary Hall cell 410-2 along the y-axis.","As further shown, auxiliary vertical Hall cell 430-3 may be positioned between auxiliary vertical Hall cell 430-1 and auxiliary vertical Hall cell 430-2 (e.g., along the x-axis) such that auxiliary vertical Hall cell 430-3 lies at a third distance (e.g., d3) from auxiliary vertical Hall cell 430-1 and a fourth distance (e.g., d4) from auxiliary vertical Hall cell 430-2 (e.g., where d3+d4=dT).","In some implementations, d3 may equal to d4 (i.e., auxiliary vertical Hall cell 430-3 may be positioned halfway between auxiliary vertical Hall cell 430-1 and auxiliary vertical Hall cell 430-2).","Alternatively, d3 may not be equal to d4 (i.e., auxiliary vertical Hall cell 430-3 may not be positioned halfway between auxiliary vertical Hall cell 430-1 and auxiliary vertical Hall cell 430-2).","In some implementations, differential Hall component 310 may not include auxiliary vertical Hall cell 430-2 (e.g., auxiliary vertical Hall cell 430-2 may be optionally included in differential Hall component 310).","Alternatively, differential Hall component 310 may not include auxiliary vertical Hall cell 430-1 (e.g., auxiliary vertical Hall cell 430-1 may be optionally when differential Hall component 310 includes auxiliary vertical Hall cell 430-2).","Additionally, while FIG.","4B shows auxiliary vertical Hall cell 430-1, auxiliary vertical Hall cell 430-2, and auxiliary vertical Hall cell 430-3 as being centered with respect to the y-axis, in some implementations, auxiliary vertical Hall cell 430-1, auxiliary vertical Hall cell 430-2, and auxiliary vertical Hall cell 430-3 may not be being centered with respect to the y-axis.","In some implementations, as described below, primary Hall cell 410-1, primary Hall cell 410-2, auxiliary vertical Hall cell 430-1, auxiliary vertical Hall cell 430-2, and auxiliary vertical Hall cell 430-3 may allow magnetic current sensor 230 (e.g., DSP 330, differential Hall component 310) to determine an amount of current, passing through external current rail 210, based on a corrected vertical differential Hall signal that has been corrected to compensate for a vertical positioning error associated with attaching magnetic current sensor 230 to the in a position relative to external current rail 210.As shown in FIG.","4C, in some implementations, differential Hall component 310 may include primary Hall cell 410-1, primary Hall cell 410-2, auxiliary lateral Hall cell 420, auxiliary vertical Hall cell 430-1, auxiliary vertical Hall cell 430-2, and auxiliary vertical Hall cell 430-3.Such an implementation may allow magnetic current sensor 230 (e.g., DSP 330, differential Hall component 310) to determine an amount of current, passing through external current rail 210, based on a corrected vertical differential Hall signal that has been corrected to compensate for both a horizontal positioning error and a vertical positioning error associated with attaching magnetic current sensor 230 in a position relative to external current rail 210.The number and arrangement of components shown in FIGS.","4A-4C are provided as an example.","In practice, differential Hall component 310 may include additional components, different components, or differently arranged components than those shown in FIGS.","4A-4C.","By positioning a pair of primary Hall cells 410 in positions relative to opposite sides of external current rail 210 (e.g., with respect to a center of a symmetric current rail), and due to the differential Hall principle, vertical magnetic field values on opposite sides of a center of external current rail 210 may be differentiated from an external homogeneous magnetic field (e.g., Earth's magnetic field).","For example, consider external current rail 210 (e.g., a PCB trace) of width w, and a magnetic current sensor 230 positioned in a position relative to external current rail 210 such that the vertical distance between each of the pair of primary Hall cells 410 and external current rail 210 is z.","An example cross section showing geometry of external current rail 210 with respect to a vertical magnetic field and a horizontal magnetic field is shown in FIG.","5.Based on the geometry shown in FIG.","5, a vertical magnetic field (e.g., BZ(x,z)) at an x-coordinate and a z-coordinate, with respect to external current rail 210, may be derived based on Maxwell's 4th Law: d B z ( x ′ , z ) = μ 0 dI 2 π r · cos α = μ 0 I 2 π w · x ′ r 2 · dx ′ ; B z ( x , z ) = ∫ d B z ( x ′ , z ) = μ 0 I 2 π w · ∫ x - w 2 x + w 2 x ′ x ′ 2 + z 2 dx ′ = μ 0 I 4 π w · ln ( ( x + w 2 ) 2 + z 2 ( x - w 2 ) 2 + z 2 ) .","where BZ(x,z) represents a vertical magnetic field value, z represents a distance relative to external rail 210, x represents a position along external current rail 210 of width w, μ0 represents a permeability constant, and I represents a current.","A horizontal magnetic field (e.g., Bx(x,z)) at the x-coordinate and the z-coordinate may be similarly derived: d B x ( x ′ , z ) = μ 0 dI 2 π r · sin α = μ 0 I 2 π w · z r 2 · dx ′ ; B x ( x , z ) = ∫ d B z ( x ′ , z ) = μ 0 I 2 π w · ∫ x - w 2 x + w 2 z x ′ 2 + z 2 dx ′ = μ 0 I 2 π w · ( arctg ( x + w 2 z ) - arctg ( x - w 2 z ) ) .","A graph illustrating an example of how the vertical magnetic field and the horizontal magnetic field vary with respect to x (e.g., for w=1.7 millimeters (mm) and z0=300 μm) is shown in FIG.","6.In some implementations, it is desirable to attach magnetic current sensor 230 such that primary Hall cells 410 are positioned such that primary Hall cells 410 may derive a maximum differential Hall signal (e.g., in order to accurately determine the amount of current).","For example, as shown in FIG.","6, it is desirable to position primary Hall cells 410 (e.g., included in magnetic current sensor 230) at approximately x=−1.0 mm and x=1.0 mm (e.g., a distance between primary Hall cell 410-1 and primary Hall cell 410-2 equal to 2.0 mm).","With such a placement, primary Hall cells 410 may accurately sense the vertical magnetic field values such that magnetic current sensor 230 may derive a corresponding vertical differential Hall signal.","In some implementations, magnetic current sensor 230 (e.g., DSP 330, differential Hall component 310) may derive the vertical differential Hall signal based on the magnetic field values sensed by primary Hall cell 410-1 and primary Hall cell 410-2.In a case where magnetic current sensor 230 is positioned such that there is no horizontal positioning error (e.g., when magnetic current sensor 230 is centered substantially relative or with respect to a center of external current rail 210) and where there is no vertical positioning error (e.g., such that z is a known distance equal to z0), the following differential Hall signal may be derived (e.g., where dT is the distance between primary Hall cell 410-1 and primary Hall cell 410-2): U differential - Hall ( 0 , z 0 ) = S Hall · ( B z ( dT 2 , z 0 ) - B z ( - dT 2 , z 0 ) ) 2 = S Hall · B z , diff ( 0 , z 0 ) ; where Udifferential-Hall(0,z0) represents a vertical differential Hall signal (e.g., in milliVolts (mV)) at the symmetrical center of external current rail 210.SHall represents a signal conversion factor (e.g., in mV/microTesla (μT)), and Bz,diff(0,z0) represents a vertical magnetic field (e.g., in μT) at the symmetrical center of external current rail 210.However, as described above, a horizontal positioning error and/or a vertical positioning error, associated with attaching magnetic current sensor 230 in a position relative to external current rail 210, may arise.","Systems and/or methods that may allow magnetic current sensor 230 to correct a vertical differential Hall signal in order to compensate for a horizontal positioning error are first described below, followed by systems and/or methods that may allow magnetic current sensor 230 to correct a vertical differential Hall signal in order to compensate for a vertical positioning.","As described above, in some implementations, a horizontal positioning error may occur when attaching magnetic current sensor 230 in a position relative to external current rail 210.For example, a horizontal positioning error may occur when magnetic current sensor 230 is attached such that magnetic current sensor 230 is not centered directly relative to a center of external current rail 210 (e.g., in an x-direction perpendicular to the current and along the face of external current rail 210).","For example, a horizontal positioning tolerance may allow magnetic current sensor 230 to be placed 100 μm off center of external current rail 210 (e.g., Δx=100 μm), placed 200 μm off center of external current rail 210 (e.g., Δx=200 μm), or the like, thus introducing a horizontal positioning error.","In some cases, the vertical differential Hall signal derived from the vertical magnetic field values may be influenced by the horizontal positioning error associated with the placement of magnetic current sensor 230 as follows: U differential - Hall ( Δ x , z 0 ) = S Hall · ( B z ( d 2 + Δ x ) - B z ( - d 2 + Δ x ) ) 2 = S Hall · B z , diff ( Δ x , z 0 ) ; where Udifferential-Hall(Δx,z0) represents a differential Hall signal (e.g., in mV) at horizontal distance x, from the symmetrical center of external current rail 210 and known vertical distance z0, SHall represents a signal conversion factor (e.g., in mV/μT), and Bz,diff(Δx,z0) represents a magnetic field at horizontal distance Δx from the symmetrical center of external current rail 210 and known vertical distance z0 from external current rail 210 (e.g., in μT).","As such, the horizontal positioning error may affect (e.g., weaken) the vertical differential Hall signal derived by magnetic current sensor 230.FIG.","7 shows an example of a dependency of the vertical differential magnetic field, sensed by primary Hall cells 410 with respect to the horizontal positioning error, from Δx=−4.0 mm to Δx=4.0 mm.","As shown, as the positioning error (e.g., Δx) moves further from zero, the vertical differential magnetic field (e.g., used to derive the differential Hall signal) may decrease.","FIG.","8 an example of a dependency of the vertical differential magnetic field, sensed by primary Hall cells 410, with respect to the horizontal positioning error from Δx=−200 μm to Δx=200 μm.","As shown, if the horizontal positioning error is equal to ±100 μm, then the vertical differential magnetic field may decrease by approximately −2.2% (e.g., from 200 microTeslas/Amp (μT/A) to approximately 196 μT/A).","Similarly, if the horizontal positioning error is equal to ±200 μm, then the vertical differential magnetic field may decrease by approximately −8.4% (e.g., from 200 μT/A to approximately 183 μT/A).","Unless a correction is applied in order to compensate for the horizontal positioning error, the horizontal positioning error will result in a similar decrease in the vertical differential Hall signal derived based on the sensed vertical magnetic field values associated with the vertical differential magnetic field.","The signal sensitivity decrease resulting from the horizontal positioning error may be compensated for with the inclusion of auxiliary lateral Hall cell 420 between primary Hall cells 410.In some implementations, auxiliary lateral Hall cell 420 may sense a vertical magnetic field value at a location between primary Hall cells 410, and the vertical magnetic field value may be used to compensate for the horizontal positioning error.","For a symmetric external current rail 210, (e.g., a straight PCB trace), the target placement for magnetic current sensor 230 may be the center of external current rail 210.FIG.","9 is a graphical representation that shows an example of a compensated vertical differential magnetic field with respect to a horizontal positioning error in relation to a symmetric external current rail 210.As shown in FIG.","9, for a positioning error range of ±200 μm, the vertical differential magnetic field (e.g., represented by the line corresponding to “Bz, diff (Dx)”), may be corrected based on the vertical magnetic field value sensed by auxiliary lateral Hall cell 420 (e.g., represented by the line corresponding to “Bz, mid(Dx)”), in order determine the compensated vertical differential magnetic field (e.g., represented by the line corresponding to “Bz, comp(Dx)”) that may be used to derive a corrected vertical differential Hall signal).","As shown in FIG.","9, if auxiliary lateral Hall cell 420 is placed between primary Hall cells 410 and if magnetic current sensor 230 is attached exactly on center (e.g., if Δx=0), then auxiliary lateral Hall cell 420 may sense a vertical magnetic field equal to zero.","As shown in FIG.","9, within a particular limit (e.g., −200 μm≤Δx≤200 μm), the vertical magnetic field value sensed by auxiliary lateral Hall cell 420 is a linear function of the horizontal positioning error.","As such, the auxiliary vertical Hall signal (e.g., derived from the vertical magnetic field value sensed by auxiliary lateral Hall cell 420) also behaves linearly.","Therefore, it is possible to extract the horizontal positioning error from the auxiliary vertical Hall signal: U Aux = S Hall · B z , Aux = S Hall · β · Δ x · I ; U Main = S Hall · B z , diff = S Hall · ( 1 - α · Δ x 2 ) · S 0 · I ; U Aux U Main = β · Δ x ( 1 - α · Δ x 2 ) · S 0 ≈ β · Δ x S 0 ; where UAux represents the auxiliary vertical Hall signal, UMain represents the vertical differential Hall signal, and where α, β, and S0 represent known constants associated with external current rail 210.As such, the following correction may be performed, using the auxiliary vertical Hall signal, in order to correct an error that arises in the vertical differential Hall signal due to the horizontal positioning error: U Main Comp , Symm = S Hall · S 0 · I ≈ U Main · ( 1 + α · Δ x 2 ) ≈ U Main · ( 1 + α · ( S 0 · U Aux β · U Main ) 2 ) .","In some implementations, a current rail constant (e.g., c=α1/2·S0/β) may be stored by magnetic current sensor 230 (e.g., in memory component 340 as an EEPROM constant for the particular external current rail 210).","Therefore, based on the vertical differential Hall signal, derived from the vertical magnetic field values sensed by primary Hall cells 410, and the auxiliary vertical Hall signal, derived from the vertical magnetic field value sensed by auxiliary lateral Hall cell 420, magnetic current sensor 230 may evaluate the above formula during operation (e.g., via a hardware modules, a state machine in firmware, etc.)","in order to compensate for the horizontal positioning error.","As described above, examples of the corrected vertical differential magnetic field for different signal errors that arise due to horizontal positioning error with respect to a symmetric external current rail 210 are shown in FIG.","9 by the line corresponding to “Bz,comp(Dx)”.","In this way, an auxiliary vertical Hall signal, derived based on a vertical magnetic field value sensed by auxiliary lateral Hall cell 420, may be used to compensate for a vertical differential Hall signal error that arises as a result of a horizontal positioning error associated with a symmetric current rail.","FIG.","10 is a graphical representation of an example of an uncompensated horizontal positioning sensitivity error and a compensated horizontal positioning sensitivity error for a symmetric external current rail.","The uncompensated horizontal positioning sensitivity error in relation to horizontal positioning error is shown by the line corresponding to “Uncomp_Error”.","The compensated horizontal positioning sensitivity error in relation to horizontal positioning error is shown by the line corresponding to “Comp_Error”.","In the case of an asymmetric external current rail 210 (e.g., a current rail with a non-constant width in a direction perpendicular to the current), the maximum vertical differential magnetic field is shifted relative to the center position of the asymmetric external current rail 210.The zero vertical magnetic field point is similarly offset (e.g., whereas the zero vertical magnetic field point is located at x=0 for a symmetric external current rail 210), but the linear behavior of the vertical differential magnetic field with respect to the horizontal positioning error (as described above) holds true.","FIG.","11 is a graphical representation that shows an example of a compensated vertical differential magnetic field with respect to horizontal positioning error in relation to an asymmetric external current rail 210.As shown in FIG.","11, for a horizontal positioning error range of ±200 μm, the vertical differential magnetic field (e.g., represented by the line corresponding to “Bz_diff/2”), may be corrected based on the vertical magnetic field value sensed by auxiliary lateral Hall cell 420 (e.g., represented by the line corresponding to “Bz_Hall3”), in order determine the compensated vertical differential magnetic field (e.g., represented by the line corresponding to “Bcomp”) that may be used to derive a corrected vertical differential Hall signal).","As shown in FIG.","11, if auxiliary lateral Hall cell 420 is placed between primary Hall cells 410 and if magnetic current sensor 230 is attached exactly on center (e.g., if Δx=0), then auxiliary lateral Hall cell 420 may sense a negative magnetic field value (e.g., since external current rail 210 is asymmetric).","As such, a current rail dependent offset (e.g., Δx0, particular to geometry of external current rail 210) should be considered when correcting the vertical differential Hall signal error that arises due to the horizontal positioning error: U Main Comp , Asymm = U Main · ( 1 + α · Δ x 2 ) ≈ U Main · ( 1 + α · ( S 0 · U Aux β · U Main + Δ x 0 ) 2 ) .","In some implementations, a set of current rail constants (e.g., c1=α1/2S0/β, c2=α1/2·Δx0) may be stored by magnetic current sensor 230 (e.g., as an EEPROM constant for the particular external current rail 210).","Therefore, based on the vertical differential Hall signal, derived from the vertical magnetic field values sensed by primary Hall cells 410, the auxiliary vertical Hall signal, derived from the vertical magnetic field value sensed by auxiliary lateral Hall cell 420, and the current rail dependent offset, magnetic current sensor 230 may evaluate the above formula during operation in order to compensate for the horizontal positioning error.","As described above, examples of the corrected vertical differential magnetic field for different signal errors that arise due to horizontal positioning error with respect to an asymmetric external current rail 210 are shown in FIG.","11 by the line corresponding to “Bcomp”.","In this way, an auxiliary vertical Hall signal, derived based on a vertical magnetic field value sensed by auxiliary lateral Hall cell 420, may be used to compensate for a vertical differential Hall signal error that arises as a result of a horizontal positioning error associated with an asymmetric current rail.","FIG.","12 is a graphical representation of an example of an uncompensated horizontal positioning sensitivity error and a compensated horizontal positioning sensitivity error for an asymmetric external current rail.","The uncompensated horizontal positioning sensitivity error in relation to position tolerance is shown by the line corresponding to “Uncomp_Positioning_Error”.","The compensated horizontal positioning sensitivity error in relation to position tolerance is shown by the line corresponding to “Comp_Positioning_Error”.","In some implementations, optimal constants (e.g., c1=α1/2·S0/β, c2=α1/2·Δx0, where c2 may not be used for a symmetric external current rail 210) may be determined from geometry of external current rail 210 and positioning of primary Hall cells 410 and auxiliary lateral Hall cell 420.For example, fitting the vertical differential Hall signal function and the auxiliary vertical Hall signal function may result in an asymptotically optimal performance.","From a practical perspective, the constants may be modified to reach a more desired behavior over a specific Δx region.","In some implementations, the auxiliary vertical Hall signal may be corrected in order to suppress a background field-effect.","Implementations described thus far are described in the context of a negligible homogeneous background field (e.g., a background magnetic field significantly less than the vertical differential Hall field).","However, if the homogeneous background field is not negligible, then magnetic current sensor 230 may correct the auxiliary vertical Hall signal based on the background field as follows: UAux,Background_Corrected=UAux−(UHall1+UHall2)/2; where UAux,Background_Corrected represents the corrected auxiliary vertical Hall signal, UAux represents the uncorrected auxiliary vertical Hall signal, UHall1 represents a Hall signal corresponding to a vertical magnetic field sensed by primary Hall cell 410-1, and UHall2 represents a Hall signal corresponding to a vertical magnetic field sensed by primary Hall cell 410-2.The auxiliary vertical Hall signal correction may require a modification in the analog front-end of magnetic current sensor 230 (e.g., chopping scheme and circuitry).","The vertical differential Hall signal is already background field corrected by definition: UMain=(UHall1−UHall2)/2; where UMain represents the vertical differential Hall signal determined based on the vertical magnetic field values sensed by primary Hall cell 410-1 and primary Hall cell 410-2.FIG.","13 is a graphical representation of an example of a compensated vertical differential magnetic field with respect to a background field correction.","As shown in FIG.","13, the vertical magnetic field value sensed by auxiliary lateral Hall cell 420 (e.g., represented by the line corresponding to “Bz_mid (Dx)”) may be corrected by using background field correction function (e.g., represented by the line corresponding to “Bz,ave (uT/A”) in order to determine a background corrected auxiliary vertical magnetic field value (e.g., represented by the line corresponding to “Bz,mid-comp(uT/A)”).","The vertical differential magnetic field (e.g., represented by the line corresponding to “Bz,diff(Dx)”) may then be corrected based on the background corrected auxiliary vertical magnetic field value in order to determine the corrected vertical differential magnetic field (e.g., represented by the line corresponding to “Bz,comp(Dx)”).","FIG.","14 is a graphical representation of an example of an uncompensated horizontal positioning sensitivity error and a compensated horizontal positioning sensitivity error with respect to a background field correction.","The uncompensated horizontal positioning sensitivity error in relation to a non-negligible background field is shown by the line corresponding to “Uncomp_Error”.","The compensated horizontal positioning sensitivity error in relation to a non-negligible background field is shown by the line corresponding to “Optimal_Comp_Error”.","In some implementations, after determining the corrected vertical differential Hall signal that compensates for the horizontal positioning error, magnetic current sensor 230 (e.g., DSP 330, differential Hall component 310) may determine the amount of current passing through external current rail 210 based on the corrected vertical differential Hall signal, as described above.","Magnetic current sensor 230 may also provide (e.g., via digital interface 350) information associated with the amount of current and/or other information sensed, determined, and/or derived by magnetic current sensor 230 (e.g., information associated with the corrected vertical differential Hall signal, information associated with the auxiliary vertical Hall signal, etc.).","Additionally, or alternatively.","(e.g., after determining the vertical differential Hall signal that compensates for the horizontal positioning error, without determining the vertical differential Hall signal that compensates for the horizontal positioning error) magnetic current sensor 230 may determine a corrected vertical differential Hall signal that compensates for a vertical positioning error associated with attaching magnetic current sensor 230 in a position relative to external current rail 230.As described above, in some implementations, a vertical positioning error may occur when attaching magnetic current sensor 230 in a position relative to external current rail 210.For example, a vertical positioning error may occur when magnetic current sensor 230 is attached such that a distance (e.g., in the z-direction perpendicular to the face of external current rail 210) between primary Hall cells 410 and the face of external current rail 210 is greater than or less than a known distance (e.g., z0) by an unknown amount (e.g., Δz).","For example, a vertical positioning tolerance, combined with non-coplanarity of leads, may allow magnetic current sensor 230 to be placed such that Δz is equal to a value up to ±65 μm, thus introducing a vertical positioning error.","Moreover, additional variations of Δz (e.g., ±5 μm) may occur due to swelling associated with magnetic current sensor 230 (e.g., after magnetic current sensor 230 is attached to external current rail 210).","In some cases, the vertical differential Hall signal derived from the vertical magnetic field values sensed by primary Hall cells 410 may be influenced by the vertical positioning error as follows: Udifferential-Hall(0,z0+Δz)=SHall·Bz,diff(0,z0+Δz) where Udifferential-Hall(0,z0+Δz) represents a differential Hall signal (e.g., in mV) at horizontal distance zero from the symmetrical center of external current rail 210 and an unknown vertical distance to +Δz, SHall represents a signal conversion factor (e.g., in mV/μT), and Bz,diff(0,z0+Δz) represents a magnetic field at horizontal distance zero from the symmetrical center of external current rail 210 and the unknown vertical distance z0+Δz from external current rail 210 (e.g., in μT).","As such, the vertical positioning error may affect the vertical differential Hall signal derived by magnetic current sensor 230.FIG.","15 shows an example of a dependency of the vertical differential magnetic field, sensed by primary Hall cells 410 with respect to the vertical positioning error, from Δz=−70.0 μm to Δz=70.0 μm.","As shown, as the positioning error (e.g., Δz) moves further from zero, the vertical differential magnetic field (e.g., used to derive the vertical differential Hall signal) may be affected.","As shown, if the vertical positioning error is equal to ±65 μm, then the vertical differential magnetic field may be affected (e.g., be increased or be decreased) by approximately ±6.6% (e.g., by increasing from approximately 184 microTeslas/Amp (μT/A) to approximately 196 μT/A or by decreasing from approximately 184 μT/A to approximately 172 μT/A).","As shown, the sensitivity error is linear over Δz.","Unless a correction is applied in order to compensate for the vertical positioning error, the vertical positioning error will result in a similar decrease in the vertical differential Hall signal derived based on the sensed vertical magnetic field values associated with the vertical differential magnetic field.","The signal sensitivity decrease resulting from the vertical positioning error may be compensated for with the inclusion of a set of auxiliary vertical Hall cells 430.In some implementations, the set of auxiliary vertical Hall cells 430 may sense a set of horizontal magnetic field values at locations adjacent to primary Hall cells 410, and the set of horizontal magnetic field values may be used to compensate for the vertical positioning error in the vertical differential Hall signal.","A back-bias independent vertical differential Hall field may be determined based on the vertical magnetic field values sensed by primary Hall cells 410 as follow: B z , diff ( 0 , z0 + Δ z ) = B z , left ( 0 , z 0 + Δ z ) - B z , right ( 0 , z 0 + Δ z ) 2 .","Additionally, it is possible to determine a magnetic field value that represents the inhomogeneity of the horizontal magnetic field (e.g., Bx,inh(0, z0+Δz)) based on the horizontal magnetic field values sensed by the set of auxiliary vertical Hall cells 430: B x , inh ( 0 , z 0 + Δ z ) = B x , center ( 0 , z 0 + Δ z ) - B x , left ( 0 , z 0 + Δ z ) + B x , right ( 0 , z 0 + Δ z ) 2 ; where Bx,center (0, z0+Δz) represents the horizontal magnetic field value sensed by auxiliary vertical Hall cell 430-3, Bx,left (0, z0+Δz) represents the horizontal magnetic field value sensed by auxiliary vertical Hall cell 430-1, and Bx,right(0, z0+Δz) represents the horizontal magnetic field value sensed by auxiliary vertical Hall cell 430-2.Bx,inh (0, z0+Δz) is also background field compensated, and dependent on Δz (e.g., more so than Bz,diff (0, z0+Δz)).","As such, it is possible to determine a linear combination of the two independent magnetic fields that is Δz invariant while remaining proportional to the current passing through external current rail 210: Bcombined(0,z0+Δz)=C×Bz,diff(0,z0+Δz)−Bx,inh(0,z0+Δz)≈Bcombined(0,z0); where Bcombined (0, z0) is a combined magnetic field value that compensate for vertical positioning error Δz, and C is a current rail constant, associated with external current rail 210 and the Hall-cell arrangement, determined based on w, z0, and dT.","Notably, in some implementations, the set of auxiliary vertical Hall cells 430 may not include auxiliary vertical Hall cell 430-2 (e.g., shown as optional in FIGS.","4B and 4C).","In such a case, Bx,inh (0, z0+Δz)) may be determined as follows: Bx,inh′(0,z0+Δz)=Bx,center(0,z0+Δz)−Bx,left(0,z0+Δz).","However, by auxiliary vertical Hall cell 430-2, symmetry between the horizontal magnetic field values may be achieved, in addition to additional robustness against horizontal positioning error (e.g., Δx).","FIG.","16 is a graphical representation that shows an example of a combined magnetic field, determined based on a vertical differential magnetic field and a horizontal magnetic field, that is independent of vertical positioning error.","As shown, for a vertical positioning error range of ±70 μm, the vertical differential magnetic field (e.g., represented by the line corresponding to “Bz,diff(μT/A)”), may be combined with the horizontal magnetic field value that represents the inhomogeneity of the horizontal magnetic field (e.g., represented by the line corresponding to “Bx,aux(μT/A)”), in order determine a combined magnetic field value (e.g., represented by the line corresponding to “Bcombined (μT/A)”) that has been corrected to compensate for vertical positioning error, and may be used to derive a corrected vertical differential Hall signal).","In some implementations, a horizontal differential Hall signal (e.g., Ux,inh) that represents the differential magnetic field value that corresponds to the inhomogeneity of the horizontal magnetic field (e.g., Bx,inh) may be derived in an analog front-end of magnetic current sensor 230 (e.g., similar to the manner in which Uz,diff, corresponding to Bz,diff, is derived, as described above).","Magnetic current sensor 230 may then combine the derived Hall signals (e.g., Ux,inh and Uz,diff).","In some implementations, magnetic current sensor 230 (e.g., DSP 330) may be designed to combine the derived Hall signals after analog-to-digital conversion is performed on the derived Hall signals (e.g., by ADC 320).","FIG.","17A is a block diagram showing example circuitry associated with combining the derived Hall signals (e.g., the vertical differential Hall signal and the auxiliary horizontal Hall signal), in order to compensate for a vertical positioning error, after analog-to-digital conversion is performed on the derived Hall signals.","As shown, analog-to-digital conversion may be separately performed on each derived Hall signal, and the converted derived Hall signals may be combined in the digital domain (e.g., using a geometry dependent EEPROM constant associated with external current rail 210).","Alternatively, magnetic current sensor 230 may be designed to combine the derived Hall signals before analog-to-digital conversion is performed on the derived Hall signals.","FIG.","17B is a block diagram showing example circuitry associated with combining the derived Hall signals, in order to compensate for a vertical positioning error, before analog-to-digital conversion is performed on the derived Hall signals.","As shown, magnetic current sensor 230 may be designed such that the derived Hall signals are combined in the analog domain.","Magnetic current sensor 230 (e.g., ADC 320) may then perform analog-to-digital conversion on the combined Hall signal.","For example, the derived signals may be combined in the analog domain by implementing a programmable gain amplifier that is configured based on the geometry dependent EEPROM constant (e.g., EEPROM CONST, shown as variation 2).","As another example, the derived signals may be combined in the analog domain by implementing a hard wired constant value (e.g., A=2.0, shown as variation 3) when external current rail 210 has a particular geometry to reach a Δz-invariant behavior of 2×Uz,diff−Ux,inh.","In some implementations, magnetic current sensor 230 may correct the vertical differential Hall signal for both horizontal positioning error and vertical positioning error (e.g., by implementing auxiliary lateral Hall cell 420, and a set of auxiliary vertical Hall cells 430), as described below with regard to FIGS.","18A and 18B.","FIGS.","18A and 18B are flow charts of an example process 1800 for determining an amount of current, associated with a current passing through a current rail, using a differential Hall signal that has been corrected in order to compensate for a horizontal positioning error and a vertical positioning error associated with attaching a current sensor to the current rail.","In some implementations, one or more process blocks of example process 1800 may be performed by magnetic current sensor 230.In some implementations, one or more process blocks may be performed by a device other than magnetic current sensor 230, such as a processor connected to magnetic current sensor 230.As shown in FIG.","18A, process 1800 may include sensing a first vertical magnetic field value associated with a magnetic field generated by a current passing through a current rail (block 1805).","For example, magnetic current sensor 230 (e.g., primary Hall cell 410-1) may sense a first vertical magnetic field value associated with a magnetic field generated by a current passing through a current rail, as described above.","As further shown in FIG.","18A, process 1800 may include sensing a second vertical magnetic field value associated with the magnetic field (block 1810).","For example, magnetic current sensor 230 (e.g., primary Hall cell 410-2) may sense a second vertical magnetic field value associated with the magnetic field, as described above.","As further shown in FIG.","18A, process 1800 may include sensing a third vertical magnetic field value associated with the magnetic field (block 1815).","For example, magnetic current sensor 230 (e.g., auxiliary lateral Hall cell 420) may sense a third vertical magnetic field value associated with the magnetic field, as described above.","As further shown in FIG.","18A, process 1800 may include sensing a first horizontal magnetic field value associated with the magnetic field (block 1820).","For example, magnetic current sensor 230 (e.g., auxiliary vertical Hall cell 430-1) may sense a first horizontal magnetic field value associated with the magnetic field, as described above.","As further shown in FIG.","18A, process 1800 may include sensing a second horizontal magnetic field value associated with the magnetic field (block 1825).","For example, magnetic current sensor 230 (e.g., auxiliary vertical Hall cell 430-2) may sense a second horizontal magnetic field value associated with the magnetic field, as described above.","As further shown in FIG.","18A, process 1800 may include sensing a third horizontal magnetic field value associated with the magnetic field (block 1830).","For example, magnetic current sensor 230 (e.g., auxiliary vertical Hall cell 430-3) may sense a third horizontal magnetic field value associated with the magnetic field, as described above.","As shown in FIG.","18B, process 1800 may include deriving a vertical differential Hall signal based on the first vertical magnetic field value and the second vertical magnetic field value (block 1835).","For example, magnetic current sensor 230 (e.g., DSP 330, differential Hall component 310, etc.)","may derive a vertical differential Hall signal based on the first vertical magnetic field value and the second vertical magnetic field value.","In some implementations, magnetic current sensor 230 may derive the vertical differential Hall signal based on providing the first vertical magnetic field value, the second vertical magnetic field value, and a signal conversion factor as inputs to a function that provides, as an output, the vertical differential Hall signal, as described above.","As further shown in FIG.","18B, process 1800 may include deriving an auxiliary vertical Hall signal based on the third vertical magnetic field value (block 1840).","For example, magnetic current sensor 230 (e.g., DSP 330, differential Hall component 310, etc.)","may derive an auxiliary vertical Hall signal based on the third vertical magnetic field value.","In some implementations, magnetic current sensor 230 may derive the auxiliary vertical Hall signal based on providing the third vertical magnetic field value and a signal conversion factor as inputs to a function that provides, as an output, the auxiliary vertical Hall signal, as described above.","As further shown in FIG.","18B, process 1800 may include determining a first corrected vertical differential Hall signal based on the vertical differential Hall signal and the auxiliary vertical Hall signal (block 1845).","For example, magnetic current sensor 230 (e.g., DSP 330, differential Hall component 310, etc.)","may determine a first corrected vertical differential Hall signal based on the vertical differential Hall signal and the auxiliary vertical Hall signal.","In some implementations, magnetic current sensor 230 may determine the first corrected vertical differential Hall signal based on providing the vertical differential Hall signal, the auxiliary vertical Hall signal, a set of known current rail constants, and/or a current rail dependent offset (e.g., in the case of an asymmetric external current rail 210) as inputs to a function that provides, as an output, the first corrected vertical differential Hall signal, as described above.","Additionally.","or alternatively, magnetic current sensor 230 may determine a horizontal positioning error, associated with attaching magnetic current sensor 230 in a position relative to external current rail 210, based on the auxiliary vertical Hall signal and the vertical differential Hall signal, as described above.","In some implementations, magnetic current sensor 230 may provide and/or store information associated with the horizontal positioning error.","As further shown in FIG.","18B, process 1800 may include deriving an auxiliary horizontal Hall signal based on the first horizontal magnetic field value, the second horizontal magnetic field value, and the third horizontal magnetic field value (block 1850).","For example, magnetic current sensor 230 (e.g., DSP 330, differential Hall component 310, etc.)","may derive an auxiliary horizontal Hall signal based on the first horizontal magnetic field value, the second horizontal magnetic field value, and the third horizontal magnetic field value.","In some implementations, magnetic current sensor 230 may derive the auxiliary horizontal Hall signal based on providing the first horizontal magnetic field value, the second horizontal magnetic field value, the third horizontal magnetic field value, and a signal conversion factor as inputs to a function that provides, as an output, the auxiliary horizontal Hall signal, as described above.","As further shown in FIG.","18B, process 1800 may include determining a second corrected vertical differential Hall signal based on the first corrected vertical differential Hall signal and the auxiliary horizontal Hall signal (block 1855).","For example, magnetic current sensor 230 (e.g., DSP 330, differential Hall component 310, etc.)","may determine a second corrected vertical differential Hall signal based on the first corrected vertical differential Hall signal and the auxiliary horizontal Hall signal.","In some implementations, magnetic current sensor 230 may determine the second corrected vertical differential Hall signal based on providing the first corrected vertical differential Hall signal, the auxiliary horizontal Hall signal, and/or other information as inputs to a function that provides, as an output, the second corrected vertical differential Hall signal, as described above.","Additionally, or alternatively, magnetic current sensor 230 may determine a vertical positioning error, associated with attaching magnetic current sensor 230 in a position relative to external current rail 210, based on the auxiliary horizontal Hall signal and the first corrected vertical differential Hall signal, as described above.","In some implementations, magnetic current sensor 230 may provide and/or store information associated with the vertical positioning error.","As further shown in FIG.","18B, process 1800 may include determining an amount of current, associated with the current passing through the current rail, based on the second corrected vertical differential Hall signal (block 1860).","For example, magnetic current sensor 230 (e.g., DSP 330, differential Hall component 310, etc.)","may determine an amount of current, associated with the current passing through external current rail 210, based on the second corrected vertical differential Hall signal.","In some implementations, magnetic current sensor 230 may determine the amount of current based on providing the second corrected vertical differential Hall signal as an input to a function that provides, as an output, the amount of current passing through external current rail 210.In some implementations, current sensor 230 may provide and/or store information that identifies the amount of current.","Although FIGS.","18A and 18B show example blocks of process 1800, in some implementations, process 1800 may include additional blocks, fewer blocks, different blocks, or differently arranged blocks than those depicted in FIGS.","18A and 18B.","Additionally.","or alternatively, two or more of the blocks of process 1800 may be performed in parallel.","Implementations described herein may provide a magnetic current sensor that includes one or more auxiliary Hall cells, positioned with respect to two primary Hall cells, that may sense magnetic field values, associated with a magnetic field generated by a current passing through a current rail.","Information associated with the magnetic field values sensed by the one or more auxiliary Hall cells may then be used to correct a differential Hall signal error that arises due to a horizontal positioning error and/or a vertical positioning error associated with attaching the magnetic current sensor in a position relative to the current rail.","The foregoing disclosure provides illustration and description, but is not intended to be exhaustive or to limit the implementations to the precise form disclosed.","Modifications and variations are possible in light of the above disclosure or may be acquired from practice of the implementations.","Even though particular combinations of features are recited in the claims and/or disclosed in the specification, these combinations are not intended to limit the disclosure of possible implementations.","In fact, many of these features may be combined in ways not specifically recited in the claims and/or disclosed in the specification.","Although each dependent claim listed below may directly depend on only one claim, the disclosure of possible implementations includes each dependent claim in combination with every other claim in the claim set.","No element, act, or instruction used herein should be construed as critical or essential unless explicitly described as such.","Also, as used herein, the articles “a” and “an” are intended to include one or more items, and may be used interchangeably with “one or more.” Furthermore, as used herein, the term “set” is intended to include one or more items, and may be used interchangeably with “one or more.” Where only one item is intended, the term “one” or similar language is used.","Also, as used herein, the terms “has,” “have,” “having.” or the like are intended to be open-ended terms.","Further, the phrase “based on” is intended to mean “based, at least in part, on” unless explicitly stated otherwise."]],"string":"[\n [\n \"CURRENT SENSOR POSITIONING ERROR CORRECTION USING AUXILIARY HALL CELLS\",\n \"A current sensor may comprise a first Hall cell, a second Hall cell, a third Hall cell, a fourth Hall cell, and a fifth Hall cell to a set of magnetic field values associated with a magnetic field generated by a current passing through a current rail.\",\n \"The second Hall cell may be positioned at a first distance from the first Hall cell, and the third Hall cell may be positioned at a second distance from the first Hall cell such that the third Hall cell is positioned between the first Hall cell and the second Hall cell.\",\n \"The fourth Hall cell may be positioned adjacent to the first Hall cell, and the fifth Hall cell may be positioned at a third distance from the fourth Hall cell.\",\n \"The magnetic field values may be used to determine an amount of current associated with the current passing through the current rail.\"\n ],\n [\n \"1-20.\",\n \"(canceled) 21.A magnetic current sensor, comprising: a first primary Hall cell to sense a first magnetic field value, the first magnetic field value being associated with a magnetic field generated by a current passing through a current rail; a second primary Hall cell to sense a second magnetic field value, the second magnetic field value being associated with the magnetic field generated by the current passing through the current rail, and the second primary Hall cell being positioned along an axis at a first distance from the first primary Hall cell, the axis being in a direction substantially perpendicular to the current passing through the current rail, and a midpoint of the current rail and a midpoint of the first distance between the first primary Hall cell and the second primary Hall cell not being aligned and being separated by a particular distance along the axis; and an auxiliary Hall cell to sense a third magnetic field value, the auxiliary Hall cell being positioned along the axis at a second distance from the first primary Hall cell, the second distance being less than the first distance such that the auxiliary Hall cell is positioned along the axis and between the first primary Hall cell and the second primary Hall cell, and the first magnetic field value, the second magnetic field value, and the third magnetic field value being used to determine an amount of current associated with the current passing through the current rail that compensates for the midpoint of the current rail and the midpoint of the first distance between the first primary Hall cell and the second primary Hall cell not being aligned and being separated by the particular distance along the axis.\",\n \"22.The magnetic current sensor of claim 21, further comprising: one or more components to: derive a differential Hall signal based on the first magnetic field value and the second magnetic field value; derive an auxiliary Hall signal based on the third magnetic field value; determine a corrected differential Hall signal based on the differential Hall signal and the auxiliary Hall signal; and determine the amount of current, associated with the current passing through the current rail, based on the corrected differential Hall signal.\",\n \"23.The magnetic current sensor of claim 22, where the one or more components are to: determine, based on the differential Hall signal and the auxiliary Hall signal, information that identifies a horizontal positioning error associated with attaching the magnetic current sensor in a position relative to the current rail; and store the information that identifies the horizontal positioning error.\",\n \"24.The magnetic current sensor of claim 22, where the one or more components, when determining the corrected differential Hall signal, are to: determine the corrected differential Hall signal based on the differential Hall signal, the auxiliary Hall signal, and a constant associated with the current rail.\",\n \"25.The magnetic current sensor of claim 22, where the one or more components, when determining the corrected differential Hall signal, are to: determine the corrected differential Hall signal UMainComp based on: U MainComp = U Main · ( 1 + α · ( S 0 · U Aux β · U Main ) 2 ) where α, β, and S0 represent constants associated with current rail, UMain represents the differential Hall signal, and UAux represents the auxiliary Hall signal.\",\n \"26.The magnetic current sensor of claim 21, where the second distance is equal to one-half of the first distance.\",\n \"27.The magnetic current sensor of claim 21, where the second distance is a distance that is less than one-half of the first distance or the second distance is a distance that is greater than one-half of the first distance.\",\n \"28.The magnetic current sensor of claim 21, where the current rail is a symmetric current rail and the magnetic current sensor is attached in a position relative to the symmetric current rail.\",\n \"29.The magnetic current sensor of claim 21, where the particular distance is within a horizontal positioning tolerance associated with attaching the magnetic current sensor in a position relative to the current rail.\",\n \"30.The magnetic current sensor of claim 21, where the current rail includes an electrically conductive track between two or more electronic components.\",\n \"31.A method, comprising: sensing, by a first primary Hall cell of a magnetic current sensor, a first magnetic field value, the first magnetic field value being associated with a magnetic field generated by a current passing through a current rail; sensing, by a second primary Hall cell, a second magnetic field value, the second magnetic field value being associated with the magnetic field generated by the current passing through the current rail, and the second primary Hall cell being positioned along an axis at a first distance from the first primary Hall cell, the axis being in a direction substantially perpendicular to the current passing through the current rail, and a midpoint of the current rail and a midpoint of the first distance between the first primary Hall cell and the second primary Hall cell not being aligned and being separated by a particular distance along the axis; sensing, by an auxiliary Hall cell, a third magnetic field value, the auxiliary Hall cell being positioned along the axis at a second distance from the first primary Hall cell, the second distance being less than the first distance such that the auxiliary Hall cell is positioned along the axis and between the first primary Hall cell and the second primary Hall cell; and determining, by a processor, an amount of current associated with the current passing through the current rail, based on the first magnetic field value, the second magnetic field value, and the third magnetic field value, that compensates for the midpoint of the current rail and the midpoint of the first distance between the first primary Hall cell and the second primary Hall cell not being aligned and being separated by the particular distance along the axis.\",\n \"32.The method of claim 31, where determining the amount of current includes: deriving a differential Hall signal based on the first magnetic field value and the second magnetic field value; deriving an auxiliary Hall signal based on the third magnetic field value; determining a corrected differential Hall signal based on the differential Hall signal and the auxiliary Hall signal; and determining the amount of current, associated with the current passing through the current rail, based on the corrected differential Hall signal.\",\n \"33.The method of claim 32, further comprising: determining, based on the differential Hall signal and the auxiliary Hall signal, information that identifies a horizontal positioning error associated with attaching the magnetic current sensor in a position relative to the current rail; and storing the information that identifies the horizontal positioning error.\",\n \"34.The method of claim 32, where determining the corrected differential Hall signal includes: determining the corrected differential Hall signal based on the differential Hall signal, the auxiliary Hall signal, and a constant associated with the current rail.\",\n \"35.The method of claim 32, where determining the corrected differential Hall signal includes: determining the corrected differential Hall signal UMainComp based on: U MainComp = U Main · ( 1 + α · ( S 0 · U Aux β · U Main ) 2 ) where α, β, and S0 represent constants associated with current rail, UMain represents the differential Hall signal, and UAux represents the auxiliary Hall signal.\",\n \"36.The method of claim 31, where the second distance is equal to one-half of the first distance.\",\n \"37.The method of claim 31, where the second distance is a distance that is less than one-half of the first distance or the second distance is a distance that is greater than one-half of the first distance.\",\n \"38.The method of claim 31, where the current rail is a symmetric current rail and the magnetic current sensor is attached in a position relative to the symmetric current rail.\",\n \"39.The method of claim 31, where the particular distance is within a horizontal positioning tolerance associated with attaching the magnetic current sensor in a position relative to the current rail.\",\n \"40.The method of claim 31, where the current rail includes an electrically conductive track between two or more electronic components.\"\n ],\n [\n \" BACKGROUND A magnetic current sensor may determine an amount of current based on sensing a magnetic field, generated by the current, and based on the fact that the generated magnetic field is proportional to the amount of current.\",\n \"Since no galvanic coupling is needed, voltage isolation between a low voltage signal processing circuit and a high voltage current rail is possible up to several kilovolts.\"\n ],\n [\n \" SUMMARY According to some possible implementations, a magnetic current sensor may comprise: a first primary Hall cell to sense a first magnetic field value, where the first magnetic field value may be associated with a magnetic field generated by a current passing through a current rail; a second primary Hall cell to sense a second magnetic field value, where the second magnetic field value may be associated with the magnetic field generated by the current passing through the current rail, and where the second primary Hall cell may be positioned along an axis at a first distance from the first primary Hall cell, where the axis may be in a direction substantially perpendicular to the current passing through the current rail; and an auxiliary Hall cell to sense a third magnetic field value, where the auxiliary Hall cell may be positioned along the axis at a second distance from the first primary Hall cell, where the second distance may be less than the first distance such that the auxiliary Hall cell is positioned along the axis and between the first primary Hall cell and the second primary Hall cell, and where the first magnetic field value, the second magnetic field value, and the third magnetic field value may be used to determine an amount of current associated with the current passing through the current rail.\",\n \"According to some possible implementations, a magnetic current sensor, may comprise: a first primary Hall cell to sense a first magnetic field value, where the first magnetic field value may be associated with a magnetic field generated by a current passing through a current rail; a second primary Hall cell to sense a second magnetic field value, where the second magnetic field value may be associated with the magnetic field generated by the current passing through the current rail, and where the second primary Hall cell may be positioned along an axis at a first distance from the first primary Hall cell, where the axis may be in a direction substantially perpendicular to the current passing through the current rail; a first auxiliary Hall cell to sense a third magnetic field value, where the third magnetic field value may be associated with the magnetic field generated by the current passing through the current rail, where the first auxiliary Hall cell may be positioned adjacent to the first primary Hall cell in a direction substantially parallel to a direction of the current; and a second auxiliary Hall cell to sense a fourth magnetic field value, where the fourth magnetic field value may be associated with the magnetic field generated by the current passing through the current rail, where the second auxiliary Hall cell may be positioned along the axis at a second distance from the first auxiliary Hall cell in a direction substantially perpendicular to the current passing through the current rail, and where the first magnetic field value, the second magnetic field value, the third magnetic field value, and the fourth magnetic field value may be used to determine an amount of current associated with the current passing through the current rail.\",\n \"According to some possible implementations, a method may comprise: sensing, by a first Hall cell included in a current sensor, a first magnetic field value associated with a magnetic field generated by a current passing through a current rail; sensing, by a second Hall cell included in the current sensor, a second magnetic field value associated with the magnetic field generated by the current passing through the current rail, where the second Hall cell may be located on an axis and at a first distance from the first Hall cell, where the axis may be substantially perpendicular to the current and substantially parallel to a face of the current rail; sensing, by a third Hall cell included in the current sensor, a third magnetic field value associated with the magnetic field generated by the current passing through the current rail, where the third Hall cell may be located on the axis and at a second distance from the first Hall cell, where the second distance may be less than the first distance such that the third Hall cell is located on the axis and between the first Hall cell and the second Hall cell; sensing, by a fourth Hall cell included in the current sensor, a fourth magnetic field value associated with the magnetic field generated by the current passing through the current rail, where the fourth Hall cell may be located adjacent to the first Hall cell in a direction substantially parallel to a direction of the current; sensing, by a fifth Hall cell included in the current sensor, a fifth magnetic field value associated with the magnetic field generated by the current passing through the current rail, where the fifth Hall cell may be located on the axis and at a third distance from the fourth Hall cell in a direction substantially perpendicular to the current passing through the current rail; deriving, by the current sensor, a differential Hall signal based on the first magnetic field value and the second magnetic field value; deriving, by the current sensor, a first auxiliary Hall signal based on the third magnetic field value; deriving, by the current sensor, a second auxiliary Hall signal based on the fourth magnetic field value and the fifth magnetic field value; determining, by the current sensor, a corrected differential Hall signal based on the differential Hall signal, the first auxiliary Hall signal, and the second auxiliary Hall signal; and determining, by the current sensor, an amount of current, associated with the current passing through the current rail, based on the corrected differential Hall signal.\"\n ],\n [\n \"BACKGROUND A magnetic current sensor may determine an amount of current based on sensing a magnetic field, generated by the current, and based on the fact that the generated magnetic field is proportional to the amount of current.\",\n \"Since no galvanic coupling is needed, voltage isolation between a low voltage signal processing circuit and a high voltage current rail is possible up to several kilovolts.\",\n \"SUMMARY According to some possible implementations, a magnetic current sensor may comprise: a first primary Hall cell to sense a first magnetic field value, where the first magnetic field value may be associated with a magnetic field generated by a current passing through a current rail; a second primary Hall cell to sense a second magnetic field value, where the second magnetic field value may be associated with the magnetic field generated by the current passing through the current rail, and where the second primary Hall cell may be positioned along an axis at a first distance from the first primary Hall cell, where the axis may be in a direction substantially perpendicular to the current passing through the current rail; and an auxiliary Hall cell to sense a third magnetic field value, where the auxiliary Hall cell may be positioned along the axis at a second distance from the first primary Hall cell, where the second distance may be less than the first distance such that the auxiliary Hall cell is positioned along the axis and between the first primary Hall cell and the second primary Hall cell, and where the first magnetic field value, the second magnetic field value, and the third magnetic field value may be used to determine an amount of current associated with the current passing through the current rail.\",\n \"According to some possible implementations, a magnetic current sensor, may comprise: a first primary Hall cell to sense a first magnetic field value, where the first magnetic field value may be associated with a magnetic field generated by a current passing through a current rail; a second primary Hall cell to sense a second magnetic field value, where the second magnetic field value may be associated with the magnetic field generated by the current passing through the current rail, and where the second primary Hall cell may be positioned along an axis at a first distance from the first primary Hall cell, where the axis may be in a direction substantially perpendicular to the current passing through the current rail; a first auxiliary Hall cell to sense a third magnetic field value, where the third magnetic field value may be associated with the magnetic field generated by the current passing through the current rail, where the first auxiliary Hall cell may be positioned adjacent to the first primary Hall cell in a direction substantially parallel to a direction of the current; and a second auxiliary Hall cell to sense a fourth magnetic field value, where the fourth magnetic field value may be associated with the magnetic field generated by the current passing through the current rail, where the second auxiliary Hall cell may be positioned along the axis at a second distance from the first auxiliary Hall cell in a direction substantially perpendicular to the current passing through the current rail, and where the first magnetic field value, the second magnetic field value, the third magnetic field value, and the fourth magnetic field value may be used to determine an amount of current associated with the current passing through the current rail.\",\n \"According to some possible implementations, a method may comprise: sensing, by a first Hall cell included in a current sensor, a first magnetic field value associated with a magnetic field generated by a current passing through a current rail; sensing, by a second Hall cell included in the current sensor, a second magnetic field value associated with the magnetic field generated by the current passing through the current rail, where the second Hall cell may be located on an axis and at a first distance from the first Hall cell, where the axis may be substantially perpendicular to the current and substantially parallel to a face of the current rail; sensing, by a third Hall cell included in the current sensor, a third magnetic field value associated with the magnetic field generated by the current passing through the current rail, where the third Hall cell may be located on the axis and at a second distance from the first Hall cell, where the second distance may be less than the first distance such that the third Hall cell is located on the axis and between the first Hall cell and the second Hall cell; sensing, by a fourth Hall cell included in the current sensor, a fourth magnetic field value associated with the magnetic field generated by the current passing through the current rail, where the fourth Hall cell may be located adjacent to the first Hall cell in a direction substantially parallel to a direction of the current; sensing, by a fifth Hall cell included in the current sensor, a fifth magnetic field value associated with the magnetic field generated by the current passing through the current rail, where the fifth Hall cell may be located on the axis and at a third distance from the fourth Hall cell in a direction substantially perpendicular to the current passing through the current rail; deriving, by the current sensor, a differential Hall signal based on the first magnetic field value and the second magnetic field value; deriving, by the current sensor, a first auxiliary Hall signal based on the third magnetic field value; deriving, by the current sensor, a second auxiliary Hall signal based on the fourth magnetic field value and the fifth magnetic field value; determining, by the current sensor, a corrected differential Hall signal based on the differential Hall signal, the first auxiliary Hall signal, and the second auxiliary Hall signal; and determining, by the current sensor, an amount of current, associated with the current passing through the current rail, based on the corrected differential Hall signal.\",\n \"BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIGS.\",\n \"1A-ID are diagrams of an overview of an example implementation described herein; FIG.\",\n \"2 is a diagram of an example environment in which apparatuses described herein may be implemented; FIG.\",\n \"3 is a diagram of example components of a magnetic current sensor included in the example environment of FIG.\",\n \"2; FIGS.\",\n \"4A-4C are diagrams of example components of a Hall differential component included in the example magnetic current sensor of FIG.\",\n \"3; FIG.\",\n \"5 is a diagram that shows an example cross section of an external current rail with respect to a vertical magnetic field and a horizontal magnetic field; FIG.\",\n \"6 is a graphical representation showing an example of how a vertical magnetic field and a horizontal magnetic field vary with respect to an x-coordinate perpendicular to current passing through an external current rail; FIGS.\",\n \"7 and 8 are diagrams that show an example of dependency of a differential magnetic field, sensed by a set of primary Hall cells, with respect to a horizontal positioning error; FIG.\",\n \"9 is a graphical representation that shows an example of a compensated differential magnetic field with respect to horizontal positioning error in relation to a symmetric external current rail: FIG.\",\n \"10 is a graphical representation of an example of an uncompensated horizontal positioning sensitivity error and a compensated horizontal positioning sensitivity error for a symmetric external current rail; FIG.\",\n \"11 is a graphical representation that shows an example of a compensated differential magnetic field with respect to horizontal positioning tolerance in relation to an asymmetric current rail; FIG.\",\n \"12 is a graphical representation of an example of an uncompensated horizontal positioning sensitivity error and a compensated horizontal positioning sensitivity error for an asymmetric external current rail; FIG.\",\n \"13 is a graphical representation of an example of a compensated vertical differential magnetic field with respect to a background field correction; FIG.\",\n \"14 is a graphical representation of an example of an uncompensated horizontal positioning sensitivity error and a compensated horizontal positioning sensitivity error with respect to a background field correction; FIG.\",\n \"15 is a diagram that shows an example of dependency of a vertical differential magnetic field, sensed by a set of primary Hall cells, with respect to a vertical positioning error; FIG.\",\n \"16 is a graphical representation of an example of a combined magnetic field, determined based on a vertical differential magnetic field and a horizontal magnetic field, that is independent of vertical positioning error; FIGS.\",\n \"17A and 17B are block diagrams showing example circuitry associated with combining a vertical differential Hall signal and an auxiliary horizontal Hall signal in order to compensate for a vertical positioning error; and FIGS.\",\n \"18A and 18B are flow charts of an example process for determining an amount of current, associated with a current passing through a current rail, using a differential Hall signal that has been corrected in order to compensate for a horizontal positioning error and a vertical positioning error associated with attaching a current sensor to the current rail.\",\n \"DETAILED DESCRIPTION The following detailed description of example implementations refers to the accompanying drawings.\",\n \"The same reference numbers in different drawings may identify the same or similar elements.\",\n \"A differential-Hall based magnetic current sensor may make use of an external current rail (e.g., a trace on a printed circuit board (PCB) plate to which the magnetic current sensor is attached, positioned adjacent to, etc.)\",\n \"in order to determine an amount of current passing through the current rail.\",\n \"The magnetic current sensor may be positioned relative to and attached (e.g., soldered) to the current rail such that two primary Hall cells (e.g., lateral Hall cells included in the magnetic current sensor) are located relative to opposite sides of the current rail (e.g., opposite sides of the center of a symmetric current rail).\",\n \"The primary Hall cells may sense opposite vertical magnetic field values (e.g., associated with a magnetic field generated by the current as the current passes through the current rail) on the opposite sides of the current rail, and may determine the amount of current passing through the current rail based on a vertical differential Hall signal derived from the sensed vertical magnetic field values.\",\n \"However, the vertical differential Hall signal, derived from the vertical magnetic field values, may be sensitive to placement of the magnetic current sensor on the current rail.\",\n \"For example, if the magnetic current sensor is positioned such that the primary Hall cells are not horizontally equidistant (e.g., in an x-direction on the face of the current rail and substantially perpendicular to the direction of the current) from the center of a symmetric current rail, then the derived vertical differential Hall signal may be affected such that the magnetic current sensor may inaccurately determine the amount of current passing through the current rail.\",\n \"Such a positioning error may be referred to as a horizontal positioning error.\",\n \"In some cases, an assembly process associated with attaching the magnetic current sensor in a position relative to the current rail may allow for a horizontal positioning tolerance (e.g., ±100 micrometers (μm).\",\n \"±200 μm, etc.)\",\n \"in the x-direction.\",\n \"As another example, if the magnetic current sensor is positioned such that the primary Hall cells are not vertically separated from the current rail by a known distance (e.g., in a z-direction away from the current rail and substantially perpendicular to the face of the current rail), then the derived vertical differential Hall signal may also be affected such that the magnetic current sensor may inaccurately determine the amount of current passing through the current rail.\",\n \"Such a positioning error may be referred to as a vertical positioning error.\",\n \"In some cases, an assembly process associated with attaching the magnetic current sensor in a position relative to the current rail may allow for a vertical positioning tolerance (e.g., ±65 μm, etc.)\",\n \"in the z-direction.\",\n \"Moreover, vertical positioning error may be introduced after the current sensor is attached to the current rail (e.g., due to swelling).\",\n \"One technique that may be used to correct the vertical differential Hall signal is to implement End-of-Line (EOL) calibration after the magnetic current sensor is (fixedly) placed relative to the current rail.\",\n \"EOL calibration may include forcing a known current through the current rail in both directions (e.g., in order to cancel potential sensor-offset effects), and calculating a gain correction factor as a ratio of a target vertical differential Hall signal (e.g., known based on the known current) and an actual vertical differential Hall signal (e.g., derived by the magnetic current sensor).\",\n \"The gain correction factor may then be used to adjust a compensation constant (e.g., stored in an Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory (EEPROM) in the magnetic current sensor, on a micro-controller configured to process the differential Hall signal, etc.\",\n \"), and the compensation constant may, during application, automatically and continuously be applied to the derived vertical differential Hall signal in order to cancel the differential Hall signal error (e.g., due to horizontal positioning error or due to vertical positioning error) that may otherwise arise.\",\n \"However, implementing such an EOL calibration process may increase a variety of costs associated with the magnetic current sensor (e.g., additional testing time, additional equipment costs, increased production complexity, etc.).\",\n \"Moreover.\",\n \"EOL calibration may be ineffective with respect to correcting vertical positioning error that is introduced at a later time (e.g., due to swelling after the current sensor is installed).\",\n \"Implementations described herein may provide a magnetic current sensor that includes one or more auxiliary Hall cells (e.g., lateral Hall cells and/or vertical Hall cells), positioned with respect to two primary Hall cells, that may sense magnetic field values, associated with a magnetic field generated by a current passing through a current rail.\",\n \"Information associated with the magnetic field values sensed by the one or more auxiliary Hall cells may then be used to correct a differential Hall signal error that arises due to a horizontal positioning error and/or a vertical positioning error associated with attaching the magnetic current sensor in a position relative to the current rail.\",\n \"FIGS.\",\n \"1A-1D are diagrams of an overview of an example implementation 100 described herein.\",\n \"For the purposes of example implementation 100, assume that a magnetic current sensor is attached in a position relative to a symmetrical current rail (e.g., a current rail with a constant width in a direction perpendicular to the current) that is external to the magnetic current sensor and that has a width w. Further, assume that the magnetic current sensor includes a pair of primary Hall cells (e.g., lateral Hall cells) separated by a particular horizontal distance (e.g., dT).\",\n \"As shown in FIG.\",\n \"1A, the magnetic current sensor may be positioned in a position relative to the current rail such that the midpoint of the current rail (e.g., w midpoint) is not aligned with the midpoint of the distance between the pair of primary Hall cells (e.g., dT midpoint), but within a horizontal positioning tolerance associated with attaching the magnetic current sensor in a position relative to the current rail.\",\n \"As shown, the magnetic current sensor may be positioned such that the w midpoint and dT midpoint are separated by a particular horizontal distance (e.g., Δx).\",\n \"As further shown, during operation, the primary Hall cells may sense opposite vertical magnetic field values (e.g., magnetic field BZ1 and magnetic field BZ2) when an unknown current passes through the current rail.\",\n \"As further shown, the magnetic current sensor may derive a vertical differential Hall signal based on the magnetic field values sensed by the primary Hall cells, and may determine an amount of current based on the derived vertical differential Hall signal.\",\n \"However, since dT midpoint and w midpoint are separated by Δx, and since no correction was made to adjust the vertical differential Hall signal derived in order to compensate for Δx, the amount of current determined by the magnetic current sensor may be inaccurate.\",\n \"In order to solve this problem without implementing EOL calibration, an auxiliary lateral Hall cell (e.g., an additional Hall cell associated with measuring a vertical magnetic field) may be included in the magnetic current sensor.\",\n \"As shown in FIG.\",\n \"1B, assume that, instead of including only two primary Hall cells separated by a particular distance dT, the magnetic current sensor includes an auxiliary lateral Hall cell (e.g., an auxiliary Hall cell configured to sense a vertical magnetic field) positioned between the two primary Hall cells.\",\n \"As shown, the auxiliary lateral Hall cell may be positioned such that the auxiliary lateral Hall cell lies at dT midpoint (i.e., the auxiliary lateral Hall cell may lie halfway between the two primary Hall cells).\",\n \"In some implementations, the auxiliary lateral Hall cell may be positioned at another location between the two primary Hall cells (i.e., the auxiliary lateral Hall cell may be positioned at a location between the primary Hall cells other than at dT midpoint).\",\n \"As further shown, during operation, the primary Hall cells may sense opposite vertical magnetic field values (e.g., magnetic field BZ1 and magnetic field BZ2) when an unknown current passes through the current rail, and the auxiliary lateral Hall cell may sense another vertical magnetic field value (e.g., magnetic field BZC) at dT midpoint.\",\n \"As further shown, the magnetic current sensor may derive a vertical differential Hall signal based on the vertical magnetic field values sensed by the primary Hall cells, and may derive an auxiliary vertical Hall signal based on the vertical magnetic field value sensed by the auxiliary lateral Hall cell.\",\n \"As further shown, the magnetic current sensor may then determine a corrected vertical differential Hall signal based on the vertical differential Hall signal and the auxiliary vertical Hall signal (e.g., without EOL calibration), and may determine the amount of current, accordingly.\",\n \"In this way, a magnetic current sensor may include an auxiliary lateral Hall cell positioned between two primary Hall cells.\",\n \"The auxiliary lateral Hall cell may sense a vertical magnetic field value, associated with a magnetic field generated by a current passing through a current rail, at a position between the two primary Hall cells.\",\n \"The vertical magnetic field value, sensed by the auxiliary lateral Hall cell, may then be used to correct a vertical differential Hall signal error that arises due to a horizontal positioning error associated with attaching the magnetic current sensor in a position relative to the current rail.\",\n \"For the purposes of FIG.\",\n \"1C, once again assume that the magnetic current sensor is attached in a position relative to a symmetrical current rail that is external to the magnetic current sensor and that has a width w. Further, assume that the magnetic current sensor includes a pair of primary Hall cells separated from a face of the current rail by a particular vertical distance (e.g., zT).\",\n \"As shown in FIG.\",\n \"1C, the magnetic current sensor may be vertically positioned in a position relative to the current rail such that the pair of primary Hall cells is separated from a face of the current rail by zT.\",\n \"However, as shown, zT may comprise a known vertical distance associated with the geometry of the magnetic current sensor (e.g., z0) and an unknown vertical distance associated with a vertical positioning error (e.g., Δz).\",\n \"As further shown, during operation, the primary Hall cells may sense opposite vertical magnetic field values (e.g., magnetic field BZ1 and magnetic field BZ2) when an unknown current passes through the current rail.\",\n \"As further shown, the magnetic current sensor may derive a vertical differential Hall signal based on the magnetic field values sensed by the primary Hall cells, and may determine an amount of current based on the derived vertical differential Hall signal.\",\n \"However, since zT is not equal to z0 (e.g., due to the Δz vertical positioning error), and since no correction was made to adjust the vertical differential Hall signal derived in order to compensate for Δz, the amount of current determined by the magnetic current sensor may be inaccurate.\",\n \"In order to solve this problem without implementing EOL calibration, a set of auxiliary vertical Hall cells (e.g., a set of Hall cells associated with measuring a horizontal magnetic field) may be included in the magnetic current sensor.\",\n \"As shown in FIG.\",\n \"1D, assume that, instead of including only two primary Hall cells, the magnetic current sensor includes a set of three auxiliary vertical Hall cells (e.g., a set of auxiliary vertical Hall cells configured to sense a horizontal magnetic field).\",\n \"As shown, the set of auxiliary vertical Hall cells may be positioned such that a first auxiliary vertical Hall cell and a second auxiliary vertical Hall cell are adjacent to the two primary Hall cells (e.g., in a y-direction along the current rail), and such that a third auxiliary vertical Hall cell is positioned between the first auxiliary vertical Hall cell and the second auxiliary vertical Hall cell (e.g., at dT midpoint).\",\n \"In some implementations, the auxiliary vertical Hall cells may be positioned in another manner (e.g., such that the third auxiliary vertical Hall cell does not lie at dT midpoint between the first auxiliary vertical Hall cell and the second auxiliary vertical Hall cell).\",\n \"In some implementations, the second auxiliary vertical Hall cell may be optional, as further described below.\",\n \"As further shown, during operation, the primary Hall cells may sense opposite vertical magnetic field values (e.g., magnetic field BZ1 and magnetic field BZ2) when an unknown current passes through the current rail, and the first auxiliary vertical Hall cell, the second auxiliary vertical Hall cell, and the third auxiliary vertical Hall cell may sense a first horizontal magnetic field value (e.g., magnetic field BX1), a second horizontal magnetic field value (e.g., magnetic field BX2), and a third horizontal magnetic field value (e.g., magnetic field BXC), respectively.\",\n \"As further shown, the magnetic current sensor may derive a vertical differential Hall signal based on the vertical magnetic field values sensed by the primary Hall cells, and may derive an auxiliary horizontal Hall signal based on the horizontal magnetic field values sensed by the set of auxiliary vertical Hall cells.\",\n \"As further shown, the magnetic current sensor may then determine a corrected vertical differential Hall signal based on the vertical differential Hall signal and the auxiliary horizontal Hall signal (e.g., without EOL calibration), and may determine the amount of current, accordingly.\",\n \"In this way, a magnetic current sensor may include a set of auxiliary vertical Hall cells positioned with respect to two primary Hall cells.\",\n \"The set of auxiliary vertical Hall cells may sense a set of horizontal magnetic field values, associated with a magnetic field generated by a current passing through a current rail.\",\n \"The set of horizontal magnetic field values, sensed by the set of auxiliary vertical Hall cells, may then be used to correct a vertical differential Hall signal error that arises due to a vertical positioning error associated with attaching the magnetic current sensor in a position relative to the current rail.\",\n \"In some implementations, the magnetic current sensor may include the auxiliary lateral Hall cell and the set of auxiliary vertical Hall cells, as described below.\",\n \"In this way, the magnetic current sensor may be capable of compensating for both a horizontal positioning error and a vertical positioning error associated with attaching the magnetic current sensor to the current rail.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"2 is a diagram of an example environment 200 in which apparatuses described herein may be implemented.\",\n \"As shown in FIG.\",\n \"2, environment 200 may include an external current rail 210, a galvanic isolation component 220, and a magnetic current sensor 230.External current rail 210 may include an electrically conductive track between two or more electronic components.\",\n \"For example, external current rail 210 may include a trace on a PCB that connects two components of an electrical circuit.\",\n \"In some implementations, a current may pass through external current rail 210 (e.g., from one electrical component to another electrical component, from a current source to an electrical component, etc.).\",\n \"Galvanic isolation component 220 may include a component that isolates magnetic current sensor 230 from external current rail 210 such that current, passing through external current rail 210, may not flow into magnetic current sensor 230.In some implementations, galvanic isolation 220 may be placed (e.g., between external current rail 210 and magnetic current sensor 230) such that magnetic current sensor 230 is capable of sensing a magnetic field generated by the current passing through external current rail 210.Magnetic current sensor 230 may include a sensor designed to determine an amount of current passing through external current rail 210.For example, magnetic current sensor 230 may determine the amount of current passing through external current rail 210 based on sensing a magnetic field generated by the current.\",\n \"In some implementations, magnetic current sensor 230 may be positioned such that magnetic current sensor 230 is separated from external current rail 210 by galvanic isolation component 220.In some implementations, magnetic current sensor 230 may include a differential Hall component (e.g., including a pair of primary Hall cells, an auxiliary lateral Hall cell, and/or a set of auxiliary vertical Hall cells) associated with sensing the magnetic field generated by the current, and one or more other components.\",\n \"Additional details regarding magnetic current sensor 230 are described below with regard to FIG.\",\n \"3.In some implementations, magnetic current sensor 230 may be housed in package comprising a semiconductor chip.\",\n \"The number and arrangement of apparatuses shown in FIG.\",\n \"2 are provided as an example.\",\n \"In practice, there may be additional apparatuses, fewer apparatuses, different apparatuses, or differently arranged apparatuses than those shown in FIG.\",\n \"2.Furthermore, two or more apparatuses shown in FIG.\",\n \"2 may be implemented within a single apparatus, or a single apparatus shown in FIG.\",\n \"2 may be implemented as multiple, distributed apparatuses.\",\n \"Additionally, or alternatively, a set of apparatuses (e.g., one or more apparatuses) of environment 200 may perform one or more functions described as being performed by another set of apparatuses of environment 200.FIG.\",\n \"3 is a diagram of example components of a magnetic current sensor 230 included in the example environment 200 of FIG.\",\n \"2.As shown, magnetic current sensor 230 may include a differential Hall component 310, an analog-to-digital convertor (ADC) 320, a digital signal processor (DSP) 330, a memory component 340, and a digital interface 350.Differential Hall component 310 may include a component designed to sense a magnetic field generated by a current passing through external current rail 210.In some implementations, differential Hall component may include a pair of primary Hall cells, an auxiliary lateral Hall cell, and a set of auxiliary vertical Hall cells.\",\n \"Each Hall cell may be capable of sensing a magnetic field value (e.g., a vertical magnetic field value or a horizontal magnetic field value).\",\n \"In some implementations, each Hall cell may provide information associated with the sensed magnetic field values to ADC 320.Alternatively, differential Hall cell component 310 may process analog signals, associated with the sensed magnetic fields (e.g., without analog-to-digital conversion by ADC 320) in order to determine a corrected differential Hall signal.\",\n \"Additional details regarding differential Hall component 310 are described below with regard to FIG.\",\n \"4.ADC 320 may include an analog-to-digital converter that converts an analog signal (e.g., a voltage signal) from differential Hall component 310 to a digital signal.\",\n \"For example, ADC 320 may convert analog signals, received from differential Hall component 310, into digital signals to be processed by DSP 330.ADC 320 may provide the digital signals to DSP 330.In some implementations, magnetic current sensor 230 may include one or more ADCs 320.DSP 330 may include a digital signal processing device or a collection of digital signal processing devices.\",\n \"In some implementations, DSP 330 may receive a digital signal from ADC 320 and may process the digital signal to form an output (e.g., information that identifies the amount of current passing through external current rail 210, information associated with the differential Hall signal, information associated with the auxiliary Hall signal, etc.).\",\n \"For example, DSP 330 may derive and/or receive a digital signal corresponding to a vertical magnetic field value sensed by primary Hall cell(s), the auxiliary lateral Hall cell, and/or the set of auxiliary vertical Hall cells.\",\n \"DSP 330 may determine a corrected differential Hall signal based on the derived and/or received digital signal(s), and may provide information associated with the corrected differential Hall signal.\",\n \"While implementations described herein are described in the context of DSP 330 performing processing on digital signals corresponding to sensed magnetic field values, in some implementations, another component of magnetic sensor may perform a similar type of processing.\",\n \"For example, differential Hall component 310 may perform processing on analog signals corresponding to sensed magnetic field values (e.g., before analog-to-digital conversion is performed).\",\n \"Memory 340 may include a read only memory (ROM) (e.g., an EEPROM), a random access memory (RAM), and/or another type of dynamic or static storage device (e.g., a flash memory, a magnetic memory, an optical memory, etc.)\",\n \"that stores information and/or instructions for use by magnetic current sensor 230.In some implementations, memory component 340 may store a compensation constant that is to be applied during processing performed by DSP 330.Digital interface 350 may include an interface via which magnetic current sensor 230 may receive and/or provide information from and/or to another device, such as information associated with an amount of current determined by magnetic current sensor 230.For example, digital interface may provide the output determined by DSP 330, that identifies the amount of current passing through external current rail 210.The number and arrangement of components shown in FIG.\",\n \"3 are provided as an example.\",\n \"In practice, magnetic current sensor 230 may include additional components, fewer components, different components, or differently arranged components than those shown in FIG.\",\n \"3.Additionally, or alternatively, a set of components (e.g., one or more components) of magnetic current sensor 230 may perform one or more functions described as being performed by another set of components of magnetic current sensor 230.FIGS.\",\n \"4A-4C are diagrams of example components of a differential Hall component 310 included in the example magnetic current sensor 230 of FIG.\",\n \"3.As shown in FIG.\",\n \"4A, one example differential Hall component 310 may include a set of two primary Hall cells 410 (e.g., primary Hall cell 410-1 and primary Hall cell 410-2), and an auxiliary lateral Hall cell 420.Primary Hall cell 410 may include a transducer designed to provide an output in response to sensing a vertical magnetic field value corresponding to a current travelling through external current rail 210.For example, primary Hall cell 410 may provide a vertical magnetic field value that allows magnetic current sensor 230 (e.g., DSP 330, differential Hall component 310) to derive (e.g., based on vertical magnetic field values provided by two primary Hall cells 410) a vertical differential Hall signal that corresponds to the current passing through external current rail 210.Auxiliary lateral Hall cell 420 may include a transducer designed to provide an output in response to sensing a vertical magnetic field value associated with correcting a vertical differential Hall signal in order to compensate for a horizontal positioning error associated with attaching magnetic current sensor 230 to external current rail 210.For example, auxiliary lateral Hall cell 420 may provide an output that allows magnetic current sensor 230 (e.g., DSP 330, differential Hall component 310) to derive an auxiliary vertical Hall signal and/or correct the vertical differential Hall signal based on the derived auxiliary vertical Hall signal.\",\n \"In some implementations, auxiliary lateral Hall cell 420 may be positioned between primary Hall cell 410-1 and primary Hall cell 410-2.For example, as shown in FIG.\",\n \"4A, auxiliary lateral Hall cell 420 may be positioned such that auxiliary lateral Hall cell 420 lies at a first distance (e.g., d1) from primary Hall cell 410-1 and a second distance (e.g., d2) from primary Hall cell 410-2 (e.g., where d1+d2=dT).\",\n \"In some implementations, d1 may equal to d2 (i.e., auxiliary lateral Hall cell 420 may be positioned halfway between primary Hall cell 410-1 and primary Hall cell 410-2).\",\n \"Alternatively, d1 may not be equal to d2 (i.e., auxiliary lateral Hall cell 420 may not be positioned halfway between primary Hall cell 410-1 and primary Hall cell 410-2).\",\n \"Additionally, while FIG.\",\n \"4A shows distance dT as a distance that is greater than the width of external current rail 210 (e.g., w), in some implementations, dT may be less than or equal to w. Additionally, while FIG.\",\n \"4A shows primary Hall cell 410-1, primary Hall cell 410-2, and auxiliary lateral Hall cell 420 as being centered with respect to a y-axis, in some implementations, Hall cell 410-1, primary Hall cell 410-2, or auxiliary lateral Hall cell 420 may not be centered with respect to the y-axis.\",\n \"In some implementations, as described below, primary Hall cell 410-1, primary Hall cell 410-2, and auxiliary lateral Hall cell 420 may allow magnetic current sensor 230 (e.g., DSP 330, differential Hall component 310) to determine an amount of current, passing through external current rail 210, based on a corrected vertical differential Hall signal that has been corrected to compensate for a horizontal positioning error associated with attaching magnetic current sensor 230 in a position relative to external current rail 210.As shown in FIG.\",\n \"4B, another example differential Hall component 310 may include two primary Hall cells 410, and a set of auxiliary vertical Hall cells 430 (e.g., auxiliary vertical Hall cell 430-1, auxiliary vertical Hall cell 430-2, and auxiliary vertical Hall cell 430-3).\",\n \"Auxiliary vertical Hall cells 430 may include a transducer designed to provide an output in response to sensing a horizontal magnetic field value associated with correcting a vertical differential Hall signal in order to compensate for a vertical positioning error associated with attaching magnetic current sensor 230 to external current rail 210.For example, auxiliary vertical Hall cells 430 may provide outputs that allow magnetic current sensor 230 (e.g., DSP 330, differential Hall component 310) to derive an auxiliary horizontal Hall signal and/or correct the vertical differential Hall signal based on the derived auxiliary horizontal Hall signal.\",\n \"In some implementations, auxiliary vertical Hall cell 430-1 and 430-2 may be positioned adjacent to primary Hall cell 410-1 and primary Hall cell 410-2, respectively.\",\n \"For example, as shown in FIG.\",\n \"4B, auxiliary vertical Hall cell 430-1 may be positioned adjacent to primary Hall cell 410-1 along a y-axis (e.g., an axis that runs parallel to the current along aface of external current rail).\",\n \"Similarly, as shown, auxiliary vertical Hall cell 430-2 may be positioned adjacent to primary Hall cell 410-2 along the y-axis.\",\n \"As further shown, auxiliary vertical Hall cell 430-3 may be positioned between auxiliary vertical Hall cell 430-1 and auxiliary vertical Hall cell 430-2 (e.g., along the x-axis) such that auxiliary vertical Hall cell 430-3 lies at a third distance (e.g., d3) from auxiliary vertical Hall cell 430-1 and a fourth distance (e.g., d4) from auxiliary vertical Hall cell 430-2 (e.g., where d3+d4=dT).\",\n \"In some implementations, d3 may equal to d4 (i.e., auxiliary vertical Hall cell 430-3 may be positioned halfway between auxiliary vertical Hall cell 430-1 and auxiliary vertical Hall cell 430-2).\",\n \"Alternatively, d3 may not be equal to d4 (i.e., auxiliary vertical Hall cell 430-3 may not be positioned halfway between auxiliary vertical Hall cell 430-1 and auxiliary vertical Hall cell 430-2).\",\n \"In some implementations, differential Hall component 310 may not include auxiliary vertical Hall cell 430-2 (e.g., auxiliary vertical Hall cell 430-2 may be optionally included in differential Hall component 310).\",\n \"Alternatively, differential Hall component 310 may not include auxiliary vertical Hall cell 430-1 (e.g., auxiliary vertical Hall cell 430-1 may be optionally when differential Hall component 310 includes auxiliary vertical Hall cell 430-2).\",\n \"Additionally, while FIG.\",\n \"4B shows auxiliary vertical Hall cell 430-1, auxiliary vertical Hall cell 430-2, and auxiliary vertical Hall cell 430-3 as being centered with respect to the y-axis, in some implementations, auxiliary vertical Hall cell 430-1, auxiliary vertical Hall cell 430-2, and auxiliary vertical Hall cell 430-3 may not be being centered with respect to the y-axis.\",\n \"In some implementations, as described below, primary Hall cell 410-1, primary Hall cell 410-2, auxiliary vertical Hall cell 430-1, auxiliary vertical Hall cell 430-2, and auxiliary vertical Hall cell 430-3 may allow magnetic current sensor 230 (e.g., DSP 330, differential Hall component 310) to determine an amount of current, passing through external current rail 210, based on a corrected vertical differential Hall signal that has been corrected to compensate for a vertical positioning error associated with attaching magnetic current sensor 230 to the in a position relative to external current rail 210.As shown in FIG.\",\n \"4C, in some implementations, differential Hall component 310 may include primary Hall cell 410-1, primary Hall cell 410-2, auxiliary lateral Hall cell 420, auxiliary vertical Hall cell 430-1, auxiliary vertical Hall cell 430-2, and auxiliary vertical Hall cell 430-3.Such an implementation may allow magnetic current sensor 230 (e.g., DSP 330, differential Hall component 310) to determine an amount of current, passing through external current rail 210, based on a corrected vertical differential Hall signal that has been corrected to compensate for both a horizontal positioning error and a vertical positioning error associated with attaching magnetic current sensor 230 in a position relative to external current rail 210.The number and arrangement of components shown in FIGS.\",\n \"4A-4C are provided as an example.\",\n \"In practice, differential Hall component 310 may include additional components, different components, or differently arranged components than those shown in FIGS.\",\n \"4A-4C.\",\n \"By positioning a pair of primary Hall cells 410 in positions relative to opposite sides of external current rail 210 (e.g., with respect to a center of a symmetric current rail), and due to the differential Hall principle, vertical magnetic field values on opposite sides of a center of external current rail 210 may be differentiated from an external homogeneous magnetic field (e.g., Earth's magnetic field).\",\n \"For example, consider external current rail 210 (e.g., a PCB trace) of width w, and a magnetic current sensor 230 positioned in a position relative to external current rail 210 such that the vertical distance between each of the pair of primary Hall cells 410 and external current rail 210 is z.\",\n \"An example cross section showing geometry of external current rail 210 with respect to a vertical magnetic field and a horizontal magnetic field is shown in FIG.\",\n \"5.Based on the geometry shown in FIG.\",\n \"5, a vertical magnetic field (e.g., BZ(x,z)) at an x-coordinate and a z-coordinate, with respect to external current rail 210, may be derived based on Maxwell's 4th Law: d B z ( x ′ , z ) = μ 0 dI 2 π r · cos α = μ 0 I 2 π w · x ′ r 2 · dx ′ ; B z ( x , z ) = ∫ d B z ( x ′ , z ) = μ 0 I 2 π w · ∫ x - w 2 x + w 2 x ′ x ′ 2 + z 2 dx ′ = μ 0 I 4 π w · ln ( ( x + w 2 ) 2 + z 2 ( x - w 2 ) 2 + z 2 ) .\",\n \"where BZ(x,z) represents a vertical magnetic field value, z represents a distance relative to external rail 210, x represents a position along external current rail 210 of width w, μ0 represents a permeability constant, and I represents a current.\",\n \"A horizontal magnetic field (e.g., Bx(x,z)) at the x-coordinate and the z-coordinate may be similarly derived: d B x ( x ′ , z ) = μ 0 dI 2 π r · sin α = μ 0 I 2 π w · z r 2 · dx ′ ; B x ( x , z ) = ∫ d B z ( x ′ , z ) = μ 0 I 2 π w · ∫ x - w 2 x + w 2 z x ′ 2 + z 2 dx ′ = μ 0 I 2 π w · ( arctg ( x + w 2 z ) - arctg ( x - w 2 z ) ) .\",\n \"A graph illustrating an example of how the vertical magnetic field and the horizontal magnetic field vary with respect to x (e.g., for w=1.7 millimeters (mm) and z0=300 μm) is shown in FIG.\",\n \"6.In some implementations, it is desirable to attach magnetic current sensor 230 such that primary Hall cells 410 are positioned such that primary Hall cells 410 may derive a maximum differential Hall signal (e.g., in order to accurately determine the amount of current).\",\n \"For example, as shown in FIG.\",\n \"6, it is desirable to position primary Hall cells 410 (e.g., included in magnetic current sensor 230) at approximately x=−1.0 mm and x=1.0 mm (e.g., a distance between primary Hall cell 410-1 and primary Hall cell 410-2 equal to 2.0 mm).\",\n \"With such a placement, primary Hall cells 410 may accurately sense the vertical magnetic field values such that magnetic current sensor 230 may derive a corresponding vertical differential Hall signal.\",\n \"In some implementations, magnetic current sensor 230 (e.g., DSP 330, differential Hall component 310) may derive the vertical differential Hall signal based on the magnetic field values sensed by primary Hall cell 410-1 and primary Hall cell 410-2.In a case where magnetic current sensor 230 is positioned such that there is no horizontal positioning error (e.g., when magnetic current sensor 230 is centered substantially relative or with respect to a center of external current rail 210) and where there is no vertical positioning error (e.g., such that z is a known distance equal to z0), the following differential Hall signal may be derived (e.g., where dT is the distance between primary Hall cell 410-1 and primary Hall cell 410-2): U differential - Hall ( 0 , z 0 ) = S Hall · ( B z ( dT 2 , z 0 ) - B z ( - dT 2 , z 0 ) ) 2 = S Hall · B z , diff ( 0 , z 0 ) ; where Udifferential-Hall(0,z0) represents a vertical differential Hall signal (e.g., in milliVolts (mV)) at the symmetrical center of external current rail 210.SHall represents a signal conversion factor (e.g., in mV/microTesla (μT)), and Bz,diff(0,z0) represents a vertical magnetic field (e.g., in μT) at the symmetrical center of external current rail 210.However, as described above, a horizontal positioning error and/or a vertical positioning error, associated with attaching magnetic current sensor 230 in a position relative to external current rail 210, may arise.\",\n \"Systems and/or methods that may allow magnetic current sensor 230 to correct a vertical differential Hall signal in order to compensate for a horizontal positioning error are first described below, followed by systems and/or methods that may allow magnetic current sensor 230 to correct a vertical differential Hall signal in order to compensate for a vertical positioning.\",\n \"As described above, in some implementations, a horizontal positioning error may occur when attaching magnetic current sensor 230 in a position relative to external current rail 210.For example, a horizontal positioning error may occur when magnetic current sensor 230 is attached such that magnetic current sensor 230 is not centered directly relative to a center of external current rail 210 (e.g., in an x-direction perpendicular to the current and along the face of external current rail 210).\",\n \"For example, a horizontal positioning tolerance may allow magnetic current sensor 230 to be placed 100 μm off center of external current rail 210 (e.g., Δx=100 μm), placed 200 μm off center of external current rail 210 (e.g., Δx=200 μm), or the like, thus introducing a horizontal positioning error.\",\n \"In some cases, the vertical differential Hall signal derived from the vertical magnetic field values may be influenced by the horizontal positioning error associated with the placement of magnetic current sensor 230 as follows: U differential - Hall ( Δ x , z 0 ) = S Hall · ( B z ( d 2 + Δ x ) - B z ( - d 2 + Δ x ) ) 2 = S Hall · B z , diff ( Δ x , z 0 ) ; where Udifferential-Hall(Δx,z0) represents a differential Hall signal (e.g., in mV) at horizontal distance x, from the symmetrical center of external current rail 210 and known vertical distance z0, SHall represents a signal conversion factor (e.g., in mV/μT), and Bz,diff(Δx,z0) represents a magnetic field at horizontal distance Δx from the symmetrical center of external current rail 210 and known vertical distance z0 from external current rail 210 (e.g., in μT).\",\n \"As such, the horizontal positioning error may affect (e.g., weaken) the vertical differential Hall signal derived by magnetic current sensor 230.FIG.\",\n \"7 shows an example of a dependency of the vertical differential magnetic field, sensed by primary Hall cells 410 with respect to the horizontal positioning error, from Δx=−4.0 mm to Δx=4.0 mm.\",\n \"As shown, as the positioning error (e.g., Δx) moves further from zero, the vertical differential magnetic field (e.g., used to derive the differential Hall signal) may decrease.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"8 an example of a dependency of the vertical differential magnetic field, sensed by primary Hall cells 410, with respect to the horizontal positioning error from Δx=−200 μm to Δx=200 μm.\",\n \"As shown, if the horizontal positioning error is equal to ±100 μm, then the vertical differential magnetic field may decrease by approximately −2.2% (e.g., from 200 microTeslas/Amp (μT/A) to approximately 196 μT/A).\",\n \"Similarly, if the horizontal positioning error is equal to ±200 μm, then the vertical differential magnetic field may decrease by approximately −8.4% (e.g., from 200 μT/A to approximately 183 μT/A).\",\n \"Unless a correction is applied in order to compensate for the horizontal positioning error, the horizontal positioning error will result in a similar decrease in the vertical differential Hall signal derived based on the sensed vertical magnetic field values associated with the vertical differential magnetic field.\",\n \"The signal sensitivity decrease resulting from the horizontal positioning error may be compensated for with the inclusion of auxiliary lateral Hall cell 420 between primary Hall cells 410.In some implementations, auxiliary lateral Hall cell 420 may sense a vertical magnetic field value at a location between primary Hall cells 410, and the vertical magnetic field value may be used to compensate for the horizontal positioning error.\",\n \"For a symmetric external current rail 210, (e.g., a straight PCB trace), the target placement for magnetic current sensor 230 may be the center of external current rail 210.FIG.\",\n \"9 is a graphical representation that shows an example of a compensated vertical differential magnetic field with respect to a horizontal positioning error in relation to a symmetric external current rail 210.As shown in FIG.\",\n \"9, for a positioning error range of ±200 μm, the vertical differential magnetic field (e.g., represented by the line corresponding to “Bz, diff (Dx)”), may be corrected based on the vertical magnetic field value sensed by auxiliary lateral Hall cell 420 (e.g., represented by the line corresponding to “Bz, mid(Dx)”), in order determine the compensated vertical differential magnetic field (e.g., represented by the line corresponding to “Bz, comp(Dx)”) that may be used to derive a corrected vertical differential Hall signal).\",\n \"As shown in FIG.\",\n \"9, if auxiliary lateral Hall cell 420 is placed between primary Hall cells 410 and if magnetic current sensor 230 is attached exactly on center (e.g., if Δx=0), then auxiliary lateral Hall cell 420 may sense a vertical magnetic field equal to zero.\",\n \"As shown in FIG.\",\n \"9, within a particular limit (e.g., −200 μm≤Δx≤200 μm), the vertical magnetic field value sensed by auxiliary lateral Hall cell 420 is a linear function of the horizontal positioning error.\",\n \"As such, the auxiliary vertical Hall signal (e.g., derived from the vertical magnetic field value sensed by auxiliary lateral Hall cell 420) also behaves linearly.\",\n \"Therefore, it is possible to extract the horizontal positioning error from the auxiliary vertical Hall signal: U Aux = S Hall · B z , Aux = S Hall · β · Δ x · I ; U Main = S Hall · B z , diff = S Hall · ( 1 - α · Δ x 2 ) · S 0 · I ; U Aux U Main = β · Δ x ( 1 - α · Δ x 2 ) · S 0 ≈ β · Δ x S 0 ; where UAux represents the auxiliary vertical Hall signal, UMain represents the vertical differential Hall signal, and where α, β, and S0 represent known constants associated with external current rail 210.As such, the following correction may be performed, using the auxiliary vertical Hall signal, in order to correct an error that arises in the vertical differential Hall signal due to the horizontal positioning error: U Main Comp , Symm = S Hall · S 0 · I ≈ U Main · ( 1 + α · Δ x 2 ) ≈ U Main · ( 1 + α · ( S 0 · U Aux β · U Main ) 2 ) .\",\n \"In some implementations, a current rail constant (e.g., c=α1/2·S0/β) may be stored by magnetic current sensor 230 (e.g., in memory component 340 as an EEPROM constant for the particular external current rail 210).\",\n \"Therefore, based on the vertical differential Hall signal, derived from the vertical magnetic field values sensed by primary Hall cells 410, and the auxiliary vertical Hall signal, derived from the vertical magnetic field value sensed by auxiliary lateral Hall cell 420, magnetic current sensor 230 may evaluate the above formula during operation (e.g., via a hardware modules, a state machine in firmware, etc.)\",\n \"in order to compensate for the horizontal positioning error.\",\n \"As described above, examples of the corrected vertical differential magnetic field for different signal errors that arise due to horizontal positioning error with respect to a symmetric external current rail 210 are shown in FIG.\",\n \"9 by the line corresponding to “Bz,comp(Dx)”.\",\n \"In this way, an auxiliary vertical Hall signal, derived based on a vertical magnetic field value sensed by auxiliary lateral Hall cell 420, may be used to compensate for a vertical differential Hall signal error that arises as a result of a horizontal positioning error associated with a symmetric current rail.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"10 is a graphical representation of an example of an uncompensated horizontal positioning sensitivity error and a compensated horizontal positioning sensitivity error for a symmetric external current rail.\",\n \"The uncompensated horizontal positioning sensitivity error in relation to horizontal positioning error is shown by the line corresponding to “Uncomp_Error”.\",\n \"The compensated horizontal positioning sensitivity error in relation to horizontal positioning error is shown by the line corresponding to “Comp_Error”.\",\n \"In the case of an asymmetric external current rail 210 (e.g., a current rail with a non-constant width in a direction perpendicular to the current), the maximum vertical differential magnetic field is shifted relative to the center position of the asymmetric external current rail 210.The zero vertical magnetic field point is similarly offset (e.g., whereas the zero vertical magnetic field point is located at x=0 for a symmetric external current rail 210), but the linear behavior of the vertical differential magnetic field with respect to the horizontal positioning error (as described above) holds true.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"11 is a graphical representation that shows an example of a compensated vertical differential magnetic field with respect to horizontal positioning error in relation to an asymmetric external current rail 210.As shown in FIG.\",\n \"11, for a horizontal positioning error range of ±200 μm, the vertical differential magnetic field (e.g., represented by the line corresponding to “Bz_diff/2”), may be corrected based on the vertical magnetic field value sensed by auxiliary lateral Hall cell 420 (e.g., represented by the line corresponding to “Bz_Hall3”), in order determine the compensated vertical differential magnetic field (e.g., represented by the line corresponding to “Bcomp”) that may be used to derive a corrected vertical differential Hall signal).\",\n \"As shown in FIG.\",\n \"11, if auxiliary lateral Hall cell 420 is placed between primary Hall cells 410 and if magnetic current sensor 230 is attached exactly on center (e.g., if Δx=0), then auxiliary lateral Hall cell 420 may sense a negative magnetic field value (e.g., since external current rail 210 is asymmetric).\",\n \"As such, a current rail dependent offset (e.g., Δx0, particular to geometry of external current rail 210) should be considered when correcting the vertical differential Hall signal error that arises due to the horizontal positioning error: U Main Comp , Asymm = U Main · ( 1 + α · Δ x 2 ) ≈ U Main · ( 1 + α · ( S 0 · U Aux β · U Main + Δ x 0 ) 2 ) .\",\n \"In some implementations, a set of current rail constants (e.g., c1=α1/2S0/β, c2=α1/2·Δx0) may be stored by magnetic current sensor 230 (e.g., as an EEPROM constant for the particular external current rail 210).\",\n \"Therefore, based on the vertical differential Hall signal, derived from the vertical magnetic field values sensed by primary Hall cells 410, the auxiliary vertical Hall signal, derived from the vertical magnetic field value sensed by auxiliary lateral Hall cell 420, and the current rail dependent offset, magnetic current sensor 230 may evaluate the above formula during operation in order to compensate for the horizontal positioning error.\",\n \"As described above, examples of the corrected vertical differential magnetic field for different signal errors that arise due to horizontal positioning error with respect to an asymmetric external current rail 210 are shown in FIG.\",\n \"11 by the line corresponding to “Bcomp”.\",\n \"In this way, an auxiliary vertical Hall signal, derived based on a vertical magnetic field value sensed by auxiliary lateral Hall cell 420, may be used to compensate for a vertical differential Hall signal error that arises as a result of a horizontal positioning error associated with an asymmetric current rail.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"12 is a graphical representation of an example of an uncompensated horizontal positioning sensitivity error and a compensated horizontal positioning sensitivity error for an asymmetric external current rail.\",\n \"The uncompensated horizontal positioning sensitivity error in relation to position tolerance is shown by the line corresponding to “Uncomp_Positioning_Error”.\",\n \"The compensated horizontal positioning sensitivity error in relation to position tolerance is shown by the line corresponding to “Comp_Positioning_Error”.\",\n \"In some implementations, optimal constants (e.g., c1=α1/2·S0/β, c2=α1/2·Δx0, where c2 may not be used for a symmetric external current rail 210) may be determined from geometry of external current rail 210 and positioning of primary Hall cells 410 and auxiliary lateral Hall cell 420.For example, fitting the vertical differential Hall signal function and the auxiliary vertical Hall signal function may result in an asymptotically optimal performance.\",\n \"From a practical perspective, the constants may be modified to reach a more desired behavior over a specific Δx region.\",\n \"In some implementations, the auxiliary vertical Hall signal may be corrected in order to suppress a background field-effect.\",\n \"Implementations described thus far are described in the context of a negligible homogeneous background field (e.g., a background magnetic field significantly less than the vertical differential Hall field).\",\n \"However, if the homogeneous background field is not negligible, then magnetic current sensor 230 may correct the auxiliary vertical Hall signal based on the background field as follows: UAux,Background_Corrected=UAux−(UHall1+UHall2)/2; where UAux,Background_Corrected represents the corrected auxiliary vertical Hall signal, UAux represents the uncorrected auxiliary vertical Hall signal, UHall1 represents a Hall signal corresponding to a vertical magnetic field sensed by primary Hall cell 410-1, and UHall2 represents a Hall signal corresponding to a vertical magnetic field sensed by primary Hall cell 410-2.The auxiliary vertical Hall signal correction may require a modification in the analog front-end of magnetic current sensor 230 (e.g., chopping scheme and circuitry).\",\n \"The vertical differential Hall signal is already background field corrected by definition: UMain=(UHall1−UHall2)/2; where UMain represents the vertical differential Hall signal determined based on the vertical magnetic field values sensed by primary Hall cell 410-1 and primary Hall cell 410-2.FIG.\",\n \"13 is a graphical representation of an example of a compensated vertical differential magnetic field with respect to a background field correction.\",\n \"As shown in FIG.\",\n \"13, the vertical magnetic field value sensed by auxiliary lateral Hall cell 420 (e.g., represented by the line corresponding to “Bz_mid (Dx)”) may be corrected by using background field correction function (e.g., represented by the line corresponding to “Bz,ave (uT/A”) in order to determine a background corrected auxiliary vertical magnetic field value (e.g., represented by the line corresponding to “Bz,mid-comp(uT/A)”).\",\n \"The vertical differential magnetic field (e.g., represented by the line corresponding to “Bz,diff(Dx)”) may then be corrected based on the background corrected auxiliary vertical magnetic field value in order to determine the corrected vertical differential magnetic field (e.g., represented by the line corresponding to “Bz,comp(Dx)”).\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"14 is a graphical representation of an example of an uncompensated horizontal positioning sensitivity error and a compensated horizontal positioning sensitivity error with respect to a background field correction.\",\n \"The uncompensated horizontal positioning sensitivity error in relation to a non-negligible background field is shown by the line corresponding to “Uncomp_Error”.\",\n \"The compensated horizontal positioning sensitivity error in relation to a non-negligible background field is shown by the line corresponding to “Optimal_Comp_Error”.\",\n \"In some implementations, after determining the corrected vertical differential Hall signal that compensates for the horizontal positioning error, magnetic current sensor 230 (e.g., DSP 330, differential Hall component 310) may determine the amount of current passing through external current rail 210 based on the corrected vertical differential Hall signal, as described above.\",\n \"Magnetic current sensor 230 may also provide (e.g., via digital interface 350) information associated with the amount of current and/or other information sensed, determined, and/or derived by magnetic current sensor 230 (e.g., information associated with the corrected vertical differential Hall signal, information associated with the auxiliary vertical Hall signal, etc.).\",\n \"Additionally, or alternatively.\",\n \"(e.g., after determining the vertical differential Hall signal that compensates for the horizontal positioning error, without determining the vertical differential Hall signal that compensates for the horizontal positioning error) magnetic current sensor 230 may determine a corrected vertical differential Hall signal that compensates for a vertical positioning error associated with attaching magnetic current sensor 230 in a position relative to external current rail 230.As described above, in some implementations, a vertical positioning error may occur when attaching magnetic current sensor 230 in a position relative to external current rail 210.For example, a vertical positioning error may occur when magnetic current sensor 230 is attached such that a distance (e.g., in the z-direction perpendicular to the face of external current rail 210) between primary Hall cells 410 and the face of external current rail 210 is greater than or less than a known distance (e.g., z0) by an unknown amount (e.g., Δz).\",\n \"For example, a vertical positioning tolerance, combined with non-coplanarity of leads, may allow magnetic current sensor 230 to be placed such that Δz is equal to a value up to ±65 μm, thus introducing a vertical positioning error.\",\n \"Moreover, additional variations of Δz (e.g., ±5 μm) may occur due to swelling associated with magnetic current sensor 230 (e.g., after magnetic current sensor 230 is attached to external current rail 210).\",\n \"In some cases, the vertical differential Hall signal derived from the vertical magnetic field values sensed by primary Hall cells 410 may be influenced by the vertical positioning error as follows: Udifferential-Hall(0,z0+Δz)=SHall·Bz,diff(0,z0+Δz) where Udifferential-Hall(0,z0+Δz) represents a differential Hall signal (e.g., in mV) at horizontal distance zero from the symmetrical center of external current rail 210 and an unknown vertical distance to +Δz, SHall represents a signal conversion factor (e.g., in mV/μT), and Bz,diff(0,z0+Δz) represents a magnetic field at horizontal distance zero from the symmetrical center of external current rail 210 and the unknown vertical distance z0+Δz from external current rail 210 (e.g., in μT).\",\n \"As such, the vertical positioning error may affect the vertical differential Hall signal derived by magnetic current sensor 230.FIG.\",\n \"15 shows an example of a dependency of the vertical differential magnetic field, sensed by primary Hall cells 410 with respect to the vertical positioning error, from Δz=−70.0 μm to Δz=70.0 μm.\",\n \"As shown, as the positioning error (e.g., Δz) moves further from zero, the vertical differential magnetic field (e.g., used to derive the vertical differential Hall signal) may be affected.\",\n \"As shown, if the vertical positioning error is equal to ±65 μm, then the vertical differential magnetic field may be affected (e.g., be increased or be decreased) by approximately ±6.6% (e.g., by increasing from approximately 184 microTeslas/Amp (μT/A) to approximately 196 μT/A or by decreasing from approximately 184 μT/A to approximately 172 μT/A).\",\n \"As shown, the sensitivity error is linear over Δz.\",\n \"Unless a correction is applied in order to compensate for the vertical positioning error, the vertical positioning error will result in a similar decrease in the vertical differential Hall signal derived based on the sensed vertical magnetic field values associated with the vertical differential magnetic field.\",\n \"The signal sensitivity decrease resulting from the vertical positioning error may be compensated for with the inclusion of a set of auxiliary vertical Hall cells 430.In some implementations, the set of auxiliary vertical Hall cells 430 may sense a set of horizontal magnetic field values at locations adjacent to primary Hall cells 410, and the set of horizontal magnetic field values may be used to compensate for the vertical positioning error in the vertical differential Hall signal.\",\n \"A back-bias independent vertical differential Hall field may be determined based on the vertical magnetic field values sensed by primary Hall cells 410 as follow: B z , diff ( 0 , z0 + Δ z ) = B z , left ( 0 , z 0 + Δ z ) - B z , right ( 0 , z 0 + Δ z ) 2 .\",\n \"Additionally, it is possible to determine a magnetic field value that represents the inhomogeneity of the horizontal magnetic field (e.g., Bx,inh(0, z0+Δz)) based on the horizontal magnetic field values sensed by the set of auxiliary vertical Hall cells 430: B x , inh ( 0 , z 0 + Δ z ) = B x , center ( 0 , z 0 + Δ z ) - B x , left ( 0 , z 0 + Δ z ) + B x , right ( 0 , z 0 + Δ z ) 2 ; where Bx,center (0, z0+Δz) represents the horizontal magnetic field value sensed by auxiliary vertical Hall cell 430-3, Bx,left (0, z0+Δz) represents the horizontal magnetic field value sensed by auxiliary vertical Hall cell 430-1, and Bx,right(0, z0+Δz) represents the horizontal magnetic field value sensed by auxiliary vertical Hall cell 430-2.Bx,inh (0, z0+Δz) is also background field compensated, and dependent on Δz (e.g., more so than Bz,diff (0, z0+Δz)).\",\n \"As such, it is possible to determine a linear combination of the two independent magnetic fields that is Δz invariant while remaining proportional to the current passing through external current rail 210: Bcombined(0,z0+Δz)=C×Bz,diff(0,z0+Δz)−Bx,inh(0,z0+Δz)≈Bcombined(0,z0); where Bcombined (0, z0) is a combined magnetic field value that compensate for vertical positioning error Δz, and C is a current rail constant, associated with external current rail 210 and the Hall-cell arrangement, determined based on w, z0, and dT.\",\n \"Notably, in some implementations, the set of auxiliary vertical Hall cells 430 may not include auxiliary vertical Hall cell 430-2 (e.g., shown as optional in FIGS.\",\n \"4B and 4C).\",\n \"In such a case, Bx,inh (0, z0+Δz)) may be determined as follows: Bx,inh′(0,z0+Δz)=Bx,center(0,z0+Δz)−Bx,left(0,z0+Δz).\",\n \"However, by auxiliary vertical Hall cell 430-2, symmetry between the horizontal magnetic field values may be achieved, in addition to additional robustness against horizontal positioning error (e.g., Δx).\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"16 is a graphical representation that shows an example of a combined magnetic field, determined based on a vertical differential magnetic field and a horizontal magnetic field, that is independent of vertical positioning error.\",\n \"As shown, for a vertical positioning error range of ±70 μm, the vertical differential magnetic field (e.g., represented by the line corresponding to “Bz,diff(μT/A)”), may be combined with the horizontal magnetic field value that represents the inhomogeneity of the horizontal magnetic field (e.g., represented by the line corresponding to “Bx,aux(μT/A)”), in order determine a combined magnetic field value (e.g., represented by the line corresponding to “Bcombined (μT/A)”) that has been corrected to compensate for vertical positioning error, and may be used to derive a corrected vertical differential Hall signal).\",\n \"In some implementations, a horizontal differential Hall signal (e.g., Ux,inh) that represents the differential magnetic field value that corresponds to the inhomogeneity of the horizontal magnetic field (e.g., Bx,inh) may be derived in an analog front-end of magnetic current sensor 230 (e.g., similar to the manner in which Uz,diff, corresponding to Bz,diff, is derived, as described above).\",\n \"Magnetic current sensor 230 may then combine the derived Hall signals (e.g., Ux,inh and Uz,diff).\",\n \"In some implementations, magnetic current sensor 230 (e.g., DSP 330) may be designed to combine the derived Hall signals after analog-to-digital conversion is performed on the derived Hall signals (e.g., by ADC 320).\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"17A is a block diagram showing example circuitry associated with combining the derived Hall signals (e.g., the vertical differential Hall signal and the auxiliary horizontal Hall signal), in order to compensate for a vertical positioning error, after analog-to-digital conversion is performed on the derived Hall signals.\",\n \"As shown, analog-to-digital conversion may be separately performed on each derived Hall signal, and the converted derived Hall signals may be combined in the digital domain (e.g., using a geometry dependent EEPROM constant associated with external current rail 210).\",\n \"Alternatively, magnetic current sensor 230 may be designed to combine the derived Hall signals before analog-to-digital conversion is performed on the derived Hall signals.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"17B is a block diagram showing example circuitry associated with combining the derived Hall signals, in order to compensate for a vertical positioning error, before analog-to-digital conversion is performed on the derived Hall signals.\",\n \"As shown, magnetic current sensor 230 may be designed such that the derived Hall signals are combined in the analog domain.\",\n \"Magnetic current sensor 230 (e.g., ADC 320) may then perform analog-to-digital conversion on the combined Hall signal.\",\n \"For example, the derived signals may be combined in the analog domain by implementing a programmable gain amplifier that is configured based on the geometry dependent EEPROM constant (e.g., EEPROM CONST, shown as variation 2).\",\n \"As another example, the derived signals may be combined in the analog domain by implementing a hard wired constant value (e.g., A=2.0, shown as variation 3) when external current rail 210 has a particular geometry to reach a Δz-invariant behavior of 2×Uz,diff−Ux,inh.\",\n \"In some implementations, magnetic current sensor 230 may correct the vertical differential Hall signal for both horizontal positioning error and vertical positioning error (e.g., by implementing auxiliary lateral Hall cell 420, and a set of auxiliary vertical Hall cells 430), as described below with regard to FIGS.\",\n \"18A and 18B.\",\n \"FIGS.\",\n \"18A and 18B are flow charts of an example process 1800 for determining an amount of current, associated with a current passing through a current rail, using a differential Hall signal that has been corrected in order to compensate for a horizontal positioning error and a vertical positioning error associated with attaching a current sensor to the current rail.\",\n \"In some implementations, one or more process blocks of example process 1800 may be performed by magnetic current sensor 230.In some implementations, one or more process blocks may be performed by a device other than magnetic current sensor 230, such as a processor connected to magnetic current sensor 230.As shown in FIG.\",\n \"18A, process 1800 may include sensing a first vertical magnetic field value associated with a magnetic field generated by a current passing through a current rail (block 1805).\",\n \"For example, magnetic current sensor 230 (e.g., primary Hall cell 410-1) may sense a first vertical magnetic field value associated with a magnetic field generated by a current passing through a current rail, as described above.\",\n \"As further shown in FIG.\",\n \"18A, process 1800 may include sensing a second vertical magnetic field value associated with the magnetic field (block 1810).\",\n \"For example, magnetic current sensor 230 (e.g., primary Hall cell 410-2) may sense a second vertical magnetic field value associated with the magnetic field, as described above.\",\n \"As further shown in FIG.\",\n \"18A, process 1800 may include sensing a third vertical magnetic field value associated with the magnetic field (block 1815).\",\n \"For example, magnetic current sensor 230 (e.g., auxiliary lateral Hall cell 420) may sense a third vertical magnetic field value associated with the magnetic field, as described above.\",\n \"As further shown in FIG.\",\n \"18A, process 1800 may include sensing a first horizontal magnetic field value associated with the magnetic field (block 1820).\",\n \"For example, magnetic current sensor 230 (e.g., auxiliary vertical Hall cell 430-1) may sense a first horizontal magnetic field value associated with the magnetic field, as described above.\",\n \"As further shown in FIG.\",\n \"18A, process 1800 may include sensing a second horizontal magnetic field value associated with the magnetic field (block 1825).\",\n \"For example, magnetic current sensor 230 (e.g., auxiliary vertical Hall cell 430-2) may sense a second horizontal magnetic field value associated with the magnetic field, as described above.\",\n \"As further shown in FIG.\",\n \"18A, process 1800 may include sensing a third horizontal magnetic field value associated with the magnetic field (block 1830).\",\n \"For example, magnetic current sensor 230 (e.g., auxiliary vertical Hall cell 430-3) may sense a third horizontal magnetic field value associated with the magnetic field, as described above.\",\n \"As shown in FIG.\",\n \"18B, process 1800 may include deriving a vertical differential Hall signal based on the first vertical magnetic field value and the second vertical magnetic field value (block 1835).\",\n \"For example, magnetic current sensor 230 (e.g., DSP 330, differential Hall component 310, etc.)\",\n \"may derive a vertical differential Hall signal based on the first vertical magnetic field value and the second vertical magnetic field value.\",\n \"In some implementations, magnetic current sensor 230 may derive the vertical differential Hall signal based on providing the first vertical magnetic field value, the second vertical magnetic field value, and a signal conversion factor as inputs to a function that provides, as an output, the vertical differential Hall signal, as described above.\",\n \"As further shown in FIG.\",\n \"18B, process 1800 may include deriving an auxiliary vertical Hall signal based on the third vertical magnetic field value (block 1840).\",\n \"For example, magnetic current sensor 230 (e.g., DSP 330, differential Hall component 310, etc.)\",\n \"may derive an auxiliary vertical Hall signal based on the third vertical magnetic field value.\",\n \"In some implementations, magnetic current sensor 230 may derive the auxiliary vertical Hall signal based on providing the third vertical magnetic field value and a signal conversion factor as inputs to a function that provides, as an output, the auxiliary vertical Hall signal, as described above.\",\n \"As further shown in FIG.\",\n \"18B, process 1800 may include determining a first corrected vertical differential Hall signal based on the vertical differential Hall signal and the auxiliary vertical Hall signal (block 1845).\",\n \"For example, magnetic current sensor 230 (e.g., DSP 330, differential Hall component 310, etc.)\",\n \"may determine a first corrected vertical differential Hall signal based on the vertical differential Hall signal and the auxiliary vertical Hall signal.\",\n \"In some implementations, magnetic current sensor 230 may determine the first corrected vertical differential Hall signal based on providing the vertical differential Hall signal, the auxiliary vertical Hall signal, a set of known current rail constants, and/or a current rail dependent offset (e.g., in the case of an asymmetric external current rail 210) as inputs to a function that provides, as an output, the first corrected vertical differential Hall signal, as described above.\",\n \"Additionally.\",\n \"or alternatively, magnetic current sensor 230 may determine a horizontal positioning error, associated with attaching magnetic current sensor 230 in a position relative to external current rail 210, based on the auxiliary vertical Hall signal and the vertical differential Hall signal, as described above.\",\n \"In some implementations, magnetic current sensor 230 may provide and/or store information associated with the horizontal positioning error.\",\n \"As further shown in FIG.\",\n \"18B, process 1800 may include deriving an auxiliary horizontal Hall signal based on the first horizontal magnetic field value, the second horizontal magnetic field value, and the third horizontal magnetic field value (block 1850).\",\n \"For example, magnetic current sensor 230 (e.g., DSP 330, differential Hall component 310, etc.)\",\n \"may derive an auxiliary horizontal Hall signal based on the first horizontal magnetic field value, the second horizontal magnetic field value, and the third horizontal magnetic field value.\",\n \"In some implementations, magnetic current sensor 230 may derive the auxiliary horizontal Hall signal based on providing the first horizontal magnetic field value, the second horizontal magnetic field value, the third horizontal magnetic field value, and a signal conversion factor as inputs to a function that provides, as an output, the auxiliary horizontal Hall signal, as described above.\",\n \"As further shown in FIG.\",\n \"18B, process 1800 may include determining a second corrected vertical differential Hall signal based on the first corrected vertical differential Hall signal and the auxiliary horizontal Hall signal (block 1855).\",\n \"For example, magnetic current sensor 230 (e.g., DSP 330, differential Hall component 310, etc.)\",\n \"may determine a second corrected vertical differential Hall signal based on the first corrected vertical differential Hall signal and the auxiliary horizontal Hall signal.\",\n \"In some implementations, magnetic current sensor 230 may determine the second corrected vertical differential Hall signal based on providing the first corrected vertical differential Hall signal, the auxiliary horizontal Hall signal, and/or other information as inputs to a function that provides, as an output, the second corrected vertical differential Hall signal, as described above.\",\n \"Additionally, or alternatively, magnetic current sensor 230 may determine a vertical positioning error, associated with attaching magnetic current sensor 230 in a position relative to external current rail 210, based on the auxiliary horizontal Hall signal and the first corrected vertical differential Hall signal, as described above.\",\n \"In some implementations, magnetic current sensor 230 may provide and/or store information associated with the vertical positioning error.\",\n \"As further shown in FIG.\",\n \"18B, process 1800 may include determining an amount of current, associated with the current passing through the current rail, based on the second corrected vertical differential Hall signal (block 1860).\",\n \"For example, magnetic current sensor 230 (e.g., DSP 330, differential Hall component 310, etc.)\",\n \"may determine an amount of current, associated with the current passing through external current rail 210, based on the second corrected vertical differential Hall signal.\",\n \"In some implementations, magnetic current sensor 230 may determine the amount of current based on providing the second corrected vertical differential Hall signal as an input to a function that provides, as an output, the amount of current passing through external current rail 210.In some implementations, current sensor 230 may provide and/or store information that identifies the amount of current.\",\n \"Although FIGS.\",\n \"18A and 18B show example blocks of process 1800, in some implementations, process 1800 may include additional blocks, fewer blocks, different blocks, or differently arranged blocks than those depicted in FIGS.\",\n \"18A and 18B.\",\n \"Additionally.\",\n \"or alternatively, two or more of the blocks of process 1800 may be performed in parallel.\",\n \"Implementations described herein may provide a magnetic current sensor that includes one or more auxiliary Hall cells, positioned with respect to two primary Hall cells, that may sense magnetic field values, associated with a magnetic field generated by a current passing through a current rail.\",\n \"Information associated with the magnetic field values sensed by the one or more auxiliary Hall cells may then be used to correct a differential Hall signal error that arises due to a horizontal positioning error and/or a vertical positioning error associated with attaching the magnetic current sensor in a position relative to the current rail.\",\n \"The foregoing disclosure provides illustration and description, but is not intended to be exhaustive or to limit the implementations to the precise form disclosed.\",\n \"Modifications and variations are possible in light of the above disclosure or may be acquired from practice of the implementations.\",\n \"Even though particular combinations of features are recited in the claims and/or disclosed in the specification, these combinations are not intended to limit the disclosure of possible implementations.\",\n \"In fact, many of these features may be combined in ways not specifically recited in the claims and/or disclosed in the specification.\",\n \"Although each dependent claim listed below may directly depend on only one claim, the disclosure of possible implementations includes each dependent claim in combination with every other claim in the claim set.\",\n \"No element, act, or instruction used herein should be construed as critical or essential unless explicitly described as such.\",\n \"Also, as used herein, the articles “a” and “an” are intended to include one or more items, and may be used interchangeably with “one or more.” Furthermore, as used herein, the term “set” is intended to include one or more items, and may be used interchangeably with “one or more.” Where only one item is intended, the term “one” or similar language is used.\",\n \"Also, as used herein, the terms “has,” “have,” “having.” or the like are intended to be open-ended terms.\",\n \"Further, the phrase “based on” is intended to mean “based, at least in part, on” unless explicitly stated otherwise.\"\n ]\n]"},"source":{"kind":"string","value":"Patent_15875364"}}},{"rowIdx":4494862,"cells":{"text":{"kind":"list like","value":[["Determining Risk Adjustment Payment Information","A computer-implemented method includes receiving member intake information for a member of a health plan including a first set of medical diagnoses; applying one or more targeting rules to the received member intake information; determining a risk score for the member; identifying the member for participation in a health risk assessment; receiving, from a client device used by a health care provider, health risk assessment information that is collected during the health risk assessment that is conducted by the health care provider; retrieving medical diagnosis information that is based on an analysis of the health risk assessment information; and transmitting risk adjustment payment information that is at least partly based on the medical diagnosis information, with the risk adjustment payment information comprising information that promotes determination of a risk adjustment payment."],["1.A computer-implemented method comprising: receiving, by one or more computer systems, member intake information for a member of a health plan including a first set of medical diagnoses; applying one or more targeting rules to the received member intake information; determining, based on application of the one or more targeting rules, a risk score for the member; and identifying, at least partly based on the risk score, the member for participation in a health risk assessment; receiving, from a client device used by a health care provider, health risk assessment information that is collected during the health risk assessment that is conducted by the health care provider; retrieving medical diagnosis information that is based on an analysis of the health risk assessment information, with the medical diagnosis information being indicative of one or more medical diagnoses for the member, with the one or more medical diagnoses being different from the medical diagnoses in the first set included in the member intake information; and transmitting risk adjustment payment information that is at least partly based on the medical diagnosis information, with the risk adjustment payment information comprising information that promotes determination of a risk adjustment payment.","2.The computer-implemented method of claim 1, father comprising: determining, based on the medical diagnosis information, a potential return on investment of the one or more medical diagnoses that are different from the medical diagnoses in the first set.","3.The method of claim 1, further comprising: applying by the one or more computer systems one or more risk adjustment rules to the received health risk assessment information; and determining, based on applying, the one or more medical diagnoses for the member.","4.The method of claim 1, wherein the risk adjustment payment increases an amount of benefits that are paid by the health plan for the member, relative to another amount of benefits that were paid prior to the health risk assessment.","5.The computer-implemented method of claim 1, wherein the paid benefits include Medicare benefits.","6.The computer-implemented method of claim 1, further comprising: scheduling, by the one or more computer systems, an appointment between the health care provider and the member for the health care provider to perform the health risk assessment.","7.The computer-implemented method of claim 6, further comprising: executing a geo-dialing algorithm that causes a call to be placed to the member, wherein a priority order in which the call is placed is in accordance with a distance between a geographic location of the health care provider and a geographic location of the member.","8.The computer-implemented method of claim 1, further comprising: selecting, based on contents of the member intake information, the member to receive an invitation to schedule the health risk assessment; and receiving acceptance information specifying that the member has accepted the invitation to schedule the health risk assessment; wherein identifying the member for participation in the health risk assessment is further based on acceptance by the member of the invitation.","9.The computer-implemented method of claim 1, further comprising: receiving, from a device associated with the health plan, eligibility information that specifies that the member is enrolled in a qualified health plan that entitles the member to the health risk assessment.","10.The computer-implemented of claim 1, further comprising: updating, in a data repository, member state information for the member, with the member state information comprising one or more of: a first eligibility value specifying whether the member is enrolled in a qualified health plan; a second eligibility value specifying whether the member is deceased; a third eligibility value specifying one or more products that the member is eligible to receive; a notification value specifying whether the member is invited to schedule the health risk assessment; a scheduling value specifying whether scheduling of the health risk assessment is in progress; and a health risk assessment value specifying that the health risk assessment is scheduled.","11.The computer-implemented of claim 3, wherein the risk adjustment rules include a mapping of diagnosis information to one or more items of medical information, wherein the diagnosis information comprises information indicative of a diagnosis; and wherein determining the one or more medical diagnoses for the member comprises: identifying that the received health risk assessment information includes an item of medical information included in the mapping; and identifying an item of diagnosis information that is mapped to the item of medical information.","12.The computer-implemented method of claim 11, further comprising: accessing medical code information, with an item of medical code information specifying a medical code that classifies a particular medical diagnosis or an inpatient procedure; identifying, in the medical code information, an item of medical code information that is associated with the identified item of diagnosis information; determining, based on the identified item of medical code information, a medical code that is associated with the identified medical diagnosis; and wherein transmitting the risk adjustment payment information comprises transmitting the determined medical code to a computer system associated with an insurance company.","13.The computer-implemented method of claim 12, wherein the medical code comprises one or more of a diagnosis code, an ICD-9 code and an ICD-10 code.","14.The computer-implemented method of claim 1, wherein the one or more targeting rules comprise an instruction to detect an absence of a keyword, and wherein determining the risk score comprises: determining, based on a detected absence of a keyword specifying completion of the health risk assessment, that the member is due for a health risk assessment; and assigning a value to the risk score based on determining that the member is due for the health risk assessment.","15.The computer-implemented method of claim 1, wherein the member intake information comprises one or more of lab information, pharmacy information, medical record information, medical insurance claim information, and medical diagnosis information.","16.An electronic system comprising: one or more processing devices; and one or more machine-readable hardware storage devices storing instructions that are executable by the one or more processing devices to perform operations comprising: receiving member intake information for a member of a health plan including a first set of medical diagnoses; applying one or more targeting rules to the received member intake information; determining, based on application of the one or more targeting rules, a risk score for the member; and identifying, at least partly based on the risk score, the member for participation in a health risk assessment; receiving, from a client device used by a health care provider, health risk assessment information that is collected during the health risk assessment that is conducted by the health care provider; retrieving medical diagnosis information that is based on an analysis of the health risk assessment information, with the medical diagnosis information being indicative of one or more medical diagnoses for the member, with the one or more medical diagnoses being different from the medical diagnoses in the first set included in the member intake information; and transmitting risk adjustment payment information that is at least partly based on the medical diagnosis information, with the risk adjustment payment information comprising information that promotes determination of a risk adjustment payment.","17.The electronic system of claim 16, wherein the operations further comprise: applying by the one or more computer systems one or more risk adjustment rules to the received health risk assessment information; and determining, based on applying, the one or more medical diagnoses for the member.","18.The electronic system of claim 16, wherein the operations further comprise: executing a geo-dialing algorithm that causes a call to be placed to the member, wherein a priority order in which the call is placed is in accordance with a distance between a geographic location of the health care provider and a geographic location of the member.","19.The electronic system of claim 17, wherein the risk adjustment rules include a mapping of diagnosis information to one or more items of medical information, wherein the diagnosis information comprises information indicative of a diagnosis; and wherein determining the one or more medical diagnoses for the member comprises: identifying that the received health risk assessment information includes an item of medical information included in the mapping; and identifying an item of diagnosis information that is mapped to the item of medical information.","20.The electronic system of claim 19, wherein the operations further comprise: accessing medical code information, with an item of medical code information specifying a medical code that classifies a particular medical diagnosis or an inpatient procedure; identifying, in the medical code information, an item of medical code information that is associated with the identified item of diagnosis information; determining, based on the identified item of medical code information, a medical code that is associated with the identified medical diagnosis; and wherein transmitting the risk adjustment payment information comprises transmitting the determined medical code to a computer system associated with an insurance company.","21.One or more machine-readable hardware storage devices storing instructions that are executable by one or more processing devices to perform operations comprising: receiving member intake information for a member of a health plan including a first set of medical diagnoses; applying one or more targeting rules to the received member intake information; determining, based on application of the one or more targeting rules, a risk score for the member; and identifying, at least partly based on the risk score, the member for participation in a health risk assessment; receiving, from a client device used by a health care provider, health risk assessment information that is collected during the health risk assessment that is conducted by the health care provider; retrieving medical diagnosis information that is based on an analysis of the health risk assessment information, with the medical diagnosis information being indicative of one or more medical diagnoses for the member, with the one or more medical diagnoses being different from the medical diagnoses in the first set included in the member intake information; and transmitting risk adjustment payment information that is at least partly based on the medical diagnosis information, with the risk adjustment payment information comprising information that promotes determination of a risk adjustment payment.","22.The one or more machine-readable hardware storage devices of claim 21, wherein the operations further comprise: executing a geo-dialing algorithm that causes a call to be placed to the member, wherein a priority order in which the call is placed is in accordance with a distance between a geographic location of the health care provider and a geographic location of the member."],[" BACKGROUND A health risk assessment (HRA) includes a collection of (information from individuals that identifies risk factors, provides individualized feedback, and links the person with at least one intervention to promote health, sustain function and/or prevent disease."],[" SUMMARY In general, one innovative aspect of the subject matter described in this specification can be embodied in methods that include the actions of receiving, by one or more computer systems, member intake information for a member of a health plan including a first set of medical diagnoses; applying one or more targeting rules to the received member intake information; determining, based on application of the one or more targeting rules, a risk score for the member; and identifying, at least partly based on the risk score, the member for participation in a health risk assessment; receiving, from a client device used by a health care provider, health risk assessment information that is collected during the health risk assessment that is conducted by the health care provider; retrieving medical diagnosis information that is based on an analysis of the health risk assessment information, with the medical diagnosis information being indicative of one or more medical diagnoses for the member, with the one or more medical diagnoses being different from the medical diagnoses in the first set included in the member intake information; and transmitting risk adjustment payment information that is at least partly based on the medical diagnosis information, with the risk adjustment payment information comprising information that promotes determination of a risk adjustment payment.","Other embodiments of this aspect include corresponding computer systems, apparatus, and computer programs recorded on one or more computer storage devices, each configured to perform the actions of the methods.","A system of one or more computers can be configured to perform particular operations or actions by virtue of having software, firmware, hardware, or a combination of them installed on the system that in operation causes or cause the system to perform the actions.","One or more computer programs can be configured to perform particular operations or actions by virtue of including instructions that, when executed by data processing apparatus, cause the apparatus to perform the actions.","Implementations of the disclosure can include one or more of the following features.","In some implementations, the actions determining, based on the medical diagnosis information, a potential return on investment of the one or more medical diagnoses that are different from the medical diagnoses in the first set.","The actions also include applying by the one or more computer systems one or more risk adjustment rules to the received health risk assessment information; and determining, based on applying, the one or more medical diagnoses for the member.","The risk adjustment payment increases an amount of benefits that are paid by the health plan for the member, relative to another amount of benefits that were paid prior to the health risk assessment.","The paid benefits include Medicare benefits.","The actions include scheduling, by the one or more computer systems, an appointment between the health care provider and the member for the health care provider to perform the health risk assessment.","The actions include executing a geo-dialing algorithm that causes a call to be placed to the member, wherein a priority order in which the call is placed is in accordance with a distance between a geographic location of the health care provider and a geographic location of the member.","The actions include selecting, based on contents of the member intake information, the member to receive an invitation to schedule the health risk assessment; and receiving acceptance information specifying that the member has accepted the invitation to schedule the health risk assessment; wherein identifying the member for participation in the health risk assessment is further based on acceptance by the member of the invitation.","The actions include receiving, from a device associated with the health plan, eligibility information that specifies that the member is enrolled in a qualified health plan that entitles the member to the health risk assessment.","The actions include updating, in a data repository, member state information for the member, with the member state information comprising one or more of: a first eligibility value specifying whether the member is enrolled in a qualified health plan; a second eligibility value specifying whether the member is deceased; a third eligibility value specifying one or more products that the member is eligible to receive; a notification value specifying whether the member is invited to schedule the health risk assessment; a scheduling value specifying whether scheduling of the health risk assessment is in progress; and a health risk assessment value specifying that the health risk assessment is scheduled.","The risk adjustment rules include a mapping of diagnosis information to one or more items of medical information, wherein the diagnosis information comprises information indicative of a diagnosis; and wherein determining the one or more medical diagnoses for the member comprises: identifying that the received health risk assessment information includes an item of medical information included in the mapping; and identifying an item of diagnosis information that is mapped to the item of medical information.","The actions include accessing medical code information, with an item of medical code information specifying a medical code that classifies a particular medical diagnosis or an inpatient procedure; identifying, in the medical code information, an item of medical code information that is associated with the identified item of diagnosis information; determining, based on the identified item of medical code information, a medical code that is associated with the identified medical diagnosis; and wherein transmitting the risk adjustment payment information comprises transmitting the determined medical code to a computer system associated with an insurance company.","The medical code comprises one or more of a diagnosis code, an ICD-9 code and an ICD-10 code.","The one or more targeting rules comprise an instruction to detect an absence of a keyword, and wherein determining the risk score comprises: determining, based on a detected absence of a keyword specifying completion of the health risk assessment, that the member is due for a health risk assessment; and assigning a value to the risk score based on determining that the member is due for the health risk assessment.","The member intake information comprises one or more of lab information, pharmacy information, medical record information, medical insurance claim information, and medical diagnosis information.","All or part of the foregoing may be implemented as a computer program product including instructions that are stored on one or more non-transitory machine-readable storage media and/or one or more machine-readable hardware storages devices that are executable on one or more processing devices.","All or part of the foregoing may be implemented as an apparatus, method, or electronic system that may include one or more processing devices and memory to store executable instructions to implement the stated functions.","The details of one or more embodiments of the subject matter of this specification are set forth in the accompanying drawings and the description below.","Other features, aspects, and advantages of the subject matter will become apparent from the description, the drawings, and the claims."],["CLAIM OF PRIORITY This application is a continuation of and claims priority under 35 U.S.C.","§ 120 to U.S. patent application Ser.","No.","14/142,481, filed Dec. 27, 2013, the entire contents of which is hereby incorporated by reference.","BACKGROUND A health risk assessment (HRA) includes a collection of (information from individuals that identifies risk factors, provides individualized feedback, and links the person with at least one intervention to promote health, sustain function and/or prevent disease.","SUMMARY In general, one innovative aspect of the subject matter described in this specification can be embodied in methods that include the actions of receiving, by one or more computer systems, member intake information for a member of a health plan including a first set of medical diagnoses; applying one or more targeting rules to the received member intake information; determining, based on application of the one or more targeting rules, a risk score for the member; and identifying, at least partly based on the risk score, the member for participation in a health risk assessment; receiving, from a client device used by a health care provider, health risk assessment information that is collected during the health risk assessment that is conducted by the health care provider; retrieving medical diagnosis information that is based on an analysis of the health risk assessment information, with the medical diagnosis information being indicative of one or more medical diagnoses for the member, with the one or more medical diagnoses being different from the medical diagnoses in the first set included in the member intake information; and transmitting risk adjustment payment information that is at least partly based on the medical diagnosis information, with the risk adjustment payment information comprising information that promotes determination of a risk adjustment payment.","Other embodiments of this aspect include corresponding computer systems, apparatus, and computer programs recorded on one or more computer storage devices, each configured to perform the actions of the methods.","A system of one or more computers can be configured to perform particular operations or actions by virtue of having software, firmware, hardware, or a combination of them installed on the system that in operation causes or cause the system to perform the actions.","One or more computer programs can be configured to perform particular operations or actions by virtue of including instructions that, when executed by data processing apparatus, cause the apparatus to perform the actions.","Implementations of the disclosure can include one or more of the following features.","In some implementations, the actions determining, based on the medical diagnosis information, a potential return on investment of the one or more medical diagnoses that are different from the medical diagnoses in the first set.","The actions also include applying by the one or more computer systems one or more risk adjustment rules to the received health risk assessment information; and determining, based on applying, the one or more medical diagnoses for the member.","The risk adjustment payment increases an amount of benefits that are paid by the health plan for the member, relative to another amount of benefits that were paid prior to the health risk assessment.","The paid benefits include Medicare benefits.","The actions include scheduling, by the one or more computer systems, an appointment between the health care provider and the member for the health care provider to perform the health risk assessment.","The actions include executing a geo-dialing algorithm that causes a call to be placed to the member, wherein a priority order in which the call is placed is in accordance with a distance between a geographic location of the health care provider and a geographic location of the member.","The actions include selecting, based on contents of the member intake information, the member to receive an invitation to schedule the health risk assessment; and receiving acceptance information specifying that the member has accepted the invitation to schedule the health risk assessment; wherein identifying the member for participation in the health risk assessment is further based on acceptance by the member of the invitation.","The actions include receiving, from a device associated with the health plan, eligibility information that specifies that the member is enrolled in a qualified health plan that entitles the member to the health risk assessment.","The actions include updating, in a data repository, member state information for the member, with the member state information comprising one or more of: a first eligibility value specifying whether the member is enrolled in a qualified health plan; a second eligibility value specifying whether the member is deceased; a third eligibility value specifying one or more products that the member is eligible to receive; a notification value specifying whether the member is invited to schedule the health risk assessment; a scheduling value specifying whether scheduling of the health risk assessment is in progress; and a health risk assessment value specifying that the health risk assessment is scheduled.","The risk adjustment rules include a mapping of diagnosis information to one or more items of medical information, wherein the diagnosis information comprises information indicative of a diagnosis; and wherein determining the one or more medical diagnoses for the member comprises: identifying that the received health risk assessment information includes an item of medical information included in the mapping; and identifying an item of diagnosis information that is mapped to the item of medical information.","The actions include accessing medical code information, with an item of medical code information specifying a medical code that classifies a particular medical diagnosis or an inpatient procedure; identifying, in the medical code information, an item of medical code information that is associated with the identified item of diagnosis information; determining, based on the identified item of medical code information, a medical code that is associated with the identified medical diagnosis; and wherein transmitting the risk adjustment payment information comprises transmitting the determined medical code to a computer system associated with an insurance company.","The medical code comprises one or more of a diagnosis code, an ICD-9 code and an ICD-10 code.","The one or more targeting rules comprise an instruction to detect an absence of a keyword, and wherein determining the risk score comprises: determining, based on a detected absence of a keyword specifying completion of the health risk assessment, that the member is due for a health risk assessment; and assigning a value to the risk score based on determining that the member is due for the health risk assessment.","The member intake information comprises one or more of lab information, pharmacy information, medical record information, medical insurance claim information, and medical diagnosis information.","All or part of the foregoing may be implemented as a computer program product including instructions that are stored on one or more non-transitory machine-readable storage media and/or one or more machine-readable hardware storages devices that are executable on one or more processing devices.","All or part of the foregoing may be implemented as an apparatus, method, or electronic system that may include one or more processing devices and memory to store executable instructions to implement the stated functions.","The details of one or more embodiments of the subject matter of this specification are set forth in the accompanying drawings and the description below.","Other features, aspects, and advantages of the subject matter will become apparent from the description, the drawings, and the claims.","BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES FIG.","1 is a diagram of an environment for determining risk adjustment payment information.","FIG.","2 is a block diagram of components of the environment for determining risk adjustment payment information.","FIG.","3 is a conceptual diagram of types of information included in a database record for a member.","FIGS.","4A, 4B are flow charts of processes for determining risk adjustment payment information.","FIG.","5A is a conceptual diagram of locations of members and a provider.","FIG.","5B is an example of a schedule.","FIG.","5C is an example of a call queue.","FIGS.","6A-6B, 9 and 10 are flow charts of processes for generating call queues.","FIG.","7 is a flow chart of a process for identifying callable members.","FIG.","8 is a block diagram of components of a call list engine.","DETAILED DESCRIPTION A system consistent with this disclosure determines risk adjustment payment information, including, e.g., information that may be used by health plans (e.g., Medicaid and/or Medicare) in determining risk adjustment payments.","In an example, the risk adjustment payment information may include medical codes that are based on medical diagnoses and/or information indicative of medical diagnoses.","Generally, risk adjustment includes a process of adjusting health plan payments, health care provider payments and/or premiums to reflect the health status of plan members.","In this example, a risk adjustment payment includes an amount by which payments (and/or premiums) are adjusted, e.g., based on an outcome of a risk adjustment process.","Risk adjustment includes risk assessment that assesses the relative risk of each person in a group.","In this risk adjustment stage, the system implements (and/or facilitates implementation of) a health risk assessment (HRA) to assess the health of a member.","Following the risk adjustment stage, the system generates risk adjustment payment information to reflect the determined health risks and that promotes health plan rate adjustment.","In an example, a member is enrolled in a health plan that is part of the Medicare system.","In this example, the system identifies the member as being eligible for an appointment with a health care provider (e.g., a Medicare-covered annual wellness visit, a HRA, and so forth) and facilitates the appointment.","In another example, the system receives, from a health plan, eligibility information that specifies the member as being eligible for an HRA.","The system facilitates the appointment by implementing various processes that promote a health care provider's visitation of the member (e.g., in the member's home) to conduct the HRA.","During the appointment, the health care provider furnishes the member with a HRA to collect health risk assessment information (HRA information).","Generally, HRA information includes information that is collected during a HRA.","The health care provider causes the HRA information to be submitted back to the system.","In an example, the system analyses the HRA information to identify new medical diagnoses for the member.","In another example, the health care provider diagnoses high risk conditions and/or new medical diagnoses of the member and passes this information back to the system.","Using the new identified medical diagnosis, the system determines risk adjustment payment information for the member, e.g., to promote increase in an amount of benefits that are paid by the health plan for the member.","The system determines risk adjustment payment information by identifying additional billing codes that may be used in billing for medical treatments that cover these newly identified medical diagnoses.","These billing codes include National Uniform Billing Committee (NUBC) codes, Medicare codes, Medicaid codes, International Classification of Diseases (ICD) codes (e.g., ICD-9 codes and ICD-10 codes), and so forth.","Referring to FIG.","1, an arrangement 100 for using risk adjustment payment information in adjusting premiums/payments and/or coverage based on risk adjustments includes client devices 106, 112, a system 116 for determining risk adjustment payment information, a data repository 126 and network 110.Client device 112 is associated with a health plan (e.g., an insurance company).","Client device 112 transmits to system 116 (e.g., via network 110) member intake information 114, e.g., including information indicative of a health history of a member.","The member intake information 114 is for a particular member (e.g., member 104).","Member intake information 114 may include information indicative of medical claims that have been submitted for a member, medical reports from laboratories on tests that have been conducted on a member, medications that are being taken for a member, medical records of a member, pharmacy prescriptions, name and residence address information, and so forth.","Member intake information 114 is compliant with the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPPA).","Client device 106 is used by health care provider 102 (e.g., a nurse practitioner).","Health care provider 102 uses client device 106 to view an electronic HRA to ask member 104 questions about the health status of the member 104.As member 104 provides health care provider 102 answers to the questions included in the HRA, health care provider 102 inputs the answers to the questions into client device 106, as at least part of the health risk assessment information 108.Client device 106 transmits to system 116 health risk assessment information 108 that is stored in data repository 126.In an example, health care provider 102 uses the answers to the HRA to identify new medical diagnoses and uses client device 106 to submit these new medical diagnoses to system 116.System 116 includes various engines, e.g., targeting engine 122, electronic data capture (EDC) engine 120, and resource planning and analysis (RPA) engine 124.System 116 executes a call center application 125 that includes a call list engine 127.In the illustrative example of FIG.","1, EDC engine 120 of system 116 receives the health risk assessment information 108 and causes the health risk assessment information 108 to be stored in the data repository 126.Targeting engine 122 determines high risk members who should have an HRA (and/or for another type of appointment such as a Medicare-covered annual wellness visit).","Targeting engine 122 determines member risk at least partly based on application of targeting rules to member intake information 114.Generally, a targeting rule includes one or more instructions for analyzing information.","Based on application of the targeting rules to member intake information 114 for a particular member, targeting engine 122 generates a risk score for the particular member.","When the risk score exceeds a threshold score, targeting engine 122 determines that the member is eligible for the HRA.","The targeting rules include instructions to analyze member intake information 114 (e.g., claims data included in member intake information 114) and to determine when the member's last annual examination occurred.","The targeting rules include instructions that when the last annual examination occurred more than a year ago to assign the member a risk score of seventy-five.","In this example, the threshold score has a value of fifty.","Targeting engine 122 determines that the risk score exceeds the threshold score and that the member is eligible for the HRA.","Targeting is determined (e.g., by targeting engine 122) by a programmatic examination of the prior medical claims, prior prescription claims, and data available from any lab results that have occurred within a certain period of time.","Targeting engine 122 executes a series of rules that examine the data components aggregated (e.g., member intake data) within these data structures and determines a risk level for the member based on the rules embedded within the risk scoring algorithm (and contents of the member intake information).","For example, a member whose claim history indicates they are taking insulin would have a high risk score for diabetes.","In an example, the targeting rules scan the member intake information to detect an absence (or a presence) of a keyword specifying a predefined state or criteria (e.g., completion of the health risk assessment).","The targeting rule is associated with a numeric score, such that detection of the predefined state or criteria assigns the numeric score to be the risk score for the member.","In this example, based on the detected absence, the targeting rules assign the member a risk score that specifies that the member is due for a health risk assessment.","In this example, targeting engine 122 receives member intake information only for eligible members, e.g., members that have been identified by a health plan as being eligible for an HRA.","In still another example, system 116 makes a determination of eligibility.","In this example, system 116 analyses member intake information to determine whether the member is enrolled in a qualified health plan that entitles the member to the HRA and/or to determine that the member is not deceased and has not reached a threshold limit for received benefits.","In this example, system 116 determines that when the risk score exceeds the threshold score and when the member is eligible that the member may be scheduled for an HRA.","Following determination that the member is targeted for an HRA, the RPA engine 124 selects members to receive invitations to schedule HRAs.","The invitations are electronic messages, e.g., sent in the form of e-mails.","Alternatively, the invitations are mailed to residences of members.","Other techniques for sending the invitations can be used.","RPA engine 124 may notify users of system 116 of the selected members and the notified users generate mailings to send to the selected members.","In an example, RPA engine 124 selects members based on the supply (and/or density) of health care providers (e.g., health care providers who are registered or otherwise associated with system 116) in a geographic location in which the member is located.","As discussed above, the member intake information 114 includes information identifying a geographic location of a member (e.g., information specifying a zip code of the member).","In this example, data repository 126 stores information indicative of health care providers who are participating in system 116, including, e.g., information identifying a geographic location of the health care providers.","RPA engine 124 analyses (e.g., compares) the information identifying geographic locations of the health care providers and the information identifying the geographic location of the members to select members to be notified of HRAs in a particular geographic location.","For example, RPA engine 124 may assess that a predefined notification number (e.g., ten) of members in a particular geographic location are notified of the opportunity for a HRA for each health care provider who is also located in that geographic location.","In this example, RPA engine 124 identifies a number of health care providers in a particular geographic location and then multiples the identified number of health care providers by the predefined notification number to determine the number of members to select for invitation in a particular geographic location.","In another example, RPA engine 124 also selects member based on various other factors, including, e.g., various calendar seasons.","For example, members may more positively respond (e.g., higher response rate) in certain seasons than in other seasons.","For example, members may more positively respond to the invitations to schedule the HRA in the spring rather than in the winter.","In this example, RPA engine 124 may be configured to adjust a number of selected members by an adjustment value, e.g., based on the current season.","For example, using the above-described techniques, RPA engine 124 may determine a number of members to select.","In this example, an adjustment value is associated with particular seasons.","If RPA engine 124 determines that a current season matches one of the particular seasons that are associated with the adjustment values, RPA engine 124 adjusts the number of selected members by the adjustment value (e.g., a 25% increase in a number of selected members, a 25% decrease in a number of selected members, and so forth).","In this another example, RPA engine 124 selects members to be notified of the opportunity to schedule HRAs based on availability of the health care providers in a particular geographic location, e.g., in addition to or rather than being based on a number of health care providers in the particular geographic location.","As described in further detail below, data repository 126 maintains schedules for the health care providers who are registered with system 116.These schedules include appointment slots, with an appointment slot being associated with a particular time.","As members schedule appointments, system 116 populates the appointment slots to schedule the appointment.","In this example, RPA engine 124 selects members based on a number of available appointment slots for a particular geographic location.","For example, RPA engine 124 may assess that a predefined available appointment slot notification number (e.g., ten) of members in a particular geographic location are notified of the opportunity for a HRA for each available appointment slot of a health care provider who is also located in that geographic location.","RPA engine 124 identifies a number of available appointment slots for health care providers in a particular geographic location and then multiples the identified number of available appointment slots by the predefined available appointment slot notification number to determine the number of members to select for invitation in a particular geographic location.","In this example, a member (e.g., member 104) accepts the invitation, e.g., by responding to an email and specifying acceptance, by mailing back a postcard, and so forth.","System 116 receives information specifying that member 104 accepts the invitation and saves this received information in data repository 126.For a member who is targeted to receive a HRA, who has been selected by the RPA engine 124 and who accepts the invitation, system 116 executes CCA 125 to promote scheduling of the HRA.","As described in further detail below, CCA 125 includes call list engine 127 that executes various real-time processes to identify an order (e.g., a priority) in which selected members are called to schedule HRAs.","In this example, call list engine 127 generates call queue 129 specifies an order in which members are called to schedule a HRA (e.g., for a particular time slot of a particular provider).","In this example, information identifying member 104 is included in call queue 129.In the example of FIG.","1, a call center agent (not shown) places a call to member 104 and successfully schedules a HRA with provider 102, e.g., in a home of member 104.The call center agent can be a human or a machine, e.g., “robo” calling system.","In response, system 116 updates a schedule of health care provider 102 by populating an appointment slot (e.g., in a schedule of provider 102) with information for member 104 (e.g., an address of member 104 and/or a telephone number of member 104).","At the specified time and date, health care provider 102 performs a HRA on member 104.In this example, health care provider 102 uses client device 106 to view and to access an electronic HRA.","As previously described, health care provider 102 inputs, into client device 106, health risk assessment information 108 that is transmitted to system 116.In this example, health care provider 102 may also identify additional medical diagnoses (e.g., based on results of the HRA) and may send information indicative of these additional medical diagnoses to system 116, e.g., for storage.","In a variation, system 116 applies risk adjustment rules 128 (which are stored in data repository 126) to health risk assessment information 108 to identify a medical diagnosis for member 104.In this example, identified medical diagnosis is a new medical diagnosis, which was previously unidentified in member intake information 114.Generally, a risk adjustment rule includes a mapping of diagnosis information to an item of medical information (e.g., a keyword that is included in medical record).","Generally, diagnosis information includes information indicative of a medical diagnosis.","An example risk adjustment rule is provided in the below Table 1.TABLE 1 Diagnosis information Medical information Throat ulcer Pain in lower throat As shown in the above Table 1, medical information of “pain in lower throat” is associated with a diagnosis of “throat ulcer.” In this example, risk adjustment rules 128 include the risk adjustment rule shown in the above Table 1.System 116 analyses health risk assessment information 108 and detects the words “pain in lower throat” in health risk assessment information 108.Based on execution of risk adjustment rules 128, system 116 determines that the words “pain in lower throat” are associated with (e.g., mapped to) a diagnosis of “throat ulcer.” System 116 also accesses in data repository 126 medical code information (not shown).","An item of medical code information specifies a medical code (e.g., a billing code) that classifies a particular medical diagnosis or inpatient procedure, as shown in the below Table 2.TABLE 2 Medical Code Diagnosis information ICD9-ABC Throat ulcer As shown in the above Table 2, diagnosis information of “throat ulcer” is associated with an “ICD9-ABC” medical code.","Using the accessed medical code information and the identified diagnosis, system 116 determines risk adjustment payment information 130, e.g., based on identification of a new diagnosis in health risk assessment information 108.In an example, risk adjustment payment information 130 may differ from a risk adjustment payment, which is determined by a health plan.","Risk adjustment payment information includes a medical code or other information that assists a health plan in adjusting payments for a member.","Risk adjustment payment information 130 includes the “ICD9-ABC” medical code that is associated with a diagnosis of throat ulcer.","System 116 transmits to a system associated with an insurance company and/or a health plan (e.g., client device 112) risk adjustment payment information 130 that includes medical code information that is indicative of the determined medical code, e.g., to enable the insurance company to use the new medical code in billing (e.g., in billing Medicare or Medicaid) for treatment of the new diagnosis and to enable the member to receive treatment for this new diagnosis.","Data repository also stores member state information 132, including, e.g., information indicative of a state of a member as the member progresses through various states of scheduling a HRA, as described in further detail below.","System 116 also measures a potential return on investment (ROI) of the newly identified diagnosis.","System 116 calculates the ROI by examining the current reimbursement for the member as identified by the health plan and prior RAPs (requests for anticipated payment) and file submissions to CMS (Center for Medicare & Medicaid Services) and determining how much the payment for the member would change if the diagnosis were included in future RAPs submissions for the member in question.","Referring now to FIG.","2, hardware components of the various systems included in arrangement 100 are shown.","In FIG.","2, each of client devices 106, 112 can be any sort of computing device capable of taking input from a user and communicating over network 110 with system 116, other client devices, and/or other systems.","For example, each of client devices 106, 112 can be a mobile device, a desktop computer, a laptop, a cell phone, a smartphone, a tablet, a personal digital assistant (PDA), a server, an embedding computing system, and so forth.","System 116 can be any of a variety of computing devices capable of receiving data, such as a server, a distributed computing system, a desktop computer, a laptop, a cell phone, a rack-mounted server, and so forth.","System 116 may be a single server or a group of servers that are at the same location or at different locations.","The illustrated system 116 can receive data from one or more of client devices 106, 112 via input/output (I/O) interface 200.I/O interface 200 can be any type of interface capable of receiving data over a network, such as an Ethernet interface, a wireless networking interface, a fiber-optic networking interface, a modem, and so forth.","System 116 also includes a processing device 208 and memory 202.A bus system 204, including, for example, a data bus and a motherboard, can be used to establish and to control data communication between the components of system 116.The illustrated processing device 208 may include one or more microprocessors.","Generally, processing device 208 may include any appropriate processor and/or logic that is capable of receiving and storing data, and of communicating over a network (not shown).","Memory 202 can include a hard drive and a random access memory storage device, such as a dynamic random access memory, or other types of machine-readable hardware storage devices.","Memory 202 stores computer programs (not shown) that are executable by processing device 208 to perform the techniques described herein.","Referring now to FIG.","3, diagram 300 includes the various states of scheduling a HRA.","At member state 302, system 116 receives member intake information, e.g., from a health plan.","At member state 302, member state information for the member is updated to include information specifying identifying member information, e.g., a name or a unique member identifier, and also information included in member intake information.","At client eligibility state 304, system 116 receives eligibility information, e.g., from a health plan.","A health plan may determine that a member is eligible for an HRA when the plan provides for an HRA.","In a variation, system determines whether the member is enrolled in a qualified health plan that allows for HRAs or otherwise allows for annual visits.","If the member is not enrolled in a qualified health, system 116 specifies that the member is not eligible for a HRA and updates the member state information to reflect this ineligibility.","If the member is client eligible, system 116 updates member state information to reflect this eligibility.","At system eligibility state 306 (which is implemented by targeting engine 122), system 116 determines whether the member is not deceased and has not reached a threshold amount of received benefits.","If the member does not satisfy these system eligibility criteria, system 116 specifies that the member is not selected eligible for a HRA and updates the member state information to reflect this.","If the member does satisfy these system eligibility criteria, system 116 updates the member state information to reflect this eligibility and system 116 determines whether the member is home eligible, e.g., meaning whether the member is targeted for an in-home HRA.","At this home eligibility state 308, system 116 determines whether the user is eligible for an in-home HRA, e.g., based on whether the targeting rules specify that the member is a high risk member, based on benefits of the member's health plan, based on date of last HRA, and so forth.","If the member is eligible for an in-home HRA, member state information for the member is updated to reflect this eligibility.","At mailing state 310, member state information is updated with information specifying that a member is notified of the opportunity to schedule a HRA.","At scheduling in progress state 312, member state information is updated to reflect that system 116 is attempting to schedule a HRA with the member.","Member state information is also updated to reflect soft decline state 314, e.g., a member has declined the HRA but has asked to be contacted later.","Member state information is also updated (e.g., by system 116) to include HRA home scheduled state 316, e.g., information specifying that a HRA is scheduled.","Member state information is updated to include complete visit state 318, e.g., information specifying completion of a HRA.","At each of the states 302-318, member state information is updated by system 116 to reflect a state (e.g., status) of a member.","Referring to FIG.","4A, system 116 implements process 400 in determining risk adjustment payment information.","In operation, system receives (402) member intake information for a member of a health plan.","System 116 determines (not shown) that the member is eligible for a HRA and selects the member to be notified of the opportunity to schedule the HRA.","System 116 receives information specifying that the member accepts the invitation to schedule the HRA.","In response, system 116 schedules (404) an appointment between a health care provider and the member for the health care provider to perform a health risk assessment, as described in further detail below.","As described in further detail below, once the member accepts the invitation and indicates that the member wants to schedule a HRA, system 116 updates a data record of the member (e.g., a profile of the member or member state information) as being a callable member.","The data record of the member also includes a geocode for a residence of the member or other information identifying a geographic location of the member.","In an example, system 116 performs scheduling for various providers.","When system 116 does scheduling for a provider (e.g., to schedule available time slots for a provider), system 116 queries data repository 126 for a list of callable members and/or for a list of callable members who are located in proximity to the provider (e.g., with a specified distance from the provider).","As described in further detail below, system 116 executes a geo-dialing algorithm to schedule the available time slots in a manner than decreases an amount of travel by the service provider between various locations in which the HRAs are conducted.","System 116 receives (406), from a client device used by the health care provider, health risk assessment information that is collected during the health risk assessment.","System 116 applies (408) one or more risk adjustment rules to the received health risk assessment information.","System 116 identifies (410) a medical diagnosis for the member, with the identified medical diagnosis being unidentified in the member intake information.","System 116 determines (412), based on the identified medical diagnosis, risk adjustment payment information that promotes an adjustment by a health plan in health payments, e.g., to increase an amount of benefits that are paid by the health plan for the member, relative to another amount of benefits that were paid prior to the health risk assessment.","The risk adjustment payment information includes an additional billing code that may be used in billing for health services that are provided to the member.","Referring to FIG.","4B, system 116 implements process 450 in generating risk adjustment payment information.","In operation, system 116 receives (452) member intake information for a member of a health plan including a first set of medical diagnoses.","System 116 applies (454) one or more targeting rules to the received member intake information.","System 116 determines (not shown), based on application of the one or more targeting rules, a risk score for the member.","System 116 selects (e.g., identifies) (456), at least partly based on the risk score, the member for participation in a health risk assessment.","System 116 receives, from a client device used by a health care provider, health risk assessment information that is collected during the health risk assessment that is conducted by the health care provider.","System 116 retrieves (460) medical diagnosis information that is based on an analysis of the health risk assessment information, with the medical diagnosis information being indicative of one or more medical diagnoses for the member, with the one or more medical diagnoses being different from the medical diagnoses in the first set included in the member intake information.","System 116 retrieves the medical diagnosis information from data repository 126.A health care provider identifies the medical diagnoses and uses a client device to transmit the identified medical diagnoses to system 116 for storage in data repository 126.System 116 generates (462) risk adjustment payment information, e.g., identifying billing codes that are relevance to the new medical diagnoses.","System 116 transmits (e.g., to a health plan) the risk adjustment payment information that is at least partly based on the medical diagnosis information, with the risk adjustment payment information comprising information that promotes determination of a risk adjustment payment.","The scheduling of appointments is based on provider availability and based on an assignment of a health care provider to a particular geographic zone.","Generally, a geographic zone includes a specified geographic area.","Referring to FIG.","5A, diagram 500 shows a boundary 502 that is representative of the geographic boundary of a specified geographic location (e.g., a state).","In this example, member visual representations 504, 506, 508, 510, 512, 514, 516, 518, 520, and 524 represent members to be scheduled for HRAs, e.g., callable members, a health care provider is represented by visual representation 538 and geographic zones, e.g., 526, 528, 530, 532, and 534 circumscribe several of the member visual representations, and are zones assigned to health care provider 538 by system 116.Generally, a callable member includes a member who is a candidate to be called to schedule a HRA.","Is this example, locations of each of member visual representations 504, 506, 508, 510, 512, 514, 516, 518, 520, and 524 are positioned in boundary 502 in accordance with actual geographic locations of the members (represented by member visual representations 504, 506, 508, 510, 512, 514, 516, 518, 520, and 524).","For example, member visual representation 504 specifies a geographic location of a residence of a member (represented by member visual representation 504) in the state (represented by boundary 502).","Member visual representation 522 represents a member who is already scheduled for a HRA with health care provider 538.The location of health care provider 538 in boundary 502 reflects a geographic location (e.g., a starting location) of the health care provider 538 in the state.","Members represented by member visual representations 504, 506, 508, 510, 512 are members of a health plan (“health plan A”).","Members represented by member visual representations 514, 516, 518, 250, 522, 524 are members of another health plan (“health plan B”).","Health care provider 538 provides medical services to members in the state according to the system 116 assigned geographic zones 526, 528, 530, 532, 534.Generally, a geographic zone specifies an area or a region in which system 116 has specified that a health care provider may perform HRAs, e.g., to promote an even distributions of health care providers across a geographic region and/or state.","System 116 also assigns radial distance 536 to health care provider 538, e.g., to reduce travel time between HRAs and to promote efficient travels between locations for performance of HRAs.","With the system 116 assigned radial distances, health care provider 538 generally will not travel to a member that is further away than radial distance 536, for the health care provider even if the member is otherwise in an assigned zone of health care provider 538.Referring now to FIG.","5B, system 116 retrieves, from data repository 126, schedule 540 for health care provider 538.Schedule 540 includes time slots 542, 544, 546.Time slot 544 is already scheduled for member 522.Time slots 542, 546 are empty and are available to be scheduled.","To populate (i.e., schedule) time slot 542, system 116 retrieves a list of callable members for health care provider 538.In this example, the callable members include members who are geographically located in a same region (e.g., state) as health care provider 538 and who have accepted the invitation to schedule the HRA.","System 116 filters the callable members list by excluding those members who are located outside of zones 526, 528, 530, 532, 534.The excluded members include the members who are represented by member visualization 508, 512, 514, 520.System 116 can further filter the callable members by removing those members who are located at a distance that is beyond radial distance 536, e.g., even if those members are otherwise within a zone of provider 538.In this example, system 116 further removes members represented by member visual representations 504, 516, 512, as those members are located beyond radial distance 536.For the remaining callable members, system 116 determines health plans of those callable members and determines whether health care provider 538 is credentialed with those various plans.","For plans for which provider 538 is not credentialed, members associated with those plans are also removed from the list of callable members for provider 538.In the example of FIG.","5A, provider 538 is credentialed with both health plans A and B.","Referring to FIG.","5C, system 116 generates queue 554 for slot 542 to populate time slot 542 in schedule 540.Queue 554 specifies an order in which callable members are called to fill slot 542.In this example, slot 542 is the first appointment of the day for provider 538.System 116 retrieves, from data repository 126, information indicative of a starting geographic location of provider 538.The starting location may include a location of a residence of provider 538, a location of an office of a provider 538, and so forth.","The information indicative of the starting geographic location includes a geocode of the starting location.","System 116 also retrieves, from data repository 126, geocodes of each of the call members (e.g., the members who remain on the filtered list of call members).","Using the geocodes, system 116 executes a geo-dialing algorithm that calculates a distance (e.g., a straight-line distance) between provider 538 and each of the callable members.","System 116 determines that the member associated with member visual representation 510 is the closest to the starting location of provider 538 (e.g., the distance between provider 538 and the member associated with member visual representation 510 is the shortest, relative to distances between provider 538 and other callable members).","System 116 places information indicative of the member associated with member visual representation 510 first in the queue 554, e.g., to specify that a call center agent calls this member 510 first in an attempt to schedule slot 542.System 116 determines that the member associated with member visual representation 518 is the second closest to the starting location of provider 538 (e.g., the distance between provider 538 and the member associated with member visual representation 518 is the second shortest).","System 116 places information indicative of the member associated with member visual representation 518 second in the queue, e.g., to specify that a call center agent calls this member second in an attempt to schedule slot 542—when the member to be called first does not answer or refuses to schedule an appointment.","System 116 determines that the member associated with member visual representation 524 is the third closest to the starting location of provider 538 (e.g., the distance between provider 538 and the member associated with member visual representation 524 is the third shortest).","System 116 places information indicative of the member associated with member visual representation 524 third in the queue, e.g., to specify that a call center agent calls (and/or that system 116 causes a call to be placed to) this member third in an attempt to schedule slot 542.System 116 determines that the member associated with member visual representation 506 is the farthest away from the starting location of provider 538 (e.g., the distance between provider 538 and the member associated with member visual representation 506 is the farthest, e.g., relative to distanced between provider 538 and other callable members).","System 116 places information indicative of the member associated with member visual representation 506 last in the queue, e.g., to specify that a call center agent calls this member last in an attempt to schedule slot 542, when the other members refuse to answer or decline scheduling an appointment.","The first member from queue 554 to agree to schedule an appointment is scheduled in slot 542.In the example of FIG.","5B, slot 544 is already scheduled.","In a variation of FIG.","5B, slot 544 is not scheduled.","In this variation, system 116 repeats the above-described actions to schedule slot 544 using a geographic location at which the HRA scheduled for slot 542 takes place as the starting location.","System 116 also repeats the above-described actions to populate slot 546, using the location of the member represented by member visual representation 522 as the starting location and excluding any members who are located more than the radial distance 536 from the original starting location of provider 538.Referring to FIG.","6A, system 116 implements process 600 in generating a call queue.","In operation, system 116 accesses (602) a schedule of a provider.","System 116 identifies (604) an available time slot in the schedule.","For the identified time slot, system 116 identifies (606) callable members.","System 116 identifies callable members by identifying members who are located in a same geographic region (e.g., city, state or county) as the provider.","The identification of callable members is described in further detail below.","For one or more of the identified callable members, system 116 uses geocodes of the members and geocode of the provider (e.g., a geocode of a starting location of the provider, a geocode of a location of a scheduled appointment of the provider, and so forth) to compute (608) distances between geographic locations of the members and a geographic location of the provider.","System 116 applies (610) an offset (if any) to the computed distances.","Offsets are described in further detail below.","System 116 selects (612) information indicative of a member with a decreased amount of distance to a geographic location of the provider, e.g., relative to other amounts of distances of other members to the provider.","System 116 populates (614) a call queue with information indicative of the selected member.","System 116 populates the call queue such that other members with decreased distances are ranked above the selected member and still other members with increased distances are ranked below the selected member.","System 116 determines (616) if the call queue is full.","System 116 specifies a predefined number of slots in the call queue.","If the call queue is not full, system 116 repeats actions 612, 614, 616, e.g., until the call queue is full.","If the call queue is full, system 116 assigns (618) the call queue (for the particular time slot for the particular provider) to a call list for a call center agent.","A call list includes an aggregation of various call queues for various time slots to be filled.","The call list may include call queues for various different providers.","The order in which call queues are arranged within a call list may be based on appointment date, e.g., with call queues for more imminent time slots being ranked above other call queues for time slots that are occurring at a later point in time.","Referring to FIG.","6B, system 116 implements process 620 in scheduling time slots.","In operation, system 116 causes (622) a call to be placed to a member who is specified in a queue.","In this example, system 116 includes automatic dialing software to cause a call to be placed to a member (e.g., at a telephone number associated with the member).","System 116 receives (624) information indicative of acceptance to schedule the HRA.","In this example, the call center agent transmits to system 116 information specifying which member has scheduled an appointment for which time slot.","System 116 populates (626) the time slot, for which the member accepts the HRA, with information identifying the member, e.g., information specifying a name of the member, a geographic location of the member, and so forth.","System 116 also updates (638) a starting location of the provider to be the geographic location of the scheduled time slot, e.g., that was scheduled via action 626.System 116 selects a next, available time slot in the schedule of the service provider and repeats actions 406, 408, 410, 412 (FIG.","6A) using the updated starting location (the geographic location of the scheduled time slot that was scheduled via action 626).","In an example, call list engine 127 implements process 700 in identifying information indicative of callable members for use in calling members for scheduling of appointments, e.g., on a daily and/or hourly basis.","In operation, call list engine 127 identifies (702) members that have a notification status (e.g., a mailing status) within a predetermined time period (e.g., the beginning of a year).","As previously described, system 116 may send out notification messages to various members to invite them to participate in a health risk assessment.","The members who are notified within the predefined time period are included in an initial list of members to consider for calling.","Call list engine 127 also filters (704) members who are included in the initial list.","For example, call list engine 127 excludes member that have had a completed visit disposition within a predefined time period (e.g., in the last 180 days, in the current year, and so forth).","Call list engine 127 also excludes members that have an active scheduled visit appointment with a date in future or past.","Call list engine 127 also excludes members that do not have a valid format phone number (e.g., not in 10 digit format).","Call list engine 127 also excludes members that have one or more of the following as a disposition status since the latest notification date, e.g., a disposition status of declined, a disposition status of deceased, a disposition status of customer excluded, a disposition status of are in pending verification status, a disposition status of requested remove from call list, a disposition status of having recently declined an invitation (e.g., in the last 60 days), a disposition status of having exceeded a maximum call limit since last notification and/or scheduled visit, a disposition status of having a telephone with a busy signal more than predetermined number of times, a disposition status of a non-busy answer (no answer, left message, and so forth) more than a predetermined number of times, a disposition status of not being eligible for a health risk assessment, and so forth.","In the example of FIG.","7, call list engine 127 compares the filtered members to members who are already in a list of callable members to determine (705) if a member is already in the list of callable members.","If the member is already in the list of callable members, call list engine 127 updates (706) an eligibility status of the member (in member state information to indicate that the member is eligible for a HRA), if necessary.","If the existing data record for the member specifies that the member is ineligible for an HRA and the new callable member list includes the member, the existing record is updated to reflect a status of eligible for a HRA.","If the member is not already in the list of callable members, call list engine 127 updates (708) the list of callable members by adding the member to the list of callable members.","In an example, CCA 125 includes call list engine 127 which provides a periodic (e.g., continuous) feed to outbound call agents to reach out to the member for scheduling a visit with a recommended best slot in order to achieve a better health care provider (e.g., a nurse practitioner) utilization and driving route to visit the members.","In an example, the call list engine 127 randomly calls members.","In this example, the member to be called for a certain slot for a health care provider is randomly picked (e.g., by the call list engine 127) to distribute the calls evenly across the booking window.","The call list engine 127 also is configured to take into account the fact that the availability of health care providers change.","To capture the latest health care provider availabilities, call list engine 127 provides availability overrides to perform the calendar slots adjustment, creating new calendar slots if the availabilities increased or deleting the calendar slots if the availabilities decreased.","If the calendar slot is deleted, the associated already scheduled visits are marked as “pending” by call list engine 127 to require an action to cancel, reschedule or “leave it as is”.","As shown in the below Table 3, a slot in a schedule (e.g., slot 542 in schedule 540 in FIG.","5B) is associated in data repository 126 with a data record that specifies “calendar slot status type,” including, e.g., information indicative of a state of a particular slot.","There are various types of calendar slot status types, including, e.g., an active type and a deleted type.","In an active type, the slot is available to be scheduled with an appointment and system 116 executes the geo-dialing algorithm to schedule the appointment.","In a deleted type, the slot is not available for appointments and appointments that have already been scheduled for that slot are rescheduled or cancelled.","TABLE 3 Calendar slot status type Active Deleted As shown in the below Table 4, when a member schedules an HRA, member state information (and/or other data records stored in data repository 126) is updated with scheduled visit status type, e.g., information indicative of a state of scheduled visits.","There are various scheduled visit status types, including, e.g., a status type of scheduled and a status type of pending.","A status type of pending requires system 116 to perform an action for the appointment, e.g., canceling the appointment, re-scheduling the appointment, and leaving the appointment as is.","TABLE 4 Scheduled visit status type Scheduled Pending (Cancel, Re-schedule, Leave as is) Call list engine 127 also enables changes to start locations and zone coverages.","To capture the updated health care provide start locations and zone coverages, which will impact the already scheduled visits when a health care provider is no longer in that area for the target scheduled date.","These already scheduled visits will be marked as pending as health care provider start locations and zone coverages are modified.","Call list engine 127 also accounts for overbooking.","The overbooking occurs in various forms due to multiple scheduling systems, e.g., with thirty minutes sync periods among these systems.","In this example, each system does not know an occurrence of overbooking while scheduling a visit due to the availabilities on their local environments until the sync occurs among the multiple systems, e.g., when system 116 includes a distributed computing environment with numerous, different CCAs 125 and call list engines 127.Call list engine 127 schedules a batch sync operation (e.g., an operation to sync scheduled appointment slots), e.g., to capture the overbooking based on the latest availabilities.","If the total utilized calendar slots exceed the total availabilities, call list engine 127 marks the most recently generated scheduled visits as the overbooking visits.","In this case, an overbooked visit is updated to have a pending scheduled visit status type and a deleted calendar slot status type.","In this example, when a member is scheduled for a health risk assessment, member state information for the member is updated.","When a member is scheduled for a health risk assessment, a slot in a calendar or a schedule is also updated, e.g., via the calendar slot status type.","When a member is scheduled for a health risk assessment, the scheduled visit status type for the member is also updated In an example, call list engine 127 is configured to generate a report (e.g., from records stored in data repository 126) to select the “pending” scheduled visit status types in order to generate a notification (e.g., for a user of system 116) to require one or more of the following actions, e.g., a cancel action, a rescheduled action and a leave it as is action.","These actions promote a user to take action with regarding to overbooking.","A cancel action is to cancel scheduled visits and to release the calendar slot if it is not marked as deleted.","A rescheduled action is to reschedule scheduled visits and release the calendar slot if it is not marked as rescheduled.","A leave it as is action specifies that no action is required and the scheduled visits will remain as valid scheduled visits.","In an example, call list engine 127 is configurable to specify a number of days (e.g., a maximum) until the schedule is generated (e.g., “max days to schedule”).","In an example, the health care provider calendar slots (e.g., slots in a calendar) are generated for a predefined number of days (e.g., next 10 days) and members can be scheduled for that period.","In another example, the number of days is configurable and may be modified dynamically.","In this example, if the number of days is increased, call list engine 127 generates the calendar slots for the additional days and assigns members to contact for those new slots to a call queue to promote scheduling of these new slots.","If the number of days is reduced, call list engine 127 leaves scheduled appointments unchanged in the days that are removed and also keeps the slots for those days.","In this example, call list engine 127 adjusts the call queue to present slots within the updated “max days to schedule”.","Call list engine 127 is also configured to adjust client priority (e.g., priority with which members are called to schedule health risk assessments) by mileage and/or by density.","In an example, call list engine 127 determines a priority of members to call based on the shortest distance between a geographic location of the health care provider and geographic locations of members.","In this example, to increase a priority for calling a particular member, a distance offset is applied to the distance between the geographic location of the health care provider and the geographic location of the particular member, with the distance offset decreasing the distance, which in turn increases a priority with which the particular member is called.","For example, the members for a higher priority client (e.g., insurance company) in a particular state are called first provided the distance is within a particular limit (e.g., radial distance for a provider).","The adjusted distance is actual distance +/−an offset depending on client and member state.","Call list engine 127 prevents multiple users calling for same calendar slot.","In an example, call list engine 127 limits a number of members being called for a specific slot to a value of one or a configurable value.","Call list engine 127 enables deactivation of a value specifying that health risk assessments may be scheduled with a particular health care provider.","Call list engine 127 may do so to concentrate scheduling of appointments with other health care providers and to prevent the scheduling of appointments with certain other health care providers.","The deactivated health care providers are not considered by the call list engine 127 for outbound users, e.g., call agents who are making or otherwise participating in calls with members.","However, inbound users (e.g., members) are able to view availability and book scheduled visits for the deactivated health care providers.","Referring to FIG.","8 component architecture 800 of call list engine 127 is shown.","In this example, call list engine includes a prepare callable members list component 802 that includes instructions to execute a scheduled (e.g., daily) job to identify callable members, as well as retrieve from data repository 126 information indicative of supported geographic zones, health care provider calendars, and start locations of the health care providers.","The job can also be scheduled to run multiple times daily or executed on an ad hoc basis to address any urgent need for callable members.","Call list engine 127 includes build call queue component 804 that includes instructions to execute a job that is scheduled to run at predefined times (e.g., every minute) during call center operation hours in order to build the call queue for each logged in outbound user (e.g., a call agent) for fetching next member to reach out to.","Call list engine 127 includes fetch and process component 806 that includes a user interface (UI) application to fetch (e.g., retrieve) the member from the top of a call queue and try to reach out (e.g., call) for scheduling a visit.","The prepare callable members list component 802 includes processes 808, 810, 812 that can be run independently of each other and more frequently as following.","Daily load process 808 is executed at predefined times (e.g., daily) and generates a healthcare provider calendar (e.g., calendar with slots for the scheduling of health risk assessment).","Load process 808 also executes load callable members process 810 and health care provider sync process 812.In this example, health care provider sync process 812 performs a synchronization of the geographic zones and the health care provider start location and zone coverage, e.g., to re-evaluate the existing calendar slots and already scheduled visits.","As health care provider start locations and availability may change during the day, health care provider sync process 812 may be run more often, scheduled or on demand.","In an example, this process is based on the latest health care provider availabilities/availability overrides and the start location to perform the calendar slots and already scheduled visits adjustment.","If some calendar slots are no longer available, the associated scheduled visits are marked as pending to require the system 116 to take an action (e.g., cancel, reschedule, or leave it as it.","As previously described, the health care provider sync process 812 performs the adjustment of calendar slots and already scheduled visits due to the changes in health care provider availabilities and start location.","In this example, health care provider sync process 812 adjusts the calendar slots based on the latest availabilities and overrides, e.g., when slots increased, add new calendar slots and when slots decreased, remove the extra calendar slots that have open status by updating them to delete status.","If open calendar slots have been consumed, then mark the already scheduled visits as pending status and calendar as delete status.","Pending scheduled visits with deleted calendar slots are the overbooking (e.g., the overbooked slots).","The health care provider sync process 812 adjusts already scheduled visits due to the change of health care provider start location and zone coverage In this example, the load callable members process 810 loads the callable members into the call member list.","The load callable members process 810 is included in load process 808 and can be executed on demand if the amount of callable members is low and needs to be refilled.","Process 808 loads callable members into a list and also populate sa call member details table (e.g., a table for storage and display of member information to assist an agent in calling a member to schedule a health risk assessment) with member demographic, address and phone information.","The call member details table is updated for members with newer data and also new records are inserted.","Referring to FIG.","9 operations included in load callable members process 810 are shown.","In an example, call list engine 127 loads (902) callable members into a queue or a list and also populates a call member details table (e.g., a table for storage and display of member information to assist an agent in calling a member to schedule a health risk assessment) with member demographic, address and phone information.","The call member details table is updated for members with newer data and also new records are inserted.","Call list engine 127 also initializes (904) and/or re-initializes a list status for each member in order to re-evaluate the member demographics information.","In an example, a list status has a value of “complete” if a member is associated with a scheduled status (e.g., a value specifying that the member has successfully scheduled an appointment).","In this example, a member with a queue list of complete is deleted from the callable members list or otherwise not called.","As described herein, the callable members list may be different from a call scheduled visits table that includes information indicative of statuses of scheduled appointments and visits.","In another example, a list status has a value of “incomplete” if a member has not yet been successfully scheduled for an appointment.","Members with incomplete statuses remain on the callable members list.","Call list engine 127 determines (906) a distance from a geographic location of a member to a health care provider start location.","This action is to determine health care providers who can visit the target members (from members represented in the call list) based on the zip code of members and based on zone linkage (e.g., whether a health care provider is assigned to a zone that encompasses a geographic location of a member) and to calculate the distance (between a geographic location of a health care provider and a geographic location of a member) in order to select a member that is geographically located closest to the provider.","Call list engine 127 also determines (908) a distance from member to member.","In action 908, call list engine 127 determines already scheduled members who can be considered to be in the same route with the target members (from the callable members that are loaded into the call queue.)","In an example, for each targeted callable member, call list engine 127 calculates a distance between a geographic location of a targeted callable member and a geographic location of a scheduled member (who is already scheduled for an appointment in a calendar).","In this example, if a member already has a scheduled appointment with a health care provider, for appointments that are subsequent to this scheduled appointment, the starting location of health care provider is the geographic location of this scheduled appointment.","Accordingly, in generating the call queue, call list engine 127 determines targeted members with shortest distances to geographic locations of scheduled appointments.","In an example, call list engine 127 also validates (910) the phone number of the member by confirming that the phone number includes a specified number of digits.","Call list engine 127 also determines (912) whether target members on the callable member list are in co-habitation arrangements.","To make this determination, call list engine 127 removes the suffix in a last name of a member (e.g., in the member details table described above).","Call list engine 127 identifies cohabitation relationships by detecting in the member details table entries with a same last name, a same telephone number and/or a same geographic location (which may be identified by a geocode).","Generally, a geocode includes information indicative of geographic coordinates (often expressed as latitude and longitude) that are derived from other geographic data (e.g., a street name and city).","For members that are in a cohabitation relationship, call list engine 127 schedules appointments for these members in a same time slot.","Call list engine 127 also sets (914) a status of the callable member list to be “ready,” e.g., when the callable member list is ready to be used in generating the call queue.","In this example, upon completion of load callable members, call list engine 127 generates for a particular health care provider a list of eligible members who are within a geographic zone that is assigned to the particular health care provider and who are also eligible for a health risk assessment.","In this example, the particular health care provider is associated with a schedule that includes a plurality of time slots.","In this example, at least some of the time slots are already scheduled.","To promote scheduling of new appointments that are in proximity to already scheduled appointments, call list engine 127 computes distances between geographic locations of callable members and the geographic location of a member who is already scheduled for an appointment.","Referring to FIG.","10 various actions that are executed as part of process 804 for generating a call queue, e.g., using the list of callable members are shown.","As previously described, the build call queue process 804 generates a queue of members to call for particular slots within a schedule, e.g., by presenting slots within a “max days to schedule”.","In the example of FIG.","10, call list engine 127 removes (1102) members from the call queue, if an identified slot (e.g., a best slot for those members) is no longer available.","Generally, a best slot includes a slot in a schedule for which a member has been identified as being a candidate for being scheduled for an appointment for that slot, e.g., based on distance between a geographic location of the member and a geographic location of an appointment that is scheduled for a time prior to the time associated with the slot.","Information indicative of these members are placed in the list of callable members and is re-evaluated by the build call queue process 804 again to determine the best slot.","Call list engine 127 also retrieves (1104) a list of logged in outbound users, e.g., to identify logged in outbound users.","An outbound user includes an agent at a call center.","In this example, call list engine 127 also retrieves, e.g., from data repository 126, information indicative of a count of empty call slots in each logged in user's call queue to be filled.","For a call agent, the agent has a specified number of call slots indicative of calls to be made while the agent is working.","In this example, an outbound agent includes an individual at a call center (or other operation) who places calls to members to promote scheduling of appointments.","A user is associated with a particular call queue (or call list), e.g., a listing of members to call for particular slots in schedules of a particular health care provider.","In an example, a call queue may already be partially populated, e.g., based on a prior execution of build call queue process 804.A call queue may also include empty slots, e.g., when a member that was previously identified as a candidate for calling becomes ineligible for a health risk assessment or is otherwise removed from the call queue, as shown in the below Table 4.TABLE 4 SCHEDULE PROVIDER CALL QUEUE DATE TIME SLOT Call queue slot Members to call Oct. 1, 2013 1 PM 1 Member ID 1234 Member ID 1235 Member ID 1236 [EMPTY] 2 PM 2 Member ID 2234 Member ID 2235 Member ID 2236 [EMPTY] As shown in the above Table 4, a schedule (e.g., for a particular health care provider), includes various time slots (e.g., a 1 pm time slot and a 2 pm time slot) for a particular date (e.g., Oct. 1, 2013).","In this example, a call queue (e.g., a provider call queue) is also associated with call queue slots.","In this example, call list engine 127 assigns a time slot in the schedule to a call queue slot in the call queue.","For a call queue slot, call list engine 127 identifies various members to call, e.g., using the techniques described herein.","In the example shown above, the 1 pm time slot is assigned the first slot in the call queue.","In this example, call list engine 127 has identified various members to be called to schedule appointments, e.g., these members include members who are identifiable by various member IDs (e.g., member IDs 1234, 1235, 1236).","In this example, the first call queue slot includes an empty slot.","Using the techniques described herein, call list engine 127 executes various processes to fill the empty slot.","In some example, a particular slot in a call queue may be entirely empty (e.g., when no members have been identified to be called for that slot).","In an example, call list engine 127 may also generate a multi-provider call queue, when a call agent schedules appointments for multiple, different providers, e.g., rather than scheduling appointments for a particular provider.","An example of a multi-provider call queue is provided in the below Table 5: TABLE 5 SCHEDULE MULTI-PROVIDER DATE AND TIME CALL QUEUE PROVIDER ID SLOT Call queue slot Members to call Oct. 1, 2013 for Provider 1 PM 1 Member ID 1234 ID: 1245 Member ID 1235 Member ID 1236 [EMPTY] Oct. 1, 2013 for Provider 1 PM 2 Member ID 2234 ID: 1246 Member ID 2235 Member ID 2236 [EMPTY] Not yet assigned Not yet 3 EMPTY assigned As shown in the above Table 5, the multi-provider call queue also includes various slots to be filled for various different providers, e.g., a provider identified by provider ID 1245 and a provider identified by provider ID 1246.In this example of Table 5, the first slot in the multi-provider call queue is for the provider identified by provider ID 1245 and the second slot in the multi-provider call queue is for the provider identified by provider ID 1246.Within each slot in the call queue, the members to be called to schedule an appointment for a particular time slot are prioritized, e.g., based on distance between a geographic location of the member and based on a geographic location of a health care provider and/or based on a geographic location of a prior appointment of the health care provider.","As shown in the above Table 5, the third slot in the multi-provider call queue has not yet been assigned.","In this example, call list engine 127 executes the below described actions to identify which members to call to schedule for the third slot.","In the example of FIG.","10, call list engine 127 determines (1106) whether a call queue (e.g., a multi-provider call queue) (and/or particular slots within a call queue) are empty and require filling (or re-filling).","When call list engine 127 determines that a call queue requires refilling, call list engine 127 retrieves (1108) a full list of callable members for particular calendar slots.","In this example, call list engine 127 determines combinations of calendar slots for callable members via randomized best slots logic as following.","In this example, call list engine 127 retrieves (1108) a list of callable members.","As previously described, the list of callable members may specify which members are eligible for a health risk assessment.","In this example, call list engine 127 retrieves the members from the list of callable members who are listed as being eligible.","As previously described, for a member, data repository 126 stores a record for that member (e.g., in a profile for the member).","This record may be referred as a member record.","In this example, the member record includes a member ID that uniquely identifies the member.","The member record also includes other identifying information for a member, including, e.g., a zip code of the member.","The callable member list also identifies members by the member ID.","For the callable members, call list engine 127 retrieves from data repository 126, the member records and identifies in the member records the zip codes for the members on the callable member list.","As previously described, a call queue may be specific to a particular health provider, e.g., a call queue is for and associated with the particular health care provider.","In this example, each health care provider is associated with his/her own call queue.","For a health care provider participating in the system, data repository 126 also stores a health care provider record that includes identifying information of a health care provider, e.g., zip codes of the health care providers.","Call list engine 127 retrieves information indicative of health care providers who (i) are located within the zip codes that are associated with the members in the callable members list, and (ii) have available time slots in his/her calendar.","In this example, call list engine 127 determines callable members who are in the local operation hours (e.g., local time Sam-8 pm) and updates the callable members list to include these callable members.","For an available slot in the health care providers' schedules, call list engine 127 identifies a member (from the updated callable members list) with a shortest distance to the health care provider.","Call list engine 127 also adjusts the shortest distance for any offset distance based on priorities of various clients (e.g., insurance companies and/or individual members).","For an available slot with the closest calendar date to the current date, call list engine 127 selects a predefined number of members that are closest to the geography location of the health care provider associated with the slot for the closest calendar date.","Call list engine 127 populates the empty slot in the call queue with these predefined members, e.g., to promote scheduling of the empty slot with an appointment.","In another example, call list engine 127 executes additional actions (as described below), prior to populating a call queue.","In the example of FIG.","10, call list engine 127 also retrieves (1110) from data repository 126 a list of user zones to identify specific members in the zone where user (e.g., a call agent and/or a health care provider) has been assigned to.","In this example, a call agent is assigned to specific geographic zones (e.g., locations), e.g., to promote even load distribution of calls.","To further promote more even calling of available members, call list engine 127 splits (1112) the updated list of callable member into a user zone pool 1114 and a general pool 1116.In this example, call list engine 127 assigns the members with zip codes that are included in (or otherwise associated with) the user zone to user zone pool 116.Call list engine 127 assigns the remaining members (or a portion there) to the general pool.","In this example, call list engine 127 assigns (1118) members from one or more of the general pool 114 and the user zone pool 1116 to the call queue based on one or more of the following actions.","In this example, call list engine 127 selects a calendar date for which to schedule appointments (for multiple, different providers).","In some examples, call list engine 127 randomly selects this calendar date.","In other examples, call list engine 127 receives instructions (e.g., from a user) that specify a particular calendar date.","For the selected calendar date, call list engine 127 identifies the available slots (e.g., available slots in health care providers' schedules for that day).","In this example, call list engine 127 may identify the available slots in a predefined order (e.g., a descending order) based on particular times that are associated with the slots.","For an identified particular slot, call list engine 127 identifies one or more callable members to fill the slot based on callback request time and distance.","In this example, a member may specify a time at which the member wants to be called to called to schedule an appointment.","For example, a member may specify that he/she wants to be called at 2 pm to schedule an appointment.","In this example, if the identified particular slot is for 2 pm, then call list engine 127 may select a member with a requested callback time of 2 pm or a requested call back time that is close to 2 pm.","In still another example, call engine 127 may select a member based on proximity of a geographic location of the member to a geographic location of a health care provider.","In this example, call list engine 127 may identify a callback variance, e.g., an amount by which a requested call back time (if any) varies from a time associated with the slot.","Call list engine 127 may also identify a distance variance, e.g., an amount of distance between a geographic location of a member and a geographic location of health care provider (e.g., from either a starting location and/or from a prior scheduled appointment).","In this example, call list engine 127 is configured to compute a priority value, e.g., based on the callback variance and the distance variance.","In an example, the priority value is the sum of the callback variance and the distance variance.","The priority values include a value indicative of a priority (e.g., ranking) at which members should be called to schedule a particular slot.","A member with a lowest priority value is ranked with a higher priority, e.g., relative to other priority values of other members.","In this example, a member with the lowest priority value for the time slot is loaded into the queue and called first in the queue.","In an example, call list engine 127 selects, from general pool 114 and from user zone pool 116, members associated with lowest priority values and populates a slot in the queue with those users.","Embodiments can be implemented in digital electronic circuitry, or in computer hardware, firmware, software, or in combinations thereof.","An apparatus can be implemented in a computer program product tangibly embodied or stored in a machine-readable storage device for execution by a programmable processor; and method actions can be performed by a programmable processor executing a program of instructions to perform functions by operating on input data and generating output.","The embodiments described herein, and other embodiments of the invention, can be implemented advantageously in one or more computer programs that are executable on a programmable system including at least one programmable processor coupled to receive data and instructions from, and to transmit data and instructions to, a data storage system, at least one input device, and at least one output device.","Each computer program can be implemented in a high-level procedural or object oriented programming language, or in assembly or machine language if desired; and in any case, the language can be a compiled or interpreted language.","Processors suitable for the execution of a computer program include, by way of example, both general and special purpose microprocessors, and any one or more processors of any kind of digital computer.","Generally, a processor will receive instructions and data from a read-only memory or a random-access memory or both.","The essential elements of a computer are a processor for executing instructions and one or more memory devices for storing instructions and data.","Generally, a computer will also include, or be operatively coupled to receive data from or transfer data to, or both, one or more mass storage devices for storing data, e.g., magnetic, magneto optical disks, or optical disks.","Computer readable media for embodying computer program instructions and data include all forms of non-volatile memory, including by way of example semiconductor memory devices, e.g., EPROM, EEPROM, and flash memory devices; magnetic disks, e.g., internal hard disks or removable disks; magneto optical disks; and CD ROM and DVD-ROM disks.","The processor and the memory can be supplemented by, or incorporated in special purpose logic circuitry.","Any of the foregoing can be supplemented by, or incorporated in, ASICs (application-specific integrated circuits).","To provide for interaction with a user, embodiments can be implemented on a computer having a display device, e.g., a LCD (liquid crystal display) monitor, for displaying data to the user and a keyboard and a pointing device, e.g., a mouse or a trackball, by which the user can provide input to the computer.","Other kinds of devices can be used to provide for interaction with a user as well; for example, feedback provided to the user can be any form of sensory feedback, e.g., visual feedback, auditory feedback, or tactile feedback; and input from the user can be received in any form, including acoustic, speech, or tactile input.","Embodiments can be implemented in a computing system that includes a back end component, e.g., as a data server, or that includes a middleware component, e.g., an application server, or that includes a front end component, e.g., a client computer having a graphical user interface or a Web browser through which a user can interact with an implementation of embodiments, or any combination of such back end, middleware, or front end components.","The components of the system can be interconnected by any form or medium of digital data communication, e.g., a communication network.","Examples of communication networks include a local area network (LAN) and a wide area network (WAN), e.g., the Internet.","The system and method or parts thereof may use the “World Wide Web” (Web or WWW), which is that collection of servers on the Internet that utilize the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP).","HTTP is a known application protocol that provides users access to resources, which may be data in different formats such as text, graphics, images, sound, video, Hypertext Markup Language (HTML), as well as programs.","Upon specification of a link by the user, the client computer makes a TCP/IP request to a Web server and receives data, which may be another Web page that is formatted according to HTML.","Users can also access other pages on the same or other servers by following instructions on the screen, entering certain data, or clicking on selected icons.","It should also be noted that any type of selection device known to those skilled in the art, such as check boxes, drop-down boxes, and the like, may be used for embodiments using web pages to allow a user to select options for a given component.","Servers run on a variety of platforms, including UNIX machines, although other platforms, such as Windows 2000/2003, Windows NT, Sun, Linux, and Macintosh may also be used.","Computer users can view data available on servers or networks on the Web through the use of browsing software, such as Firefox, Netscape Navigator, Microsoft Internet Explorer, or Mosaic browsers.","The computing system can include clients and servers.","A client and server are generally remote from each other and typically interact through a communication network.","The relationship of client and server arises by virtue of computer programs running on the respective computers and having a client-server relationship to each other.","Other embodiments are within the scope and spirit of the description claims.","Additionally, due to the nature of software, functions described above can be implemented using software, hardware, firmware, hardwiring, or combinations of any of these.","Features implementing functions may also be physically located at various positions, including being distributed such that portions of functions are implemented at different physical locations.","The use of the term “a” herein and throughout the application is not used in a limiting manner and therefore is not meant to exclude a multiple meaning or a “one or more” meaning for the term “a.” Additionally, to the extent priority is claimed to a provisional patent application, it should be understood that the provisional patent application is not limiting but includes examples of how the techniques described herein may be implemented.","A number of exemplary embodiments of the invention have been described.","Nevertheless, it will be understood by one of ordinary skill in the art that various modifications may be made without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention."]],"string":"[\n [\n \"Determining Risk Adjustment Payment Information\",\n \"A computer-implemented method includes receiving member intake information for a member of a health plan including a first set of medical diagnoses; applying one or more targeting rules to the received member intake information; determining a risk score for the member; identifying the member for participation in a health risk assessment; receiving, from a client device used by a health care provider, health risk assessment information that is collected during the health risk assessment that is conducted by the health care provider; retrieving medical diagnosis information that is based on an analysis of the health risk assessment information; and transmitting risk adjustment payment information that is at least partly based on the medical diagnosis information, with the risk adjustment payment information comprising information that promotes determination of a risk adjustment payment.\"\n ],\n [\n \"1.A computer-implemented method comprising: receiving, by one or more computer systems, member intake information for a member of a health plan including a first set of medical diagnoses; applying one or more targeting rules to the received member intake information; determining, based on application of the one or more targeting rules, a risk score for the member; and identifying, at least partly based on the risk score, the member for participation in a health risk assessment; receiving, from a client device used by a health care provider, health risk assessment information that is collected during the health risk assessment that is conducted by the health care provider; retrieving medical diagnosis information that is based on an analysis of the health risk assessment information, with the medical diagnosis information being indicative of one or more medical diagnoses for the member, with the one or more medical diagnoses being different from the medical diagnoses in the first set included in the member intake information; and transmitting risk adjustment payment information that is at least partly based on the medical diagnosis information, with the risk adjustment payment information comprising information that promotes determination of a risk adjustment payment.\",\n \"2.The computer-implemented method of claim 1, father comprising: determining, based on the medical diagnosis information, a potential return on investment of the one or more medical diagnoses that are different from the medical diagnoses in the first set.\",\n \"3.The method of claim 1, further comprising: applying by the one or more computer systems one or more risk adjustment rules to the received health risk assessment information; and determining, based on applying, the one or more medical diagnoses for the member.\",\n \"4.The method of claim 1, wherein the risk adjustment payment increases an amount of benefits that are paid by the health plan for the member, relative to another amount of benefits that were paid prior to the health risk assessment.\",\n \"5.The computer-implemented method of claim 1, wherein the paid benefits include Medicare benefits.\",\n \"6.The computer-implemented method of claim 1, further comprising: scheduling, by the one or more computer systems, an appointment between the health care provider and the member for the health care provider to perform the health risk assessment.\",\n \"7.The computer-implemented method of claim 6, further comprising: executing a geo-dialing algorithm that causes a call to be placed to the member, wherein a priority order in which the call is placed is in accordance with a distance between a geographic location of the health care provider and a geographic location of the member.\",\n \"8.The computer-implemented method of claim 1, further comprising: selecting, based on contents of the member intake information, the member to receive an invitation to schedule the health risk assessment; and receiving acceptance information specifying that the member has accepted the invitation to schedule the health risk assessment; wherein identifying the member for participation in the health risk assessment is further based on acceptance by the member of the invitation.\",\n \"9.The computer-implemented method of claim 1, further comprising: receiving, from a device associated with the health plan, eligibility information that specifies that the member is enrolled in a qualified health plan that entitles the member to the health risk assessment.\",\n \"10.The computer-implemented of claim 1, further comprising: updating, in a data repository, member state information for the member, with the member state information comprising one or more of: a first eligibility value specifying whether the member is enrolled in a qualified health plan; a second eligibility value specifying whether the member is deceased; a third eligibility value specifying one or more products that the member is eligible to receive; a notification value specifying whether the member is invited to schedule the health risk assessment; a scheduling value specifying whether scheduling of the health risk assessment is in progress; and a health risk assessment value specifying that the health risk assessment is scheduled.\",\n \"11.The computer-implemented of claim 3, wherein the risk adjustment rules include a mapping of diagnosis information to one or more items of medical information, wherein the diagnosis information comprises information indicative of a diagnosis; and wherein determining the one or more medical diagnoses for the member comprises: identifying that the received health risk assessment information includes an item of medical information included in the mapping; and identifying an item of diagnosis information that is mapped to the item of medical information.\",\n \"12.The computer-implemented method of claim 11, further comprising: accessing medical code information, with an item of medical code information specifying a medical code that classifies a particular medical diagnosis or an inpatient procedure; identifying, in the medical code information, an item of medical code information that is associated with the identified item of diagnosis information; determining, based on the identified item of medical code information, a medical code that is associated with the identified medical diagnosis; and wherein transmitting the risk adjustment payment information comprises transmitting the determined medical code to a computer system associated with an insurance company.\",\n \"13.The computer-implemented method of claim 12, wherein the medical code comprises one or more of a diagnosis code, an ICD-9 code and an ICD-10 code.\",\n \"14.The computer-implemented method of claim 1, wherein the one or more targeting rules comprise an instruction to detect an absence of a keyword, and wherein determining the risk score comprises: determining, based on a detected absence of a keyword specifying completion of the health risk assessment, that the member is due for a health risk assessment; and assigning a value to the risk score based on determining that the member is due for the health risk assessment.\",\n \"15.The computer-implemented method of claim 1, wherein the member intake information comprises one or more of lab information, pharmacy information, medical record information, medical insurance claim information, and medical diagnosis information.\",\n \"16.An electronic system comprising: one or more processing devices; and one or more machine-readable hardware storage devices storing instructions that are executable by the one or more processing devices to perform operations comprising: receiving member intake information for a member of a health plan including a first set of medical diagnoses; applying one or more targeting rules to the received member intake information; determining, based on application of the one or more targeting rules, a risk score for the member; and identifying, at least partly based on the risk score, the member for participation in a health risk assessment; receiving, from a client device used by a health care provider, health risk assessment information that is collected during the health risk assessment that is conducted by the health care provider; retrieving medical diagnosis information that is based on an analysis of the health risk assessment information, with the medical diagnosis information being indicative of one or more medical diagnoses for the member, with the one or more medical diagnoses being different from the medical diagnoses in the first set included in the member intake information; and transmitting risk adjustment payment information that is at least partly based on the medical diagnosis information, with the risk adjustment payment information comprising information that promotes determination of a risk adjustment payment.\",\n \"17.The electronic system of claim 16, wherein the operations further comprise: applying by the one or more computer systems one or more risk adjustment rules to the received health risk assessment information; and determining, based on applying, the one or more medical diagnoses for the member.\",\n \"18.The electronic system of claim 16, wherein the operations further comprise: executing a geo-dialing algorithm that causes a call to be placed to the member, wherein a priority order in which the call is placed is in accordance with a distance between a geographic location of the health care provider and a geographic location of the member.\",\n \"19.The electronic system of claim 17, wherein the risk adjustment rules include a mapping of diagnosis information to one or more items of medical information, wherein the diagnosis information comprises information indicative of a diagnosis; and wherein determining the one or more medical diagnoses for the member comprises: identifying that the received health risk assessment information includes an item of medical information included in the mapping; and identifying an item of diagnosis information that is mapped to the item of medical information.\",\n \"20.The electronic system of claim 19, wherein the operations further comprise: accessing medical code information, with an item of medical code information specifying a medical code that classifies a particular medical diagnosis or an inpatient procedure; identifying, in the medical code information, an item of medical code information that is associated with the identified item of diagnosis information; determining, based on the identified item of medical code information, a medical code that is associated with the identified medical diagnosis; and wherein transmitting the risk adjustment payment information comprises transmitting the determined medical code to a computer system associated with an insurance company.\",\n \"21.One or more machine-readable hardware storage devices storing instructions that are executable by one or more processing devices to perform operations comprising: receiving member intake information for a member of a health plan including a first set of medical diagnoses; applying one or more targeting rules to the received member intake information; determining, based on application of the one or more targeting rules, a risk score for the member; and identifying, at least partly based on the risk score, the member for participation in a health risk assessment; receiving, from a client device used by a health care provider, health risk assessment information that is collected during the health risk assessment that is conducted by the health care provider; retrieving medical diagnosis information that is based on an analysis of the health risk assessment information, with the medical diagnosis information being indicative of one or more medical diagnoses for the member, with the one or more medical diagnoses being different from the medical diagnoses in the first set included in the member intake information; and transmitting risk adjustment payment information that is at least partly based on the medical diagnosis information, with the risk adjustment payment information comprising information that promotes determination of a risk adjustment payment.\",\n \"22.The one or more machine-readable hardware storage devices of claim 21, wherein the operations further comprise: executing a geo-dialing algorithm that causes a call to be placed to the member, wherein a priority order in which the call is placed is in accordance with a distance between a geographic location of the health care provider and a geographic location of the member.\"\n ],\n [\n \" BACKGROUND A health risk assessment (HRA) includes a collection of (information from individuals that identifies risk factors, provides individualized feedback, and links the person with at least one intervention to promote health, sustain function and/or prevent disease.\"\n ],\n [\n \" SUMMARY In general, one innovative aspect of the subject matter described in this specification can be embodied in methods that include the actions of receiving, by one or more computer systems, member intake information for a member of a health plan including a first set of medical diagnoses; applying one or more targeting rules to the received member intake information; determining, based on application of the one or more targeting rules, a risk score for the member; and identifying, at least partly based on the risk score, the member for participation in a health risk assessment; receiving, from a client device used by a health care provider, health risk assessment information that is collected during the health risk assessment that is conducted by the health care provider; retrieving medical diagnosis information that is based on an analysis of the health risk assessment information, with the medical diagnosis information being indicative of one or more medical diagnoses for the member, with the one or more medical diagnoses being different from the medical diagnoses in the first set included in the member intake information; and transmitting risk adjustment payment information that is at least partly based on the medical diagnosis information, with the risk adjustment payment information comprising information that promotes determination of a risk adjustment payment.\",\n \"Other embodiments of this aspect include corresponding computer systems, apparatus, and computer programs recorded on one or more computer storage devices, each configured to perform the actions of the methods.\",\n \"A system of one or more computers can be configured to perform particular operations or actions by virtue of having software, firmware, hardware, or a combination of them installed on the system that in operation causes or cause the system to perform the actions.\",\n \"One or more computer programs can be configured to perform particular operations or actions by virtue of including instructions that, when executed by data processing apparatus, cause the apparatus to perform the actions.\",\n \"Implementations of the disclosure can include one or more of the following features.\",\n \"In some implementations, the actions determining, based on the medical diagnosis information, a potential return on investment of the one or more medical diagnoses that are different from the medical diagnoses in the first set.\",\n \"The actions also include applying by the one or more computer systems one or more risk adjustment rules to the received health risk assessment information; and determining, based on applying, the one or more medical diagnoses for the member.\",\n \"The risk adjustment payment increases an amount of benefits that are paid by the health plan for the member, relative to another amount of benefits that were paid prior to the health risk assessment.\",\n \"The paid benefits include Medicare benefits.\",\n \"The actions include scheduling, by the one or more computer systems, an appointment between the health care provider and the member for the health care provider to perform the health risk assessment.\",\n \"The actions include executing a geo-dialing algorithm that causes a call to be placed to the member, wherein a priority order in which the call is placed is in accordance with a distance between a geographic location of the health care provider and a geographic location of the member.\",\n \"The actions include selecting, based on contents of the member intake information, the member to receive an invitation to schedule the health risk assessment; and receiving acceptance information specifying that the member has accepted the invitation to schedule the health risk assessment; wherein identifying the member for participation in the health risk assessment is further based on acceptance by the member of the invitation.\",\n \"The actions include receiving, from a device associated with the health plan, eligibility information that specifies that the member is enrolled in a qualified health plan that entitles the member to the health risk assessment.\",\n \"The actions include updating, in a data repository, member state information for the member, with the member state information comprising one or more of: a first eligibility value specifying whether the member is enrolled in a qualified health plan; a second eligibility value specifying whether the member is deceased; a third eligibility value specifying one or more products that the member is eligible to receive; a notification value specifying whether the member is invited to schedule the health risk assessment; a scheduling value specifying whether scheduling of the health risk assessment is in progress; and a health risk assessment value specifying that the health risk assessment is scheduled.\",\n \"The risk adjustment rules include a mapping of diagnosis information to one or more items of medical information, wherein the diagnosis information comprises information indicative of a diagnosis; and wherein determining the one or more medical diagnoses for the member comprises: identifying that the received health risk assessment information includes an item of medical information included in the mapping; and identifying an item of diagnosis information that is mapped to the item of medical information.\",\n \"The actions include accessing medical code information, with an item of medical code information specifying a medical code that classifies a particular medical diagnosis or an inpatient procedure; identifying, in the medical code information, an item of medical code information that is associated with the identified item of diagnosis information; determining, based on the identified item of medical code information, a medical code that is associated with the identified medical diagnosis; and wherein transmitting the risk adjustment payment information comprises transmitting the determined medical code to a computer system associated with an insurance company.\",\n \"The medical code comprises one or more of a diagnosis code, an ICD-9 code and an ICD-10 code.\",\n \"The one or more targeting rules comprise an instruction to detect an absence of a keyword, and wherein determining the risk score comprises: determining, based on a detected absence of a keyword specifying completion of the health risk assessment, that the member is due for a health risk assessment; and assigning a value to the risk score based on determining that the member is due for the health risk assessment.\",\n \"The member intake information comprises one or more of lab information, pharmacy information, medical record information, medical insurance claim information, and medical diagnosis information.\",\n \"All or part of the foregoing may be implemented as a computer program product including instructions that are stored on one or more non-transitory machine-readable storage media and/or one or more machine-readable hardware storages devices that are executable on one or more processing devices.\",\n \"All or part of the foregoing may be implemented as an apparatus, method, or electronic system that may include one or more processing devices and memory to store executable instructions to implement the stated functions.\",\n \"The details of one or more embodiments of the subject matter of this specification are set forth in the accompanying drawings and the description below.\",\n \"Other features, aspects, and advantages of the subject matter will become apparent from the description, the drawings, and the claims.\"\n ],\n [\n \"CLAIM OF PRIORITY This application is a continuation of and claims priority under 35 U.S.C.\",\n \"§ 120 to U.S. patent application Ser.\",\n \"No.\",\n \"14/142,481, filed Dec. 27, 2013, the entire contents of which is hereby incorporated by reference.\",\n \"BACKGROUND A health risk assessment (HRA) includes a collection of (information from individuals that identifies risk factors, provides individualized feedback, and links the person with at least one intervention to promote health, sustain function and/or prevent disease.\",\n \"SUMMARY In general, one innovative aspect of the subject matter described in this specification can be embodied in methods that include the actions of receiving, by one or more computer systems, member intake information for a member of a health plan including a first set of medical diagnoses; applying one or more targeting rules to the received member intake information; determining, based on application of the one or more targeting rules, a risk score for the member; and identifying, at least partly based on the risk score, the member for participation in a health risk assessment; receiving, from a client device used by a health care provider, health risk assessment information that is collected during the health risk assessment that is conducted by the health care provider; retrieving medical diagnosis information that is based on an analysis of the health risk assessment information, with the medical diagnosis information being indicative of one or more medical diagnoses for the member, with the one or more medical diagnoses being different from the medical diagnoses in the first set included in the member intake information; and transmitting risk adjustment payment information that is at least partly based on the medical diagnosis information, with the risk adjustment payment information comprising information that promotes determination of a risk adjustment payment.\",\n \"Other embodiments of this aspect include corresponding computer systems, apparatus, and computer programs recorded on one or more computer storage devices, each configured to perform the actions of the methods.\",\n \"A system of one or more computers can be configured to perform particular operations or actions by virtue of having software, firmware, hardware, or a combination of them installed on the system that in operation causes or cause the system to perform the actions.\",\n \"One or more computer programs can be configured to perform particular operations or actions by virtue of including instructions that, when executed by data processing apparatus, cause the apparatus to perform the actions.\",\n \"Implementations of the disclosure can include one or more of the following features.\",\n \"In some implementations, the actions determining, based on the medical diagnosis information, a potential return on investment of the one or more medical diagnoses that are different from the medical diagnoses in the first set.\",\n \"The actions also include applying by the one or more computer systems one or more risk adjustment rules to the received health risk assessment information; and determining, based on applying, the one or more medical diagnoses for the member.\",\n \"The risk adjustment payment increases an amount of benefits that are paid by the health plan for the member, relative to another amount of benefits that were paid prior to the health risk assessment.\",\n \"The paid benefits include Medicare benefits.\",\n \"The actions include scheduling, by the one or more computer systems, an appointment between the health care provider and the member for the health care provider to perform the health risk assessment.\",\n \"The actions include executing a geo-dialing algorithm that causes a call to be placed to the member, wherein a priority order in which the call is placed is in accordance with a distance between a geographic location of the health care provider and a geographic location of the member.\",\n \"The actions include selecting, based on contents of the member intake information, the member to receive an invitation to schedule the health risk assessment; and receiving acceptance information specifying that the member has accepted the invitation to schedule the health risk assessment; wherein identifying the member for participation in the health risk assessment is further based on acceptance by the member of the invitation.\",\n \"The actions include receiving, from a device associated with the health plan, eligibility information that specifies that the member is enrolled in a qualified health plan that entitles the member to the health risk assessment.\",\n \"The actions include updating, in a data repository, member state information for the member, with the member state information comprising one or more of: a first eligibility value specifying whether the member is enrolled in a qualified health plan; a second eligibility value specifying whether the member is deceased; a third eligibility value specifying one or more products that the member is eligible to receive; a notification value specifying whether the member is invited to schedule the health risk assessment; a scheduling value specifying whether scheduling of the health risk assessment is in progress; and a health risk assessment value specifying that the health risk assessment is scheduled.\",\n \"The risk adjustment rules include a mapping of diagnosis information to one or more items of medical information, wherein the diagnosis information comprises information indicative of a diagnosis; and wherein determining the one or more medical diagnoses for the member comprises: identifying that the received health risk assessment information includes an item of medical information included in the mapping; and identifying an item of diagnosis information that is mapped to the item of medical information.\",\n \"The actions include accessing medical code information, with an item of medical code information specifying a medical code that classifies a particular medical diagnosis or an inpatient procedure; identifying, in the medical code information, an item of medical code information that is associated with the identified item of diagnosis information; determining, based on the identified item of medical code information, a medical code that is associated with the identified medical diagnosis; and wherein transmitting the risk adjustment payment information comprises transmitting the determined medical code to a computer system associated with an insurance company.\",\n \"The medical code comprises one or more of a diagnosis code, an ICD-9 code and an ICD-10 code.\",\n \"The one or more targeting rules comprise an instruction to detect an absence of a keyword, and wherein determining the risk score comprises: determining, based on a detected absence of a keyword specifying completion of the health risk assessment, that the member is due for a health risk assessment; and assigning a value to the risk score based on determining that the member is due for the health risk assessment.\",\n \"The member intake information comprises one or more of lab information, pharmacy information, medical record information, medical insurance claim information, and medical diagnosis information.\",\n \"All or part of the foregoing may be implemented as a computer program product including instructions that are stored on one or more non-transitory machine-readable storage media and/or one or more machine-readable hardware storages devices that are executable on one or more processing devices.\",\n \"All or part of the foregoing may be implemented as an apparatus, method, or electronic system that may include one or more processing devices and memory to store executable instructions to implement the stated functions.\",\n \"The details of one or more embodiments of the subject matter of this specification are set forth in the accompanying drawings and the description below.\",\n \"Other features, aspects, and advantages of the subject matter will become apparent from the description, the drawings, and the claims.\",\n \"BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES FIG.\",\n \"1 is a diagram of an environment for determining risk adjustment payment information.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"2 is a block diagram of components of the environment for determining risk adjustment payment information.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"3 is a conceptual diagram of types of information included in a database record for a member.\",\n \"FIGS.\",\n \"4A, 4B are flow charts of processes for determining risk adjustment payment information.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"5A is a conceptual diagram of locations of members and a provider.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"5B is an example of a schedule.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"5C is an example of a call queue.\",\n \"FIGS.\",\n \"6A-6B, 9 and 10 are flow charts of processes for generating call queues.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"7 is a flow chart of a process for identifying callable members.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"8 is a block diagram of components of a call list engine.\",\n \"DETAILED DESCRIPTION A system consistent with this disclosure determines risk adjustment payment information, including, e.g., information that may be used by health plans (e.g., Medicaid and/or Medicare) in determining risk adjustment payments.\",\n \"In an example, the risk adjustment payment information may include medical codes that are based on medical diagnoses and/or information indicative of medical diagnoses.\",\n \"Generally, risk adjustment includes a process of adjusting health plan payments, health care provider payments and/or premiums to reflect the health status of plan members.\",\n \"In this example, a risk adjustment payment includes an amount by which payments (and/or premiums) are adjusted, e.g., based on an outcome of a risk adjustment process.\",\n \"Risk adjustment includes risk assessment that assesses the relative risk of each person in a group.\",\n \"In this risk adjustment stage, the system implements (and/or facilitates implementation of) a health risk assessment (HRA) to assess the health of a member.\",\n \"Following the risk adjustment stage, the system generates risk adjustment payment information to reflect the determined health risks and that promotes health plan rate adjustment.\",\n \"In an example, a member is enrolled in a health plan that is part of the Medicare system.\",\n \"In this example, the system identifies the member as being eligible for an appointment with a health care provider (e.g., a Medicare-covered annual wellness visit, a HRA, and so forth) and facilitates the appointment.\",\n \"In another example, the system receives, from a health plan, eligibility information that specifies the member as being eligible for an HRA.\",\n \"The system facilitates the appointment by implementing various processes that promote a health care provider's visitation of the member (e.g., in the member's home) to conduct the HRA.\",\n \"During the appointment, the health care provider furnishes the member with a HRA to collect health risk assessment information (HRA information).\",\n \"Generally, HRA information includes information that is collected during a HRA.\",\n \"The health care provider causes the HRA information to be submitted back to the system.\",\n \"In an example, the system analyses the HRA information to identify new medical diagnoses for the member.\",\n \"In another example, the health care provider diagnoses high risk conditions and/or new medical diagnoses of the member and passes this information back to the system.\",\n \"Using the new identified medical diagnosis, the system determines risk adjustment payment information for the member, e.g., to promote increase in an amount of benefits that are paid by the health plan for the member.\",\n \"The system determines risk adjustment payment information by identifying additional billing codes that may be used in billing for medical treatments that cover these newly identified medical diagnoses.\",\n \"These billing codes include National Uniform Billing Committee (NUBC) codes, Medicare codes, Medicaid codes, International Classification of Diseases (ICD) codes (e.g., ICD-9 codes and ICD-10 codes), and so forth.\",\n \"Referring to FIG.\",\n \"1, an arrangement 100 for using risk adjustment payment information in adjusting premiums/payments and/or coverage based on risk adjustments includes client devices 106, 112, a system 116 for determining risk adjustment payment information, a data repository 126 and network 110.Client device 112 is associated with a health plan (e.g., an insurance company).\",\n \"Client device 112 transmits to system 116 (e.g., via network 110) member intake information 114, e.g., including information indicative of a health history of a member.\",\n \"The member intake information 114 is for a particular member (e.g., member 104).\",\n \"Member intake information 114 may include information indicative of medical claims that have been submitted for a member, medical reports from laboratories on tests that have been conducted on a member, medications that are being taken for a member, medical records of a member, pharmacy prescriptions, name and residence address information, and so forth.\",\n \"Member intake information 114 is compliant with the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPPA).\",\n \"Client device 106 is used by health care provider 102 (e.g., a nurse practitioner).\",\n \"Health care provider 102 uses client device 106 to view an electronic HRA to ask member 104 questions about the health status of the member 104.As member 104 provides health care provider 102 answers to the questions included in the HRA, health care provider 102 inputs the answers to the questions into client device 106, as at least part of the health risk assessment information 108.Client device 106 transmits to system 116 health risk assessment information 108 that is stored in data repository 126.In an example, health care provider 102 uses the answers to the HRA to identify new medical diagnoses and uses client device 106 to submit these new medical diagnoses to system 116.System 116 includes various engines, e.g., targeting engine 122, electronic data capture (EDC) engine 120, and resource planning and analysis (RPA) engine 124.System 116 executes a call center application 125 that includes a call list engine 127.In the illustrative example of FIG.\",\n \"1, EDC engine 120 of system 116 receives the health risk assessment information 108 and causes the health risk assessment information 108 to be stored in the data repository 126.Targeting engine 122 determines high risk members who should have an HRA (and/or for another type of appointment such as a Medicare-covered annual wellness visit).\",\n \"Targeting engine 122 determines member risk at least partly based on application of targeting rules to member intake information 114.Generally, a targeting rule includes one or more instructions for analyzing information.\",\n \"Based on application of the targeting rules to member intake information 114 for a particular member, targeting engine 122 generates a risk score for the particular member.\",\n \"When the risk score exceeds a threshold score, targeting engine 122 determines that the member is eligible for the HRA.\",\n \"The targeting rules include instructions to analyze member intake information 114 (e.g., claims data included in member intake information 114) and to determine when the member's last annual examination occurred.\",\n \"The targeting rules include instructions that when the last annual examination occurred more than a year ago to assign the member a risk score of seventy-five.\",\n \"In this example, the threshold score has a value of fifty.\",\n \"Targeting engine 122 determines that the risk score exceeds the threshold score and that the member is eligible for the HRA.\",\n \"Targeting is determined (e.g., by targeting engine 122) by a programmatic examination of the prior medical claims, prior prescription claims, and data available from any lab results that have occurred within a certain period of time.\",\n \"Targeting engine 122 executes a series of rules that examine the data components aggregated (e.g., member intake data) within these data structures and determines a risk level for the member based on the rules embedded within the risk scoring algorithm (and contents of the member intake information).\",\n \"For example, a member whose claim history indicates they are taking insulin would have a high risk score for diabetes.\",\n \"In an example, the targeting rules scan the member intake information to detect an absence (or a presence) of a keyword specifying a predefined state or criteria (e.g., completion of the health risk assessment).\",\n \"The targeting rule is associated with a numeric score, such that detection of the predefined state or criteria assigns the numeric score to be the risk score for the member.\",\n \"In this example, based on the detected absence, the targeting rules assign the member a risk score that specifies that the member is due for a health risk assessment.\",\n \"In this example, targeting engine 122 receives member intake information only for eligible members, e.g., members that have been identified by a health plan as being eligible for an HRA.\",\n \"In still another example, system 116 makes a determination of eligibility.\",\n \"In this example, system 116 analyses member intake information to determine whether the member is enrolled in a qualified health plan that entitles the member to the HRA and/or to determine that the member is not deceased and has not reached a threshold limit for received benefits.\",\n \"In this example, system 116 determines that when the risk score exceeds the threshold score and when the member is eligible that the member may be scheduled for an HRA.\",\n \"Following determination that the member is targeted for an HRA, the RPA engine 124 selects members to receive invitations to schedule HRAs.\",\n \"The invitations are electronic messages, e.g., sent in the form of e-mails.\",\n \"Alternatively, the invitations are mailed to residences of members.\",\n \"Other techniques for sending the invitations can be used.\",\n \"RPA engine 124 may notify users of system 116 of the selected members and the notified users generate mailings to send to the selected members.\",\n \"In an example, RPA engine 124 selects members based on the supply (and/or density) of health care providers (e.g., health care providers who are registered or otherwise associated with system 116) in a geographic location in which the member is located.\",\n \"As discussed above, the member intake information 114 includes information identifying a geographic location of a member (e.g., information specifying a zip code of the member).\",\n \"In this example, data repository 126 stores information indicative of health care providers who are participating in system 116, including, e.g., information identifying a geographic location of the health care providers.\",\n \"RPA engine 124 analyses (e.g., compares) the information identifying geographic locations of the health care providers and the information identifying the geographic location of the members to select members to be notified of HRAs in a particular geographic location.\",\n \"For example, RPA engine 124 may assess that a predefined notification number (e.g., ten) of members in a particular geographic location are notified of the opportunity for a HRA for each health care provider who is also located in that geographic location.\",\n \"In this example, RPA engine 124 identifies a number of health care providers in a particular geographic location and then multiples the identified number of health care providers by the predefined notification number to determine the number of members to select for invitation in a particular geographic location.\",\n \"In another example, RPA engine 124 also selects member based on various other factors, including, e.g., various calendar seasons.\",\n \"For example, members may more positively respond (e.g., higher response rate) in certain seasons than in other seasons.\",\n \"For example, members may more positively respond to the invitations to schedule the HRA in the spring rather than in the winter.\",\n \"In this example, RPA engine 124 may be configured to adjust a number of selected members by an adjustment value, e.g., based on the current season.\",\n \"For example, using the above-described techniques, RPA engine 124 may determine a number of members to select.\",\n \"In this example, an adjustment value is associated with particular seasons.\",\n \"If RPA engine 124 determines that a current season matches one of the particular seasons that are associated with the adjustment values, RPA engine 124 adjusts the number of selected members by the adjustment value (e.g., a 25% increase in a number of selected members, a 25% decrease in a number of selected members, and so forth).\",\n \"In this another example, RPA engine 124 selects members to be notified of the opportunity to schedule HRAs based on availability of the health care providers in a particular geographic location, e.g., in addition to or rather than being based on a number of health care providers in the particular geographic location.\",\n \"As described in further detail below, data repository 126 maintains schedules for the health care providers who are registered with system 116.These schedules include appointment slots, with an appointment slot being associated with a particular time.\",\n \"As members schedule appointments, system 116 populates the appointment slots to schedule the appointment.\",\n \"In this example, RPA engine 124 selects members based on a number of available appointment slots for a particular geographic location.\",\n \"For example, RPA engine 124 may assess that a predefined available appointment slot notification number (e.g., ten) of members in a particular geographic location are notified of the opportunity for a HRA for each available appointment slot of a health care provider who is also located in that geographic location.\",\n \"RPA engine 124 identifies a number of available appointment slots for health care providers in a particular geographic location and then multiples the identified number of available appointment slots by the predefined available appointment slot notification number to determine the number of members to select for invitation in a particular geographic location.\",\n \"In this example, a member (e.g., member 104) accepts the invitation, e.g., by responding to an email and specifying acceptance, by mailing back a postcard, and so forth.\",\n \"System 116 receives information specifying that member 104 accepts the invitation and saves this received information in data repository 126.For a member who is targeted to receive a HRA, who has been selected by the RPA engine 124 and who accepts the invitation, system 116 executes CCA 125 to promote scheduling of the HRA.\",\n \"As described in further detail below, CCA 125 includes call list engine 127 that executes various real-time processes to identify an order (e.g., a priority) in which selected members are called to schedule HRAs.\",\n \"In this example, call list engine 127 generates call queue 129 specifies an order in which members are called to schedule a HRA (e.g., for a particular time slot of a particular provider).\",\n \"In this example, information identifying member 104 is included in call queue 129.In the example of FIG.\",\n \"1, a call center agent (not shown) places a call to member 104 and successfully schedules a HRA with provider 102, e.g., in a home of member 104.The call center agent can be a human or a machine, e.g., “robo” calling system.\",\n \"In response, system 116 updates a schedule of health care provider 102 by populating an appointment slot (e.g., in a schedule of provider 102) with information for member 104 (e.g., an address of member 104 and/or a telephone number of member 104).\",\n \"At the specified time and date, health care provider 102 performs a HRA on member 104.In this example, health care provider 102 uses client device 106 to view and to access an electronic HRA.\",\n \"As previously described, health care provider 102 inputs, into client device 106, health risk assessment information 108 that is transmitted to system 116.In this example, health care provider 102 may also identify additional medical diagnoses (e.g., based on results of the HRA) and may send information indicative of these additional medical diagnoses to system 116, e.g., for storage.\",\n \"In a variation, system 116 applies risk adjustment rules 128 (which are stored in data repository 126) to health risk assessment information 108 to identify a medical diagnosis for member 104.In this example, identified medical diagnosis is a new medical diagnosis, which was previously unidentified in member intake information 114.Generally, a risk adjustment rule includes a mapping of diagnosis information to an item of medical information (e.g., a keyword that is included in medical record).\",\n \"Generally, diagnosis information includes information indicative of a medical diagnosis.\",\n \"An example risk adjustment rule is provided in the below Table 1.TABLE 1 Diagnosis information Medical information Throat ulcer Pain in lower throat As shown in the above Table 1, medical information of “pain in lower throat” is associated with a diagnosis of “throat ulcer.” In this example, risk adjustment rules 128 include the risk adjustment rule shown in the above Table 1.System 116 analyses health risk assessment information 108 and detects the words “pain in lower throat” in health risk assessment information 108.Based on execution of risk adjustment rules 128, system 116 determines that the words “pain in lower throat” are associated with (e.g., mapped to) a diagnosis of “throat ulcer.” System 116 also accesses in data repository 126 medical code information (not shown).\",\n \"An item of medical code information specifies a medical code (e.g., a billing code) that classifies a particular medical diagnosis or inpatient procedure, as shown in the below Table 2.TABLE 2 Medical Code Diagnosis information ICD9-ABC Throat ulcer As shown in the above Table 2, diagnosis information of “throat ulcer” is associated with an “ICD9-ABC” medical code.\",\n \"Using the accessed medical code information and the identified diagnosis, system 116 determines risk adjustment payment information 130, e.g., based on identification of a new diagnosis in health risk assessment information 108.In an example, risk adjustment payment information 130 may differ from a risk adjustment payment, which is determined by a health plan.\",\n \"Risk adjustment payment information includes a medical code or other information that assists a health plan in adjusting payments for a member.\",\n \"Risk adjustment payment information 130 includes the “ICD9-ABC” medical code that is associated with a diagnosis of throat ulcer.\",\n \"System 116 transmits to a system associated with an insurance company and/or a health plan (e.g., client device 112) risk adjustment payment information 130 that includes medical code information that is indicative of the determined medical code, e.g., to enable the insurance company to use the new medical code in billing (e.g., in billing Medicare or Medicaid) for treatment of the new diagnosis and to enable the member to receive treatment for this new diagnosis.\",\n \"Data repository also stores member state information 132, including, e.g., information indicative of a state of a member as the member progresses through various states of scheduling a HRA, as described in further detail below.\",\n \"System 116 also measures a potential return on investment (ROI) of the newly identified diagnosis.\",\n \"System 116 calculates the ROI by examining the current reimbursement for the member as identified by the health plan and prior RAPs (requests for anticipated payment) and file submissions to CMS (Center for Medicare & Medicaid Services) and determining how much the payment for the member would change if the diagnosis were included in future RAPs submissions for the member in question.\",\n \"Referring now to FIG.\",\n \"2, hardware components of the various systems included in arrangement 100 are shown.\",\n \"In FIG.\",\n \"2, each of client devices 106, 112 can be any sort of computing device capable of taking input from a user and communicating over network 110 with system 116, other client devices, and/or other systems.\",\n \"For example, each of client devices 106, 112 can be a mobile device, a desktop computer, a laptop, a cell phone, a smartphone, a tablet, a personal digital assistant (PDA), a server, an embedding computing system, and so forth.\",\n \"System 116 can be any of a variety of computing devices capable of receiving data, such as a server, a distributed computing system, a desktop computer, a laptop, a cell phone, a rack-mounted server, and so forth.\",\n \"System 116 may be a single server or a group of servers that are at the same location or at different locations.\",\n \"The illustrated system 116 can receive data from one or more of client devices 106, 112 via input/output (I/O) interface 200.I/O interface 200 can be any type of interface capable of receiving data over a network, such as an Ethernet interface, a wireless networking interface, a fiber-optic networking interface, a modem, and so forth.\",\n \"System 116 also includes a processing device 208 and memory 202.A bus system 204, including, for example, a data bus and a motherboard, can be used to establish and to control data communication between the components of system 116.The illustrated processing device 208 may include one or more microprocessors.\",\n \"Generally, processing device 208 may include any appropriate processor and/or logic that is capable of receiving and storing data, and of communicating over a network (not shown).\",\n \"Memory 202 can include a hard drive and a random access memory storage device, such as a dynamic random access memory, or other types of machine-readable hardware storage devices.\",\n \"Memory 202 stores computer programs (not shown) that are executable by processing device 208 to perform the techniques described herein.\",\n \"Referring now to FIG.\",\n \"3, diagram 300 includes the various states of scheduling a HRA.\",\n \"At member state 302, system 116 receives member intake information, e.g., from a health plan.\",\n \"At member state 302, member state information for the member is updated to include information specifying identifying member information, e.g., a name or a unique member identifier, and also information included in member intake information.\",\n \"At client eligibility state 304, system 116 receives eligibility information, e.g., from a health plan.\",\n \"A health plan may determine that a member is eligible for an HRA when the plan provides for an HRA.\",\n \"In a variation, system determines whether the member is enrolled in a qualified health plan that allows for HRAs or otherwise allows for annual visits.\",\n \"If the member is not enrolled in a qualified health, system 116 specifies that the member is not eligible for a HRA and updates the member state information to reflect this ineligibility.\",\n \"If the member is client eligible, system 116 updates member state information to reflect this eligibility.\",\n \"At system eligibility state 306 (which is implemented by targeting engine 122), system 116 determines whether the member is not deceased and has not reached a threshold amount of received benefits.\",\n \"If the member does not satisfy these system eligibility criteria, system 116 specifies that the member is not selected eligible for a HRA and updates the member state information to reflect this.\",\n \"If the member does satisfy these system eligibility criteria, system 116 updates the member state information to reflect this eligibility and system 116 determines whether the member is home eligible, e.g., meaning whether the member is targeted for an in-home HRA.\",\n \"At this home eligibility state 308, system 116 determines whether the user is eligible for an in-home HRA, e.g., based on whether the targeting rules specify that the member is a high risk member, based on benefits of the member's health plan, based on date of last HRA, and so forth.\",\n \"If the member is eligible for an in-home HRA, member state information for the member is updated to reflect this eligibility.\",\n \"At mailing state 310, member state information is updated with information specifying that a member is notified of the opportunity to schedule a HRA.\",\n \"At scheduling in progress state 312, member state information is updated to reflect that system 116 is attempting to schedule a HRA with the member.\",\n \"Member state information is also updated to reflect soft decline state 314, e.g., a member has declined the HRA but has asked to be contacted later.\",\n \"Member state information is also updated (e.g., by system 116) to include HRA home scheduled state 316, e.g., information specifying that a HRA is scheduled.\",\n \"Member state information is updated to include complete visit state 318, e.g., information specifying completion of a HRA.\",\n \"At each of the states 302-318, member state information is updated by system 116 to reflect a state (e.g., status) of a member.\",\n \"Referring to FIG.\",\n \"4A, system 116 implements process 400 in determining risk adjustment payment information.\",\n \"In operation, system receives (402) member intake information for a member of a health plan.\",\n \"System 116 determines (not shown) that the member is eligible for a HRA and selects the member to be notified of the opportunity to schedule the HRA.\",\n \"System 116 receives information specifying that the member accepts the invitation to schedule the HRA.\",\n \"In response, system 116 schedules (404) an appointment between a health care provider and the member for the health care provider to perform a health risk assessment, as described in further detail below.\",\n \"As described in further detail below, once the member accepts the invitation and indicates that the member wants to schedule a HRA, system 116 updates a data record of the member (e.g., a profile of the member or member state information) as being a callable member.\",\n \"The data record of the member also includes a geocode for a residence of the member or other information identifying a geographic location of the member.\",\n \"In an example, system 116 performs scheduling for various providers.\",\n \"When system 116 does scheduling for a provider (e.g., to schedule available time slots for a provider), system 116 queries data repository 126 for a list of callable members and/or for a list of callable members who are located in proximity to the provider (e.g., with a specified distance from the provider).\",\n \"As described in further detail below, system 116 executes a geo-dialing algorithm to schedule the available time slots in a manner than decreases an amount of travel by the service provider between various locations in which the HRAs are conducted.\",\n \"System 116 receives (406), from a client device used by the health care provider, health risk assessment information that is collected during the health risk assessment.\",\n \"System 116 applies (408) one or more risk adjustment rules to the received health risk assessment information.\",\n \"System 116 identifies (410) a medical diagnosis for the member, with the identified medical diagnosis being unidentified in the member intake information.\",\n \"System 116 determines (412), based on the identified medical diagnosis, risk adjustment payment information that promotes an adjustment by a health plan in health payments, e.g., to increase an amount of benefits that are paid by the health plan for the member, relative to another amount of benefits that were paid prior to the health risk assessment.\",\n \"The risk adjustment payment information includes an additional billing code that may be used in billing for health services that are provided to the member.\",\n \"Referring to FIG.\",\n \"4B, system 116 implements process 450 in generating risk adjustment payment information.\",\n \"In operation, system 116 receives (452) member intake information for a member of a health plan including a first set of medical diagnoses.\",\n \"System 116 applies (454) one or more targeting rules to the received member intake information.\",\n \"System 116 determines (not shown), based on application of the one or more targeting rules, a risk score for the member.\",\n \"System 116 selects (e.g., identifies) (456), at least partly based on the risk score, the member for participation in a health risk assessment.\",\n \"System 116 receives, from a client device used by a health care provider, health risk assessment information that is collected during the health risk assessment that is conducted by the health care provider.\",\n \"System 116 retrieves (460) medical diagnosis information that is based on an analysis of the health risk assessment information, with the medical diagnosis information being indicative of one or more medical diagnoses for the member, with the one or more medical diagnoses being different from the medical diagnoses in the first set included in the member intake information.\",\n \"System 116 retrieves the medical diagnosis information from data repository 126.A health care provider identifies the medical diagnoses and uses a client device to transmit the identified medical diagnoses to system 116 for storage in data repository 126.System 116 generates (462) risk adjustment payment information, e.g., identifying billing codes that are relevance to the new medical diagnoses.\",\n \"System 116 transmits (e.g., to a health plan) the risk adjustment payment information that is at least partly based on the medical diagnosis information, with the risk adjustment payment information comprising information that promotes determination of a risk adjustment payment.\",\n \"The scheduling of appointments is based on provider availability and based on an assignment of a health care provider to a particular geographic zone.\",\n \"Generally, a geographic zone includes a specified geographic area.\",\n \"Referring to FIG.\",\n \"5A, diagram 500 shows a boundary 502 that is representative of the geographic boundary of a specified geographic location (e.g., a state).\",\n \"In this example, member visual representations 504, 506, 508, 510, 512, 514, 516, 518, 520, and 524 represent members to be scheduled for HRAs, e.g., callable members, a health care provider is represented by visual representation 538 and geographic zones, e.g., 526, 528, 530, 532, and 534 circumscribe several of the member visual representations, and are zones assigned to health care provider 538 by system 116.Generally, a callable member includes a member who is a candidate to be called to schedule a HRA.\",\n \"Is this example, locations of each of member visual representations 504, 506, 508, 510, 512, 514, 516, 518, 520, and 524 are positioned in boundary 502 in accordance with actual geographic locations of the members (represented by member visual representations 504, 506, 508, 510, 512, 514, 516, 518, 520, and 524).\",\n \"For example, member visual representation 504 specifies a geographic location of a residence of a member (represented by member visual representation 504) in the state (represented by boundary 502).\",\n \"Member visual representation 522 represents a member who is already scheduled for a HRA with health care provider 538.The location of health care provider 538 in boundary 502 reflects a geographic location (e.g., a starting location) of the health care provider 538 in the state.\",\n \"Members represented by member visual representations 504, 506, 508, 510, 512 are members of a health plan (“health plan A”).\",\n \"Members represented by member visual representations 514, 516, 518, 250, 522, 524 are members of another health plan (“health plan B”).\",\n \"Health care provider 538 provides medical services to members in the state according to the system 116 assigned geographic zones 526, 528, 530, 532, 534.Generally, a geographic zone specifies an area or a region in which system 116 has specified that a health care provider may perform HRAs, e.g., to promote an even distributions of health care providers across a geographic region and/or state.\",\n \"System 116 also assigns radial distance 536 to health care provider 538, e.g., to reduce travel time between HRAs and to promote efficient travels between locations for performance of HRAs.\",\n \"With the system 116 assigned radial distances, health care provider 538 generally will not travel to a member that is further away than radial distance 536, for the health care provider even if the member is otherwise in an assigned zone of health care provider 538.Referring now to FIG.\",\n \"5B, system 116 retrieves, from data repository 126, schedule 540 for health care provider 538.Schedule 540 includes time slots 542, 544, 546.Time slot 544 is already scheduled for member 522.Time slots 542, 546 are empty and are available to be scheduled.\",\n \"To populate (i.e., schedule) time slot 542, system 116 retrieves a list of callable members for health care provider 538.In this example, the callable members include members who are geographically located in a same region (e.g., state) as health care provider 538 and who have accepted the invitation to schedule the HRA.\",\n \"System 116 filters the callable members list by excluding those members who are located outside of zones 526, 528, 530, 532, 534.The excluded members include the members who are represented by member visualization 508, 512, 514, 520.System 116 can further filter the callable members by removing those members who are located at a distance that is beyond radial distance 536, e.g., even if those members are otherwise within a zone of provider 538.In this example, system 116 further removes members represented by member visual representations 504, 516, 512, as those members are located beyond radial distance 536.For the remaining callable members, system 116 determines health plans of those callable members and determines whether health care provider 538 is credentialed with those various plans.\",\n \"For plans for which provider 538 is not credentialed, members associated with those plans are also removed from the list of callable members for provider 538.In the example of FIG.\",\n \"5A, provider 538 is credentialed with both health plans A and B.\",\n \"Referring to FIG.\",\n \"5C, system 116 generates queue 554 for slot 542 to populate time slot 542 in schedule 540.Queue 554 specifies an order in which callable members are called to fill slot 542.In this example, slot 542 is the first appointment of the day for provider 538.System 116 retrieves, from data repository 126, information indicative of a starting geographic location of provider 538.The starting location may include a location of a residence of provider 538, a location of an office of a provider 538, and so forth.\",\n \"The information indicative of the starting geographic location includes a geocode of the starting location.\",\n \"System 116 also retrieves, from data repository 126, geocodes of each of the call members (e.g., the members who remain on the filtered list of call members).\",\n \"Using the geocodes, system 116 executes a geo-dialing algorithm that calculates a distance (e.g., a straight-line distance) between provider 538 and each of the callable members.\",\n \"System 116 determines that the member associated with member visual representation 510 is the closest to the starting location of provider 538 (e.g., the distance between provider 538 and the member associated with member visual representation 510 is the shortest, relative to distances between provider 538 and other callable members).\",\n \"System 116 places information indicative of the member associated with member visual representation 510 first in the queue 554, e.g., to specify that a call center agent calls this member 510 first in an attempt to schedule slot 542.System 116 determines that the member associated with member visual representation 518 is the second closest to the starting location of provider 538 (e.g., the distance between provider 538 and the member associated with member visual representation 518 is the second shortest).\",\n \"System 116 places information indicative of the member associated with member visual representation 518 second in the queue, e.g., to specify that a call center agent calls this member second in an attempt to schedule slot 542—when the member to be called first does not answer or refuses to schedule an appointment.\",\n \"System 116 determines that the member associated with member visual representation 524 is the third closest to the starting location of provider 538 (e.g., the distance between provider 538 and the member associated with member visual representation 524 is the third shortest).\",\n \"System 116 places information indicative of the member associated with member visual representation 524 third in the queue, e.g., to specify that a call center agent calls (and/or that system 116 causes a call to be placed to) this member third in an attempt to schedule slot 542.System 116 determines that the member associated with member visual representation 506 is the farthest away from the starting location of provider 538 (e.g., the distance between provider 538 and the member associated with member visual representation 506 is the farthest, e.g., relative to distanced between provider 538 and other callable members).\",\n \"System 116 places information indicative of the member associated with member visual representation 506 last in the queue, e.g., to specify that a call center agent calls this member last in an attempt to schedule slot 542, when the other members refuse to answer or decline scheduling an appointment.\",\n \"The first member from queue 554 to agree to schedule an appointment is scheduled in slot 542.In the example of FIG.\",\n \"5B, slot 544 is already scheduled.\",\n \"In a variation of FIG.\",\n \"5B, slot 544 is not scheduled.\",\n \"In this variation, system 116 repeats the above-described actions to schedule slot 544 using a geographic location at which the HRA scheduled for slot 542 takes place as the starting location.\",\n \"System 116 also repeats the above-described actions to populate slot 546, using the location of the member represented by member visual representation 522 as the starting location and excluding any members who are located more than the radial distance 536 from the original starting location of provider 538.Referring to FIG.\",\n \"6A, system 116 implements process 600 in generating a call queue.\",\n \"In operation, system 116 accesses (602) a schedule of a provider.\",\n \"System 116 identifies (604) an available time slot in the schedule.\",\n \"For the identified time slot, system 116 identifies (606) callable members.\",\n \"System 116 identifies callable members by identifying members who are located in a same geographic region (e.g., city, state or county) as the provider.\",\n \"The identification of callable members is described in further detail below.\",\n \"For one or more of the identified callable members, system 116 uses geocodes of the members and geocode of the provider (e.g., a geocode of a starting location of the provider, a geocode of a location of a scheduled appointment of the provider, and so forth) to compute (608) distances between geographic locations of the members and a geographic location of the provider.\",\n \"System 116 applies (610) an offset (if any) to the computed distances.\",\n \"Offsets are described in further detail below.\",\n \"System 116 selects (612) information indicative of a member with a decreased amount of distance to a geographic location of the provider, e.g., relative to other amounts of distances of other members to the provider.\",\n \"System 116 populates (614) a call queue with information indicative of the selected member.\",\n \"System 116 populates the call queue such that other members with decreased distances are ranked above the selected member and still other members with increased distances are ranked below the selected member.\",\n \"System 116 determines (616) if the call queue is full.\",\n \"System 116 specifies a predefined number of slots in the call queue.\",\n \"If the call queue is not full, system 116 repeats actions 612, 614, 616, e.g., until the call queue is full.\",\n \"If the call queue is full, system 116 assigns (618) the call queue (for the particular time slot for the particular provider) to a call list for a call center agent.\",\n \"A call list includes an aggregation of various call queues for various time slots to be filled.\",\n \"The call list may include call queues for various different providers.\",\n \"The order in which call queues are arranged within a call list may be based on appointment date, e.g., with call queues for more imminent time slots being ranked above other call queues for time slots that are occurring at a later point in time.\",\n \"Referring to FIG.\",\n \"6B, system 116 implements process 620 in scheduling time slots.\",\n \"In operation, system 116 causes (622) a call to be placed to a member who is specified in a queue.\",\n \"In this example, system 116 includes automatic dialing software to cause a call to be placed to a member (e.g., at a telephone number associated with the member).\",\n \"System 116 receives (624) information indicative of acceptance to schedule the HRA.\",\n \"In this example, the call center agent transmits to system 116 information specifying which member has scheduled an appointment for which time slot.\",\n \"System 116 populates (626) the time slot, for which the member accepts the HRA, with information identifying the member, e.g., information specifying a name of the member, a geographic location of the member, and so forth.\",\n \"System 116 also updates (638) a starting location of the provider to be the geographic location of the scheduled time slot, e.g., that was scheduled via action 626.System 116 selects a next, available time slot in the schedule of the service provider and repeats actions 406, 408, 410, 412 (FIG.\",\n \"6A) using the updated starting location (the geographic location of the scheduled time slot that was scheduled via action 626).\",\n \"In an example, call list engine 127 implements process 700 in identifying information indicative of callable members for use in calling members for scheduling of appointments, e.g., on a daily and/or hourly basis.\",\n \"In operation, call list engine 127 identifies (702) members that have a notification status (e.g., a mailing status) within a predetermined time period (e.g., the beginning of a year).\",\n \"As previously described, system 116 may send out notification messages to various members to invite them to participate in a health risk assessment.\",\n \"The members who are notified within the predefined time period are included in an initial list of members to consider for calling.\",\n \"Call list engine 127 also filters (704) members who are included in the initial list.\",\n \"For example, call list engine 127 excludes member that have had a completed visit disposition within a predefined time period (e.g., in the last 180 days, in the current year, and so forth).\",\n \"Call list engine 127 also excludes members that have an active scheduled visit appointment with a date in future or past.\",\n \"Call list engine 127 also excludes members that do not have a valid format phone number (e.g., not in 10 digit format).\",\n \"Call list engine 127 also excludes members that have one or more of the following as a disposition status since the latest notification date, e.g., a disposition status of declined, a disposition status of deceased, a disposition status of customer excluded, a disposition status of are in pending verification status, a disposition status of requested remove from call list, a disposition status of having recently declined an invitation (e.g., in the last 60 days), a disposition status of having exceeded a maximum call limit since last notification and/or scheduled visit, a disposition status of having a telephone with a busy signal more than predetermined number of times, a disposition status of a non-busy answer (no answer, left message, and so forth) more than a predetermined number of times, a disposition status of not being eligible for a health risk assessment, and so forth.\",\n \"In the example of FIG.\",\n \"7, call list engine 127 compares the filtered members to members who are already in a list of callable members to determine (705) if a member is already in the list of callable members.\",\n \"If the member is already in the list of callable members, call list engine 127 updates (706) an eligibility status of the member (in member state information to indicate that the member is eligible for a HRA), if necessary.\",\n \"If the existing data record for the member specifies that the member is ineligible for an HRA and the new callable member list includes the member, the existing record is updated to reflect a status of eligible for a HRA.\",\n \"If the member is not already in the list of callable members, call list engine 127 updates (708) the list of callable members by adding the member to the list of callable members.\",\n \"In an example, CCA 125 includes call list engine 127 which provides a periodic (e.g., continuous) feed to outbound call agents to reach out to the member for scheduling a visit with a recommended best slot in order to achieve a better health care provider (e.g., a nurse practitioner) utilization and driving route to visit the members.\",\n \"In an example, the call list engine 127 randomly calls members.\",\n \"In this example, the member to be called for a certain slot for a health care provider is randomly picked (e.g., by the call list engine 127) to distribute the calls evenly across the booking window.\",\n \"The call list engine 127 also is configured to take into account the fact that the availability of health care providers change.\",\n \"To capture the latest health care provider availabilities, call list engine 127 provides availability overrides to perform the calendar slots adjustment, creating new calendar slots if the availabilities increased or deleting the calendar slots if the availabilities decreased.\",\n \"If the calendar slot is deleted, the associated already scheduled visits are marked as “pending” by call list engine 127 to require an action to cancel, reschedule or “leave it as is”.\",\n \"As shown in the below Table 3, a slot in a schedule (e.g., slot 542 in schedule 540 in FIG.\",\n \"5B) is associated in data repository 126 with a data record that specifies “calendar slot status type,” including, e.g., information indicative of a state of a particular slot.\",\n \"There are various types of calendar slot status types, including, e.g., an active type and a deleted type.\",\n \"In an active type, the slot is available to be scheduled with an appointment and system 116 executes the geo-dialing algorithm to schedule the appointment.\",\n \"In a deleted type, the slot is not available for appointments and appointments that have already been scheduled for that slot are rescheduled or cancelled.\",\n \"TABLE 3 Calendar slot status type Active Deleted As shown in the below Table 4, when a member schedules an HRA, member state information (and/or other data records stored in data repository 126) is updated with scheduled visit status type, e.g., information indicative of a state of scheduled visits.\",\n \"There are various scheduled visit status types, including, e.g., a status type of scheduled and a status type of pending.\",\n \"A status type of pending requires system 116 to perform an action for the appointment, e.g., canceling the appointment, re-scheduling the appointment, and leaving the appointment as is.\",\n \"TABLE 4 Scheduled visit status type Scheduled Pending (Cancel, Re-schedule, Leave as is) Call list engine 127 also enables changes to start locations and zone coverages.\",\n \"To capture the updated health care provide start locations and zone coverages, which will impact the already scheduled visits when a health care provider is no longer in that area for the target scheduled date.\",\n \"These already scheduled visits will be marked as pending as health care provider start locations and zone coverages are modified.\",\n \"Call list engine 127 also accounts for overbooking.\",\n \"The overbooking occurs in various forms due to multiple scheduling systems, e.g., with thirty minutes sync periods among these systems.\",\n \"In this example, each system does not know an occurrence of overbooking while scheduling a visit due to the availabilities on their local environments until the sync occurs among the multiple systems, e.g., when system 116 includes a distributed computing environment with numerous, different CCAs 125 and call list engines 127.Call list engine 127 schedules a batch sync operation (e.g., an operation to sync scheduled appointment slots), e.g., to capture the overbooking based on the latest availabilities.\",\n \"If the total utilized calendar slots exceed the total availabilities, call list engine 127 marks the most recently generated scheduled visits as the overbooking visits.\",\n \"In this case, an overbooked visit is updated to have a pending scheduled visit status type and a deleted calendar slot status type.\",\n \"In this example, when a member is scheduled for a health risk assessment, member state information for the member is updated.\",\n \"When a member is scheduled for a health risk assessment, a slot in a calendar or a schedule is also updated, e.g., via the calendar slot status type.\",\n \"When a member is scheduled for a health risk assessment, the scheduled visit status type for the member is also updated In an example, call list engine 127 is configured to generate a report (e.g., from records stored in data repository 126) to select the “pending” scheduled visit status types in order to generate a notification (e.g., for a user of system 116) to require one or more of the following actions, e.g., a cancel action, a rescheduled action and a leave it as is action.\",\n \"These actions promote a user to take action with regarding to overbooking.\",\n \"A cancel action is to cancel scheduled visits and to release the calendar slot if it is not marked as deleted.\",\n \"A rescheduled action is to reschedule scheduled visits and release the calendar slot if it is not marked as rescheduled.\",\n \"A leave it as is action specifies that no action is required and the scheduled visits will remain as valid scheduled visits.\",\n \"In an example, call list engine 127 is configurable to specify a number of days (e.g., a maximum) until the schedule is generated (e.g., “max days to schedule”).\",\n \"In an example, the health care provider calendar slots (e.g., slots in a calendar) are generated for a predefined number of days (e.g., next 10 days) and members can be scheduled for that period.\",\n \"In another example, the number of days is configurable and may be modified dynamically.\",\n \"In this example, if the number of days is increased, call list engine 127 generates the calendar slots for the additional days and assigns members to contact for those new slots to a call queue to promote scheduling of these new slots.\",\n \"If the number of days is reduced, call list engine 127 leaves scheduled appointments unchanged in the days that are removed and also keeps the slots for those days.\",\n \"In this example, call list engine 127 adjusts the call queue to present slots within the updated “max days to schedule”.\",\n \"Call list engine 127 is also configured to adjust client priority (e.g., priority with which members are called to schedule health risk assessments) by mileage and/or by density.\",\n \"In an example, call list engine 127 determines a priority of members to call based on the shortest distance between a geographic location of the health care provider and geographic locations of members.\",\n \"In this example, to increase a priority for calling a particular member, a distance offset is applied to the distance between the geographic location of the health care provider and the geographic location of the particular member, with the distance offset decreasing the distance, which in turn increases a priority with which the particular member is called.\",\n \"For example, the members for a higher priority client (e.g., insurance company) in a particular state are called first provided the distance is within a particular limit (e.g., radial distance for a provider).\",\n \"The adjusted distance is actual distance +/−an offset depending on client and member state.\",\n \"Call list engine 127 prevents multiple users calling for same calendar slot.\",\n \"In an example, call list engine 127 limits a number of members being called for a specific slot to a value of one or a configurable value.\",\n \"Call list engine 127 enables deactivation of a value specifying that health risk assessments may be scheduled with a particular health care provider.\",\n \"Call list engine 127 may do so to concentrate scheduling of appointments with other health care providers and to prevent the scheduling of appointments with certain other health care providers.\",\n \"The deactivated health care providers are not considered by the call list engine 127 for outbound users, e.g., call agents who are making or otherwise participating in calls with members.\",\n \"However, inbound users (e.g., members) are able to view availability and book scheduled visits for the deactivated health care providers.\",\n \"Referring to FIG.\",\n \"8 component architecture 800 of call list engine 127 is shown.\",\n \"In this example, call list engine includes a prepare callable members list component 802 that includes instructions to execute a scheduled (e.g., daily) job to identify callable members, as well as retrieve from data repository 126 information indicative of supported geographic zones, health care provider calendars, and start locations of the health care providers.\",\n \"The job can also be scheduled to run multiple times daily or executed on an ad hoc basis to address any urgent need for callable members.\",\n \"Call list engine 127 includes build call queue component 804 that includes instructions to execute a job that is scheduled to run at predefined times (e.g., every minute) during call center operation hours in order to build the call queue for each logged in outbound user (e.g., a call agent) for fetching next member to reach out to.\",\n \"Call list engine 127 includes fetch and process component 806 that includes a user interface (UI) application to fetch (e.g., retrieve) the member from the top of a call queue and try to reach out (e.g., call) for scheduling a visit.\",\n \"The prepare callable members list component 802 includes processes 808, 810, 812 that can be run independently of each other and more frequently as following.\",\n \"Daily load process 808 is executed at predefined times (e.g., daily) and generates a healthcare provider calendar (e.g., calendar with slots for the scheduling of health risk assessment).\",\n \"Load process 808 also executes load callable members process 810 and health care provider sync process 812.In this example, health care provider sync process 812 performs a synchronization of the geographic zones and the health care provider start location and zone coverage, e.g., to re-evaluate the existing calendar slots and already scheduled visits.\",\n \"As health care provider start locations and availability may change during the day, health care provider sync process 812 may be run more often, scheduled or on demand.\",\n \"In an example, this process is based on the latest health care provider availabilities/availability overrides and the start location to perform the calendar slots and already scheduled visits adjustment.\",\n \"If some calendar slots are no longer available, the associated scheduled visits are marked as pending to require the system 116 to take an action (e.g., cancel, reschedule, or leave it as it.\",\n \"As previously described, the health care provider sync process 812 performs the adjustment of calendar slots and already scheduled visits due to the changes in health care provider availabilities and start location.\",\n \"In this example, health care provider sync process 812 adjusts the calendar slots based on the latest availabilities and overrides, e.g., when slots increased, add new calendar slots and when slots decreased, remove the extra calendar slots that have open status by updating them to delete status.\",\n \"If open calendar slots have been consumed, then mark the already scheduled visits as pending status and calendar as delete status.\",\n \"Pending scheduled visits with deleted calendar slots are the overbooking (e.g., the overbooked slots).\",\n \"The health care provider sync process 812 adjusts already scheduled visits due to the change of health care provider start location and zone coverage In this example, the load callable members process 810 loads the callable members into the call member list.\",\n \"The load callable members process 810 is included in load process 808 and can be executed on demand if the amount of callable members is low and needs to be refilled.\",\n \"Process 808 loads callable members into a list and also populate sa call member details table (e.g., a table for storage and display of member information to assist an agent in calling a member to schedule a health risk assessment) with member demographic, address and phone information.\",\n \"The call member details table is updated for members with newer data and also new records are inserted.\",\n \"Referring to FIG.\",\n \"9 operations included in load callable members process 810 are shown.\",\n \"In an example, call list engine 127 loads (902) callable members into a queue or a list and also populates a call member details table (e.g., a table for storage and display of member information to assist an agent in calling a member to schedule a health risk assessment) with member demographic, address and phone information.\",\n \"The call member details table is updated for members with newer data and also new records are inserted.\",\n \"Call list engine 127 also initializes (904) and/or re-initializes a list status for each member in order to re-evaluate the member demographics information.\",\n \"In an example, a list status has a value of “complete” if a member is associated with a scheduled status (e.g., a value specifying that the member has successfully scheduled an appointment).\",\n \"In this example, a member with a queue list of complete is deleted from the callable members list or otherwise not called.\",\n \"As described herein, the callable members list may be different from a call scheduled visits table that includes information indicative of statuses of scheduled appointments and visits.\",\n \"In another example, a list status has a value of “incomplete” if a member has not yet been successfully scheduled for an appointment.\",\n \"Members with incomplete statuses remain on the callable members list.\",\n \"Call list engine 127 determines (906) a distance from a geographic location of a member to a health care provider start location.\",\n \"This action is to determine health care providers who can visit the target members (from members represented in the call list) based on the zip code of members and based on zone linkage (e.g., whether a health care provider is assigned to a zone that encompasses a geographic location of a member) and to calculate the distance (between a geographic location of a health care provider and a geographic location of a member) in order to select a member that is geographically located closest to the provider.\",\n \"Call list engine 127 also determines (908) a distance from member to member.\",\n \"In action 908, call list engine 127 determines already scheduled members who can be considered to be in the same route with the target members (from the callable members that are loaded into the call queue.)\",\n \"In an example, for each targeted callable member, call list engine 127 calculates a distance between a geographic location of a targeted callable member and a geographic location of a scheduled member (who is already scheduled for an appointment in a calendar).\",\n \"In this example, if a member already has a scheduled appointment with a health care provider, for appointments that are subsequent to this scheduled appointment, the starting location of health care provider is the geographic location of this scheduled appointment.\",\n \"Accordingly, in generating the call queue, call list engine 127 determines targeted members with shortest distances to geographic locations of scheduled appointments.\",\n \"In an example, call list engine 127 also validates (910) the phone number of the member by confirming that the phone number includes a specified number of digits.\",\n \"Call list engine 127 also determines (912) whether target members on the callable member list are in co-habitation arrangements.\",\n \"To make this determination, call list engine 127 removes the suffix in a last name of a member (e.g., in the member details table described above).\",\n \"Call list engine 127 identifies cohabitation relationships by detecting in the member details table entries with a same last name, a same telephone number and/or a same geographic location (which may be identified by a geocode).\",\n \"Generally, a geocode includes information indicative of geographic coordinates (often expressed as latitude and longitude) that are derived from other geographic data (e.g., a street name and city).\",\n \"For members that are in a cohabitation relationship, call list engine 127 schedules appointments for these members in a same time slot.\",\n \"Call list engine 127 also sets (914) a status of the callable member list to be “ready,” e.g., when the callable member list is ready to be used in generating the call queue.\",\n \"In this example, upon completion of load callable members, call list engine 127 generates for a particular health care provider a list of eligible members who are within a geographic zone that is assigned to the particular health care provider and who are also eligible for a health risk assessment.\",\n \"In this example, the particular health care provider is associated with a schedule that includes a plurality of time slots.\",\n \"In this example, at least some of the time slots are already scheduled.\",\n \"To promote scheduling of new appointments that are in proximity to already scheduled appointments, call list engine 127 computes distances between geographic locations of callable members and the geographic location of a member who is already scheduled for an appointment.\",\n \"Referring to FIG.\",\n \"10 various actions that are executed as part of process 804 for generating a call queue, e.g., using the list of callable members are shown.\",\n \"As previously described, the build call queue process 804 generates a queue of members to call for particular slots within a schedule, e.g., by presenting slots within a “max days to schedule”.\",\n \"In the example of FIG.\",\n \"10, call list engine 127 removes (1102) members from the call queue, if an identified slot (e.g., a best slot for those members) is no longer available.\",\n \"Generally, a best slot includes a slot in a schedule for which a member has been identified as being a candidate for being scheduled for an appointment for that slot, e.g., based on distance between a geographic location of the member and a geographic location of an appointment that is scheduled for a time prior to the time associated with the slot.\",\n \"Information indicative of these members are placed in the list of callable members and is re-evaluated by the build call queue process 804 again to determine the best slot.\",\n \"Call list engine 127 also retrieves (1104) a list of logged in outbound users, e.g., to identify logged in outbound users.\",\n \"An outbound user includes an agent at a call center.\",\n \"In this example, call list engine 127 also retrieves, e.g., from data repository 126, information indicative of a count of empty call slots in each logged in user's call queue to be filled.\",\n \"For a call agent, the agent has a specified number of call slots indicative of calls to be made while the agent is working.\",\n \"In this example, an outbound agent includes an individual at a call center (or other operation) who places calls to members to promote scheduling of appointments.\",\n \"A user is associated with a particular call queue (or call list), e.g., a listing of members to call for particular slots in schedules of a particular health care provider.\",\n \"In an example, a call queue may already be partially populated, e.g., based on a prior execution of build call queue process 804.A call queue may also include empty slots, e.g., when a member that was previously identified as a candidate for calling becomes ineligible for a health risk assessment or is otherwise removed from the call queue, as shown in the below Table 4.TABLE 4 SCHEDULE PROVIDER CALL QUEUE DATE TIME SLOT Call queue slot Members to call Oct. 1, 2013 1 PM 1 Member ID 1234 Member ID 1235 Member ID 1236 [EMPTY] 2 PM 2 Member ID 2234 Member ID 2235 Member ID 2236 [EMPTY] As shown in the above Table 4, a schedule (e.g., for a particular health care provider), includes various time slots (e.g., a 1 pm time slot and a 2 pm time slot) for a particular date (e.g., Oct. 1, 2013).\",\n \"In this example, a call queue (e.g., a provider call queue) is also associated with call queue slots.\",\n \"In this example, call list engine 127 assigns a time slot in the schedule to a call queue slot in the call queue.\",\n \"For a call queue slot, call list engine 127 identifies various members to call, e.g., using the techniques described herein.\",\n \"In the example shown above, the 1 pm time slot is assigned the first slot in the call queue.\",\n \"In this example, call list engine 127 has identified various members to be called to schedule appointments, e.g., these members include members who are identifiable by various member IDs (e.g., member IDs 1234, 1235, 1236).\",\n \"In this example, the first call queue slot includes an empty slot.\",\n \"Using the techniques described herein, call list engine 127 executes various processes to fill the empty slot.\",\n \"In some example, a particular slot in a call queue may be entirely empty (e.g., when no members have been identified to be called for that slot).\",\n \"In an example, call list engine 127 may also generate a multi-provider call queue, when a call agent schedules appointments for multiple, different providers, e.g., rather than scheduling appointments for a particular provider.\",\n \"An example of a multi-provider call queue is provided in the below Table 5: TABLE 5 SCHEDULE MULTI-PROVIDER DATE AND TIME CALL QUEUE PROVIDER ID SLOT Call queue slot Members to call Oct. 1, 2013 for Provider 1 PM 1 Member ID 1234 ID: 1245 Member ID 1235 Member ID 1236 [EMPTY] Oct. 1, 2013 for Provider 1 PM 2 Member ID 2234 ID: 1246 Member ID 2235 Member ID 2236 [EMPTY] Not yet assigned Not yet 3 EMPTY assigned As shown in the above Table 5, the multi-provider call queue also includes various slots to be filled for various different providers, e.g., a provider identified by provider ID 1245 and a provider identified by provider ID 1246.In this example of Table 5, the first slot in the multi-provider call queue is for the provider identified by provider ID 1245 and the second slot in the multi-provider call queue is for the provider identified by provider ID 1246.Within each slot in the call queue, the members to be called to schedule an appointment for a particular time slot are prioritized, e.g., based on distance between a geographic location of the member and based on a geographic location of a health care provider and/or based on a geographic location of a prior appointment of the health care provider.\",\n \"As shown in the above Table 5, the third slot in the multi-provider call queue has not yet been assigned.\",\n \"In this example, call list engine 127 executes the below described actions to identify which members to call to schedule for the third slot.\",\n \"In the example of FIG.\",\n \"10, call list engine 127 determines (1106) whether a call queue (e.g., a multi-provider call queue) (and/or particular slots within a call queue) are empty and require filling (or re-filling).\",\n \"When call list engine 127 determines that a call queue requires refilling, call list engine 127 retrieves (1108) a full list of callable members for particular calendar slots.\",\n \"In this example, call list engine 127 determines combinations of calendar slots for callable members via randomized best slots logic as following.\",\n \"In this example, call list engine 127 retrieves (1108) a list of callable members.\",\n \"As previously described, the list of callable members may specify which members are eligible for a health risk assessment.\",\n \"In this example, call list engine 127 retrieves the members from the list of callable members who are listed as being eligible.\",\n \"As previously described, for a member, data repository 126 stores a record for that member (e.g., in a profile for the member).\",\n \"This record may be referred as a member record.\",\n \"In this example, the member record includes a member ID that uniquely identifies the member.\",\n \"The member record also includes other identifying information for a member, including, e.g., a zip code of the member.\",\n \"The callable member list also identifies members by the member ID.\",\n \"For the callable members, call list engine 127 retrieves from data repository 126, the member records and identifies in the member records the zip codes for the members on the callable member list.\",\n \"As previously described, a call queue may be specific to a particular health provider, e.g., a call queue is for and associated with the particular health care provider.\",\n \"In this example, each health care provider is associated with his/her own call queue.\",\n \"For a health care provider participating in the system, data repository 126 also stores a health care provider record that includes identifying information of a health care provider, e.g., zip codes of the health care providers.\",\n \"Call list engine 127 retrieves information indicative of health care providers who (i) are located within the zip codes that are associated with the members in the callable members list, and (ii) have available time slots in his/her calendar.\",\n \"In this example, call list engine 127 determines callable members who are in the local operation hours (e.g., local time Sam-8 pm) and updates the callable members list to include these callable members.\",\n \"For an available slot in the health care providers' schedules, call list engine 127 identifies a member (from the updated callable members list) with a shortest distance to the health care provider.\",\n \"Call list engine 127 also adjusts the shortest distance for any offset distance based on priorities of various clients (e.g., insurance companies and/or individual members).\",\n \"For an available slot with the closest calendar date to the current date, call list engine 127 selects a predefined number of members that are closest to the geography location of the health care provider associated with the slot for the closest calendar date.\",\n \"Call list engine 127 populates the empty slot in the call queue with these predefined members, e.g., to promote scheduling of the empty slot with an appointment.\",\n \"In another example, call list engine 127 executes additional actions (as described below), prior to populating a call queue.\",\n \"In the example of FIG.\",\n \"10, call list engine 127 also retrieves (1110) from data repository 126 a list of user zones to identify specific members in the zone where user (e.g., a call agent and/or a health care provider) has been assigned to.\",\n \"In this example, a call agent is assigned to specific geographic zones (e.g., locations), e.g., to promote even load distribution of calls.\",\n \"To further promote more even calling of available members, call list engine 127 splits (1112) the updated list of callable member into a user zone pool 1114 and a general pool 1116.In this example, call list engine 127 assigns the members with zip codes that are included in (or otherwise associated with) the user zone to user zone pool 116.Call list engine 127 assigns the remaining members (or a portion there) to the general pool.\",\n \"In this example, call list engine 127 assigns (1118) members from one or more of the general pool 114 and the user zone pool 1116 to the call queue based on one or more of the following actions.\",\n \"In this example, call list engine 127 selects a calendar date for which to schedule appointments (for multiple, different providers).\",\n \"In some examples, call list engine 127 randomly selects this calendar date.\",\n \"In other examples, call list engine 127 receives instructions (e.g., from a user) that specify a particular calendar date.\",\n \"For the selected calendar date, call list engine 127 identifies the available slots (e.g., available slots in health care providers' schedules for that day).\",\n \"In this example, call list engine 127 may identify the available slots in a predefined order (e.g., a descending order) based on particular times that are associated with the slots.\",\n \"For an identified particular slot, call list engine 127 identifies one or more callable members to fill the slot based on callback request time and distance.\",\n \"In this example, a member may specify a time at which the member wants to be called to called to schedule an appointment.\",\n \"For example, a member may specify that he/she wants to be called at 2 pm to schedule an appointment.\",\n \"In this example, if the identified particular slot is for 2 pm, then call list engine 127 may select a member with a requested callback time of 2 pm or a requested call back time that is close to 2 pm.\",\n \"In still another example, call engine 127 may select a member based on proximity of a geographic location of the member to a geographic location of a health care provider.\",\n \"In this example, call list engine 127 may identify a callback variance, e.g., an amount by which a requested call back time (if any) varies from a time associated with the slot.\",\n \"Call list engine 127 may also identify a distance variance, e.g., an amount of distance between a geographic location of a member and a geographic location of health care provider (e.g., from either a starting location and/or from a prior scheduled appointment).\",\n \"In this example, call list engine 127 is configured to compute a priority value, e.g., based on the callback variance and the distance variance.\",\n \"In an example, the priority value is the sum of the callback variance and the distance variance.\",\n \"The priority values include a value indicative of a priority (e.g., ranking) at which members should be called to schedule a particular slot.\",\n \"A member with a lowest priority value is ranked with a higher priority, e.g., relative to other priority values of other members.\",\n \"In this example, a member with the lowest priority value for the time slot is loaded into the queue and called first in the queue.\",\n \"In an example, call list engine 127 selects, from general pool 114 and from user zone pool 116, members associated with lowest priority values and populates a slot in the queue with those users.\",\n \"Embodiments can be implemented in digital electronic circuitry, or in computer hardware, firmware, software, or in combinations thereof.\",\n \"An apparatus can be implemented in a computer program product tangibly embodied or stored in a machine-readable storage device for execution by a programmable processor; and method actions can be performed by a programmable processor executing a program of instructions to perform functions by operating on input data and generating output.\",\n \"The embodiments described herein, and other embodiments of the invention, can be implemented advantageously in one or more computer programs that are executable on a programmable system including at least one programmable processor coupled to receive data and instructions from, and to transmit data and instructions to, a data storage system, at least one input device, and at least one output device.\",\n \"Each computer program can be implemented in a high-level procedural or object oriented programming language, or in assembly or machine language if desired; and in any case, the language can be a compiled or interpreted language.\",\n \"Processors suitable for the execution of a computer program include, by way of example, both general and special purpose microprocessors, and any one or more processors of any kind of digital computer.\",\n \"Generally, a processor will receive instructions and data from a read-only memory or a random-access memory or both.\",\n \"The essential elements of a computer are a processor for executing instructions and one or more memory devices for storing instructions and data.\",\n \"Generally, a computer will also include, or be operatively coupled to receive data from or transfer data to, or both, one or more mass storage devices for storing data, e.g., magnetic, magneto optical disks, or optical disks.\",\n \"Computer readable media for embodying computer program instructions and data include all forms of non-volatile memory, including by way of example semiconductor memory devices, e.g., EPROM, EEPROM, and flash memory devices; magnetic disks, e.g., internal hard disks or removable disks; magneto optical disks; and CD ROM and DVD-ROM disks.\",\n \"The processor and the memory can be supplemented by, or incorporated in special purpose logic circuitry.\",\n \"Any of the foregoing can be supplemented by, or incorporated in, ASICs (application-specific integrated circuits).\",\n \"To provide for interaction with a user, embodiments can be implemented on a computer having a display device, e.g., a LCD (liquid crystal display) monitor, for displaying data to the user and a keyboard and a pointing device, e.g., a mouse or a trackball, by which the user can provide input to the computer.\",\n \"Other kinds of devices can be used to provide for interaction with a user as well; for example, feedback provided to the user can be any form of sensory feedback, e.g., visual feedback, auditory feedback, or tactile feedback; and input from the user can be received in any form, including acoustic, speech, or tactile input.\",\n \"Embodiments can be implemented in a computing system that includes a back end component, e.g., as a data server, or that includes a middleware component, e.g., an application server, or that includes a front end component, e.g., a client computer having a graphical user interface or a Web browser through which a user can interact with an implementation of embodiments, or any combination of such back end, middleware, or front end components.\",\n \"The components of the system can be interconnected by any form or medium of digital data communication, e.g., a communication network.\",\n \"Examples of communication networks include a local area network (LAN) and a wide area network (WAN), e.g., the Internet.\",\n \"The system and method or parts thereof may use the “World Wide Web” (Web or WWW), which is that collection of servers on the Internet that utilize the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP).\",\n \"HTTP is a known application protocol that provides users access to resources, which may be data in different formats such as text, graphics, images, sound, video, Hypertext Markup Language (HTML), as well as programs.\",\n \"Upon specification of a link by the user, the client computer makes a TCP/IP request to a Web server and receives data, which may be another Web page that is formatted according to HTML.\",\n \"Users can also access other pages on the same or other servers by following instructions on the screen, entering certain data, or clicking on selected icons.\",\n \"It should also be noted that any type of selection device known to those skilled in the art, such as check boxes, drop-down boxes, and the like, may be used for embodiments using web pages to allow a user to select options for a given component.\",\n \"Servers run on a variety of platforms, including UNIX machines, although other platforms, such as Windows 2000/2003, Windows NT, Sun, Linux, and Macintosh may also be used.\",\n \"Computer users can view data available on servers or networks on the Web through the use of browsing software, such as Firefox, Netscape Navigator, Microsoft Internet Explorer, or Mosaic browsers.\",\n \"The computing system can include clients and servers.\",\n \"A client and server are generally remote from each other and typically interact through a communication network.\",\n \"The relationship of client and server arises by virtue of computer programs running on the respective computers and having a client-server relationship to each other.\",\n \"Other embodiments are within the scope and spirit of the description claims.\",\n \"Additionally, due to the nature of software, functions described above can be implemented using software, hardware, firmware, hardwiring, or combinations of any of these.\",\n \"Features implementing functions may also be physically located at various positions, including being distributed such that portions of functions are implemented at different physical locations.\",\n \"The use of the term “a” herein and throughout the application is not used in a limiting manner and therefore is not meant to exclude a multiple meaning or a “one or more” meaning for the term “a.” Additionally, to the extent priority is claimed to a provisional patent application, it should be understood that the provisional patent application is not limiting but includes examples of how the techniques described herein may be implemented.\",\n \"A number of exemplary embodiments of the invention have been described.\",\n \"Nevertheless, it will be understood by one of ordinary skill in the art that various modifications may be made without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention.\"\n ]\n]"},"source":{"kind":"string","value":"Patent_15875366"}}},{"rowIdx":4494863,"cells":{"text":{"kind":"list like","value":[["WATER-BASED COATING SYSTEM WITH IMPROVED MOISTURE AND HEAT RESISTANCE","The present invention provides a water-based coating system that can be used to form durable, abrasion resistant, corrosion resistant, protective barriers on a wide range of substrates.","The coating system is particularly effective for protecting metal-containing substrates, such as intermodal cargo containers, against corrosion.","As an overview, the present invention provides water-based primer compositions suitable to form primer coats and topcoats on substrates.","Desirably, the primer incorporates one or more chlorinated resins for excellent corrosion protection.","These polymers not only provide excellent corrosion protection and but also show excellent adhesion to a wide range of substrate materials.","The system also includes topcoat compositions enhance compatibility and adhesion to the primer and to provide enhanced application."],["1-45.","(canceled) 46.A coated article, comprising: a substrate surface comprising at least one panel of an intermodal cargo container; a corrosion-resistant dried primer coating formed directly or indirectly on at least a portion of the substrate surface, said primer coating formed from a first coating composition comprising: an aqueous carrier; a resin component in admixture with the aqueous carrier comprising at least one chlorinated resin; one or more fillers; and one or more heat-stabilizing additives; and a dried topcoat formed directly or indirectly on at least a portion of the primer coating, said topcoat formed from a second coating composition comprising: a carrier; a resin component in admixture with the carrier; and one or more pigments present in a sufficient amount such that the dried topcoat formed from the second coating composition includes at least about 15 vol % of pigment based on the total volume of solids in the dried topcoat.","47.The coated article of claim 1, wherein the chlorinated resin is polyvinylidene chloride.","48.The coated article of claim 1, wherein the first coating composition comprises 20 to 80 weight percent polyvinylidene chloride.","49.The coated article of claim 1, wherein the one or more fillers is selected from BaSO4, CaCO3, dolomite, wollastonite, silica, and mixtures thereof.","50.The coated article of claim 1, wherein the one or more fillers have a total oil absorption of about 10 to 40 g per 100 g total weight of the filler.","51.The coated article of claim 1, wherein the one or more fillers comprise filler particles with surface area of no more than about 10 m2/g.","52.The coated article of claim 1, wherein the one or more fillers have a total oil absorption of 10 to 40 g per 100 g total weight of filler and surface area of no more than 10 m2/g.","53.The coated article of claim 1, wherein the one or more heat-stabilizing additives are selected from epoxy-functional resins, antioxidants, flash rust inhibitors, organosulfur compounds, dienophiles, and mixtures thereof.","54.The coated article of claim 1, wherein the one or more heat-stabilizing additives comprise up to 50 weight percent epoxy-functional resin based on the total weight of the first coating composition.","55.The coated article of claim 1, wherein the one or more heat-stabilizing additives comprise at least one epoxy-functional resin with viscosity in the range of about 5 to 20,000 cP and an epoxy equivalent weight of about 150 to 800 g/eq.","56.The coated article of claim 1, wherein the first coating composition is substantially free of catalytic metal or metal-containing species capable of catalyzing the degradation of the resin component.","57.The coated article of claim 1, wherein the second coating composition includes 15 to 85 vol % of one or more pigments, based on the total volume of solids in the dried topcoat.","58.The coated article of claim 1, wherein the second coating composition includes 25 to 80 vol % of one or more pigments, based on the total volume of solids in the dried topcoat.","59.The coated article of claim 1, wherein the one or more pigments in the second coating composition are selected from china clay, talc, mica, barium sulfate, calcium carbonate, wollastonite, dolomite, silica, chlorite, and mixtures thereof.","60.The coated article of claim 1, wherein the one or more pigments in the second coating composition comprise platelet-shaped pigment particles and non-platelet-shaped pigment particles, wherein the weight ratio of platelet-shaped particles to non-platelet-shaped particles is in the range of from 1:10 to 10:1.61.The coated article of claim 1, wherein the second coating composition comprises a free radically polymerizable reactant capable of film formation.","62.The coated article of claim 1, wherein the resin component of the second coating composition is a reactive 2K system.","63.The coated article of claim 1, wherein the carrier included in the second coating composition is an aqueous solvent.","64.The coated article of claim 1, wherein the carrier included in the second coating composition is a non-aqueous solvent.","65.The coated article of claim 1, wherein the resin component of the first coating composition comprises no more than 50 percent by weight acrylic resin based on the total weight of the resin component."],[" BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Intermodal cargo containers (also referred to as freight or shipping containers) are reusable transport and storage units for moving products and raw materials between locations, including between countries.","Intermodal cargo containers are standardized to facilitate intermodal transport such as among marine transport, freight train transport, and freight truck transport.","Standardization of cargo containers also is referred to as containerization.","Containerization has provided global commerce with many benefits.","Shipped goods move more easily and cheaply.","Manufacturers know that goods loaded at one location can be readily unloaded at the destination.","Cargo security has been improved, as containers are usually sealed and can be locked to discourage tampering and theft.","Containers also have a longer service life, and there is a stronger market for used containers.","Additionally, the costs of cargo containers themselves is lowered because a manufacturer can make these in larger volume knowing that potential customers are available all over the world.","Several international standards have been created to promote international containerization.","For instance, the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) has promulgated applicable standards including R-668 to define terminology, dimensions, and ratings; R-790 to define identification markings; R-1161 to recommend corner fittings; and R-1897 to set forth dimensions for general purpose containers.","Other standards include ASTM D5728-00, ISO 9897 (1997); ISO 14829 (2002); ISO 17363 (2007); ISO/PAS 17712 (2006); ISO 18185 (2007); and ISO/TS 10891 (2009).","An international specification for coating/paint performance is provided by IICL (Institute of International Container Lessors).","See also International Organization for Standardization (ISO), Freight Containers, Vol.","34 of ISO Standards Handbook, 4 th Ed., 2006, ISBN 92-67-10426-8; and Levinson, Marc, The Box: How the Shipping Container Made the World Smaller and the World Economy Bigger, Princeton, N.J., Princeton University Press, 2006, ISBN 0691123241.Each of these standards and publications, and all other publications referenced herein, are incorporated herein in their entirety for all purposes.","Cargo containers experience harsh, corrosive environments during their service life.","When shipped by sea, the containers are exposed to the corrosive effects of salt water.","When exposed to nature, the containers must withstand wind, sun, hail, rain, sand, heat, and the like.","Containers exposed to the sun can bake to temperatures of 82° C. (180° F.) or even higher, with darker colored containers being prone to excessive heat levels.","Accordingly, cargo containers must be made in a way that allows the containers to survive this exposure for a reasonable service life.","As one strategy, containers can be made from corrosion resistant materials such as stainless steel, weather steel (also known as weathering steel, COR-TEN brand steel, or CORTEN brand steel).","Even when made from such corrosion resistant materials, it still generally is desirable to further apply durable, abrasion resistant, corrosion resistant coatings on the containers as further protection against degradation.","Coatings also may be used for decorative, informative, or brand identity reasons.","The interior of a cargo container must also meet stringent industry standards.","For example, a food-grade container cannot exhibit any persistent odor when the cargo door is first opened, including the odor produced by outgassing solvents.","Therefore, it is desirable to apply durable, abrasion resistant, corrosion resistant and low-odor coatings to the exterior and interior surfaces of a cargo container.","A typical coating strategy involves applying a topcoating over a primer coating.","Historically, mostly solvent-based coating systems have been used to protect cargo containers as many proposed water-based systems have been unable to satisfy the applicable performance demands and/or standards.","Consequently, only solvent-based coating systems have found widespread commercial acceptance in the industry.","The container industry retains a strong bias against using prior proposed water-based coating systems.","With increased environmental awareness, there is a strong desire to develop improved technology that would allow use of water-based coating systems to protect cargo containers or other substrates (e.g., vehicles such as rail cars, trucks, and the like).","Significant challenges remain.","As one serious challenge, it has been very difficult to formulate water-based coating systems that show acceptable adhesion to underlying container surfaces.","Many conventional water-based systems fail to pass applicable salt spray testing procedures.","The coatings blister, peel, crack, or otherwise show poor durability.","Some water-based coatings offer too little protection against corrosion.","Thus, there is a strong need to improve the moisture resistance of these coatings.","The industry strongly desires a commercially available, water-based coating system that is able to satisfy the stringent demands of the intermodal cargo container industry."],[" SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The present invention provides a water-based coating system that can be used to form durable, abrasion resistant, heat resistant, corrosion resistant, protective barriers on a wide range of substrates.","The coating system is particularly effective for protecting metal-containing substrates, such as intermodal cargo containers, vehicles (e.g., rail cars, trucks, etc.","), structural features (bridges, water towers, supports, etc.","), and the like, against corrosion.","Moreover, because the coating system is water-based, it reduces or eliminates emissions and factory pollution during manufacture and application.","The water-based coating described herein can be used to paint the interior of food-grade containers without concern over persistent odors or prolonged outgassing of solvent common to solvent-based coating systems.","As an overview, the present invention provides water-based primer compositions suitable to form corrosion-resistant coatings on substrates, as primer coats on substrates, and as topcoat compositions suitable to form optional topcoats directly or indirectly on the primer coats.","Desirably, the coatings, and especially the primer coats, incorporate one or more chlorinated resins for excellent corrosion protection.","These chlorinated resins not only provide excellent corrosion protection and but also show excellent adhesion to a wide range of substrate materials.","Unfortunately, chlorinated polymers such as polyvinylidene chloride are susceptible to degradation in strongly acidic aqueous environments, and on exposure to higher temperatures, e.g., temperatures above 150° F. (65.5° C.) or even above 180° F. (82.2° C.).","This degradation can lead to a number of coating issues, including reduced corrosion protection, peeling, blistering, cracking, and the like.","It would be desirable to be able to improve the heat resistance and corrosion resistance of chlorinated resins to increase their useful operating range.","Significantly, the present invention provides strategies that can be used singly or in combination that may improve the heat resistance and corrosion resistance of the chlorinated resins.","The present invention also provides water-based compositions that may be used to form topcoats on the underlying primer coats with excellent adhesion, durability, and moisture resistance.","Preferred topcoats have high pigment loading to help make the coatings more resistant to blistering, peeling, cracking, and the like while still allowing high levels of corrosion resistance to be retained.","Conventionally, there has been a strong bias in the industry to only use solvent-based coating systems to protect cargo containers.","The bias is that water-based coatings lack the kind of processability and performance needed to survive in this challenging environment.","Surprisingly, the present invention provides a water-based coating system that shows excellent performance when used to protect such cargo containers, surviving challenging industry tests normally satisfied only by solvent-based systems.","For instance, the coatings of the present invention pass applicable salt spray testing standards and show excellent heat resistance.","The water-based coatings of the present invention also provide significant environmental benefits.","They produce lower factory pollution and emission during application to cargo containers.","Moreover, the water-based coatings of the present invention enable coated containers to be used immediately for the transport of absorptive goods such as food stuff, for example.","Food stuff cannot be transported in containers freshly painted with solvent-based coatings, because the solvent will volatilize or outgas and contaminate the food stuff.","Each of the primer composition and the topcoat composition of the invention independently can be applied on substrates in one or more coats.","Optionally, these compositions can be used in combination with other coating compositions as well.","For instance, the coating system of the invention can be applied over a substrate that is at least partially coated with another primer or other coating(s), such as an epoxy primer.","As one advantage, however, the water-based coating compositions of the present invention can be applied, if desired, as a two-coat system (topcoat layer over primer layer) and still meet stringent performance standards of the intermodal container industry.","This is quite significant for an environmentally friendly, water-based coating system.","In the past, mainly only solvent-based systems have been able to meet industry demands when applied as a two-coat system.","In short, the present invention provides an environmental and application-friendly system that passes applicable industry standard testing and that can be applied to substrates such as intermodal cargo containers in a similar fashion to solvent based coatings.","One advantage of a two-coat system versus a system that involves more coats is that the two-coat system requires less time for drying on line, thereby enhancing throughput during the coating stage."],["CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION(S) This application is a continuation-in-part of PCT Application No.","PCT/US2011/057040, filed 20 Oct. 2011, and claims priority to U.S.","Provisional Application Ser.","No.","61/394,972, filed 20 Oct. 2010, and U.S.","Provisional Application Ser.","No.","61/450,471, filed 8 Mar.","2011.FIELD OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to water-based coating systems used to form protective coatings on substrates and in particular metal containing substrates.","More particularly, the present invention relates to coating compositions, methods, and coating systems involving an aqueous primer composition (also referred to as a basecoat) incorporating at least one chlorinated resin and an optional aqueous topcoat composition, wherein the topcoat composition preferably has a sufficiently high pigment loading to promote enhanced performance of the resultant coatings, including, for example, enhanced durability, thermal protection, and service life.","BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Intermodal cargo containers (also referred to as freight or shipping containers) are reusable transport and storage units for moving products and raw materials between locations, including between countries.","Intermodal cargo containers are standardized to facilitate intermodal transport such as among marine transport, freight train transport, and freight truck transport.","Standardization of cargo containers also is referred to as containerization.","Containerization has provided global commerce with many benefits.","Shipped goods move more easily and cheaply.","Manufacturers know that goods loaded at one location can be readily unloaded at the destination.","Cargo security has been improved, as containers are usually sealed and can be locked to discourage tampering and theft.","Containers also have a longer service life, and there is a stronger market for used containers.","Additionally, the costs of cargo containers themselves is lowered because a manufacturer can make these in larger volume knowing that potential customers are available all over the world.","Several international standards have been created to promote international containerization.","For instance, the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) has promulgated applicable standards including R-668 to define terminology, dimensions, and ratings; R-790 to define identification markings; R-1161 to recommend corner fittings; and R-1897 to set forth dimensions for general purpose containers.","Other standards include ASTM D5728-00, ISO 9897 (1997); ISO 14829 (2002); ISO 17363 (2007); ISO/PAS 17712 (2006); ISO 18185 (2007); and ISO/TS 10891 (2009).","An international specification for coating/paint performance is provided by IICL (Institute of International Container Lessors).","See also International Organization for Standardization (ISO), Freight Containers, Vol.","34 of ISO Standards Handbook, 4th Ed., 2006, ISBN 92-67-10426-8; and Levinson, Marc, The Box: How the Shipping Container Made the World Smaller and the World Economy Bigger, Princeton, N.J., Princeton University Press, 2006, ISBN 0691123241.Each of these standards and publications, and all other publications referenced herein, are incorporated herein in their entirety for all purposes.","Cargo containers experience harsh, corrosive environments during their service life.","When shipped by sea, the containers are exposed to the corrosive effects of salt water.","When exposed to nature, the containers must withstand wind, sun, hail, rain, sand, heat, and the like.","Containers exposed to the sun can bake to temperatures of 82° C. (180° F.) or even higher, with darker colored containers being prone to excessive heat levels.","Accordingly, cargo containers must be made in a way that allows the containers to survive this exposure for a reasonable service life.","As one strategy, containers can be made from corrosion resistant materials such as stainless steel, weather steel (also known as weathering steel, COR-TEN brand steel, or CORTEN brand steel).","Even when made from such corrosion resistant materials, it still generally is desirable to further apply durable, abrasion resistant, corrosion resistant coatings on the containers as further protection against degradation.","Coatings also may be used for decorative, informative, or brand identity reasons.","The interior of a cargo container must also meet stringent industry standards.","For example, a food-grade container cannot exhibit any persistent odor when the cargo door is first opened, including the odor produced by outgassing solvents.","Therefore, it is desirable to apply durable, abrasion resistant, corrosion resistant and low-odor coatings to the exterior and interior surfaces of a cargo container.","A typical coating strategy involves applying a topcoating over a primer coating.","Historically, mostly solvent-based coating systems have been used to protect cargo containers as many proposed water-based systems have been unable to satisfy the applicable performance demands and/or standards.","Consequently, only solvent-based coating systems have found widespread commercial acceptance in the industry.","The container industry retains a strong bias against using prior proposed water-based coating systems.","With increased environmental awareness, there is a strong desire to develop improved technology that would allow use of water-based coating systems to protect cargo containers or other substrates (e.g., vehicles such as rail cars, trucks, and the like).","Significant challenges remain.","As one serious challenge, it has been very difficult to formulate water-based coating systems that show acceptable adhesion to underlying container surfaces.","Many conventional water-based systems fail to pass applicable salt spray testing procedures.","The coatings blister, peel, crack, or otherwise show poor durability.","Some water-based coatings offer too little protection against corrosion.","Thus, there is a strong need to improve the moisture resistance of these coatings.","The industry strongly desires a commercially available, water-based coating system that is able to satisfy the stringent demands of the intermodal cargo container industry.","SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The present invention provides a water-based coating system that can be used to form durable, abrasion resistant, heat resistant, corrosion resistant, protective barriers on a wide range of substrates.","The coating system is particularly effective for protecting metal-containing substrates, such as intermodal cargo containers, vehicles (e.g., rail cars, trucks, etc.","), structural features (bridges, water towers, supports, etc.","), and the like, against corrosion.","Moreover, because the coating system is water-based, it reduces or eliminates emissions and factory pollution during manufacture and application.","The water-based coating described herein can be used to paint the interior of food-grade containers without concern over persistent odors or prolonged outgassing of solvent common to solvent-based coating systems.","As an overview, the present invention provides water-based primer compositions suitable to form corrosion-resistant coatings on substrates, as primer coats on substrates, and as topcoat compositions suitable to form optional topcoats directly or indirectly on the primer coats.","Desirably, the coatings, and especially the primer coats, incorporate one or more chlorinated resins for excellent corrosion protection.","These chlorinated resins not only provide excellent corrosion protection and but also show excellent adhesion to a wide range of substrate materials.","Unfortunately, chlorinated polymers such as polyvinylidene chloride are susceptible to degradation in strongly acidic aqueous environments, and on exposure to higher temperatures, e.g., temperatures above 150° F. (65.5° C.) or even above 180° F. (82.2° C.).","This degradation can lead to a number of coating issues, including reduced corrosion protection, peeling, blistering, cracking, and the like.","It would be desirable to be able to improve the heat resistance and corrosion resistance of chlorinated resins to increase their useful operating range.","Significantly, the present invention provides strategies that can be used singly or in combination that may improve the heat resistance and corrosion resistance of the chlorinated resins.","The present invention also provides water-based compositions that may be used to form topcoats on the underlying primer coats with excellent adhesion, durability, and moisture resistance.","Preferred topcoats have high pigment loading to help make the coatings more resistant to blistering, peeling, cracking, and the like while still allowing high levels of corrosion resistance to be retained.","Conventionally, there has been a strong bias in the industry to only use solvent-based coating systems to protect cargo containers.","The bias is that water-based coatings lack the kind of processability and performance needed to survive in this challenging environment.","Surprisingly, the present invention provides a water-based coating system that shows excellent performance when used to protect such cargo containers, surviving challenging industry tests normally satisfied only by solvent-based systems.","For instance, the coatings of the present invention pass applicable salt spray testing standards and show excellent heat resistance.","The water-based coatings of the present invention also provide significant environmental benefits.","They produce lower factory pollution and emission during application to cargo containers.","Moreover, the water-based coatings of the present invention enable coated containers to be used immediately for the transport of absorptive goods such as food stuff, for example.","Food stuff cannot be transported in containers freshly painted with solvent-based coatings, because the solvent will volatilize or outgas and contaminate the food stuff.","Each of the primer composition and the topcoat composition of the invention independently can be applied on substrates in one or more coats.","Optionally, these compositions can be used in combination with other coating compositions as well.","For instance, the coating system of the invention can be applied over a substrate that is at least partially coated with another primer or other coating(s), such as an epoxy primer.","As one advantage, however, the water-based coating compositions of the present invention can be applied, if desired, as a two-coat system (topcoat layer over primer layer) and still meet stringent performance standards of the intermodal container industry.","This is quite significant for an environmentally friendly, water-based coating system.","In the past, mainly only solvent-based systems have been able to meet industry demands when applied as a two-coat system.","In short, the present invention provides an environmental and application-friendly system that passes applicable industry standard testing and that can be applied to substrates such as intermodal cargo containers in a similar fashion to solvent based coatings.","One advantage of a two-coat system versus a system that involves more coats is that the two-coat system requires less time for drying on line, thereby enhancing throughput during the coating stage.","Selected Definitions The term “component” refers to any part of a composition, polymer or coating that includes a particular feature or structure.","Examples of components include compounds, monomers, oligomers, polymers, and organic groups contained there.","The term “double bond” is non-limiting and refers to any type of double bond between any suitable atoms (e.g., C, O, N, etc.).","The term “triple bond” is non-limiting and refers to any type of triple bond between any suitable atoms.","The term “crosslinker” refers to a molecule capable of forming a covalent linkage between polymers or between two different regions of the same polymer.","The term “self-crosslinking,” when used in the context of a self-crosslinking polymer, refers to the capacity of a polymer to enter into a crosslinking reaction with itself and/or another polymer, in the absence of an external crosslinker, to form a covalent linkage therebetween.","Typically, this crosslinking reaction occurs through reaction of complimentary reactive functional groups present on the self-crosslinking polymer itself or two separate molecules of the self-crosslinking polymer.","The term “water-dispersible” in the context of a water-dispersible polymer means that the polymer can be mixed into water (or an aqueous carrier) to form a stable mixture.","For example, a stable mixture will not separate into immiscible layers over a period of at least 2 weeks when stored at 49° C. (120° F.), or when physical force (such as vibration, for example) is applied.","The term “water-dispersible” is intended to include the term “water-soluble.” In other words, by definition, a water-soluble polymer is also considered to be a water-dispersible polymer.","The term “dispersion” in the context of a dispersible polymer refers to the mixture of a dispersible polymer and a carrier.","Except as otherwise indicated, the term “dispersion” is intended to include the term “solution.” As used herein, a “latex” polymer means that a polymer is in admixture with an aqueous carrier with the help of at least one emulsifying agent (e.g., a surfactant) for creating an emulsion of polymer particles in the carrier.","The term “thermoplastic” refers to a material that melts and changes shape when sufficiently heated and hardens when sufficiently cooled.","Such materials are typically capable of undergoing repeated melting and hardening without exhibiting appreciable chemical change.","In contrast, a “thermoset” refers to a material that is crosslinked and does not “melt.” Unless otherwise indicated, a reference to a “(meth)acrylate” compound (where “meth” is bracketed) is meant to include both acrylate and methacrylate compounds.","The term “polycarboxylic acid” includes both polycarboxylic acids and anhydrides thereof.","The term “on”, when used in the context of a coating applied on a surface or substrate, includes both coatings applied directly or indirectly to the surface or substrate.","Thus, for example, a coating applied to a primer layer overlying a substrate constitutes a coating applied on the substrate.","Except as otherwise indicated, the term “weight percent” or “wt %” refers to the concentration of a component or composition based on the total weight of the composition, expressed as a percentage.","Except as otherwise indicated, the term “parts by weight” refers to the concentration of a component or composition based on the total weight of the composition.","Unless otherwise indicated, the term “polymer” includes both homopolymers and copolymers (i.e., polymers of two or more different monomers).","As used herein, the term “pigment volume concentration” (PVC) refers to the ratio of the volume of the pigment or filler particles (i.e.","non-binder solids) to the total volume of solids (binder and filler) present in the first coating composition.","Where the binder and non-binder solids include multiple components, ideal mixing is assumed and all volumes are additive.","The concentration at which the amount of binder present in a composition is just sufficient to wet out the pigment or filler (i.e.","fill all the voids between filler or pigment particles) is known as the “critical pigment volume concentration” (CPVC), and represents the physical transition point in a filler-binder system.","The term “comprises” and variations thereof do not have a limiting meaning where these terms appear in the description and claims.","The terms “preferred” and “preferably” refer to embodiments of the invention that may afford certain benefits, under certain circumstances.","However, other embodiments may also be preferred, under the same or other circumstances.","Furthermore, the recitation of one or more preferred embodiments does not imply that other embodiments are not useful, and is not intended to exclude other embodiments from the scope of the invention.","As used herein, “a,” “an,” “the,” “at least one,” and “one or more” are used interchangeably.","Thus, for example, a coating composition that comprises “an” additive can be interpreted to mean that the coating composition includes “one or more” additives.","Also herein, the recitations of numerical ranges by endpoints include all numbers subsumed within that range (e.g., 1 to 5 includes 1, 1.5, 2, 2.75, 3, 3.80, 4, 5, etc.).","Furthermore, disclosure of a range includes disclosure of all subranges included within the broader range (e.g., 1 to 5 discloses 1 to 4, 1.5 to 4.5, 1 to 2, etc.).","BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES FIG.","1A is a graphical representation of the effect of filler oil absorptivity on water soak performance for the first aqueous coating composition.","FIG.","1B is a graphical representation of the effect of filler oil absorptivity on adhesion performance for the first aqueous coating composition.","FIG.","2 is a graphical representation of the thermal stability of the first aqueous coating composition in the presence of Zn-containing species, and with and without epoxy resin.","FIG.","3A is a graphical representation of the correlation between oil absorptivity of the fillers used in the first aqueous composition and particle surface area.","FIG.","3B is a graphical representation of the adhesion performance for the first aqueous coating composition.","FIG.","4A is an SEM image of a talc particle.","FIG.","4B is an SEM image of a BaSO4 particle.","DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF PRESENTLY PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS The embodiments of the present invention described below are not intended to be exhaustive or to limit the invention to the precise forms disclosed in the following detailed description.","Rather the embodiments are chosen and described so that others skilled in the art may appreciate and understand the principles and practices of the present invention.","All patents, pending patent applications, published patent applications, and technical articles cited herein are incorporated herein by reference in their respective entireties for all purposes.","In an embodiment, the coating system of the present invention generally includes a first aqueous composition that is used to form a corrosion resistant primer coating on a substrate.","The system optionally and preferably further includes a second aqueous coating composition that is used to form a durable, abrasion resistant topcoat over the first coating.","In an embodiment, the first aqueous coating composition generally includes ingredients comprising at least a first resin component in admixture with in an aqueous carrier.","The first aqueous coating composition of the invention may be a single phase solution in which one or more ingredients including at least the first resin component are substantially fully dispersed in the aqueous carrier.","Alternatively, the coating compositions may include two or more phases.","Compositions including two or more phases may be in the form of dispersions such as a dispersion in which one or more phases are dispersed in a continuous phase of another material and/or phase.","Many dispersions are in the form of suspensions including but not limited to colloidal suspensions.","In some embodiments, coating compositions are in the form of a latex or emulsion including polymer microparticles dispersed in an aqueous carrier.","Some compositions may be water-reducible meaning that the composition remains stable if diluted with additional amounts of water.","In an embodiment, water-reducible compositions use at least one polymer that is capable of being dispersed in water without requiring the use of a separate surfactant, although separate surfactants could be used, if desired.","Polymers that can be dispersed in water without requiring a separate surfactant often include pendant ionic functionality and/or hydrophilic chain segments that render corresponding regions of the polymer to be more compatible with water.","External acids or bases may be required for anionic stabilization, but such acids and bases usually are different than the emulsifying agents (e.g., surfactants) that are used to disperse a latex polymer.","In an embodiment, the first resin component includes at least one film-forming resin that desirably helps the overlying topcoat adhere better to the underlying substrate and/or in combination with the topcoat provides additional protection for the substrate.","Preferably, the film-forming resin component acts as a barrier to moisture and/or oxygen.","The resin(s) useful in the first resin component may be thermosetting and/or thermoplastic.","Conveniently, one or more of these are thermoplastic.","Further, some embodiments of a thermoplastic resin useful in the practice of the present invention may be amorphous, crystalline or semicrystalline.","Illustrative resins used in the first resin component include acyclic, cyclic, branched, linear, aliphatic, or aromatic resins.","Thermoplastic resins desirably have a minimum film-forming temperature (MFFT) that is below 65° C., preferably below 45° C., more preferably below 25° C. It is also desirable that such resins desirably have a minimum film forming temperature that is greater than −50° C., preferably greater than −25° C., more preferably greater than 0° C. The molecular weight(s) of the one or more resins of the first resin component independently may vary over a wide range.","If the molecular weight is too low, then the coating may not be durable enough or may not be resistant to solvent attack.","If too high, then the coating may not be easy to apply at sufficient solids level.","Balancing such concerns, the number average molecular weight desirably is in the range from about 5000 to 75,000, more preferably about 10,000 to 50,000, more preferably from about 10,000 to 20,000; and the weight average molecular weight desirably is in the range from about 8,000 to 150,000, more preferably about 20,000 to 80,000, more preferably about 35,000 to 55,000.As used herein, molecular weight refers to the number average molecular weight (Mn) unless otherwise expressly noted.","Preferably, the first resin component includes at least one chlorinated resin derived from one or more reactants, wherein at least one of the reactant(s) is at least partially chlorinated.","Chlorinated resins, known to have excellent barrier properties, help to provide coatings with excellent corrosion resistance, particularly in marine environments in which substrates protected by the coating system are exposed to solvents, fresh water, salt water, and the like.","The Cl substituents of the chlorinated reactant(s) may be attached directly to the reactant backbone by a single bond or via a suitable linking group.","In some embodiments, chlorinated reactants may be monomeric, oligomeric, and/or polymeric.","In some embodiments, free radically polymerizable functionality may be present.","In addition to one or more chlorinated reactants, one or more additional copolymerizable monomers, oligomers, and/or resins may also be used with the chlorinated resins, if desired.","The chlorinated reactant(s) desirably constitute at least 50 weight percent, more preferably at least 70 weight percent, even more preferably at least 85 weight percent, and even up to 100 weight percent of the resultant chlorinated resin(s).","The Cl content of the resultant chlorinated resin can vary over a wide range.","In some embodiments, the resin can be partially chlorinated or perchlorinated.","If the Cl content is too low, the corrosion protection provided by the resin may be less than is desired.","The Cl content can be characterized as the weight percent of Cl included in the chlorinated resin.","For higher levels of corrosion protection, it is desirable that a chlorinated resin includes at least about 20 weight percent Cl, preferably at least about 40 weight percent Cl, and more preferably at least about 60 weight percent Cl.","Perchlorinated embodiments represent a practical upper limit upon Cl content.","Chlorinated resins of the type described herein may be made by radical polymerization of chlorinated monomers.","Chlorinated monomers preferably include, for example, reactants with free radically polymerizable functionality (e.g., carbon-carbon double bonds), and have structures including preferably 2 to 20, more preferably 2 to 10, and most preferably 2 to 4 carbon atoms.","Suitable examples include, without limitation, chlorinated ethenes, chlorinated propenes, and combinations of these, such as monochloroethene, 1,1-dicholoro ethane, 1,2-dichloroethene, 1,1,2-trichloroethene, tetrachloroethene, 1-chloropropene, 2-chloropropene, 1,1-dichloropropene, 2,2-dichloropropene, 1,2-dichloropropene, 1,1,1-trichloro-2-propene, 1,1,2-1-propene, 1,2,3-trichloropropene, combinations of these, and the like.","Chlorinated resins of the type described herein also may be made by radical polymerization of chlorinated monomers with monomers or comonomers of ethylenically unsaturated esters, amides, and anhydrides of carboxylic acids.","Suitable ethylenically unsaturated comonomers include, for example, (meth)acrylic acid and derivatives such as glycidyl (meth)acrylate, methylaminoethyl (meth)acrylate, t-butylaminoethyl (meth)acrylate, (meth)acrylamide, 4-pentanoguanamine; hydroxylalkyl esters such as hydroxypropyl (meth)acrylate, hydroxyethyl (meth)acrylate, (meth)acrylonitrile, N-alkoxyalkyl amides such as methoxymethyl (meth)acrylamide and butoxy-(methyl) acrylamide; hydroxyalkyl amides such as N-methylol (meth)acrylamide; dicarboxylic acids such as maleic acid; corresponding anhydrides of these (if any); combinations of these, and the like.","Preferred chlorinated resins may be prepared as described in U.S. Pat.","Nos.","4,341,679; 4,401,788; 4,435,478; 4,543,386; and 4,783,499.In addition to the one or more Cl substituents and free radically polymerizable functionality, the chlorinated reactants used to make chlorinated resins may otherwise be substituted or unsubstituted with additional kinds of functionality, including epoxy-functionality, for example.","Such functionality optionally may be used for crosslinking.","As an additional option, such functionality may be used to provide the resin with integral dispersing functionality.","Some substituents may be co-members of a ring structure.","Examples of other substituents include hydroxyl, thiol, amino, amide, isocyanate, nitrile, carboxy, sulfate, sulfite, fatty acid, epoxide, and combinations of these groups.","The composition may also contain one or more other types of free-radical addition polymers (e.g.","produced by the free-radical addition polymerization or copolymerization in aqueous emulsion of one or more monomers such as vinylidene chloride, alkyl (meth)acrylates having 1 to 12 carbon atoms in the alkyl group, alkoxyalkyl (meth)acrylates having 1 to 12 carbon atoms in the alkyl group, styrene, (meth)acrylonitrile, allyloxy groups, cyanate ester groups, vinyl acetate, vinyl ether groups, vinyl chloride, ethylene, cis- and trans-1,3-butadiene, cis- and trans-isoprene, cis- and trans-chloroprene, 1-decene, 1-pentene and 1-octene, combinations of these, and the like.","Free radically polymerizable functionality is conveniently reacted by exposing the reactants to a suitable source of curing energy, often in the presence of agents (e.g., initiators, etc.)","that help promote the desired reaction.","The energy source used for achieving polymerization and/or crosslinking of the curable functionality may be actinic (e.g., radiation having a wavelength in the ultraviolet or visible region of the spectrum), accelerated particles (e.g., electron beam radiation), thermal (e.g., heat or infrared radiation), or the like.","A particularly preferred chlorinated resin is polyvinylidene chloride (PVDC).","As used herein, polyvinylidene chloride refers to a resin in which 1,1-dichloroethene constitutes at least 40 weight percent, optionally at least 60 weight percent, further optionally at least about 75 weight percent, further optionally at least about 90 weight percent, and further optionally even up to 100 percent by weight of the reactants used to make the resin.","A wide range of suitable embodiments of polyvinylidene chloride resins are available from commercial sources.","Examples of commercially available embodiments include, without limitation, those available under the trade designations DIOFAN (available from Dow Chemical and/or Solvay Plastics), POLIDENE (e.g., 33-082, 33-038, 33-086, 33-083, 33-075, and 33-081 available from Scott Bader), HALOFLEX (e.g., 202 and 202S available from DSM Neoresins), PERMAX (e.g., 803 and 805 available from Lubrizol), other commercially available resins, combinations of these, and the like.","In an aspect, PVDC or other commercially available chlorinated resins may be modified with specific functionality, such as epoxy-functionality, for example.","The amount of first resin component in the first aqueous coating composition may be selected from a wide range.","Generally, if the amount of resin component is too low, then it may be difficult to form a film, more difficult to form a film that has sufficient adhesion to the substrate, the film may have insufficient corrosion resistance or other performance, and/or the like.","If too much is used, then it may be harder to formulate a pigmented system or it may be more difficult to make a material that can be applied to the substrate.","Balancing such concerns, the first aqueous coating composition preferably includes from about 10 to 70 weight percent, more preferably about 15 to 50 weight percent, and most preferably about 20 to 40 weight percent of the first resin component based on the total weight of the aqueous coating composition.","The first resin component preferably includes at least about 50 weight percent, more preferably about 50 to 75 weight percent, and most preferably about 75 to 100 weight percent of a chlorinated resin, such as PVDC, for example.","In addition to the chlorinated resin(s), the first aqueous coating composition optionally may include one or more other kinds of resin components.","Preferably, these are hydrophobic and substantially miscible with chlorinated resins so that any undesirable amounts of phase separation among resins is substantially avoided.","Exemplary resins include epoxies, polyurethanes, polyamides, polyimides, halogenated polymers, polysilicones, polyesters, polyolefins, (meth)acrylic resins, combinations of these and the like.","Acrylic latex emulsions are preferred, including, for example, polyurethane dispersions (PUD), all-acrylic emulsions, styrene-acrylic emulsions, and acrylic-modified alkyd resin dispersions.","In an aspect, styrene-acrylic emulsions are preferred.","The amount of these resins may be selected from a wide range, balancing concerns of compatibility with the chlorinated resin component against performance of the coating, in terms of corrosion resistance and heat resistance.","In a preferred aspect, the first aqueous coating composition includes up to about 50 wt %, preferably about 5 to 50 wt %, more preferably about 15 to 40 wt %, and most preferably about 20 to 30 wt % of acrylic latex emulsion, based on the total weight of resin components in the first aqueous coating composition.","The first resin component is in admixture with an aqueous carrier.","As used herein, “aqueous” means that at least about 5 weight percent, preferably at least about 20 weight percent, more preferably at least about 40 weight percent, and even more preferably at least about 60 weight percent, and even 90 weight percent or more of the carrier is water, based upon the total weight of the carrier.","Most preferably, from about 85 to 100 weight percent, more preferably about 95 to 99 weight percent of the carrier is water.","In addition to water, the aqueous carrier of the first aqueous coating composition optionally may include one or more additional, optional co-carriers.","Co-carrier(s) may be used for a variety of purposes, including helping in film formation and/or paint stability.","Examples of suitable co-carriers include butyl cellosolve, alcohol(s), such as butanol, coalescing agents (e.g., ester alcohol(s), such as the Eastman Texanol product and/or low VOC coalescents such as are described in U.S. Pat.","Nos.","6,762,230 and 7,812,079), glycol ether(s), combinations of these, and the like.","Desirably, so-called VOC-exempt co-carrier(s) are preferred.","The amount of co-carrier included in the first aqueous coating composition can vary over a wide range.","The amount(s) to use will depend on factors including the type of co-carrier, the purpose for which the co-carrier is being added, the coating technique(s) that might be used to apply the first aqueous coating composition onto a substrate, and the like.","In illustrative embodiments, the first aqueous coating composition may include from about 03 to 80 weight percent, desirably about 0.3 to 15 weight percent, more desirably about 1 to 5 weight percent of co-carrier(s) based on the total weight of co-carrier and water included in the composition.","As supplied, many water-based PVDC resin compositions tend to be strongly acidic, often having a pH of about 2 or less, even about 1 or less.","In a strongly acidic, aqueous environment, chlorinated resins tend to dehydrochlorinate, leading to undesirable resin degradation.","Without being bound by theory, it is believed that allylic double bonds are formed in the chlorinated resin as a consequence of dehydrochlorination.","These allylic double bonds are sites at which the resin backbone breaks down.","In addition, these double bonds may active adjacent chlorinated sites, making these sites prone to dehydrochlorination.","The degradation process is self-catalytic, as dehydrochlorination produces HCl which further catalyzes dehydrochlorination of the resin.","The self-catalyzed degradation of the chlorinated resin produces strands of conjugated double bonds.","Conjugated double bonds are chromophoric, and therefore, degradation of the resin is evidenced by a color change, i.e.","yellowing or darkening of the resin.","In addition, degradation may also cause loss of adhesion in a coating made from the resin, embrittlement of the resin due to Diels-Alder crosslinking of the conjugated double bonds, and the like.","In a preferred aspect, the first resin component, such as aqueous PVDC, for example, is treated to raise the pH to make the composition less acidic, thereby reducing degradation associated with dehydrochlorination of the resin.","Because dehydrochlorination is substantially reduced or inhibited in less acidic conditions, raising the pH of the chlorinated resin component improves the heat stability of the resin, and shelf-life is also improved.","Because degradation is reduced, performance properties of the resultant coatings are improved, including improved adhesion, greater resistance to blistering, and the like.","Adjusting the pH of the water-based resin environment also eases compatibility concerns with other ingredients that might be used in the first aqueous coating composition.","Generally, coating constituents tend to be more compatible at similar pH values.","Ingredients with similar pH are more easily blended into coating formulations with less risk that the components will unduly react and/or be too difficult to blend together into mixtures with rheology characteristics suitable for coating applications.","Many ingredients known to be useful in coating applications tend to have pH characteristics that are mildly acidic, neutral, or mildly alkaline.","Consequently, as an additional benefit, raising the pH enhances the compatibility of the chlorinated resin with many other ingredients.","For example, raising the pH of the chlorinated resin environment enhances compatibility of the resin with epoxy-functional compounds that can act as HCl and/or tertiary Cl scavengers, as further described below.","Accordingly, it is desirable in many embodiments to at least partially adjust the pH of at least a portion of the PVDC resin composition before the composition or portion thereof is combined with some or all of the other coating composition constituents.","As still another benefit, raising the pH of the chlorinated resin composition also is believed to reduce undesirable interactions that might occur between the resin and underlying metal substrates.","Without being bound by theory, it is believed that more acidic coating, particularly when wet as first applied, can etch or otherwise interact with metal surfaces.","This interaction may tend to cause metal constituents such as Fe ions or the like from the surface to migrate, diffuse, or otherwise be transported into the wet coating.","In the coating, the metal constituents may catalyze or otherwise promote degradation of the chlorinated resin.","Raising the pH, therefore, also helps to reduce degradation by reducing resin interaction with the substrate in a way that catalyzes degradation.","In an aspect, the pH desirably is increased to a value in the range from about 3 to 8, preferably about 4 to 7, more preferably about 4 to 6.The pH is readily adjusted by contacting the chlorinated resin composition with one or more bases under conditions effective to achieve the desired pH.","Suitable bases include, for example, one or more of ammonia, amines, hydroxides (such as KOH, for example), combinations of these and the like.","Where an epoxy-functional material is included in the coating composition, and the composition is to be stored for extended periods of time, other bases may be preferred, as ammonia or amines tend to react with epoxy over time and cause crosslinking of the epoxy material.","On the other hand, if the coating composition will be used relatively promptly after the introduction of the epoxy-functional material into the composition, crosslinking of the epoxy resin induced by reaction with ammonia or amine may be beneficial, as the resultant coating would show enhanced durability, toughness and adhesion.","In addition to the first resin component, the aqueous carrier, and optional co-carrier, one or more additional ingredients optionally may be included in the first aqueous coating composition.","When choosing additional ingredients, it is desirable to make selections that minimize a risk of degrading the chlorinated resin(s).","For example, it has been common in some conventional PVDC-based coating compositions to include Zn containing ingredients.","Examples of these include zinc, zinc salts, and/or zinc oxide.","Such Zn-containing ingredients can provide many benefits.","These benefits allegedly include corrosion resistance, protection against flash rusting, or the like.","Such compositions can, however, contribute to degradation of chlorinated resins, particularly at elevated temperatures above about 140° F. (60° C.).","Without wishing to be bound by theory, it is believed that this degradation may occur because certain metals and metal-containing species such as, for example, zinc, iron, tin and the like, are capable of catalyzing the dehydrochlorination of the chlorinated resin when the resin is exposed to higher temperatures.","The degradation can reduce the quality of the resultant coating and may be a contributor toward problems such as blistering, peeling, cracking, and the like.","In some embodiments in which catalytically active metals or metal-containing species (e.g., Zn or Zn-containing species) or the like may be present in the first aqueous coating composition, from various sources including additives such as, for example, flash rust inhibitors, fillers, pigments, and the like, using mixed metals can reduce the catalytic activity and help to stabilize the compositions.","For example, mixed metal stabilization may occur in systems including combinations of barium/zinc, calcium/zinc, barium/calcium/zinc, and the like.","In an aspect, when stabilized by a mixed metal system, the first aqueous coating composition preferably contains about 25 wt % Zn, more preferably about 10 wt % to 20 wt % Zn, and most preferably, about 5 wt % to 15 wt % Zn.","In some embodiments, certain forms of catalytic metals or catalytic metal-containing species may be passivated or encapsulated such that catalytic dechlorination of the resin by the metal is prevented or significantly reduced.","Such species can be included in the first aqueous composition without causing significant dechlorination.","Suitable species include without limitation, certain Zn salts, including soluble such as Zn(NO3)2, ZnSO4 and the like, for example.","In an aspect, when present in the first aqueous coating composition, the Zn-containing species is present at preferably about 2 wt % to 15 wt %, more preferably at about 2 wt % to 10 wt %4 and most preferably at about 2 wt % to 5 wt %.","Even with the potential for stabilization and/or passivation, it is desirable in some embodiments to limit or even at least substantially exclude ingredients from the first aqueous coating composition that might include metals such as zinc that could be catalytically active with respect to degradation of chlorinated resins, i.e.","to have a first aqueous coating composition that is substantially free of Zn or Zn-containing species.","Excluding such catalytically active metals or other metal-containing species is particularly desirable if the resultant coating is expected to be exposed to higher temperatures in the course of its service life, as the metals tend to be more active at higher temperatures.","Indeed, it has been observed that excluding zinc and zinc-containing compositions from the first aqueous coating composition greatly improves heat resistance of PVDC resin material(s) and dramatically reduces tendencies of the resultant coatings to blister, peel, and crack.","Accordingly, because some metals such as Zn and other Zn-containing species, for example, can promote degradation of chlorinated resins at elevated temperatures, it may be desirable to select ingredients that have a minimal amount, if any, of catalytically active metal contaminants, particularly when heat resistance is desired.","In an aspect, where heat resistance is desired, the first aqueous coating composition preferably contains no more than about 10 wt % Zn, more preferably no more than about 7 wt % Zn, and most preferably no more than about 5 wt % Zn.","With these selection principles in mind, degradation of chlorinated resins in the first aqueous composition may be reduced or prevented by incorporating one or more pH-stabilizing or heat-stabilizing additives into the first aqueous composition.","Suitable additives include one or more chlorine scavengers.","These compounds beneficially scavenge free HCl and tertiary Cl to inhibit further degradation of the chlorinated resin.","Once HCl is scavenged, it is not available to further acidify the environment, and therefore, the resin environment becomes pH-stabilized.","Suitable scavengers include, for example, metal organocarboxylates, diorganotin mercaptides, dibutyl tin dilaurate, dibutylin maleate, amines including hydroxy amines, ammonium salts, amino acids (preferably not including lysine), benzoate, 2-ethyl hexanoate esters, soaps of fatty acids, polyamino acids, polyolefin imines, polyamines, polyamine amides, polyacrylamide, epoxy-functional molecules, metal salts of a weak inorganic acid, such as tetrasodium pyrophosphate, hydrotalcite, combinations of these, and the like.","Desirably, HCl and tertiary chlorine scavengers in the form of catalytically active metals such as Zn or Fe, metal ions and salts thereof, or the like are at least substantially excluded from the first aqueous coating composition.","Although such materials can scavenge HCl or tertiary Cl, they may also pose an undue risk of catalyzing degradation of the chlorinated resin.","Suitable scavenging and/or beat-stabilizing additives include, for example, epoxy resins, dienophiles, organosulfur compounds, isocyanate derivatives, amine compounds, antioxidants, flash rust inhibitors, metal chelating compounds, and the like.","Epoxy-functional materials, antioxidants and flash rust inhibitors are particularly preferred additives for the first aqueous coating composition.","Epoxy-functional additives are particularly preferred HCl scavengers, and include alkyl and aromatic epoxy resins or epoxy-functional resins, such as for example, epoxy novolac resin(s) and other epoxy resin derivatives, which can act as Cl scavengers and/or acid by-product scavengers.","This helps to protect the integrity of the coating and the underlying substrate in the event that some degradation of the chlorinated resin was to occur.","Epoxy-functional molecules include preferably at least one, more preferably two or more pendant epoxy moieties.","The molecules can be aliphatic or aromatic, linear, branched, cyclic or acyclic.","If cyclic structures are present, these optionally may be linked to other cyclic structures by single bonds, linking moieties, bridge structures, pyro moieties, and the like.","Cyclic moieties may be fused in some embodiments.","Epoxidized vegetable oils may also be used.","Examples of suitable epoxy functional resins are commercially available and include, without limitation, Ancarez™ AR555 (Air Products), Ancarez™ AR550, Epi-rez™ 3510-W-60, Epi-rez™ 3515-W-60 Epi-rez™, or 3522-W-60 (Hexion), combinations of these, and the like.","In an aspect, the epoxy-functional scavenger has an epoxy equivalent weight of from about 50 to 5000, preferably about 75 to 2000, more preferably about 100 to 800 g/eq, in accordance with ASTM D1652 (Standard Method for Epoxy Content).","In an aspect, where included in the first aqueous composition, the epoxy-functional resin is present at preferably about 0.1 part by weight to 30 parts by weight, more preferably about 2 parts by weight to 7 parts by weight, and most preferably from about 3 parts by weight to 5 parts by weight.","In an aspect, the epoxy-functional resin has a viscosity at 25° C. of about 100 to 20,000 cP, preferably about 8000 to 18,000 cP, more preferably about 500 to 5000 cP, and most preferably about 120 to 180 cP.","Suitable organosulfur compounds include those compounds capable of stabilizing PVDC resin by addition across the double bond formed on degradation of the chlorinated resin.","Exemplary organosulfur compounds are thiols, thioquinones and the like.","Suitable thiols include, for example, thiosalicylic acid, mercaptophenol, mercaptosuccinic acid, cysteine and the like.","Suitable thioquinones include, for example, thiol-substituted benzoquinones or p-benzoquinone (pBQ) derivatives, such as pBQ-mercaptophenol, pBQ-mercaptosuccinic acid, pBQ-cysteine, pBQ-thiosalicylic acid, and the like.","In an aspect, where included in the first aqueous composition, the organosulfur compound is present at preferably about 0.05 to 2 wt %, more preferably about 0.02 to 1.5 wt %, and most preferably about 0.01 wt % to 1 wt %.","The pBQ derivatives at a concentration of 0.2 wt % are preferred.","Suitable antioxidants include compounds capable of inhibiting oxidation and/or degradation of the chlorinated resin component of the first aqueous coating composition.","Examples include, without limitation, hydroxy-functional compounds, preferably alkyl- or aryl-substituted alcohols or phenols and derivates thereof; quinone compounds and derivatives thereof, and the like.","Specific examples include, without limitation, butylated hydroxy toluene, 4-tert-butyl catechol, triphenyl phosphite, hydroquinone, p-benzoquinone, and the like.","In an aspect, where included in the first aqueous composition, the antioxidant is present at preferably about 0.005 to 10 wt %, more preferably about 0.02 to 5 wt %, and most preferably about 0.01 to 3 wt %.","In an aspect, triphenyl phosphite, at concentrations of about 1% to 5%, is preferred.","Without being bound to theory, the HCl formed by dechlorination of the PVDC-based resin may react with the iron in the metal substrate to form iron chloride, a Lewis acid that promotes corrosion.","Suitable flash rust inhibitors are compounds that may passivate the surface of the substrate and thereby reduce or prevent the reaction of HCl with iron.","Other suitable environmentally friendly materials include, without limitation, borosilicates, silicates, titanates, phosphosilicates, phosphates, triphosphates, and hydrogen phosphates of ammonia, barium, calcium, aluminum, zinc or strontium, mixtures thereof; and the like.","In an aspect, where included in the first aqueous composition, the flash rust inhibitor is present at preferably 0.005 to 10 wt %, more preferably about 0.02 to 5 wt %, and most preferably about 0.01 to 3 wt %.","In a preferred aspect, hydrogen phosphates and/or dihydrogen phosphates at concentrations of about 1 wt % are used.","In an embodiment, the first aqueous coating composition incorporates one or more anticorrosive agents into the composition to help further protect the underlying substrate and the resultant coating(s) against corrosion.","When heat resistance is desired, the anticorrosive agent(s) should be selected in a way so that significant quantities of catalytically active metals are excluded (or otherwise passivated) that would have a tendency to help cause degradation of the chlorinated resin.","For example, some commercially available aluminum triphosphate materials often are blended with zinc oxide, while other aluminum triphosphate materials are generally substantially zinc free.","If the coating is likely to see high temperatures, then aluminum triphosphate that is substantially free of catalytically active metals, such as Zn, for example, should preferably be used.","Examples of suitable anticorrosive agents include, without limitation, borosilicates and/or phosphosilicates of barium, calcium or strontium, calcium titanate, calcium silicate (e.g., calcium ion-exchanged amorphous silica), condensed calcium phosphate, calcium hydrogen phosphate, aluminum phosphate, aluminum triphosphate, mixtures of the above, and the like.","Aluminum triphosphate is presently preferred.","A wide variety of such agents are commercially available.","One commercially available example is available under the trade designation SHEILDEX AC-5 from Grace Davison.","Blended anticorrosive agents, such as aluminum triphosphate that contains zinc oxide or other zinc species, for example, may be acceptable for use in the first aqueous composition for applications in which the resultant coating is not likely to see relatively high temperatures during service life.","For example, when used with a highly infrared-reflective (IR-reflective) topcoat composition, the first aqueous coating composition is unlikely to reach temperatures of greater than 140° F. (60° C.) and blended zinc-containing anticorrosive agents can be used without undue concern over degradation of the chlorinated resin.","Examples of Zn-containing anticorrosive agents that can be used alone or as part of a blend with other agents such as aluminum triphosphate include, without limitation, zinc phosphate, zinc phosphate hydrate, zinc aluminum phosphate, strontium zinc phosphosilicate, mixtures thereof and the like.","The amount of anticorrosive agents used may vary over a wide range.","If too little is used, the corrosion protection may be less than might be desired.","Using too much may not provide meaningful additional protection as compared to using lesser amounts.","In an aspect, where included in the first aqueous composition, the anticorrosive agent is present at preferably about 0.1 to 10 wt %, more preferably about 0.5 to 7 wt %, and most preferably about 2 to 6 wt %.","It is desirable to include a sufficient amount of one or more fillers, extenders or pigments (hereinafter “fillers”) in the first aqueous coating composition to further improve corrosion protection, and/or provide optimal permeability through the coating once applied on the metal substrate.","Additionally, the fillers may be used as thickeners, to help reduce foaming and to help improve sag resistance of the coating composition.","Without being bound to theory, it is believed that specific properties of the filler, including oil absorptivity, surface area, surface energy, particle shape, particle size, aspect ratio, porosity, surface treatment, ion effects and the like, may contribute to the corrosion resistance of the coating.","Surface active agents in the first coating composition and resin concentration may also impact selection of an appropriate filler or mixture of fillers.","Suitable fillers for use with the first aqueous coating composition include, insoluble compounds of one or more of Be, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba, Al, Ti, transition metals, lanthanide metals, actinide metals, Si, Ge, Ga, Sn, Pb, combinations or mixtures of these, and the like.","Insoluble compounds include sulfates, hydroxides, carbides, nitrides, oxides, oxynitrides, oxycarbides, silicates, and/or carbonates.","Specific embodiments of such fillers include talc, CaCO3, BaSO4, aluminum silicate, aluminum hydroxide, mica, silica (as glass beads, for example), wollastonite, china clay, chlorite, dolomite, mixtures or combinations of the above, and the like.","BaSO4, CaCO3, dolomite and wollastonite are preferred.","In an aspect, the first aqueous coating composition includes a mixture of two or more fillers.","In an aspect, the fillers used with the first aqueous coating composition include non-platelet-shaped (e.g., nodular, acicular, spherical) particles, and platelet-shaped (e.g., platy, lamellar) particles.","Exemplary pigments with platelet-shaped particles include, without limitation, mica, talc, chlorite, mixtures thereof, and the like.","Exemplary pigments with non-platelet-shaped particles include, without limitation, insoluble sulfates, carbides, nitrides, oxynitrides, oxycarbides, oxides, and/or carbonates of Be, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba, Al, Ti, transition metals, lanthanide series metals, actinide series metals, Si, Ge, Ga, Al, Sn, Pb, combinations thereof and the like.","In an embodiment, suitable fillers are selected based on oil absorptivity.","In a preferred aspect, the first aqueous coating composition includes a suitable filler, or combination of two or more fillers, having oil absorptivity of no more than about 50 g of oil per 100 g total weight, preferably about 5 to 40 g/100 g, more preferably about 10 to 30 g/100 g, and most preferably about 15 to 20 g/100 g, as measured according to ASTM D281 (standard test method for oil absorption of pigment by spatula rub-out).","In an embodiment, suitable fillers are selected based on the aspect ratio of filler particles.","Without being bound to theory, it is believed that a lower aspect ratio provides excellent corrosion protection and adhesion to the metal substrate.","Without being bound by theory, the aspect ratio of a particular filler may contribute to the oil absorptivity of the filler, i.e.","a filler with a lower aspect ratio may demonstrate lower oil absorptivity.","Oil absorptivity may also be influenced by particle size and/or any parameter that affects the surface area of the filler particles.","In an embodiment, suitable fillers are selected based on the surface area of the filler particles.","In a preferred aspect, the first aqueous coating composition includes a suitable filler, or combination of two or more fillers, having surface area of no more than about 10 m2/g, preferably about 2 to 8 m2/g, more preferably about 4 to 6 m2/g of filler, as measured according to the BET isotherm technique, i.e.","ASTM D1999-03 (standard test method for surface area by multipoint BET nitrogen adsorption).","Without being bound to theory, it is believed that a smaller particle size (i.e.","a more dense or compact particle) will have lower surface area and consequently, lower oil absorptivity.","Accordingly, in a preferred embodiment, the first aqueous coating composition includes a suitable filler, or combination of two or more fillers, having oil absorptivity of no more than about 50 g/100 g, preferably about 5 to 40 g/100 g of filler, and surface area of no more than about 10 m2/g of filler, preferably about 2 to 8 m2/g.","In an aspect, fillers with non-platelet-shaped particles may be used in combination with fillers with platelet-shaped particles.","The weight ratio of non-platelet-shaped to non-platelet shaped pigments can vary over a wide range.","In illustrative embodiments, this ratio may be in the range from about 1:50 to 50:1, preferably about 1:10 to 10:1; more preferably about 1:3 to 3:1.For example, one embodiment of the first aqueous coating composition includes about 14.5 weight percent of relatively rounded BaSO4 particles and about 14.5 percent by weight of platelet-shaped mica particles based on the total weight of the coating solids.","In an embodiment, the first aqueous composition includes a sufficient amount of filler particles, such that a coating prepared from the first coating composition includes up to about 40 vol %, preferably about 5 to 30 vol %, and more preferably about 10 to 25 vol %, based on the total volume of the dried coating, or pigment (i.e.","filler) volume concentration (PVC).","Without being bound to theory, it is believed that pigment volume concentration plays an important role in the corrosion resistance of the first aqueous coating composition.","At optimal pigment volume concentration, i.e.","low PVC, the filler particles may alter the surface energy of the first aqueous coating composition in a manner that affects water vapor transmission, surfactant migration and corrosion resistance of a film of the first coating composition formed on a substrate.","A variety of other additional ingredients may be included in the first aqueous coating composition, including for example, defoaming aids, grinding aids, wetting agents, surfactants, coalescing aids, processing aids, coloring agents, thickeners, sag resistant agents, combinations of these and the like.","These ingredients are used in accordance with conventional practices currently known or hereafter developed.","In an embodiment, the first aqueous coating composition includes one or more rheology additives capable of preventing sag of a primer coating formed from the first aqueous composition when applied to a substrate at high wet film thicknesses prior to being dried.","Without being bound to theory, selection of the rheological additive requires balancing low viscosities at high shear rates (e.g., during airless application) with rapid recovery of viscosity at low shear rates (e.g., during the flash-off period).","In conditions of high humidity, the film stays wet for a longer period of time, resulting in increased sag if the viscosity does not recover within the same time period.","In a preferred aspect, the first aqueous coating composition includes a rheology additive that increases sag resistance.","Typical sag resistance additives include organic associative thickeners, such as hydrophobically modified cellulosics, urethanes, and alkali swellable emulsions, for example; and non-associative thickeners such as high molecular weight cellulosics and alkali swellable emulsions.","The non-associative thickeners provide good sag resistance but result in higher viscosities at high shear rates, which can have a negative impact on film build control and sprayability.","Associative thickeners produce better sag and application properties than the non-associative types, but in high humidity environments, the drying time is increased and results in decreased sag resistance.","The sag problem may be overcome by adding more of the rheology additive, but the cured film can begin to display mud cracking defects.","In an embodiment, an inorganic additive is included in the first aqueous coating composition to provide optimal sag resistance in a humid environment.","Without being bound to theory, the inorganic additives function by building a reversible network throughout the coating, allowing for rapid build in viscosity while maintaining low viscosities during application.","The rapid network formation is driven by ionic interactions and hydrogen bonding between the inorganic thickeners, and as the network forms much faster than with other additives, there is less sensitivity to humid environments.","Exemplary inorganic rheology agents include, without limitation, inorganic clays (e.g., phyllosilicate of Ca, K, Na or Al), fumed silica, and the like.","In an aspect, various types of BENTONE rheology additives are preferred for use in the first aqueous coating composition.","In illustrative embodiment, the rheology additive is present at preferably about 0.05 to 2 wt %, more preferably about 0.02 to 1.5 wt %, and most preferably about 0.01 to 1 wt %.","The first aqueous coating composition of the present invention may be used to form primer coatings having a wide range of thicknesses.","In illustrative embodiments, primer coatings have a dry film thickness in the range from about 20 micrometers to 200 micrometers, preferably about 25 micrometers to 120 micrometers, more preferably about 50 micrometers to 60 micrometers.","A wide range of techniques may be used to prepare the first aqueous coating composition from the desired ingredients.","According to an illustrative technique, the first resin component is reserved while the other ingredients are combined and mixed until homogeneous.","Then, the reserved first resin is added to the admixture with further mixing until homogeneous.","In addition to the first aqueous coating composition, coating systems of the present invention optionally and preferably further include at least a second aqueous coating composition.","Significantly, the second aqueous coating composition preferably comprises water- or solvent-based topcoatings with enhanced compatibility for underlying basecoatings incorporating chlorinated resins, i.e.","the first aqueous coating composition.","When these second aqueous coating compositions are applied onto underlying coatings incorporating chlorinated resin(s), for instance, the coating system described herein show minimal blistering and peeling, along with great durability and adhesion.","Without limiting to theory, it is believed that performance, i.e.","corrosion resistance and/or barrier properties of the second aqueous composition depends on the P:B ratio, or the relative ratio of pigment to binder in the second coating composition.","Optimal pigment loading provides beneficial performance and application characteristics, improving compatibility and/or adhesion of the first and second coating compositions and reducing air entrapment during application.","The second aqueous coating composition may be a single phase solution in which one or more ingredients including at least the second resin component are substantially fully dispersed in the aqueous carrier.","Alternatively, the coating compositions may include two or more phases.","Compositions including two or more phases may be in the form of dispersions such as a dispersion in which one or more phases are dispersed in a continuous phase of another material and/or phase.","Many dispersions are in the form of suspensions including but not limited to colloidal suspensions.","In some embodiments, coating compositions are in the form of a latex or emulsion including polymer microparticles dispersed in an aqueous carrier.","Some compositions may be water-reducible.","The second aqueous coating composition preferably includes at least one resin that includes acid functionality (or a salt and/or ester thereof) in combination with one or more pigments, fillers, or extenders (hereinafter “pigments”) that cumulatively are present in significant amounts as described further below.","Suitable resin(s) for use in the second aqueous composition may be acyclic, cyclic, branched, linear, aliphatic, or aromatic.","Desirably, the at least one resin used in the second aqueous coating composition is a film forming resin either on its own or in combination with another feature such as coalescing aid(s) and/or heat.","In an aspect, the resin component of the second aqueous composition is preferably capable of reaction or cure at temperatures below about 200° F. (93° C.) to ensure compatibility with the underlying first aqueous coating composition, and to minimize adverse impact on the first aqueous coating composition.","In an aspect, the second aqueous coating composition is preferably a one-component (1K) thermoplastic, or a two-component (2K) reactive cure system.","Examples of 1K aqueous systems include, without limitation, latex emulsions as described below, water-based fluorpolymers, polyurethane dispersions (PUDs), and water-reducible oxidizing alkyds.","Particular systems for use as the second aqueous coating composition are chosen based on the final film properties and on exterior durability requirements for the ultimate coating.","Examples of 2K reactive cure systems include, without limitation, water-borne acrylic resins that can be cured with water-dispersible isocyanates, polyaziridines, polycarbodiimides, acetoacetyl-functional systems, and the like.","Additional water-based resins that can be cured with dispersible isocyanates include polyesters, polyethers, and alkyds.","Water-based radiation curable coatings that incorporate acrylate and methacrylate functionality with epoxies, urethanes, polyesters, and polyethers could find utility with this type of system described within.","Aqueous or water-based compositions may be high gloss, medium gloss or low gloss when used as topcoat compositions over the first aqueous coating composition.","2K aqueous systems are generally preferred, as they provide better performance, greater durability and higher gloss than 1K systems.","In some embodiments, a solvent-based topcoat may be applied over the primer coat made from the first aqueous coating composition.","The term “solvent-based”, as used herein, refers a composition where one or more components are dissolved or dispersed in a non-aqueous carrier or solvent.","Solvent-based topcoat compositions tend to be 2K reactive systems with high solids content.","Suitable resin systems include, for example, polyesters, polyurethanes, polyacrylics, oxidizing alkyds, silicones, fluorinated resins and the like, which can be employed as topcoat compositions in combination with one or more pigments.","Solvent-based topcoats may also include resin systems cured with isocyanate functional materials to minimize heat exposure of the first aqueous composition.","Radiation-curable compositions may also be used as solvent-borne topcoat systems.","Solvent-based topcoat compositions are preferably 2K reactive systems, and can be high gloss, medium gloss or low gloss.","The level of gloss is determined by the desired aesthetics and performance characteristics of a particular end use or application.","For example, when used for transportation equipment, agricultural equipment, and the like, high gloss 2K polyurethane topcoat compositions are preferred.","In a preferred aspect, the resin(s) for use in the second aqueous coating composition include acid functionality.","The acid functionality of the resin(s) may be pendant directly from the polymer backbone or may be linked to the backbone by a suitable linking group.","Examples of suitable acid functionality include carboxylic acid, sulfonic acid, phosphonic acid, combinations of these and the like.","A wide variety of counter cations may be used in those embodiments in which the acid group is supplied as a salt.","Examples of such cations include Na+, Li+, NH4+, K+, combinations of these, and the like.","In preferred embodiments, the acid functionality includes —C(O)ONH4+.","Advantageously, when coating compositions including these moieties dry, the dried coatings release ammonia, leaving —C(O)OH functionality in the dried coating.","In exemplary embodiments, a suitable resin for use in the second aqueous coating composition is a copolymer derived from reactants including (a) optionally at least one aromatic reactant including pendant free radically polymerizable functionality; (b) at least one free radically polymerizable reactant having pendant acid functionality (or a salt or ester thereof); and (c) optionally at least one other copolymerizable reactant with free radically polymerizable functionality.","Such reactants often are monomers, oligomers, and/or resins.","Examples of reactant (a) include, without limitation, styrene, alpha-methyl styrene, t-butyl styrene, 1,3-diisopropenylbenzene, 2,4,6-trimethylstyrene, 2,4-dimethylstyrene, 2,4-diphenyl-4-methyl-1-pentene, 2,5-dimethylstyrene, 2-vinylnaphthalene, 3-methylstyrene, 4-benzyloxy-3-methoxystyrene, 9-vinylanthracene, α,2-dimethylstyrene, combinations of these, and the like.","These may be substituted or unsubstituted.","Illustrative embodiments of the resin include preferably from about 10 to 70 parts by weight of reactant(s) (a) per 100 parts by weight of the total reactants used to form the resin.","Examples of reactant (b) include, without limitation, unsaturated or other free radically polymerizable acids.","In many embodiments, reactant (b) is provided by one or more carboxylic acids or anhydrides thereof having one or more acid groups.","Examples include, without limitation, (meth)acrylic acid, sorbic acid, maleic anhydride, maleic acid, crotonic acid, itaconic acid, palmitoleic acid, oleic acid, linoleic acid, arachidonic acid, benzoic acid, fumaric acid, combinations of these, and the like.","Illustrative embodiments of the resin include preferably from about 2 to 20 parts by weight of reactant(s) (b) per 100 parts by weight of the total reactants used to form the resin.","Preferably, the acid functionality is atypically high in that the one or more acid functional reactants incorporated into the resin are at least 3 weight percent, at least 4 weight percent, at least 5 weight percent, and up to 10, 15, or 20 weight percent of total weight of all reactants used to make the resin.","Examples of reactant (c) include, without limitation, vinyl esters, vinyl ethers, lactams such as N-vinyl-2-pyrrolidone, (meth)acrylamide, N-substituted (meth)acrylamide, octyl (meth)acrylate, nonylphenol ethoxylate (meth)acrylate, isononyl (meth)acrylate, 1,6-hexanediol (meth)acrylate, isobornyl (meth)acrylate, 2-(2-ethoxyethoxy)ethyl (meth)acrylate, 2-ethylhexyl (meth)acrylate, lauryl (meth)acrylate, beta-carboxyethyl (meth)acrylate, butyl (meth)acrylate; isobutyl (meth)acrylate, cycloaliphatic epoxide, alpha-epoxide, 2-hydroxyethyl (meth)acrylate, (meth)acrylonitrile, maleic anhydride, itaconic acid, isodecyl (meth)acrylate, dodecyl (meth)acrylate, n-butyl (meth)acrylate, methyl (meth)acrylate, hexyl (meth)acrylate, (meth)acrylic acid, N-vinylcaprolactam, stearyl (meth)acrylate, hydroxy functional caprolactone ester (meth)acrylate, octodecyl (meth)acrylate, isooctyl (meth)acrylate, hydroxyethyl (meth)acrylate, hydroxymethyl (meth)acrylate, hydroxypropyl (meth)acrylate, hydroxyisopropyl (meth)acrylate, hydroxybutyl (meth)acrylate, hydroxyisobutyl (meth)acrylate, tetrahydrofurfuryl (meth)acrylate, combinations of these, and the like.","Illustrative embodiments of the resin include preferably from about 10 to 80 parts by weight of reactant(s) (c) per 100 parts by weight of the total reactants used to form the resin.","The resins useful in the second aqueous compositions may be polymerized from the constituent reactants using a variety of suitable polymerization techniques that are currently known or hereafter developed.","Suitable such techniques are further described in U.S. Pat.","Pub.","No.","2007/0110981 A1 (dated 17 May 2010).","In some embodiments, the second aqueous composition is in the form of a latex composition.","The latex composition may comprise single stage and/or multistage latex polymers.","Preferred single-stage latex polymers have a glass transition temperature (Tg) of at least −5° C., more preferably at least 15° C., and most preferably at least 25° C., and optimally at least 30° C. Preferred single-stage latex polymers for use have a Tg of less than 75° C., more preferably less than 65° C., and most preferably less than 55° C. Tg may be determined in the practice of the present invention using differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) techniques.","Preferred multistage latex polymers have between 10 and 50 wt.","% higher Tg monomers and between 50 and 90 wt.","% of lower Tg segments.","The higher Tg segment preferably has a Tg between about 35 and 70° C., more preferably between about 35 and 130° C. and the lower Tg segment preferably has a Tg up to about 30° C. It may also be advantageous to use a gradient Tg latex polymer made using continuously varying monomer feeds.","The resulting polymer will typically have a DSC curve that exhibits no Tg inflection points, and could be said to have an essentially infinite number of Tg stages.","For example, one may start with a high Tg monomer feed and then at a certain point in the polymerization start to feed a low Tg monomer composition into the high T monomer feed.","The resulting multistage latex polymer will have a gradient Tg from high to low.","In other embodiments, it may be favorable to feed a high Tg monomer composition into a low Tg monomer composition.","A gradient Tg polymer may also be used in conjunction with multiple Tg polymers.","In addition to the resin(s) with free radically polymerizable functionality as described herein, the second resin component optionally may include one or more other kinds of resin components.","Examples of other resins include polyurethanes, polyamides, polyimides, halogenated polymers, polysilicones, polyesters, alkyds, polyolefins, combinations of these and the like.","The amount of second resin component in the second aqueous coating composition may be selected from a wide range.","Generally, if the amount of resin component is too low, then it may be difficult to form a film, more difficult to form a film that has sufficient adhesion to the substrate, the film may have insufficient corrosion resistance or other performance, and/or the like.","If too much is used, then it may be harder to formulate a pigmented system or it may be more difficult to make a material that can be applied to the substrate.","Balancing such concerns, the second aqueous coating composition preferably includes from about 10 to 70 weight percent, more preferably about 15 to 50 weight percent, and most preferably about 20 to 40 weight percent of the second resin component based on the total weight of the aqueous coating composition.","The second resin component is in admixture with an aqueous fluid carrier, wherein “aqueous” is as defined above with respect to the aqueous carrier used in the second aqueous coating composition.","In addition to water, the aqueous carrier of the second aqueous coating composition optionally may include one or more additional, optional co-carriers.","Co-carrier(s) may be used for a variety of purposes, including helping in film formation and/or paint stability.","Examples of co-carriers include butyl cellulose, alcohol(s), such as butanol, coalescents (e.g., conventional ester alcohol(s), such as the Eastman Texanol product and/or low VOC coalescents such as are described in U.S. Pat.","No.","6,762,230), glycol ether(s), combinations of these, and the like.","Desirably, so-called VOC-exempt co-solvent(s) are preferred.","The amount of co-carrier included in the second aqueous coating composition can vary over a wide range.","The amount(s) to use will depend on factors including the type of co-carrier, the purpose for which the co-carrier is being added, the coating technique(s) that might be used to apply the second coating onto a substrate, or on to the first aqueous coating composition, and the like.","In illustrative embodiments, the second aqueous coating composition may include from about 0.3 to 20 weight percent, desirably about 1 to 5 weight percent of co-carrier(s) based on the total weight of co-carrier and water included in the composition.","Without wishing to be bound by theory, the advantages provide by the coating system are believed to result from one or more possible factors.","As one factor, the second resin component preferably includes at least one resin that includes acidic functionality (or a salt or ester thereof).","These characteristics are similar to those of many chlorinated resins, such as PVDC, which also tend to be acidic.","This kind of similarity is believed to help enhance the compatibility between coatings formed from the first and second aqueous coating compositions, respectively.","The second aqueous coating composition preferably includes at least one resin in combination with one or more pigments that cumulatively are present in significant amounts as described further below.","The one or more pigments generally are added to the second aqueous coating composition to help thicken the composition and/or to provide sag resistance, as well as improvements to application processes.","These pigment(s) may be organic and/or inorganic.","Inorganic pigments are more preferred.","The pigments may have a variety of shapes such as being platelet-shaped, acicular, oblong, rounded, spherical, irregular, combinations of these and the like.","Without being bound by theory, optimal loading of pigments in topcoats formed from the second aqueous coating composition is believed to provide beneficial performance and application characteristics for the coating system.","For example, the second aqueous coating composition desirably includes a sufficient amount of pigment content so that the resultant coating demonstrates enhanced compatibility with the underlying primer coating.","Without being bound by theory, this enhanced compatibility may prevent the formation of blisters and the loss of adhesion between the primer layer and the topcoat layer.","In addition, optimal pigment loading is believed to prevent entrapment of air, moisture or gases that would otherwise produce air bubbles during application to a substrate, or cause blistering and peeling of the coating from the substrate and/or primer.","In many respects, the performance and application advantages are contrary to an industry bias that would expect performance to be reduced with increased pigment loading.","In many preferred embodiments, the second aqueous coating composition includes a sufficient amount of pigment, i.e.","inorganic pigment particles, such that a resultant coating prepared from the second aqueous coating composition includes from about 15 to 85, preferably about 20 to 80, more preferably about 25 to 80 volume percent of the particles based on the total volume of the dry coating.","These pigment particles are non-binder particles, and are distinct from film-forming particles (of binders, for example) that substantially coalesce and help to form part of the binder matrix in the resultant coating.","Thus, the term “non-binder” with respect to the pigment particles indicates that the pigment particles retain at least a portion and preferably substantially all of their particulate character, either individually or as agglomerates or aggregates.","Preferred pigment particles are non-binder particles, and are substantially non-film forming under the conditions used to form the second aqueous coating composition.","To the extent that any portions of such particles might protrude from the coating surface, those protruding portions are deemed to be part of the pigment volume for purposes of calculating the pigment volume concentration (PVC) of the particles in the coating.","Optimal pigment loading in the topcoat composition provides beneficial performance and application characteristics for the coating system, reducing air entrapment during application and improving adhesion of the topcoat and primer.","It is preferred that at least a portion of pigment content of the second aqueous coating composition includes one or more platelet shaped pigment particles.","Platelet particles have excellent thickening properties, provide excellent sag resistance, and also help with air release.","Examples of platelet-shaped pigments include one or more of a clay such as china clay, mica, talc, combinations of these, and the like.","China clay advantageously has less of an impact upon gloss than do many other platelet shaped particles, which is beneficial when higher gloss topcoatings are desired.","In many embodiments, the second aqueous coating composition preferably includes about 0 to 50 parts by weight, preferably about 10 parts by weight, more preferably about 15 to 50 parts by weight, and most preferably up to about 35 parts by weight of platelet-shaped particles per 100 parts by weight of the total weight of the second aqueous coating composition.","The size of platelet particles, expressed as a volume average, may vary over a wide range, ranging from finely sized particles to coarse particles.","In illustrative embodiments, platelet particles may have a size in the range from about 0.5 to 50 micrometers, preferably about 1 to 10 micrometers, more preferably about 3 to 5 micrometers.","In an aspect, preferably at least about 50 wt %, more preferably about 75 wt % and most preferably about 95 wt % of the platelet-shaped particles have size in the range from about 0.5 to 50 micrometers, preferably about 1 to 10 micrometers It is desirable that the entire pigment content of the second aqueous coating composition is not all in the form of only platelet shaped particles.","By themselves, the platelet particles may help thicken the composition and may help improve sag resistance and application of the coating composition.","Yet too much platelet content could form a barrier to moisture and trapped gases in a dried coating This could make it more difficult to release trapped air and/or trapped moisture from the coating during manufacture and/or coating.","Accordingly, in some embodiments, the pigments of the second aqueous coating composition desirably include at least one kind of non-platelet shaped particle used in combination with at least one kind of platelet shaped particle.","A wide variety of non-platelet shaped particles could be used in combination with platelet shaped particles.","Examples include one or more insoluble sulfates; one or more insoluble carbides; one or more insoluble nitrides; one or more insoluble oxynitrides; one or more insoluble oxycarbides; one or more insoluble oxides; one or more insoluble carbonates; combinations of these and the like.","Examples of these include sulfates, carbides, nitrides, oxides, oxynitrides, oxycarbides, and/or carbonates of one or more of Be, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba, Al, Ti, a transition metal, a lanthanoid series metal, an actinoid series metal, Si, Ge, Ga, Al, Sn, Pb, combinations of these, and the like.","Specific embodiments of such particles include BaSO4, titania, SiC, SiN, TiC, TiN, combinations of these, and the like.","BaSO4 is preferred in many formulations.","In some embodiments, some pigments help to maintain gloss, help thicken the second aqueous coating composition while allowing air to escape, and help provide resultant coatings with a desirable level of permeability so that moisture has good egress to and from the resultant coating.","The size of non-platelet particles, expressed as a volume average, may vary over a wide range, ranging from finely sized particles to coarse particles.","In illustrative embodiments, non-platelet particles may have a size in the range from about 0.1 micrometers to 50 micrometers, preferably about 0.5 to 10 micrometers.","In an aspect, preferably at least about 50 wt %, more preferably about 75 wt % and most preferably about 95 wt % of the platelet-shaped particles have size in the range from about 0.1 to 50 micrometers, preferably about 0.5 to 10 micrometers.","The weight ratio of platelet-shaped to non-platelet shaped pigments can vary over a wide range.","For example, one embodiment of a second aqueous coating composition includes about 14.5 weight percent of relatively rounded BaSO4 particles and about 14.5 percent by weight of platelet shaped china clay based on the total weight of the coating solids.","To further enhance heat resistance, one or more agents with optimal total solar reflectance (TSR) may be incorporated into the second dispersion.","As used herein, the term “total solar reflectance” refers to the sum total of ultraviolent, visible and near infrared reflectance.","Agents with high solar reflectance help enhance heat resistance by reflecting or resisting electromagnetic radiation, specifically near-IR radiation, which has wavelength of about 0.8 μm to 2 μm.","Examples of such agents are described in Assignee's application, PCT/US2011/042801, filed Jul.","1, 2011.These agents may be incorporated into the coating in accordance with conventional practices currently known or hereafter developed.","In some embodiments, such IR-reflecting agents may include non-IR-absorptive colored pigments.","Exemplary such pigments may be inorganic or organic in nature, and include but are not limited to those referred to in U.S. Pat.","No.","6,458,848 B2 (Sliwinski et al.","), U.S. Pat.","No.","6,616,744 B1 (Sainz et al.","), U.S. Pat.","No.","6,989,056 B2 (Babler) and U.S. Pat.","No.","7,157,112 B2 (Haines) and in U.S. Patent Application Publication No.","US 2005/0126441 A1 (Skelhorn).","Inorganic pigments are especially desirable and include single or mixed metal oxides formed from a variety of metals, e.g., aluminum, antimony, bismuth, boron, chromium, cobalt, gallium, indium, iron, lanthanum, lithium, magnesium, manganese, molybdenum, neodymium, nickel, niobium, silicon, tin, vanadium or zinc.","Exemplary metal oxides include Cr2O3, Al2O3, V2O3, Ga2O3, Fe2O3, Mn2O3, Ti2O3, In2O3, TiBO3, NiTiO3, MgTiO3, CoTiO3, ZnTiO3, FeTiO3, MnTiO3, CrBO3, NiCrO3, FeBO3, FeMoO3, FeSn(BO3)2, BiFeO3, AlBO3, Mg3Al2Si3O12, NdAlO3, LaAlO3, MnSnO3, LiNbO3, LaCoO3, MgSiO3, ZnSiO3, Mn(Sb,Fe)O3 and mixtures thereof.","The metal oxide may have a rutile-kassiterite, spinel, and/or corundum-hematite crystal lattice structure as described in the above-mentioned U.S. Pat.","No.","6,454,848 B2, or may be a host component having a corundum-hematite crystalline structure which contains as a guest component one or more elements selected from aluminum, antimony, bismuth, boron, chromium, cobalt, gallium, indium, iron, lanthanum, lithium, magnesium, manganese, molybdenum, neodymium, nickel, niobium, silicon, tin, vanadium and zinc.","Black non-infrared-absorptive pigments are of particular interest due to the high infrared absorption of conventional carbon black pigments and the widespread use of carbon black pigments in conventional dark-tinted paints and stains.","A variety of black non-infrared-absorptive pigments are commercially available, including mixed metal oxide pigments such as those supplied by Ferro Corporation under the COOL COLORS™ and ECLIPSE™ trademarks, for example V-778 COOL COLORS IR Black, V-780 COOL COLORS IR Black, V-799 COOL COLORS IR Black, 10201 ECLIPSE Black, 10202 ECLIPSE Black and 10203 ECLIPSE Black; mixed metal oxide pigments such as those supplied by Shepherd Color Company under the ARTIC™ trademark, for example ARTIC Black 376, ARTIC Black 10C909, ARTIC Black 411 and ARTIC Black 30C940; mixed metal oxide pigments such as those supplied by Tomatec America, Inc. under the numbers 42-707A and 707V10; and perylene-based or other organic colorants such as those supplied by BASF Corp. under the PALIOGEN™ trademark including PALIOGEN Black S 0084.These same suppliers also provide non-infrared-absorptive colored pigments in a variety of hues other than black, typically under the same trademarks, and these may likewise be employed in the disclosed coating compositions.","Exemplary non-infrared-absorptive non-black pigments include inorganic pigments such as iron oxide, magnesium silicates, calcium carbonate, aluminosilicates, silica and various clays; organic pigments including plastic pigments such as solid bead pigments (e.g., polystyrene or polyvinyl chloride beads); and microsphere pigments containing one or more voids (e.g., those discussed in U.S. Patent Application Publication No.","US 2007/0043162 A1 (Bardman et al.).","Other exemplary non-infrared-absorptive pigments include EXPANCEL™ 551DE20 acrylonitrile/vinyl chloride expanded particles (from Expancel Inc.), SIL-CEL™ 43 glass micro cellular fillers (from Silbrico Corporation), FILLITE™ 100 ceramic spherical particles (from Trelleborg Fillite Inc., SPHERICEL™ hollow glass spheres (from Potter Industries Inc.), 3M ceramic microspheres including grades 0-200, G-400, 0-600, G-800, W-210, W-410, and W-610 (from 3M); 3M hollow microspheres including 3M Performance Additives iM30K (also from 3M), INHANCE™ UH 1900 polyethylene particles (from Fluoro-Seal Inc.), and BIPHOR aluminum phosphate (from Bunge Fertilizantes S.A., Brazil).","The disclosed coating compositions may also contain non-infrared-absorptive non-colored pigments such as titanium dioxide and white zinc oxide, either of which if used without the presence of a colored pigment would provide a white rather than colored coating composition.","The addition of such non-colored pigments to the above-mentioned non-infrared-absorptive colored pigments can provide tinted paints and stains having a lightened shade and improved hiding power.","Preferably the disclosed coating compositions contain about 8 to 50 wt % and more preferably about 20 to 30 wt % pigment based on total solids.","Expressed on the basis of pigment volume concentration, the disclosed coating compositions preferably contain about 10 to 40 vol % and more preferably about 15 to 35 vol % pigment.","The compositions desirably are free of or substantially free of infrared-absorptive colored pigments, e.g., carbon black, black iron oxide, brown oxide and raw umber.","A wide variety of other additional ingredients optionally may be included in the second aqueous coating composition if desired.","Examples of these include one or more defoaming aids, grinding aids, wetting agents, surfectants, coalescing aids, processing aids, skid resistance agents, abrasion resistance agents, conductive agents, antistatic agents, coloring agents, anticorrosion aids, thickeners, sag resistant agents, plasticizers, antioxidants, ultraviolet stabilizers, biocides, fungicides, fillers, combinations of these, and the like.","These can be used in accordance with conventional practices currently known or hereafter developed.","The second aqueous coating composition can be made using a variety of techniques.","Exemplary techniques are described below in the examples.","The topcoat composition of the present invention may be used to form topcoatings having a wide range of thicknesses.","In illustrative embodiments, top coatings have a thickness in the range from about 15 micrometers to about 200 micrometers, preferably about 15 micrometers to about 100 micrometers, more preferably about 30 micrometers to about 50 micrometers.","The coating systems of the present invention can be used to coat a wide variety of substrates.","Exemplary substrates include natural and engineered buildings and building materials, freight containers, flooring materials, walls, furniture, other building materials, motor vehicle components, aircraft components, trucks, rail cars and engines, bridges, water towers, cell phone tower, wind towers, radio towers, lighting fixtures, statues, billboard supports, fences, guard rails, tunnels, pipes, marine components, machinery components, laminates, equipment components, appliances, packaging, and the like.","Exemplary substrate materials include metals, metal alloys, intermetallic compositions, metal-containing composites, combinations of these, and the like.","Exemplary metals include aluminum, steel, weathering steel, stainless steel, and the like.","The coating compositions can be applied on new substrates or can be used to refurbish old substrates, including previously painted substrates.","In use, a substrate to be coated is provided.","The substrate may be bare or may be at least partially coated with a previous coating system, such as a so-called shop primer used to coat metal substrates.","Illustrative shop primers include conventional shop primers and the novel primers disclosed in Applicant's U.S. Patent Appln.","Ser.","No.","61/322,795 (“Waterborne Shop Primer”, Prevost et al.","), filed 9 Apr.","2010.It may be desirable to clean the substrate to remove grease, dirt, and other contaminants.","Pre-existing coatings may or may not be removed as well, depending upon the context.","When the substrate is ready, the first aqueous coating composition is applied to at least a portion of the substrate surface.","Optionally, the coating is allowed to dry or partially dry to form a basecoating.","One or more additional coats of the first aqueous coating composition can be applied if desired.","Often, a single coating is suitable.","Next, a second aqueous coating composition, if needed, is preferably applied onto at least a portion of the basecoating and allowed to dry to form a topcoating.","Additional portions of the substrate not bearing the basecoating may be coated with the topcoat as well, if desired.","One or more additional coats of the second aqueous coating composition can be applied if desired.","Often, a single coating is suitable.","The first and second aqueous coating compositions may be applied to the substrate using any suitable technique known in the art, such as by brushing, spraying, spin coating, roll coating, curtain coating, dipping, gravure coating, and/or the like.","In addition to being applied over primer coatings formed by the first aqueous composition, the topcoat composition can be applied to form coatings on other kinds of coated and uncoated substrates as well.","For example, some embodiments of the second aqueous coating composition may be used to topcoat coated or uncoated stainless steel and/or epoxy primer coatings as described in Assignee's co-pending Application, filed concurrently herewith.","The coating system of the present invention is particularly suitable for forming protective coatings on cargo containers.","Preferably, the coating system is used with cargo containers involved in intermodal freight transport.","Many of such containers at least substantially conform to an international standard applicable to cargo containers that are transported by at least one of a marine cargo system that transports cargo across waterways, a system that transports cargo along a railway, and/or a system that transports cargo along a roadway.","Such containers are often exposed to extreme environments in terms of weather exposure, salt water exposure, fresh water exposure, heat from the sun, and the like during their service lives.","Even though such containers often may be made from corrosion resistant materials such as stainless steel and/or weathering steel, further protection against abrasion, corrosion, and the like is needed.","An exemplary intermodal cargo container is often referred to in the industry as a dry cargo container.","These containers generally include a metal frame defining the boundary of the container.","Metal wall and ceiling panels are attached to the frame such as by bolts, welding, rivets, or the like, and the floor of the container may be metal, wood or other materials.","The panels can be made from a wide variety of metals, metal alloys, intermetallic compositions, or other metal-containing materials as described above.","Due to its low cost and corrosion resistance, weathering steel (sometimes referred to as COR-TEN brand steel) often is used to make the panels.","In a manner similar to aluminum, weathering steel oxidizes on the surface, but then this oxidation forms a barrier to protect the underlying steel from further corrosion.","According to ASTM standards, weathering steel is available in grades including A242, A588, and A602.The container frames also may be made from weathering steel or a different metal composition.","Even though weathering steel develops a protective oxidation barrier against corrosion, the industry still tends to widely apply protective coatings onto intermodal containers made from weathering steel.","The coatings may also provide decoration, brand identity, bar codes, and other indicia.","The primer composition (i.e.","first aqueous coating composition) of the present invention shows excellent adhesion and performance when used to protect intermodal containers, including those made from weathering steel.","The first aqueous coating composition can be applied directly to metal surfaces, including weathering steel surfaces.","For example, although shop primer is typically applied to protect metal substrates from damage during manufacture or transport, it is not applied to weld seams.","In such cases, the primer composition of the present invention can be applied directly to the metal surface to provide the necessary corrosion protection.","Because the first aqueous coating composition shows excellent adhesion to both unprimed and primed metal surfaces, any previously applied shop primer weathering does not have to be removed.","However, for improved adhesion, it is desirable to remove oxide from the surface, including any oxide formed on the shop primer.","This can be done in any suitable way, such as by shot blasting, for example.","Once surface oxide has been removed, a primer coat of the present invention, i.e.","a coat of the first aqueous coating composition, can be formed or applied.","After this, a topcoat of the present invention, i.e.","the second aqueous coating composition, is formed or applied over the primer coat, if a topcoat is desired.","The resultant coating system provides excellent gloss, durability, corrosion resistance, adhesion, resistance to blisters, resistance to peeling, and resistance to cracking.","For certain applications, the first aqueous coating composition can be applied directly to both unprimed and primed metal surfaces, and a topcoat is optional.","If a topcoat is applied (to obtain a specific aesthetic appearance), the topcoat may be a water-borne topcoat or a solvent-borne topcoat.","For certain other applications, the first aqueous coating composition may be used as a pretreatment for a metal substrate, or as a direct-to-metal coating.","Preferably, the first aqueous coating composition is applied as a thin film, i.e.","at a dry film thickness of up to about 120 microns, preferably 10 to 100 microns, more preferably 20 to 80 microns.","EXAMPLES The present invention will now be described with reference to the following illustrative examples.","In some embodiments, the coating system described herein provides excellent corrosion resistance and heat resistance.","These properties can be tested in various ways.","Unless otherwise indicated, the following tests were used in the Examples that follow.","Water Soak/Immersion Test Panels of metal substrates (cold rolled steel or coarse-blasted metal) are sprayed with the coating system of the invention.","The coating is allowed to dry, and coated panels are then wetted by standard ways known to those of skill in the art, including, for example, by immersing, rinsing, washing or soaking the coating or coated panel.","Panels are evaluated for corrosion performance based on the time to adhesion failure.","Adhesion Test ASTM D4541 Method D: this method is the standard method for adhesion testing of hard substrates, i.e.","Pull-Off Strength of Coatings Using Portable Adhesion Testers.","ASTM D3359 Method B: this method is the standard method for adhesion testing thin films applied to metal substrates, i.e.","films with dry film thickness of less than 5 mils (0.013 cm).","ASTM D1933-03: this method is the standard method for measuring surface area of precipitated silica compounds using BET methods, i.e.","Standard Test Method for Surface Area by Multipoint BET Nitrogen Adsorption.","Salt Spray Testing Salt spray testing is a standardized method to determine corrosion resistance of coatings applied to metal substrates.","The test is conducted in a salt spray cabinet, where a salted solution (typically 5% NaCl) is atomized and sprayed on to the surface of a test panel to which the coating composition of the invention is applied.","The panel is thus maintained in a salt fog that duplicates a highly corrosive environment Test parameters are used according to ASTM B117 (Standard Practice for Operating Salt Fog Apparatus).","Panels subjected to salt spray testing are then analyzed for corrosion resistance by various methods, including cross-hatch adhesion testing (as described above) or by blister rating, using ASTM D714 (Standard Test Method for Evaluating Degree of Blistering of Paints).","With the ASTM D714 test, blisters are rated on a scale of 1 to 10.A blister rating of 10 implies effective corrosion resistance, whereas a blister rating of 8 or less implies failure.","Heat Stability by GC/MS For testing the heat stability of the composition described herein, test panels are coated and cut into 0.25″×1.5″ (0.64 cm×3.81 cm) strips and placed in a 20 ml glass headspace vial.","The vial is sealed with an airtight cap and placed into an oven for the appropriate time and temperature.","After the heat cycle, the vial is immediately placed into an G1888 Network Headspace Sampler (Agilent Technologies, Santa Clara Calif.) and the headspace analyzed using an 6890N Gas Chromatograph/5975B XL-MSD (Agilent), Capillary column=DB-1, 50 meter, 0.2 mm ID, 033 μm film.","Any detection of HCl in the headspace denotes degradation of the chlorinated resin.","Water Vapor Transmission Rate (WVTR) Testing Cured films prepared as described below in Example 1 are provided on release paper.","Circular test samples (4 cm in diameter) are cut in duplicate using a standard template.","Each sample is placed on a mask (metal; 5 cm2) and sealed with grease and a rubber gasket.","The sample is then placed in a water vapor transmission analyzer (Water Vapor Permeation Analyzer (model 7001); Illinois Instruments Inc., Johnsburg Ill. (USA)), and water vapor transmission readings are taken, and reported after eight hours of analysis.","Water vapor transmission rate is reported in g/m2/day.","Example 1: Water-Based Primer Formulation The following ingredients are charged to a high speed mixing vessel.","All listed amounts are parts by weight unless otherwise noted.","TABLE 1a Raw material Vendor Run 1 Run 2 Run 3 AlPO3 Various 6.05 6.05 Ammonium Hydroxide Ashland 0.0026 0.0026 0.0026 Bentone LT Elementis 0.086 0.086 0.086 BYK 024 BYK 0.13 0.13 0.13 BYK 155 BYK 0.52 0.52 0.52 Dynol 604 Air Products 0.17 0.17 0.17 EB solvent Eastman 1.44 1.44 1.44 Chemicals Epi-rez 3510 Hexion 3.4 Monolite carbon black Heubauch 0.85 0.85 0.85 Pluronic F87 (30%) in Water BASF 5.1 5.1 5.1 Shieldex Grace 6.05 Sodium nitrite (10%) in water Shiwu 0.81 0.81 0.81 Surfynol 104 Air Products 0.46 0.46 0.46 Talc Specialty 20.37 20.37 20.37 Minerals Texanol Eastman 0.0937 0.0937 0.0937 Chemicals Water 15.41 10.6 10.6 The mixture is dispersed at high speed to a grind of 5-6 Hegman, then letdown with the following mixture of Table 1b.","In some modes of practice, it may be desirable to pre-disperse the Bentone LT material in a portion of the water.","TABLE 1b Ammonium Hydroxide pH control 0.16 0.16 0.16 Haloflex 202 DSM Neoresins 47.15 47.15 47.15 To the above is added the ingredients listed in Table 1c.","TABLE 1c Acrysol RM-8W Rohm & Haas 0.03 0.03 0.03 Foamaster S Cognis 0.21 0.21 0.21 The primers of Runs 1 and 2 are formulated for situations that might experience high use temperatures.","The primer of Run 1 is further formulated with a lower pH for improved flash rusting resistance.","The primer of Run 3 has an epoxy component also to improve heat resistance.","Example 2: Waterborne Topcoat Formulations The following ingredients are charged to a high speed mixing vessel.","All listed amounts are parts by weight unless otherwise noted.","TABLE 2a Raw material Vendor Run 1 Run 2 Aerosil 200 Evonik 0.4 0.4 ASP 170 BASF 11.6 11.6 Cimbar Ex Cimbar 11.6 11.6 Disperbyk 190 BYK 1.2 1.2 EB Solvent Eastman 0.9 0.9 Chemicals Foamaster SA-3 Cognis 0.3 0.3 Red Oxide Chemik 1.8 Tiona 595 Cristal 0.5 5 Water 4.3 4.3 Yellow Oxide Chemik 2.6 The mixture is dispersed at high speed to a grind of 6.5 Hegman, then letdown with the following mixture of Table 2b.","TABLE 2b Acrysol RM-8W Rohm & Haas 1.4 1.4 Ammonium Hydroxide Ashland 0.5 0.5 EPS2568 E.P.S.","43.3 43.3 Foamaster SA-3 Cognis 0.4 0.4 Texanol Eastman Chemicals 2.2 2.2 Water 17 16.9 The topcoat of Run 1 has relatively high pigment to binder ratio and is a brown color.","The topcoat of Run 2 had relatively high pigment to binder ratio and is a white color.","Example 3: Water-Based Primer Formulation with Zn The following ingredients are charged to a high speed mixing vessel.","All listed amounts are parts by weight unless otherwise noted.","TABLE 3a Raw material Vendor Run 1 Ammonium Hydroxide Ashland 0.0026 Bentone LT Elementis 0.086 BYK 024 BYK 0.13 BYK 155 BYK 0.52 Dynol 604 Air Products 0.17 EB solvent Eastman 1.44 Chemicals K-White 84S Tayca 6.05 Monolite carbon black Heubauch 0.85 Pluronic F87 30% in Water BASF 5.1 Sodium nitrite 10% in water Shiwu 0.81 Surfynol 104 Air Products 0.46 Talc Specialty 20.37 Minerals Texanol Eastman 0.0937 Chemicals Water 15.41 The mixture is dispersed at high speed to a grind of 5-6 Hegman, then letdown with the following ingredients of Table 3b.","The Bentone LT may be predispersed in a portion of the water.","TABLE 3b Ammonium Hydroxide Ashland 0.16 Haloflex 202 DSM Neoresins 47.15 Then add: Acrysol RM-8W Rohm & Haas 0.03 Foamaster S Cognis 0.21 Example 4: Water-Based Topcoat (Low Pigment Volume) Run 1: The following ingredients are charged to a high speed mixing vessel.","All listed amounts are parts by weight unless otherwise noted.","TABLE 4a Raw material Run 1 Aerosil 200 Evonik 0.4 Disperbyk 190 BYK 1.1 EB Solvent Eastman Chemicals 0.9 Foamaster SA-3 Cognis 0.3 Tiona 595 Cristal 11.9 Water 3 The mixture is dispersed at high speed to a grind of 6.5 Hegman, then letdown with the following mixture of Table 4b.","TABLE 4b Acrysol RM-8W Rohm & Haas 1.4 Ammonium Hydroxide Ashland 0.5 EPS2568 E.P.S.","60.8 Foamaster SA-3 Cognis 0.5 Texanol Eastman Chemicals 2.2 Water 17 Example 5: Performance Testing Coatings prepared in the above examples are applied on standard dry container lines with minimal modification and can run at similar line speeds when used in conjunction with suitable curing ovens such as are as described in U.S. patent application Ser.","No.","12/837,833 (filed 16 Jul.","2010).","The inventive examples pass IICL specification and industry standard performance testing.","For better results the first aqueous composition is allowed to substantially dry before the second aqueous composition is applied.","Performance testing of primer/topcoat systems are reported in the following tables.","Water Soak 60 Heat Testing 30 Salt Spray Testing hours @ 25 C. days at 82 C. Combination ASTM B117 w/tap water constant temperature Ex #1 Run 1/ No.","10 No.","10 No.","10 Ex#2 Run 1 Ex #1 Run 1/ No.","10 No.","10 No.","10 Ex#2 Run 2 Ex #1 Run 2/ No.","10 No.","10 No.","10 Ex#2 Run 1 Ex #1 Run 2/ No.","10 No.","10 No.","10 Ex#2 Run 2 Ex #1 Run 3/ No.","10 No.","10 No.","10 Ex#2 Run 1 Ex #1 Run 3/ No.","10 No.","10 No.","10 Ex#2 Run 2 Ex #3 Run 1/ No.","10 No.","10 Medium No.","6 Ex#2 Run 1 Ex #1 Run 1/ Medium No.","8 Medium No.","8 No.","10 Comparative Ex#4 Run 1 Ex #3 Run 1/ Medium No.","8 Medium No.","8 Medium No.","6 Comparative Ex#4 Run 1 Blister ratings are observed in accordance with ASTM D-714 Water vapor transmission rate Relative Description (g/m2/day) Temperature Humidity Example #1 Run 1 5.3 38.7 C. 90% Example #2 Run 1 65.1 38.7 C. 90% Test Equipment: Illinois Instruments Model 7001 The above performance testing demonstrates that a primer composition containing Zn (Example 3, Run 1) is corrosion-resistant on prolonged exposure to water at low temperatures of 77° F. (25° C.), but fails at high temperatures.","A topcoat composition with low pigment volume (Example 4, Run 1) shows poor performance on water soak and salt spray, and fails when applied over a Zn-containing primer composition (Example 3, Run 1).","The water vapor transmission rate data suggests that the primer composition is relatively impermeable, while the topcoat is water-permeable.","Example 6: Effect of Filler Type on Primer Performance To determine the effect of filler type on coating performance, primer compositions as described in Example 1 (Run 3) were prepared, replacing talc with fillers as shown below in Table 6a, which shows the physical properties of the various fillers used in formulating the primer composition.","In addition, the additives (Bentone, Byk 024, sodium nitrite, Dynol 604 and Surfynol 104) of Example 1 (Run 3) are omitted from the primer compositions, and the pigment volume concentration of the fillers is adjusted to 14.TABLE 6a Properties of Filler Material Median Particle Oil Absorption particle size Surface Area Filler Shape (g of oil/100 g) (micron) (m2/g)1 Glass beads spherical 0 5.0 — BaSO4 nodular 10 1.0 — CaCO3 nodular 15 2.8 3.0 Dolomite nodular 17 4.9 2.5 Wollastonite acicular 27 3.5 2.9 Silica nodular 28 2.4 1.6 Chlorite lamellar 41 3.6 9.0-10.0 Talc platy 44 2.0 14.0 China clay lamellar 45 0.4 19.0 Mica platy 65 17.0 6.3 1Surface area information was provided by the filler vendor and is believed to be BET nitrogen adsorption, according to various known ASTM test methods (e.g., ASTM D1993-03; Standard Test Method for Surface Area by Multipoint BET Nitrogen Adsorption).","The primer compositions were sprayed on test panels (either cold rolled steel (CRS) or blasted steel (BS)) and allowed to cure.","Water-based topcoat formulations as described in Example 2 were then applied to each panel, and the panels were dried.","Each test panel was subjected to various corrosion tests, including water soak testing, salt spray testing, adhesion testing and cyclic corrosion testing.","All test panels pass industry-standard IICL testing and cyclic corrosion testing.","Corrosion resistance on water soak testing and adhesion testing are shown in Table 6b, and graphically represented in FIG.","1A and FIG.","1B.","TABLE 6b Performance Testing Results Water Soak Adhesion Adhesion Filler (hours to failure)1 (CRS; MPa) (BS; MPa) Glass beads >336 7.52 12.11 BaSO4 >336 5.87 12.99 CaCO3 >336 7.97 13.04 Dolomite >336 9.08 16.54 Wollastonite >336 6.53 12.10 Silica >336 6.95 12.15 Chlorite 168 5.51 10.87 Talc 96 4.24 10.43 China clay 120 4.37 12.15 Mica 120 3.76 9.14 1A result of greater than 336 hours to failure on water soak testing indicates that panels had not failed 14 days past the initial exposure to water.","Example 7: Effect of Filler on Primer Performance Without being bound to theory, it is believed that oil absorptivity, particle size and surface area of fillers used in the primer composition may contribute to performance.","To determine the effect of these filler properties on coating performance, primer compositions as described in Example 1 (Run 3) were prepared, replacing talc with fillers as shown below in Table 7a, which shows the physical properties of the various fillers used in formulating the primer composition.","For each filler, three different grades of material (i.e.","three different oil absorptivity values) for each filler type were used to make formulations of the primer compositions.","In addition, the additives (Bentone, Byk 024, sodium nitrite, Dynol 604 and Surfynol 104) of Example 1 (Run 3) are omitted from the primer compositions, and the pigment volume concentration of the fillers is adjusted to 32.TABLE 7a Properties of Filler Material Filler Shape BET m2/g Oil Absorption Talc Platy 14.28 59 10.14 31 18.06 65 Mica Platy 5.8 81 5.63 79 3.38 65 Silica Nodular 7 36 1.78 25 1.52 24 BaSO4 Nodular 2.58 15 1.69 20 3.93 22 Wollastonite Acicular 2.36 29 Acicular 4.18 44 The primer compositions were sprayed on cold rolled steel (CRS) test panels and air flashed for 10 minutes, followed by forced drying for 20 minutes at 140° F. (60° C.).","The panels were then aged in a 120° F. oven for 16 hours and cured to a dry film thickness of about 50 to 65 microns.","Each test panel was subjected to various corrosion tests, including water soak testing, salt spray testing, adhesion testing and cyclic corrosion testing.","Corrosion resistance on water soak testing and adhesion testing are shown in Table 7b and graphically represented in FIGS.","3A and 3B.","FIG.","3A is a graphical representation of the oil absorptivity and surface area for the fillers listed in Table 7a.","In FIG.","3A, lower surface area correlates to lower oil absorptivity.","FIG.","3B shows adhesion results for the various fillers shown in Table 7a.","TABLE 7b Performance Testing Results Water Soak Adhesion Filler (Days to Failure) (CRS; Mpa) Talc 1 321 1 367 1 263 Mica >20 292 >20 360 >20 296 Silica 9 641 >20 679 >20 628 BaSO4 >20 451 >20 490 >20 657 Wollastonite >20 583 >20 565 To compare surface area measurements with particle shape or size, SEM images of the platy and non-platy fillers in Table 7a were collected.","A comparison of the morphology of talc particles (platy) to BaSO4 particles (non-platy) is shown in FIGS.","4A and 4B.","The BaSO4 particles are fairly compact and nodular, whereas talc show a significant foliate structure with many exposed faces that contribute to surface area, resulting in high surface area and oil absorption for talc, relative to non-platy fillers of similar particle size.","Example 8: Effect of Filer on Primer Performance Primer formulation (A) was prepared as shown in Example 1 (Run 3), but with epoxy resin and surfactants removed, and with talc completely replaced with BaSO4.Similarly, primer formulation (B) was prepared as shown in Example 1 (Run 3), with epoxy resin and surfactants removed, and with talc replaced with a mixture of 50% talc and 50% BaSO4.Primer formulation (C) was prepared as shown in Example 1 (Run 3), with epoxy resin and other additives removed, but retaining talc as the filler (i.e.","100% talc).","The volume concentration of filler material was maintained constant.","Cold-rolled steel test panels were sprayed with primer formulations (A), (B) and (C), and the panels were then subjected to water soak testing.","The panels were evaluated for adhesion failure over a 14-day period, and blister ratings were determined using ASTM D714 over the same time course.","The results are shown in Table 8 below.","TABLE 8 Effect of Filler Type of Blister Formation over Time Water soak (days to Blister rating Primer failure) Day 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 A 14+ 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 B 14+ 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 C 2 10 5 5 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Example 9: Effect of Filler Volume Concentration on Primer Performance To evaluate the effect of filler volume concentration on coating performance, control primer compositions were prepared as described in Example 1 (Run 3), but with epoxy resin and additives removed.","The talc is completely replaced with BaSO4 as the filler.","Test formulations were prepared by modifying the filler volume concentration, with each test formulation prepared at low and high filler volume (14 and 32 vol % respectively, for adhesion testing; 14 and 24 vol % respectively for water soak testing).","The primer formulations were then applied to cold-rolled steel test panels, and each test panel was assessed for performance by adhesion testing.","Results are shown in Table 9a and 9b.","TABLE 9a Effect of Filler Volume on Water Soak Performance Primer Formulation Water Soak (hours to failure) Control (Run 1, Example 3) >336 Low filler (14 vol %) >336 High filler (24 vol %) 240 TABLE 9b Effect of Filler Volume on Adhesion Primer Formulation Adhesion (MPa) Control (Run 1, Example 3) 4.14 Low filler (14 vol %) 3.22 High filler (32 vol %) 1.23 Example 10: Effect of Zinc on Heat Stability of Primer Without being bound to theory, it is believed that the presence of certain Zn-containing species may accelerate degradation of the chlorinated resin used in the primer composition.","To support this observation, primer formulations prepared according to Example 1 (Run 3; with epoxy and additives removed) were loaded with zinc oxide (ZnO) at 2% and 5% based on the total weight of the composition.","Test panels were prepared by applying the primer formulation to cold-rolled steel, and heat stability at different temperatures of 160° F. (71° C.), 170° F. (76° C.) and 180° F. (82° C.) was assessed using GC/MS headspace analysis.","The detection and magnitude of HCl generation corresponds to degradation of the resin.","Results are shown in Table 10.TABLE 10 Effect of Zn on Heat Stability of Primer Days to Failure Primer Formulation At 71° C. At 76° C. At 82° C. Control (Run 3, Example 1) 28+ 14 4 Control + 2% ZnO 10 7 2 Control + 5% ZnO 10 7 2 Example 11: Effect of Type of Zn-Countering Species To evaluate the effect of various types of Zn on the heat stability of the chlorinated resin, primer formulations prepared according to Example 1 (Run 3, but with epoxy resin and additives omitted) were loaded with zinc oxide (ZnO), zinc dust, zinc sulphate (ZnSO4) and Zn(NO3)2.Each type of Zn-containing compound was added at 2% and 5% based on the total weight of the composition, keeping in mind that the amount of zinc in each type of composition will differ.","In addition, formulations with these Zn-containing species were treated with epoxy resin (Epi-Rez 3510) to determine the effect of the epoxy resin on heat stability of the formulation.","Test panels were prepared by applying the primer formulation to cold-rolled steel, and heat stability at a temperature of 190° F. (88° C.) was assessed using GC/MS headspace analysis.","Results are shown in Table 11, and graphically represented in FIG.","2.TABLE 11 Effect of Type of Zinc on Heat Stability Hours to Failure (at 88° C.) Primer Formulation Without Epoxy With Epoxy Control (Example 1, Run 3) 144+ — 2% ZnO 24 96 5% ZnO 36 96 2% Zn dust 36 72 5% Zn dust 24 72 2% ZnSO4 72 96 5% ZnSO4 96 96 2% Zn(NO3)2 144 144 5% Zn(NO3)2 144 144 Example 12: Effect of Additives on Primer Performance Without being bound to theory, it is believed that certain flash rust inhibitors may minimize oxidative attack of the coating by passivating the substrate surface and reducing the reaction of HCl (produced by degradation of the chlorinated resin) with iron to form the Lewis acidic iron chloride.","Eight different flash rust inhibitors (sodium nitrite, sodium benzoate, ammonium benzoate/morpholine, aluminum tripolyphosphate, diammonium hydrogen phosphate, ammonium dihydrogen phosphate, calcium phosphate and potassium tripolyphosphate) are added at a concentration of 1% to a clear formulation of the chlorinated resin.","The formulation is applied to test panels and the panels are exposed to heat.","The results of cross-hatch adhesion testing are shown in Table 12.TABLE 11 Effect of Flash Rust Inhibitors on Primer Performance Days to failure Formulation (50% adhesion loss) Control 16 Sodium nitrite 22 Ammonium benzoate 16 Sodium benzoate 16 Aluminum tripolyphosphate 16 Diammonium hydrogen phosphate 34 Ammonium dihydrogen phosphate 31 Calcium phosphate 23 Potassium tripolyphosphate 31 Example 13: Effect of Acrylic Resin on Heat Stability of Primer Composition To evaluate the effect of acrylic resin on the heat stability of chlorinated resin component (PVDC), resin emulsions were prepared as shown in Table 13 below, with Acrylic 1 representing an acrylic polymer composition and Acrylic 2 representing a styrene-acrylic copolymer.","The emulsions were applied to test panels, exposed to heat (230° F.; 110° C.) and tested for cross-hatch adhesion.","Results are shown in Table 13.TABLE 13 Effect of Acrylic Resin on Heat Stability Emulsion Days to Failure (at 110° C.) 100% PVDC Emulsion 1 50% PVDC/50% Acrylic 1 15 50% PVDC/50% Acrylic 2 15 Example 14.Effect of P:B Ratio on Primer and Topcoat Performance To determine the effect of pigment concentration on performance, primer compositions were prepared as described in Example 1 (Run 3) but with different pigment-to-binder (or P:B ratios) of 0.93, 0.46, 0.08 and 0.04.Test panels for the primer compositions were prepared and then topcoated with solvent-borne 2 k polyurethane coating compositions at either low pigment volume concentration (low PVC) or high pigment volume concentration (high PVC) respectively.","Performance was evaluated by salt spray testing for 480, 1000 and 1200 hours.","Results are shown in Table 14.TABLE 14 Effect of P:B ratio on Primer and Topcoat Performance Water Based High PVC 2K Low PVC 2K Primers Polyurethane Polyurethane 0.80 500 hours 240 hours Pigment/Binder 0.46 1000 hours 500 hours Pigment/Binder (blisters only along scribe) Clear Binder 1000 hours 1000 hours Other embodiments of this invention will be apparent to those skilled in the art upon consideration of this specification or from practice of the invention disclosed herein.","Various omissions, modifications, and changes to the principles and embodiments described herein may be made by one skilled in the art without departing from the true scope and spirit of the invention which is indicated by the following claims."]],"string":"[\n [\n \"WATER-BASED COATING SYSTEM WITH IMPROVED MOISTURE AND HEAT RESISTANCE\",\n \"The present invention provides a water-based coating system that can be used to form durable, abrasion resistant, corrosion resistant, protective barriers on a wide range of substrates.\",\n \"The coating system is particularly effective for protecting metal-containing substrates, such as intermodal cargo containers, against corrosion.\",\n \"As an overview, the present invention provides water-based primer compositions suitable to form primer coats and topcoats on substrates.\",\n \"Desirably, the primer incorporates one or more chlorinated resins for excellent corrosion protection.\",\n \"These polymers not only provide excellent corrosion protection and but also show excellent adhesion to a wide range of substrate materials.\",\n \"The system also includes topcoat compositions enhance compatibility and adhesion to the primer and to provide enhanced application.\"\n ],\n [\n \"1-45.\",\n \"(canceled) 46.A coated article, comprising: a substrate surface comprising at least one panel of an intermodal cargo container; a corrosion-resistant dried primer coating formed directly or indirectly on at least a portion of the substrate surface, said primer coating formed from a first coating composition comprising: an aqueous carrier; a resin component in admixture with the aqueous carrier comprising at least one chlorinated resin; one or more fillers; and one or more heat-stabilizing additives; and a dried topcoat formed directly or indirectly on at least a portion of the primer coating, said topcoat formed from a second coating composition comprising: a carrier; a resin component in admixture with the carrier; and one or more pigments present in a sufficient amount such that the dried topcoat formed from the second coating composition includes at least about 15 vol % of pigment based on the total volume of solids in the dried topcoat.\",\n \"47.The coated article of claim 1, wherein the chlorinated resin is polyvinylidene chloride.\",\n \"48.The coated article of claim 1, wherein the first coating composition comprises 20 to 80 weight percent polyvinylidene chloride.\",\n \"49.The coated article of claim 1, wherein the one or more fillers is selected from BaSO4, CaCO3, dolomite, wollastonite, silica, and mixtures thereof.\",\n \"50.The coated article of claim 1, wherein the one or more fillers have a total oil absorption of about 10 to 40 g per 100 g total weight of the filler.\",\n \"51.The coated article of claim 1, wherein the one or more fillers comprise filler particles with surface area of no more than about 10 m2/g.\",\n \"52.The coated article of claim 1, wherein the one or more fillers have a total oil absorption of 10 to 40 g per 100 g total weight of filler and surface area of no more than 10 m2/g.\",\n \"53.The coated article of claim 1, wherein the one or more heat-stabilizing additives are selected from epoxy-functional resins, antioxidants, flash rust inhibitors, organosulfur compounds, dienophiles, and mixtures thereof.\",\n \"54.The coated article of claim 1, wherein the one or more heat-stabilizing additives comprise up to 50 weight percent epoxy-functional resin based on the total weight of the first coating composition.\",\n \"55.The coated article of claim 1, wherein the one or more heat-stabilizing additives comprise at least one epoxy-functional resin with viscosity in the range of about 5 to 20,000 cP and an epoxy equivalent weight of about 150 to 800 g/eq.\",\n \"56.The coated article of claim 1, wherein the first coating composition is substantially free of catalytic metal or metal-containing species capable of catalyzing the degradation of the resin component.\",\n \"57.The coated article of claim 1, wherein the second coating composition includes 15 to 85 vol % of one or more pigments, based on the total volume of solids in the dried topcoat.\",\n \"58.The coated article of claim 1, wherein the second coating composition includes 25 to 80 vol % of one or more pigments, based on the total volume of solids in the dried topcoat.\",\n \"59.The coated article of claim 1, wherein the one or more pigments in the second coating composition are selected from china clay, talc, mica, barium sulfate, calcium carbonate, wollastonite, dolomite, silica, chlorite, and mixtures thereof.\",\n \"60.The coated article of claim 1, wherein the one or more pigments in the second coating composition comprise platelet-shaped pigment particles and non-platelet-shaped pigment particles, wherein the weight ratio of platelet-shaped particles to non-platelet-shaped particles is in the range of from 1:10 to 10:1.61.The coated article of claim 1, wherein the second coating composition comprises a free radically polymerizable reactant capable of film formation.\",\n \"62.The coated article of claim 1, wherein the resin component of the second coating composition is a reactive 2K system.\",\n \"63.The coated article of claim 1, wherein the carrier included in the second coating composition is an aqueous solvent.\",\n \"64.The coated article of claim 1, wherein the carrier included in the second coating composition is a non-aqueous solvent.\",\n \"65.The coated article of claim 1, wherein the resin component of the first coating composition comprises no more than 50 percent by weight acrylic resin based on the total weight of the resin component.\"\n ],\n [\n \" BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Intermodal cargo containers (also referred to as freight or shipping containers) are reusable transport and storage units for moving products and raw materials between locations, including between countries.\",\n \"Intermodal cargo containers are standardized to facilitate intermodal transport such as among marine transport, freight train transport, and freight truck transport.\",\n \"Standardization of cargo containers also is referred to as containerization.\",\n \"Containerization has provided global commerce with many benefits.\",\n \"Shipped goods move more easily and cheaply.\",\n \"Manufacturers know that goods loaded at one location can be readily unloaded at the destination.\",\n \"Cargo security has been improved, as containers are usually sealed and can be locked to discourage tampering and theft.\",\n \"Containers also have a longer service life, and there is a stronger market for used containers.\",\n \"Additionally, the costs of cargo containers themselves is lowered because a manufacturer can make these in larger volume knowing that potential customers are available all over the world.\",\n \"Several international standards have been created to promote international containerization.\",\n \"For instance, the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) has promulgated applicable standards including R-668 to define terminology, dimensions, and ratings; R-790 to define identification markings; R-1161 to recommend corner fittings; and R-1897 to set forth dimensions for general purpose containers.\",\n \"Other standards include ASTM D5728-00, ISO 9897 (1997); ISO 14829 (2002); ISO 17363 (2007); ISO/PAS 17712 (2006); ISO 18185 (2007); and ISO/TS 10891 (2009).\",\n \"An international specification for coating/paint performance is provided by IICL (Institute of International Container Lessors).\",\n \"See also International Organization for Standardization (ISO), Freight Containers, Vol.\",\n \"34 of ISO Standards Handbook, 4 th Ed., 2006, ISBN 92-67-10426-8; and Levinson, Marc, The Box: How the Shipping Container Made the World Smaller and the World Economy Bigger, Princeton, N.J., Princeton University Press, 2006, ISBN 0691123241.Each of these standards and publications, and all other publications referenced herein, are incorporated herein in their entirety for all purposes.\",\n \"Cargo containers experience harsh, corrosive environments during their service life.\",\n \"When shipped by sea, the containers are exposed to the corrosive effects of salt water.\",\n \"When exposed to nature, the containers must withstand wind, sun, hail, rain, sand, heat, and the like.\",\n \"Containers exposed to the sun can bake to temperatures of 82° C. (180° F.) or even higher, with darker colored containers being prone to excessive heat levels.\",\n \"Accordingly, cargo containers must be made in a way that allows the containers to survive this exposure for a reasonable service life.\",\n \"As one strategy, containers can be made from corrosion resistant materials such as stainless steel, weather steel (also known as weathering steel, COR-TEN brand steel, or CORTEN brand steel).\",\n \"Even when made from such corrosion resistant materials, it still generally is desirable to further apply durable, abrasion resistant, corrosion resistant coatings on the containers as further protection against degradation.\",\n \"Coatings also may be used for decorative, informative, or brand identity reasons.\",\n \"The interior of a cargo container must also meet stringent industry standards.\",\n \"For example, a food-grade container cannot exhibit any persistent odor when the cargo door is first opened, including the odor produced by outgassing solvents.\",\n \"Therefore, it is desirable to apply durable, abrasion resistant, corrosion resistant and low-odor coatings to the exterior and interior surfaces of a cargo container.\",\n \"A typical coating strategy involves applying a topcoating over a primer coating.\",\n \"Historically, mostly solvent-based coating systems have been used to protect cargo containers as many proposed water-based systems have been unable to satisfy the applicable performance demands and/or standards.\",\n \"Consequently, only solvent-based coating systems have found widespread commercial acceptance in the industry.\",\n \"The container industry retains a strong bias against using prior proposed water-based coating systems.\",\n \"With increased environmental awareness, there is a strong desire to develop improved technology that would allow use of water-based coating systems to protect cargo containers or other substrates (e.g., vehicles such as rail cars, trucks, and the like).\",\n \"Significant challenges remain.\",\n \"As one serious challenge, it has been very difficult to formulate water-based coating systems that show acceptable adhesion to underlying container surfaces.\",\n \"Many conventional water-based systems fail to pass applicable salt spray testing procedures.\",\n \"The coatings blister, peel, crack, or otherwise show poor durability.\",\n \"Some water-based coatings offer too little protection against corrosion.\",\n \"Thus, there is a strong need to improve the moisture resistance of these coatings.\",\n \"The industry strongly desires a commercially available, water-based coating system that is able to satisfy the stringent demands of the intermodal cargo container industry.\"\n ],\n [\n \" SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The present invention provides a water-based coating system that can be used to form durable, abrasion resistant, heat resistant, corrosion resistant, protective barriers on a wide range of substrates.\",\n \"The coating system is particularly effective for protecting metal-containing substrates, such as intermodal cargo containers, vehicles (e.g., rail cars, trucks, etc.\",\n \"), structural features (bridges, water towers, supports, etc.\",\n \"), and the like, against corrosion.\",\n \"Moreover, because the coating system is water-based, it reduces or eliminates emissions and factory pollution during manufacture and application.\",\n \"The water-based coating described herein can be used to paint the interior of food-grade containers without concern over persistent odors or prolonged outgassing of solvent common to solvent-based coating systems.\",\n \"As an overview, the present invention provides water-based primer compositions suitable to form corrosion-resistant coatings on substrates, as primer coats on substrates, and as topcoat compositions suitable to form optional topcoats directly or indirectly on the primer coats.\",\n \"Desirably, the coatings, and especially the primer coats, incorporate one or more chlorinated resins for excellent corrosion protection.\",\n \"These chlorinated resins not only provide excellent corrosion protection and but also show excellent adhesion to a wide range of substrate materials.\",\n \"Unfortunately, chlorinated polymers such as polyvinylidene chloride are susceptible to degradation in strongly acidic aqueous environments, and on exposure to higher temperatures, e.g., temperatures above 150° F. (65.5° C.) or even above 180° F. (82.2° C.).\",\n \"This degradation can lead to a number of coating issues, including reduced corrosion protection, peeling, blistering, cracking, and the like.\",\n \"It would be desirable to be able to improve the heat resistance and corrosion resistance of chlorinated resins to increase their useful operating range.\",\n \"Significantly, the present invention provides strategies that can be used singly or in combination that may improve the heat resistance and corrosion resistance of the chlorinated resins.\",\n \"The present invention also provides water-based compositions that may be used to form topcoats on the underlying primer coats with excellent adhesion, durability, and moisture resistance.\",\n \"Preferred topcoats have high pigment loading to help make the coatings more resistant to blistering, peeling, cracking, and the like while still allowing high levels of corrosion resistance to be retained.\",\n \"Conventionally, there has been a strong bias in the industry to only use solvent-based coating systems to protect cargo containers.\",\n \"The bias is that water-based coatings lack the kind of processability and performance needed to survive in this challenging environment.\",\n \"Surprisingly, the present invention provides a water-based coating system that shows excellent performance when used to protect such cargo containers, surviving challenging industry tests normally satisfied only by solvent-based systems.\",\n \"For instance, the coatings of the present invention pass applicable salt spray testing standards and show excellent heat resistance.\",\n \"The water-based coatings of the present invention also provide significant environmental benefits.\",\n \"They produce lower factory pollution and emission during application to cargo containers.\",\n \"Moreover, the water-based coatings of the present invention enable coated containers to be used immediately for the transport of absorptive goods such as food stuff, for example.\",\n \"Food stuff cannot be transported in containers freshly painted with solvent-based coatings, because the solvent will volatilize or outgas and contaminate the food stuff.\",\n \"Each of the primer composition and the topcoat composition of the invention independently can be applied on substrates in one or more coats.\",\n \"Optionally, these compositions can be used in combination with other coating compositions as well.\",\n \"For instance, the coating system of the invention can be applied over a substrate that is at least partially coated with another primer or other coating(s), such as an epoxy primer.\",\n \"As one advantage, however, the water-based coating compositions of the present invention can be applied, if desired, as a two-coat system (topcoat layer over primer layer) and still meet stringent performance standards of the intermodal container industry.\",\n \"This is quite significant for an environmentally friendly, water-based coating system.\",\n \"In the past, mainly only solvent-based systems have been able to meet industry demands when applied as a two-coat system.\",\n \"In short, the present invention provides an environmental and application-friendly system that passes applicable industry standard testing and that can be applied to substrates such as intermodal cargo containers in a similar fashion to solvent based coatings.\",\n \"One advantage of a two-coat system versus a system that involves more coats is that the two-coat system requires less time for drying on line, thereby enhancing throughput during the coating stage.\"\n ],\n [\n \"CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION(S) This application is a continuation-in-part of PCT Application No.\",\n \"PCT/US2011/057040, filed 20 Oct. 2011, and claims priority to U.S.\",\n \"Provisional Application Ser.\",\n \"No.\",\n \"61/394,972, filed 20 Oct. 2010, and U.S.\",\n \"Provisional Application Ser.\",\n \"No.\",\n \"61/450,471, filed 8 Mar.\",\n \"2011.FIELD OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to water-based coating systems used to form protective coatings on substrates and in particular metal containing substrates.\",\n \"More particularly, the present invention relates to coating compositions, methods, and coating systems involving an aqueous primer composition (also referred to as a basecoat) incorporating at least one chlorinated resin and an optional aqueous topcoat composition, wherein the topcoat composition preferably has a sufficiently high pigment loading to promote enhanced performance of the resultant coatings, including, for example, enhanced durability, thermal protection, and service life.\",\n \"BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Intermodal cargo containers (also referred to as freight or shipping containers) are reusable transport and storage units for moving products and raw materials between locations, including between countries.\",\n \"Intermodal cargo containers are standardized to facilitate intermodal transport such as among marine transport, freight train transport, and freight truck transport.\",\n \"Standardization of cargo containers also is referred to as containerization.\",\n \"Containerization has provided global commerce with many benefits.\",\n \"Shipped goods move more easily and cheaply.\",\n \"Manufacturers know that goods loaded at one location can be readily unloaded at the destination.\",\n \"Cargo security has been improved, as containers are usually sealed and can be locked to discourage tampering and theft.\",\n \"Containers also have a longer service life, and there is a stronger market for used containers.\",\n \"Additionally, the costs of cargo containers themselves is lowered because a manufacturer can make these in larger volume knowing that potential customers are available all over the world.\",\n \"Several international standards have been created to promote international containerization.\",\n \"For instance, the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) has promulgated applicable standards including R-668 to define terminology, dimensions, and ratings; R-790 to define identification markings; R-1161 to recommend corner fittings; and R-1897 to set forth dimensions for general purpose containers.\",\n \"Other standards include ASTM D5728-00, ISO 9897 (1997); ISO 14829 (2002); ISO 17363 (2007); ISO/PAS 17712 (2006); ISO 18185 (2007); and ISO/TS 10891 (2009).\",\n \"An international specification for coating/paint performance is provided by IICL (Institute of International Container Lessors).\",\n \"See also International Organization for Standardization (ISO), Freight Containers, Vol.\",\n \"34 of ISO Standards Handbook, 4th Ed., 2006, ISBN 92-67-10426-8; and Levinson, Marc, The Box: How the Shipping Container Made the World Smaller and the World Economy Bigger, Princeton, N.J., Princeton University Press, 2006, ISBN 0691123241.Each of these standards and publications, and all other publications referenced herein, are incorporated herein in their entirety for all purposes.\",\n \"Cargo containers experience harsh, corrosive environments during their service life.\",\n \"When shipped by sea, the containers are exposed to the corrosive effects of salt water.\",\n \"When exposed to nature, the containers must withstand wind, sun, hail, rain, sand, heat, and the like.\",\n \"Containers exposed to the sun can bake to temperatures of 82° C. (180° F.) or even higher, with darker colored containers being prone to excessive heat levels.\",\n \"Accordingly, cargo containers must be made in a way that allows the containers to survive this exposure for a reasonable service life.\",\n \"As one strategy, containers can be made from corrosion resistant materials such as stainless steel, weather steel (also known as weathering steel, COR-TEN brand steel, or CORTEN brand steel).\",\n \"Even when made from such corrosion resistant materials, it still generally is desirable to further apply durable, abrasion resistant, corrosion resistant coatings on the containers as further protection against degradation.\",\n \"Coatings also may be used for decorative, informative, or brand identity reasons.\",\n \"The interior of a cargo container must also meet stringent industry standards.\",\n \"For example, a food-grade container cannot exhibit any persistent odor when the cargo door is first opened, including the odor produced by outgassing solvents.\",\n \"Therefore, it is desirable to apply durable, abrasion resistant, corrosion resistant and low-odor coatings to the exterior and interior surfaces of a cargo container.\",\n \"A typical coating strategy involves applying a topcoating over a primer coating.\",\n \"Historically, mostly solvent-based coating systems have been used to protect cargo containers as many proposed water-based systems have been unable to satisfy the applicable performance demands and/or standards.\",\n \"Consequently, only solvent-based coating systems have found widespread commercial acceptance in the industry.\",\n \"The container industry retains a strong bias against using prior proposed water-based coating systems.\",\n \"With increased environmental awareness, there is a strong desire to develop improved technology that would allow use of water-based coating systems to protect cargo containers or other substrates (e.g., vehicles such as rail cars, trucks, and the like).\",\n \"Significant challenges remain.\",\n \"As one serious challenge, it has been very difficult to formulate water-based coating systems that show acceptable adhesion to underlying container surfaces.\",\n \"Many conventional water-based systems fail to pass applicable salt spray testing procedures.\",\n \"The coatings blister, peel, crack, or otherwise show poor durability.\",\n \"Some water-based coatings offer too little protection against corrosion.\",\n \"Thus, there is a strong need to improve the moisture resistance of these coatings.\",\n \"The industry strongly desires a commercially available, water-based coating system that is able to satisfy the stringent demands of the intermodal cargo container industry.\",\n \"SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The present invention provides a water-based coating system that can be used to form durable, abrasion resistant, heat resistant, corrosion resistant, protective barriers on a wide range of substrates.\",\n \"The coating system is particularly effective for protecting metal-containing substrates, such as intermodal cargo containers, vehicles (e.g., rail cars, trucks, etc.\",\n \"), structural features (bridges, water towers, supports, etc.\",\n \"), and the like, against corrosion.\",\n \"Moreover, because the coating system is water-based, it reduces or eliminates emissions and factory pollution during manufacture and application.\",\n \"The water-based coating described herein can be used to paint the interior of food-grade containers without concern over persistent odors or prolonged outgassing of solvent common to solvent-based coating systems.\",\n \"As an overview, the present invention provides water-based primer compositions suitable to form corrosion-resistant coatings on substrates, as primer coats on substrates, and as topcoat compositions suitable to form optional topcoats directly or indirectly on the primer coats.\",\n \"Desirably, the coatings, and especially the primer coats, incorporate one or more chlorinated resins for excellent corrosion protection.\",\n \"These chlorinated resins not only provide excellent corrosion protection and but also show excellent adhesion to a wide range of substrate materials.\",\n \"Unfortunately, chlorinated polymers such as polyvinylidene chloride are susceptible to degradation in strongly acidic aqueous environments, and on exposure to higher temperatures, e.g., temperatures above 150° F. (65.5° C.) or even above 180° F. (82.2° C.).\",\n \"This degradation can lead to a number of coating issues, including reduced corrosion protection, peeling, blistering, cracking, and the like.\",\n \"It would be desirable to be able to improve the heat resistance and corrosion resistance of chlorinated resins to increase their useful operating range.\",\n \"Significantly, the present invention provides strategies that can be used singly or in combination that may improve the heat resistance and corrosion resistance of the chlorinated resins.\",\n \"The present invention also provides water-based compositions that may be used to form topcoats on the underlying primer coats with excellent adhesion, durability, and moisture resistance.\",\n \"Preferred topcoats have high pigment loading to help make the coatings more resistant to blistering, peeling, cracking, and the like while still allowing high levels of corrosion resistance to be retained.\",\n \"Conventionally, there has been a strong bias in the industry to only use solvent-based coating systems to protect cargo containers.\",\n \"The bias is that water-based coatings lack the kind of processability and performance needed to survive in this challenging environment.\",\n \"Surprisingly, the present invention provides a water-based coating system that shows excellent performance when used to protect such cargo containers, surviving challenging industry tests normally satisfied only by solvent-based systems.\",\n \"For instance, the coatings of the present invention pass applicable salt spray testing standards and show excellent heat resistance.\",\n \"The water-based coatings of the present invention also provide significant environmental benefits.\",\n \"They produce lower factory pollution and emission during application to cargo containers.\",\n \"Moreover, the water-based coatings of the present invention enable coated containers to be used immediately for the transport of absorptive goods such as food stuff, for example.\",\n \"Food stuff cannot be transported in containers freshly painted with solvent-based coatings, because the solvent will volatilize or outgas and contaminate the food stuff.\",\n \"Each of the primer composition and the topcoat composition of the invention independently can be applied on substrates in one or more coats.\",\n \"Optionally, these compositions can be used in combination with other coating compositions as well.\",\n \"For instance, the coating system of the invention can be applied over a substrate that is at least partially coated with another primer or other coating(s), such as an epoxy primer.\",\n \"As one advantage, however, the water-based coating compositions of the present invention can be applied, if desired, as a two-coat system (topcoat layer over primer layer) and still meet stringent performance standards of the intermodal container industry.\",\n \"This is quite significant for an environmentally friendly, water-based coating system.\",\n \"In the past, mainly only solvent-based systems have been able to meet industry demands when applied as a two-coat system.\",\n \"In short, the present invention provides an environmental and application-friendly system that passes applicable industry standard testing and that can be applied to substrates such as intermodal cargo containers in a similar fashion to solvent based coatings.\",\n \"One advantage of a two-coat system versus a system that involves more coats is that the two-coat system requires less time for drying on line, thereby enhancing throughput during the coating stage.\",\n \"Selected Definitions The term “component” refers to any part of a composition, polymer or coating that includes a particular feature or structure.\",\n \"Examples of components include compounds, monomers, oligomers, polymers, and organic groups contained there.\",\n \"The term “double bond” is non-limiting and refers to any type of double bond between any suitable atoms (e.g., C, O, N, etc.).\",\n \"The term “triple bond” is non-limiting and refers to any type of triple bond between any suitable atoms.\",\n \"The term “crosslinker” refers to a molecule capable of forming a covalent linkage between polymers or between two different regions of the same polymer.\",\n \"The term “self-crosslinking,” when used in the context of a self-crosslinking polymer, refers to the capacity of a polymer to enter into a crosslinking reaction with itself and/or another polymer, in the absence of an external crosslinker, to form a covalent linkage therebetween.\",\n \"Typically, this crosslinking reaction occurs through reaction of complimentary reactive functional groups present on the self-crosslinking polymer itself or two separate molecules of the self-crosslinking polymer.\",\n \"The term “water-dispersible” in the context of a water-dispersible polymer means that the polymer can be mixed into water (or an aqueous carrier) to form a stable mixture.\",\n \"For example, a stable mixture will not separate into immiscible layers over a period of at least 2 weeks when stored at 49° C. (120° F.), or when physical force (such as vibration, for example) is applied.\",\n \"The term “water-dispersible” is intended to include the term “water-soluble.” In other words, by definition, a water-soluble polymer is also considered to be a water-dispersible polymer.\",\n \"The term “dispersion” in the context of a dispersible polymer refers to the mixture of a dispersible polymer and a carrier.\",\n \"Except as otherwise indicated, the term “dispersion” is intended to include the term “solution.” As used herein, a “latex” polymer means that a polymer is in admixture with an aqueous carrier with the help of at least one emulsifying agent (e.g., a surfactant) for creating an emulsion of polymer particles in the carrier.\",\n \"The term “thermoplastic” refers to a material that melts and changes shape when sufficiently heated and hardens when sufficiently cooled.\",\n \"Such materials are typically capable of undergoing repeated melting and hardening without exhibiting appreciable chemical change.\",\n \"In contrast, a “thermoset” refers to a material that is crosslinked and does not “melt.” Unless otherwise indicated, a reference to a “(meth)acrylate” compound (where “meth” is bracketed) is meant to include both acrylate and methacrylate compounds.\",\n \"The term “polycarboxylic acid” includes both polycarboxylic acids and anhydrides thereof.\",\n \"The term “on”, when used in the context of a coating applied on a surface or substrate, includes both coatings applied directly or indirectly to the surface or substrate.\",\n \"Thus, for example, a coating applied to a primer layer overlying a substrate constitutes a coating applied on the substrate.\",\n \"Except as otherwise indicated, the term “weight percent” or “wt %” refers to the concentration of a component or composition based on the total weight of the composition, expressed as a percentage.\",\n \"Except as otherwise indicated, the term “parts by weight” refers to the concentration of a component or composition based on the total weight of the composition.\",\n \"Unless otherwise indicated, the term “polymer” includes both homopolymers and copolymers (i.e., polymers of two or more different monomers).\",\n \"As used herein, the term “pigment volume concentration” (PVC) refers to the ratio of the volume of the pigment or filler particles (i.e.\",\n \"non-binder solids) to the total volume of solids (binder and filler) present in the first coating composition.\",\n \"Where the binder and non-binder solids include multiple components, ideal mixing is assumed and all volumes are additive.\",\n \"The concentration at which the amount of binder present in a composition is just sufficient to wet out the pigment or filler (i.e.\",\n \"fill all the voids between filler or pigment particles) is known as the “critical pigment volume concentration” (CPVC), and represents the physical transition point in a filler-binder system.\",\n \"The term “comprises” and variations thereof do not have a limiting meaning where these terms appear in the description and claims.\",\n \"The terms “preferred” and “preferably” refer to embodiments of the invention that may afford certain benefits, under certain circumstances.\",\n \"However, other embodiments may also be preferred, under the same or other circumstances.\",\n \"Furthermore, the recitation of one or more preferred embodiments does not imply that other embodiments are not useful, and is not intended to exclude other embodiments from the scope of the invention.\",\n \"As used herein, “a,” “an,” “the,” “at least one,” and “one or more” are used interchangeably.\",\n \"Thus, for example, a coating composition that comprises “an” additive can be interpreted to mean that the coating composition includes “one or more” additives.\",\n \"Also herein, the recitations of numerical ranges by endpoints include all numbers subsumed within that range (e.g., 1 to 5 includes 1, 1.5, 2, 2.75, 3, 3.80, 4, 5, etc.).\",\n \"Furthermore, disclosure of a range includes disclosure of all subranges included within the broader range (e.g., 1 to 5 discloses 1 to 4, 1.5 to 4.5, 1 to 2, etc.).\",\n \"BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES FIG.\",\n \"1A is a graphical representation of the effect of filler oil absorptivity on water soak performance for the first aqueous coating composition.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"1B is a graphical representation of the effect of filler oil absorptivity on adhesion performance for the first aqueous coating composition.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"2 is a graphical representation of the thermal stability of the first aqueous coating composition in the presence of Zn-containing species, and with and without epoxy resin.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"3A is a graphical representation of the correlation between oil absorptivity of the fillers used in the first aqueous composition and particle surface area.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"3B is a graphical representation of the adhesion performance for the first aqueous coating composition.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"4A is an SEM image of a talc particle.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"4B is an SEM image of a BaSO4 particle.\",\n \"DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF PRESENTLY PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS The embodiments of the present invention described below are not intended to be exhaustive or to limit the invention to the precise forms disclosed in the following detailed description.\",\n \"Rather the embodiments are chosen and described so that others skilled in the art may appreciate and understand the principles and practices of the present invention.\",\n \"All patents, pending patent applications, published patent applications, and technical articles cited herein are incorporated herein by reference in their respective entireties for all purposes.\",\n \"In an embodiment, the coating system of the present invention generally includes a first aqueous composition that is used to form a corrosion resistant primer coating on a substrate.\",\n \"The system optionally and preferably further includes a second aqueous coating composition that is used to form a durable, abrasion resistant topcoat over the first coating.\",\n \"In an embodiment, the first aqueous coating composition generally includes ingredients comprising at least a first resin component in admixture with in an aqueous carrier.\",\n \"The first aqueous coating composition of the invention may be a single phase solution in which one or more ingredients including at least the first resin component are substantially fully dispersed in the aqueous carrier.\",\n \"Alternatively, the coating compositions may include two or more phases.\",\n \"Compositions including two or more phases may be in the form of dispersions such as a dispersion in which one or more phases are dispersed in a continuous phase of another material and/or phase.\",\n \"Many dispersions are in the form of suspensions including but not limited to colloidal suspensions.\",\n \"In some embodiments, coating compositions are in the form of a latex or emulsion including polymer microparticles dispersed in an aqueous carrier.\",\n \"Some compositions may be water-reducible meaning that the composition remains stable if diluted with additional amounts of water.\",\n \"In an embodiment, water-reducible compositions use at least one polymer that is capable of being dispersed in water without requiring the use of a separate surfactant, although separate surfactants could be used, if desired.\",\n \"Polymers that can be dispersed in water without requiring a separate surfactant often include pendant ionic functionality and/or hydrophilic chain segments that render corresponding regions of the polymer to be more compatible with water.\",\n \"External acids or bases may be required for anionic stabilization, but such acids and bases usually are different than the emulsifying agents (e.g., surfactants) that are used to disperse a latex polymer.\",\n \"In an embodiment, the first resin component includes at least one film-forming resin that desirably helps the overlying topcoat adhere better to the underlying substrate and/or in combination with the topcoat provides additional protection for the substrate.\",\n \"Preferably, the film-forming resin component acts as a barrier to moisture and/or oxygen.\",\n \"The resin(s) useful in the first resin component may be thermosetting and/or thermoplastic.\",\n \"Conveniently, one or more of these are thermoplastic.\",\n \"Further, some embodiments of a thermoplastic resin useful in the practice of the present invention may be amorphous, crystalline or semicrystalline.\",\n \"Illustrative resins used in the first resin component include acyclic, cyclic, branched, linear, aliphatic, or aromatic resins.\",\n \"Thermoplastic resins desirably have a minimum film-forming temperature (MFFT) that is below 65° C., preferably below 45° C., more preferably below 25° C. It is also desirable that such resins desirably have a minimum film forming temperature that is greater than −50° C., preferably greater than −25° C., more preferably greater than 0° C. The molecular weight(s) of the one or more resins of the first resin component independently may vary over a wide range.\",\n \"If the molecular weight is too low, then the coating may not be durable enough or may not be resistant to solvent attack.\",\n \"If too high, then the coating may not be easy to apply at sufficient solids level.\",\n \"Balancing such concerns, the number average molecular weight desirably is in the range from about 5000 to 75,000, more preferably about 10,000 to 50,000, more preferably from about 10,000 to 20,000; and the weight average molecular weight desirably is in the range from about 8,000 to 150,000, more preferably about 20,000 to 80,000, more preferably about 35,000 to 55,000.As used herein, molecular weight refers to the number average molecular weight (Mn) unless otherwise expressly noted.\",\n \"Preferably, the first resin component includes at least one chlorinated resin derived from one or more reactants, wherein at least one of the reactant(s) is at least partially chlorinated.\",\n \"Chlorinated resins, known to have excellent barrier properties, help to provide coatings with excellent corrosion resistance, particularly in marine environments in which substrates protected by the coating system are exposed to solvents, fresh water, salt water, and the like.\",\n \"The Cl substituents of the chlorinated reactant(s) may be attached directly to the reactant backbone by a single bond or via a suitable linking group.\",\n \"In some embodiments, chlorinated reactants may be monomeric, oligomeric, and/or polymeric.\",\n \"In some embodiments, free radically polymerizable functionality may be present.\",\n \"In addition to one or more chlorinated reactants, one or more additional copolymerizable monomers, oligomers, and/or resins may also be used with the chlorinated resins, if desired.\",\n \"The chlorinated reactant(s) desirably constitute at least 50 weight percent, more preferably at least 70 weight percent, even more preferably at least 85 weight percent, and even up to 100 weight percent of the resultant chlorinated resin(s).\",\n \"The Cl content of the resultant chlorinated resin can vary over a wide range.\",\n \"In some embodiments, the resin can be partially chlorinated or perchlorinated.\",\n \"If the Cl content is too low, the corrosion protection provided by the resin may be less than is desired.\",\n \"The Cl content can be characterized as the weight percent of Cl included in the chlorinated resin.\",\n \"For higher levels of corrosion protection, it is desirable that a chlorinated resin includes at least about 20 weight percent Cl, preferably at least about 40 weight percent Cl, and more preferably at least about 60 weight percent Cl.\",\n \"Perchlorinated embodiments represent a practical upper limit upon Cl content.\",\n \"Chlorinated resins of the type described herein may be made by radical polymerization of chlorinated monomers.\",\n \"Chlorinated monomers preferably include, for example, reactants with free radically polymerizable functionality (e.g., carbon-carbon double bonds), and have structures including preferably 2 to 20, more preferably 2 to 10, and most preferably 2 to 4 carbon atoms.\",\n \"Suitable examples include, without limitation, chlorinated ethenes, chlorinated propenes, and combinations of these, such as monochloroethene, 1,1-dicholoro ethane, 1,2-dichloroethene, 1,1,2-trichloroethene, tetrachloroethene, 1-chloropropene, 2-chloropropene, 1,1-dichloropropene, 2,2-dichloropropene, 1,2-dichloropropene, 1,1,1-trichloro-2-propene, 1,1,2-1-propene, 1,2,3-trichloropropene, combinations of these, and the like.\",\n \"Chlorinated resins of the type described herein also may be made by radical polymerization of chlorinated monomers with monomers or comonomers of ethylenically unsaturated esters, amides, and anhydrides of carboxylic acids.\",\n \"Suitable ethylenically unsaturated comonomers include, for example, (meth)acrylic acid and derivatives such as glycidyl (meth)acrylate, methylaminoethyl (meth)acrylate, t-butylaminoethyl (meth)acrylate, (meth)acrylamide, 4-pentanoguanamine; hydroxylalkyl esters such as hydroxypropyl (meth)acrylate, hydroxyethyl (meth)acrylate, (meth)acrylonitrile, N-alkoxyalkyl amides such as methoxymethyl (meth)acrylamide and butoxy-(methyl) acrylamide; hydroxyalkyl amides such as N-methylol (meth)acrylamide; dicarboxylic acids such as maleic acid; corresponding anhydrides of these (if any); combinations of these, and the like.\",\n \"Preferred chlorinated resins may be prepared as described in U.S. Pat.\",\n \"Nos.\",\n \"4,341,679; 4,401,788; 4,435,478; 4,543,386; and 4,783,499.In addition to the one or more Cl substituents and free radically polymerizable functionality, the chlorinated reactants used to make chlorinated resins may otherwise be substituted or unsubstituted with additional kinds of functionality, including epoxy-functionality, for example.\",\n \"Such functionality optionally may be used for crosslinking.\",\n \"As an additional option, such functionality may be used to provide the resin with integral dispersing functionality.\",\n \"Some substituents may be co-members of a ring structure.\",\n \"Examples of other substituents include hydroxyl, thiol, amino, amide, isocyanate, nitrile, carboxy, sulfate, sulfite, fatty acid, epoxide, and combinations of these groups.\",\n \"The composition may also contain one or more other types of free-radical addition polymers (e.g.\",\n \"produced by the free-radical addition polymerization or copolymerization in aqueous emulsion of one or more monomers such as vinylidene chloride, alkyl (meth)acrylates having 1 to 12 carbon atoms in the alkyl group, alkoxyalkyl (meth)acrylates having 1 to 12 carbon atoms in the alkyl group, styrene, (meth)acrylonitrile, allyloxy groups, cyanate ester groups, vinyl acetate, vinyl ether groups, vinyl chloride, ethylene, cis- and trans-1,3-butadiene, cis- and trans-isoprene, cis- and trans-chloroprene, 1-decene, 1-pentene and 1-octene, combinations of these, and the like.\",\n \"Free radically polymerizable functionality is conveniently reacted by exposing the reactants to a suitable source of curing energy, often in the presence of agents (e.g., initiators, etc.)\",\n \"that help promote the desired reaction.\",\n \"The energy source used for achieving polymerization and/or crosslinking of the curable functionality may be actinic (e.g., radiation having a wavelength in the ultraviolet or visible region of the spectrum), accelerated particles (e.g., electron beam radiation), thermal (e.g., heat or infrared radiation), or the like.\",\n \"A particularly preferred chlorinated resin is polyvinylidene chloride (PVDC).\",\n \"As used herein, polyvinylidene chloride refers to a resin in which 1,1-dichloroethene constitutes at least 40 weight percent, optionally at least 60 weight percent, further optionally at least about 75 weight percent, further optionally at least about 90 weight percent, and further optionally even up to 100 percent by weight of the reactants used to make the resin.\",\n \"A wide range of suitable embodiments of polyvinylidene chloride resins are available from commercial sources.\",\n \"Examples of commercially available embodiments include, without limitation, those available under the trade designations DIOFAN (available from Dow Chemical and/or Solvay Plastics), POLIDENE (e.g., 33-082, 33-038, 33-086, 33-083, 33-075, and 33-081 available from Scott Bader), HALOFLEX (e.g., 202 and 202S available from DSM Neoresins), PERMAX (e.g., 803 and 805 available from Lubrizol), other commercially available resins, combinations of these, and the like.\",\n \"In an aspect, PVDC or other commercially available chlorinated resins may be modified with specific functionality, such as epoxy-functionality, for example.\",\n \"The amount of first resin component in the first aqueous coating composition may be selected from a wide range.\",\n \"Generally, if the amount of resin component is too low, then it may be difficult to form a film, more difficult to form a film that has sufficient adhesion to the substrate, the film may have insufficient corrosion resistance or other performance, and/or the like.\",\n \"If too much is used, then it may be harder to formulate a pigmented system or it may be more difficult to make a material that can be applied to the substrate.\",\n \"Balancing such concerns, the first aqueous coating composition preferably includes from about 10 to 70 weight percent, more preferably about 15 to 50 weight percent, and most preferably about 20 to 40 weight percent of the first resin component based on the total weight of the aqueous coating composition.\",\n \"The first resin component preferably includes at least about 50 weight percent, more preferably about 50 to 75 weight percent, and most preferably about 75 to 100 weight percent of a chlorinated resin, such as PVDC, for example.\",\n \"In addition to the chlorinated resin(s), the first aqueous coating composition optionally may include one or more other kinds of resin components.\",\n \"Preferably, these are hydrophobic and substantially miscible with chlorinated resins so that any undesirable amounts of phase separation among resins is substantially avoided.\",\n \"Exemplary resins include epoxies, polyurethanes, polyamides, polyimides, halogenated polymers, polysilicones, polyesters, polyolefins, (meth)acrylic resins, combinations of these and the like.\",\n \"Acrylic latex emulsions are preferred, including, for example, polyurethane dispersions (PUD), all-acrylic emulsions, styrene-acrylic emulsions, and acrylic-modified alkyd resin dispersions.\",\n \"In an aspect, styrene-acrylic emulsions are preferred.\",\n \"The amount of these resins may be selected from a wide range, balancing concerns of compatibility with the chlorinated resin component against performance of the coating, in terms of corrosion resistance and heat resistance.\",\n \"In a preferred aspect, the first aqueous coating composition includes up to about 50 wt %, preferably about 5 to 50 wt %, more preferably about 15 to 40 wt %, and most preferably about 20 to 30 wt % of acrylic latex emulsion, based on the total weight of resin components in the first aqueous coating composition.\",\n \"The first resin component is in admixture with an aqueous carrier.\",\n \"As used herein, “aqueous” means that at least about 5 weight percent, preferably at least about 20 weight percent, more preferably at least about 40 weight percent, and even more preferably at least about 60 weight percent, and even 90 weight percent or more of the carrier is water, based upon the total weight of the carrier.\",\n \"Most preferably, from about 85 to 100 weight percent, more preferably about 95 to 99 weight percent of the carrier is water.\",\n \"In addition to water, the aqueous carrier of the first aqueous coating composition optionally may include one or more additional, optional co-carriers.\",\n \"Co-carrier(s) may be used for a variety of purposes, including helping in film formation and/or paint stability.\",\n \"Examples of suitable co-carriers include butyl cellosolve, alcohol(s), such as butanol, coalescing agents (e.g., ester alcohol(s), such as the Eastman Texanol product and/or low VOC coalescents such as are described in U.S. Pat.\",\n \"Nos.\",\n \"6,762,230 and 7,812,079), glycol ether(s), combinations of these, and the like.\",\n \"Desirably, so-called VOC-exempt co-carrier(s) are preferred.\",\n \"The amount of co-carrier included in the first aqueous coating composition can vary over a wide range.\",\n \"The amount(s) to use will depend on factors including the type of co-carrier, the purpose for which the co-carrier is being added, the coating technique(s) that might be used to apply the first aqueous coating composition onto a substrate, and the like.\",\n \"In illustrative embodiments, the first aqueous coating composition may include from about 03 to 80 weight percent, desirably about 0.3 to 15 weight percent, more desirably about 1 to 5 weight percent of co-carrier(s) based on the total weight of co-carrier and water included in the composition.\",\n \"As supplied, many water-based PVDC resin compositions tend to be strongly acidic, often having a pH of about 2 or less, even about 1 or less.\",\n \"In a strongly acidic, aqueous environment, chlorinated resins tend to dehydrochlorinate, leading to undesirable resin degradation.\",\n \"Without being bound by theory, it is believed that allylic double bonds are formed in the chlorinated resin as a consequence of dehydrochlorination.\",\n \"These allylic double bonds are sites at which the resin backbone breaks down.\",\n \"In addition, these double bonds may active adjacent chlorinated sites, making these sites prone to dehydrochlorination.\",\n \"The degradation process is self-catalytic, as dehydrochlorination produces HCl which further catalyzes dehydrochlorination of the resin.\",\n \"The self-catalyzed degradation of the chlorinated resin produces strands of conjugated double bonds.\",\n \"Conjugated double bonds are chromophoric, and therefore, degradation of the resin is evidenced by a color change, i.e.\",\n \"yellowing or darkening of the resin.\",\n \"In addition, degradation may also cause loss of adhesion in a coating made from the resin, embrittlement of the resin due to Diels-Alder crosslinking of the conjugated double bonds, and the like.\",\n \"In a preferred aspect, the first resin component, such as aqueous PVDC, for example, is treated to raise the pH to make the composition less acidic, thereby reducing degradation associated with dehydrochlorination of the resin.\",\n \"Because dehydrochlorination is substantially reduced or inhibited in less acidic conditions, raising the pH of the chlorinated resin component improves the heat stability of the resin, and shelf-life is also improved.\",\n \"Because degradation is reduced, performance properties of the resultant coatings are improved, including improved adhesion, greater resistance to blistering, and the like.\",\n \"Adjusting the pH of the water-based resin environment also eases compatibility concerns with other ingredients that might be used in the first aqueous coating composition.\",\n \"Generally, coating constituents tend to be more compatible at similar pH values.\",\n \"Ingredients with similar pH are more easily blended into coating formulations with less risk that the components will unduly react and/or be too difficult to blend together into mixtures with rheology characteristics suitable for coating applications.\",\n \"Many ingredients known to be useful in coating applications tend to have pH characteristics that are mildly acidic, neutral, or mildly alkaline.\",\n \"Consequently, as an additional benefit, raising the pH enhances the compatibility of the chlorinated resin with many other ingredients.\",\n \"For example, raising the pH of the chlorinated resin environment enhances compatibility of the resin with epoxy-functional compounds that can act as HCl and/or tertiary Cl scavengers, as further described below.\",\n \"Accordingly, it is desirable in many embodiments to at least partially adjust the pH of at least a portion of the PVDC resin composition before the composition or portion thereof is combined with some or all of the other coating composition constituents.\",\n \"As still another benefit, raising the pH of the chlorinated resin composition also is believed to reduce undesirable interactions that might occur between the resin and underlying metal substrates.\",\n \"Without being bound by theory, it is believed that more acidic coating, particularly when wet as first applied, can etch or otherwise interact with metal surfaces.\",\n \"This interaction may tend to cause metal constituents such as Fe ions or the like from the surface to migrate, diffuse, or otherwise be transported into the wet coating.\",\n \"In the coating, the metal constituents may catalyze or otherwise promote degradation of the chlorinated resin.\",\n \"Raising the pH, therefore, also helps to reduce degradation by reducing resin interaction with the substrate in a way that catalyzes degradation.\",\n \"In an aspect, the pH desirably is increased to a value in the range from about 3 to 8, preferably about 4 to 7, more preferably about 4 to 6.The pH is readily adjusted by contacting the chlorinated resin composition with one or more bases under conditions effective to achieve the desired pH.\",\n \"Suitable bases include, for example, one or more of ammonia, amines, hydroxides (such as KOH, for example), combinations of these and the like.\",\n \"Where an epoxy-functional material is included in the coating composition, and the composition is to be stored for extended periods of time, other bases may be preferred, as ammonia or amines tend to react with epoxy over time and cause crosslinking of the epoxy material.\",\n \"On the other hand, if the coating composition will be used relatively promptly after the introduction of the epoxy-functional material into the composition, crosslinking of the epoxy resin induced by reaction with ammonia or amine may be beneficial, as the resultant coating would show enhanced durability, toughness and adhesion.\",\n \"In addition to the first resin component, the aqueous carrier, and optional co-carrier, one or more additional ingredients optionally may be included in the first aqueous coating composition.\",\n \"When choosing additional ingredients, it is desirable to make selections that minimize a risk of degrading the chlorinated resin(s).\",\n \"For example, it has been common in some conventional PVDC-based coating compositions to include Zn containing ingredients.\",\n \"Examples of these include zinc, zinc salts, and/or zinc oxide.\",\n \"Such Zn-containing ingredients can provide many benefits.\",\n \"These benefits allegedly include corrosion resistance, protection against flash rusting, or the like.\",\n \"Such compositions can, however, contribute to degradation of chlorinated resins, particularly at elevated temperatures above about 140° F. (60° C.).\",\n \"Without wishing to be bound by theory, it is believed that this degradation may occur because certain metals and metal-containing species such as, for example, zinc, iron, tin and the like, are capable of catalyzing the dehydrochlorination of the chlorinated resin when the resin is exposed to higher temperatures.\",\n \"The degradation can reduce the quality of the resultant coating and may be a contributor toward problems such as blistering, peeling, cracking, and the like.\",\n \"In some embodiments in which catalytically active metals or metal-containing species (e.g., Zn or Zn-containing species) or the like may be present in the first aqueous coating composition, from various sources including additives such as, for example, flash rust inhibitors, fillers, pigments, and the like, using mixed metals can reduce the catalytic activity and help to stabilize the compositions.\",\n \"For example, mixed metal stabilization may occur in systems including combinations of barium/zinc, calcium/zinc, barium/calcium/zinc, and the like.\",\n \"In an aspect, when stabilized by a mixed metal system, the first aqueous coating composition preferably contains about 25 wt % Zn, more preferably about 10 wt % to 20 wt % Zn, and most preferably, about 5 wt % to 15 wt % Zn.\",\n \"In some embodiments, certain forms of catalytic metals or catalytic metal-containing species may be passivated or encapsulated such that catalytic dechlorination of the resin by the metal is prevented or significantly reduced.\",\n \"Such species can be included in the first aqueous composition without causing significant dechlorination.\",\n \"Suitable species include without limitation, certain Zn salts, including soluble such as Zn(NO3)2, ZnSO4 and the like, for example.\",\n \"In an aspect, when present in the first aqueous coating composition, the Zn-containing species is present at preferably about 2 wt % to 15 wt %, more preferably at about 2 wt % to 10 wt %4 and most preferably at about 2 wt % to 5 wt %.\",\n \"Even with the potential for stabilization and/or passivation, it is desirable in some embodiments to limit or even at least substantially exclude ingredients from the first aqueous coating composition that might include metals such as zinc that could be catalytically active with respect to degradation of chlorinated resins, i.e.\",\n \"to have a first aqueous coating composition that is substantially free of Zn or Zn-containing species.\",\n \"Excluding such catalytically active metals or other metal-containing species is particularly desirable if the resultant coating is expected to be exposed to higher temperatures in the course of its service life, as the metals tend to be more active at higher temperatures.\",\n \"Indeed, it has been observed that excluding zinc and zinc-containing compositions from the first aqueous coating composition greatly improves heat resistance of PVDC resin material(s) and dramatically reduces tendencies of the resultant coatings to blister, peel, and crack.\",\n \"Accordingly, because some metals such as Zn and other Zn-containing species, for example, can promote degradation of chlorinated resins at elevated temperatures, it may be desirable to select ingredients that have a minimal amount, if any, of catalytically active metal contaminants, particularly when heat resistance is desired.\",\n \"In an aspect, where heat resistance is desired, the first aqueous coating composition preferably contains no more than about 10 wt % Zn, more preferably no more than about 7 wt % Zn, and most preferably no more than about 5 wt % Zn.\",\n \"With these selection principles in mind, degradation of chlorinated resins in the first aqueous composition may be reduced or prevented by incorporating one or more pH-stabilizing or heat-stabilizing additives into the first aqueous composition.\",\n \"Suitable additives include one or more chlorine scavengers.\",\n \"These compounds beneficially scavenge free HCl and tertiary Cl to inhibit further degradation of the chlorinated resin.\",\n \"Once HCl is scavenged, it is not available to further acidify the environment, and therefore, the resin environment becomes pH-stabilized.\",\n \"Suitable scavengers include, for example, metal organocarboxylates, diorganotin mercaptides, dibutyl tin dilaurate, dibutylin maleate, amines including hydroxy amines, ammonium salts, amino acids (preferably not including lysine), benzoate, 2-ethyl hexanoate esters, soaps of fatty acids, polyamino acids, polyolefin imines, polyamines, polyamine amides, polyacrylamide, epoxy-functional molecules, metal salts of a weak inorganic acid, such as tetrasodium pyrophosphate, hydrotalcite, combinations of these, and the like.\",\n \"Desirably, HCl and tertiary chlorine scavengers in the form of catalytically active metals such as Zn or Fe, metal ions and salts thereof, or the like are at least substantially excluded from the first aqueous coating composition.\",\n \"Although such materials can scavenge HCl or tertiary Cl, they may also pose an undue risk of catalyzing degradation of the chlorinated resin.\",\n \"Suitable scavenging and/or beat-stabilizing additives include, for example, epoxy resins, dienophiles, organosulfur compounds, isocyanate derivatives, amine compounds, antioxidants, flash rust inhibitors, metal chelating compounds, and the like.\",\n \"Epoxy-functional materials, antioxidants and flash rust inhibitors are particularly preferred additives for the first aqueous coating composition.\",\n \"Epoxy-functional additives are particularly preferred HCl scavengers, and include alkyl and aromatic epoxy resins or epoxy-functional resins, such as for example, epoxy novolac resin(s) and other epoxy resin derivatives, which can act as Cl scavengers and/or acid by-product scavengers.\",\n \"This helps to protect the integrity of the coating and the underlying substrate in the event that some degradation of the chlorinated resin was to occur.\",\n \"Epoxy-functional molecules include preferably at least one, more preferably two or more pendant epoxy moieties.\",\n \"The molecules can be aliphatic or aromatic, linear, branched, cyclic or acyclic.\",\n \"If cyclic structures are present, these optionally may be linked to other cyclic structures by single bonds, linking moieties, bridge structures, pyro moieties, and the like.\",\n \"Cyclic moieties may be fused in some embodiments.\",\n \"Epoxidized vegetable oils may also be used.\",\n \"Examples of suitable epoxy functional resins are commercially available and include, without limitation, Ancarez™ AR555 (Air Products), Ancarez™ AR550, Epi-rez™ 3510-W-60, Epi-rez™ 3515-W-60 Epi-rez™, or 3522-W-60 (Hexion), combinations of these, and the like.\",\n \"In an aspect, the epoxy-functional scavenger has an epoxy equivalent weight of from about 50 to 5000, preferably about 75 to 2000, more preferably about 100 to 800 g/eq, in accordance with ASTM D1652 (Standard Method for Epoxy Content).\",\n \"In an aspect, where included in the first aqueous composition, the epoxy-functional resin is present at preferably about 0.1 part by weight to 30 parts by weight, more preferably about 2 parts by weight to 7 parts by weight, and most preferably from about 3 parts by weight to 5 parts by weight.\",\n \"In an aspect, the epoxy-functional resin has a viscosity at 25° C. of about 100 to 20,000 cP, preferably about 8000 to 18,000 cP, more preferably about 500 to 5000 cP, and most preferably about 120 to 180 cP.\",\n \"Suitable organosulfur compounds include those compounds capable of stabilizing PVDC resin by addition across the double bond formed on degradation of the chlorinated resin.\",\n \"Exemplary organosulfur compounds are thiols, thioquinones and the like.\",\n \"Suitable thiols include, for example, thiosalicylic acid, mercaptophenol, mercaptosuccinic acid, cysteine and the like.\",\n \"Suitable thioquinones include, for example, thiol-substituted benzoquinones or p-benzoquinone (pBQ) derivatives, such as pBQ-mercaptophenol, pBQ-mercaptosuccinic acid, pBQ-cysteine, pBQ-thiosalicylic acid, and the like.\",\n \"In an aspect, where included in the first aqueous composition, the organosulfur compound is present at preferably about 0.05 to 2 wt %, more preferably about 0.02 to 1.5 wt %, and most preferably about 0.01 wt % to 1 wt %.\",\n \"The pBQ derivatives at a concentration of 0.2 wt % are preferred.\",\n \"Suitable antioxidants include compounds capable of inhibiting oxidation and/or degradation of the chlorinated resin component of the first aqueous coating composition.\",\n \"Examples include, without limitation, hydroxy-functional compounds, preferably alkyl- or aryl-substituted alcohols or phenols and derivates thereof; quinone compounds and derivatives thereof, and the like.\",\n \"Specific examples include, without limitation, butylated hydroxy toluene, 4-tert-butyl catechol, triphenyl phosphite, hydroquinone, p-benzoquinone, and the like.\",\n \"In an aspect, where included in the first aqueous composition, the antioxidant is present at preferably about 0.005 to 10 wt %, more preferably about 0.02 to 5 wt %, and most preferably about 0.01 to 3 wt %.\",\n \"In an aspect, triphenyl phosphite, at concentrations of about 1% to 5%, is preferred.\",\n \"Without being bound to theory, the HCl formed by dechlorination of the PVDC-based resin may react with the iron in the metal substrate to form iron chloride, a Lewis acid that promotes corrosion.\",\n \"Suitable flash rust inhibitors are compounds that may passivate the surface of the substrate and thereby reduce or prevent the reaction of HCl with iron.\",\n \"Other suitable environmentally friendly materials include, without limitation, borosilicates, silicates, titanates, phosphosilicates, phosphates, triphosphates, and hydrogen phosphates of ammonia, barium, calcium, aluminum, zinc or strontium, mixtures thereof; and the like.\",\n \"In an aspect, where included in the first aqueous composition, the flash rust inhibitor is present at preferably 0.005 to 10 wt %, more preferably about 0.02 to 5 wt %, and most preferably about 0.01 to 3 wt %.\",\n \"In a preferred aspect, hydrogen phosphates and/or dihydrogen phosphates at concentrations of about 1 wt % are used.\",\n \"In an embodiment, the first aqueous coating composition incorporates one or more anticorrosive agents into the composition to help further protect the underlying substrate and the resultant coating(s) against corrosion.\",\n \"When heat resistance is desired, the anticorrosive agent(s) should be selected in a way so that significant quantities of catalytically active metals are excluded (or otherwise passivated) that would have a tendency to help cause degradation of the chlorinated resin.\",\n \"For example, some commercially available aluminum triphosphate materials often are blended with zinc oxide, while other aluminum triphosphate materials are generally substantially zinc free.\",\n \"If the coating is likely to see high temperatures, then aluminum triphosphate that is substantially free of catalytically active metals, such as Zn, for example, should preferably be used.\",\n \"Examples of suitable anticorrosive agents include, without limitation, borosilicates and/or phosphosilicates of barium, calcium or strontium, calcium titanate, calcium silicate (e.g., calcium ion-exchanged amorphous silica), condensed calcium phosphate, calcium hydrogen phosphate, aluminum phosphate, aluminum triphosphate, mixtures of the above, and the like.\",\n \"Aluminum triphosphate is presently preferred.\",\n \"A wide variety of such agents are commercially available.\",\n \"One commercially available example is available under the trade designation SHEILDEX AC-5 from Grace Davison.\",\n \"Blended anticorrosive agents, such as aluminum triphosphate that contains zinc oxide or other zinc species, for example, may be acceptable for use in the first aqueous composition for applications in which the resultant coating is not likely to see relatively high temperatures during service life.\",\n \"For example, when used with a highly infrared-reflective (IR-reflective) topcoat composition, the first aqueous coating composition is unlikely to reach temperatures of greater than 140° F. (60° C.) and blended zinc-containing anticorrosive agents can be used without undue concern over degradation of the chlorinated resin.\",\n \"Examples of Zn-containing anticorrosive agents that can be used alone or as part of a blend with other agents such as aluminum triphosphate include, without limitation, zinc phosphate, zinc phosphate hydrate, zinc aluminum phosphate, strontium zinc phosphosilicate, mixtures thereof and the like.\",\n \"The amount of anticorrosive agents used may vary over a wide range.\",\n \"If too little is used, the corrosion protection may be less than might be desired.\",\n \"Using too much may not provide meaningful additional protection as compared to using lesser amounts.\",\n \"In an aspect, where included in the first aqueous composition, the anticorrosive agent is present at preferably about 0.1 to 10 wt %, more preferably about 0.5 to 7 wt %, and most preferably about 2 to 6 wt %.\",\n \"It is desirable to include a sufficient amount of one or more fillers, extenders or pigments (hereinafter “fillers”) in the first aqueous coating composition to further improve corrosion protection, and/or provide optimal permeability through the coating once applied on the metal substrate.\",\n \"Additionally, the fillers may be used as thickeners, to help reduce foaming and to help improve sag resistance of the coating composition.\",\n \"Without being bound to theory, it is believed that specific properties of the filler, including oil absorptivity, surface area, surface energy, particle shape, particle size, aspect ratio, porosity, surface treatment, ion effects and the like, may contribute to the corrosion resistance of the coating.\",\n \"Surface active agents in the first coating composition and resin concentration may also impact selection of an appropriate filler or mixture of fillers.\",\n \"Suitable fillers for use with the first aqueous coating composition include, insoluble compounds of one or more of Be, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba, Al, Ti, transition metals, lanthanide metals, actinide metals, Si, Ge, Ga, Sn, Pb, combinations or mixtures of these, and the like.\",\n \"Insoluble compounds include sulfates, hydroxides, carbides, nitrides, oxides, oxynitrides, oxycarbides, silicates, and/or carbonates.\",\n \"Specific embodiments of such fillers include talc, CaCO3, BaSO4, aluminum silicate, aluminum hydroxide, mica, silica (as glass beads, for example), wollastonite, china clay, chlorite, dolomite, mixtures or combinations of the above, and the like.\",\n \"BaSO4, CaCO3, dolomite and wollastonite are preferred.\",\n \"In an aspect, the first aqueous coating composition includes a mixture of two or more fillers.\",\n \"In an aspect, the fillers used with the first aqueous coating composition include non-platelet-shaped (e.g., nodular, acicular, spherical) particles, and platelet-shaped (e.g., platy, lamellar) particles.\",\n \"Exemplary pigments with platelet-shaped particles include, without limitation, mica, talc, chlorite, mixtures thereof, and the like.\",\n \"Exemplary pigments with non-platelet-shaped particles include, without limitation, insoluble sulfates, carbides, nitrides, oxynitrides, oxycarbides, oxides, and/or carbonates of Be, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba, Al, Ti, transition metals, lanthanide series metals, actinide series metals, Si, Ge, Ga, Al, Sn, Pb, combinations thereof and the like.\",\n \"In an embodiment, suitable fillers are selected based on oil absorptivity.\",\n \"In a preferred aspect, the first aqueous coating composition includes a suitable filler, or combination of two or more fillers, having oil absorptivity of no more than about 50 g of oil per 100 g total weight, preferably about 5 to 40 g/100 g, more preferably about 10 to 30 g/100 g, and most preferably about 15 to 20 g/100 g, as measured according to ASTM D281 (standard test method for oil absorption of pigment by spatula rub-out).\",\n \"In an embodiment, suitable fillers are selected based on the aspect ratio of filler particles.\",\n \"Without being bound to theory, it is believed that a lower aspect ratio provides excellent corrosion protection and adhesion to the metal substrate.\",\n \"Without being bound by theory, the aspect ratio of a particular filler may contribute to the oil absorptivity of the filler, i.e.\",\n \"a filler with a lower aspect ratio may demonstrate lower oil absorptivity.\",\n \"Oil absorptivity may also be influenced by particle size and/or any parameter that affects the surface area of the filler particles.\",\n \"In an embodiment, suitable fillers are selected based on the surface area of the filler particles.\",\n \"In a preferred aspect, the first aqueous coating composition includes a suitable filler, or combination of two or more fillers, having surface area of no more than about 10 m2/g, preferably about 2 to 8 m2/g, more preferably about 4 to 6 m2/g of filler, as measured according to the BET isotherm technique, i.e.\",\n \"ASTM D1999-03 (standard test method for surface area by multipoint BET nitrogen adsorption).\",\n \"Without being bound to theory, it is believed that a smaller particle size (i.e.\",\n \"a more dense or compact particle) will have lower surface area and consequently, lower oil absorptivity.\",\n \"Accordingly, in a preferred embodiment, the first aqueous coating composition includes a suitable filler, or combination of two or more fillers, having oil absorptivity of no more than about 50 g/100 g, preferably about 5 to 40 g/100 g of filler, and surface area of no more than about 10 m2/g of filler, preferably about 2 to 8 m2/g.\",\n \"In an aspect, fillers with non-platelet-shaped particles may be used in combination with fillers with platelet-shaped particles.\",\n \"The weight ratio of non-platelet-shaped to non-platelet shaped pigments can vary over a wide range.\",\n \"In illustrative embodiments, this ratio may be in the range from about 1:50 to 50:1, preferably about 1:10 to 10:1; more preferably about 1:3 to 3:1.For example, one embodiment of the first aqueous coating composition includes about 14.5 weight percent of relatively rounded BaSO4 particles and about 14.5 percent by weight of platelet-shaped mica particles based on the total weight of the coating solids.\",\n \"In an embodiment, the first aqueous composition includes a sufficient amount of filler particles, such that a coating prepared from the first coating composition includes up to about 40 vol %, preferably about 5 to 30 vol %, and more preferably about 10 to 25 vol %, based on the total volume of the dried coating, or pigment (i.e.\",\n \"filler) volume concentration (PVC).\",\n \"Without being bound to theory, it is believed that pigment volume concentration plays an important role in the corrosion resistance of the first aqueous coating composition.\",\n \"At optimal pigment volume concentration, i.e.\",\n \"low PVC, the filler particles may alter the surface energy of the first aqueous coating composition in a manner that affects water vapor transmission, surfactant migration and corrosion resistance of a film of the first coating composition formed on a substrate.\",\n \"A variety of other additional ingredients may be included in the first aqueous coating composition, including for example, defoaming aids, grinding aids, wetting agents, surfactants, coalescing aids, processing aids, coloring agents, thickeners, sag resistant agents, combinations of these and the like.\",\n \"These ingredients are used in accordance with conventional practices currently known or hereafter developed.\",\n \"In an embodiment, the first aqueous coating composition includes one or more rheology additives capable of preventing sag of a primer coating formed from the first aqueous composition when applied to a substrate at high wet film thicknesses prior to being dried.\",\n \"Without being bound to theory, selection of the rheological additive requires balancing low viscosities at high shear rates (e.g., during airless application) with rapid recovery of viscosity at low shear rates (e.g., during the flash-off period).\",\n \"In conditions of high humidity, the film stays wet for a longer period of time, resulting in increased sag if the viscosity does not recover within the same time period.\",\n \"In a preferred aspect, the first aqueous coating composition includes a rheology additive that increases sag resistance.\",\n \"Typical sag resistance additives include organic associative thickeners, such as hydrophobically modified cellulosics, urethanes, and alkali swellable emulsions, for example; and non-associative thickeners such as high molecular weight cellulosics and alkali swellable emulsions.\",\n \"The non-associative thickeners provide good sag resistance but result in higher viscosities at high shear rates, which can have a negative impact on film build control and sprayability.\",\n \"Associative thickeners produce better sag and application properties than the non-associative types, but in high humidity environments, the drying time is increased and results in decreased sag resistance.\",\n \"The sag problem may be overcome by adding more of the rheology additive, but the cured film can begin to display mud cracking defects.\",\n \"In an embodiment, an inorganic additive is included in the first aqueous coating composition to provide optimal sag resistance in a humid environment.\",\n \"Without being bound to theory, the inorganic additives function by building a reversible network throughout the coating, allowing for rapid build in viscosity while maintaining low viscosities during application.\",\n \"The rapid network formation is driven by ionic interactions and hydrogen bonding between the inorganic thickeners, and as the network forms much faster than with other additives, there is less sensitivity to humid environments.\",\n \"Exemplary inorganic rheology agents include, without limitation, inorganic clays (e.g., phyllosilicate of Ca, K, Na or Al), fumed silica, and the like.\",\n \"In an aspect, various types of BENTONE rheology additives are preferred for use in the first aqueous coating composition.\",\n \"In illustrative embodiment, the rheology additive is present at preferably about 0.05 to 2 wt %, more preferably about 0.02 to 1.5 wt %, and most preferably about 0.01 to 1 wt %.\",\n \"The first aqueous coating composition of the present invention may be used to form primer coatings having a wide range of thicknesses.\",\n \"In illustrative embodiments, primer coatings have a dry film thickness in the range from about 20 micrometers to 200 micrometers, preferably about 25 micrometers to 120 micrometers, more preferably about 50 micrometers to 60 micrometers.\",\n \"A wide range of techniques may be used to prepare the first aqueous coating composition from the desired ingredients.\",\n \"According to an illustrative technique, the first resin component is reserved while the other ingredients are combined and mixed until homogeneous.\",\n \"Then, the reserved first resin is added to the admixture with further mixing until homogeneous.\",\n \"In addition to the first aqueous coating composition, coating systems of the present invention optionally and preferably further include at least a second aqueous coating composition.\",\n \"Significantly, the second aqueous coating composition preferably comprises water- or solvent-based topcoatings with enhanced compatibility for underlying basecoatings incorporating chlorinated resins, i.e.\",\n \"the first aqueous coating composition.\",\n \"When these second aqueous coating compositions are applied onto underlying coatings incorporating chlorinated resin(s), for instance, the coating system described herein show minimal blistering and peeling, along with great durability and adhesion.\",\n \"Without limiting to theory, it is believed that performance, i.e.\",\n \"corrosion resistance and/or barrier properties of the second aqueous composition depends on the P:B ratio, or the relative ratio of pigment to binder in the second coating composition.\",\n \"Optimal pigment loading provides beneficial performance and application characteristics, improving compatibility and/or adhesion of the first and second coating compositions and reducing air entrapment during application.\",\n \"The second aqueous coating composition may be a single phase solution in which one or more ingredients including at least the second resin component are substantially fully dispersed in the aqueous carrier.\",\n \"Alternatively, the coating compositions may include two or more phases.\",\n \"Compositions including two or more phases may be in the form of dispersions such as a dispersion in which one or more phases are dispersed in a continuous phase of another material and/or phase.\",\n \"Many dispersions are in the form of suspensions including but not limited to colloidal suspensions.\",\n \"In some embodiments, coating compositions are in the form of a latex or emulsion including polymer microparticles dispersed in an aqueous carrier.\",\n \"Some compositions may be water-reducible.\",\n \"The second aqueous coating composition preferably includes at least one resin that includes acid functionality (or a salt and/or ester thereof) in combination with one or more pigments, fillers, or extenders (hereinafter “pigments”) that cumulatively are present in significant amounts as described further below.\",\n \"Suitable resin(s) for use in the second aqueous composition may be acyclic, cyclic, branched, linear, aliphatic, or aromatic.\",\n \"Desirably, the at least one resin used in the second aqueous coating composition is a film forming resin either on its own or in combination with another feature such as coalescing aid(s) and/or heat.\",\n \"In an aspect, the resin component of the second aqueous composition is preferably capable of reaction or cure at temperatures below about 200° F. (93° C.) to ensure compatibility with the underlying first aqueous coating composition, and to minimize adverse impact on the first aqueous coating composition.\",\n \"In an aspect, the second aqueous coating composition is preferably a one-component (1K) thermoplastic, or a two-component (2K) reactive cure system.\",\n \"Examples of 1K aqueous systems include, without limitation, latex emulsions as described below, water-based fluorpolymers, polyurethane dispersions (PUDs), and water-reducible oxidizing alkyds.\",\n \"Particular systems for use as the second aqueous coating composition are chosen based on the final film properties and on exterior durability requirements for the ultimate coating.\",\n \"Examples of 2K reactive cure systems include, without limitation, water-borne acrylic resins that can be cured with water-dispersible isocyanates, polyaziridines, polycarbodiimides, acetoacetyl-functional systems, and the like.\",\n \"Additional water-based resins that can be cured with dispersible isocyanates include polyesters, polyethers, and alkyds.\",\n \"Water-based radiation curable coatings that incorporate acrylate and methacrylate functionality with epoxies, urethanes, polyesters, and polyethers could find utility with this type of system described within.\",\n \"Aqueous or water-based compositions may be high gloss, medium gloss or low gloss when used as topcoat compositions over the first aqueous coating composition.\",\n \"2K aqueous systems are generally preferred, as they provide better performance, greater durability and higher gloss than 1K systems.\",\n \"In some embodiments, a solvent-based topcoat may be applied over the primer coat made from the first aqueous coating composition.\",\n \"The term “solvent-based”, as used herein, refers a composition where one or more components are dissolved or dispersed in a non-aqueous carrier or solvent.\",\n \"Solvent-based topcoat compositions tend to be 2K reactive systems with high solids content.\",\n \"Suitable resin systems include, for example, polyesters, polyurethanes, polyacrylics, oxidizing alkyds, silicones, fluorinated resins and the like, which can be employed as topcoat compositions in combination with one or more pigments.\",\n \"Solvent-based topcoats may also include resin systems cured with isocyanate functional materials to minimize heat exposure of the first aqueous composition.\",\n \"Radiation-curable compositions may also be used as solvent-borne topcoat systems.\",\n \"Solvent-based topcoat compositions are preferably 2K reactive systems, and can be high gloss, medium gloss or low gloss.\",\n \"The level of gloss is determined by the desired aesthetics and performance characteristics of a particular end use or application.\",\n \"For example, when used for transportation equipment, agricultural equipment, and the like, high gloss 2K polyurethane topcoat compositions are preferred.\",\n \"In a preferred aspect, the resin(s) for use in the second aqueous coating composition include acid functionality.\",\n \"The acid functionality of the resin(s) may be pendant directly from the polymer backbone or may be linked to the backbone by a suitable linking group.\",\n \"Examples of suitable acid functionality include carboxylic acid, sulfonic acid, phosphonic acid, combinations of these and the like.\",\n \"A wide variety of counter cations may be used in those embodiments in which the acid group is supplied as a salt.\",\n \"Examples of such cations include Na+, Li+, NH4+, K+, combinations of these, and the like.\",\n \"In preferred embodiments, the acid functionality includes —C(O)ONH4+.\",\n \"Advantageously, when coating compositions including these moieties dry, the dried coatings release ammonia, leaving —C(O)OH functionality in the dried coating.\",\n \"In exemplary embodiments, a suitable resin for use in the second aqueous coating composition is a copolymer derived from reactants including (a) optionally at least one aromatic reactant including pendant free radically polymerizable functionality; (b) at least one free radically polymerizable reactant having pendant acid functionality (or a salt or ester thereof); and (c) optionally at least one other copolymerizable reactant with free radically polymerizable functionality.\",\n \"Such reactants often are monomers, oligomers, and/or resins.\",\n \"Examples of reactant (a) include, without limitation, styrene, alpha-methyl styrene, t-butyl styrene, 1,3-diisopropenylbenzene, 2,4,6-trimethylstyrene, 2,4-dimethylstyrene, 2,4-diphenyl-4-methyl-1-pentene, 2,5-dimethylstyrene, 2-vinylnaphthalene, 3-methylstyrene, 4-benzyloxy-3-methoxystyrene, 9-vinylanthracene, α,2-dimethylstyrene, combinations of these, and the like.\",\n \"These may be substituted or unsubstituted.\",\n \"Illustrative embodiments of the resin include preferably from about 10 to 70 parts by weight of reactant(s) (a) per 100 parts by weight of the total reactants used to form the resin.\",\n \"Examples of reactant (b) include, without limitation, unsaturated or other free radically polymerizable acids.\",\n \"In many embodiments, reactant (b) is provided by one or more carboxylic acids or anhydrides thereof having one or more acid groups.\",\n \"Examples include, without limitation, (meth)acrylic acid, sorbic acid, maleic anhydride, maleic acid, crotonic acid, itaconic acid, palmitoleic acid, oleic acid, linoleic acid, arachidonic acid, benzoic acid, fumaric acid, combinations of these, and the like.\",\n \"Illustrative embodiments of the resin include preferably from about 2 to 20 parts by weight of reactant(s) (b) per 100 parts by weight of the total reactants used to form the resin.\",\n \"Preferably, the acid functionality is atypically high in that the one or more acid functional reactants incorporated into the resin are at least 3 weight percent, at least 4 weight percent, at least 5 weight percent, and up to 10, 15, or 20 weight percent of total weight of all reactants used to make the resin.\",\n \"Examples of reactant (c) include, without limitation, vinyl esters, vinyl ethers, lactams such as N-vinyl-2-pyrrolidone, (meth)acrylamide, N-substituted (meth)acrylamide, octyl (meth)acrylate, nonylphenol ethoxylate (meth)acrylate, isononyl (meth)acrylate, 1,6-hexanediol (meth)acrylate, isobornyl (meth)acrylate, 2-(2-ethoxyethoxy)ethyl (meth)acrylate, 2-ethylhexyl (meth)acrylate, lauryl (meth)acrylate, beta-carboxyethyl (meth)acrylate, butyl (meth)acrylate; isobutyl (meth)acrylate, cycloaliphatic epoxide, alpha-epoxide, 2-hydroxyethyl (meth)acrylate, (meth)acrylonitrile, maleic anhydride, itaconic acid, isodecyl (meth)acrylate, dodecyl (meth)acrylate, n-butyl (meth)acrylate, methyl (meth)acrylate, hexyl (meth)acrylate, (meth)acrylic acid, N-vinylcaprolactam, stearyl (meth)acrylate, hydroxy functional caprolactone ester (meth)acrylate, octodecyl (meth)acrylate, isooctyl (meth)acrylate, hydroxyethyl (meth)acrylate, hydroxymethyl (meth)acrylate, hydroxypropyl (meth)acrylate, hydroxyisopropyl (meth)acrylate, hydroxybutyl (meth)acrylate, hydroxyisobutyl (meth)acrylate, tetrahydrofurfuryl (meth)acrylate, combinations of these, and the like.\",\n \"Illustrative embodiments of the resin include preferably from about 10 to 80 parts by weight of reactant(s) (c) per 100 parts by weight of the total reactants used to form the resin.\",\n \"The resins useful in the second aqueous compositions may be polymerized from the constituent reactants using a variety of suitable polymerization techniques that are currently known or hereafter developed.\",\n \"Suitable such techniques are further described in U.S. Pat.\",\n \"Pub.\",\n \"No.\",\n \"2007/0110981 A1 (dated 17 May 2010).\",\n \"In some embodiments, the second aqueous composition is in the form of a latex composition.\",\n \"The latex composition may comprise single stage and/or multistage latex polymers.\",\n \"Preferred single-stage latex polymers have a glass transition temperature (Tg) of at least −5° C., more preferably at least 15° C., and most preferably at least 25° C., and optimally at least 30° C. Preferred single-stage latex polymers for use have a Tg of less than 75° C., more preferably less than 65° C., and most preferably less than 55° C. Tg may be determined in the practice of the present invention using differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) techniques.\",\n \"Preferred multistage latex polymers have between 10 and 50 wt.\",\n \"% higher Tg monomers and between 50 and 90 wt.\",\n \"% of lower Tg segments.\",\n \"The higher Tg segment preferably has a Tg between about 35 and 70° C., more preferably between about 35 and 130° C. and the lower Tg segment preferably has a Tg up to about 30° C. It may also be advantageous to use a gradient Tg latex polymer made using continuously varying monomer feeds.\",\n \"The resulting polymer will typically have a DSC curve that exhibits no Tg inflection points, and could be said to have an essentially infinite number of Tg stages.\",\n \"For example, one may start with a high Tg monomer feed and then at a certain point in the polymerization start to feed a low Tg monomer composition into the high T monomer feed.\",\n \"The resulting multistage latex polymer will have a gradient Tg from high to low.\",\n \"In other embodiments, it may be favorable to feed a high Tg monomer composition into a low Tg monomer composition.\",\n \"A gradient Tg polymer may also be used in conjunction with multiple Tg polymers.\",\n \"In addition to the resin(s) with free radically polymerizable functionality as described herein, the second resin component optionally may include one or more other kinds of resin components.\",\n \"Examples of other resins include polyurethanes, polyamides, polyimides, halogenated polymers, polysilicones, polyesters, alkyds, polyolefins, combinations of these and the like.\",\n \"The amount of second resin component in the second aqueous coating composition may be selected from a wide range.\",\n \"Generally, if the amount of resin component is too low, then it may be difficult to form a film, more difficult to form a film that has sufficient adhesion to the substrate, the film may have insufficient corrosion resistance or other performance, and/or the like.\",\n \"If too much is used, then it may be harder to formulate a pigmented system or it may be more difficult to make a material that can be applied to the substrate.\",\n \"Balancing such concerns, the second aqueous coating composition preferably includes from about 10 to 70 weight percent, more preferably about 15 to 50 weight percent, and most preferably about 20 to 40 weight percent of the second resin component based on the total weight of the aqueous coating composition.\",\n \"The second resin component is in admixture with an aqueous fluid carrier, wherein “aqueous” is as defined above with respect to the aqueous carrier used in the second aqueous coating composition.\",\n \"In addition to water, the aqueous carrier of the second aqueous coating composition optionally may include one or more additional, optional co-carriers.\",\n \"Co-carrier(s) may be used for a variety of purposes, including helping in film formation and/or paint stability.\",\n \"Examples of co-carriers include butyl cellulose, alcohol(s), such as butanol, coalescents (e.g., conventional ester alcohol(s), such as the Eastman Texanol product and/or low VOC coalescents such as are described in U.S. Pat.\",\n \"No.\",\n \"6,762,230), glycol ether(s), combinations of these, and the like.\",\n \"Desirably, so-called VOC-exempt co-solvent(s) are preferred.\",\n \"The amount of co-carrier included in the second aqueous coating composition can vary over a wide range.\",\n \"The amount(s) to use will depend on factors including the type of co-carrier, the purpose for which the co-carrier is being added, the coating technique(s) that might be used to apply the second coating onto a substrate, or on to the first aqueous coating composition, and the like.\",\n \"In illustrative embodiments, the second aqueous coating composition may include from about 0.3 to 20 weight percent, desirably about 1 to 5 weight percent of co-carrier(s) based on the total weight of co-carrier and water included in the composition.\",\n \"Without wishing to be bound by theory, the advantages provide by the coating system are believed to result from one or more possible factors.\",\n \"As one factor, the second resin component preferably includes at least one resin that includes acidic functionality (or a salt or ester thereof).\",\n \"These characteristics are similar to those of many chlorinated resins, such as PVDC, which also tend to be acidic.\",\n \"This kind of similarity is believed to help enhance the compatibility between coatings formed from the first and second aqueous coating compositions, respectively.\",\n \"The second aqueous coating composition preferably includes at least one resin in combination with one or more pigments that cumulatively are present in significant amounts as described further below.\",\n \"The one or more pigments generally are added to the second aqueous coating composition to help thicken the composition and/or to provide sag resistance, as well as improvements to application processes.\",\n \"These pigment(s) may be organic and/or inorganic.\",\n \"Inorganic pigments are more preferred.\",\n \"The pigments may have a variety of shapes such as being platelet-shaped, acicular, oblong, rounded, spherical, irregular, combinations of these and the like.\",\n \"Without being bound by theory, optimal loading of pigments in topcoats formed from the second aqueous coating composition is believed to provide beneficial performance and application characteristics for the coating system.\",\n \"For example, the second aqueous coating composition desirably includes a sufficient amount of pigment content so that the resultant coating demonstrates enhanced compatibility with the underlying primer coating.\",\n \"Without being bound by theory, this enhanced compatibility may prevent the formation of blisters and the loss of adhesion between the primer layer and the topcoat layer.\",\n \"In addition, optimal pigment loading is believed to prevent entrapment of air, moisture or gases that would otherwise produce air bubbles during application to a substrate, or cause blistering and peeling of the coating from the substrate and/or primer.\",\n \"In many respects, the performance and application advantages are contrary to an industry bias that would expect performance to be reduced with increased pigment loading.\",\n \"In many preferred embodiments, the second aqueous coating composition includes a sufficient amount of pigment, i.e.\",\n \"inorganic pigment particles, such that a resultant coating prepared from the second aqueous coating composition includes from about 15 to 85, preferably about 20 to 80, more preferably about 25 to 80 volume percent of the particles based on the total volume of the dry coating.\",\n \"These pigment particles are non-binder particles, and are distinct from film-forming particles (of binders, for example) that substantially coalesce and help to form part of the binder matrix in the resultant coating.\",\n \"Thus, the term “non-binder” with respect to the pigment particles indicates that the pigment particles retain at least a portion and preferably substantially all of their particulate character, either individually or as agglomerates or aggregates.\",\n \"Preferred pigment particles are non-binder particles, and are substantially non-film forming under the conditions used to form the second aqueous coating composition.\",\n \"To the extent that any portions of such particles might protrude from the coating surface, those protruding portions are deemed to be part of the pigment volume for purposes of calculating the pigment volume concentration (PVC) of the particles in the coating.\",\n \"Optimal pigment loading in the topcoat composition provides beneficial performance and application characteristics for the coating system, reducing air entrapment during application and improving adhesion of the topcoat and primer.\",\n \"It is preferred that at least a portion of pigment content of the second aqueous coating composition includes one or more platelet shaped pigment particles.\",\n \"Platelet particles have excellent thickening properties, provide excellent sag resistance, and also help with air release.\",\n \"Examples of platelet-shaped pigments include one or more of a clay such as china clay, mica, talc, combinations of these, and the like.\",\n \"China clay advantageously has less of an impact upon gloss than do many other platelet shaped particles, which is beneficial when higher gloss topcoatings are desired.\",\n \"In many embodiments, the second aqueous coating composition preferably includes about 0 to 50 parts by weight, preferably about 10 parts by weight, more preferably about 15 to 50 parts by weight, and most preferably up to about 35 parts by weight of platelet-shaped particles per 100 parts by weight of the total weight of the second aqueous coating composition.\",\n \"The size of platelet particles, expressed as a volume average, may vary over a wide range, ranging from finely sized particles to coarse particles.\",\n \"In illustrative embodiments, platelet particles may have a size in the range from about 0.5 to 50 micrometers, preferably about 1 to 10 micrometers, more preferably about 3 to 5 micrometers.\",\n \"In an aspect, preferably at least about 50 wt %, more preferably about 75 wt % and most preferably about 95 wt % of the platelet-shaped particles have size in the range from about 0.5 to 50 micrometers, preferably about 1 to 10 micrometers It is desirable that the entire pigment content of the second aqueous coating composition is not all in the form of only platelet shaped particles.\",\n \"By themselves, the platelet particles may help thicken the composition and may help improve sag resistance and application of the coating composition.\",\n \"Yet too much platelet content could form a barrier to moisture and trapped gases in a dried coating This could make it more difficult to release trapped air and/or trapped moisture from the coating during manufacture and/or coating.\",\n \"Accordingly, in some embodiments, the pigments of the second aqueous coating composition desirably include at least one kind of non-platelet shaped particle used in combination with at least one kind of platelet shaped particle.\",\n \"A wide variety of non-platelet shaped particles could be used in combination with platelet shaped particles.\",\n \"Examples include one or more insoluble sulfates; one or more insoluble carbides; one or more insoluble nitrides; one or more insoluble oxynitrides; one or more insoluble oxycarbides; one or more insoluble oxides; one or more insoluble carbonates; combinations of these and the like.\",\n \"Examples of these include sulfates, carbides, nitrides, oxides, oxynitrides, oxycarbides, and/or carbonates of one or more of Be, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba, Al, Ti, a transition metal, a lanthanoid series metal, an actinoid series metal, Si, Ge, Ga, Al, Sn, Pb, combinations of these, and the like.\",\n \"Specific embodiments of such particles include BaSO4, titania, SiC, SiN, TiC, TiN, combinations of these, and the like.\",\n \"BaSO4 is preferred in many formulations.\",\n \"In some embodiments, some pigments help to maintain gloss, help thicken the second aqueous coating composition while allowing air to escape, and help provide resultant coatings with a desirable level of permeability so that moisture has good egress to and from the resultant coating.\",\n \"The size of non-platelet particles, expressed as a volume average, may vary over a wide range, ranging from finely sized particles to coarse particles.\",\n \"In illustrative embodiments, non-platelet particles may have a size in the range from about 0.1 micrometers to 50 micrometers, preferably about 0.5 to 10 micrometers.\",\n \"In an aspect, preferably at least about 50 wt %, more preferably about 75 wt % and most preferably about 95 wt % of the platelet-shaped particles have size in the range from about 0.1 to 50 micrometers, preferably about 0.5 to 10 micrometers.\",\n \"The weight ratio of platelet-shaped to non-platelet shaped pigments can vary over a wide range.\",\n \"For example, one embodiment of a second aqueous coating composition includes about 14.5 weight percent of relatively rounded BaSO4 particles and about 14.5 percent by weight of platelet shaped china clay based on the total weight of the coating solids.\",\n \"To further enhance heat resistance, one or more agents with optimal total solar reflectance (TSR) may be incorporated into the second dispersion.\",\n \"As used herein, the term “total solar reflectance” refers to the sum total of ultraviolent, visible and near infrared reflectance.\",\n \"Agents with high solar reflectance help enhance heat resistance by reflecting or resisting electromagnetic radiation, specifically near-IR radiation, which has wavelength of about 0.8 μm to 2 μm.\",\n \"Examples of such agents are described in Assignee's application, PCT/US2011/042801, filed Jul.\",\n \"1, 2011.These agents may be incorporated into the coating in accordance with conventional practices currently known or hereafter developed.\",\n \"In some embodiments, such IR-reflecting agents may include non-IR-absorptive colored pigments.\",\n \"Exemplary such pigments may be inorganic or organic in nature, and include but are not limited to those referred to in U.S. Pat.\",\n \"No.\",\n \"6,458,848 B2 (Sliwinski et al.\",\n \"), U.S. Pat.\",\n \"No.\",\n \"6,616,744 B1 (Sainz et al.\",\n \"), U.S. Pat.\",\n \"No.\",\n \"6,989,056 B2 (Babler) and U.S. Pat.\",\n \"No.\",\n \"7,157,112 B2 (Haines) and in U.S. Patent Application Publication No.\",\n \"US 2005/0126441 A1 (Skelhorn).\",\n \"Inorganic pigments are especially desirable and include single or mixed metal oxides formed from a variety of metals, e.g., aluminum, antimony, bismuth, boron, chromium, cobalt, gallium, indium, iron, lanthanum, lithium, magnesium, manganese, molybdenum, neodymium, nickel, niobium, silicon, tin, vanadium or zinc.\",\n \"Exemplary metal oxides include Cr2O3, Al2O3, V2O3, Ga2O3, Fe2O3, Mn2O3, Ti2O3, In2O3, TiBO3, NiTiO3, MgTiO3, CoTiO3, ZnTiO3, FeTiO3, MnTiO3, CrBO3, NiCrO3, FeBO3, FeMoO3, FeSn(BO3)2, BiFeO3, AlBO3, Mg3Al2Si3O12, NdAlO3, LaAlO3, MnSnO3, LiNbO3, LaCoO3, MgSiO3, ZnSiO3, Mn(Sb,Fe)O3 and mixtures thereof.\",\n \"The metal oxide may have a rutile-kassiterite, spinel, and/or corundum-hematite crystal lattice structure as described in the above-mentioned U.S. Pat.\",\n \"No.\",\n \"6,454,848 B2, or may be a host component having a corundum-hematite crystalline structure which contains as a guest component one or more elements selected from aluminum, antimony, bismuth, boron, chromium, cobalt, gallium, indium, iron, lanthanum, lithium, magnesium, manganese, molybdenum, neodymium, nickel, niobium, silicon, tin, vanadium and zinc.\",\n \"Black non-infrared-absorptive pigments are of particular interest due to the high infrared absorption of conventional carbon black pigments and the widespread use of carbon black pigments in conventional dark-tinted paints and stains.\",\n \"A variety of black non-infrared-absorptive pigments are commercially available, including mixed metal oxide pigments such as those supplied by Ferro Corporation under the COOL COLORS™ and ECLIPSE™ trademarks, for example V-778 COOL COLORS IR Black, V-780 COOL COLORS IR Black, V-799 COOL COLORS IR Black, 10201 ECLIPSE Black, 10202 ECLIPSE Black and 10203 ECLIPSE Black; mixed metal oxide pigments such as those supplied by Shepherd Color Company under the ARTIC™ trademark, for example ARTIC Black 376, ARTIC Black 10C909, ARTIC Black 411 and ARTIC Black 30C940; mixed metal oxide pigments such as those supplied by Tomatec America, Inc. under the numbers 42-707A and 707V10; and perylene-based or other organic colorants such as those supplied by BASF Corp. under the PALIOGEN™ trademark including PALIOGEN Black S 0084.These same suppliers also provide non-infrared-absorptive colored pigments in a variety of hues other than black, typically under the same trademarks, and these may likewise be employed in the disclosed coating compositions.\",\n \"Exemplary non-infrared-absorptive non-black pigments include inorganic pigments such as iron oxide, magnesium silicates, calcium carbonate, aluminosilicates, silica and various clays; organic pigments including plastic pigments such as solid bead pigments (e.g., polystyrene or polyvinyl chloride beads); and microsphere pigments containing one or more voids (e.g., those discussed in U.S. Patent Application Publication No.\",\n \"US 2007/0043162 A1 (Bardman et al.).\",\n \"Other exemplary non-infrared-absorptive pigments include EXPANCEL™ 551DE20 acrylonitrile/vinyl chloride expanded particles (from Expancel Inc.), SIL-CEL™ 43 glass micro cellular fillers (from Silbrico Corporation), FILLITE™ 100 ceramic spherical particles (from Trelleborg Fillite Inc., SPHERICEL™ hollow glass spheres (from Potter Industries Inc.), 3M ceramic microspheres including grades 0-200, G-400, 0-600, G-800, W-210, W-410, and W-610 (from 3M); 3M hollow microspheres including 3M Performance Additives iM30K (also from 3M), INHANCE™ UH 1900 polyethylene particles (from Fluoro-Seal Inc.), and BIPHOR aluminum phosphate (from Bunge Fertilizantes S.A., Brazil).\",\n \"The disclosed coating compositions may also contain non-infrared-absorptive non-colored pigments such as titanium dioxide and white zinc oxide, either of which if used without the presence of a colored pigment would provide a white rather than colored coating composition.\",\n \"The addition of such non-colored pigments to the above-mentioned non-infrared-absorptive colored pigments can provide tinted paints and stains having a lightened shade and improved hiding power.\",\n \"Preferably the disclosed coating compositions contain about 8 to 50 wt % and more preferably about 20 to 30 wt % pigment based on total solids.\",\n \"Expressed on the basis of pigment volume concentration, the disclosed coating compositions preferably contain about 10 to 40 vol % and more preferably about 15 to 35 vol % pigment.\",\n \"The compositions desirably are free of or substantially free of infrared-absorptive colored pigments, e.g., carbon black, black iron oxide, brown oxide and raw umber.\",\n \"A wide variety of other additional ingredients optionally may be included in the second aqueous coating composition if desired.\",\n \"Examples of these include one or more defoaming aids, grinding aids, wetting agents, surfectants, coalescing aids, processing aids, skid resistance agents, abrasion resistance agents, conductive agents, antistatic agents, coloring agents, anticorrosion aids, thickeners, sag resistant agents, plasticizers, antioxidants, ultraviolet stabilizers, biocides, fungicides, fillers, combinations of these, and the like.\",\n \"These can be used in accordance with conventional practices currently known or hereafter developed.\",\n \"The second aqueous coating composition can be made using a variety of techniques.\",\n \"Exemplary techniques are described below in the examples.\",\n \"The topcoat composition of the present invention may be used to form topcoatings having a wide range of thicknesses.\",\n \"In illustrative embodiments, top coatings have a thickness in the range from about 15 micrometers to about 200 micrometers, preferably about 15 micrometers to about 100 micrometers, more preferably about 30 micrometers to about 50 micrometers.\",\n \"The coating systems of the present invention can be used to coat a wide variety of substrates.\",\n \"Exemplary substrates include natural and engineered buildings and building materials, freight containers, flooring materials, walls, furniture, other building materials, motor vehicle components, aircraft components, trucks, rail cars and engines, bridges, water towers, cell phone tower, wind towers, radio towers, lighting fixtures, statues, billboard supports, fences, guard rails, tunnels, pipes, marine components, machinery components, laminates, equipment components, appliances, packaging, and the like.\",\n \"Exemplary substrate materials include metals, metal alloys, intermetallic compositions, metal-containing composites, combinations of these, and the like.\",\n \"Exemplary metals include aluminum, steel, weathering steel, stainless steel, and the like.\",\n \"The coating compositions can be applied on new substrates or can be used to refurbish old substrates, including previously painted substrates.\",\n \"In use, a substrate to be coated is provided.\",\n \"The substrate may be bare or may be at least partially coated with a previous coating system, such as a so-called shop primer used to coat metal substrates.\",\n \"Illustrative shop primers include conventional shop primers and the novel primers disclosed in Applicant's U.S. Patent Appln.\",\n \"Ser.\",\n \"No.\",\n \"61/322,795 (“Waterborne Shop Primer”, Prevost et al.\",\n \"), filed 9 Apr.\",\n \"2010.It may be desirable to clean the substrate to remove grease, dirt, and other contaminants.\",\n \"Pre-existing coatings may or may not be removed as well, depending upon the context.\",\n \"When the substrate is ready, the first aqueous coating composition is applied to at least a portion of the substrate surface.\",\n \"Optionally, the coating is allowed to dry or partially dry to form a basecoating.\",\n \"One or more additional coats of the first aqueous coating composition can be applied if desired.\",\n \"Often, a single coating is suitable.\",\n \"Next, a second aqueous coating composition, if needed, is preferably applied onto at least a portion of the basecoating and allowed to dry to form a topcoating.\",\n \"Additional portions of the substrate not bearing the basecoating may be coated with the topcoat as well, if desired.\",\n \"One or more additional coats of the second aqueous coating composition can be applied if desired.\",\n \"Often, a single coating is suitable.\",\n \"The first and second aqueous coating compositions may be applied to the substrate using any suitable technique known in the art, such as by brushing, spraying, spin coating, roll coating, curtain coating, dipping, gravure coating, and/or the like.\",\n \"In addition to being applied over primer coatings formed by the first aqueous composition, the topcoat composition can be applied to form coatings on other kinds of coated and uncoated substrates as well.\",\n \"For example, some embodiments of the second aqueous coating composition may be used to topcoat coated or uncoated stainless steel and/or epoxy primer coatings as described in Assignee's co-pending Application, filed concurrently herewith.\",\n \"The coating system of the present invention is particularly suitable for forming protective coatings on cargo containers.\",\n \"Preferably, the coating system is used with cargo containers involved in intermodal freight transport.\",\n \"Many of such containers at least substantially conform to an international standard applicable to cargo containers that are transported by at least one of a marine cargo system that transports cargo across waterways, a system that transports cargo along a railway, and/or a system that transports cargo along a roadway.\",\n \"Such containers are often exposed to extreme environments in terms of weather exposure, salt water exposure, fresh water exposure, heat from the sun, and the like during their service lives.\",\n \"Even though such containers often may be made from corrosion resistant materials such as stainless steel and/or weathering steel, further protection against abrasion, corrosion, and the like is needed.\",\n \"An exemplary intermodal cargo container is often referred to in the industry as a dry cargo container.\",\n \"These containers generally include a metal frame defining the boundary of the container.\",\n \"Metal wall and ceiling panels are attached to the frame such as by bolts, welding, rivets, or the like, and the floor of the container may be metal, wood or other materials.\",\n \"The panels can be made from a wide variety of metals, metal alloys, intermetallic compositions, or other metal-containing materials as described above.\",\n \"Due to its low cost and corrosion resistance, weathering steel (sometimes referred to as COR-TEN brand steel) often is used to make the panels.\",\n \"In a manner similar to aluminum, weathering steel oxidizes on the surface, but then this oxidation forms a barrier to protect the underlying steel from further corrosion.\",\n \"According to ASTM standards, weathering steel is available in grades including A242, A588, and A602.The container frames also may be made from weathering steel or a different metal composition.\",\n \"Even though weathering steel develops a protective oxidation barrier against corrosion, the industry still tends to widely apply protective coatings onto intermodal containers made from weathering steel.\",\n \"The coatings may also provide decoration, brand identity, bar codes, and other indicia.\",\n \"The primer composition (i.e.\",\n \"first aqueous coating composition) of the present invention shows excellent adhesion and performance when used to protect intermodal containers, including those made from weathering steel.\",\n \"The first aqueous coating composition can be applied directly to metal surfaces, including weathering steel surfaces.\",\n \"For example, although shop primer is typically applied to protect metal substrates from damage during manufacture or transport, it is not applied to weld seams.\",\n \"In such cases, the primer composition of the present invention can be applied directly to the metal surface to provide the necessary corrosion protection.\",\n \"Because the first aqueous coating composition shows excellent adhesion to both unprimed and primed metal surfaces, any previously applied shop primer weathering does not have to be removed.\",\n \"However, for improved adhesion, it is desirable to remove oxide from the surface, including any oxide formed on the shop primer.\",\n \"This can be done in any suitable way, such as by shot blasting, for example.\",\n \"Once surface oxide has been removed, a primer coat of the present invention, i.e.\",\n \"a coat of the first aqueous coating composition, can be formed or applied.\",\n \"After this, a topcoat of the present invention, i.e.\",\n \"the second aqueous coating composition, is formed or applied over the primer coat, if a topcoat is desired.\",\n \"The resultant coating system provides excellent gloss, durability, corrosion resistance, adhesion, resistance to blisters, resistance to peeling, and resistance to cracking.\",\n \"For certain applications, the first aqueous coating composition can be applied directly to both unprimed and primed metal surfaces, and a topcoat is optional.\",\n \"If a topcoat is applied (to obtain a specific aesthetic appearance), the topcoat may be a water-borne topcoat or a solvent-borne topcoat.\",\n \"For certain other applications, the first aqueous coating composition may be used as a pretreatment for a metal substrate, or as a direct-to-metal coating.\",\n \"Preferably, the first aqueous coating composition is applied as a thin film, i.e.\",\n \"at a dry film thickness of up to about 120 microns, preferably 10 to 100 microns, more preferably 20 to 80 microns.\",\n \"EXAMPLES The present invention will now be described with reference to the following illustrative examples.\",\n \"In some embodiments, the coating system described herein provides excellent corrosion resistance and heat resistance.\",\n \"These properties can be tested in various ways.\",\n \"Unless otherwise indicated, the following tests were used in the Examples that follow.\",\n \"Water Soak/Immersion Test Panels of metal substrates (cold rolled steel or coarse-blasted metal) are sprayed with the coating system of the invention.\",\n \"The coating is allowed to dry, and coated panels are then wetted by standard ways known to those of skill in the art, including, for example, by immersing, rinsing, washing or soaking the coating or coated panel.\",\n \"Panels are evaluated for corrosion performance based on the time to adhesion failure.\",\n \"Adhesion Test ASTM D4541 Method D: this method is the standard method for adhesion testing of hard substrates, i.e.\",\n \"Pull-Off Strength of Coatings Using Portable Adhesion Testers.\",\n \"ASTM D3359 Method B: this method is the standard method for adhesion testing thin films applied to metal substrates, i.e.\",\n \"films with dry film thickness of less than 5 mils (0.013 cm).\",\n \"ASTM D1933-03: this method is the standard method for measuring surface area of precipitated silica compounds using BET methods, i.e.\",\n \"Standard Test Method for Surface Area by Multipoint BET Nitrogen Adsorption.\",\n \"Salt Spray Testing Salt spray testing is a standardized method to determine corrosion resistance of coatings applied to metal substrates.\",\n \"The test is conducted in a salt spray cabinet, where a salted solution (typically 5% NaCl) is atomized and sprayed on to the surface of a test panel to which the coating composition of the invention is applied.\",\n \"The panel is thus maintained in a salt fog that duplicates a highly corrosive environment Test parameters are used according to ASTM B117 (Standard Practice for Operating Salt Fog Apparatus).\",\n \"Panels subjected to salt spray testing are then analyzed for corrosion resistance by various methods, including cross-hatch adhesion testing (as described above) or by blister rating, using ASTM D714 (Standard Test Method for Evaluating Degree of Blistering of Paints).\",\n \"With the ASTM D714 test, blisters are rated on a scale of 1 to 10.A blister rating of 10 implies effective corrosion resistance, whereas a blister rating of 8 or less implies failure.\",\n \"Heat Stability by GC/MS For testing the heat stability of the composition described herein, test panels are coated and cut into 0.25″×1.5″ (0.64 cm×3.81 cm) strips and placed in a 20 ml glass headspace vial.\",\n \"The vial is sealed with an airtight cap and placed into an oven for the appropriate time and temperature.\",\n \"After the heat cycle, the vial is immediately placed into an G1888 Network Headspace Sampler (Agilent Technologies, Santa Clara Calif.) and the headspace analyzed using an 6890N Gas Chromatograph/5975B XL-MSD (Agilent), Capillary column=DB-1, 50 meter, 0.2 mm ID, 033 μm film.\",\n \"Any detection of HCl in the headspace denotes degradation of the chlorinated resin.\",\n \"Water Vapor Transmission Rate (WVTR) Testing Cured films prepared as described below in Example 1 are provided on release paper.\",\n \"Circular test samples (4 cm in diameter) are cut in duplicate using a standard template.\",\n \"Each sample is placed on a mask (metal; 5 cm2) and sealed with grease and a rubber gasket.\",\n \"The sample is then placed in a water vapor transmission analyzer (Water Vapor Permeation Analyzer (model 7001); Illinois Instruments Inc., Johnsburg Ill. (USA)), and water vapor transmission readings are taken, and reported after eight hours of analysis.\",\n \"Water vapor transmission rate is reported in g/m2/day.\",\n \"Example 1: Water-Based Primer Formulation The following ingredients are charged to a high speed mixing vessel.\",\n \"All listed amounts are parts by weight unless otherwise noted.\",\n \"TABLE 1a Raw material Vendor Run 1 Run 2 Run 3 AlPO3 Various 6.05 6.05 Ammonium Hydroxide Ashland 0.0026 0.0026 0.0026 Bentone LT Elementis 0.086 0.086 0.086 BYK 024 BYK 0.13 0.13 0.13 BYK 155 BYK 0.52 0.52 0.52 Dynol 604 Air Products 0.17 0.17 0.17 EB solvent Eastman 1.44 1.44 1.44 Chemicals Epi-rez 3510 Hexion 3.4 Monolite carbon black Heubauch 0.85 0.85 0.85 Pluronic F87 (30%) in Water BASF 5.1 5.1 5.1 Shieldex Grace 6.05 Sodium nitrite (10%) in water Shiwu 0.81 0.81 0.81 Surfynol 104 Air Products 0.46 0.46 0.46 Talc Specialty 20.37 20.37 20.37 Minerals Texanol Eastman 0.0937 0.0937 0.0937 Chemicals Water 15.41 10.6 10.6 The mixture is dispersed at high speed to a grind of 5-6 Hegman, then letdown with the following mixture of Table 1b.\",\n \"In some modes of practice, it may be desirable to pre-disperse the Bentone LT material in a portion of the water.\",\n \"TABLE 1b Ammonium Hydroxide pH control 0.16 0.16 0.16 Haloflex 202 DSM Neoresins 47.15 47.15 47.15 To the above is added the ingredients listed in Table 1c.\",\n \"TABLE 1c Acrysol RM-8W Rohm & Haas 0.03 0.03 0.03 Foamaster S Cognis 0.21 0.21 0.21 The primers of Runs 1 and 2 are formulated for situations that might experience high use temperatures.\",\n \"The primer of Run 1 is further formulated with a lower pH for improved flash rusting resistance.\",\n \"The primer of Run 3 has an epoxy component also to improve heat resistance.\",\n \"Example 2: Waterborne Topcoat Formulations The following ingredients are charged to a high speed mixing vessel.\",\n \"All listed amounts are parts by weight unless otherwise noted.\",\n \"TABLE 2a Raw material Vendor Run 1 Run 2 Aerosil 200 Evonik 0.4 0.4 ASP 170 BASF 11.6 11.6 Cimbar Ex Cimbar 11.6 11.6 Disperbyk 190 BYK 1.2 1.2 EB Solvent Eastman 0.9 0.9 Chemicals Foamaster SA-3 Cognis 0.3 0.3 Red Oxide Chemik 1.8 Tiona 595 Cristal 0.5 5 Water 4.3 4.3 Yellow Oxide Chemik 2.6 The mixture is dispersed at high speed to a grind of 6.5 Hegman, then letdown with the following mixture of Table 2b.\",\n \"TABLE 2b Acrysol RM-8W Rohm & Haas 1.4 1.4 Ammonium Hydroxide Ashland 0.5 0.5 EPS2568 E.P.S.\",\n \"43.3 43.3 Foamaster SA-3 Cognis 0.4 0.4 Texanol Eastman Chemicals 2.2 2.2 Water 17 16.9 The topcoat of Run 1 has relatively high pigment to binder ratio and is a brown color.\",\n \"The topcoat of Run 2 had relatively high pigment to binder ratio and is a white color.\",\n \"Example 3: Water-Based Primer Formulation with Zn The following ingredients are charged to a high speed mixing vessel.\",\n \"All listed amounts are parts by weight unless otherwise noted.\",\n \"TABLE 3a Raw material Vendor Run 1 Ammonium Hydroxide Ashland 0.0026 Bentone LT Elementis 0.086 BYK 024 BYK 0.13 BYK 155 BYK 0.52 Dynol 604 Air Products 0.17 EB solvent Eastman 1.44 Chemicals K-White 84S Tayca 6.05 Monolite carbon black Heubauch 0.85 Pluronic F87 30% in Water BASF 5.1 Sodium nitrite 10% in water Shiwu 0.81 Surfynol 104 Air Products 0.46 Talc Specialty 20.37 Minerals Texanol Eastman 0.0937 Chemicals Water 15.41 The mixture is dispersed at high speed to a grind of 5-6 Hegman, then letdown with the following ingredients of Table 3b.\",\n \"The Bentone LT may be predispersed in a portion of the water.\",\n \"TABLE 3b Ammonium Hydroxide Ashland 0.16 Haloflex 202 DSM Neoresins 47.15 Then add: Acrysol RM-8W Rohm & Haas 0.03 Foamaster S Cognis 0.21 Example 4: Water-Based Topcoat (Low Pigment Volume) Run 1: The following ingredients are charged to a high speed mixing vessel.\",\n \"All listed amounts are parts by weight unless otherwise noted.\",\n \"TABLE 4a Raw material Run 1 Aerosil 200 Evonik 0.4 Disperbyk 190 BYK 1.1 EB Solvent Eastman Chemicals 0.9 Foamaster SA-3 Cognis 0.3 Tiona 595 Cristal 11.9 Water 3 The mixture is dispersed at high speed to a grind of 6.5 Hegman, then letdown with the following mixture of Table 4b.\",\n \"TABLE 4b Acrysol RM-8W Rohm & Haas 1.4 Ammonium Hydroxide Ashland 0.5 EPS2568 E.P.S.\",\n \"60.8 Foamaster SA-3 Cognis 0.5 Texanol Eastman Chemicals 2.2 Water 17 Example 5: Performance Testing Coatings prepared in the above examples are applied on standard dry container lines with minimal modification and can run at similar line speeds when used in conjunction with suitable curing ovens such as are as described in U.S. patent application Ser.\",\n \"No.\",\n \"12/837,833 (filed 16 Jul.\",\n \"2010).\",\n \"The inventive examples pass IICL specification and industry standard performance testing.\",\n \"For better results the first aqueous composition is allowed to substantially dry before the second aqueous composition is applied.\",\n \"Performance testing of primer/topcoat systems are reported in the following tables.\",\n \"Water Soak 60 Heat Testing 30 Salt Spray Testing hours @ 25 C. days at 82 C. Combination ASTM B117 w/tap water constant temperature Ex #1 Run 1/ No.\",\n \"10 No.\",\n \"10 No.\",\n \"10 Ex#2 Run 1 Ex #1 Run 1/ No.\",\n \"10 No.\",\n \"10 No.\",\n \"10 Ex#2 Run 2 Ex #1 Run 2/ No.\",\n \"10 No.\",\n \"10 No.\",\n \"10 Ex#2 Run 1 Ex #1 Run 2/ No.\",\n \"10 No.\",\n \"10 No.\",\n \"10 Ex#2 Run 2 Ex #1 Run 3/ No.\",\n \"10 No.\",\n \"10 No.\",\n \"10 Ex#2 Run 1 Ex #1 Run 3/ No.\",\n \"10 No.\",\n \"10 No.\",\n \"10 Ex#2 Run 2 Ex #3 Run 1/ No.\",\n \"10 No.\",\n \"10 Medium No.\",\n \"6 Ex#2 Run 1 Ex #1 Run 1/ Medium No.\",\n \"8 Medium No.\",\n \"8 No.\",\n \"10 Comparative Ex#4 Run 1 Ex #3 Run 1/ Medium No.\",\n \"8 Medium No.\",\n \"8 Medium No.\",\n \"6 Comparative Ex#4 Run 1 Blister ratings are observed in accordance with ASTM D-714 Water vapor transmission rate Relative Description (g/m2/day) Temperature Humidity Example #1 Run 1 5.3 38.7 C. 90% Example #2 Run 1 65.1 38.7 C. 90% Test Equipment: Illinois Instruments Model 7001 The above performance testing demonstrates that a primer composition containing Zn (Example 3, Run 1) is corrosion-resistant on prolonged exposure to water at low temperatures of 77° F. (25° C.), but fails at high temperatures.\",\n \"A topcoat composition with low pigment volume (Example 4, Run 1) shows poor performance on water soak and salt spray, and fails when applied over a Zn-containing primer composition (Example 3, Run 1).\",\n \"The water vapor transmission rate data suggests that the primer composition is relatively impermeable, while the topcoat is water-permeable.\",\n \"Example 6: Effect of Filler Type on Primer Performance To determine the effect of filler type on coating performance, primer compositions as described in Example 1 (Run 3) were prepared, replacing talc with fillers as shown below in Table 6a, which shows the physical properties of the various fillers used in formulating the primer composition.\",\n \"In addition, the additives (Bentone, Byk 024, sodium nitrite, Dynol 604 and Surfynol 104) of Example 1 (Run 3) are omitted from the primer compositions, and the pigment volume concentration of the fillers is adjusted to 14.TABLE 6a Properties of Filler Material Median Particle Oil Absorption particle size Surface Area Filler Shape (g of oil/100 g) (micron) (m2/g)1 Glass beads spherical 0 5.0 — BaSO4 nodular 10 1.0 — CaCO3 nodular 15 2.8 3.0 Dolomite nodular 17 4.9 2.5 Wollastonite acicular 27 3.5 2.9 Silica nodular 28 2.4 1.6 Chlorite lamellar 41 3.6 9.0-10.0 Talc platy 44 2.0 14.0 China clay lamellar 45 0.4 19.0 Mica platy 65 17.0 6.3 1Surface area information was provided by the filler vendor and is believed to be BET nitrogen adsorption, according to various known ASTM test methods (e.g., ASTM D1993-03; Standard Test Method for Surface Area by Multipoint BET Nitrogen Adsorption).\",\n \"The primer compositions were sprayed on test panels (either cold rolled steel (CRS) or blasted steel (BS)) and allowed to cure.\",\n \"Water-based topcoat formulations as described in Example 2 were then applied to each panel, and the panels were dried.\",\n \"Each test panel was subjected to various corrosion tests, including water soak testing, salt spray testing, adhesion testing and cyclic corrosion testing.\",\n \"All test panels pass industry-standard IICL testing and cyclic corrosion testing.\",\n \"Corrosion resistance on water soak testing and adhesion testing are shown in Table 6b, and graphically represented in FIG.\",\n \"1A and FIG.\",\n \"1B.\",\n \"TABLE 6b Performance Testing Results Water Soak Adhesion Adhesion Filler (hours to failure)1 (CRS; MPa) (BS; MPa) Glass beads >336 7.52 12.11 BaSO4 >336 5.87 12.99 CaCO3 >336 7.97 13.04 Dolomite >336 9.08 16.54 Wollastonite >336 6.53 12.10 Silica >336 6.95 12.15 Chlorite 168 5.51 10.87 Talc 96 4.24 10.43 China clay 120 4.37 12.15 Mica 120 3.76 9.14 1A result of greater than 336 hours to failure on water soak testing indicates that panels had not failed 14 days past the initial exposure to water.\",\n \"Example 7: Effect of Filler on Primer Performance Without being bound to theory, it is believed that oil absorptivity, particle size and surface area of fillers used in the primer composition may contribute to performance.\",\n \"To determine the effect of these filler properties on coating performance, primer compositions as described in Example 1 (Run 3) were prepared, replacing talc with fillers as shown below in Table 7a, which shows the physical properties of the various fillers used in formulating the primer composition.\",\n \"For each filler, three different grades of material (i.e.\",\n \"three different oil absorptivity values) for each filler type were used to make formulations of the primer compositions.\",\n \"In addition, the additives (Bentone, Byk 024, sodium nitrite, Dynol 604 and Surfynol 104) of Example 1 (Run 3) are omitted from the primer compositions, and the pigment volume concentration of the fillers is adjusted to 32.TABLE 7a Properties of Filler Material Filler Shape BET m2/g Oil Absorption Talc Platy 14.28 59 10.14 31 18.06 65 Mica Platy 5.8 81 5.63 79 3.38 65 Silica Nodular 7 36 1.78 25 1.52 24 BaSO4 Nodular 2.58 15 1.69 20 3.93 22 Wollastonite Acicular 2.36 29 Acicular 4.18 44 The primer compositions were sprayed on cold rolled steel (CRS) test panels and air flashed for 10 minutes, followed by forced drying for 20 minutes at 140° F. (60° C.).\",\n \"The panels were then aged in a 120° F. oven for 16 hours and cured to a dry film thickness of about 50 to 65 microns.\",\n \"Each test panel was subjected to various corrosion tests, including water soak testing, salt spray testing, adhesion testing and cyclic corrosion testing.\",\n \"Corrosion resistance on water soak testing and adhesion testing are shown in Table 7b and graphically represented in FIGS.\",\n \"3A and 3B.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"3A is a graphical representation of the oil absorptivity and surface area for the fillers listed in Table 7a.\",\n \"In FIG.\",\n \"3A, lower surface area correlates to lower oil absorptivity.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"3B shows adhesion results for the various fillers shown in Table 7a.\",\n \"TABLE 7b Performance Testing Results Water Soak Adhesion Filler (Days to Failure) (CRS; Mpa) Talc 1 321 1 367 1 263 Mica >20 292 >20 360 >20 296 Silica 9 641 >20 679 >20 628 BaSO4 >20 451 >20 490 >20 657 Wollastonite >20 583 >20 565 To compare surface area measurements with particle shape or size, SEM images of the platy and non-platy fillers in Table 7a were collected.\",\n \"A comparison of the morphology of talc particles (platy) to BaSO4 particles (non-platy) is shown in FIGS.\",\n \"4A and 4B.\",\n \"The BaSO4 particles are fairly compact and nodular, whereas talc show a significant foliate structure with many exposed faces that contribute to surface area, resulting in high surface area and oil absorption for talc, relative to non-platy fillers of similar particle size.\",\n \"Example 8: Effect of Filer on Primer Performance Primer formulation (A) was prepared as shown in Example 1 (Run 3), but with epoxy resin and surfactants removed, and with talc completely replaced with BaSO4.Similarly, primer formulation (B) was prepared as shown in Example 1 (Run 3), with epoxy resin and surfactants removed, and with talc replaced with a mixture of 50% talc and 50% BaSO4.Primer formulation (C) was prepared as shown in Example 1 (Run 3), with epoxy resin and other additives removed, but retaining talc as the filler (i.e.\",\n \"100% talc).\",\n \"The volume concentration of filler material was maintained constant.\",\n \"Cold-rolled steel test panels were sprayed with primer formulations (A), (B) and (C), and the panels were then subjected to water soak testing.\",\n \"The panels were evaluated for adhesion failure over a 14-day period, and blister ratings were determined using ASTM D714 over the same time course.\",\n \"The results are shown in Table 8 below.\",\n \"TABLE 8 Effect of Filler Type of Blister Formation over Time Water soak (days to Blister rating Primer failure) Day 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 A 14+ 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 B 14+ 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 C 2 10 5 5 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Example 9: Effect of Filler Volume Concentration on Primer Performance To evaluate the effect of filler volume concentration on coating performance, control primer compositions were prepared as described in Example 1 (Run 3), but with epoxy resin and additives removed.\",\n \"The talc is completely replaced with BaSO4 as the filler.\",\n \"Test formulations were prepared by modifying the filler volume concentration, with each test formulation prepared at low and high filler volume (14 and 32 vol % respectively, for adhesion testing; 14 and 24 vol % respectively for water soak testing).\",\n \"The primer formulations were then applied to cold-rolled steel test panels, and each test panel was assessed for performance by adhesion testing.\",\n \"Results are shown in Table 9a and 9b.\",\n \"TABLE 9a Effect of Filler Volume on Water Soak Performance Primer Formulation Water Soak (hours to failure) Control (Run 1, Example 3) >336 Low filler (14 vol %) >336 High filler (24 vol %) 240 TABLE 9b Effect of Filler Volume on Adhesion Primer Formulation Adhesion (MPa) Control (Run 1, Example 3) 4.14 Low filler (14 vol %) 3.22 High filler (32 vol %) 1.23 Example 10: Effect of Zinc on Heat Stability of Primer Without being bound to theory, it is believed that the presence of certain Zn-containing species may accelerate degradation of the chlorinated resin used in the primer composition.\",\n \"To support this observation, primer formulations prepared according to Example 1 (Run 3; with epoxy and additives removed) were loaded with zinc oxide (ZnO) at 2% and 5% based on the total weight of the composition.\",\n \"Test panels were prepared by applying the primer formulation to cold-rolled steel, and heat stability at different temperatures of 160° F. (71° C.), 170° F. (76° C.) and 180° F. (82° C.) was assessed using GC/MS headspace analysis.\",\n \"The detection and magnitude of HCl generation corresponds to degradation of the resin.\",\n \"Results are shown in Table 10.TABLE 10 Effect of Zn on Heat Stability of Primer Days to Failure Primer Formulation At 71° C. At 76° C. At 82° C. Control (Run 3, Example 1) 28+ 14 4 Control + 2% ZnO 10 7 2 Control + 5% ZnO 10 7 2 Example 11: Effect of Type of Zn-Countering Species To evaluate the effect of various types of Zn on the heat stability of the chlorinated resin, primer formulations prepared according to Example 1 (Run 3, but with epoxy resin and additives omitted) were loaded with zinc oxide (ZnO), zinc dust, zinc sulphate (ZnSO4) and Zn(NO3)2.Each type of Zn-containing compound was added at 2% and 5% based on the total weight of the composition, keeping in mind that the amount of zinc in each type of composition will differ.\",\n \"In addition, formulations with these Zn-containing species were treated with epoxy resin (Epi-Rez 3510) to determine the effect of the epoxy resin on heat stability of the formulation.\",\n \"Test panels were prepared by applying the primer formulation to cold-rolled steel, and heat stability at a temperature of 190° F. (88° C.) was assessed using GC/MS headspace analysis.\",\n \"Results are shown in Table 11, and graphically represented in FIG.\",\n \"2.TABLE 11 Effect of Type of Zinc on Heat Stability Hours to Failure (at 88° C.) Primer Formulation Without Epoxy With Epoxy Control (Example 1, Run 3) 144+ — 2% ZnO 24 96 5% ZnO 36 96 2% Zn dust 36 72 5% Zn dust 24 72 2% ZnSO4 72 96 5% ZnSO4 96 96 2% Zn(NO3)2 144 144 5% Zn(NO3)2 144 144 Example 12: Effect of Additives on Primer Performance Without being bound to theory, it is believed that certain flash rust inhibitors may minimize oxidative attack of the coating by passivating the substrate surface and reducing the reaction of HCl (produced by degradation of the chlorinated resin) with iron to form the Lewis acidic iron chloride.\",\n \"Eight different flash rust inhibitors (sodium nitrite, sodium benzoate, ammonium benzoate/morpholine, aluminum tripolyphosphate, diammonium hydrogen phosphate, ammonium dihydrogen phosphate, calcium phosphate and potassium tripolyphosphate) are added at a concentration of 1% to a clear formulation of the chlorinated resin.\",\n \"The formulation is applied to test panels and the panels are exposed to heat.\",\n \"The results of cross-hatch adhesion testing are shown in Table 12.TABLE 11 Effect of Flash Rust Inhibitors on Primer Performance Days to failure Formulation (50% adhesion loss) Control 16 Sodium nitrite 22 Ammonium benzoate 16 Sodium benzoate 16 Aluminum tripolyphosphate 16 Diammonium hydrogen phosphate 34 Ammonium dihydrogen phosphate 31 Calcium phosphate 23 Potassium tripolyphosphate 31 Example 13: Effect of Acrylic Resin on Heat Stability of Primer Composition To evaluate the effect of acrylic resin on the heat stability of chlorinated resin component (PVDC), resin emulsions were prepared as shown in Table 13 below, with Acrylic 1 representing an acrylic polymer composition and Acrylic 2 representing a styrene-acrylic copolymer.\",\n \"The emulsions were applied to test panels, exposed to heat (230° F.; 110° C.) and tested for cross-hatch adhesion.\",\n \"Results are shown in Table 13.TABLE 13 Effect of Acrylic Resin on Heat Stability Emulsion Days to Failure (at 110° C.) 100% PVDC Emulsion 1 50% PVDC/50% Acrylic 1 15 50% PVDC/50% Acrylic 2 15 Example 14.Effect of P:B Ratio on Primer and Topcoat Performance To determine the effect of pigment concentration on performance, primer compositions were prepared as described in Example 1 (Run 3) but with different pigment-to-binder (or P:B ratios) of 0.93, 0.46, 0.08 and 0.04.Test panels for the primer compositions were prepared and then topcoated with solvent-borne 2 k polyurethane coating compositions at either low pigment volume concentration (low PVC) or high pigment volume concentration (high PVC) respectively.\",\n \"Performance was evaluated by salt spray testing for 480, 1000 and 1200 hours.\",\n \"Results are shown in Table 14.TABLE 14 Effect of P:B ratio on Primer and Topcoat Performance Water Based High PVC 2K Low PVC 2K Primers Polyurethane Polyurethane 0.80 500 hours 240 hours Pigment/Binder 0.46 1000 hours 500 hours Pigment/Binder (blisters only along scribe) Clear Binder 1000 hours 1000 hours Other embodiments of this invention will be apparent to those skilled in the art upon consideration of this specification or from practice of the invention disclosed herein.\",\n \"Various omissions, modifications, and changes to the principles and embodiments described herein may be made by one skilled in the art without departing from the true scope and spirit of the invention which is indicated by the following claims.\"\n ]\n]"},"source":{"kind":"string","value":"Patent_15875387"}}},{"rowIdx":4494864,"cells":{"text":{"kind":"list like","value":[["RECOMBINANT ORF VIRUS VECTOR","A nucleic acid molecule can code for an Orf virus vector promoter.","A recombinant Orf virus vector can be included in a cell.","The nucleic acid molecule, the vector and/or the cell can be included in a composition.","The recombinant Orf virus vector can be used for the production of a foreign gene."],["1.A recombinant Orf virus (ORFV) vector, which comprises: (1) at least one nucleotide sequence encoding and expressing a foreign gene, and (2) at least one promoter controlling the expression of the nucleotide sequence, wherein: the nucleotide sequence is localized in at least one of insertion loci (IL) 1, 2 and 3, which are localized in the ORFV genome in a region selected from the group consisting of the following regions: IL 1 IL 2 IL 3 Restriction HindIII HindIII fragment I/ HindIII fragment G/ fragment fragment C, J, KpnI fragment B, D, KpnI KpnI fragment BamHI fragment A, fragment B, BamHI G, BamHI EcoRI fragment A/E fragment A, fragment C/G, EcoRI fragment D, EcoRI fragment B Gene/ORF 006, 102, 114, 007 (dUTPase), 103 115, 008 (G1L-Ank), 116, 009 (G2L) 117 (GIF) and Nucleotide nt 500 ± 100 to nt 5.210 ± 100 to nt 15.660 ± 100 to position nt 2.400 ± 600 nt 7.730 ± 100 nt 17.850 ± 100.2.The recombinant ORFV vector of claim 1, wherein ORFV is of the strain D1701.3.The recombinant ORFV vector of claim 1, wherein the ORFV promoter is an early ORF promoter.","4.The recombinant ORFV vector of claim 3, wherein the early ORF promoter comprises a nucleotide sequence which is selected from the group consisting of: SEQ ID No.","1 (P1), SEQ ID No.","2 (P2), SEQ ID No.","3 (VEGF), SEQ ID No.","4 (optimized “early”), SEQ ID No.","5 (7.5 kDa promoter) and SEQ ID No.","6 (consensus “early”).","5.The recombinant ORFV vector of claim 1, wherein the promoter is located at a position of nt 28±10 to nt−13±10 upstream in relation to the nucleotide sequence encoding the foreign gene.","6.The recombinant ORFV vector of claim 1, wherein at least in one of the IL 1, 2 or 3 there is inserted more than one nucleotide sequence encoding and expressing a foreign gene.","7.The recombinant ORFV vector of claim 6, wherein the number of the inserted nucleotide sequences encoding and expressing a foreign gene is selected from the group consisting of: 2, 3, 4 and more than 4.8.The recombinant ORFV vector of claim 1, further comprising an additional nucleotide sequence encoding and expressing a foreign gene, which is under the control of an early ORFV promoter, and is inserted into an insertion locus which in the ORFV genome is located in the vegf E gene.","9.The recombinant ORFV vector of claim 1, wherein the foreign gene is selected from the group consisting of the following antigens: a viral antigen; a tumor antigen; a tumor associated antigen, including viral tumor associated antigen, including HPV selective viral tumor-associated antigen; a parasitic antigen; and a cytokine.","10.A cell containing the recombinant ORFV vector of any of claim 1.11.The cell of claim 10, which is a mammalian cell.","12.The cell of claim 10, which is a Vero cell.","13.A pharmaceutical composition containing the recombinant ORFV vector of claim 1.14.The pharmaceutical composition of claim 13, which is a vaccine.","15.A pharmaceutical composition containing the cell of claim 10.16.The pharmaceutical composition of claim 15, which is a vaccine.","17.A nucleic acid molecule encoding an ORFV promoter comprising a nucleotide sequence which is selected from the group consisting of: SEQ ID No.","1 (P1) and SEQ ID No.","2 (P2).","18.The nucleic acid molecule of claim 17, wherein the ORFV promoter is an early ORFV promoter.","19.The recombinant ORFV vector of claim 9, wherein the viral antigen is: a rabies virus antigen, including glycoprotein (RabG); or an influenza A antigen selected from the group consisting of nucleoprotein (NP), hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA).","20.The recombinant ORFV vector of claim 9, wherein the tumor antigen is a viral tumor associated antigen.","21.The recombinant ORFV vector of claim 9, wherein the viral tumor associated antigen is HPV selective viral tumor-associated antigen.","22.The recombinant ORFV vector of claim 9, wherein the parasitic antigen is plasmodium antigen."],[" BACKGROUND Viral vectors are used in the biotechnology to introduce genetic material into target cells.","The introduced genetic material often encodes foreign genes which serve for the production of a recombinant protein.","For this reason viral vectors are a significant platform technology, in particular for the production of recombinant vaccines which are increasingly used, along with the traditional prevention of infectious diseases, also for the development of new, innovative therapeutic concepts, such as e.g.","the therapeutic tumor immunization.","The Orf virus (ORFV) belongs to the family of pox viruses and has a variety of characteristics which makes it interesting for the production of recombinant vaccines and prefers it over other technologies.","It is the prototype of the genus of the parapox viruses and belongs to the family of the Poxviridae.","ORFV are enveloped, complex dsDNA viruses having a morphology that reminds of a ball of wool and have an average size of approx.","260×160 nm.","They have a linear DNA genome with high GC content and a size of approx.","130 to 150 kbp, the central region of which is delimited on both sides by ITR regions (“inverted terminal repeats”) and ends in a hair-pin structure, which covalently links both DNA single strands to each other.","In the central region of the genome there are predominantly genes which are mainly essential for the viral replication and morphogenesis and which are highly conserved among the pox viruses.","In contrast, in the ITR regions there are so-called non-conserved virulence genes which significantly determine the host range, the pathogenicity and the immunomodulation and, therefore, characterize the virus.","In pox viruses the viral replication is restricted to the cytoplasm and starts with the binding of the virus to the surface of the host cell.","After the fusion the so-called viral core, a protein core is released into the cytoplasm, which contains the viral genome, early viral mRNA and viral transcription factors (TF).","In the following the early viral gene expression starts where, under the control of pox-virus specific early promoters, viral mRNA is synthesized.","After the disintegration of the core structure the viral DNA is released into the cytoplasm.","In contrast to the transcription of “early” genes which exclusively takes place under the control of viral TF the following “intermediate” and “late” gene transcription depends on the assistance of cellular TF.","As the consequence, in contrast to the expression of “intermediate” and “late” genes the expression of early genes in pox viruses does neither require the replication of viral DNA nor a virus production.","The ORFV is characterized by a very narrow natural host range which includes sheep and goat.","Infections occur via lesions of the skin which allow the penetration of the virus.","The replication of the dermatropic virus in the following is restricted to regenerative keratinocytes, which initiates a contagious dermatitis or Ecthyma contagiosum .","This usually mildly progressing self limiting infection manifests as locally restricted skin or mucosa lesion, whereby the formation of pustules caused by the massive infiltration of polymorphous nuclear granulocytes mainly appears at the mouth and udder.","The lesion heals after approx.","4 to 6 weeks without the formation of scars.","A long-lasting immune protection does not develop despite the strong immune response so that a reinfection is possible even after few weeks, although clinical symptoms and the virus production are significantly reduced.","A systemic spread or viremia has not been observed for ORFV; also not after experimental intravenous injection of high doses of infectious viruses.","ORFV is considered as zoonotic pathogen and in rare cases can also be passed to humans via the injured skin.","After the infection locally restricted modular swellings can be observed which are mostly limited to the fingers and hands, and occasionally there are swellings of the lymph nodes and fever.","Normally, the progression is harmless, without complications and heals completely within three to eight weeks without clinical aftermaths.","In immunocompromised patients also more severe progressions of the infection have been observed, which, however, after the treatment with antivirals, such as Cidofovir or Imiquimod, have completely healed.","ORFV is interesting for the production of recombinant vaccines.","In comparison to orthopox viruses ORFV is characterized by a very narrow natural host tropism which includes sheep and goat.","As a consequence, an inhibiting “preimmunity” against the vector in humans, which is caused by a natural infection, as it can be observed in the most common viral vectors of the vaccinia and adenoviruses, can be almost excluded.","Furthermore, the exceptionally weak and short-lived ORFV specific vector immunity allows a very effective booster and/or refreshing vaccination or immunization with ORFV based vaccines which are directed against further pathogens.","The administration of ORFV in permissive but also in non-permissive hosts results in a strong immune stimulating reaction which is characterized by a pronounced induction of innate immune mechanisms and the release of interferones, cytokines, and chemokines.","Shortly after the immunization dendritic cells accumulate at the injection site and in the following, via the activation of T and B cells, induce a specific adaptive immune response.","In contrast to vaccines from inactivated viruses and living vectors which mostly induce a humoral emphasized immune response, the balanced induction of the cellular and the humoral immune response after the immunization with recombinant ORFV is a significant advantage.","At the same time it renders the use of adjuvants redundant which may cause unintended side effects and inflammation reactions.","Other advantages are, in addition, the possibility of the standardized production of the recombinant vaccines in permanent cell lines without the use of antibiotics and the waiver of a production in hen's egg (increasing number in protein and antibiotics intolerances).","An attenuated ORFV vaccine which is approved in the veterinary field has the designation D1701, in correspondence with the identical ORFV strain.","This vaccine which is in inactivated form known under the trade name Baypamun (Bayer) or Zylexis (Pfizer) was initially obtained via the isolation of a wild type virus from sheep and a subsequent adaptation as a result of multiple passaging in bovine kidney culture cells.","It was followed by a further adaption in Vero cells (African green monkey kidney cells) which led to the obtainment of the ORFV vector D1701-V. D1701-V is further attenuated and only results in asymptotic infections even in immunosuppressed sheep.","The recombinant ORFV vectors so far use the VEGF locus as the insertion point.","According to the present knowledge this results in the supposed advantage that by the elimination of the vegf-e gene which is under the control of a poxvirus-specific “early” promoters and which is considered as a virulence factor a further attenuation of the vector takes place.","In the meantime several ORFV based recombinant vaccines were produced and examined in the animal model.","Currently recombinant ORFV vaccines are used against various infectious diseases such as for example against the Aujeszky's disease, rabies, Borna disease, influenza or the classical swine fever.","The good immune stimulating and prophylactically usable effect of recombinant Orf viruses could be demonstrated in the last years by establishing a number of vaccines against different viral infectious diseases.","An overview on the use of recombinant pox viruses, including ORFV, for the production of recombinant proteins can be found in Rziha et al.","(2000), Generation of recombinant parapoxviruses: non-esssential genes suitable for insertion and expression of foreign genes, Journal or Biotechnology Vol.","83, pages 137-145, and Buttner and Rziha (2002), Parapoxviruses: From the Lesion to the Viral Genome, J. Vet.","Med.","B. Vol.","49, pages 7-16.The restricted use of the current recombinant ORFV vectors can be explained in particular by the long lasting selection proceedings.","Especially a production of polyvalent vaccines was so far not possible.","Furthermore, the known recombinant ORFV vectors do not have a precisely controllable expression of the foreign genes."],[" SUMMARY Against this background it is a problem underlying the invention to provide a new recombinant ORFV vector by means of which the disadvantages of the known ORFV vectors and vector systems can be reduced or avoided.","This problem is solved by the provision of a recombinant Orf virus (ORFV) vector which comprises the following: (1) at least one nucleotide sequence encoding and expressing a foreign gene, and (2) at least one promoter which controls the expression of the nucleotide sequence, wherein the nucleotide sequence is inserted into at least one of the insertion loci (IL) 1, 2 and 3 which are located in the ORFV genome in the following regions: IL 1 IL 2 IL 3 Restriction fragment HindIII fragment C, HindIII fragment I/J, HindIII fragment G/D, KpnI fragment G, KpnI fragment B, KpnI fragment B, BamHI fragment C/G, BamHI fragment A, BamHI fragment A, EcoRI fragment B EcoRI fragment A/E EcoRI fragment D and/or Gene/ORF 006, 102, 114, 007 (dUTPase), 103 115, 008 (G1L-Ank), 116, 009 (G2L) 117 (GIF) and/or Nucleotid position nt 500 ± 100 to nt 5.210 ± 100 to nt 15.660 ± 100 to nt 2.400 ± 600 nt 7.730 ± 100 nt 17.850 ± 100 According to the invention Orf virus (ORFV) refers to all viruses and virus strains falling under the species of Parapoxvirus ovis , in particular the strain D1701.According to the invention a recombinant ORFV vector refers to a vector based on the ORFV genome which is configured for the transport and/or the expression of a foreign gene in(to) biological cells.","According to the invention a foreign gene refers to a gene or open reading frame (ORF) which does not originate from the ORFV genome.","According to the invention a promoter refers to such a nucleic acid section which allows the regulated expression of the foreign gene in the ORFV vector of the invention.","Preferably it refers to an ORF promoter, i.e.","a promoter existing in the wild type ORFV genome or a promoter derived therefrom, or an artificial promoter, such as a poxvirus promoter, CMV promoter etc.","In the recombinant ORFV vector the position of the insertion loci IL 1, 2 and 3 in the ORFV genome can be determined according to the invention in several ways: by means of restriction fragments, the ORFV genes or open reading frames (ORF) or nucleotide positions in the ORFV genome.","The traditional description of the localization of IL 1, 2 and 3 takes place by means of restriction maps and by means of restriction fragments where the insertion regions are located.","The restriction map of the ORFV is exemplarily shown for the strain D1701 in Cottone et al.","(1998), Analysis of genomic rearrangement and subsequent gene deletion of the attenuated Orf virus strain D1701, Virus Research, Vol.","56, pages 53-67.The content of this publication is a component of the present disclosure.","Here, according to the invention e.g.","regarding IL 1 the indications HindIII fragment C, KpnI fragment G, BamHI fragment C/G, EcoRI fragment B mean that this insertion locus extends from the HindIII fragment C up to the EcoRI fragment B. IL 2 extends from the HindIII fragment I-J up to the EcoRI-fragment A/E.","IL 3 extends from the HindIII fragment G/D up to the EcoRI fragment D. The indications 006, 007 (dUTPase), 008 (G1 Li-Ank), 009 (G2L) for IL 1 mean that the insertion locus extends from gene or ORF 006 up to gene or ORF 009.The indications in the brackets refer to the coding products or encoded enzymatic activities insofar they are currently known.","According to the invention IL 1 is located in a region which starts at nucleotide 400 to 600 (500±100) and ends at nucleotide 1800 to 3000 (2.400±600).","What has been said for IL 1 applies to IL 2 and IL 3 in accordance with the above table.","The indicated positions of the nucleotides (nt) were established by the inventors from multiple determinations in different ORFV strains.","The examinations for the strain D1701 or variants therefrom resulted in the following positions which are especially preferred:"],["CROSS-REFERENCES TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application is a continuation of international patent application PCT/EP2016/066926 filed on 15 Jul.","2016 and designating the U.S., which has been published in German and claims priority from German patent application DE 10 2015 111 756.8 filed on 20 Jul.","2015.The entire contents of these prior applications are incorporated herein by reference.","REFERENCE TO SEQUENCE LISTING This application incorporates by reference the sequence listing submitted as ASCII text filed via EFS-Web on Jan. 19, 2018.The Sequence Listing is provided as a file entitled “24437201_1.txt,” created on Jan. 19, 2018, and which is approximately 1.33 KB in size.","FIELD The present invention relates to a recombinant Orf virus vector, a cell containing the recombinant Orf virus vector, a composition containing the recombinant Orf virus vector according to the invention and/or the cell according to the invention, the use of the recombinant Orf virus vector according to the invention for the expression of a foreign gene and a nucleic acid molecule encoding an Orf virus vector promoter.","BACKGROUND Viral vectors are used in the biotechnology to introduce genetic material into target cells.","The introduced genetic material often encodes foreign genes which serve for the production of a recombinant protein.","For this reason viral vectors are a significant platform technology, in particular for the production of recombinant vaccines which are increasingly used, along with the traditional prevention of infectious diseases, also for the development of new, innovative therapeutic concepts, such as e.g.","the therapeutic tumor immunization.","The Orf virus (ORFV) belongs to the family of pox viruses and has a variety of characteristics which makes it interesting for the production of recombinant vaccines and prefers it over other technologies.","It is the prototype of the genus of the parapox viruses and belongs to the family of the Poxviridae.","ORFV are enveloped, complex dsDNA viruses having a morphology that reminds of a ball of wool and have an average size of approx.","260×160 nm.","They have a linear DNA genome with high GC content and a size of approx.","130 to 150 kbp, the central region of which is delimited on both sides by ITR regions (“inverted terminal repeats”) and ends in a hair-pin structure, which covalently links both DNA single strands to each other.","In the central region of the genome there are predominantly genes which are mainly essential for the viral replication and morphogenesis and which are highly conserved among the pox viruses.","In contrast, in the ITR regions there are so-called non-conserved virulence genes which significantly determine the host range, the pathogenicity and the immunomodulation and, therefore, characterize the virus.","In pox viruses the viral replication is restricted to the cytoplasm and starts with the binding of the virus to the surface of the host cell.","After the fusion the so-called viral core, a protein core is released into the cytoplasm, which contains the viral genome, early viral mRNA and viral transcription factors (TF).","In the following the early viral gene expression starts where, under the control of pox-virus specific early promoters, viral mRNA is synthesized.","After the disintegration of the core structure the viral DNA is released into the cytoplasm.","In contrast to the transcription of “early” genes which exclusively takes place under the control of viral TF the following “intermediate” and “late” gene transcription depends on the assistance of cellular TF.","As the consequence, in contrast to the expression of “intermediate” and “late” genes the expression of early genes in pox viruses does neither require the replication of viral DNA nor a virus production.","The ORFV is characterized by a very narrow natural host range which includes sheep and goat.","Infections occur via lesions of the skin which allow the penetration of the virus.","The replication of the dermatropic virus in the following is restricted to regenerative keratinocytes, which initiates a contagious dermatitis or Ecthyma contagiosum.","This usually mildly progressing self limiting infection manifests as locally restricted skin or mucosa lesion, whereby the formation of pustules caused by the massive infiltration of polymorphous nuclear granulocytes mainly appears at the mouth and udder.","The lesion heals after approx.","4 to 6 weeks without the formation of scars.","A long-lasting immune protection does not develop despite the strong immune response so that a reinfection is possible even after few weeks, although clinical symptoms and the virus production are significantly reduced.","A systemic spread or viremia has not been observed for ORFV; also not after experimental intravenous injection of high doses of infectious viruses.","ORFV is considered as zoonotic pathogen and in rare cases can also be passed to humans via the injured skin.","After the infection locally restricted modular swellings can be observed which are mostly limited to the fingers and hands, and occasionally there are swellings of the lymph nodes and fever.","Normally, the progression is harmless, without complications and heals completely within three to eight weeks without clinical aftermaths.","In immunocompromised patients also more severe progressions of the infection have been observed, which, however, after the treatment with antivirals, such as Cidofovir or Imiquimod, have completely healed.","ORFV is interesting for the production of recombinant vaccines.","In comparison to orthopox viruses ORFV is characterized by a very narrow natural host tropism which includes sheep and goat.","As a consequence, an inhibiting “preimmunity” against the vector in humans, which is caused by a natural infection, as it can be observed in the most common viral vectors of the vaccinia and adenoviruses, can be almost excluded.","Furthermore, the exceptionally weak and short-lived ORFV specific vector immunity allows a very effective booster and/or refreshing vaccination or immunization with ORFV based vaccines which are directed against further pathogens.","The administration of ORFV in permissive but also in non-permissive hosts results in a strong immune stimulating reaction which is characterized by a pronounced induction of innate immune mechanisms and the release of interferones, cytokines, and chemokines.","Shortly after the immunization dendritic cells accumulate at the injection site and in the following, via the activation of T and B cells, induce a specific adaptive immune response.","In contrast to vaccines from inactivated viruses and living vectors which mostly induce a humoral emphasized immune response, the balanced induction of the cellular and the humoral immune response after the immunization with recombinant ORFV is a significant advantage.","At the same time it renders the use of adjuvants redundant which may cause unintended side effects and inflammation reactions.","Other advantages are, in addition, the possibility of the standardized production of the recombinant vaccines in permanent cell lines without the use of antibiotics and the waiver of a production in hen's egg (increasing number in protein and antibiotics intolerances).","An attenuated ORFV vaccine which is approved in the veterinary field has the designation D1701, in correspondence with the identical ORFV strain.","This vaccine which is in inactivated form known under the trade name Baypamun (Bayer) or Zylexis (Pfizer) was initially obtained via the isolation of a wild type virus from sheep and a subsequent adaptation as a result of multiple passaging in bovine kidney culture cells.","It was followed by a further adaption in Vero cells (African green monkey kidney cells) which led to the obtainment of the ORFV vector D1701-V. D1701-V is further attenuated and only results in asymptotic infections even in immunosuppressed sheep.","The recombinant ORFV vectors so far use the VEGF locus as the insertion point.","According to the present knowledge this results in the supposed advantage that by the elimination of the vegf-e gene which is under the control of a poxvirus-specific “early” promoters and which is considered as a virulence factor a further attenuation of the vector takes place.","In the meantime several ORFV based recombinant vaccines were produced and examined in the animal model.","Currently recombinant ORFV vaccines are used against various infectious diseases such as for example against the Aujeszky's disease, rabies, Borna disease, influenza or the classical swine fever.","The good immune stimulating and prophylactically usable effect of recombinant Orf viruses could be demonstrated in the last years by establishing a number of vaccines against different viral infectious diseases.","An overview on the use of recombinant pox viruses, including ORFV, for the production of recombinant proteins can be found in Rziha et al.","(2000), Generation of recombinant parapoxviruses: non-esssential genes suitable for insertion and expression of foreign genes, Journal or Biotechnology Vol.","83, pages 137-145, and Buttner and Rziha (2002), Parapoxviruses: From the Lesion to the Viral Genome, J. Vet.","Med.","B. Vol.","49, pages 7-16.The restricted use of the current recombinant ORFV vectors can be explained in particular by the long lasting selection proceedings.","Especially a production of polyvalent vaccines was so far not possible.","Furthermore, the known recombinant ORFV vectors do not have a precisely controllable expression of the foreign genes.","SUMMARY Against this background it is a problem underlying the invention to provide a new recombinant ORFV vector by means of which the disadvantages of the known ORFV vectors and vector systems can be reduced or avoided.","This problem is solved by the provision of a recombinant Orf virus (ORFV) vector which comprises the following: (1) at least one nucleotide sequence encoding and expressing a foreign gene, and (2) at least one promoter which controls the expression of the nucleotide sequence, wherein the nucleotide sequence is inserted into at least one of the insertion loci (IL) 1, 2 and 3 which are located in the ORFV genome in the following regions: IL 1 IL 2 IL 3 Restriction fragment HindIII fragment C, HindIII fragment I/J, HindIII fragment G/D, KpnI fragment G, KpnI fragment B, KpnI fragment B, BamHI fragment C/G, BamHI fragment A, BamHI fragment A, EcoRI fragment B EcoRI fragment A/E EcoRI fragment D and/or Gene/ORF 006, 102, 114, 007 (dUTPase), 103 115, 008 (G1L-Ank), 116, 009 (G2L) 117 (GIF) and/or Nucleotid position nt 500 ± 100 to nt 5.210 ± 100 to nt 15.660 ± 100 to nt 2.400 ± 600 nt 7.730 ± 100 nt 17.850 ± 100 According to the invention Orf virus (ORFV) refers to all viruses and virus strains falling under the species of Parapoxvirus ovis, in particular the strain D1701.According to the invention a recombinant ORFV vector refers to a vector based on the ORFV genome which is configured for the transport and/or the expression of a foreign gene in(to) biological cells.","According to the invention a foreign gene refers to a gene or open reading frame (ORF) which does not originate from the ORFV genome.","According to the invention a promoter refers to such a nucleic acid section which allows the regulated expression of the foreign gene in the ORFV vector of the invention.","Preferably it refers to an ORF promoter, i.e.","a promoter existing in the wild type ORFV genome or a promoter derived therefrom, or an artificial promoter, such as a poxvirus promoter, CMV promoter etc.","In the recombinant ORFV vector the position of the insertion loci IL 1, 2 and 3 in the ORFV genome can be determined according to the invention in several ways: by means of restriction fragments, the ORFV genes or open reading frames (ORF) or nucleotide positions in the ORFV genome.","The traditional description of the localization of IL 1, 2 and 3 takes place by means of restriction maps and by means of restriction fragments where the insertion regions are located.","The restriction map of the ORFV is exemplarily shown for the strain D1701 in Cottone et al.","(1998), Analysis of genomic rearrangement and subsequent gene deletion of the attenuated Orf virus strain D1701, Virus Research, Vol.","56, pages 53-67.The content of this publication is a component of the present disclosure.","Here, according to the invention e.g.","regarding IL 1 the indications HindIII fragment C, KpnI fragment G, BamHI fragment C/G, EcoRI fragment B mean that this insertion locus extends from the HindIII fragment C up to the EcoRI fragment B. IL 2 extends from the HindIII fragment I-J up to the EcoRI-fragment A/E.","IL 3 extends from the HindIII fragment G/D up to the EcoRI fragment D. The indications 006, 007 (dUTPase), 008 (G1 Li-Ank), 009 (G2L) for IL 1 mean that the insertion locus extends from gene or ORF 006 up to gene or ORF 009.The indications in the brackets refer to the coding products or encoded enzymatic activities insofar they are currently known.","According to the invention IL 1 is located in a region which starts at nucleotide 400 to 600 (500±100) and ends at nucleotide 1800 to 3000 (2.400±600).","What has been said for IL 1 applies to IL 2 and IL 3 in accordance with the above table.","The indicated positions of the nucleotides (nt) were established by the inventors from multiple determinations in different ORFV strains.","The examinations for the strain D1701 or variants therefrom resulted in the following positions which are especially preferred: IL 1: nt 496-nt 2.750; nt 496-nt 1.912 and nt 511-2.750 IL 2: nt 5.212-7.736 IL 3: nt 15.656-17.849.The inventors have realized that into the indicated newly found insertion loci foreign genes can be stably integrated into the ORFV genome.","This was surprising.","So far it was assumed that the regions of the insertion loci in the genome are required for the virus replication and were inappropriate for the expression of foreign genes.","It has turned out being a significant advantage of the ORFV vector according to the invention that by the choice of the insertion locus the gene expression can be controlled.","For example, the expression of foreign genes in IL 2 is decreased over the expression in the so far used VEGF locus by the factor 2.Furthermore, by the choice of the promoter the strength and the point in time of the expression of the foreign gene can be influenced in a targeted manner.","The problem underlying the invention is herewith completely solved.","In an embodiment of the recombinant ORFV vector which is preferred according to the invention ORFV is of the strain D1701.This measure has the advantage that such a vector is used which is attenuated and only causes asymptotic infections in the host.","According to the invention all variants of D1701 are covered, including D1701-B and D1701-V.","According to a further embodiment of the recombinant ORFV vector which is preferred according to the invention the promoter is an ORFV promoter, further preferably an early ORFV promoter, which preferably comprises a nucleotide sequence which is selected from: SEQ ID No.","1 (P1), SEQ ID No.","2 (P2), SEQ ID No.","3 (VEGF), SEQ ID No.","4 (optimized “early”), SEQ ID No.","5 (7.5 kDa promoter) and SEQ ID No.","6 (consensus “early”).","This measure has the advantage that such promoters are used which allow a high expression level of the foreign gene and a targeted control of the expression.","The promoters P1 and P2 were newly developed by the inventors.","The remaining promoters originate from the vaccinia virus and are described in other connections in Davidson and Moss (1989), Structure of Vaccinia virus late promoters, J. Mol.","Biol., Vol.","210, pages 771 to 784, and Yang et al.","(2011), Genome-wide analysis of the 5′ and 3′ ends of Vaccinia Virus early mRNAs delineates regulatory sequences of annotated and anomalous transcripts, J. Virology, Vol.","85, Nr.","12, S. 5897-5909, Broyles (2003), Vaccinia virus transcription, J. gene.","Virol., Vol.","84, Nr.","9, S. 2293-2303.According to the findings of the inventors P2 causes a significantly increased expression strength in comparison to P1.This was surprising because the promoter P1 corresponds by 100% to the consensus sequence from the Vaccinia virus, however not P2.The low expression of the “optimum” Vaccinia-virus promoter (Orthopox) in ORFV (parapox) is a contradiction and surprising.","It is also surprising that the P2 promoter results in a strong expression.","According to a further embodiment of the recombinant ORFV vector according to the invention the promoter is located at a position of nt 28±10 to nt−13±10 upstream in relation to the nucleotide sequence encoding for the foreign gene.","This measure has the advantage that the promoter is localized at such a position which allows a high expression strength and a controlled expression of the foreign gene.","According to a further embodiment of the recombinant ORFV vector according to the invention at least in one of the IL 1, 2 or 3 there is inserted more than one, preferably 2, 3, 4 or more nucleotide nucleotide sequences encoding and expression a foreign gene.","This measure has the advantage that by means of one recombinant ORFV vector according to the invention multiple foreign genes can be expressed.","This embodiment is especially appropriate for the production of polyvalent vaccines which, at the same time, are directed against a number of antigenic structures.","In every insertion locus multiple foreign genes, preferably 2, 3, 4 or more, can be expressed.","In a configuration which is preferred according to the invention the recombinant ORFV vector comprises an additional nucleotide sequence encoding and expressing a foreign gene, which is under the control of preferably an early ORFV promoter, and is inserted into an insertion locus which in the ORFV genome is located in the vegf E gene.","This measure has the advantage that an insertion locus is employed which is already described and well characterized in the prior art.","The use of the vegf locus can be used for a targeted control of the gene expression.","In the vegf locus the expression of a foreign gene can be increased in comparison to any of the new expression loci, e.g.","IL 2.According to an embodiment which is preferred according to the invention the foreign gene of the recombinant ORFV vector is selected from the group of the following antigens: viral antigen, preferably rabies virus antigen, including glycoprotein (RabG); influenza A antigen, including nucleoprotein (NP), hemagglutinin (HA), neuraminidase (NA); tumor antigen, preferably viral tumor antigen, including HPV selective viral tumor antigen; tumor associated antigen, including viral tumor associated antigen, including HPVselective viral tumor associated antigen; parasitic antigen, preferably plasmodium antigen; cytokine.","This measure has the advantage that especially important antigens, in particular for the production of vaccines, are expressible via the recombinant ORFV virus according to the invention.","Another subject matter of the present invention relates to a biological cell, preferably a mammalian cell, further preferably a Vero cell, containing the ORFV vector according to the invention.","Another subject matter of the present invention relates to a composition, preferably a pharmaceutical composition, containing the ORFV vector of the invention and/or the cell of the invention.","The pharmaceutical composition can be preferably a vaccine, further preferably a polyvalent vaccine.","The characteristics, advantages, features, and further developments of the ORFV vector according to the invention apply to the cell of the invention and the composition of the invention in a corresponding manner.","Another subject matter of the present invention relates to the use of the recombinant ORFV vector according to the invention for the expression of at least one foreign gene, further preferably for the expression of at least one vaccine containing one foreign gene product (monovalent vaccine), further preferably of a vaccine containing at least two foreign gene products (polyvalent vaccine).","In this context “at least” means that 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 etc.","foreign genes are encompassed.","The features, advantages, characteristics and further developments of the recombinant ORFV vector according to the invention apply to the use of the invention in a corresponding manner.","Another subject matter of the present invention relates to a nucleic acid molecule encoding an ORFV promoter, preferably an early ORFV promoter comprising a nucleotide sequence which is selected from the nucleotide sequences SEQ-ID No.","1 (P1) and SEQ-ID No.","2 (P2).","The nucleic acid molecule according to the invention encodes new ORFV promoters which are especially suited for the expression of foreign genes in the recombinant ORFV vector.","The promoters cause a very strong early gene expression.","It is to be understood that the previously mentioned features and those to be explained in the following cannot only be used in the combination indicated in each case, but also in other combinations or in isolated position without departing from the scope of the invention.","The invention is now further explained by means of examples which result in additional features, advantages and characteristics of the invention.","The examples are purely illustrative and do not restrict the scope of the invention.","Reference is made to the enclosed figures.","BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG.","1 shows the map of the Hind III restriction fragments of the ORFV D1701-V DNA genome.","The hatched boxes represent the insertion positions IL1, IL2, IL3 and vegf.","ITRL stands for the inverted terminal repeats of the ends of the genome.","FIG.","2 shows a schematic representation of the transfer plasmid pD1-GFP-D2Cherry.","The vector shows the AcGFP gene (line hatching) which stands under the control of the artificial early promoter P1 (black arrow, top), and the mCherry gene (box hatching) which stands under the control of the artificial early promoter P2 (black arrow, right).","Following both fluorescence genes there are pox-virus specific early transcription stop motives T5NT (black).","The genes are separated from each other via a spacer (Sp).","Several multiple cloning sites (MCS 1-6) allow the exchange of the fluorescence marker gene by the desired foreign genes.","The genes enclose flanking regions which are downstream homologous to the ORFV genome region ORF117/118, upstream homologous to the ORFV genome region ORF114, and allow a targeted integration into the IL 2 locus of the D1701-V genome via homologous recombination.","FIG.","3 shows an expression analysis of different fluorescence recombinants.","(A,a) Fluorescence microscopic image of a 6-well plate with D1701-V-D2Cherry infected Vero cells.","For the selection of the recombinants Cherry fluorescent plaques were picked and the virus was grown from the plaques.","After four plaque purifications the homogenity of D1701-V-D2Cherry was ensured via PCR analyses.","(A,b) Determination of the Cherry expression by means of flow cytometry.","The figure shows exemplarily the expression of D1701-V-D2Cherry infected Vero cells (MOI=1.0) in the flow cytometer.","After 48 hours approx.","45% of all living single cells express Cherry.","Non-infected Vero cells serve as negative control.","(B) Fluorescence expression of the recombinant D1701-VGFP-D2Cherry Vero cells were infected with D1701-V-GFP-D2Cherry (MOI=0.5).","In the top row a fluorescence image 48 hours after the infection is shown (magnification: 20×).","The lower row shows the fluorescence expression after 24 hours (magnification: 63×).","The fluorescence microscopy allows the imaging of the AcGFP-(GFP), the mCherry expression (mCherry), and of both fluorescences in one cell (merged).","In addition, the cells were imaged in the microscope transmitted light (transmitted light).","(C) Fluorescence expression of the recombinant D1701-V-D1GFP-D2Cherry.","Vero cells were infected with D1701-V-D1GFP-P2Cherry (MOI=1.0) and the expression was determined in the flow cytometer.","After 24 hours approx.","25% of all living single cells express both mCherry and also GFP.","Non-infected Vero cells were used as negative control.","FIG.","4 shows the determination of the fluorescence intensities of the various recombinants.","(A) Vero cells were infected with GFP expressing recombinants (MOI approx.","1.5) and 24 hours later the average fluorescence intensity was determined by flow cytometer.","Non-infected Vero cells serve as negative control.","M1 describes the region where 99.39% of all non-infected cells (front first curve) can be detected.","In contrast, in the region M2 the GFP-positive cells can be found.","The population of GFP-positive cells after the infection was comparable with the GFP-expressing recombinants (38.2%-40.0%).","It was apparent that the GFP intensity in D1701-V-D1GFP-infected cells (continuous line) was the lowest, in D1701-V-D2GFP-infected cells (⋅-⋅-⋅-⋅-) was the strongest.","(B) Vero cells were infected with mCherry-expressing recombinants (MOI approx.","3.0) and 24 hours later the average fluorescence intensity was measured by flow cytometry.","Non-infected Vero cells serve as negative control.","M1 describes the area where 99.47% of all non-infected cells (front first curve) can be detected.","In contrast, in the area M2 there are Cherry-positive cells.","The population of mCherry-positive cells after the infection was comparable with the GFP-expressing recombinants (62.5%-63.3%).","The mCherry intensity in D1701-V-Cherry-infected cells (- - - - -) was significantly lower than in D1701-V-D2Cherry (blue line) or in D1701-V2Cherry-infected cells (red line).","(C+D) The graphs show the percentage of the fluorescence intensity of various fluorescence recombinants in relation to D1701-V-GFP (C) or to D1701-V-Cherry (D).","The data represent mean values from at least 3 independent experiments.","EXAMPLES 1.The ORFV Genome The ORFV genome consists of a linear double-stranded DNA and has a length of about 138 kB, a GC content of about 64% and comprises 130-132 genes.","The construction of the ORFV genome is similar to that of other pox viruses.","It consists of a central region with essential genes which comprise a high degree of conservation within the pox viridae.","In the ORFV genome there are 88 genes which are conserved in all Chordopoxvirinae.","In the terminal regions viral genes are localized which are nonessential for the growth in vitro, however which are relevant for the pathogenicity and the tropism of the virus.","In comparison to other Orf viruses the D1701 virus which is adapted to the replication in cell culture shows a significant enlargement of the inverted terminal repeats (ITR).","These alterations do not only cause a loss but also a duplication of several genes, including the vegf-e gene.","The adaptation of D1701-B amplified in bovine BK-KL3A cells to the growth in Vero cells resulted in three additional insertion loci IL 1, IL 2 and IL 3 in the virus genome which is now referred to as D1701-V.","They are illustrated in the FIG.","1.2.Poxvirus Promoters Poxviruses comprise “early”, “intermediate” and “late” promoters.","These different promoters comprise several characteristic sequence features, which is further explained in the following with the example of VACV.","The “early” promoter of the VACV consists of a critical region with the length of 16 or 15 nucleotides, respectively, which are spaced by an initiator region with a length of 7 nucleotides by a spacer region of 11 nucleotides.","This critical region is rather adenine rich, whereas the spacer region is rather rich in thymine.","The initiation of the transcription always takes place at a purine, with rare exceptions.","Nucleotide substitutions in the critical region may have a dramatically negative effect on the promoter activity, even a complete loss of the activity is possible.","Substitution analysis of the early VACV 7.5 kDa promoter showed an optimized critical region, in addition it was succeeded in deriving a consensus sequence for the “early” poxvirus promoter which is shown in the table 1.The “intermediate” promoters consist of an AT rich core sequence which is about 14 nucleotides long, followed by a spacer region of 10-11 nucleotides, which is followed by a short initiator region.","The structure of the “late” promoters consists of an upstream AT-rich region of about 20 nucleotides which is separated from the transcription start position by a spacer region of about 6 nucleotides which includes the highly conserved sequence-1 TAAAT+4.TABLE 1 Used promoters; P1 and P2 were newly developed by the inventors.","critical region −28 −27 −26 −25 −24 −23 −22 −21 −20 −19 −18 optimized A A A A A T T G A A A “early” 7.5 kDa A A A A G T A G A A A promoter consensus A A A A A A T G A A A “early” VEGF C A A A A T G T A A A P1 A A A A A T T G A A A P2 A A A A A T T G A A A % identity critical region SEQ with opt.","−17 −16 −15 −14 −13 ID “early” optimized A A C/T T A 3 Spacer Initiator “early” region Region 7.5 kDa A T T A 4 75 Thymine Start promoter rich −12 mostly at consensus A A A A/T A 5 87.5 to −2 purine-1 “early” to 6 VEGF T T A T A 6 62.5 P1 A A T T A 1 100 P2 T T C T A 2 87.5 3.Production of the Recombinant ORFV Vector The inventors have searched for a new strategy for the production of a recombinant polyvalent ORFV vector.","During the adaption of ORFV to Vero culture cells several deletions in the viral genome have occurred.","It was examined whether the regions of the deletions are suited for the integration of foreign genes (FIG.","1A).","For this reason, along with further plasmids the transfer plasmid pDel2 was designed which includes the homologous sections of the IL 2 region (FIG.","2).","The cloning of foreign genes into the plasmid was enabled by using several MCS (multiple cloning sites).","Additionally, the plasmid was designed in such a way that it allows the simultaneous integration of multiple foreign genes which are each under the control of artificial early ORFV promoters and which are bounded by pox-virus specific T5NT early transcription stop motives (FIG.","2).","Nucleotide sequences of the new artificial early ORFV promoters P1 and P2 were designed.","In a first experiment it should be examined whether the IL 2 locus is appropriate for the stabile integration of foreign genes.","For this purpose the mCherry fluorescence marker gene was cloned under the control of the promoter P2 into the pDel2 transfer plasmid.","In the following the plasmid was transfected into Vero cells which were infected by D1701-VrV, and new recombinant viruses were visually selected after the identification of red-shiny cells by means of fluorescence microscopy and the homogenous recombinant D1701-V-D2-Cherry obtained via several plaque purifications was cultivated (FIG.","3A,a).","The correct integration of the mCherry gene into the IL 2 locus of D1701-VrV was ensured by specific PCR analyses and Southern blot hybridizations, the correct expression could be demonstrated by fluorescence and Western blot analyses but also by means of flow cytometry (FIG.","3A,b).","In this context a strong expression could be detected early after the infection.","By multiple passages in vitro of the recombinant it could be demonstrated that the integration of the foreign gene into the ORFV genome was stable.","It could be also demonstrated by means of the generated recombinant D1701-V-GFP-D2-Cherry where the AcGFP gene is integrated in the vegf-e gene and the mCherry gene is integrated into the IL 2 locus that two fluorescence genes were simultaneously early expressed in different insertion loci (FIG.","3B).","Furthermore it should be examined whether at the same time a second foreign gene can be stably integrated into the IL 2 locus.","For this purpose, in addition to the P2-controlled mCherry gene the AcGFP gene under the control of the P1 promoter was cloned into the pDel2 transfer plasmid.","The selection and purification of the homologous recombinant D1701-V-D1-GFP-D2-Cherry was realized in analogy to the previously described D1701-V-P2-Cherry selection.","Again, the correct integration of both of the foreign genes into the IL 2 locus was demonstrated via PCR and Southern blot analysis.","The detection of the expression was made via fluorescence microscopy and flow cytometry (FIG.","3C).","The strength of the promoter P1 and P2 was compared among each other and with the promoter Pvegf in expression analyses.","It could be shown that the promoter P2 induced the strongest and the promoter P1 included the weakest gene expression (FIG.","4A+4C).","This was surprising because P1 corresponds by 100% to the consensus sequence from the vaccinia virus, not P2.It could also be demonstrated that the integration of a second regulated foreign gene under the control of an individual promoter has no effect on the expression strength of the first foreign gene.","It was irrelevant whether the second gene was integrated into the same or a different insertion locus.","After the insertion of a P2-controlled mCherry gene into the VEGF locus the influence of the insertion region could be analyzed in comparison with the recombinant which had the P2-regulated mCherry gene integrated into the IL 2 locus.","It could be shown that the gene expression in the VEGF locus was about two times stronger than in the IL 2 locus (FIG.","4B+4D).","To summarize, it could shown that the Orf virus vector D1701-V is very well suited for the production of polyvalent recombinants.","Several foreign genes could be stably integrated into the viral genome, e.g.","via the newly discovered insertion loci IL 1, 2 and 3, or via the known insertion locus VEGF.","The strength of the foreign gene expression depends both on the promoter but also on the insertion locus.","The strongest gene expression was achieved after the integration of a P2-controlled foreign gene into the VEGF locus.","The inventors have generated further various vectors which can be distinguished from the kind and constellation of the different marker foreign genes, insertion regions and promoters (Tab.","2).","TABLE 2 Tabular overview on the newly generated fluorescent ORFV vectors.","Locus Foreign Gene Recombinant VEGF IL2 Expression D1701-V-Cherry Pvegf: mCherry — — +++ D1701-V-Cherry-D1GFP Pvegf: mCherry P1: AcGFP — +++/+ D1701-V-Cherry-D2GFP Pvegf: mCherry — P2: AcGFP +++/++++ D1701-V12-Cherry P2: mCherry — — ++++ D1701-V12-Cherry-D2GFP P2: mCherry — P2: AcGFP ++++/++++ D1701-V-GFP Pvegf: AcGFP — — +++ D1701-V-GFP-D2Cherry Pvegf: AcGFP — P2: mCherry +++/++++ D1701-V-GFP-D2CD4 Pvegf: AcGFP — P2: hCD4 +++/++++ D1701-V-D1GFP Pvegf: LacZ P1: AcGFP — +++/+ D1701-V-D1GFP-D2Cherry Pvegf: LacZ P1: AcGFP P2: mCherry +++/+/++++ D1701-V-D2GFP Pvegf: LacZ — P2: AcGFP +++/++++ D1701-V-D2Cherry Pvegf: LacZ — P2: mCherry +++/++++ D1701-V-D2Orange Pvegf: LacZ — P2: mOrange +++/++++ D1701-V-CD4-D2Cherry Pvegf: hCD4 — P2: mCherry +++/++++ The table gives an overview on the fluorescent recombinant ORFV vectors which were generated during the works resulting in the invention.","The region of insertion (locus) and the promoters used for controlling the foreign gene expression (Pvegf, P1, P2) are indicated in the table for each of the recombinants.","In addition, the strength of the foreign gene expression is indicated (very strong=++++ to weak=+).","The invention creates a variety of options for the development of new recombinant ORFV based vaccines.","Recombinants can be generated which simultaneously express multiple antigenes.","This could be a significant advantage in the production of a universal vaccine of combination vaccines or of therapeutic tumor vaccines which are directed against multiple tumor antigens.","In addition, the immune response can be influenced by a simultaneous insertion of antigene and cytokines in a targeted manner."]],"string":"[\n [\n \"RECOMBINANT ORF VIRUS VECTOR\",\n \"A nucleic acid molecule can code for an Orf virus vector promoter.\",\n \"A recombinant Orf virus vector can be included in a cell.\",\n \"The nucleic acid molecule, the vector and/or the cell can be included in a composition.\",\n \"The recombinant Orf virus vector can be used for the production of a foreign gene.\"\n ],\n [\n \"1.A recombinant Orf virus (ORFV) vector, which comprises: (1) at least one nucleotide sequence encoding and expressing a foreign gene, and (2) at least one promoter controlling the expression of the nucleotide sequence, wherein: the nucleotide sequence is localized in at least one of insertion loci (IL) 1, 2 and 3, which are localized in the ORFV genome in a region selected from the group consisting of the following regions: IL 1 IL 2 IL 3 Restriction HindIII HindIII fragment I/ HindIII fragment G/ fragment fragment C, J, KpnI fragment B, D, KpnI KpnI fragment BamHI fragment A, fragment B, BamHI G, BamHI EcoRI fragment A/E fragment A, fragment C/G, EcoRI fragment D, EcoRI fragment B Gene/ORF 006, 102, 114, 007 (dUTPase), 103 115, 008 (G1L-Ank), 116, 009 (G2L) 117 (GIF) and Nucleotide nt 500 ± 100 to nt 5.210 ± 100 to nt 15.660 ± 100 to position nt 2.400 ± 600 nt 7.730 ± 100 nt 17.850 ± 100.2.The recombinant ORFV vector of claim 1, wherein ORFV is of the strain D1701.3.The recombinant ORFV vector of claim 1, wherein the ORFV promoter is an early ORF promoter.\",\n \"4.The recombinant ORFV vector of claim 3, wherein the early ORF promoter comprises a nucleotide sequence which is selected from the group consisting of: SEQ ID No.\",\n \"1 (P1), SEQ ID No.\",\n \"2 (P2), SEQ ID No.\",\n \"3 (VEGF), SEQ ID No.\",\n \"4 (optimized “early”), SEQ ID No.\",\n \"5 (7.5 kDa promoter) and SEQ ID No.\",\n \"6 (consensus “early”).\",\n \"5.The recombinant ORFV vector of claim 1, wherein the promoter is located at a position of nt 28±10 to nt−13±10 upstream in relation to the nucleotide sequence encoding the foreign gene.\",\n \"6.The recombinant ORFV vector of claim 1, wherein at least in one of the IL 1, 2 or 3 there is inserted more than one nucleotide sequence encoding and expressing a foreign gene.\",\n \"7.The recombinant ORFV vector of claim 6, wherein the number of the inserted nucleotide sequences encoding and expressing a foreign gene is selected from the group consisting of: 2, 3, 4 and more than 4.8.The recombinant ORFV vector of claim 1, further comprising an additional nucleotide sequence encoding and expressing a foreign gene, which is under the control of an early ORFV promoter, and is inserted into an insertion locus which in the ORFV genome is located in the vegf E gene.\",\n \"9.The recombinant ORFV vector of claim 1, wherein the foreign gene is selected from the group consisting of the following antigens: a viral antigen; a tumor antigen; a tumor associated antigen, including viral tumor associated antigen, including HPV selective viral tumor-associated antigen; a parasitic antigen; and a cytokine.\",\n \"10.A cell containing the recombinant ORFV vector of any of claim 1.11.The cell of claim 10, which is a mammalian cell.\",\n \"12.The cell of claim 10, which is a Vero cell.\",\n \"13.A pharmaceutical composition containing the recombinant ORFV vector of claim 1.14.The pharmaceutical composition of claim 13, which is a vaccine.\",\n \"15.A pharmaceutical composition containing the cell of claim 10.16.The pharmaceutical composition of claim 15, which is a vaccine.\",\n \"17.A nucleic acid molecule encoding an ORFV promoter comprising a nucleotide sequence which is selected from the group consisting of: SEQ ID No.\",\n \"1 (P1) and SEQ ID No.\",\n \"2 (P2).\",\n \"18.The nucleic acid molecule of claim 17, wherein the ORFV promoter is an early ORFV promoter.\",\n \"19.The recombinant ORFV vector of claim 9, wherein the viral antigen is: a rabies virus antigen, including glycoprotein (RabG); or an influenza A antigen selected from the group consisting of nucleoprotein (NP), hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA).\",\n \"20.The recombinant ORFV vector of claim 9, wherein the tumor antigen is a viral tumor associated antigen.\",\n \"21.The recombinant ORFV vector of claim 9, wherein the viral tumor associated antigen is HPV selective viral tumor-associated antigen.\",\n \"22.The recombinant ORFV vector of claim 9, wherein the parasitic antigen is plasmodium antigen.\"\n ],\n [\n \" BACKGROUND Viral vectors are used in the biotechnology to introduce genetic material into target cells.\",\n \"The introduced genetic material often encodes foreign genes which serve for the production of a recombinant protein.\",\n \"For this reason viral vectors are a significant platform technology, in particular for the production of recombinant vaccines which are increasingly used, along with the traditional prevention of infectious diseases, also for the development of new, innovative therapeutic concepts, such as e.g.\",\n \"the therapeutic tumor immunization.\",\n \"The Orf virus (ORFV) belongs to the family of pox viruses and has a variety of characteristics which makes it interesting for the production of recombinant vaccines and prefers it over other technologies.\",\n \"It is the prototype of the genus of the parapox viruses and belongs to the family of the Poxviridae.\",\n \"ORFV are enveloped, complex dsDNA viruses having a morphology that reminds of a ball of wool and have an average size of approx.\",\n \"260×160 nm.\",\n \"They have a linear DNA genome with high GC content and a size of approx.\",\n \"130 to 150 kbp, the central region of which is delimited on both sides by ITR regions (“inverted terminal repeats”) and ends in a hair-pin structure, which covalently links both DNA single strands to each other.\",\n \"In the central region of the genome there are predominantly genes which are mainly essential for the viral replication and morphogenesis and which are highly conserved among the pox viruses.\",\n \"In contrast, in the ITR regions there are so-called non-conserved virulence genes which significantly determine the host range, the pathogenicity and the immunomodulation and, therefore, characterize the virus.\",\n \"In pox viruses the viral replication is restricted to the cytoplasm and starts with the binding of the virus to the surface of the host cell.\",\n \"After the fusion the so-called viral core, a protein core is released into the cytoplasm, which contains the viral genome, early viral mRNA and viral transcription factors (TF).\",\n \"In the following the early viral gene expression starts where, under the control of pox-virus specific early promoters, viral mRNA is synthesized.\",\n \"After the disintegration of the core structure the viral DNA is released into the cytoplasm.\",\n \"In contrast to the transcription of “early” genes which exclusively takes place under the control of viral TF the following “intermediate” and “late” gene transcription depends on the assistance of cellular TF.\",\n \"As the consequence, in contrast to the expression of “intermediate” and “late” genes the expression of early genes in pox viruses does neither require the replication of viral DNA nor a virus production.\",\n \"The ORFV is characterized by a very narrow natural host range which includes sheep and goat.\",\n \"Infections occur via lesions of the skin which allow the penetration of the virus.\",\n \"The replication of the dermatropic virus in the following is restricted to regenerative keratinocytes, which initiates a contagious dermatitis or Ecthyma contagiosum .\",\n \"This usually mildly progressing self limiting infection manifests as locally restricted skin or mucosa lesion, whereby the formation of pustules caused by the massive infiltration of polymorphous nuclear granulocytes mainly appears at the mouth and udder.\",\n \"The lesion heals after approx.\",\n \"4 to 6 weeks without the formation of scars.\",\n \"A long-lasting immune protection does not develop despite the strong immune response so that a reinfection is possible even after few weeks, although clinical symptoms and the virus production are significantly reduced.\",\n \"A systemic spread or viremia has not been observed for ORFV; also not after experimental intravenous injection of high doses of infectious viruses.\",\n \"ORFV is considered as zoonotic pathogen and in rare cases can also be passed to humans via the injured skin.\",\n \"After the infection locally restricted modular swellings can be observed which are mostly limited to the fingers and hands, and occasionally there are swellings of the lymph nodes and fever.\",\n \"Normally, the progression is harmless, without complications and heals completely within three to eight weeks without clinical aftermaths.\",\n \"In immunocompromised patients also more severe progressions of the infection have been observed, which, however, after the treatment with antivirals, such as Cidofovir or Imiquimod, have completely healed.\",\n \"ORFV is interesting for the production of recombinant vaccines.\",\n \"In comparison to orthopox viruses ORFV is characterized by a very narrow natural host tropism which includes sheep and goat.\",\n \"As a consequence, an inhibiting “preimmunity” against the vector in humans, which is caused by a natural infection, as it can be observed in the most common viral vectors of the vaccinia and adenoviruses, can be almost excluded.\",\n \"Furthermore, the exceptionally weak and short-lived ORFV specific vector immunity allows a very effective booster and/or refreshing vaccination or immunization with ORFV based vaccines which are directed against further pathogens.\",\n \"The administration of ORFV in permissive but also in non-permissive hosts results in a strong immune stimulating reaction which is characterized by a pronounced induction of innate immune mechanisms and the release of interferones, cytokines, and chemokines.\",\n \"Shortly after the immunization dendritic cells accumulate at the injection site and in the following, via the activation of T and B cells, induce a specific adaptive immune response.\",\n \"In contrast to vaccines from inactivated viruses and living vectors which mostly induce a humoral emphasized immune response, the balanced induction of the cellular and the humoral immune response after the immunization with recombinant ORFV is a significant advantage.\",\n \"At the same time it renders the use of adjuvants redundant which may cause unintended side effects and inflammation reactions.\",\n \"Other advantages are, in addition, the possibility of the standardized production of the recombinant vaccines in permanent cell lines without the use of antibiotics and the waiver of a production in hen's egg (increasing number in protein and antibiotics intolerances).\",\n \"An attenuated ORFV vaccine which is approved in the veterinary field has the designation D1701, in correspondence with the identical ORFV strain.\",\n \"This vaccine which is in inactivated form known under the trade name Baypamun (Bayer) or Zylexis (Pfizer) was initially obtained via the isolation of a wild type virus from sheep and a subsequent adaptation as a result of multiple passaging in bovine kidney culture cells.\",\n \"It was followed by a further adaption in Vero cells (African green monkey kidney cells) which led to the obtainment of the ORFV vector D1701-V. D1701-V is further attenuated and only results in asymptotic infections even in immunosuppressed sheep.\",\n \"The recombinant ORFV vectors so far use the VEGF locus as the insertion point.\",\n \"According to the present knowledge this results in the supposed advantage that by the elimination of the vegf-e gene which is under the control of a poxvirus-specific “early” promoters and which is considered as a virulence factor a further attenuation of the vector takes place.\",\n \"In the meantime several ORFV based recombinant vaccines were produced and examined in the animal model.\",\n \"Currently recombinant ORFV vaccines are used against various infectious diseases such as for example against the Aujeszky's disease, rabies, Borna disease, influenza or the classical swine fever.\",\n \"The good immune stimulating and prophylactically usable effect of recombinant Orf viruses could be demonstrated in the last years by establishing a number of vaccines against different viral infectious diseases.\",\n \"An overview on the use of recombinant pox viruses, including ORFV, for the production of recombinant proteins can be found in Rziha et al.\",\n \"(2000), Generation of recombinant parapoxviruses: non-esssential genes suitable for insertion and expression of foreign genes, Journal or Biotechnology Vol.\",\n \"83, pages 137-145, and Buttner and Rziha (2002), Parapoxviruses: From the Lesion to the Viral Genome, J. Vet.\",\n \"Med.\",\n \"B. Vol.\",\n \"49, pages 7-16.The restricted use of the current recombinant ORFV vectors can be explained in particular by the long lasting selection proceedings.\",\n \"Especially a production of polyvalent vaccines was so far not possible.\",\n \"Furthermore, the known recombinant ORFV vectors do not have a precisely controllable expression of the foreign genes.\"\n ],\n [\n \" SUMMARY Against this background it is a problem underlying the invention to provide a new recombinant ORFV vector by means of which the disadvantages of the known ORFV vectors and vector systems can be reduced or avoided.\",\n \"This problem is solved by the provision of a recombinant Orf virus (ORFV) vector which comprises the following: (1) at least one nucleotide sequence encoding and expressing a foreign gene, and (2) at least one promoter which controls the expression of the nucleotide sequence, wherein the nucleotide sequence is inserted into at least one of the insertion loci (IL) 1, 2 and 3 which are located in the ORFV genome in the following regions: IL 1 IL 2 IL 3 Restriction fragment HindIII fragment C, HindIII fragment I/J, HindIII fragment G/D, KpnI fragment G, KpnI fragment B, KpnI fragment B, BamHI fragment C/G, BamHI fragment A, BamHI fragment A, EcoRI fragment B EcoRI fragment A/E EcoRI fragment D and/or Gene/ORF 006, 102, 114, 007 (dUTPase), 103 115, 008 (G1L-Ank), 116, 009 (G2L) 117 (GIF) and/or Nucleotid position nt 500 ± 100 to nt 5.210 ± 100 to nt 15.660 ± 100 to nt 2.400 ± 600 nt 7.730 ± 100 nt 17.850 ± 100 According to the invention Orf virus (ORFV) refers to all viruses and virus strains falling under the species of Parapoxvirus ovis , in particular the strain D1701.According to the invention a recombinant ORFV vector refers to a vector based on the ORFV genome which is configured for the transport and/or the expression of a foreign gene in(to) biological cells.\",\n \"According to the invention a foreign gene refers to a gene or open reading frame (ORF) which does not originate from the ORFV genome.\",\n \"According to the invention a promoter refers to such a nucleic acid section which allows the regulated expression of the foreign gene in the ORFV vector of the invention.\",\n \"Preferably it refers to an ORF promoter, i.e.\",\n \"a promoter existing in the wild type ORFV genome or a promoter derived therefrom, or an artificial promoter, such as a poxvirus promoter, CMV promoter etc.\",\n \"In the recombinant ORFV vector the position of the insertion loci IL 1, 2 and 3 in the ORFV genome can be determined according to the invention in several ways: by means of restriction fragments, the ORFV genes or open reading frames (ORF) or nucleotide positions in the ORFV genome.\",\n \"The traditional description of the localization of IL 1, 2 and 3 takes place by means of restriction maps and by means of restriction fragments where the insertion regions are located.\",\n \"The restriction map of the ORFV is exemplarily shown for the strain D1701 in Cottone et al.\",\n \"(1998), Analysis of genomic rearrangement and subsequent gene deletion of the attenuated Orf virus strain D1701, Virus Research, Vol.\",\n \"56, pages 53-67.The content of this publication is a component of the present disclosure.\",\n \"Here, according to the invention e.g.\",\n \"regarding IL 1 the indications HindIII fragment C, KpnI fragment G, BamHI fragment C/G, EcoRI fragment B mean that this insertion locus extends from the HindIII fragment C up to the EcoRI fragment B. IL 2 extends from the HindIII fragment I-J up to the EcoRI-fragment A/E.\",\n \"IL 3 extends from the HindIII fragment G/D up to the EcoRI fragment D. The indications 006, 007 (dUTPase), 008 (G1 Li-Ank), 009 (G2L) for IL 1 mean that the insertion locus extends from gene or ORF 006 up to gene or ORF 009.The indications in the brackets refer to the coding products or encoded enzymatic activities insofar they are currently known.\",\n \"According to the invention IL 1 is located in a region which starts at nucleotide 400 to 600 (500±100) and ends at nucleotide 1800 to 3000 (2.400±600).\",\n \"What has been said for IL 1 applies to IL 2 and IL 3 in accordance with the above table.\",\n \"The indicated positions of the nucleotides (nt) were established by the inventors from multiple determinations in different ORFV strains.\",\n \"The examinations for the strain D1701 or variants therefrom resulted in the following positions which are especially preferred:\"\n ],\n [\n \"CROSS-REFERENCES TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application is a continuation of international patent application PCT/EP2016/066926 filed on 15 Jul.\",\n \"2016 and designating the U.S., which has been published in German and claims priority from German patent application DE 10 2015 111 756.8 filed on 20 Jul.\",\n \"2015.The entire contents of these prior applications are incorporated herein by reference.\",\n \"REFERENCE TO SEQUENCE LISTING This application incorporates by reference the sequence listing submitted as ASCII text filed via EFS-Web on Jan. 19, 2018.The Sequence Listing is provided as a file entitled “24437201_1.txt,” created on Jan. 19, 2018, and which is approximately 1.33 KB in size.\",\n \"FIELD The present invention relates to a recombinant Orf virus vector, a cell containing the recombinant Orf virus vector, a composition containing the recombinant Orf virus vector according to the invention and/or the cell according to the invention, the use of the recombinant Orf virus vector according to the invention for the expression of a foreign gene and a nucleic acid molecule encoding an Orf virus vector promoter.\",\n \"BACKGROUND Viral vectors are used in the biotechnology to introduce genetic material into target cells.\",\n \"The introduced genetic material often encodes foreign genes which serve for the production of a recombinant protein.\",\n \"For this reason viral vectors are a significant platform technology, in particular for the production of recombinant vaccines which are increasingly used, along with the traditional prevention of infectious diseases, also for the development of new, innovative therapeutic concepts, such as e.g.\",\n \"the therapeutic tumor immunization.\",\n \"The Orf virus (ORFV) belongs to the family of pox viruses and has a variety of characteristics which makes it interesting for the production of recombinant vaccines and prefers it over other technologies.\",\n \"It is the prototype of the genus of the parapox viruses and belongs to the family of the Poxviridae.\",\n \"ORFV are enveloped, complex dsDNA viruses having a morphology that reminds of a ball of wool and have an average size of approx.\",\n \"260×160 nm.\",\n \"They have a linear DNA genome with high GC content and a size of approx.\",\n \"130 to 150 kbp, the central region of which is delimited on both sides by ITR regions (“inverted terminal repeats”) and ends in a hair-pin structure, which covalently links both DNA single strands to each other.\",\n \"In the central region of the genome there are predominantly genes which are mainly essential for the viral replication and morphogenesis and which are highly conserved among the pox viruses.\",\n \"In contrast, in the ITR regions there are so-called non-conserved virulence genes which significantly determine the host range, the pathogenicity and the immunomodulation and, therefore, characterize the virus.\",\n \"In pox viruses the viral replication is restricted to the cytoplasm and starts with the binding of the virus to the surface of the host cell.\",\n \"After the fusion the so-called viral core, a protein core is released into the cytoplasm, which contains the viral genome, early viral mRNA and viral transcription factors (TF).\",\n \"In the following the early viral gene expression starts where, under the control of pox-virus specific early promoters, viral mRNA is synthesized.\",\n \"After the disintegration of the core structure the viral DNA is released into the cytoplasm.\",\n \"In contrast to the transcription of “early” genes which exclusively takes place under the control of viral TF the following “intermediate” and “late” gene transcription depends on the assistance of cellular TF.\",\n \"As the consequence, in contrast to the expression of “intermediate” and “late” genes the expression of early genes in pox viruses does neither require the replication of viral DNA nor a virus production.\",\n \"The ORFV is characterized by a very narrow natural host range which includes sheep and goat.\",\n \"Infections occur via lesions of the skin which allow the penetration of the virus.\",\n \"The replication of the dermatropic virus in the following is restricted to regenerative keratinocytes, which initiates a contagious dermatitis or Ecthyma contagiosum.\",\n \"This usually mildly progressing self limiting infection manifests as locally restricted skin or mucosa lesion, whereby the formation of pustules caused by the massive infiltration of polymorphous nuclear granulocytes mainly appears at the mouth and udder.\",\n \"The lesion heals after approx.\",\n \"4 to 6 weeks without the formation of scars.\",\n \"A long-lasting immune protection does not develop despite the strong immune response so that a reinfection is possible even after few weeks, although clinical symptoms and the virus production are significantly reduced.\",\n \"A systemic spread or viremia has not been observed for ORFV; also not after experimental intravenous injection of high doses of infectious viruses.\",\n \"ORFV is considered as zoonotic pathogen and in rare cases can also be passed to humans via the injured skin.\",\n \"After the infection locally restricted modular swellings can be observed which are mostly limited to the fingers and hands, and occasionally there are swellings of the lymph nodes and fever.\",\n \"Normally, the progression is harmless, without complications and heals completely within three to eight weeks without clinical aftermaths.\",\n \"In immunocompromised patients also more severe progressions of the infection have been observed, which, however, after the treatment with antivirals, such as Cidofovir or Imiquimod, have completely healed.\",\n \"ORFV is interesting for the production of recombinant vaccines.\",\n \"In comparison to orthopox viruses ORFV is characterized by a very narrow natural host tropism which includes sheep and goat.\",\n \"As a consequence, an inhibiting “preimmunity” against the vector in humans, which is caused by a natural infection, as it can be observed in the most common viral vectors of the vaccinia and adenoviruses, can be almost excluded.\",\n \"Furthermore, the exceptionally weak and short-lived ORFV specific vector immunity allows a very effective booster and/or refreshing vaccination or immunization with ORFV based vaccines which are directed against further pathogens.\",\n \"The administration of ORFV in permissive but also in non-permissive hosts results in a strong immune stimulating reaction which is characterized by a pronounced induction of innate immune mechanisms and the release of interferones, cytokines, and chemokines.\",\n \"Shortly after the immunization dendritic cells accumulate at the injection site and in the following, via the activation of T and B cells, induce a specific adaptive immune response.\",\n \"In contrast to vaccines from inactivated viruses and living vectors which mostly induce a humoral emphasized immune response, the balanced induction of the cellular and the humoral immune response after the immunization with recombinant ORFV is a significant advantage.\",\n \"At the same time it renders the use of adjuvants redundant which may cause unintended side effects and inflammation reactions.\",\n \"Other advantages are, in addition, the possibility of the standardized production of the recombinant vaccines in permanent cell lines without the use of antibiotics and the waiver of a production in hen's egg (increasing number in protein and antibiotics intolerances).\",\n \"An attenuated ORFV vaccine which is approved in the veterinary field has the designation D1701, in correspondence with the identical ORFV strain.\",\n \"This vaccine which is in inactivated form known under the trade name Baypamun (Bayer) or Zylexis (Pfizer) was initially obtained via the isolation of a wild type virus from sheep and a subsequent adaptation as a result of multiple passaging in bovine kidney culture cells.\",\n \"It was followed by a further adaption in Vero cells (African green monkey kidney cells) which led to the obtainment of the ORFV vector D1701-V. D1701-V is further attenuated and only results in asymptotic infections even in immunosuppressed sheep.\",\n \"The recombinant ORFV vectors so far use the VEGF locus as the insertion point.\",\n \"According to the present knowledge this results in the supposed advantage that by the elimination of the vegf-e gene which is under the control of a poxvirus-specific “early” promoters and which is considered as a virulence factor a further attenuation of the vector takes place.\",\n \"In the meantime several ORFV based recombinant vaccines were produced and examined in the animal model.\",\n \"Currently recombinant ORFV vaccines are used against various infectious diseases such as for example against the Aujeszky's disease, rabies, Borna disease, influenza or the classical swine fever.\",\n \"The good immune stimulating and prophylactically usable effect of recombinant Orf viruses could be demonstrated in the last years by establishing a number of vaccines against different viral infectious diseases.\",\n \"An overview on the use of recombinant pox viruses, including ORFV, for the production of recombinant proteins can be found in Rziha et al.\",\n \"(2000), Generation of recombinant parapoxviruses: non-esssential genes suitable for insertion and expression of foreign genes, Journal or Biotechnology Vol.\",\n \"83, pages 137-145, and Buttner and Rziha (2002), Parapoxviruses: From the Lesion to the Viral Genome, J. Vet.\",\n \"Med.\",\n \"B. Vol.\",\n \"49, pages 7-16.The restricted use of the current recombinant ORFV vectors can be explained in particular by the long lasting selection proceedings.\",\n \"Especially a production of polyvalent vaccines was so far not possible.\",\n \"Furthermore, the known recombinant ORFV vectors do not have a precisely controllable expression of the foreign genes.\",\n \"SUMMARY Against this background it is a problem underlying the invention to provide a new recombinant ORFV vector by means of which the disadvantages of the known ORFV vectors and vector systems can be reduced or avoided.\",\n \"This problem is solved by the provision of a recombinant Orf virus (ORFV) vector which comprises the following: (1) at least one nucleotide sequence encoding and expressing a foreign gene, and (2) at least one promoter which controls the expression of the nucleotide sequence, wherein the nucleotide sequence is inserted into at least one of the insertion loci (IL) 1, 2 and 3 which are located in the ORFV genome in the following regions: IL 1 IL 2 IL 3 Restriction fragment HindIII fragment C, HindIII fragment I/J, HindIII fragment G/D, KpnI fragment G, KpnI fragment B, KpnI fragment B, BamHI fragment C/G, BamHI fragment A, BamHI fragment A, EcoRI fragment B EcoRI fragment A/E EcoRI fragment D and/or Gene/ORF 006, 102, 114, 007 (dUTPase), 103 115, 008 (G1L-Ank), 116, 009 (G2L) 117 (GIF) and/or Nucleotid position nt 500 ± 100 to nt 5.210 ± 100 to nt 15.660 ± 100 to nt 2.400 ± 600 nt 7.730 ± 100 nt 17.850 ± 100 According to the invention Orf virus (ORFV) refers to all viruses and virus strains falling under the species of Parapoxvirus ovis, in particular the strain D1701.According to the invention a recombinant ORFV vector refers to a vector based on the ORFV genome which is configured for the transport and/or the expression of a foreign gene in(to) biological cells.\",\n \"According to the invention a foreign gene refers to a gene or open reading frame (ORF) which does not originate from the ORFV genome.\",\n \"According to the invention a promoter refers to such a nucleic acid section which allows the regulated expression of the foreign gene in the ORFV vector of the invention.\",\n \"Preferably it refers to an ORF promoter, i.e.\",\n \"a promoter existing in the wild type ORFV genome or a promoter derived therefrom, or an artificial promoter, such as a poxvirus promoter, CMV promoter etc.\",\n \"In the recombinant ORFV vector the position of the insertion loci IL 1, 2 and 3 in the ORFV genome can be determined according to the invention in several ways: by means of restriction fragments, the ORFV genes or open reading frames (ORF) or nucleotide positions in the ORFV genome.\",\n \"The traditional description of the localization of IL 1, 2 and 3 takes place by means of restriction maps and by means of restriction fragments where the insertion regions are located.\",\n \"The restriction map of the ORFV is exemplarily shown for the strain D1701 in Cottone et al.\",\n \"(1998), Analysis of genomic rearrangement and subsequent gene deletion of the attenuated Orf virus strain D1701, Virus Research, Vol.\",\n \"56, pages 53-67.The content of this publication is a component of the present disclosure.\",\n \"Here, according to the invention e.g.\",\n \"regarding IL 1 the indications HindIII fragment C, KpnI fragment G, BamHI fragment C/G, EcoRI fragment B mean that this insertion locus extends from the HindIII fragment C up to the EcoRI fragment B. IL 2 extends from the HindIII fragment I-J up to the EcoRI-fragment A/E.\",\n \"IL 3 extends from the HindIII fragment G/D up to the EcoRI fragment D. The indications 006, 007 (dUTPase), 008 (G1 Li-Ank), 009 (G2L) for IL 1 mean that the insertion locus extends from gene or ORF 006 up to gene or ORF 009.The indications in the brackets refer to the coding products or encoded enzymatic activities insofar they are currently known.\",\n \"According to the invention IL 1 is located in a region which starts at nucleotide 400 to 600 (500±100) and ends at nucleotide 1800 to 3000 (2.400±600).\",\n \"What has been said for IL 1 applies to IL 2 and IL 3 in accordance with the above table.\",\n \"The indicated positions of the nucleotides (nt) were established by the inventors from multiple determinations in different ORFV strains.\",\n \"The examinations for the strain D1701 or variants therefrom resulted in the following positions which are especially preferred: IL 1: nt 496-nt 2.750; nt 496-nt 1.912 and nt 511-2.750 IL 2: nt 5.212-7.736 IL 3: nt 15.656-17.849.The inventors have realized that into the indicated newly found insertion loci foreign genes can be stably integrated into the ORFV genome.\",\n \"This was surprising.\",\n \"So far it was assumed that the regions of the insertion loci in the genome are required for the virus replication and were inappropriate for the expression of foreign genes.\",\n \"It has turned out being a significant advantage of the ORFV vector according to the invention that by the choice of the insertion locus the gene expression can be controlled.\",\n \"For example, the expression of foreign genes in IL 2 is decreased over the expression in the so far used VEGF locus by the factor 2.Furthermore, by the choice of the promoter the strength and the point in time of the expression of the foreign gene can be influenced in a targeted manner.\",\n \"The problem underlying the invention is herewith completely solved.\",\n \"In an embodiment of the recombinant ORFV vector which is preferred according to the invention ORFV is of the strain D1701.This measure has the advantage that such a vector is used which is attenuated and only causes asymptotic infections in the host.\",\n \"According to the invention all variants of D1701 are covered, including D1701-B and D1701-V.\",\n \"According to a further embodiment of the recombinant ORFV vector which is preferred according to the invention the promoter is an ORFV promoter, further preferably an early ORFV promoter, which preferably comprises a nucleotide sequence which is selected from: SEQ ID No.\",\n \"1 (P1), SEQ ID No.\",\n \"2 (P2), SEQ ID No.\",\n \"3 (VEGF), SEQ ID No.\",\n \"4 (optimized “early”), SEQ ID No.\",\n \"5 (7.5 kDa promoter) and SEQ ID No.\",\n \"6 (consensus “early”).\",\n \"This measure has the advantage that such promoters are used which allow a high expression level of the foreign gene and a targeted control of the expression.\",\n \"The promoters P1 and P2 were newly developed by the inventors.\",\n \"The remaining promoters originate from the vaccinia virus and are described in other connections in Davidson and Moss (1989), Structure of Vaccinia virus late promoters, J. Mol.\",\n \"Biol., Vol.\",\n \"210, pages 771 to 784, and Yang et al.\",\n \"(2011), Genome-wide analysis of the 5′ and 3′ ends of Vaccinia Virus early mRNAs delineates regulatory sequences of annotated and anomalous transcripts, J. Virology, Vol.\",\n \"85, Nr.\",\n \"12, S. 5897-5909, Broyles (2003), Vaccinia virus transcription, J. gene.\",\n \"Virol., Vol.\",\n \"84, Nr.\",\n \"9, S. 2293-2303.According to the findings of the inventors P2 causes a significantly increased expression strength in comparison to P1.This was surprising because the promoter P1 corresponds by 100% to the consensus sequence from the Vaccinia virus, however not P2.The low expression of the “optimum” Vaccinia-virus promoter (Orthopox) in ORFV (parapox) is a contradiction and surprising.\",\n \"It is also surprising that the P2 promoter results in a strong expression.\",\n \"According to a further embodiment of the recombinant ORFV vector according to the invention the promoter is located at a position of nt 28±10 to nt−13±10 upstream in relation to the nucleotide sequence encoding for the foreign gene.\",\n \"This measure has the advantage that the promoter is localized at such a position which allows a high expression strength and a controlled expression of the foreign gene.\",\n \"According to a further embodiment of the recombinant ORFV vector according to the invention at least in one of the IL 1, 2 or 3 there is inserted more than one, preferably 2, 3, 4 or more nucleotide nucleotide sequences encoding and expression a foreign gene.\",\n \"This measure has the advantage that by means of one recombinant ORFV vector according to the invention multiple foreign genes can be expressed.\",\n \"This embodiment is especially appropriate for the production of polyvalent vaccines which, at the same time, are directed against a number of antigenic structures.\",\n \"In every insertion locus multiple foreign genes, preferably 2, 3, 4 or more, can be expressed.\",\n \"In a configuration which is preferred according to the invention the recombinant ORFV vector comprises an additional nucleotide sequence encoding and expressing a foreign gene, which is under the control of preferably an early ORFV promoter, and is inserted into an insertion locus which in the ORFV genome is located in the vegf E gene.\",\n \"This measure has the advantage that an insertion locus is employed which is already described and well characterized in the prior art.\",\n \"The use of the vegf locus can be used for a targeted control of the gene expression.\",\n \"In the vegf locus the expression of a foreign gene can be increased in comparison to any of the new expression loci, e.g.\",\n \"IL 2.According to an embodiment which is preferred according to the invention the foreign gene of the recombinant ORFV vector is selected from the group of the following antigens: viral antigen, preferably rabies virus antigen, including glycoprotein (RabG); influenza A antigen, including nucleoprotein (NP), hemagglutinin (HA), neuraminidase (NA); tumor antigen, preferably viral tumor antigen, including HPV selective viral tumor antigen; tumor associated antigen, including viral tumor associated antigen, including HPVselective viral tumor associated antigen; parasitic antigen, preferably plasmodium antigen; cytokine.\",\n \"This measure has the advantage that especially important antigens, in particular for the production of vaccines, are expressible via the recombinant ORFV virus according to the invention.\",\n \"Another subject matter of the present invention relates to a biological cell, preferably a mammalian cell, further preferably a Vero cell, containing the ORFV vector according to the invention.\",\n \"Another subject matter of the present invention relates to a composition, preferably a pharmaceutical composition, containing the ORFV vector of the invention and/or the cell of the invention.\",\n \"The pharmaceutical composition can be preferably a vaccine, further preferably a polyvalent vaccine.\",\n \"The characteristics, advantages, features, and further developments of the ORFV vector according to the invention apply to the cell of the invention and the composition of the invention in a corresponding manner.\",\n \"Another subject matter of the present invention relates to the use of the recombinant ORFV vector according to the invention for the expression of at least one foreign gene, further preferably for the expression of at least one vaccine containing one foreign gene product (monovalent vaccine), further preferably of a vaccine containing at least two foreign gene products (polyvalent vaccine).\",\n \"In this context “at least” means that 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 etc.\",\n \"foreign genes are encompassed.\",\n \"The features, advantages, characteristics and further developments of the recombinant ORFV vector according to the invention apply to the use of the invention in a corresponding manner.\",\n \"Another subject matter of the present invention relates to a nucleic acid molecule encoding an ORFV promoter, preferably an early ORFV promoter comprising a nucleotide sequence which is selected from the nucleotide sequences SEQ-ID No.\",\n \"1 (P1) and SEQ-ID No.\",\n \"2 (P2).\",\n \"The nucleic acid molecule according to the invention encodes new ORFV promoters which are especially suited for the expression of foreign genes in the recombinant ORFV vector.\",\n \"The promoters cause a very strong early gene expression.\",\n \"It is to be understood that the previously mentioned features and those to be explained in the following cannot only be used in the combination indicated in each case, but also in other combinations or in isolated position without departing from the scope of the invention.\",\n \"The invention is now further explained by means of examples which result in additional features, advantages and characteristics of the invention.\",\n \"The examples are purely illustrative and do not restrict the scope of the invention.\",\n \"Reference is made to the enclosed figures.\",\n \"BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG.\",\n \"1 shows the map of the Hind III restriction fragments of the ORFV D1701-V DNA genome.\",\n \"The hatched boxes represent the insertion positions IL1, IL2, IL3 and vegf.\",\n \"ITRL stands for the inverted terminal repeats of the ends of the genome.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"2 shows a schematic representation of the transfer plasmid pD1-GFP-D2Cherry.\",\n \"The vector shows the AcGFP gene (line hatching) which stands under the control of the artificial early promoter P1 (black arrow, top), and the mCherry gene (box hatching) which stands under the control of the artificial early promoter P2 (black arrow, right).\",\n \"Following both fluorescence genes there are pox-virus specific early transcription stop motives T5NT (black).\",\n \"The genes are separated from each other via a spacer (Sp).\",\n \"Several multiple cloning sites (MCS 1-6) allow the exchange of the fluorescence marker gene by the desired foreign genes.\",\n \"The genes enclose flanking regions which are downstream homologous to the ORFV genome region ORF117/118, upstream homologous to the ORFV genome region ORF114, and allow a targeted integration into the IL 2 locus of the D1701-V genome via homologous recombination.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"3 shows an expression analysis of different fluorescence recombinants.\",\n \"(A,a) Fluorescence microscopic image of a 6-well plate with D1701-V-D2Cherry infected Vero cells.\",\n \"For the selection of the recombinants Cherry fluorescent plaques were picked and the virus was grown from the plaques.\",\n \"After four plaque purifications the homogenity of D1701-V-D2Cherry was ensured via PCR analyses.\",\n \"(A,b) Determination of the Cherry expression by means of flow cytometry.\",\n \"The figure shows exemplarily the expression of D1701-V-D2Cherry infected Vero cells (MOI=1.0) in the flow cytometer.\",\n \"After 48 hours approx.\",\n \"45% of all living single cells express Cherry.\",\n \"Non-infected Vero cells serve as negative control.\",\n \"(B) Fluorescence expression of the recombinant D1701-VGFP-D2Cherry Vero cells were infected with D1701-V-GFP-D2Cherry (MOI=0.5).\",\n \"In the top row a fluorescence image 48 hours after the infection is shown (magnification: 20×).\",\n \"The lower row shows the fluorescence expression after 24 hours (magnification: 63×).\",\n \"The fluorescence microscopy allows the imaging of the AcGFP-(GFP), the mCherry expression (mCherry), and of both fluorescences in one cell (merged).\",\n \"In addition, the cells were imaged in the microscope transmitted light (transmitted light).\",\n \"(C) Fluorescence expression of the recombinant D1701-V-D1GFP-D2Cherry.\",\n \"Vero cells were infected with D1701-V-D1GFP-P2Cherry (MOI=1.0) and the expression was determined in the flow cytometer.\",\n \"After 24 hours approx.\",\n \"25% of all living single cells express both mCherry and also GFP.\",\n \"Non-infected Vero cells were used as negative control.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"4 shows the determination of the fluorescence intensities of the various recombinants.\",\n \"(A) Vero cells were infected with GFP expressing recombinants (MOI approx.\",\n \"1.5) and 24 hours later the average fluorescence intensity was determined by flow cytometer.\",\n \"Non-infected Vero cells serve as negative control.\",\n \"M1 describes the region where 99.39% of all non-infected cells (front first curve) can be detected.\",\n \"In contrast, in the region M2 the GFP-positive cells can be found.\",\n \"The population of GFP-positive cells after the infection was comparable with the GFP-expressing recombinants (38.2%-40.0%).\",\n \"It was apparent that the GFP intensity in D1701-V-D1GFP-infected cells (continuous line) was the lowest, in D1701-V-D2GFP-infected cells (⋅-⋅-⋅-⋅-) was the strongest.\",\n \"(B) Vero cells were infected with mCherry-expressing recombinants (MOI approx.\",\n \"3.0) and 24 hours later the average fluorescence intensity was measured by flow cytometry.\",\n \"Non-infected Vero cells serve as negative control.\",\n \"M1 describes the area where 99.47% of all non-infected cells (front first curve) can be detected.\",\n \"In contrast, in the area M2 there are Cherry-positive cells.\",\n \"The population of mCherry-positive cells after the infection was comparable with the GFP-expressing recombinants (62.5%-63.3%).\",\n \"The mCherry intensity in D1701-V-Cherry-infected cells (- - - - -) was significantly lower than in D1701-V-D2Cherry (blue line) or in D1701-V2Cherry-infected cells (red line).\",\n \"(C+D) The graphs show the percentage of the fluorescence intensity of various fluorescence recombinants in relation to D1701-V-GFP (C) or to D1701-V-Cherry (D).\",\n \"The data represent mean values from at least 3 independent experiments.\",\n \"EXAMPLES 1.The ORFV Genome The ORFV genome consists of a linear double-stranded DNA and has a length of about 138 kB, a GC content of about 64% and comprises 130-132 genes.\",\n \"The construction of the ORFV genome is similar to that of other pox viruses.\",\n \"It consists of a central region with essential genes which comprise a high degree of conservation within the pox viridae.\",\n \"In the ORFV genome there are 88 genes which are conserved in all Chordopoxvirinae.\",\n \"In the terminal regions viral genes are localized which are nonessential for the growth in vitro, however which are relevant for the pathogenicity and the tropism of the virus.\",\n \"In comparison to other Orf viruses the D1701 virus which is adapted to the replication in cell culture shows a significant enlargement of the inverted terminal repeats (ITR).\",\n \"These alterations do not only cause a loss but also a duplication of several genes, including the vegf-e gene.\",\n \"The adaptation of D1701-B amplified in bovine BK-KL3A cells to the growth in Vero cells resulted in three additional insertion loci IL 1, IL 2 and IL 3 in the virus genome which is now referred to as D1701-V.\",\n \"They are illustrated in the FIG.\",\n \"1.2.Poxvirus Promoters Poxviruses comprise “early”, “intermediate” and “late” promoters.\",\n \"These different promoters comprise several characteristic sequence features, which is further explained in the following with the example of VACV.\",\n \"The “early” promoter of the VACV consists of a critical region with the length of 16 or 15 nucleotides, respectively, which are spaced by an initiator region with a length of 7 nucleotides by a spacer region of 11 nucleotides.\",\n \"This critical region is rather adenine rich, whereas the spacer region is rather rich in thymine.\",\n \"The initiation of the transcription always takes place at a purine, with rare exceptions.\",\n \"Nucleotide substitutions in the critical region may have a dramatically negative effect on the promoter activity, even a complete loss of the activity is possible.\",\n \"Substitution analysis of the early VACV 7.5 kDa promoter showed an optimized critical region, in addition it was succeeded in deriving a consensus sequence for the “early” poxvirus promoter which is shown in the table 1.The “intermediate” promoters consist of an AT rich core sequence which is about 14 nucleotides long, followed by a spacer region of 10-11 nucleotides, which is followed by a short initiator region.\",\n \"The structure of the “late” promoters consists of an upstream AT-rich region of about 20 nucleotides which is separated from the transcription start position by a spacer region of about 6 nucleotides which includes the highly conserved sequence-1 TAAAT+4.TABLE 1 Used promoters; P1 and P2 were newly developed by the inventors.\",\n \"critical region −28 −27 −26 −25 −24 −23 −22 −21 −20 −19 −18 optimized A A A A A T T G A A A “early” 7.5 kDa A A A A G T A G A A A promoter consensus A A A A A A T G A A A “early” VEGF C A A A A T G T A A A P1 A A A A A T T G A A A P2 A A A A A T T G A A A % identity critical region SEQ with opt.\",\n \"−17 −16 −15 −14 −13 ID “early” optimized A A C/T T A 3 Spacer Initiator “early” region Region 7.5 kDa A T T A 4 75 Thymine Start promoter rich −12 mostly at consensus A A A A/T A 5 87.5 to −2 purine-1 “early” to 6 VEGF T T A T A 6 62.5 P1 A A T T A 1 100 P2 T T C T A 2 87.5 3.Production of the Recombinant ORFV Vector The inventors have searched for a new strategy for the production of a recombinant polyvalent ORFV vector.\",\n \"During the adaption of ORFV to Vero culture cells several deletions in the viral genome have occurred.\",\n \"It was examined whether the regions of the deletions are suited for the integration of foreign genes (FIG.\",\n \"1A).\",\n \"For this reason, along with further plasmids the transfer plasmid pDel2 was designed which includes the homologous sections of the IL 2 region (FIG.\",\n \"2).\",\n \"The cloning of foreign genes into the plasmid was enabled by using several MCS (multiple cloning sites).\",\n \"Additionally, the plasmid was designed in such a way that it allows the simultaneous integration of multiple foreign genes which are each under the control of artificial early ORFV promoters and which are bounded by pox-virus specific T5NT early transcription stop motives (FIG.\",\n \"2).\",\n \"Nucleotide sequences of the new artificial early ORFV promoters P1 and P2 were designed.\",\n \"In a first experiment it should be examined whether the IL 2 locus is appropriate for the stabile integration of foreign genes.\",\n \"For this purpose the mCherry fluorescence marker gene was cloned under the control of the promoter P2 into the pDel2 transfer plasmid.\",\n \"In the following the plasmid was transfected into Vero cells which were infected by D1701-VrV, and new recombinant viruses were visually selected after the identification of red-shiny cells by means of fluorescence microscopy and the homogenous recombinant D1701-V-D2-Cherry obtained via several plaque purifications was cultivated (FIG.\",\n \"3A,a).\",\n \"The correct integration of the mCherry gene into the IL 2 locus of D1701-VrV was ensured by specific PCR analyses and Southern blot hybridizations, the correct expression could be demonstrated by fluorescence and Western blot analyses but also by means of flow cytometry (FIG.\",\n \"3A,b).\",\n \"In this context a strong expression could be detected early after the infection.\",\n \"By multiple passages in vitro of the recombinant it could be demonstrated that the integration of the foreign gene into the ORFV genome was stable.\",\n \"It could be also demonstrated by means of the generated recombinant D1701-V-GFP-D2-Cherry where the AcGFP gene is integrated in the vegf-e gene and the mCherry gene is integrated into the IL 2 locus that two fluorescence genes were simultaneously early expressed in different insertion loci (FIG.\",\n \"3B).\",\n \"Furthermore it should be examined whether at the same time a second foreign gene can be stably integrated into the IL 2 locus.\",\n \"For this purpose, in addition to the P2-controlled mCherry gene the AcGFP gene under the control of the P1 promoter was cloned into the pDel2 transfer plasmid.\",\n \"The selection and purification of the homologous recombinant D1701-V-D1-GFP-D2-Cherry was realized in analogy to the previously described D1701-V-P2-Cherry selection.\",\n \"Again, the correct integration of both of the foreign genes into the IL 2 locus was demonstrated via PCR and Southern blot analysis.\",\n \"The detection of the expression was made via fluorescence microscopy and flow cytometry (FIG.\",\n \"3C).\",\n \"The strength of the promoter P1 and P2 was compared among each other and with the promoter Pvegf in expression analyses.\",\n \"It could be shown that the promoter P2 induced the strongest and the promoter P1 included the weakest gene expression (FIG.\",\n \"4A+4C).\",\n \"This was surprising because P1 corresponds by 100% to the consensus sequence from the vaccinia virus, not P2.It could also be demonstrated that the integration of a second regulated foreign gene under the control of an individual promoter has no effect on the expression strength of the first foreign gene.\",\n \"It was irrelevant whether the second gene was integrated into the same or a different insertion locus.\",\n \"After the insertion of a P2-controlled mCherry gene into the VEGF locus the influence of the insertion region could be analyzed in comparison with the recombinant which had the P2-regulated mCherry gene integrated into the IL 2 locus.\",\n \"It could be shown that the gene expression in the VEGF locus was about two times stronger than in the IL 2 locus (FIG.\",\n \"4B+4D).\",\n \"To summarize, it could shown that the Orf virus vector D1701-V is very well suited for the production of polyvalent recombinants.\",\n \"Several foreign genes could be stably integrated into the viral genome, e.g.\",\n \"via the newly discovered insertion loci IL 1, 2 and 3, or via the known insertion locus VEGF.\",\n \"The strength of the foreign gene expression depends both on the promoter but also on the insertion locus.\",\n \"The strongest gene expression was achieved after the integration of a P2-controlled foreign gene into the VEGF locus.\",\n \"The inventors have generated further various vectors which can be distinguished from the kind and constellation of the different marker foreign genes, insertion regions and promoters (Tab.\",\n \"2).\",\n \"TABLE 2 Tabular overview on the newly generated fluorescent ORFV vectors.\",\n \"Locus Foreign Gene Recombinant VEGF IL2 Expression D1701-V-Cherry Pvegf: mCherry — — +++ D1701-V-Cherry-D1GFP Pvegf: mCherry P1: AcGFP — +++/+ D1701-V-Cherry-D2GFP Pvegf: mCherry — P2: AcGFP +++/++++ D1701-V12-Cherry P2: mCherry — — ++++ D1701-V12-Cherry-D2GFP P2: mCherry — P2: AcGFP ++++/++++ D1701-V-GFP Pvegf: AcGFP — — +++ D1701-V-GFP-D2Cherry Pvegf: AcGFP — P2: mCherry +++/++++ D1701-V-GFP-D2CD4 Pvegf: AcGFP — P2: hCD4 +++/++++ D1701-V-D1GFP Pvegf: LacZ P1: AcGFP — +++/+ D1701-V-D1GFP-D2Cherry Pvegf: LacZ P1: AcGFP P2: mCherry +++/+/++++ D1701-V-D2GFP Pvegf: LacZ — P2: AcGFP +++/++++ D1701-V-D2Cherry Pvegf: LacZ — P2: mCherry +++/++++ D1701-V-D2Orange Pvegf: LacZ — P2: mOrange +++/++++ D1701-V-CD4-D2Cherry Pvegf: hCD4 — P2: mCherry +++/++++ The table gives an overview on the fluorescent recombinant ORFV vectors which were generated during the works resulting in the invention.\",\n \"The region of insertion (locus) and the promoters used for controlling the foreign gene expression (Pvegf, P1, P2) are indicated in the table for each of the recombinants.\",\n \"In addition, the strength of the foreign gene expression is indicated (very strong=++++ to weak=+).\",\n \"The invention creates a variety of options for the development of new recombinant ORFV based vaccines.\",\n \"Recombinants can be generated which simultaneously express multiple antigenes.\",\n \"This could be a significant advantage in the production of a universal vaccine of combination vaccines or of therapeutic tumor vaccines which are directed against multiple tumor antigens.\",\n \"In addition, the immune response can be influenced by a simultaneous insertion of antigene and cytokines in a targeted manner.\"\n ]\n]"},"source":{"kind":"string","value":"Patent_15875389"}}},{"rowIdx":4494865,"cells":{"text":{"kind":"list like","value":[["PEN CARTRIDGE","A pen cartridge that holds a pen, detachably attached to a plotter to perform drawing using the pen includes: a cylindrical hollow housing into which the pen is inserted; an operation member provided on the housing; the operation member to rotate between two positions around a central axis with respect to the housing; the central axis extends in the direction in which the pen is inserted; and a grasping member provided in the housing and including a plurality of grasping parts to grasp an outer circumference of the pen inserted into the housing at a plurality of different locations in an axial direction, the plurality of grasping parts to transition from a released state to a grasping state when the operation member is rotated."],["1.A pen cartridge that holds a pen, configured to be detachably attached to a plotter configured to perform drawing using the pen, the pen cartridge comprising: a housing comprising a cylindrical hollow part into which the pen is inserted; an operation member provided on the housing; the operation member configured to rotate between a first position and a second position around a central axis with respect to the housing; the central axis extends in the direction in which the pen inserted; and a grasping member provided in the housing and including a plurality of grasping parts configured to grasp an outer circumference of the pen inserted into the housing at a plurality of different locations in an axial direction which is a direction in which the central axis extends, the plurality of grasping parts configured to transition from a released state to a grasping state when the operation member is rotated from the first position to the second position, the released state being a state in which the pen is not grasped, and the grasping state being a state in which the pen is grasped.","2.The pen cartridge according to claim 1, wherein the grasping member comprises a first grasping part, as one of the grasping parts, disposed in the cylindrical hollow part of the housing and located on one end side in the axial direction of the grasping member, the grasping parts being elastically deformable in a diameter direction which is a direction crossing the axial direction, the pen cartridge further comprising, a cam surface provided in the cylindrical hollow part of the housing, and configured to elastically deform the first grasping part, and when the operation member is rotated from the first position to the second position, the grasping member rotates and moves interlocking with the operation member, and the cam surface is configured to cause the first grasping part to elastically deform in an inner diameter direction and grasp the pen.","3.The pen cartridge according to claim 2, wherein the first grasping part comprises a plurality of elastic deformation claws configured to grasp the pen, and provided at an interval in a circumferential direction, the cam surface is provided in plurality so as to correspond to each of the elastic deformation claws.","4.The pen cartridge according to claim 3, wherein the first grasping part comprises at least three elastic deformation claws.","5.The pen cartridge according to claim 2, wherein the grasping member comprises a second grasping part, as one of the grasping parts, located on the other end side of the grasping member in the axial direction, the pen cartridge further comprising, a transmission member is provided in the cylindrical hollow part of the housing, configured to be movable in the axial direction between a first state and a second state, the first state being a state in which the transmission member does not engage with the second grasping part, and the second state being a state in which the transmission member engages with the second grasping part and causes the second grasping part to elastically deform in an inner diameter direction, and when the operation member is rotated from the first position to the second position, the transmission member is configured to move from the first state to the second state, cause the second grasping part to elastically deform in the inner diameter direction and grasp the pen.","6.The pen cartridge according to claim 5, wherein the transmission member is configured to cause the grasping member to rotate and move together when the operation member is rotated from the first position to the second position.","7.The pen cartridge according to claim 1, wherein the housing comprises a locking mechanism configured to hold the operation member at the second position.","8.The pen cartridge according to claim 1, wherein the grasping part comprises an anti-slip part in a region contacting the pen.","9.The pen cartridge according to claim 1, further comprising a positioning jig including an attaching part configured to hold the housing at a predetermined position in the axial direction and a contact part configured to come into contact with a distal end of the pen inserted into the housing which held by the attaching part."],[" BACKGROUND Conventionally, cutting plotters for cutting a sheet-like object such as paper into a desired shape are publicly known.","Such a cutting plotter is provided with a cutter cartridge to cut an object and a carriage to which the cutter cartridge can be attached.","A pen cartridge with a built-in pen can also be attached to this carriage instead of the cutter cartridge.","With the pen cartridge attached to the carriage, the cutting plotter can draw a desired pattern or design on a surface of the object.","The conventional pen cartridge is constructed of a cylindrical pen holder which includes four clamping pieces on a rear end side, a cap attached on a distal end side of the pen holder to perform alignment of the distal end of the pen, and a squeezer screwed to a rear end side of the pen holder to cause the clamping pieces to elastically deform toward an inner circumferential side.","In this pen cartridge, with the cap attached to the pen holder, the pen is inserted into the pen holder until the pen hits a blocking plate of the cap.","Next, the squeezer is fastened to the pen holder until the pen is sufficiently fixed, the cap is then removed and the pen holder is thereby attached to the carriage."],[" SUMMARY However, since the conventional pen cartridge is configured to clamp the pen by the clamping pieces at one middle part of a pen shaft, it has a disadvantage of being unable to stably hold the pen.","The present disclosure has been implemented in view of the above-described circumferences, and it is an object of the present disclosure to provide a pen cartridge configured to be detachably attached to a plotter while holding a pen and capable of stably holding the pen.","In order to attain the above-described object, a pen cartridge according to the present disclosure is a pen cartridge that holds a pen, configured to be detachably attached to a plotter configured to perform drawing using the pen includes: a housing comprising a cylindrical hollow part into which the pen is inserted; an operation member provided on the housing; the operation member configured to rotate between a first position and a second position around a central axis with respect to the housing; the central axis extends in the direction in which the pen is inserted; and a grasping member provided in the housing and including a plurality of grasping parts configured to grasp an outer circumference of the pen inserted into the housing at a plurality of different locations in an axial direction which is a direction in which the central axis extends, the plurality of grasping parts configured to transition from a released state to a grasping state when the operation member is rotated from the first position to the second position, the released state being a state in which the pen is not grasped, and the grasping state being a state in which the pen is grasped.","This summary is not intended to identify critical or essential features of the disclosure, but instead merely summarizes certain features and variations thereof.","Other details and features will be described in the sections that follow."],["CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION This application is a continuation application of International Application No.","PCT/JP2016/066162, filed on Jun.","1, 2016, which claims priority from Japanese Patent Application No.","2015-144874, filed on Jul.","22, 2015.The disclosure of the foregoing application is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety.","FIELD The present disclosure relates to a pen cartridge that holds a pen, configured to be detachably attached to a plotter configured to perform drawing using the pen.","BACKGROUND Conventionally, cutting plotters for cutting a sheet-like object such as paper into a desired shape are publicly known.","Such a cutting plotter is provided with a cutter cartridge to cut an object and a carriage to which the cutter cartridge can be attached.","A pen cartridge with a built-in pen can also be attached to this carriage instead of the cutter cartridge.","With the pen cartridge attached to the carriage, the cutting plotter can draw a desired pattern or design on a surface of the object.","The conventional pen cartridge is constructed of a cylindrical pen holder which includes four clamping pieces on a rear end side, a cap attached on a distal end side of the pen holder to perform alignment of the distal end of the pen, and a squeezer screwed to a rear end side of the pen holder to cause the clamping pieces to elastically deform toward an inner circumferential side.","In this pen cartridge, with the cap attached to the pen holder, the pen is inserted into the pen holder until the pen hits a blocking plate of the cap.","Next, the squeezer is fastened to the pen holder until the pen is sufficiently fixed, the cap is then removed and the pen holder is thereby attached to the carriage.","SUMMARY However, since the conventional pen cartridge is configured to clamp the pen by the clamping pieces at one middle part of a pen shaft, it has a disadvantage of being unable to stably hold the pen.","The present disclosure has been implemented in view of the above-described circumferences, and it is an object of the present disclosure to provide a pen cartridge configured to be detachably attached to a plotter while holding a pen and capable of stably holding the pen.","In order to attain the above-described object, a pen cartridge according to the present disclosure is a pen cartridge that holds a pen, configured to be detachably attached to a plotter configured to perform drawing using the pen includes: a housing comprising a cylindrical hollow part into which the pen is inserted; an operation member provided on the housing; the operation member configured to rotate between a first position and a second position around a central axis with respect to the housing; the central axis extends in the direction in which the pen is inserted; and a grasping member provided in the housing and including a plurality of grasping parts configured to grasp an outer circumference of the pen inserted into the housing at a plurality of different locations in an axial direction which is a direction in which the central axis extends, the plurality of grasping parts configured to transition from a released state to a grasping state when the operation member is rotated from the first position to the second position, the released state being a state in which the pen is not grasped, and the grasping state being a state in which the pen is grasped.","This summary is not intended to identify critical or essential features of the disclosure, but instead merely summarizes certain features and variations thereof.","Other details and features will be described in the sections that follow.","BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF DRAWINGS Aspects of the disclosure are illustrated by way of example, and not by limitation, in the accompanying figures in which like reference characters may indicate similar elements.","FIG.","1 illustrates an embodiment of the present disclosure and is a perspective view schematically illustrating an overall configuration of a cutting plotter; FIG.","2 is a perspective view of a carriage part; FIG.","3A is a front view illustrating a pen cartridge; FIG.","3B is a top view illustrating the pen cartridge; FIG.","4 is a longitudinal cross-sectional view along a line IV-IV in FIG.","3B of the pen cartridge; FIG.","5 is an exploded perspective view of the pen cartridge; FIG.","6 is a lateral cross-sectional plan view along a line VI-VI in FIG.","3A of a cam part; FIG.","7A is a front view illustrating a grasping member before deformation; FIG.","7B is a top view illustrating the grasping member before deformation; FIG.","8A is a front view illustrating the deformed grasping member; FIG.","8B is a top view illustrating the deformed grasping member; FIG.","9A is a perspective view of a transmission member; FIG.","9B is a bottom view of the transmission member; FIG.","10 is a side view of an operation member; FIG.","11 is a longitudinal cross-sectional view of the operation member; FIG.","12 is a perspective view of a positioning jig; FIG.","13 is a perspective view illustrating the pen cartridge attached to the positioning jig; and FIG.","14 is a front view illustrating the pen held by the pen cartridge.","DETAILED DESCRIPTION For a more complete understanding of the present disclosure, needs satisfied thereby, and the objects, features, and advantages thereof, reference now is made to the following descriptions taken in connection with the accompanying drawings.","Hereinafter, illustrative embodiments will be described with reference to the accompanying drawings.","Hereinafter, an embodiment that embodies the present disclosure will be described with reference to the accompanying drawings.","Note that in the present embodiment, the present disclosure is applied to a pen cartridge attached to a cutting plotter.","This cutting plotter is an apparatus configured to cut an object such as paper according to cutting data with a cutter cartridge attached to the cutting plotter.","Furthermore, when a pen cartridge according to the present embodiment, instead of the cutter cartridge, is attached to the cutting plotter, it is possible to perform drawing using a pen on a surface of the object according to the drawing data.","FIG.","1 illustrates an external configuration of a cutting plotter 1 as a plotter.","FIG.","2 schematically illustrates a configuration of a carriage 5 provided in the cutting plotter 1.A schematic configuration of the cutting plotter 1 will be described first.","As shown in FIG.","1, the cutting plotter 1 is provided with a body cover 2, a platen 3 disposed in the body cover 2 and a carriage 5 to which a cutter cartridge 4 is detachably attached.","The cutting plotter 1 is provided with a holding member 6 for holding a sheet-like object W such as paper and cloth.","The body cover 2 has a laterally long rectangular box shape and a front opening 2a which is a laterally long opening is formed on a front thereof.","The holding member 6 is inserted into the cutting plotter 1 from the front and set on a top surface of the platen 3.The holding member 6 set on the top surface of the platen 3 is transferred in a front-back direction (Y-direction).","A transfer mechanism is provided in the body cover 2 to transfer the holding member 6 in the front-back direction (Y-direction) on the top surface of the platen 3.Furthermore, a carriage moving mechanism is provided in the body cover 2 to move the carriage 5 in a left-right direction (X-direction).","Here, directions in the present embodiment will be defined.","A transfer direction of the holding member 6 by the transfer mechanism is assumed to be the front-back direction (Y-direction).","A moving direction of the carriage 5 by the carriage moving mechanism is assumed to be the left-right direction (X-direction).","A direction orthogonal to the front-back direction and the left-right direction is assumed to be a vertical direction (Z-direction).","As shown in FIG.","2, the carriage 5 is provided with a cartridge holder 16 and a vertical drive mechanism (not shown) configured to drive the cartridge holder 16 in the vertical direction.","The cartridge holder 16 detachably holds cartridges 4 and 21.When a cutting operation is performed on the object W, the cutter cartridge 4 is attached to the cartridge holder 16.Although not shown in detail, the cutter cartridge 4 is provided with a cylindrical case extending in the vertical direction and a cutter extending along its central axis.","The cutter protrudes downward by a predetermined length from a bottom end part of the case and a blade is formed at its bottom end.","Furthermore, when a drawing operation is performed on the object W, a pen cartridge 21 according to the present embodiment is attached to the cartridge holder 16.The pen cartridge 21 is intended to hold a pen P (see FIG.","14 and FIG.","3B), and details thereof will be described later.","A commercially available felt pen or a ball-point pen or the like may be adopted as the pen P. As is generally known, the pen P is configured by including a pen point at a distal end part of a round bar-like penholder.","The vertical drive mechanism is provided with a Z-axis motor (not shown) or the like and configured so as to move the cartridge holder 16 between a descending position where a cutting or drawing operation is performed and an ascending position where the cartridge holder 16 is retracted upward from the object W and no operation is performed.","When the cutter cartridge 4 is attached, the blade of the cutter penetrates the object W held by the holding member 6 in a thickness direction at the descending position of the cartridge holder 16.The transfer mechanism moves the object W held by the holding member 6 in the front-back direction and the carriage moving mechanism moves the carriage 5, that is, the cutter in the left-right direction, and a cutting operation is thereby performed on the object W. When the pen cartridge 21 is attached, the distal end of the pen P is enabled to perform drawing in contact with the top surface of the object W at the descending position of the cartridge holder 16.Regarding a drawing operation, the transfer mechanism moves the object W held by the holding member 6 in the front-back direction and the carriage moving mechanism moves the carriage 5, that is, the pen cartridge 21 in the left-right direction.","Although not shown, the cutting plotter 1 is provided with a control apparatus mainly constructed of a computer (CPU) for controlling the entire cutting plotter 1.The control apparatus performs a cutting operation or drawing operation according to an operation control program or the like and based on cutting data or drawing data.","Note that, the control apparatus can recognize whether the cartridge attached to the cartridge holder 16 is the cutter cartridge 4 or the pen cartridge 21 based on detection by a sensor.","The configuration of the pen cartridge 21 according to the present embodiment will be described with reference to FIG.","3 to FIG.","14.As shown in FIG.","3 to FIG.","5, the pen cartridge 21 is constructed of a housing 22, a grasping member 23, a transmission member 24, a coil spring 25, an operation member 26, a wave spring 27, a cap 28 and a rivet 29.When the orientation is referred to in the following description, the orientation will be described based on the vertical direction, the front-back direction and the left-right direction when the pen cartridge 21 is attached to the cartridge holder 16, that is, when the pen P is placed facedown in the vertical direction and used.","The housing 22 is made of a rigid plastic material such as ABS resin and formed into a vertically long and substantially cylindrical shape as a whole.","As shown in FIG.","4 or the like, this housing 22 includes a cylindrical hollow part 22a into which the pen P is vertically inserted in a penetrating manner.","Hereinafter, the direction in which a central axis of the cylindrical hollow part 22a extends will be referred to as an “axial direction” and the direction crossing the axial direction will be referred to as a “diameter direction.” More specifically, the housing 22 has the following configuration.","As shown in FIG.","5, the top end part of the housing 22 has a cylindrical peripheral wall, left and right parts of which are left open, while front and rear parts of which are left as they are, both of which integrally constitute arcuate walls 30 and 30 at the front and rear parts.","Spaces between the arcuate walls 30 and 30 constitute side openings 22b and 22b.","As is partially shown in FIG.","4, male thread parts 30a and 30a are integrally formed into which the cap 28, which will be described later, is screwed on the outer circumferential surfaces of the top end parts of the respective arcuate walls 30 and 30.A flange part 31 is integrally provided on an outer circumferential surface of the housing 22 located below the arcuate walls 30 and 30 to receive a bottom end part of the operation member 26, which will be described later, so as to protrude in an outer circumferential direction.","As shown in FIG.","4 and FIG.","5, a first ratchet part 31a and a second ratchet part 31b in which a plurality of grooves are formed, arranged side by side in the circumferential direction are provided on the top surface of the flange part 31 located close to the right and close to the left.","As will be described later, the second ratchet part 31b on the left side forms a part of an engagement mechanism for holding the operation member 26 at a second position.","As shown in FIG.","5, a convex part 32, whose rearward protruding rear surface is made into a flat surface is integrally provided on the outer circumferential surface of the housing 22 at an intermediate part in the vertical direction, that is, below the flange part 31.Furthermore, as also shown in FIG.","3A and FIG.","14, a constricted part 33 is provided on the outer circumferential surface of the housing 22 located in a region close to the lower part to make the housing 22 narrower in the left-right direction.","When the pen cartridge 21 is attached to the cartridge holder 16 or a positioning jig, which will be described later, the convex part 32 is used for positioning in the front-back direction and the constricted part 33 is used for positioning and holding in the vertical direction and the left-right direction.","Note that as shown in FIG.","3A and FIG.","14 or the like, a mark M is formed at the intermediate part in the vertical direction, that is, on the front of the convex part 32 of the outer circumferential surface of the housing 22.The mark M indicates, using an arrow, an operation procedure of the operation member 26, which will be described later, that is, a procedure for lifting up, turning leftward and then lowering the operation member 26.As shown in FIG.","4, a stepped part 34 is formed at an intermediate part in the vertical direction on an inner circumferential surface of the housing 22 such that an inner diameter of its lower part is a little smaller than that of its upper part.","This stepped part 34 is provided in such a manner as to lock the grasping member 23, which will be described later, to prevent it from falling downward to position it in the vertical direction.","As will be also shown in FIG.","6, a cam surface 35 is formed in a region close to a lower part of the inner circumferential surface of the housing 22.This cam surface 35 is intended to deform an elastic deformation claw of the grasping member 23, which will be described later, and the cam surfaces 35 is formed at three locations in the circumferential direction at equal intervals according to the present embodiment.","These cam surfaces 35 are formed such that the depth of the concave part decreases, that is, the inner diameter gradually decreases in a clockwise direction when seen from above (arrow A direction).","Next, the grasping member 23 will be described.","As also shown in FIG.","7 and FIG.","8, the grasping member 23 is made of a relatively soft plastic material such as POM resin and includes a cylindrical part 36, a first grasping part 37 provided below the cylindrical part 36 as a grasping part, a second grasping part 38 provided above the cylindrical part 36 as a grasping part and three engagement piece parts 39 provided above the cylindrical part 36 as an integrated body.","The first grasping part 37 is provided on the bottom end side which is one end side in the axial direction of the grasping member 23 and the second grasping part 38 is provided on the top end side which is the other end side.","The first grasping part 37 and the second grasping part 38 grasp the pen P at two different positions in the axial direction.","This grasping member 23 is inserted into the cylindrical hollow part 22a of the housing 22 from above.","At this time, a rib 39a provided on an outer circumferential surface of the engagement piece part 39 comes into contact with a top surface of the stepped part 34, and the grasping member 23 is accommodated in the housing 22, being prevented from falling downward, that is, being positioned in the vertical direction.","The cylindrical part 36 has a cylindrical shape having a diameter at which it is inserted into the cylindrical hollow part 22a and integrally includes, on its outer circumferential surface, a ring-shaped convex part 36a directly below and slidingly contacting with the stepped part 34 of the inner circumferential surface of the housing 22.The grasping member 23 is thereby rotatably accommodated in the housing 22.The first grasping part 37 provided below the cylindrical part 36 is provided with a plurality of (three in this case) elastic deformation claws 40 to grasp the penholder of the pen P. The three elastic deformation claws 40 are provided at equal intervals, that is, at 120-degree intervals, extend downward in a narrow-width-shape from a bottom end part of the cylindrical part 36, have a spiral shape twisting in a clockwise direction (arrow A direction) toward the bottom when seen from above, and are configured to be elastically deformable in the diameter direction.","The outer circumferential surface of the bottom end part of each elastic deformation claw 40 is disposed within each cam surface 35 as shown in FIG.","6.In this case, when the operation member 26 is located at a first position as will be described later, the grasping member 23 is in a released state as shown in FIG.","7 and the grasping member 23 transitions to a grasping state of grasping the pen P as the operation member 26 is rotated to the second position.","When the grasping member 23 is in a released state, the bottom end part of each elastic deformation claw 40 is located at a deep position of each cam surface 35 as shown in FIG.","6 and the bottom end part of each elastic deformation claw 40 is located on the outer circumferential side so as to overlap with the cylindrical part 36 when seen in the axial direction as shown in FIG.","7B.","In contrast, when the grasping member 23 rotates and displaces in the arrow A direction as the operation member 26 rotates, the bottom end part of each elastic deformation claw 40 comes into contact with the cam surface 35, moves in the arrow A direction along its slope, becomes elastically deformed in the inner circumferential direction, and the inner circumferential part of the bottom end of each elastic deformation claw 40 comes into contact with the outer circumferential surface of the penholder of the pen P to grasp the pen P from three directions as shown in FIG.","8.According to the present embodiment, an area of the inner circumferential surface of each elastic deformation claw 40 in contact with the pen P is subjected to so-called emboss processing whereby fine projections and depressions are formed on the surface, thus forming an anti-slip part 40a.","As shown in FIG.","7 and FIG.","8, the second grasping part 38 provided above the cylindrical part 36 is provided with a plurality of (three in this case) elastic pieces 41 to grasp the penholder of the pen P. The three elastic pieces 41 are provided at equal intervals, that is, at 120-degree intervals and extend upward in a narrow-width shape from the top end part of the cylindrical part 36.At this time, a slope 42 is formed on the outer circumferential side of the top end part of each elastic piece 41, integrally provided with a protruding part bulging toward the outer circumferential side with the protruding part facing the outer circumferential side which inclines toward the outer circumferential direction toward the bottom.","As will be described later, when the operation member 26 is at the first position and the grasping member 23 is in the released state, the top end part of each elastic piece 41 is located on the outer circumferential side such that the top end part overlaps the cylindrical part 36 when seen from the axial direction as shown in FIG.","7.In contrast, when the transmission member 24, which will be described later, descends along with a rotation of the operation member 26, the slope 42 is pressed toward the inner circumferential side, the top end part of the elastic piece 41 is elastically deformed in the inner circumferential direction, and the top end inner circumferential part of each elastic piece 41 comes into contact with the outer circumferential surface of the penholder of the pen P, grasping the pen P from three directions as shown in FIG.","8.According to the present embodiment, an area of the inner circumferential surface of each elastic piece 41 in contact with the pen P is also subjected to so-called emboss processing, thus provided with an anti-slip part 41a, as partially shown in FIG.","7 and FIG.","8.As shown in FIG.","5, FIG.","7B and FIG.","8B, the three engagement piece parts 39 are located at intervals between the respective elastic pieces 41 and extend upward in an arcuate plate shape along the arc of the cylindrical part 36 from the top end part of the cylindrical part 36.At this time, of the three engagement piece parts 39, one engagement piece part 39 located on the front side is configured to be greater than the other two engagement piece parts 39 in the width (length in the inner circumferential direction) in order to facilitate alignment in the rotating direction with the transmission member 24, which will be described later.","As will be described later, these engagement piece parts 39 are configured to engage with the three operation piece parts of the transmission member 24 so as to overlap therewith on the inner circumferential surface side.","In such an engagement state, regarding a displacement of the transmission member 24 in the vertical direction, the operation piece part moves sliding in the vertical direction with respect to the engagement piece parts 39, thereby preventing transmission of any force.","Regarding the rotating direction of the transmission member 24, a force is transmitted via the engagement piece part 39.Thus, the grasping member 23 is configured to move integrally with the transmission member 24 in the rotating direction.","As shown in FIG.","9, the transmission member 24 is formed of a plastic material such as POM resin integrally including a main body 43 which is a relatively thick cylindrical part and three operation piece parts 44 extending downward from the inner circumferential part of the main body 43.A receiving concave part 43a for receiving the bottom end part of the coil spring 25 is formed into a ring shape in the top end face part of the main body 43.Protrusion parts 45 and 45 are integrally provided on the outer circumferential surface of the main body 43 so as to protrude in the diameter direction sideward from the top of both the left and right end parts.","As will be described later, these protrusion parts 45 and 45 protrude toward the outer circumferential side by passing through the side openings 22b and 22b of the top end part of the housing 22, and engage with cam parts 48 on the inner circumferential surface of the operation member 26.This causes the transmission member 24 to move in the vertical direction and rotate.","As also shown in FIG.","4, a tapered surface 46 is formed in a lower part of the inner circumferential surface of the main body 43 such that the inner diameter gradually decreases upward from the bottom end part.","As shown in FIG.","9B, this tapered surface 46 is formed at three locations where the operation piece part 44 is absent.","As will be described later, the tapered surface 46 comes into contact with the slope 42 of the top end part of each elastic piece 41 to play the role of elastically deforming each elastic piece 41 in the inner diameter direction.","Note that the transmission member 24 is always biased downward by the coil spring 25, which will be described later, and the protrusion parts 45 are configured to always engage with the cam parts 48.As shown in FIG.","9, the operation piece part 44 extends downward from the lower part of the inner circumferential surface of the main body 43 and is integrally provided, and located at three locations in the inner circumferential direction in correspondence with the three engagement piece parts 39 of the grasping member 23.These operation piece parts 44 have an arcuate thin plate shape when seen from the top surface and its outer circumferential surface is provided so as to have slide contact with the inner circumferential surface of each engagement piece part 39 so as to move relatively slidably in the vertical direction.","Along with this, an engagement wall part 44a that locks both end sides in the circumferential direction of each engagement piece part 39 is integrally provided in both end sides in the circumferential direction of the outer circumferential surface of each operation piece part 44.Thus, each engagement piece part 39 is configured to slide so as not to apply any force of vertical motion of the operation piece part 44 but to transmit rotational movement of the operation piece part 44 to each engagement piece part 39.As shown in FIG.","10 and FIG.","11, the operation member 26 is made of a plastic material such as POM resin and formed into a thin cylindrical shape in such a size that the operation member 26 is placed on the flange part 31 engaged with the outer circumferential wall of the arcuate walls 30 and 30 of the top end part of the housing 22.An anti-slip concavo-convex part extending in the vertical direction is formed over the entire outer circumferential surface of the operation member 26 and a plurality of ribs 26a for the user to hook them with a finger to perform a rotation operation are integrally provided at one location in the circumferential direction so as to protrude in the outer circumferential direction.","The operation member 26 rotatably engages with the outer circumference of the top end part of the housing 22, and a tooth part 47 that engages with the first ratchet part 31a or the second ratchet part 31b when the tooth part 47 comes to just on either ratchet is integrally provided on the lower end face part of the operation member 26.In this case, when the tooth part 47 engages with the first ratchet part 31a, the operation member 26 is thereby held at the first position, and when the tooth part 47 engages with the second ratchet part 31b, the operation member 26 is thereby held at the second position.","Therefore, a locking mechanism is formed of the tooth part 47 and the second ratchet part 31b.","The cam parts 48 are formed on the inner circumferential surface of the operation member 26 at left and right positions to operate the transmission member 24.This cam part 48 is provided so that the protrusion part 45 of the transmission member 24 is placed on the top surface and is formed into a sloped shape so that the top surface becomes lower as it goes in the counterclockwise direction (left side in FIG.","11).","The protrusion part 45 relatively moves along the cam part 48 and its further descent is prevented by two ribs 22c (only one is shown in FIG.","5 and FIG.","4) provided in the housing 22.As shown in FIG.","5, the ribs 22c are disposed at lower sides of the side openings 22b and 22b respectively.","A stopper wall 48a is also provided on the inner circumferential surface of the operation member 26.The operation member 26 is provided so as to be rotatable around the outer circumference of the top end part of the housing 22 with some backlash in the vertical direction by being sandwiched between the cap 28 and the flange part 31 from above and from below.","In this case, a ring-shaped wave spring 27 is disposed between the top end face of the operation member 26 and the cap 28 and the operation member 26 thereby always receives a pressure downward, that is, in a direction in which the tooth part 47 engages with the ratchet parts 31a and 31b.","As shown in FIG.","4 and FIG.","5, the cap 28 is made of a plastic material such as ABS resin and configured into a hollow ring shape in which the undersurface is open, that is, the top end parts of a large-diameter outer peripheral wall and a small-diameter inner peripheral wall are integrally connected at the ring-shaped top wall part.","In this case, the inner diameter of the cap 28 coincides with the inner diameter of the main body 43 of the transmission member 24 or the cylindrical part 36 of the grasping member 23, and the outside diameter is slightly greater than the outside diameter of the operation member 26.As shown in FIG.","4, a female thread part 49 is formed inside the cap 28, located on the inner circumferential side of the outer peripheral wall to be screwed to the male thread part 30a of the arcuate wall 30 of the housing 22.A receiving part 28a is provided inside the cap 28 as shown in FIG.","4, located on the inner circumferential side to receive the top end part of the coil spring 25.A ring-shaped concave part 28b in which the wave spring 27 is disposed is provided in the undersurface on the outer circumferential side inside the cap 28.Furthermore, as shown in FIG.","3B and FIG.","5, a hole 50 into which the rivet 29 is inserted is provided in the upper wall of the cap 28.When the rivet 29 is inserted in the hole 50, the cap 28 is fixed to the housing 22 so as to prevent the cap 28 from rotating.","In the pen cartridge 21, the operation member 26 is made rotatable between the first position shown in FIG.","3 or the like and the second position to which the operation member 26 moves rotating in the arrow A direction from there.","While the operation member 26 is stopped at the first position, the cam part 48 of the operation member 26 causes the protrusion part 45 of the transmission member 24 to be located at the topmost position of the inclination of the cam part 48 as shown by a solid line in FIG.","11, and the transmission member 24 is in a first state.","In the first state, the transmission member 24 is located at the highest position in the vertical direction and also at a predetermined rotation position.","In the first state of the transmission member 24, as shown in FIG.","4, the bottom end part of the tapered surface 46 is in contact with the top end part of the slope 42 of each elastic piece 41 of the second grasping part 38 and each elastic piece 41 is located on the outer circumferential side without elastic deformation.","Along with this, in the first state of the transmission member 24, due to the engagement between the operation piece part 44 and the engagement piece part 39, the bottom end part of each elastic deformation claw 40 of the first grasping part 37 is located at the deepest position of the concave part of the cam surface 35 of the housing 22 as shown in FIG.","6 and the elastic deformation claw 40 is located on the outer circumferential side without elastic deformation.","Thus, the grasping member 23 is in a released state without grasping the pen P as shown in FIG.","7.The user can operate the operation member 26 in the arrow A direction from the first position to make it rotate to the second position.","In this case, at the first position of the operation member 26, since the tooth part 47 engages with the first ratchet part 31a, it is possible to cause the operation member 26 to rotate by lifting the operation member 26 upward once against a spring force of the wave spring 27 to thereby release the engagement.","After the rotation of the operation member 26 toward the second position, if the force against the spring force of the wave spring 27 is released, the spring force of the wave spring 27 causes the tooth part 47 to engage with the second ratchet part 31b and causes the operation member 26 to be held at the second position.","When the operation member 26 is rotated toward the second position, the protrusion part 45 relatively moves along the cam part 48 in an arrow C direction up to a position indicated by an imaginary line in FIG.","11 and the transmission member 24 descends.","After the protrusion part 45 relatively comes into contact with the stopper wall 48a, the protrusion part 45, and the transmission member 24 as well, rotate and move integrally with the operation member 26 in the arrow A direction and the transmission member 24 is placed in a second state.","In the second state, the transmission member 24 descends from the first state and also rotates in the arrow A direction.","Thus, the tapered surface 46 descends while sliding over the slope 42 of each elastic piece 41, elastically deforming each elastic piece 41 in an inner diameter direction.","Along with this, the engagement between the operation piece part 44 and the engagement piece part 39 causes the grasping member 23 to rotate, and as indicated by the arrow A in FIG.","6, each elastic deformation claw 40 moves along the cam surface 35 and each elastic deformation claw 40 is elastically deformed in the inner diameter direction.","Thus, in the grasping member 23, the three elastic deformation claws 40 of the first grasping part 37 are elastically deformed toward the inner diameter side as shown in FIG.","8 and the three elastic pieces 41 of the second grasping part 38 are elastically deformed toward the inner diameter side, and a grasping state in which the pen P is grasped is thereby set.","Therefore, it is possible to cause the pen cartridge 21 to hold the pen P by inserting the pen P into the cylindrical hollow part 22a of the housing 22 at the first position of the operation member 26 and then rotating the operation member 26 at the second position.","Note that the user rotates the operation member 26 in a direction opposite to that indicated by the arrow A from the second position to the first position while lifting the operation member 26 using the reverse procedure of the above-described one, whereby the transmission member 24 returns to the first position from the second position and the grasping member 23 returns to the released state.","The pen P is thereby released from the grasping state, and can be extracted from the pen cartridge 21.Furthermore, according to the present embodiment, the pen cartridge 21 is provided with a positioning jig 51 for positioning in the axial direction when inserting the pen P into the housing 22.The positioning jig 51 will be described with reference to FIG.","12 to FIG.","14.This positioning jig 51 is made of a plastic material and is integrally constructed of a rectangular plate-shaped base wall part 52, a rear wall part 53 standing upright from the rear side of the base wall part 52, and left and right side wall parts 54 and 54 extending forward from the left and right sides of the rear wall part 53.The top surface of the base wall part 52 constitutes a contact part 52a with which the distal end of the pen P comes into contact and a line L serving as a mark indicating a central position in the left-right direction is provided from the distal end face to the top surface in the distal end side of the base wall part 52.The left and right side wall parts 54 and 54 of the positioning jig 51 are provided with a mounting part 55 having a shape that corresponds to the constricted part 33 of the housing 22 and the part therebelow as shown in FIG.","14.By inserting the pen cartridge 21 into the mounting part 55 from the front, the housing 22 is held at a predetermined position in the axial direction.","The rear surface of the housing 22 of the convex part 32 comes into contact with the front surface of the rear wall part 53.At this time, if the distal end part of the pen P is made to contact the contact part 52a while the pen cartridge 21 is held by the mounting part 55, the distal end part of the pen P is held at an appropriate height position, that is, the length of the distal end part of the pen P protruding from the housing 22 is set to an appropriate length.","The pen P can be attached to the pen cartridge 21 using this positioning jig 51 as follows.","As shown in FIG.","13, the pen cartridge 21 is attached to the mounting part 55 of the positioning jig 51.At this time, the operation member 26 is placed at the first position.","Next, the pen P is inserted into the cylindrical hollow part 22a of the pen cartridge 21 from above with the distal end thereof placed face down.","While keeping the distal end of the pen P in contact with the contact part 52a, the operation member 26 of the pen cartridge 21 is rotated to the second position to cause the pen cartridge 21 to grasp the pen P. After that, the pen cartridge 21 grasping the pen P is removed forward.","Use of the positioning jig 51 allows the pen cartridge 21 to hold the pen P at an appropriate position in the axial direction during an insertion of the pen into the pen cartridge 21 and can easily complete the operation in that case.","Note that by comparing the distal end of the pen P with the line L, it is possible to confirm whether or not the pen point of the pen is held at the center without the axis misaligned.","The pen cartridge 21 of the present embodiment can obtain the following operations and effects.","That is, by inserting the pen P into the cylindrical hollow part 22a of the housing 22 in a penetrating state and causing the operation member 26 to rotate from the first position to the second position, it is possible to cause the grasping member 23 to transition from a released state to a grasping state.","The grasping member 23 includes the first grasping part 37 at the bottom end part as well as the second grasping part 38 at the top end part so that the outer circumference of the pen P is grasped by these grasping parts at two locations in the axial direction.","Furthermore, the first grasping part 37 and the second grasping part 38 can be operated simultaneously by a single operation of the operation member 26.Therefore, according to the present embodiment, it is possible to stably hold the pen P by a simple operation using the pen cartridge 21 detachably attached to the cutting plotter 1 while holding the pen P. According to the present embodiment, the first grasping part 37 is constructed of three elastic deformation claws 40, the cylindrical hollow parts 22a of the housing 22 are provided with three cam surfaces 35 for operating them, the grasping member 23 is caused to rotate and move interlocking with the operation member 26 and the three elastic deformation claws 40 are configured to be elastically deformed in the inner diameter direction by an action of the cam surfaces 35.This makes it possible to construct a mechanism for operating the first grasping part 37 with a relatively simple configuration of providing the cam surfaces 35 in the housing 22.In this case, it is possible to stably and reliably grasp the outer circumference of the pen P with a plurality of (three in this case) elastic deformation claws 40 from three directions.","Furthermore, the present embodiment adopts a configuration in which the second grasping part 38 is constructed of three elastic pieces 41 and the transmission member 24 that operates interlocking with the rotation of the operation member 26 causes the three elastic pieces 41 to elastically deform in the inner diameter direction.","This makes it possible to construct a mechanism for operating the second grasping part 38 still in a relatively simple configuration while being different from the first grasping part 37.In this case, the transmission member 24 makes it possible to perform not only the grasping operation of the second grasping part 38 but also the grasping operation of the first grasping part 37, allowing grasping of the pen P to be performed in a much simpler configuration.","Furthermore, the present embodiment adopts a configuration in which the operation member 26 is provided with the tooth part 47, the housing 22 is provided with the first ratchet part 31a and the second ratchet part 31b, and the operation member 26 can be held at the first position and the second position by locking of those parts, and it is thereby possible to prevent an unintentional rotation of the operation member 26 and more reliably perform a rotation operation of the operation member 26.Since the anti-slip parts 40a and 41a are provided in regions of the elastic deformation claws 40 of the first grasping part 37 and the elastic pieces 41 of the second grasping part 38 where these parts come into contact with the pen P, it is unlikely for the grasping parts 37 and 38 to slide over the pen P and it is thereby possible to make it more reliable to grasp the pen P. Since the first grasping part 37 and the second grasping part 38 are independent of each other, and so they can each hold pens of different diameters.","That is, when one pen is used, even if the diameter of the pen differs between the position of the pen grasped by the first grasping part 37 and the position grasped by the second grasping part 38, it is possible to grasp the pen appropriately in accordance with the respective diameters.","Note that the above-described embodiment has described the pen cartridge 21 which can be detachably attached to the carriage 5 of the cutting plotter 1, but it goes without saying that the pen cartridge 21 can also be detachably attached to a pen plotter (X-Y plotter) for drawing or the like.","Examples of the pen P to which the above-described embodiment is applicable include not only a felt pen but also writing utensils in general such as a ball-point pen or a mechanical pencil.","As the anti-slip parts 40a and 41a, a separate anti-slip member such as thin plate-like rubber may be pasted to them instead of applying embossing thereto.","Moreover, although the above-described embodiment provides two grasping parts in the axial direction, three or more grasping parts may be provided.","A configuration with three elastic deformation claws and elastic pieces has been described but a configuration with four or more elastic deformation claws and elastic pieces may be adopted.","In addition, shapes and structures or the like of components such as the housing, operation member, grasping member constituting the pen cartridge can be changed in various ways, and the positioning jig 51 need not always be provided and the like.","As such, the present disclosure is not limited to the aforementioned embodiment but can be changed and implemented as appropriate without departing from the spirit and scope of range.","In the embodiments described above, a single CPU may perform all of the processes.","Nevertheless, the disclosure may not be limited to the specific embodiment thereof, and a plurality of CPUs, a special application specific integrated circuit (“ASIC”), or a combination of a CPU and an ASIC may be used to perform the processes.","The foregoing description and drawings are merely illustrative of the principles of the disclosure and are not to be construed in a limited sense.","Various changes and modifications will become apparent to those of ordinary skill in the art.","All such changes and modifications are seen to fall within the scope of the disclosure as defined by the appended claims."]],"string":"[\n [\n \"PEN CARTRIDGE\",\n \"A pen cartridge that holds a pen, detachably attached to a plotter to perform drawing using the pen includes: a cylindrical hollow housing into which the pen is inserted; an operation member provided on the housing; the operation member to rotate between two positions around a central axis with respect to the housing; the central axis extends in the direction in which the pen is inserted; and a grasping member provided in the housing and including a plurality of grasping parts to grasp an outer circumference of the pen inserted into the housing at a plurality of different locations in an axial direction, the plurality of grasping parts to transition from a released state to a grasping state when the operation member is rotated.\"\n ],\n [\n \"1.A pen cartridge that holds a pen, configured to be detachably attached to a plotter configured to perform drawing using the pen, the pen cartridge comprising: a housing comprising a cylindrical hollow part into which the pen is inserted; an operation member provided on the housing; the operation member configured to rotate between a first position and a second position around a central axis with respect to the housing; the central axis extends in the direction in which the pen inserted; and a grasping member provided in the housing and including a plurality of grasping parts configured to grasp an outer circumference of the pen inserted into the housing at a plurality of different locations in an axial direction which is a direction in which the central axis extends, the plurality of grasping parts configured to transition from a released state to a grasping state when the operation member is rotated from the first position to the second position, the released state being a state in which the pen is not grasped, and the grasping state being a state in which the pen is grasped.\",\n \"2.The pen cartridge according to claim 1, wherein the grasping member comprises a first grasping part, as one of the grasping parts, disposed in the cylindrical hollow part of the housing and located on one end side in the axial direction of the grasping member, the grasping parts being elastically deformable in a diameter direction which is a direction crossing the axial direction, the pen cartridge further comprising, a cam surface provided in the cylindrical hollow part of the housing, and configured to elastically deform the first grasping part, and when the operation member is rotated from the first position to the second position, the grasping member rotates and moves interlocking with the operation member, and the cam surface is configured to cause the first grasping part to elastically deform in an inner diameter direction and grasp the pen.\",\n \"3.The pen cartridge according to claim 2, wherein the first grasping part comprises a plurality of elastic deformation claws configured to grasp the pen, and provided at an interval in a circumferential direction, the cam surface is provided in plurality so as to correspond to each of the elastic deformation claws.\",\n \"4.The pen cartridge according to claim 3, wherein the first grasping part comprises at least three elastic deformation claws.\",\n \"5.The pen cartridge according to claim 2, wherein the grasping member comprises a second grasping part, as one of the grasping parts, located on the other end side of the grasping member in the axial direction, the pen cartridge further comprising, a transmission member is provided in the cylindrical hollow part of the housing, configured to be movable in the axial direction between a first state and a second state, the first state being a state in which the transmission member does not engage with the second grasping part, and the second state being a state in which the transmission member engages with the second grasping part and causes the second grasping part to elastically deform in an inner diameter direction, and when the operation member is rotated from the first position to the second position, the transmission member is configured to move from the first state to the second state, cause the second grasping part to elastically deform in the inner diameter direction and grasp the pen.\",\n \"6.The pen cartridge according to claim 5, wherein the transmission member is configured to cause the grasping member to rotate and move together when the operation member is rotated from the first position to the second position.\",\n \"7.The pen cartridge according to claim 1, wherein the housing comprises a locking mechanism configured to hold the operation member at the second position.\",\n \"8.The pen cartridge according to claim 1, wherein the grasping part comprises an anti-slip part in a region contacting the pen.\",\n \"9.The pen cartridge according to claim 1, further comprising a positioning jig including an attaching part configured to hold the housing at a predetermined position in the axial direction and a contact part configured to come into contact with a distal end of the pen inserted into the housing which held by the attaching part.\"\n ],\n [\n \" BACKGROUND Conventionally, cutting plotters for cutting a sheet-like object such as paper into a desired shape are publicly known.\",\n \"Such a cutting plotter is provided with a cutter cartridge to cut an object and a carriage to which the cutter cartridge can be attached.\",\n \"A pen cartridge with a built-in pen can also be attached to this carriage instead of the cutter cartridge.\",\n \"With the pen cartridge attached to the carriage, the cutting plotter can draw a desired pattern or design on a surface of the object.\",\n \"The conventional pen cartridge is constructed of a cylindrical pen holder which includes four clamping pieces on a rear end side, a cap attached on a distal end side of the pen holder to perform alignment of the distal end of the pen, and a squeezer screwed to a rear end side of the pen holder to cause the clamping pieces to elastically deform toward an inner circumferential side.\",\n \"In this pen cartridge, with the cap attached to the pen holder, the pen is inserted into the pen holder until the pen hits a blocking plate of the cap.\",\n \"Next, the squeezer is fastened to the pen holder until the pen is sufficiently fixed, the cap is then removed and the pen holder is thereby attached to the carriage.\"\n ],\n [\n \" SUMMARY However, since the conventional pen cartridge is configured to clamp the pen by the clamping pieces at one middle part of a pen shaft, it has a disadvantage of being unable to stably hold the pen.\",\n \"The present disclosure has been implemented in view of the above-described circumferences, and it is an object of the present disclosure to provide a pen cartridge configured to be detachably attached to a plotter while holding a pen and capable of stably holding the pen.\",\n \"In order to attain the above-described object, a pen cartridge according to the present disclosure is a pen cartridge that holds a pen, configured to be detachably attached to a plotter configured to perform drawing using the pen includes: a housing comprising a cylindrical hollow part into which the pen is inserted; an operation member provided on the housing; the operation member configured to rotate between a first position and a second position around a central axis with respect to the housing; the central axis extends in the direction in which the pen is inserted; and a grasping member provided in the housing and including a plurality of grasping parts configured to grasp an outer circumference of the pen inserted into the housing at a plurality of different locations in an axial direction which is a direction in which the central axis extends, the plurality of grasping parts configured to transition from a released state to a grasping state when the operation member is rotated from the first position to the second position, the released state being a state in which the pen is not grasped, and the grasping state being a state in which the pen is grasped.\",\n \"This summary is not intended to identify critical or essential features of the disclosure, but instead merely summarizes certain features and variations thereof.\",\n \"Other details and features will be described in the sections that follow.\"\n ],\n [\n \"CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION This application is a continuation application of International Application No.\",\n \"PCT/JP2016/066162, filed on Jun.\",\n \"1, 2016, which claims priority from Japanese Patent Application No.\",\n \"2015-144874, filed on Jul.\",\n \"22, 2015.The disclosure of the foregoing application is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety.\",\n \"FIELD The present disclosure relates to a pen cartridge that holds a pen, configured to be detachably attached to a plotter configured to perform drawing using the pen.\",\n \"BACKGROUND Conventionally, cutting plotters for cutting a sheet-like object such as paper into a desired shape are publicly known.\",\n \"Such a cutting plotter is provided with a cutter cartridge to cut an object and a carriage to which the cutter cartridge can be attached.\",\n \"A pen cartridge with a built-in pen can also be attached to this carriage instead of the cutter cartridge.\",\n \"With the pen cartridge attached to the carriage, the cutting plotter can draw a desired pattern or design on a surface of the object.\",\n \"The conventional pen cartridge is constructed of a cylindrical pen holder which includes four clamping pieces on a rear end side, a cap attached on a distal end side of the pen holder to perform alignment of the distal end of the pen, and a squeezer screwed to a rear end side of the pen holder to cause the clamping pieces to elastically deform toward an inner circumferential side.\",\n \"In this pen cartridge, with the cap attached to the pen holder, the pen is inserted into the pen holder until the pen hits a blocking plate of the cap.\",\n \"Next, the squeezer is fastened to the pen holder until the pen is sufficiently fixed, the cap is then removed and the pen holder is thereby attached to the carriage.\",\n \"SUMMARY However, since the conventional pen cartridge is configured to clamp the pen by the clamping pieces at one middle part of a pen shaft, it has a disadvantage of being unable to stably hold the pen.\",\n \"The present disclosure has been implemented in view of the above-described circumferences, and it is an object of the present disclosure to provide a pen cartridge configured to be detachably attached to a plotter while holding a pen and capable of stably holding the pen.\",\n \"In order to attain the above-described object, a pen cartridge according to the present disclosure is a pen cartridge that holds a pen, configured to be detachably attached to a plotter configured to perform drawing using the pen includes: a housing comprising a cylindrical hollow part into which the pen is inserted; an operation member provided on the housing; the operation member configured to rotate between a first position and a second position around a central axis with respect to the housing; the central axis extends in the direction in which the pen is inserted; and a grasping member provided in the housing and including a plurality of grasping parts configured to grasp an outer circumference of the pen inserted into the housing at a plurality of different locations in an axial direction which is a direction in which the central axis extends, the plurality of grasping parts configured to transition from a released state to a grasping state when the operation member is rotated from the first position to the second position, the released state being a state in which the pen is not grasped, and the grasping state being a state in which the pen is grasped.\",\n \"This summary is not intended to identify critical or essential features of the disclosure, but instead merely summarizes certain features and variations thereof.\",\n \"Other details and features will be described in the sections that follow.\",\n \"BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF DRAWINGS Aspects of the disclosure are illustrated by way of example, and not by limitation, in the accompanying figures in which like reference characters may indicate similar elements.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"1 illustrates an embodiment of the present disclosure and is a perspective view schematically illustrating an overall configuration of a cutting plotter; FIG.\",\n \"2 is a perspective view of a carriage part; FIG.\",\n \"3A is a front view illustrating a pen cartridge; FIG.\",\n \"3B is a top view illustrating the pen cartridge; FIG.\",\n \"4 is a longitudinal cross-sectional view along a line IV-IV in FIG.\",\n \"3B of the pen cartridge; FIG.\",\n \"5 is an exploded perspective view of the pen cartridge; FIG.\",\n \"6 is a lateral cross-sectional plan view along a line VI-VI in FIG.\",\n \"3A of a cam part; FIG.\",\n \"7A is a front view illustrating a grasping member before deformation; FIG.\",\n \"7B is a top view illustrating the grasping member before deformation; FIG.\",\n \"8A is a front view illustrating the deformed grasping member; FIG.\",\n \"8B is a top view illustrating the deformed grasping member; FIG.\",\n \"9A is a perspective view of a transmission member; FIG.\",\n \"9B is a bottom view of the transmission member; FIG.\",\n \"10 is a side view of an operation member; FIG.\",\n \"11 is a longitudinal cross-sectional view of the operation member; FIG.\",\n \"12 is a perspective view of a positioning jig; FIG.\",\n \"13 is a perspective view illustrating the pen cartridge attached to the positioning jig; and FIG.\",\n \"14 is a front view illustrating the pen held by the pen cartridge.\",\n \"DETAILED DESCRIPTION For a more complete understanding of the present disclosure, needs satisfied thereby, and the objects, features, and advantages thereof, reference now is made to the following descriptions taken in connection with the accompanying drawings.\",\n \"Hereinafter, illustrative embodiments will be described with reference to the accompanying drawings.\",\n \"Hereinafter, an embodiment that embodies the present disclosure will be described with reference to the accompanying drawings.\",\n \"Note that in the present embodiment, the present disclosure is applied to a pen cartridge attached to a cutting plotter.\",\n \"This cutting plotter is an apparatus configured to cut an object such as paper according to cutting data with a cutter cartridge attached to the cutting plotter.\",\n \"Furthermore, when a pen cartridge according to the present embodiment, instead of the cutter cartridge, is attached to the cutting plotter, it is possible to perform drawing using a pen on a surface of the object according to the drawing data.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"1 illustrates an external configuration of a cutting plotter 1 as a plotter.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"2 schematically illustrates a configuration of a carriage 5 provided in the cutting plotter 1.A schematic configuration of the cutting plotter 1 will be described first.\",\n \"As shown in FIG.\",\n \"1, the cutting plotter 1 is provided with a body cover 2, a platen 3 disposed in the body cover 2 and a carriage 5 to which a cutter cartridge 4 is detachably attached.\",\n \"The cutting plotter 1 is provided with a holding member 6 for holding a sheet-like object W such as paper and cloth.\",\n \"The body cover 2 has a laterally long rectangular box shape and a front opening 2a which is a laterally long opening is formed on a front thereof.\",\n \"The holding member 6 is inserted into the cutting plotter 1 from the front and set on a top surface of the platen 3.The holding member 6 set on the top surface of the platen 3 is transferred in a front-back direction (Y-direction).\",\n \"A transfer mechanism is provided in the body cover 2 to transfer the holding member 6 in the front-back direction (Y-direction) on the top surface of the platen 3.Furthermore, a carriage moving mechanism is provided in the body cover 2 to move the carriage 5 in a left-right direction (X-direction).\",\n \"Here, directions in the present embodiment will be defined.\",\n \"A transfer direction of the holding member 6 by the transfer mechanism is assumed to be the front-back direction (Y-direction).\",\n \"A moving direction of the carriage 5 by the carriage moving mechanism is assumed to be the left-right direction (X-direction).\",\n \"A direction orthogonal to the front-back direction and the left-right direction is assumed to be a vertical direction (Z-direction).\",\n \"As shown in FIG.\",\n \"2, the carriage 5 is provided with a cartridge holder 16 and a vertical drive mechanism (not shown) configured to drive the cartridge holder 16 in the vertical direction.\",\n \"The cartridge holder 16 detachably holds cartridges 4 and 21.When a cutting operation is performed on the object W, the cutter cartridge 4 is attached to the cartridge holder 16.Although not shown in detail, the cutter cartridge 4 is provided with a cylindrical case extending in the vertical direction and a cutter extending along its central axis.\",\n \"The cutter protrudes downward by a predetermined length from a bottom end part of the case and a blade is formed at its bottom end.\",\n \"Furthermore, when a drawing operation is performed on the object W, a pen cartridge 21 according to the present embodiment is attached to the cartridge holder 16.The pen cartridge 21 is intended to hold a pen P (see FIG.\",\n \"14 and FIG.\",\n \"3B), and details thereof will be described later.\",\n \"A commercially available felt pen or a ball-point pen or the like may be adopted as the pen P. As is generally known, the pen P is configured by including a pen point at a distal end part of a round bar-like penholder.\",\n \"The vertical drive mechanism is provided with a Z-axis motor (not shown) or the like and configured so as to move the cartridge holder 16 between a descending position where a cutting or drawing operation is performed and an ascending position where the cartridge holder 16 is retracted upward from the object W and no operation is performed.\",\n \"When the cutter cartridge 4 is attached, the blade of the cutter penetrates the object W held by the holding member 6 in a thickness direction at the descending position of the cartridge holder 16.The transfer mechanism moves the object W held by the holding member 6 in the front-back direction and the carriage moving mechanism moves the carriage 5, that is, the cutter in the left-right direction, and a cutting operation is thereby performed on the object W. When the pen cartridge 21 is attached, the distal end of the pen P is enabled to perform drawing in contact with the top surface of the object W at the descending position of the cartridge holder 16.Regarding a drawing operation, the transfer mechanism moves the object W held by the holding member 6 in the front-back direction and the carriage moving mechanism moves the carriage 5, that is, the pen cartridge 21 in the left-right direction.\",\n \"Although not shown, the cutting plotter 1 is provided with a control apparatus mainly constructed of a computer (CPU) for controlling the entire cutting plotter 1.The control apparatus performs a cutting operation or drawing operation according to an operation control program or the like and based on cutting data or drawing data.\",\n \"Note that, the control apparatus can recognize whether the cartridge attached to the cartridge holder 16 is the cutter cartridge 4 or the pen cartridge 21 based on detection by a sensor.\",\n \"The configuration of the pen cartridge 21 according to the present embodiment will be described with reference to FIG.\",\n \"3 to FIG.\",\n \"14.As shown in FIG.\",\n \"3 to FIG.\",\n \"5, the pen cartridge 21 is constructed of a housing 22, a grasping member 23, a transmission member 24, a coil spring 25, an operation member 26, a wave spring 27, a cap 28 and a rivet 29.When the orientation is referred to in the following description, the orientation will be described based on the vertical direction, the front-back direction and the left-right direction when the pen cartridge 21 is attached to the cartridge holder 16, that is, when the pen P is placed facedown in the vertical direction and used.\",\n \"The housing 22 is made of a rigid plastic material such as ABS resin and formed into a vertically long and substantially cylindrical shape as a whole.\",\n \"As shown in FIG.\",\n \"4 or the like, this housing 22 includes a cylindrical hollow part 22a into which the pen P is vertically inserted in a penetrating manner.\",\n \"Hereinafter, the direction in which a central axis of the cylindrical hollow part 22a extends will be referred to as an “axial direction” and the direction crossing the axial direction will be referred to as a “diameter direction.” More specifically, the housing 22 has the following configuration.\",\n \"As shown in FIG.\",\n \"5, the top end part of the housing 22 has a cylindrical peripheral wall, left and right parts of which are left open, while front and rear parts of which are left as they are, both of which integrally constitute arcuate walls 30 and 30 at the front and rear parts.\",\n \"Spaces between the arcuate walls 30 and 30 constitute side openings 22b and 22b.\",\n \"As is partially shown in FIG.\",\n \"4, male thread parts 30a and 30a are integrally formed into which the cap 28, which will be described later, is screwed on the outer circumferential surfaces of the top end parts of the respective arcuate walls 30 and 30.A flange part 31 is integrally provided on an outer circumferential surface of the housing 22 located below the arcuate walls 30 and 30 to receive a bottom end part of the operation member 26, which will be described later, so as to protrude in an outer circumferential direction.\",\n \"As shown in FIG.\",\n \"4 and FIG.\",\n \"5, a first ratchet part 31a and a second ratchet part 31b in which a plurality of grooves are formed, arranged side by side in the circumferential direction are provided on the top surface of the flange part 31 located close to the right and close to the left.\",\n \"As will be described later, the second ratchet part 31b on the left side forms a part of an engagement mechanism for holding the operation member 26 at a second position.\",\n \"As shown in FIG.\",\n \"5, a convex part 32, whose rearward protruding rear surface is made into a flat surface is integrally provided on the outer circumferential surface of the housing 22 at an intermediate part in the vertical direction, that is, below the flange part 31.Furthermore, as also shown in FIG.\",\n \"3A and FIG.\",\n \"14, a constricted part 33 is provided on the outer circumferential surface of the housing 22 located in a region close to the lower part to make the housing 22 narrower in the left-right direction.\",\n \"When the pen cartridge 21 is attached to the cartridge holder 16 or a positioning jig, which will be described later, the convex part 32 is used for positioning in the front-back direction and the constricted part 33 is used for positioning and holding in the vertical direction and the left-right direction.\",\n \"Note that as shown in FIG.\",\n \"3A and FIG.\",\n \"14 or the like, a mark M is formed at the intermediate part in the vertical direction, that is, on the front of the convex part 32 of the outer circumferential surface of the housing 22.The mark M indicates, using an arrow, an operation procedure of the operation member 26, which will be described later, that is, a procedure for lifting up, turning leftward and then lowering the operation member 26.As shown in FIG.\",\n \"4, a stepped part 34 is formed at an intermediate part in the vertical direction on an inner circumferential surface of the housing 22 such that an inner diameter of its lower part is a little smaller than that of its upper part.\",\n \"This stepped part 34 is provided in such a manner as to lock the grasping member 23, which will be described later, to prevent it from falling downward to position it in the vertical direction.\",\n \"As will be also shown in FIG.\",\n \"6, a cam surface 35 is formed in a region close to a lower part of the inner circumferential surface of the housing 22.This cam surface 35 is intended to deform an elastic deformation claw of the grasping member 23, which will be described later, and the cam surfaces 35 is formed at three locations in the circumferential direction at equal intervals according to the present embodiment.\",\n \"These cam surfaces 35 are formed such that the depth of the concave part decreases, that is, the inner diameter gradually decreases in a clockwise direction when seen from above (arrow A direction).\",\n \"Next, the grasping member 23 will be described.\",\n \"As also shown in FIG.\",\n \"7 and FIG.\",\n \"8, the grasping member 23 is made of a relatively soft plastic material such as POM resin and includes a cylindrical part 36, a first grasping part 37 provided below the cylindrical part 36 as a grasping part, a second grasping part 38 provided above the cylindrical part 36 as a grasping part and three engagement piece parts 39 provided above the cylindrical part 36 as an integrated body.\",\n \"The first grasping part 37 is provided on the bottom end side which is one end side in the axial direction of the grasping member 23 and the second grasping part 38 is provided on the top end side which is the other end side.\",\n \"The first grasping part 37 and the second grasping part 38 grasp the pen P at two different positions in the axial direction.\",\n \"This grasping member 23 is inserted into the cylindrical hollow part 22a of the housing 22 from above.\",\n \"At this time, a rib 39a provided on an outer circumferential surface of the engagement piece part 39 comes into contact with a top surface of the stepped part 34, and the grasping member 23 is accommodated in the housing 22, being prevented from falling downward, that is, being positioned in the vertical direction.\",\n \"The cylindrical part 36 has a cylindrical shape having a diameter at which it is inserted into the cylindrical hollow part 22a and integrally includes, on its outer circumferential surface, a ring-shaped convex part 36a directly below and slidingly contacting with the stepped part 34 of the inner circumferential surface of the housing 22.The grasping member 23 is thereby rotatably accommodated in the housing 22.The first grasping part 37 provided below the cylindrical part 36 is provided with a plurality of (three in this case) elastic deformation claws 40 to grasp the penholder of the pen P. The three elastic deformation claws 40 are provided at equal intervals, that is, at 120-degree intervals, extend downward in a narrow-width-shape from a bottom end part of the cylindrical part 36, have a spiral shape twisting in a clockwise direction (arrow A direction) toward the bottom when seen from above, and are configured to be elastically deformable in the diameter direction.\",\n \"The outer circumferential surface of the bottom end part of each elastic deformation claw 40 is disposed within each cam surface 35 as shown in FIG.\",\n \"6.In this case, when the operation member 26 is located at a first position as will be described later, the grasping member 23 is in a released state as shown in FIG.\",\n \"7 and the grasping member 23 transitions to a grasping state of grasping the pen P as the operation member 26 is rotated to the second position.\",\n \"When the grasping member 23 is in a released state, the bottom end part of each elastic deformation claw 40 is located at a deep position of each cam surface 35 as shown in FIG.\",\n \"6 and the bottom end part of each elastic deformation claw 40 is located on the outer circumferential side so as to overlap with the cylindrical part 36 when seen in the axial direction as shown in FIG.\",\n \"7B.\",\n \"In contrast, when the grasping member 23 rotates and displaces in the arrow A direction as the operation member 26 rotates, the bottom end part of each elastic deformation claw 40 comes into contact with the cam surface 35, moves in the arrow A direction along its slope, becomes elastically deformed in the inner circumferential direction, and the inner circumferential part of the bottom end of each elastic deformation claw 40 comes into contact with the outer circumferential surface of the penholder of the pen P to grasp the pen P from three directions as shown in FIG.\",\n \"8.According to the present embodiment, an area of the inner circumferential surface of each elastic deformation claw 40 in contact with the pen P is subjected to so-called emboss processing whereby fine projections and depressions are formed on the surface, thus forming an anti-slip part 40a.\",\n \"As shown in FIG.\",\n \"7 and FIG.\",\n \"8, the second grasping part 38 provided above the cylindrical part 36 is provided with a plurality of (three in this case) elastic pieces 41 to grasp the penholder of the pen P. The three elastic pieces 41 are provided at equal intervals, that is, at 120-degree intervals and extend upward in a narrow-width shape from the top end part of the cylindrical part 36.At this time, a slope 42 is formed on the outer circumferential side of the top end part of each elastic piece 41, integrally provided with a protruding part bulging toward the outer circumferential side with the protruding part facing the outer circumferential side which inclines toward the outer circumferential direction toward the bottom.\",\n \"As will be described later, when the operation member 26 is at the first position and the grasping member 23 is in the released state, the top end part of each elastic piece 41 is located on the outer circumferential side such that the top end part overlaps the cylindrical part 36 when seen from the axial direction as shown in FIG.\",\n \"7.In contrast, when the transmission member 24, which will be described later, descends along with a rotation of the operation member 26, the slope 42 is pressed toward the inner circumferential side, the top end part of the elastic piece 41 is elastically deformed in the inner circumferential direction, and the top end inner circumferential part of each elastic piece 41 comes into contact with the outer circumferential surface of the penholder of the pen P, grasping the pen P from three directions as shown in FIG.\",\n \"8.According to the present embodiment, an area of the inner circumferential surface of each elastic piece 41 in contact with the pen P is also subjected to so-called emboss processing, thus provided with an anti-slip part 41a, as partially shown in FIG.\",\n \"7 and FIG.\",\n \"8.As shown in FIG.\",\n \"5, FIG.\",\n \"7B and FIG.\",\n \"8B, the three engagement piece parts 39 are located at intervals between the respective elastic pieces 41 and extend upward in an arcuate plate shape along the arc of the cylindrical part 36 from the top end part of the cylindrical part 36.At this time, of the three engagement piece parts 39, one engagement piece part 39 located on the front side is configured to be greater than the other two engagement piece parts 39 in the width (length in the inner circumferential direction) in order to facilitate alignment in the rotating direction with the transmission member 24, which will be described later.\",\n \"As will be described later, these engagement piece parts 39 are configured to engage with the three operation piece parts of the transmission member 24 so as to overlap therewith on the inner circumferential surface side.\",\n \"In such an engagement state, regarding a displacement of the transmission member 24 in the vertical direction, the operation piece part moves sliding in the vertical direction with respect to the engagement piece parts 39, thereby preventing transmission of any force.\",\n \"Regarding the rotating direction of the transmission member 24, a force is transmitted via the engagement piece part 39.Thus, the grasping member 23 is configured to move integrally with the transmission member 24 in the rotating direction.\",\n \"As shown in FIG.\",\n \"9, the transmission member 24 is formed of a plastic material such as POM resin integrally including a main body 43 which is a relatively thick cylindrical part and three operation piece parts 44 extending downward from the inner circumferential part of the main body 43.A receiving concave part 43a for receiving the bottom end part of the coil spring 25 is formed into a ring shape in the top end face part of the main body 43.Protrusion parts 45 and 45 are integrally provided on the outer circumferential surface of the main body 43 so as to protrude in the diameter direction sideward from the top of both the left and right end parts.\",\n \"As will be described later, these protrusion parts 45 and 45 protrude toward the outer circumferential side by passing through the side openings 22b and 22b of the top end part of the housing 22, and engage with cam parts 48 on the inner circumferential surface of the operation member 26.This causes the transmission member 24 to move in the vertical direction and rotate.\",\n \"As also shown in FIG.\",\n \"4, a tapered surface 46 is formed in a lower part of the inner circumferential surface of the main body 43 such that the inner diameter gradually decreases upward from the bottom end part.\",\n \"As shown in FIG.\",\n \"9B, this tapered surface 46 is formed at three locations where the operation piece part 44 is absent.\",\n \"As will be described later, the tapered surface 46 comes into contact with the slope 42 of the top end part of each elastic piece 41 to play the role of elastically deforming each elastic piece 41 in the inner diameter direction.\",\n \"Note that the transmission member 24 is always biased downward by the coil spring 25, which will be described later, and the protrusion parts 45 are configured to always engage with the cam parts 48.As shown in FIG.\",\n \"9, the operation piece part 44 extends downward from the lower part of the inner circumferential surface of the main body 43 and is integrally provided, and located at three locations in the inner circumferential direction in correspondence with the three engagement piece parts 39 of the grasping member 23.These operation piece parts 44 have an arcuate thin plate shape when seen from the top surface and its outer circumferential surface is provided so as to have slide contact with the inner circumferential surface of each engagement piece part 39 so as to move relatively slidably in the vertical direction.\",\n \"Along with this, an engagement wall part 44a that locks both end sides in the circumferential direction of each engagement piece part 39 is integrally provided in both end sides in the circumferential direction of the outer circumferential surface of each operation piece part 44.Thus, each engagement piece part 39 is configured to slide so as not to apply any force of vertical motion of the operation piece part 44 but to transmit rotational movement of the operation piece part 44 to each engagement piece part 39.As shown in FIG.\",\n \"10 and FIG.\",\n \"11, the operation member 26 is made of a plastic material such as POM resin and formed into a thin cylindrical shape in such a size that the operation member 26 is placed on the flange part 31 engaged with the outer circumferential wall of the arcuate walls 30 and 30 of the top end part of the housing 22.An anti-slip concavo-convex part extending in the vertical direction is formed over the entire outer circumferential surface of the operation member 26 and a plurality of ribs 26a for the user to hook them with a finger to perform a rotation operation are integrally provided at one location in the circumferential direction so as to protrude in the outer circumferential direction.\",\n \"The operation member 26 rotatably engages with the outer circumference of the top end part of the housing 22, and a tooth part 47 that engages with the first ratchet part 31a or the second ratchet part 31b when the tooth part 47 comes to just on either ratchet is integrally provided on the lower end face part of the operation member 26.In this case, when the tooth part 47 engages with the first ratchet part 31a, the operation member 26 is thereby held at the first position, and when the tooth part 47 engages with the second ratchet part 31b, the operation member 26 is thereby held at the second position.\",\n \"Therefore, a locking mechanism is formed of the tooth part 47 and the second ratchet part 31b.\",\n \"The cam parts 48 are formed on the inner circumferential surface of the operation member 26 at left and right positions to operate the transmission member 24.This cam part 48 is provided so that the protrusion part 45 of the transmission member 24 is placed on the top surface and is formed into a sloped shape so that the top surface becomes lower as it goes in the counterclockwise direction (left side in FIG.\",\n \"11).\",\n \"The protrusion part 45 relatively moves along the cam part 48 and its further descent is prevented by two ribs 22c (only one is shown in FIG.\",\n \"5 and FIG.\",\n \"4) provided in the housing 22.As shown in FIG.\",\n \"5, the ribs 22c are disposed at lower sides of the side openings 22b and 22b respectively.\",\n \"A stopper wall 48a is also provided on the inner circumferential surface of the operation member 26.The operation member 26 is provided so as to be rotatable around the outer circumference of the top end part of the housing 22 with some backlash in the vertical direction by being sandwiched between the cap 28 and the flange part 31 from above and from below.\",\n \"In this case, a ring-shaped wave spring 27 is disposed between the top end face of the operation member 26 and the cap 28 and the operation member 26 thereby always receives a pressure downward, that is, in a direction in which the tooth part 47 engages with the ratchet parts 31a and 31b.\",\n \"As shown in FIG.\",\n \"4 and FIG.\",\n \"5, the cap 28 is made of a plastic material such as ABS resin and configured into a hollow ring shape in which the undersurface is open, that is, the top end parts of a large-diameter outer peripheral wall and a small-diameter inner peripheral wall are integrally connected at the ring-shaped top wall part.\",\n \"In this case, the inner diameter of the cap 28 coincides with the inner diameter of the main body 43 of the transmission member 24 or the cylindrical part 36 of the grasping member 23, and the outside diameter is slightly greater than the outside diameter of the operation member 26.As shown in FIG.\",\n \"4, a female thread part 49 is formed inside the cap 28, located on the inner circumferential side of the outer peripheral wall to be screwed to the male thread part 30a of the arcuate wall 30 of the housing 22.A receiving part 28a is provided inside the cap 28 as shown in FIG.\",\n \"4, located on the inner circumferential side to receive the top end part of the coil spring 25.A ring-shaped concave part 28b in which the wave spring 27 is disposed is provided in the undersurface on the outer circumferential side inside the cap 28.Furthermore, as shown in FIG.\",\n \"3B and FIG.\",\n \"5, a hole 50 into which the rivet 29 is inserted is provided in the upper wall of the cap 28.When the rivet 29 is inserted in the hole 50, the cap 28 is fixed to the housing 22 so as to prevent the cap 28 from rotating.\",\n \"In the pen cartridge 21, the operation member 26 is made rotatable between the first position shown in FIG.\",\n \"3 or the like and the second position to which the operation member 26 moves rotating in the arrow A direction from there.\",\n \"While the operation member 26 is stopped at the first position, the cam part 48 of the operation member 26 causes the protrusion part 45 of the transmission member 24 to be located at the topmost position of the inclination of the cam part 48 as shown by a solid line in FIG.\",\n \"11, and the transmission member 24 is in a first state.\",\n \"In the first state, the transmission member 24 is located at the highest position in the vertical direction and also at a predetermined rotation position.\",\n \"In the first state of the transmission member 24, as shown in FIG.\",\n \"4, the bottom end part of the tapered surface 46 is in contact with the top end part of the slope 42 of each elastic piece 41 of the second grasping part 38 and each elastic piece 41 is located on the outer circumferential side without elastic deformation.\",\n \"Along with this, in the first state of the transmission member 24, due to the engagement between the operation piece part 44 and the engagement piece part 39, the bottom end part of each elastic deformation claw 40 of the first grasping part 37 is located at the deepest position of the concave part of the cam surface 35 of the housing 22 as shown in FIG.\",\n \"6 and the elastic deformation claw 40 is located on the outer circumferential side without elastic deformation.\",\n \"Thus, the grasping member 23 is in a released state without grasping the pen P as shown in FIG.\",\n \"7.The user can operate the operation member 26 in the arrow A direction from the first position to make it rotate to the second position.\",\n \"In this case, at the first position of the operation member 26, since the tooth part 47 engages with the first ratchet part 31a, it is possible to cause the operation member 26 to rotate by lifting the operation member 26 upward once against a spring force of the wave spring 27 to thereby release the engagement.\",\n \"After the rotation of the operation member 26 toward the second position, if the force against the spring force of the wave spring 27 is released, the spring force of the wave spring 27 causes the tooth part 47 to engage with the second ratchet part 31b and causes the operation member 26 to be held at the second position.\",\n \"When the operation member 26 is rotated toward the second position, the protrusion part 45 relatively moves along the cam part 48 in an arrow C direction up to a position indicated by an imaginary line in FIG.\",\n \"11 and the transmission member 24 descends.\",\n \"After the protrusion part 45 relatively comes into contact with the stopper wall 48a, the protrusion part 45, and the transmission member 24 as well, rotate and move integrally with the operation member 26 in the arrow A direction and the transmission member 24 is placed in a second state.\",\n \"In the second state, the transmission member 24 descends from the first state and also rotates in the arrow A direction.\",\n \"Thus, the tapered surface 46 descends while sliding over the slope 42 of each elastic piece 41, elastically deforming each elastic piece 41 in an inner diameter direction.\",\n \"Along with this, the engagement between the operation piece part 44 and the engagement piece part 39 causes the grasping member 23 to rotate, and as indicated by the arrow A in FIG.\",\n \"6, each elastic deformation claw 40 moves along the cam surface 35 and each elastic deformation claw 40 is elastically deformed in the inner diameter direction.\",\n \"Thus, in the grasping member 23, the three elastic deformation claws 40 of the first grasping part 37 are elastically deformed toward the inner diameter side as shown in FIG.\",\n \"8 and the three elastic pieces 41 of the second grasping part 38 are elastically deformed toward the inner diameter side, and a grasping state in which the pen P is grasped is thereby set.\",\n \"Therefore, it is possible to cause the pen cartridge 21 to hold the pen P by inserting the pen P into the cylindrical hollow part 22a of the housing 22 at the first position of the operation member 26 and then rotating the operation member 26 at the second position.\",\n \"Note that the user rotates the operation member 26 in a direction opposite to that indicated by the arrow A from the second position to the first position while lifting the operation member 26 using the reverse procedure of the above-described one, whereby the transmission member 24 returns to the first position from the second position and the grasping member 23 returns to the released state.\",\n \"The pen P is thereby released from the grasping state, and can be extracted from the pen cartridge 21.Furthermore, according to the present embodiment, the pen cartridge 21 is provided with a positioning jig 51 for positioning in the axial direction when inserting the pen P into the housing 22.The positioning jig 51 will be described with reference to FIG.\",\n \"12 to FIG.\",\n \"14.This positioning jig 51 is made of a plastic material and is integrally constructed of a rectangular plate-shaped base wall part 52, a rear wall part 53 standing upright from the rear side of the base wall part 52, and left and right side wall parts 54 and 54 extending forward from the left and right sides of the rear wall part 53.The top surface of the base wall part 52 constitutes a contact part 52a with which the distal end of the pen P comes into contact and a line L serving as a mark indicating a central position in the left-right direction is provided from the distal end face to the top surface in the distal end side of the base wall part 52.The left and right side wall parts 54 and 54 of the positioning jig 51 are provided with a mounting part 55 having a shape that corresponds to the constricted part 33 of the housing 22 and the part therebelow as shown in FIG.\",\n \"14.By inserting the pen cartridge 21 into the mounting part 55 from the front, the housing 22 is held at a predetermined position in the axial direction.\",\n \"The rear surface of the housing 22 of the convex part 32 comes into contact with the front surface of the rear wall part 53.At this time, if the distal end part of the pen P is made to contact the contact part 52a while the pen cartridge 21 is held by the mounting part 55, the distal end part of the pen P is held at an appropriate height position, that is, the length of the distal end part of the pen P protruding from the housing 22 is set to an appropriate length.\",\n \"The pen P can be attached to the pen cartridge 21 using this positioning jig 51 as follows.\",\n \"As shown in FIG.\",\n \"13, the pen cartridge 21 is attached to the mounting part 55 of the positioning jig 51.At this time, the operation member 26 is placed at the first position.\",\n \"Next, the pen P is inserted into the cylindrical hollow part 22a of the pen cartridge 21 from above with the distal end thereof placed face down.\",\n \"While keeping the distal end of the pen P in contact with the contact part 52a, the operation member 26 of the pen cartridge 21 is rotated to the second position to cause the pen cartridge 21 to grasp the pen P. After that, the pen cartridge 21 grasping the pen P is removed forward.\",\n \"Use of the positioning jig 51 allows the pen cartridge 21 to hold the pen P at an appropriate position in the axial direction during an insertion of the pen into the pen cartridge 21 and can easily complete the operation in that case.\",\n \"Note that by comparing the distal end of the pen P with the line L, it is possible to confirm whether or not the pen point of the pen is held at the center without the axis misaligned.\",\n \"The pen cartridge 21 of the present embodiment can obtain the following operations and effects.\",\n \"That is, by inserting the pen P into the cylindrical hollow part 22a of the housing 22 in a penetrating state and causing the operation member 26 to rotate from the first position to the second position, it is possible to cause the grasping member 23 to transition from a released state to a grasping state.\",\n \"The grasping member 23 includes the first grasping part 37 at the bottom end part as well as the second grasping part 38 at the top end part so that the outer circumference of the pen P is grasped by these grasping parts at two locations in the axial direction.\",\n \"Furthermore, the first grasping part 37 and the second grasping part 38 can be operated simultaneously by a single operation of the operation member 26.Therefore, according to the present embodiment, it is possible to stably hold the pen P by a simple operation using the pen cartridge 21 detachably attached to the cutting plotter 1 while holding the pen P. According to the present embodiment, the first grasping part 37 is constructed of three elastic deformation claws 40, the cylindrical hollow parts 22a of the housing 22 are provided with three cam surfaces 35 for operating them, the grasping member 23 is caused to rotate and move interlocking with the operation member 26 and the three elastic deformation claws 40 are configured to be elastically deformed in the inner diameter direction by an action of the cam surfaces 35.This makes it possible to construct a mechanism for operating the first grasping part 37 with a relatively simple configuration of providing the cam surfaces 35 in the housing 22.In this case, it is possible to stably and reliably grasp the outer circumference of the pen P with a plurality of (three in this case) elastic deformation claws 40 from three directions.\",\n \"Furthermore, the present embodiment adopts a configuration in which the second grasping part 38 is constructed of three elastic pieces 41 and the transmission member 24 that operates interlocking with the rotation of the operation member 26 causes the three elastic pieces 41 to elastically deform in the inner diameter direction.\",\n \"This makes it possible to construct a mechanism for operating the second grasping part 38 still in a relatively simple configuration while being different from the first grasping part 37.In this case, the transmission member 24 makes it possible to perform not only the grasping operation of the second grasping part 38 but also the grasping operation of the first grasping part 37, allowing grasping of the pen P to be performed in a much simpler configuration.\",\n \"Furthermore, the present embodiment adopts a configuration in which the operation member 26 is provided with the tooth part 47, the housing 22 is provided with the first ratchet part 31a and the second ratchet part 31b, and the operation member 26 can be held at the first position and the second position by locking of those parts, and it is thereby possible to prevent an unintentional rotation of the operation member 26 and more reliably perform a rotation operation of the operation member 26.Since the anti-slip parts 40a and 41a are provided in regions of the elastic deformation claws 40 of the first grasping part 37 and the elastic pieces 41 of the second grasping part 38 where these parts come into contact with the pen P, it is unlikely for the grasping parts 37 and 38 to slide over the pen P and it is thereby possible to make it more reliable to grasp the pen P. Since the first grasping part 37 and the second grasping part 38 are independent of each other, and so they can each hold pens of different diameters.\",\n \"That is, when one pen is used, even if the diameter of the pen differs between the position of the pen grasped by the first grasping part 37 and the position grasped by the second grasping part 38, it is possible to grasp the pen appropriately in accordance with the respective diameters.\",\n \"Note that the above-described embodiment has described the pen cartridge 21 which can be detachably attached to the carriage 5 of the cutting plotter 1, but it goes without saying that the pen cartridge 21 can also be detachably attached to a pen plotter (X-Y plotter) for drawing or the like.\",\n \"Examples of the pen P to which the above-described embodiment is applicable include not only a felt pen but also writing utensils in general such as a ball-point pen or a mechanical pencil.\",\n \"As the anti-slip parts 40a and 41a, a separate anti-slip member such as thin plate-like rubber may be pasted to them instead of applying embossing thereto.\",\n \"Moreover, although the above-described embodiment provides two grasping parts in the axial direction, three or more grasping parts may be provided.\",\n \"A configuration with three elastic deformation claws and elastic pieces has been described but a configuration with four or more elastic deformation claws and elastic pieces may be adopted.\",\n \"In addition, shapes and structures or the like of components such as the housing, operation member, grasping member constituting the pen cartridge can be changed in various ways, and the positioning jig 51 need not always be provided and the like.\",\n \"As such, the present disclosure is not limited to the aforementioned embodiment but can be changed and implemented as appropriate without departing from the spirit and scope of range.\",\n \"In the embodiments described above, a single CPU may perform all of the processes.\",\n \"Nevertheless, the disclosure may not be limited to the specific embodiment thereof, and a plurality of CPUs, a special application specific integrated circuit (“ASIC”), or a combination of a CPU and an ASIC may be used to perform the processes.\",\n \"The foregoing description and drawings are merely illustrative of the principles of the disclosure and are not to be construed in a limited sense.\",\n \"Various changes and modifications will become apparent to those of ordinary skill in the art.\",\n \"All such changes and modifications are seen to fall within the scope of the disclosure as defined by the appended claims.\"\n ]\n]"},"source":{"kind":"string","value":"Patent_15875390"}}},{"rowIdx":4494866,"cells":{"text":{"kind":"list like","value":[["COMPOUND, MATERIAL FOR ORGANIC ELECTROLUMINESCENCE ELEMENT, ORGANIC ELECTROLUMINESCENCE ELEMENT, AND ELECTRONIC DEVICE","A compound represented by formula (1): wherein R1 to R6, R7 to R10, R11 to R14, R15 to R18, L1, L2, Ar1, and Ar2 are as defined in the description realizes an organic electroluminescence device with long lifetime."],["1.A compound represented by formula (1): wherein: each of R1 to R6 is independently a hydrogen atom, a substituted or unsubstituted alkyl group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted cycloalkyl group having 3 to 10 ring carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted aryl group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted haloalkyl group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted alkoxy group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted haloalkoxy group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted aryloxy group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms, a halogen atom, or a cyano group; one of R7 to R10 is a single bond bonded to *a, and each of the others of R7 to R10 is independently a hydrogen atom, a substituted or unsubstituted alkyl group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted cycloalkyl group having 3 to 10 ring carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted aryl group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted haloalkyl group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted alkoxy group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted haloalkoxy group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted aryloxy group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms, a halogen atom, or a cyano group; one of R11 to R14 is a single bond bonded to *b, and each of the others of R11 to R14 is independently a hydrogen atom, a substituted or unsubstituted alkyl group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted cycloalkyl group having 3 to 10 ring carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted aryl group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted haloalkyl group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted alkoxy group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted haloalkoxy group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted aryloxy group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms, a halogen atom, or a cyano group; each of R15 to R18 is independently a hydrogen atom, a substituted or unsubstituted alkyl group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted cycloalkyl group having 3 to 10 ring carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted aryl group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted haloalkyl group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted alkoxy group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted haloalkoxy group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted aryloxy group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms, a halogen atom, or a cyano group; each of L1 and L2 is independently a single bond, a substituted or unsubstituted arylene group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms, or a substituted or unsubstituted heteroarylene group having 5 to 18 ring atoms; and each of Ar1 and Ar2 is independently a substituted or unsubstituted aryl group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms; provided that at least one selected from Ar1 and Ar2 is a substituted or unsubstituted fluoranthenyl group.","2.The compound according to claim 1, wherein the compound is represented by formula (2): wherein R1 to R7, R9 to R12, R14 to R18, L1, L2, Ar1, and Ar2 are the same as defined above.","3.The compound according to claim 1, wherein the compound is represented by formula (3): wherein R1 to R7, R9 to R11, R13 to R18, L1, L2, Ar1, and Ar2 are the same as defined above.","4.The compound according to claim 1, wherein the compound is represented by formula (4): wherein R1 to R8, R10 to R12, R14 to R18, L1, L2, Ar1, and Ar2 are the same as defined above.","5.The compound according to claim 1, wherein the compound is represented by formula (5): wherein R1 to R8, R10, R11, R13 to R18, L1, L2, Ar1, and Ar2 are the same as defined above.","6.The compound according to claim 1, wherein: the an alkyl group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms in the substituted or unsubstituted alkyl group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms for R1 to R18 is selected from the group consisting of a methyl group, an ethyl group, a n-propyl group, an isopropyl group, a n-butyl group, an isobutyl group, as-butyl group, a t-butyl group, a pentyl group (inclusive of isomeric groups), a hexyl group (inclusive of isomeric groups), a heptyl group (inclusive of isomeric groups), an octyl group (inclusive of isomeric groups), a nonyl group (inclusive of isomeric groups), a decyl group (inclusive of isomeric groups), an undecyl group (inclusive of isomeric groups), and a dodecyl group (inclusive of isomeric groups); the cycloalkyl group having 3 to 10 ring carbon atoms in the substituted or unsubstituted cycloalkyl group having 3 to 10 ring carbon atoms for R1 to R18 is selected from the group consisting of a cyclopropyl group, a cyclobutyl group, a cyclopentyl group, a cyclohexyl group, and a cycloheptyl group; the aryl group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms in the substituted or unsubstituted aryl group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms for R1 to R18 is selected from the group consisting of a phenyl group, a biphenylyl group, a terphenylyl group, a biphenylenyl group, a naphthyl group, an acenaphthylenyl group, an anthryl group, a benzanthryl group, an aceanthryl group, a phenanthryl group, a benzophenanthryl group, a triphenylenyl group, a phenalenyl group, a fluorenyl group, a pyrenyl group, a chrysenyl group, as-indanyl group, an as-indanyl group, and a fluoranthenyl group; the haloalkyl group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms in the substituted or unsubstituted haloalkyl group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms for R1 to R18 is selected from the group consisting of a heptafluoropropyl group (inclusive of isomeric groups), a pentafluoroethyl group, a 2,2,2-trifluoroethyl group, and a trifluoromethyl group; the alkoxy group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms in the substituted or unsubstituted alkoxy group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms for R1 to R18 is selected from the group consisting of a t-butoxy group, a propoxy group (inclusive of isomeric groups), an ethoxy group, and a methoxy group; the haloalkoxy group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms in the substituted or unsubstituted haloalkoxy group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms for R1 to R18 is selected from the group consisting of a heptafluoropropoxy group (inclusive of isomeric groups), a pentafluoroethoxy group, a 2,2,2-trifluoroethoxy group, and a trifluoromethoxy group; the aryloxy group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms in the substituted or unsubstituted aryloxy group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms for R1 to R18 comprises an aryl group selected from the group consisting of a phenyl group, a biphenylyl group, a terphenylyl group, a biphenylenyl group, a naphthyl group, an acenaphthylenyl group, an anthryl group, a benzanthryl group, an aceanthryl group, a phenanthryl group, a benzophenanthryl group, a triphenylenyl group, a phenalenyl group, a fluorenyl group, a pyrenyl group, a chrysenyl group, as-indanyl group, an as-indanyl group, and a fluoranthenyl group; the halogen atom for R1 to R18 is selected from the group consisting of a fluorine atom, a chlorine atom, a bromine atom, and an iodine atom; the arylene group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms in the substituted or unsubstituted arylene group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms for L1 and L2 is a group obtained by removing one hydrogen atom from an aryl group selected from the group consisting of a phenyl group, a biphenylyl group, a terphenylyl group, a biphenylenyl group, a naphthyl group, an acenaphthylenyl group, an anthryl group, a benzanthryl group, an aceanthryl group, a phenanthryl group, a benzophenanthryl group, a triphenylenyl group, a phenalenyl group, a fluorenyl group, a pyrenyl group, a chrysenyl group, as-indanyl group, an as-indanyl group, and a fluoranthenyl group; the heteroarylene group having 5 to 18 ring atoms in the substituted or unsubstituted heteroarylene group having 5 to 18 ring atoms for L1 and L2 is a group obtained by removing one hydrogen atom from a heteroaryl group selected from the group consisting of a pyrrolyl group, a furyl group, a thienyl group, a pyridyl group, a pyridazinyl group, a pyrimidinyl group, a pyrazinyl group, a triazinyl group, an imidazolyl group, an oxazolyl group, a thiazolyl group, a pyrazolyl group, an isoxazolyl group, an isothiazolyl group, an oxadiazolyl group, a thiadiazolyl group, a triazolyl group, an indolyl group, an isoindolyl group, a benzofuranyl group, an isobenzofuranyl group, a benzotiophenyl group, an indolizinyl group, a quinolizinyl group, a quinolyl group, an isoquinolyl group, a cinnolyl group, a phthalazinyl group, a quinazolinyl group, a quinoxalinyl group, a benzimidazolyl group, a benzoxazolyl group, a benzothiazolyl group, an indazolyl group, a benzisoxazoly group, a benzisothiazolyl group, a dibenzofuranyl group, a naphthobenzofuranyl group, a dibenzotiophenyl group, a naphthobenzotiophenyl group, a carbazolyl group, a benzocarbazolyl group, a phenanthridinyl group, an acridinyl group, a phenanthrolinyl group, a phenazinyl group, a phenothiazinyl group, a phenoxazinyl group, and a xanthenyl group; and the aryl group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms in the substituted or unsubstituted aryl group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms for Ar1 and Ar2 is selected from the group consisting of a phenyl group, a biphenylyl group, a terphenylyl group, a biphenylenyl group, a naphthyl group, an acenaphthylenyl group, an anthryl group, a benzanthryl group, an aceanthryl group, a phenanthryl group, a benzophenanthryl group, a triphenylenyl group, a phenalenyl group, a fluorenyl group, a pyrenyl group, a chrysenyl group, as-indanyl group, an as-indanyl group, and a fluoranthenyl group.","7.The compound according to claim 1, wherein each of adjacent two groups selected from R1 to R6, adjacent two groups selected from R7 to R10, adjacent two groups selected from R11 to R14, and adjacent two groups selected from R15 to R18 may be respectively bonded to each other to from a substituted or unsubstituted ring.","8.The compound according to claim 1, wherein adjacent two groups selected from R1 to R6, R7 to R10, to R14, and R15 to R18 do not form a ring.","9.The compound according to claim 1, wherein R1 to R6, R7 to R10 which is not a single bond bonded to *a, R11 to R14 which is not a single bond bonded to *b, and R15 to R18 are all hydrogen atoms.","10.The compound according to claim 1, wherein L1 is a single bond and L2 is a substituted or unsubstituted arylene group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms or a substituted or unsubstituted heteroarylene group having 5 to 18 ring atoms.","11.The compound according to claim 1, wherein L2 is a single bond and L1 is a substituted or unsubstituted arylene group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms or a substituted or unsubstituted heteroarylene group having 5 to 18 ring atoms.","12.The compound according to claim 1, wherein each of L1 and L2 is independently a substituted or unsubstituted arylene group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms or a substituted or unsubstituted heteroarylene group having 5 to 18 ring atoms.","13.The compound according to claim 10, wherein the arylene group in the substituted or unsubstituted arylene group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms is selected from the group consisting of a phenylene group, a naphthylene group, and a biphenylylene group.","14.The compound according to claim 1, wherein each of L1 and L2 is a single bond.","15.The compound according to claim 1, wherein Ar1 is a substituted or unsubstituted aryl group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms and Ar2 is a substituted or unsubstituted fluoranthenyl group.","16.The compound according to claim 1, wherein Ar2 is a substituted or unsubstituted aryl group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms and Ar1 is a substituted or unsubstituted fluoranthenyl group.","17.The compound according to claim 15, wherein the aryl group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms in the substituted or unsubstituted aryl group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms is selected from the group consisting of a phenyl group, a naphthyl group, a biphenylyl group, a phenanthryl group, and a triphenylenyl group.","18.The compound according to claim 1, wherein the substituted or unsubstituted fluoranthenyl group is a substituted or unsubstituted 1-fluoranthenyl group, a substituted or unsubstituted 3-fluoranthenyl group, a substituted or unsubstituted 7-fluoranthenyl group, or a substituted or unsubstituted 8-fluoranthenyl group.","19.The compound according to claim 1, wherein an optional substituent referred to by “substituted or unsubstituted” is at least one group selected from the group consisting of an alkyl group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, a cycloalkyl group having 3 to 10 ring carbon atoms, an aralkyl group having 7 to 30 carbon atoms comprising an aryl group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms, an aryl group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms, an alkoxy group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, an aryloxy group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms, a mono-, di-, or tri-substituted silyl group, wherein the substituent is selected from an alkyl group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms and an aryl group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms, a haloalkyl group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, a haloalkoxy group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, a halogen atom, a cyano group, and a nitro group.","20.A material for organic electroluminescence devices comprising the compound according to claim 1.21.An organic electroluminescence device comprising a cathode, an anode, and an organic thin film layer between the cathode and the anode, wherein the organic thin film layer comprises one or more layers, the organic thin film layer comprises a light emitting layer, and at least one layer of the organic thin film layer comprises the compound according to claim 1.22.The organic electroluminescence device according to claim 21, wherein the light emitting layer comprises a host material and the host material is the compound.","23.The organic electroluminescence device according to claim 21, wherein the light emitting layer comprises a dopant material and the dopant material is a phosphorescent emitting material.","24.The organic electroluminescence device according to claim 23, wherein the phosphorescent emitting material is an ortho metallated complex of a metal atom selected from the group consisting of iridium, osmium, ruthenium, and platinum.","25.An electronic device comprising the organic electroluminescence device according to claim 21.26.The compound according to claim 1, wherein the compound is any one selected from the following compounds: 27.An organic electroluminescence device comprising a cathode, an anode, and an organic thin film layer between the cathode and the anode, wherein the organic thin film layer comprises one or more layers, the organic thin film layer comprises a light emitting layer, and at least one layer of the organic thin film layer comprises the compound according to claim 26.28.The organic electroluminescence device according to claim 27, wherein the light emitting layer comprises a host material and the host material is the compound.","29.An electronic device comprising the organic electroluminescence device according to claim 27."],[" BACKGROUND ART Organic electroluminescence devices (hereinafter also referred to as “organic EL device”) comprising an organic compound are much expected to be useful as inexpensive, large-sized full color display devices of solid state emission type and many developments have been made thereon.","An organic EL device is generally constructed from a light emitting layer and a pair of opposite electrodes sandwiching the light emitting layer.","When an electric field is applied between the electrodes, electrons are injected from a cathode and holes are injected from an anode into the light emitting layer.","The injected electrons recombine with the injected holes in the light emitting layer to form excited states.","When the excited state returns to the ground state, the energy is released as light.","Many researches have been made on the applications of organic EL device to display, etc.","because of its possibility of a wide selection of emission colors by using various emitting materials in a light emitting layer.","Particularly, the research on the materials which emit three primary red, green, and blue colors has been made most actively, and the intensive research has been made to improve their properties.","As a material for organic electroluminescence device, Patent Literature 1 describes a compound having a 3,3′-biscarbazole structure in which a benzene ring is fused to 6,7-position or 5,6-position of one of the carbazole structures and a phenyl group and a 3-fluoranthenyl group are respectively bonded to two nitrogen atoms.","Patent Literature 2 describes a compound having a 3,3′-biscarbazole structure in which two benzene rings are fused to 7,8-position of one of the carbazole structures and 7′,8′-position of the other and a 1-naphthyl group and a 2-a pyrenyl group are respectively bonded to two nitrogen atoms.","Patent Literature 2 further describes a compound in which a benzo[a]carbazole structure is bonded to a phenaleno[1,9-b,c]carbazole structure."],[" SUMMARY OF INVENTION "],["CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application is a continuation application of prior U.S. application Ser.","No.","15/502,354, filed Feb. 7, 2017, the disclosure of which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.","U.S. application Ser.","No.","15/502,354 in the national stage of PCT/JP2016/067696, filed Jun.","14, 2016, the disclosure of which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.","U.S. application Ser.","No.","15/502,354 claims priority to Japanese Application No.","2015-120993, filed Jun.","16, 2015, to PCT/JP2015/070045, filed Jul.","13, 2015, and Japanese Application No.","2015-212049, filed Oct. 28, 2015, the disclosures of which are incorporated herein by reference in their entireties.","TECHNICAL FIELD The present invention relates to compounds, materials for organic electroluminescence devices comprising the compound, organic electroluminescence devices comprising the compound, and electronic devices comprising the organic electroluminescence device.","BACKGROUND ART Organic electroluminescence devices (hereinafter also referred to as “organic EL device”) comprising an organic compound are much expected to be useful as inexpensive, large-sized full color display devices of solid state emission type and many developments have been made thereon.","An organic EL device is generally constructed from a light emitting layer and a pair of opposite electrodes sandwiching the light emitting layer.","When an electric field is applied between the electrodes, electrons are injected from a cathode and holes are injected from an anode into the light emitting layer.","The injected electrons recombine with the injected holes in the light emitting layer to form excited states.","When the excited state returns to the ground state, the energy is released as light.","Many researches have been made on the applications of organic EL device to display, etc.","because of its possibility of a wide selection of emission colors by using various emitting materials in a light emitting layer.","Particularly, the research on the materials which emit three primary red, green, and blue colors has been made most actively, and the intensive research has been made to improve their properties.","As a material for organic electroluminescence device, Patent Literature 1 describes a compound having a 3,3′-biscarbazole structure in which a benzene ring is fused to 6,7-position or 5,6-position of one of the carbazole structures and a phenyl group and a 3-fluoranthenyl group are respectively bonded to two nitrogen atoms.","Patent Literature 2 describes a compound having a 3,3′-biscarbazole structure in which two benzene rings are fused to 7,8-position of one of the carbazole structures and 7′,8′-position of the other and a 1-naphthyl group and a 2-a pyrenyl group are respectively bonded to two nitrogen atoms.","Patent Literature 2 further describes a compound in which a benzo[a]carbazole structure is bonded to a phenaleno[1,9-b,c]carbazole structure.","CITATION LIST Patent Literature Patent Literature 1: WO 2012/108388 A1 Patent Literature 2: KR 2015-0012835A SUMMARY OF INVENTION Technical Problem To further improve the performance of an organic EL device, it has been required to further develop a material useful for use in an organic EL device.","Thus, an object of the invention is to provide an organic EL device with a long lifetime and a compound capable of realizing such an organic EL device.","Solution to Problem As a result of extensive research in view of achieving the above object, the inventors have found that a compound represented by formula (1) realizes an organic EL device with a long lifetime.","In an aspect of the invention, the following (1) to (4) are provided: (1) a compound represented by formula (1) (hereinafter also referred to as “compound (1)”): wherein: each of R1 to R6 is independently a hydrogen atom, a substituted or unsubstituted alkyl group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted cycloalkyl group having 3 to 10 ring carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted aryl group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted haloalkyl group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted alkoxy group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted haloalkoxy group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted aryloxy group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms, a halogen atom, or a cyano group; one of R7 to R10 is a single bond bonded to *a and each of the others of R7 to R10 is independently a hydrogen atom, a substituted or unsubstituted alkyl group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted cycloalkyl group having 3 to 10 ring carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted aryl group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted haloalkyl group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted alkoxy group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted haloalkoxy group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted aryloxy group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms, a halogen atom, or a cyano group; one of R11 to R14 is a single bond bonded to *b and each of the others of R11 to R14 is independently a hydrogen atom, a substituted or unsubstituted alkyl group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted cycloalkyl group having 3 to 10 ring carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted aryl group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted haloalkyl group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted alkoxy group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted haloalkoxy group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted aryloxy group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms, a halogen atom, or a cyano group; each of R15 to R18 is independently a hydrogen atom, a substituted or unsubstituted alkyl group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted cycloalkyl group having 3 to 10 ring carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted aryl group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted haloalkyl group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted alkoxy group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted haloalkoxy group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted aryloxy group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms, a halogen atom, or a cyano group; each of L1 and L2 is independently a single bond, a substituted or unsubstituted arylene group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms, or a substituted or unsubstituted heteroarylene group having 5 to 18 ring atoms; and each of Ar1 and Ar2 is independently a substituted or unsubstituted aryl group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms; provided that at least one selected from Ar1 and Ar2 is a substituted or unsubstituted fluoranthenyl group; (2) a material for organic electroluminescence devices comprising the compound of item (1); (3) an organic electroluminescence device comprising a cathode, an anode, and an organic thin film layer between the cathode and the anode, wherein the organic thin film layer comprises one or more layers, the organic thin film layer comprises a light emitting layer, and at least one layer of the organic thin film layer comprises the compound of item (1); and (4) an electronic device comprising the organic electroluminescence device of item (3).","Advantageous Effects of Invention By using the compound of the invention as a material for organic EL devices, an organic EL device with a long lifetime is obtained.","BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF DRAWINGS FIG.","1 is a schematic view showing the structure of the organic EL device in an aspect of the invention.","DESCRIPTION OF EMBODIMENTS The term of “XX to YY carbon atoms” referred to by “a substituted or unsubstituted group ZZ having XX to YY carbon atoms” used herein is the number of carbon atoms of the unsubstituted group ZZ and does not include any carbon atom in the substituent of the substituted group ZZ.","The term of “XX to YY atoms” referred to by “a substituted or unsubstituted group ZZ having XX to YY atoms” used herein is the number of atoms of the unsubstituted group ZZ and does not include any atom in the substituent of the substituted group ZZ.","The term of “unsubstituted group ZZ” referred to by “substituted or unsubstituted group ZZ” used herein means that no hydrogen atom in the group ZZ is substituted by a substituent.","The definition of “hydrogen atom” used herein includes isotopes different in the neutron numbers, i.e., light hydrogen (protium), heavy hydrogen (deuterium), and tritium.","The number of “ring carbon atoms” referred to herein means, unless otherwise noted, the number of the carbon atoms included in the atoms which are members forming the ring itself of a compound in which a series of atoms is bonded to form a ring (for example, a monocyclic compound, a fused ring compound, a cross-linked compound, a carbocyclic compound, and a heterocyclic compound).","If the ring has a substituent, the carbon atom in the substituent is not included in the ring carbon atom.","For example, a benzene ring has 6 ring carbon atoms, a naphthalene ring has 10 ring carbon atoms, a pyridinyl group has 5 ring carbon atoms, and a furanyl group has 4 ring carbon atoms.","If a benzene ring or a naphthalene ring has, for example, an alkyl substituent, the carbon atom in the alkyl substituent is not counted as the ring carbon atom of the benzene or naphthalene ring.","In case of a fluorene ring to which a fluorene substituent is bonded (inclusive of a spirofluorene ring), the carbon atom in the fluorene substituent is not counted as the ring carbon atom of the fluorene ring.","The number of “ring atom” referred to herein means, unless otherwise noted, the number of the atoms which are members forming the ring itself (for example, a monocyclic ring, a fused ring, and a ring assembly) of a compound in which a series of atoms is bonded to form the ring (for example, a monocyclic compound, a fused ring compound, a cross-linked compound, a carbocyclic compound, and a heterocyclic compound).","The atom not forming the ring (for example, hydrogen atom(s) for saturating the valence of the atom which forms the ring) and the atom in a substituent, if the ring is substituted, are not counted as the ring atom.","For example, a pyridine ring has 6 ring atoms, a quinazoline ring has 10 ring atoms, and a furan ring has 5 ring atoms.","The hydrogen atom on the ring carbon atom of a pyridine ring or a quinazoline ring and the atom in a substituent are not counted as the ring atom.","In case of a fluorene ring to which a fluorene substituent is bonded (inclusive of a spirofluorene ring), the atom in the fluorene substituent is not counted as the ring atom of the fluorene ring.","The optional substituent referred to by “substituted or unsubstituted” used herein is at least one selected from the group consisting of an alkyl group having 1 to 20, preferably 1 to 5, and more preferably 1 to 4 carbon atoms; a cycloalkyl group having 3 to 10, preferably 3 to 6, and more preferably 5 or 6 ring carbon atoms; an aryl group having 6 to 18, preferably 6 to 10, and more preferably 6 ring carbon atoms; an aralkyl group having an aryl group having 6 to 18, preferably 6 to 10, and more preferably 6 ring carbon atoms; an alkoxy group having 1 to 20, preferably 1 to 5, and more preferably 1 to 4 carbon atoms; an aryloxy group having 6 to 18, preferably 6 to 10, and more preferably 6 ring carbon atoms; a mono-, di-, or tri-substituted silyl group, wherein the substituent is selected from an alkyl group having 1 to 20, preferably 1 to 5, and more preferably 1 to 4 carbon atoms and an aryl group having 6 to 18, preferably 6 to 10, and more preferably 6 ring carbon atoms; a haloalkyl group having 1 to 20, preferably 1 to 5, and more preferably 1 to 4 carbon atoms; a haloalkoxy group having 1 to 20, preferably 1 to 5, and more preferably 1 to 4 carbon atoms; a halogen atom; a cyano group; and a nitro group.","The optional substituent may be a group other than those mentioned above, as long as the effect of the invention is obtained.","The details of the groups mentioned above are described below with respect to R1 to R6.In the present invention, examples, preferred examples, etc.","described with respect to a group may be combined with examples, preferred examples, etc.","described with respect to any of other groups.","A specific group selected from examples, preferred examples, etc.","described with respect to a group may be combined with another specific group selected from examples, preferred examples, etc.","described with respect to any of other groups.","The same also applies to the number of atoms, the number of carbon atoms, and other features.","In addition, the same also applies to any of the combinations between the groups, the number of atoms, the number of carbon atoms, and other features.","The compound in an aspect of the invention is represented by formula (1): wherein: each of R1 to R6 is independently a hydrogen atom, a substituted or unsubstituted alkyl group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted cycloalkyl group having 3 to 10 ring carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted aryl group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted haloalkyl group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted alkoxy group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted haloalkoxy group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted aryloxy group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms, a halogen atom, or a cyano group; one of R7 to R10 is a single bond bonded to *a and each of the others of R7 to R10 is independently a hydrogen atom, a substituted or unsubstituted alkyl group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted cycloalkyl group having 3 to 10 ring carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted aryl group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted haloalkyl group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted alkoxy group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted haloalkoxy group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted aryloxy group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms, a halogen atom, or a cyano group; one of R11 to R14 is a single bond bonded to *b and each of the others of R11 to R14 is independently a hydrogen atom, a substituted or unsubstituted alkyl group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted cycloalkyl group having 3 to 10 ring carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted aryl group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted haloalkyl group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted alkoxy group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted haloalkoxy group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted aryloxy group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms, a halogen atom, or a cyano group; each of R15 to R18 is independently a hydrogen atom, a substituted or unsubstituted alkyl group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted cycloalkyl group having 3 to 10 ring carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted aryl group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted haloalkyl group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted alkoxy group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted haloalkoxy group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted aryloxy group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms, a halogen atom, or a cyano group; each of L1 and L2 is independently a single bond, a substituted or unsubstituted arylene group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms, or a substituted or unsubstituted heteroarylene group having 5 to 18 ring atoms: and each of Ar1 and Ar2 is independently a substituted or unsubstituted aryl group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms; provided that at least one selected from Ar1 and Ar2 is a substituted or unsubstituted fluoranthenyl group.","The compound (1) is preferably represented by formula (2): wherein R1 to R7, R9 to R12, R14 to R18, L1, L2, Ar1, and Ar2 are the same as defined above.","The compound (1) is preferably represented by formula (3): wherein R1 to R7, R9 to R11, R13 to R18, L1, L2, Ar1, and Ar2 are the same as defined above.","The compound (1) is preferably represented by formula (4): wherein R1 to R8, R10 to R12, R14 to R18, L1, L2, Ar1, and Ar2 are the same as defined above.","The compound (1) is preferably represented by formula (5): wherein R1 to R8, R10, R11, R13 to R18, L1, L2, Ar1, and Ar2 are the same as defined above.","The compound (1) may be represented by any of formulae (6), (7) and (1a): wherein R1 to R6, R7 to R10, R11 to R14, R15 to R18, L1, L2, Ar1, and Ar2 are the same as defined above; provided that when R8 is a single bond bonded to *a, R13 is a single bond bonded to *b, R1 to R7, R9 to R12, and R14 to R18 are all hydrogen atoms, L1 and L2 are both single bonds, and one of Ar1 and Ar2 is a phenyl group, the other of Ar1 and Ar2 is a substituted or unsubstituted fluoranthenyl group selected from the group consisting of a substituted or unsubstituted 1-fluoranthenyl group, a substituted or unsubstituted 2-fluoranthenyl group, a substituted or unsubstituted 3-fluoranthenyl group, a substituted or unsubstituted 7-fluoranthenyl group, and a substituted or unsubstituted 8-fluoranthenyl group.","R1 to R6, R7 to R10, R11 to R14, R15 to R18, L1, L2, Ar1, Ar2 of formulae (1) to (5) and (1a) are described below in more detail.","Each of R1 to R6 is independently a hydrogen atom; a substituted or unsubstituted alkyl group having 1 to 20, preferably 1 to 5, and more preferably 1 to 4 carbon atoms; a substituted or unsubstituted cycloalkyl group having 3 to 10, preferably 3 to 6, and more preferably 5 or 6 ring carbon atoms; a substituted or unsubstituted aryl group having 6 to 18, preferably 6 to 10, and more preferably 6 ring carbon atoms; a substituted or unsubstituted haloalkyl group having 1 to 20, preferably 1 to 5, and more preferably 1 to 4 carbon atoms; a substituted or unsubstituted alkoxy group having 1 to 20, preferably 1 to 5, and more preferably 1 to 4 carbon atoms; a substituted or unsubstituted haloalkoxy group having 1 to 20, preferably 1 to 5, and more preferably 1 to 4 carbon atoms; a substituted or unsubstituted aryloxy group having 6 to 18, preferably 6 to 10, and more preferably 6 ring carbon atoms; a halogen atom; or a cyano group.","Each of R1 to R6 is independently and preferably selected from the group consisting of a hydrogen atom, a substituted or unsubstituted alkyl group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted aryl group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted aryloxy group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms, and a cyano group, and more preferably selected from the group consisting of a hydrogen atom, a substituted or unsubstituted alkyl group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, and a substituted or unsubstituted aryl group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms.","R1 to R6 may be all hydrogen atoms.","In the substituted or unsubstituted alkyl group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, examples of the alkyl group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms include a methyl group, an ethyl group, a n-propyl group, an isopropyl group, a n-butyl group, an isobutyl group, as-butyl group, a t-butyl group, a pentyl group (inclusive of isomeric groups), a hexyl group (inclusive of isomeric groups), a heptyl group (inclusive of isomeric groups), an octyl group (inclusive of isomeric groups), a nonyl group (inclusive of isomeric groups), a decyl group (inclusive of isomeric groups), an undecyl group (inclusive of isomeric groups), and a dodecyl group (inclusive of isomeric groups), with a methyl group, an ethyl group, a n-propyl group, an isopropyl group, a n-butyl group, an isobutyl group, as-butyl group, a t-butyl group, and a pentyl group (inclusive of isomeric groups) being preferred, a methyl group, an ethyl group, a n-propyl group, an isopropyl group, a n-butyl group, an isobutyl group, as-butyl group, and a t-butyl group being more preferred, and a methyl group and a t-butyl group being still more preferred.","In the substituted or unsubstituted cycloalkyl group having 3 to 10 ring carbon atoms, examples of the cycloalkyl group having 3 to 10 ring carbon atoms include a cyclopropyl group, a cyclobutyl group, a cyclopentyl group, a cyclohexyl group, and a cycloheptyl group, with a cyclopropyl group, a cyclobutyl group, a cyclopentyl group, and a cyclohexyl group being preferred, and a cyclopentyl group and a cyclohexyl group being more preferred.","In the substituted or unsubstituted aryl group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms, examples of the aryl group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms include a phenyl group, a biphenylyl group, a terphenylyl group, a biphenylenyl group, a naphthyl group, an acenaphthylenyl group, an anthryl group, a benzanthryl group, an aceanthryl group, a phenanthryl group, a benzophenanthryl group, a triphenylenyl group, a phenalenyl group, a fluorenyl group, a pyrenyl group, a chrysenyl group, as-indanyl group, an as-indanyl group, and a fluoranthenyl group, with a phenyl group, a 1-naphthyl group, a 2-naphthyl group, a biphenylyl group, such as a 2-, 3- or 4-biphenylyl group, and a terphenylyl group, such as a 2-p-terphenylyl group, a 4-p-terphenylyl group, a 2′-m-terphenylyl group, and a 5′-m-terphenylyl group being preferred, a phenyl group, a 1-naphthyl group, and a 2-naphthyl group being more preferred, and a phenyl group being still more preferred.","Examples of the substituted aryl group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms include a 9,9-dimethylfluorenyl group and a 9,9-diphenylfluorenyl group.","In the substituted or unsubstituted haloalkyl group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, the haloalkyl group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms is, for example, a group obtained by replacing at least one, preferably 1 to 7 hydrogen atoms, or all the hydrogen atoms of the alkyl group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms mentioned above with a halogen atom selected from the group consisting of a fluorine atom, a chlorine atom, a bromine atom, and an iodine atom, preferably a fluorine atom.","Examples thereof include a fluoroalkyl group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, with a heptafluoropropyl group (inclusive of isomeric groups), a pentafluoroethyl group, a 2,2,2-trifluoroethyl group, and a trifluoromethyl group being more preferred, a pentafluoroethyl group, a 2,2,2-trifluoroethyl group, and a trifluoromethyl group being still more preferred, and a trifluoromethyl group being particularly preferred.","The substituted or unsubstituted alkoxy group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms is represented by —ORa, wherein Ra is the substituted or unsubstituted alkyl group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms mentioned above.","The alkoxy group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms is preferably a t-butoxy group, a propoxy group (inclusive of isomeric groups), an ethoxy group, or a methoxy group, more preferably an ethoxy group or a methoxy group, and still more preferably a methoxy group.","The substituted or unsubstituted haloalkoxy group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms is represented by —ORb, wherein Rb is the substituted or unsubstituted haloalkyl group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms and preferably a substituted or unsubstituted fluoroalkyl group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, each mentioned above.","The haloalkoxy group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms is preferably a fluoroalkoxy group, more preferably a heptafluoropropoxy group (inclusive of isomeric groups), a pentafluoroethoxy group, a 2,2,2-trifluoroethoxy group, or a trifluoromethoxy group, still more preferably a pentafluoroethoxy group, a 2,2,2-trifluoroethoxy group, or a trifluoromethoxy group, and particularly preferably a trifluoromethoxy group.","The substituted or unsubstituted aryloxy group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms is represented by —ORc, wherein Rc is the substituted or unsubstituted aryl group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms mentioned above.","Examples of the aryl group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms include a phenyl group, a biphenylyl group, a terphenylyl group, a biphenylenyl group, a naphthyl group, an acenaphthylenyl group, an anthryl group, a benzanthryl group, an aceanthryl group, a phenanthryl group, a benzophenanthryl group, a triphenylenyl group, a phenalenyl group, a fluorenyl group, a pyrenyl group, a chrysenyl group, as-indanyl group, an as-indanyl group, and a fluoranthenyl group, with a phenyl group, a 1-naphthyl group, a 2-naphthyl group, a biphenylyl group, such as a 2-, 3- or 4-biphenylyl group, and a terphenylyl group, such as a 2-p-terphenylyl group, a 4-p-terphenylyl group, a 2′-m-terphenylyl group, and a 5′-m-terphenylyl group being preferred, a phenyl group, a 1-naphthyl group and a 2-naphthyl group being more preferred, and a phenyl group being still more preferred.","The halogen atom includes a fluorine atom, a chlorine atom, a bromine atom, and an iodine atom, with a fluorine atom being preferred.","One of R7 to R10, preferably R8 or R9, is a single bond bonded to *a.","Each of the others of R7 to R10 is independently a hydrogen atom, a substituted or unsubstituted alkyl group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted cycloalkyl group having 3 to 10 ring carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted aryl group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted haloalkyl group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted alkoxy group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted haloalkoxy group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted aryloxy group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms, a halogen atom, or a cyano group.","The details of the groups for the others of R7 to R10 are the same as those of the corresponding groups mentioned above with respect to R1 to R6 Each of the others of R7 to R10 is independently and preferably selected from the group consisting of a hydrogen atom, a substituted or unsubstituted alkyl group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted aryl group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted aryloxy group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms, and a cyano group, and more preferably selected from the group consisting of a hydrogen atom, a substituted or unsubstituted alkyl group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, and a substituted or unsubstituted aryl group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms.","The others of R7 to R10 may be all hydrogen atoms.","One of R11 to R14, preferably R12 or R13, is a single bond bonded to *b.","Each of the others of R11 to R14 is independently a hydrogen atom, a substituted or unsubstituted alkyl group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted cycloalkyl group having 3 to 10 ring carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted aryl group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted haloalkyl group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted alkoxy group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted haloalkoxy group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted aryloxy group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms, a halogen atom, or a cyano group.","The details of the groups for the others of R11 to R14 are the same as those of the corresponding groups mentioned above with respect to R1 to R6.Each of the others of R11 to R14 is independently and preferably selected from the group consisting of a hydrogen atom, a substituted or unsubstituted alkyl group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted aryl group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted aryloxy group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms, and a cyano group, and more preferably selected from the group consisting of a hydrogen atom, a substituted or unsubstituted alkyl group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, and a substituted or unsubstituted aryl group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms.","The others of R11 to R14 may be all hydrogen atoms.","Each of R15 to R18 is independently a hydrogen atom, a substituted or unsubstituted alkyl group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted cycloalkyl group having 3 to 10 ring carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted aryl group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted haloalkyl group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted alkoxy group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted haloalkoxy group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted aryloxy group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms, a halogen atom, or a cyano group.","The details of the groups for R15 to R18 are the same as those of the corresponding groups mentioned above with respect to R1 to R6.Each of R15 to R18 is independently and preferably selected from the group consisting of a hydrogen atom, a substituted or unsubstituted alkyl group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted aryl group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted aryloxy group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms, and a cyano group, and more preferably selected from the group consisting of a hydrogen atom, a substituted or unsubstituted alkyl group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, and a substituted or unsubstituted aryl group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms.","R15 to R18 may be all hydrogen atoms.","Each of adjacent two groups selected from R1 to R6, adjacent two groups selected from R7 to R10, adjacent two groups selected from R11 to R14, and adjacent two groups selected from R15 to R18 may be respectively bonded to each other to from a substituted or unsubstituted ring, or may not form a ring.","In an embodiment of the invention, adjacent two groups selected from R1 to R6, R7 to R10, R11 to R14, and R15 to R18 preferably do not form a ring.","Example of the ring to be formed by the adjacent two groups together with two ring carbon atoms to which the adjacent two groups are bonded includes a substituted or unsubstituted hydrocarbon ring, preferably a substituted or unsubstituted aromatic hydrocarbon ring, more preferably a substituted or unsubstituted benzene ring, and still more preferably an unsubstituted benzene ring.","Each of L1 and L2 is independently, a single bond, a substituted or unsubstituted arylene group having 6 to 18, preferably 6 to 10, and more preferably 6 ring carbon atoms, or a substituted or unsubstituted heteroarylene group 5 to 18, preferably 5 to 14, and more preferably 5 to 10 ring atoms, preferably a single bond or a substituted or unsubstituted arylene group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms, and more preferably a single bond or an unsubstituted arylene group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms.","In the substituted or unsubstituted arylene group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms, the arylene group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms is a group obtained by removing one hydrogen atom from the aryl group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms mentioned above, preferably a group obtained by removing one hydrogen atom from an aryl group selected from the group consisting of a phenyl group, a biphenylyl group, a terphenylyl group, a biphenylenyl group, a naphthyl group, an acenaphthylenyl group, an anthryl group, a benzanthryl group, an aceanthryl group, a phenanthryl group, a benzophenanthryl group, a triphenylenyl group, a phenalenyl group, a fluorenyl group, a pyrenyl group, a chrysenyl group, as-indanyl group, an as-indanyl group, and a fluoranthenyl group, more preferably a group selected from the group consisting of a phenylene group, a naphthylene group, and a biphenylylene group, and still more preferably a group selected from the group consisting of an o-phenylene group, a m-phenylene group, a p-phenylene group, a 1,4-naphthalenediyl group, a 1,5-naphthalenediyl group, a 2,6-naphthalenediyl group, a 2,7-naphthalenediyl group, a 2,2′-biphenyldiyl group, a 2,3′-biphenyldiyl group, a 2,4′-biphenyldiyl group, a 3,3′-biphenyldiyl group, a 3,4′-biphenyldiyl group, and a 4,4′-biphenyldiyl group.","In the substituted or unsubstituted heteroarylene group having 5 to 18 ring atoms, the heteroarylene group having 5 to 18 ring atoms comprises 1 to 5, preferably 1 to 3, and more preferably 1 or 2 ring heteroatoms, such as a nitrogen atom, a sulfur atom, and an oxygen atom.","Example thereof is a group obtained by removing one hydrogen atom from a heteroaryl group selected from the group consisting of a pyrrolyl group, a furyl group, a thienyl group, a pyridyl group, a pyridazinyl group, a pyrimidinyl group, a pyrazinyl group, a triazinyl group, an imidazolyl group, an oxazolyl group, a thiazolyl group, a pyrazolyl group, an isoxazolyl group, an isothiazolyl group, an oxadiazolyl group, a thiadiazolyl group, a triazolyl group, an indolyl group, an isoindolyl group, a benzofuranyl group, an isobenzofuranyl group, a benzotiophenyl group (benzothienyl group), an indolizinyl group, a quinolizinyl group, a quinolyl group, an isoquinolyl group, a cinnolyl group, a phthalazinyl group, a quinazolinyl group, a quinoxalinyl group, a benzimidazolyl group, a benzoxazolyl group, a benzothiazolyl group, an indazolyl group, a benzisoxazoly group, a benzisothiazolyl group, a dibenzofuranyl group, a naphthobenzofuranyl group, group (dibenzothienyl group), a naphthobenzotiophenyl group, a N-carbazolyl group, a C-carbazolyl group, a benzo-N-carbazolyl group, a benzo-C-carbazolyl group, a phenanthridinyl group, an acridinyl group, a phenanthrolinyl group, a phenazinyl group, a phenothiazinyl group, a phenoxazinyl group, and a xanthenyl group.","Preferred example thereof is a group obtained by removing one hydrogen atom from a heteroaryl group selected from the group consisting of a pyridyl group, a pyrimidinyl group, a pyrazinyl group, a triazinyl group, an imidazolyl group, an oxazolyl group, a thiazolyl group, an isoxazolyl group, an isothiazolyl group, a triazolyl group, an indolyl group, a benzofuranyl group, an isobenzofuranyl group, a benzotiophenyl group (a benzothienyl group), a quinolizinyl group, a quinolyl group, an isoquinolyl group, a quinazolinyl group, a quinoxalinyl group, a benzimidazolyl group, a benzoxazolyl group, a benzothiazolyl group, an indazolyl group, a benzisoxazoly group, a benzisothiazolyl group, a dibenzofuranyl group, a naphthobenzofuranyl group, a dibenzotiophenyl group (a dibenzothienyl group), a naphthobenzotiophenyl group, a N-carbazolyl group, a C-carbazolyl group, a benzo-N-carbazolyl group, a benzo-C-carbazolyl group, a phenanthridinyl group, an acridinyl group, a phenanthrolinyl group, a phenazinyl group, a phenothiazinyl group, a phenoxazinyl group, and a xanthenyl group.","More preferred example thereof is a group obtained by removing one hydrogen atom from a heteroaryl group selected from the group consisting of a pyridyl group, a pyrimidinyl group, a triazinyl group, an indolyl group, a quinolizinyl group, a quinolyl group, a quinazolinyl group, a quinoxalinyl group, a benzimidazolyl group, a benzothiazolyl group, a benzisoxazoly group, a benzisothiazolyl group, a dibenzofuranyl group, a naphthobenzofuranyl group, a dibenzotiophenyl group (a dibenzothienyl group), a naphthobenzotiophenyl group, a N-carbazolyl group, a C-carbazolyl group, a benzo-N-carbazolyl group, a benzo-C-carbazolyl group, and a phenanthrolinyl group.","Still more preferred example is a group obtained by removing one hydrogen atom from a heteroaryl group selected from the group consisting of a pyridyl group, a pyrimidinyl group, a triazinyl group, a quinazolinyl group, a N-carbazolyl group, and a C-carbazolyl group.","Each of Ar1 and Ar2 is independently a substituted or unsubstituted aryl group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms, provided that at least one selected from Ar1 and Ar2 is a substituted or unsubstituted fluoranthenyl group.","In the substituted or unsubstituted aryl group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms for Ar1 and Ar2, the aryl group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms is selected from the aryl group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms mentioned above with respect to R1 to R6.The aryl group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms is preferably selected from the group consisting of a phenyl group, a naphthyl group, a biphenylyl group, a phenanthryl group, and a triphenylenyl group, more preferably selected from the group consisting of a phenyl group, a 1-naphthyl group, a 2-naphthyl group, a 2-biphenylyl group, a 3-biphenylyl group, and a 4-biphenylyl group, and still more preferably a phenyl group.","The substituted or unsubstituted fluoranthenyl group is represented by formula (8): wherein one of R21 to R30 is a single bond bonded to *c, each of the others of R21 to R30 is independently a hydrogen atom, a substituted or unsubstituted alkyl group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted cycloalkyl group having 3 to 10 ring carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted aryl group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted haloalkyl group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted alkoxy group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted haloalkoxy group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted aryloxy group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms, a halogen atom, or a cyano group.","The details of the groups for the others of R21 to R30 are the same as those of the corresponding groups mentioned above with respect to R1 to R6.Each of the others of R21 to R30 is independently and preferably selected from the group consisting of a hydrogen atom, a substituted or unsubstituted alkyl group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted aryl group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted aryloxy group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms, and a cyano group, and more preferably selected from the group consisting of a hydrogen atom, a substituted or unsubstituted alkyl group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, and a substituted or unsubstituted aryl group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms.","The others of R21 to R30 may be all hydrogen atoms.","In the substituted or unsubstituted fluoranthenyl group, the fluoranthenyl group is selected from the group consisting of a 1-fluoranthenyl group (R21 or R26 is a single bond bonded to *c), a 2-fluoranthenyl group (R22 or R25 is a single bond bonded to *c), a 3-fluoranthenyl group (R23 or R24 is a single bond bonded to *c), a 7-fluoranthenyl group (R27 or R30 is a single bond bonded to *c), and a 8-fluoranthenyl group (R28 or R29 is a single bond bonded to *c), and preferably a 1-fluoranthenyl group, a 3-fluoranthenyl group, a 7-fluoranthenyl group, or a 8-fluoranthenyl group.","In view of improving the performance of EL devices, for example, prolonging the lifetime, a 3-fluoranthenyl group and a 8-fluoranthenyl group are preferred.","In formulae (1) to (5) and (1a), L1 and L2 satisfy any one of the following (a) to (d), preferably (a) or (b): (a) L1 is a single bond, and L2 is a substituted or unsubstituted arylene group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms or a substituted or unsubstituted heteroarylene group having 5 to 18 ring atoms, preferably a substituted or unsubstituted arylene group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms, and more preferably an unsubstituted arylene group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms, each mentioned above; (b) L2 is a single bond, and L1 is a substituted or unsubstituted arylene group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms or a substituted or unsubstituted heteroarylene group having 5 to 18 ring atoms, preferably a substituted or unsubstituted arylene group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms, and more preferably an unsubstituted arylene group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms, each mentioned above; (c) each of L1 and L2 is independently a substituted or unsubstituted arylene group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms or a substituted or unsubstituted heteroarylene group having 5 to 18 ring atoms, preferably a substituted or unsubstituted arylene group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms, and more preferably an unsubstituted arylene group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms, each mentioned above; and (d) L1 and L2 are both single bonds.","In formulae (1) to (5) and (1a), Ar1 and Ar2 satisfy any one of the following (e) to (g), preferably (e) or (f): (e) Ar1 is a substituted or unsubstituted aryl group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms and Ar2 is a substituted or unsubstituted fluoranthenyl group, each mentioned above; (f) Ar2 is a substituted or unsubstituted aryl group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms and Ar1 is a substituted or unsubstituted fluoranthenyl group, each mentioned above; and (g) each of Ar1 and Ar2 is independently a substituted or unsubstituted fluoranthenyl group mentioned above.","In the substituted or unsubstituted aryl group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms of formula (e) or (f), the aryl group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms is preferably selected from the group consisting of a phenyl group, a naphthyl group, a biphenylyl group, a phenanthryl group, and a triphenylenyl group, more preferably selected from the group consisting of a phenyl group, a 1-naphthyl group, a 2-naphthyl group, a 2-biphenylyl group, a 3-biphenylyl group, and a 4-biphenylyl group, and still more preferably a phenyl group.","Each of (a) to (d) may be combined with any of (e) to (g).","The above substituted or unsubstituted fluoranthenyl group is as described above with respect to formula (8).","One of ordinary skill in the art could easily produce the compound (1) by selecting a starting compound corresponding to an aimed compound and reacting the selected starting compound with reference to the synthesis examples described below.","Examples of the compound (1) of the invention are shown below, although not limited thereto.","Material for Organic Electroluminescence Devices The material for organic electroluminescence devices in an aspect of the invention comprises the compound represented by formula (1) (compound (1)).","The content of the compound (1) in the material for organic electroluminescence devices is, but not particularly limited, 1% by mass or more (inclusive of 100%), preferably 10% by mass or more (inclusive of 100%), more preferably 50% by mass or more (inclusive of 100%), still more preferably 80% by mass or more (inclusive of 100%), and particularly preferably 90% by mass or more (inclusive of 100%).","The material for organic EL devices of the invention is useful as a material for producing an organic EL device and may be used, for example, in a light emitting layer of a phosphorescent emitting unit as a host material.","Organic Electroluminescence Device The organic EL device in an aspect of the invention will be described below.","The organic EL device comprises an organic thin film layer between a cathode and an anode.","The organic thin film layer comprises one or more layers and a light emitting layer, and at least one layer of the organic thin film layer comprises the compound (1).","Examples of the organic thin film layer which comprises the compound (1) include a light emitting layer, although not limited thereto.","For example, the compound (1) is preferably used in a phosphorescent emission unit as a host material in a light emitting layer.","The organic EL device in an aspect of the invention may be any of a fluorescent or phosphorescent single color emitting device, a white-emitting device of fluorescent-phosphorescent hybrid type, a simple-type emitting device having a single emission unit, and a tandem emitting device having two or more emission units, with a fluorescent device being preferred.","The “emission unit” referred to herein is the smallest unit for emitting light by the recombination of injected holes and injected electrons, which comprises an organic thin film layer comprising one or more layers, wherein at least one layer is a light emitting layer.","Representative device structures of the simple-type organic EL device are shown below: (1) Anode/Emission Unit/Cathode The emission unit may be a laminated unit comprising two or more layers selected from a phosphorescent light emitting layer and a fluorescent light emitting layer.","A space layer may be disposed between the light emitting layers to prevent the diffusion of excitons generated in the phosphorescent light emitting layer into the fluorescent light emitting layer.","Representative layered structures of the simple-type emission unit are shown below: (a) (hole injecting layer/) hole transporting layer/fluorescent emitting layer (/electron transporting layer); (b) (hole injecting layer/) hole transporting layer/first fluorescent emitting layer/second fluorescent emitting layer (/electron transporting layer); (c) (hole injecting layer/) hole transporting layer/phosphorescent emitting layer/space layer/fluorescent emitting layer (/electron transporting layer); (d) (hole injecting layer/) hole transporting layer/first phosphorescent emitting layer/second phosphorescent emitting layer/space layer/fluorescent emitting layer (/electron transporting layer); (e) (hole injecting layer/) hole transporting layer/first phosphorescent emitting layer/space layer/second phosphorescent emitting layer/space layer/fluorescent emitting layer (/electron transporting layer); (f) (hole injecting layer/) hole transporting layer/phosphorescent emitting layer/space layer/first fluorescent emitting layer/second fluorescent emitting layer (/electron transporting layer); (g) (hole injecting layer/) hole transporting layer/electron blocking layer/fluorescent emitting layer (/electron transporting layer); (h) (hole injecting layer/) hole transporting layer/electron blocking layer/phosphorescent emitting layer (/electron transporting layer); (i) (hole injecting layer/) hole transporting layer/exciton blocking layer/fluorescent emitting layer (/electron transporting layer); (j) (hole injecting layer/) hole transporting layer/exciton blocking layer/phosphorescent emitting layer (/electron transporting layer); (k) (hole injecting layer/) first hole transporting layer/second hole transporting layer/fluorescent emitting layer (/electron transporting layer); (l) (hole injecting layer/) first hole transporting layer/second hole transporting layer/phosphorescent emitting layer (/electron transporting layer); (m) (hole injecting layer/) hole transporting layer/fluorescent emitting layer/hole blocking layer (/electron transporting layer); and (n) (hole injecting layer/) hole transporting layer/fluorescent emitting layer/triplet blocking layer (/electron transporting layer).","The emission color of the fluorescent emitting layer and that of the phosphorescent emitting layer may be different.","For example, the layered structure of the laminated emission unit (d) may be (hole injecting layer/) hole transporting layer/first phosphorescent emitting layer (red emission)/second phosphorescent emitting layer (green emission)/space layer/fluorescent emitting layer (blue emission)/electron transporting layer.","An electron blocking layer may be disposed between the light emitting layer and the hole transporting layer or between the light emitting layer and the space layer, if necessary.","Also, a hole blocking layer may be disposed between the light emitting layer and the electron transporting layer, if necessary.","With such an electron blocking layer or a hole blocking layer, electrons and holes are confined in the light emitting layer to increase the charge recombination in the light emitting layer, thereby improving the emission efficiency.","Representative device structure of the tandem-type organic EL device is shown below: (2) anode/first emission unit/intermediate layer/second emission unit/cathode.","The layered structure of the first emission unit and the second emission unit may be selected from those described above with respect to the emission unit.","Generally, the intermediate layer is also called an intermediate electrode, an intermediate conductive layer, a charge generation layer, an electron withdrawing layer, a connecting layer, or an intermediate insulating layer.","The intermediate layer may be formed by known materials which can supply electrons to the first emission unit and holes to the second emission unit.","A schematic structure of an example of the organic EL device is shown in FIG.","1, wherein the organic EL device 1 comprises a substrate 2, an anode 3, a cathode 4, and an emission unit 10 disposed between the anode 3 and the cathode 4.The emission unit 10 comprises a light emitting layer 5.A hole injecting layer or a hole transporting layer 6 (anode-side organic thin film layer) may be disposed between the light emitting layer 5 and the anode 3, and an electron injecting layer or a electron transporting layer 7 (cathode-side organic thin film layer) may be disposed between the light emitting layer 5 and the cathode 4.An electron blocking layer (not shown) may be disposed on the side of anode 3 of the light emitting layer 5, and a hole blocking layer (not shown) may be disposed on the side of cathode 4 of the light emitting layer 5.With these blocking layers, electrons and holes are confined in the light emitting layer 5 to increase the exciton generation in the light emitting layer 5.In the present specification, a host is referred to as a fluorescent host when combinedly used with a fluorescent dopant (fluorescent emitting material) and as a phosphorescent host when combinedly used with a phosphorescent dopant.","Therefore, the fluorescent host and the phosphorescent host are not distinguished from each other merely by the difference in their molecular structures.","Namely, in the present invention, the term “phosphorescent host” means a material for constituting a phosphorescent emitting layer containing a phosphorescent dopant and does not mean a material that cannot be utilized as a material for a fluorescent emitting layer.","The same applies to the fluorescent host.","Substrate The substrate is a support for the emitting device and made of, for example, glass, quartz, and plastics.","The substrate may be a flexible substrate, for example, a plastic substrate made of polycarbonate, polyarylate, polyether sulfone, polypropylene, polyester, polyvinyl fluoride, and polyvinyl chloride.","An inorganic deposition film is also usable.","Anode The anode is formed on the substrate preferably from a metal, an alloy, an electrically conductive compound, and a mixture thereof, each having a large work function, for example, 4.5 eV or more.","Examples of the material for the anode include indium oxide-tin oxide (ITO: indium tin oxide), indium oxide-tin oxide doped with silicon or silicon oxide, indium oxide-zinc oxide, indium oxide doped with tungsten oxide and zinc oxide, and graphene.","In addition, gold (Au), platinum (Pt), nickel (Ni), tungsten (W), chromium (Cr), molybdenum (Mo), iron (Fe), cobalt (Co), copper (Cu), palladium (Pd), titanium (Ti), and a nitride of the above metal (for example, titanium nitride) are also usable.","These materials are made into a film generally by a sputtering method.","For example, a film of indium oxide-zinc oxide is formed by sputtering an indium oxide target doped with 1 to 10 wt % of zinc oxide, and a film of indium oxide doped with tungsten oxide and zinc oxide is formed by sputtering an indium oxide target doped with 0.5 to 5 wt % of tungsten oxide and 0.1 to 1 wt % of zinc oxide.","In addition, a vacuum vapor deposition method, a coating method, an inkjet method, and a spin coating method are usable.","A hole injecting layer to be optionally formed in contact with the anode is formed from a material which is capable of easily injecting holes independently of the work function of the anode.","Therefore, the anode can be formed by a material generally known as an electrode material, for example, a metal, an alloy, an electroconductive compound, a mixture thereof, and a group 1 element and a group 2 element of the periodic table.","A material having a small work function, for example, the group 1 element and the group 2 element of the periodic table, i.e., an alkali metal, such as lithium (Li) and cesium (Cs), an alkaline earth metal, such as magnesium (Mg), calcium (Ca), and strontium (Sr), and an alloy thereof, such as MgAg and AlLi, are also usable.","In addition, a rare earth metal, such as europium (Eu) and ytterbium (Yb), and an alloy thereof are also usable.","The alkali metal, the alkaline earth metal, and the alloy thereof can be made into the anode by a vacuum vapor deposition or a sputtering method.","When a silver paste, etc.","is used, a coating method and an inkjet method are usable.","Hole Injecting Layer The hole injecting layer comprises a highly hole injecting material (hole injecting material).","Examples of the hole injecting material include molybdenum oxide, titanium oxide, vanadium oxide, rhenium oxide, ruthenium oxide, chromium oxide, zirconium oxide, hafnium oxide, tantalum oxide, silver oxide, tungsten oxide, and manganese oxide.","The following low molecular aromatic amine compound is also usable as the hole injecting material: 4,4′,4″-tris(N,N-diphenylamino)triphenylamine (TDATA), 4,4′,4″-tris[N-(3-methylphenyl)-N-phenylamino]triphenylamine (MTDATA), 4,4′-bis[N-(4-diphenylaminophenyl)-N-phenylamino]biphenyl (DPAB), 4,4′-bis(N-{4-[N′-(3-methylphenyl)-N′-phenylamino]phenyl}-N-phenylamino)biphenyl (DNTPD), 1,3,5-tris[N-(4-diphenylaminophenyl)-N-phenylamino]benzene (DPA3B), 3-[N-(9-phenylcarbazole-3-yl)-N-phenylamino]-9-phenylcarbazole (PCzPCA1), 3,6-bis[N-(9-phenylcarbazole-3-yl)-N-phenylamino]-9-phenylcarbazole (PCzPCA2), and 3-[N-(1-naphthyl)-N-(9-phenylcarbazole-3-yl)amino]-9-phenylcarbazole (PCzPCN1).","A macromolecular compound, such as an oligomer, a dendrimer, a polymer, is also usable.","Examples thereof include poly(N-vinylcarbazole) (PVK), poly(4-vinyltriphenylamine) (PVTPA), poly[N-(4-{N′-[4-(4-diphenylamino)phenyl]phenyl-N′-phenylamino}phenyl)methacrylamide] (PTPDMA), and poly[N,N′-bis(4-butylphenyl)-N,N′-bis(phenyl)benzidine] (Poly-TPD).","An acid-added macromolecular compound, such as poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene)/poly(styrenesulfonic acid) (PEDOT/PSS) and polyaniline/poly(styrenesulfonic acid) (PAni/PSS), is also usable.","In addition, an acceptor material, such as a hexaazatriphenylene (HAT) compound represented by formula (K), is preferably used in combination with the compound (1): wherein R21 to R26 may be the same or different and each of R21 to R26 is independently a cyano group, —CONH2, a carboxyl group, or —COOR27 wherein R27 is an alkyl group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms or a cycloalkyl group having 3 to 20 carbon atoms, or R21 and R22, R23 and R24, or R25 and R26 may be bonded to each other to form a group represented by —CO—O—CO—.","Examples of R27 include a methyl group, an ethyl group, a n-propyl group, an isopropyl group, a n-butyl group, an isobutyl group, a t-butyl group, a cyclopentyl group, and a cyclohexyl group.","Hole Transporting Layer The hole transporting layer comprises a highly hole transporting material (hole transporting material).","Examples of the hole transporting material include an aromatic amine compound, a carbazole derivative, and an anthracene derivative.","Examples of the aromatic amine compound are 4,4′-bis[N-(1-naphthyl)-N-phenylamino]biphenyl (NPB), N,N′-bis(3-methylphenyl)-N,N′-diphenyl-[1,1′-biphenyl]-4,4′-diamine (TPD), 4-phenyl-4′-(9-phenylfluorene-9-yl)triphenylamine (BAFLP), 4,4′-bis[N-(9,9-dimethylfluorene-2-yl)-N-phenylamino]biphenyl (DFLDPBi), 4,4′,4″-tris(N,N-diphenylamino)triphenylamine (TDATA), 4,4′,4″-tris[N-(3-methylphenyl)-N-phenylamino]triphenylamine (MTDATA), and 4,4′-bis[N-(spiro-9,9′-bifluorene-2-yl)-N-phenylamino]biphenyl (BSPB).","The above compounds have a hole mobility of mainly 10−6 cm2/Vs or more.","The hole transporting layer may comprise a carbazole derivative, such as 4,4′-di(9-carbazolyl)biphenyl (CBP), 9-[4-(9-carbazolyl)phenyl]-10-phenylanthracene (CzPA), and 9-phenyl-3-[4-(10-phenyl-9-anthryl)phenyl]-9H-carbazole (PCzPA); an anthracene derivative, such as 2-t-butyl-9,10-di(2-naphthyl)anthracene (t-BuDNA), 9,10-di(2-naphthyl)anthracene (DNA), and 9,10-diphenylanthracene (DPAnth); and a macromolecular compound, such as poly(N-vinylcarbazole) (PVK) and poly(4-vinyltriphenylamine) (PVTPA).","Compounds other than those mentioned above are also usable if their hole transporting ability is higher than their electron transporting ability.","The layer comprising a highly hole-transporting material may be a single layer or a laminate of two or more layers each comprising the compound mentioned above.","For example, the hole transporting layer may be a two-layered structure of a first hole transporting layer (anode side) and a second hole transporting layer (cathode side).","In this case, the compound (1) may be used in either of the first hole transporting layer and the second hole transporting layer.","In an embodiment of the invention, the compound (1) is preferably used in the first hole transporting layer.","In another embodiment of the invention, the compound (1) is preferably used in the second hole transporting layer.","Dopant Material of Light Emitting Layer The light emitting layer comprises a highly light-emitting material (dopant material) and may be formed from a various kind of materials.","For example, a fluorescent emitting material and a phosphorescent emitting material are usable as the dopant material.","The fluorescent emitting material is a compound capable of emitting light from a singlet excited state, and the phosphorescent emitting material is a compound capable of emitting light from a triplet excited state.","Examples of blue fluorescent emitting material for use in the light emitting layer include a pyrene derivative, a styrylamine derivative, a chrysene derivative, a fluoranthene derivative, a fluorene derivative, a diamine derivative, and a triarylamine derivative, such as N,N′-bis[4-(9H-carbazole-9-yl)phenyl]-N,N′-diphenylstilbene-4,4′-diamine (YGA2S), 4-(9H-carbazole-9-yl)-4′-(10-phenyl-9-anthryl)triphenylamine (YGAPA), and 4-(10-phenyl-9-anthryl)-4′-(9-phenyl-9H-carbazole-3-yl)triphenylamine (PCBAPA).","Examples of green fluorescent emitting material for use in the light emitting layer include an aromatic amine derivative, such as N-(9,10-diphenyl-2-anthryl)-N,9-diphenyl-9H-carbazole-3-amine (2PCAPA), N-[9,10-bis(1,1′-biphenyl-2-yl)-2-anthryl]-N,9-diphenyl-9H-carbazole-3-amine (2PCABPhA), N-(9,10-diphenyl-2-anthryl)-N,N′,N′-triphenyl-1,4-phenylenediamine (2DPAPA), N-[9,10-bis(1,1′-biphenyl-2-yl)-2-anthryl]-N,N′,N′-triphenyl-1,4-phenylenediamine (2DPABPhA), N-[9,10-bis(1,1′-biphenyl-2-yl)]-N-[4-(9H-carbazole-9-yl)phenyl]-N-phenylanthracene-2-amine (2YGABPhA), and N,N,9-triphenylanthracene-9-amine (DPhAPhA).","Examples of red fluorescent emitting material for use in the light emitting layer include a tetracene derivative and a diamine derivative, such as N,N,N′,N′-tetrakis(4-methylphenyl)tetracene-5,11-diamine (p-mPhTD) and 7,14-diphenyl-N,N,N′,N′-tetrakis(4-methylphenyl)acenaphtho[1,2-a]fluoranthene-3,10-diamine (p-mPhAFD).","Examples of blue phosphorescent emitting material for use in the light emitting layer include a metal complex, such as an iridium complex, an osmium complex, and a platinum complex.","Examples thereof include bis[2-(4′,6′-difluorophenyl)pyridinato-N,C2′]iridium(III) tetrakis(1-pyrazolyl)borato (FIr6), bis[2-(4′,6′-difluorophenyl)pyridinato-N,C2′]iridium(III) picolinato (FIrpic), bis[2-(3′,5′-bistrifluoromethylphenyl)pyridinato-N,C2′]iridium(III) picolinato (Ir(CF3ppy)2(pic)), and bis[2-(4′,6′-difluorophenyl)pyridinato-N,C2′]iridium(III) acetylacetonato (FIracac).","Examples of green phosphorescent emitting material for use in the light emitting layer include an iridium complex, such as tris(2-phenylpyridinato-N,C2′)iridium(III) (Ir(ppy)3), bis(2-phenylpyridinato-N,C2′)iridium(III) acetylacetonato (Ir(ppy)2(acac)), bis(1,2-diphenyl-1H-benzimidazolato)iridium(III) acetylacetonato (Ir(pbi)2(acac)), and bis(benzo[h]quinolinato)iridium(III) acetylacetonato (Ir(bzq)2(acac)).","Examples of red phosphorescent emitting material for use in the light emitting layer include a metal complex, such as an iridium complex, a platinum complex, a terbium complex, and a europium complex.","Examples thereof include an organometallic complex, such as bis[2-(2′-benzo[4,5-α]thienyl)pyridinato-N,C3′]iridium(III) acetylacetonato (Ir(btp)2(acac)), bis(1-phenylisoquinolinato-N,C2′)iridium(III) acetylacetonato (Ir(piq)2(acac)), (acetylacetonato)bis[2,3-bis(4-fluorophenyl)quinoxalinato]iridium(III) (Ir(Fdpq)2(acac)), and 2,3,7,8,12,13,17,18-octaethyl-21H,23H-porphyrin platinum(II) (PtOEP).","Examples of red phosphorescent emitting material for use in the light emitting layer include a metal complex, such as an iridium complex, a platinum complex, a terbium complex, and a europium complex.","Examples thereof include an organometallic complex, such as bis[2-(2′-benzo[4,5-α]thienyl)pyridinato-N,C3′]iridium(III) acetylacetonato (Ir(btp)2(acac)), bis(1-phenylisoquinolinato-N,C2′)iridium(III) acetylacetonato (Ir(piq)2(acac)), (acetylacetonato)bis[2,3-bis(4-fluorophenyl)quinoxalinato]iridium(III) (Ir(Fdpq)2(acac)), and 2,3,7,8,12,13,17,18-octaethyl-21H,23H-porphyrin platinum(II) (PtOEP).","A rare earth metal complex, such as tris(acetylacetonato) (monophenanthroline)terbium(III) (Tb(acac)3(Phen)), tris(1, 3-diphenyl-1,3-propanedionato)(monophenanthroline)europium(III) (Eu(DBM)3(Phen)), and tris[1-(2-thenoyl)-3,3,3-trifluoroacetonato](monophenanthroline)europium(III) (Eu(TTA)3(Phen)), emits light from the rare earth metal ion (electron transition between different multiple states), and therefore, usable as a phosphorescent emitting compound.","Host Material for Light Emitting Layer The light emitting layer may be formed by dispersing the dopant material mentioned above in another material (host material).","The host material is preferably the compound (1) of the invention which can be used in combination with another material.","The host material preferably has a lowest unoccupied molecular orbital level (LUMO level) higher than that of the dopant material and a highest occupied molecular orbital level (HOMO level) lower than that of the dopant material.","The host material other than the compound (1) may include, for example, (1) a metal complex, such as an aluminum complex, a beryllium complex, and a zinc complex; (2) a heterocyclic compound, such as an oxadiazole derivative, a benzimidazole derivative, and a phenanthroline derivative; (3) a fused aromatic compound, such as a carbazole derivative, an anthracene derivative, a phenanthrene derivative, a pyrene derivative, and a chrysene derivative; and (4) an aromatic amine compound, such as a triarylamine derivative and a fused aromatic polycyclic amine derivative.","Examples thereof include: a metal complex, such as tris(8-quinolinolato)aluminum(III) (Alq), tris(4-methyl-8-quinolinolato)aluminum(III) (Almq3), bis(10-hydroxybenzo[h]quinolinato)beryllium(H) (BeBq2), bis(2-methyl-8-quinolinolato)(4-phenylphenolato)aluminum(III) (BAlq), bis(8-quinolinolato)zinc(II) (Znq), bis[2-(2-benzoxazolyl)phenolato]zinc(II) (ZnPBO), and bis[2-(2-benzothiazolyl)phenolato]zinc(II) (ZnBTZ); a heterocyclic compound, such as 2-(4-biphenylyl)-5-(4-tert-butylphenyl)-1,3,4-oxadiazole (PBD), 1,3-bis[5-(p-tert-butylphenyl)-1,3,4-oxadiazole-2-yl]benzene (OXD-7), 3-(4-biphenylyl)-4-phenyl-5-(4-tert-butylphenyl)-1,2,4-triazole (TAZ), 2,2′,2″-(1,3,5-benzenetriyl)tris(1-phenyl-1H-benzimidazole) (TPBI), bathophenanthroline (BPhen), and bathocuproin (BCP); a fused aromatic compound, such as 9-[4-(10-phenyl-9-anthryl)phenyl]-9H-carbazole (CzPA), 3,6-diphenyl-9-[4-(10-phenyl-9-anthryl)phenyl]-9H-carbazole (DPCzPA), 9,10-bis(3,5-diphenylphenyl)anthracene (DPPA), 9,10-di(2-naphthyl)anthracene (DNA), 2-tert-butyl-9,10-di(2-naphthyl)anthracene (t-BuDNA), 9,9′-bianthryl (BANT), 9,9′-(stilbene-3,3′-diyl)diphenanthrene (DPNS), 9,9′-(stilbene-4,4′-diyl)diphenanthrene (DPNS2), 3,3′,3″-(benzene-1,3,5-triyl)tripyrene (TPB3), 9,10-diphenylanthracene (DPAnth), and 6,12-dimethoxy-5,11-diphenylchrysene; and an aromatic amine compound, such as N,N-diphenyl-9-[4-(10-phenyl-9-anthryl)phenyl]-9H-carbazole-3-amine (CzA1PA), 4-(10-phenyl-9-anthryl)triphenylamine (DPhPA), N,9-diphenyl-N-[4-(10-phenyl-9-anthryl)phenyl]-9H-carbazole-3-amine (PCAPA), N,9-diphenyl-N-{4-[4-(10-phenyl-9-anthryl)phenyl]phenyl}-9H-carbazole-3-amine (PCAPBA), N-(9,10-diphenyl-2-anthryl)-N,9-diphenyl-9H-carbazole-3-amine (2PCAPA), 4,4′-bis[N-(1-anthryl)-N-phenylamino]biphenyl (NPB or α-NPD), N,N′-bis(3-methylphenyl)-N,N′-diphenyl-[1,1′-biphenyl]-4,4′-diamine (TPD), 4,4′-bis[N-(9,9-dimethylfluorene-2-yl)-N-phenylamino]biphenyl (DFLDPBi), and 4,4′-bis[N-(spiro-9,9′-bifluorene-2-yl)-N-phenylamino]biphenyl (BSPB).","The host material may be used alone or in combination of two or more.","Electron Transporting Layer The electron transporting layer comprises a highly electron-transporting material (electron transporting material).","Examples thereof are: (1) a metal complex, such as an aluminum complex, a beryllium complex, and a zinc complex; (2) a heteroaromatic compound, such as an imidazole derivative, a benzimidazole derivative, an azine derivative, a carbazole derivative, and a phenanthroline derivative; and (3) a macromolecular compound.","Examples of the metal complex include tris(8-quinolinolato)aluminum (III) (Alq), tris(4-methyl-8-quinolinolato)aluminum (Almq3), bis(10-hydroxybenzo[h]quinolinato)beryllium (BeBq2), bis(2-methyl-8-quinolinato)(4-phenylphenolato)aluminum (III)(BAlq), bis(8-quinolinato)zinc(II) (Znq), bis[2-(2-benzoxazolyl)phenolato]zinc(II) (ZnPBO), and bis[2-(2-benzothiazolyl)phenolato]zinc(II)(ZnBTZ).","Examples of the heteroaromatic compound include 2-(4-biphenylyl)-5-(4-tert-butylphenyl)-1,3,4-oxadiazole (PBD), 1,3-bis[5-(p-tert-butylphenyl)-1,3,4-oxadiazole-2-yl]benzene (OXD-7), 3-(4-tert-butylphenyl)-4-phenyl-5-(4-biphenylyl)-1,2,4-triazole (TAZ), 3-(4-tert-butylphenyl)-4-(4-ethylphenyl)-5-(4-biphenylyl)-1,2,4-triazole (p-EtTAZ), bathophenanthroline (BPhen), bathocuproine (BCP), and 4,4′-bis(5-methylbenzoxazole-2-yl)stilbene (BzOs).","Examples of the macromolecular compound include poly[(9,9-dihexylfluorene-2,7-diyl)-co-(pyridine-3,5-diyl)] (PF-Py), and poly[(9,9-dioctylfluorene-2,7-diyl)-co-(2,2′-bipyridine-6,6′-diyl)] (PF-BPy).","The above compounds have an electron mobility of mainly 10−6 cm2/Vs or more.","Materials other than those mentioned above are also usable in the electron transporting layer if their electron transporting ability is higher than their hole transporting ability.","The electron transporting layer may be a single layer or a laminate of two or more layers each comprising the material mentioned above.","Electron Injecting Layer The electron injecting layer comprises a highly electron-injecting material, for example, an alkali metal, an alkaline earth metal, and a compound of these metals, such as lithium (Li), cesium (Cs), calcium (Ca), lithium fluoride (LiF), cesium fluoride (CsF), calcium fluoride (CaF2), and lithium oxide (LiOx).","In addition, an electron transporting material which is doped with an alkali metal, an alkaline earth metal or a compound thereof, for example, Alq doped with magnesium (Mg), is also usable.","By using such a material, electrons are efficiently injected from the cathode.","A composite material obtained by mixing an organic compound and an electron donor is also usable in the electron injecting layer.","Such a composite material is excellent in the electron injecting ability and the electron transporting ability, because the organic compound receives electrons from the electron donor.","The organic compound is preferably a material excellent in transporting the received electrons.","Examples thereof are the materials for the electron transporting layer mentioned above, such as the metal complex and the aromatic heterocyclic compound.","Any material capable of giving its electron to another organic compound is usable as the electron donor.","Preferred examples thereof are an alkali metal, an alkaline earth metal, and a rare earth metal, such as lithium, cesium, magnesium, calcium, erbium, and ytterbium; an alkali metal oxide and an alkaline earth metal oxide, such as, lithium oxide, calcium oxide, and barium oxide; a Lewis base, such as magnesium oxide; and an organic compound, such as tetrathiafulvalene (TTF).","Cathode The cathode is formed preferably from a metal, an alloy, an electrically conductive compound, or a mixture thereof, each having a small work function, for example, a work function of 3.8 eV or less.","Examples of the material for the cathode include a metal of the group 1 or 2 of the periodic table, for example, an alkali metal, such as lithium (Li) and cesium (Cs), an alkaline earth metal, such as magnesium (Mg), an alloy containing these metals (for example, MgAg and AlLi), a rare earth metal, such as europium (Eu) and ytterbium (Yb), and an alloy containing a rare earth metal.","The alkali metal, the alkaline earth metal, and the alloy thereof can be made into the cathode by a vacuum vapor deposition or a sputtering method.","When a silver paste, etc.","is used, a coating method and an inkjet method are usable.","When the electron injecting layer is formed, the material for the cathode can be selected independently from the work function and various electroconductive materials, such as Al, Ag, ITO, graphene, and indium oxide-tin oxide doped with silicon or silicon oxide, are usable.","These electroconductive materials are made into films by a sputtering method, an inkjet method, and a spin coating method.","Insulating Layer Since electric field is applied to the ultra-thin films of organic EL devices, the pixel defects due to leak and short circuit tends to occur.","To prevent the defects, an insulating thin film layer is preferably interposed between the pair of electrodes.","Examples of the material for the insulating layer include aluminum oxide, lithium fluoride, lithium oxide, cesium fluoride, cesium oxide, magnesium oxide, magnesium fluoride, calcium oxide, calcium fluoride, aluminum nitride, titanium oxide, silicon oxide, germanium oxide, silicon nitride, boron nitride, molybdenum oxide, ruthenium oxide, and vanadium oxide.","These materials may be used in combination or may be made into laminated layers.","Space Layer For example, in an organic EL device wherein a fluorescent emitting layer and a phosphorescent emitting layer are laminated, a space layer is disposed between the fluorescent emitting layer and the phosphorescent emitting layer to prevent the diffusion of excitons generated in the phosphorescent emitting layer to the fluorescent emitting layer or to control the carrier balance.","The space layer may be disposed between two or more phosphorescent emitting layers.","Since the space layer is disposed between the light emitting layers, a material combining the electron transporting ability and the hole transporting ability is preferably used for forming the space layer.","To prevent the diffusion of triplet energy in the adjacent phosphorescent emitting layer, the triplet energy of the material for the space layer is preferably 2.6 eV or more.","The materials described with respect to the hole transporting layer are usable as the material for the space layer.","Blocking Layer In the organic EL device, a blocking layer, such as an electron blocking layer, a hole blocking layer, and a triplet blocking layer, may be provided in the portion adjacent to the light emitting layer.","The electron blocking layer is a layer which prevents the diffusion of electrons from the light emitting layer to the hole transporting layer.","The hole blocking layer is a layer which prevents the diffusion of holes from the light emitting layer to the electron transporting layer.","The triplet blocking layer prevents the diffusion of excitons generated in the light emitting layer to adjacent layers and has a function of confining the excitons in the light emitting layer.","The compound (1) of the invention is also suitable as the material for the electron blocking layer and the triplet blocking layer.","Each layer of the organic EL device can be formed by a known method, such as a vapor deposition method and a coating method.","For example, each layer can be formed by a known vapor deposition method, such as a vacuum vapor deposition method and a molecular beam evaporation method (MBE method), and a known coating method using a solution of the compound for forming the layer, such as a dipping method, a spin coating method, a casting method, a bar coating method, and a roll coating method.","The thickness of each layer is not particularly limited and preferably 5 nm to 10 μm, more preferably 10 nm to 0.2 μm, because an excessively small thickness may cause defects such as pin holes and an excessively large thickness may require a high driving voltage.","The organic EL device can be used in an electronic device, for example, as display parts, such as organic EL panel module, display devices of television sets, mobile phones, personal computer, etc., and light emitting sources of lighting equipment and vehicle lighting equipment.","EXAMPLES The invention will be described in more detail with reference to the examples and comparative examples.","It should be noted that the scope of the invention is not limited to the following examples.","Intermediate Synthesis 1: Synthesis of Intermediate (A) (1) Synthesis of 8-bromo-11-phenylbenzo[a]carbazole Under argon atmosphere, 29.6 g of 8-bromo-11H-benzo[a]carbazole, 12.7 g of copper, 41.5 g of potassium carbonate, 40.8 g of iodobenzene, and 80 mL of xylene were charged in a flask, and the contents were stirred at 135° C. for 65 h under heating.","After adding 21.0 g of L-proline, the contents were stirred at the same temperature for 67 h under heating.","After cooling to room temperature, the reaction solution was filtered and then extracted with toluene.","The filtrate was washed with water and the obtained organic layer was concentrated.","The residue was purified by a column chromatography and further by a recrystallization to obtain 22.2 g of 8-bromo-11-phenylbenzo[a]carbazole.","The result of mass spectrographic analysis was m/e=371 to the molecular weight of 371 of 8-bromo-11-phenylbenzo[a]carbazole.","(2) Synthesis of Intermediate (A) Under argon atmosphere, 26.7 g of 8-bromo-11-phenylbenzo[a]carbazole, 2.34 g of [1,1′-bis(diphenylphosphino)ferrocene]palladium(II) dichloride dichloromethane adduct, 270 mL of toluene, 90 mL of ethanol, and 107 mL of a 2 M aqueous solution of sodium carbonate were charged in a flask, and the contents were stirred at 70° C. under heating.","After adding 21.0 g of 3-(4,4,5,5-tetramethyl-1,3,2-dioxaborolan-2-yl)carbazole, the contents were stirred at the same temperature for 56 h under heating.","After cooling to room temperature, the reaction solution was filtered and then extracted with toluene.","The filtrate was washed with water and the obtained organic layer was concentrated.","The residue was purified by a column chromatography and further by a recrystallization to obtain 16.5 g of the intermediate (A).","The result of mass spectrographic analysis was m/e=458 to the molecular weight of 458 of the intermediate (A).","Intermediate Synthesis 2: Synthesis of Intermediate (F) The intermediate (F) was synthesized in the same manner as in the synthesis of 8-bromo-11-phenylbenzo[a]carbazole of Intermediate Synthesis 1 except for using 3-iodobiphenyl in place of iodobenzene.","The result of mass spectrographic analysis was m/e=447 to the molecular weight of 447 of the intermediate (F).","Intermediate Synthesis 3: Synthesis of Intermediate (G) The intermediate (G) was synthesized in the same manner as in the synthesis of the intermediate (A) of Intermediate Synthesis 1 except for using the intermediate (F) in place of 8-bromo-11-phenylbenzo[a]carbazole.","The result of mass spectrographic analysis was m/e=534 to the molecular weight of 534 of the intermediate (G).","Intermediate Synthesis 4: Synthesis of Intermediate (H) The intermediate (H) was synthesized in the same manner as in the synthesis of 8-bromo-11-phenylbenzo[a]carbazole of Intermediate Synthesis 1 except for using 2-iodonaphthalene in place of iodobenzene.","The result of mass spectrographic analysis was m/e=421 to the molecular weight of 421 of the intermediate (H).","Intermediate Synthesis 4: Synthesis of Intermediate (I) The intermediate (I) was synthesized in the same manner as in the synthesis of the intermediate (A) of Intermediate Synthesis 1 except for using the intermediate (H) in place of 8-bromo-11-phenylbenzo[a]carbazole.","The result of mass spectrographic analysis was m/e=508 to the molecular weight of 508 of the intermediate (I).","Intermediate Synthesis 5: Synthesis of Intermediate (J) Under argon atmosphere, 12.7 g of 8-bromo-11H-benzo[a]carbazole, 1.4 g of [1,1′-bis(diphenylphosphino)ferrocene]palladium(II)dichloride dichloromethane adduct, 110 mL of toluene, 55 mL of ethanol, and 64 mL of a 2 M aqueous solution of sodium carbonate were charged in a flask, and the contents were stirred at 70° C. After adding 15.8 g of 9-phenyl-3-(4,4,5,5-tetramethyl-1,3,2-dioxaborolan-2-yl)carbazole, the contents were stirred at the same temperature for 64 h under heating.","After cooling to room temperature, the reaction solution was filtered and then extracted with toluene.","The filtrate was washed with water and then the obtained organic layer was concentrated.","The residue was purified by a column chromatography and further by a recrystallization to obtain 10.5 g of the intermediate (J).","The result of mass spectrographic analysis was m/e=458 to the molecular weight of 458 of the intermediate (J).","Intermediate Synthesis 6: Synthesis of Intermediate (K) The intermediate (K) was synthesized in the same manner as in the synthesis of the intermediate (A) of Intermediate Synthesis 1 except for using 2-(4,4,5,5-tetramethyl-1,3,2-dioxaborolan-2-yl)carbazole synthesized by a known method in place of 3-(4,4,5,5-tetramethyl-1,3,2-dioxaborolan-2-yl)carbazole.","The result of mass spectrographic analysis was m/e=458 to the molecular weight of 458 of the intermediate (K).","Synthesis Example 1: Synthesis of Compound H1 Under argon atmosphere, 11.3 g of the intermediate (A), 7.0 g of 3-bromofluoranthene, 460 mg of tris(dibenzylideneacetone)dipalladium(0), 1.1 g of 4,5-bis(diphenylphosphino)-9,9-dimethylxanthene, 7.15 g of sodium t-butoxide, and 250 mL of xylene were charged in a flask, and the contents were refluxed for 10 h under heating.","After cooling to room temperature, the reaction solution was extracted with toluene, and the organic layer was dried and concentrated.","The obtained residue was purified by a column chromatography to obtain the compound H1 (8.0 g, 49%).","The result of mass spectrographic analysis was m/e=658 to the molecular weight of 658 of the compound H1.Synthesis Example 2: Synthesis of Compound H2 The compound H2 was synthesized in the same manner as in Synthesis Example 1 except for using the intermediate (B) synthesized by a known method in place of 3-bromofluoranthene.","The result of mass spectrographic analysis was m/e=734 to the molecular weight of 734 of the compound H2.Synthesis Example 3: Synthesis of Compound H3 The compound H3 was synthesized in the same manner as in Synthesis Example 1 except for using the intermediate (C) in place of 3-bromofluoranthene.","The result of mass spectrographic analysis was m/e=685 to the molecular weight of 685 of the compound H3.Synthesis Example 4: Synthesis of Compound H4 The compound H4 was synthesized in the same manner as in Synthesis Example 1 except for using the intermediate (D) in place of 3-bromofluoranthene.","The result of mass spectrographic analysis was m/e=784 to the molecular weight of 784 of the compound H4.Synthesis Example 5: Synthesis of Compound H5 The compound H5 was synthesized in the same manner as in Synthesis Example 1 except for using the intermediate (E) in place of 3-bromofluoranthene.","The result of mass spectrographic analysis was m/e=658 to the molecular weight of 658 of the compound H5.Synthesis Example 6: Synthesis of Compound H6 The compound H6 was synthesized in the same manner as in Synthesis Example 1 except for using the intermediate (G) in place of the intermediate (A).","The result of mass spectrographic analysis was m/e=734 to the molecular weight of 734 of the compound H6.Synthesis Example 7: Synthesis of Compound H7 Intermediate (E) The compound H7 was synthesized in the same manner as in Synthesis Example 5 except for using the intermediate (G) in place of the intermediate (A).","The result of mass spectrographic analysis was m/e=734 to the molecular weight of 734 of the compound H7.Synthesis Example 8: Synthesis of Compound H8 The compound H8 was synthesized in the same manner as in Synthesis Example 1 except for using the intermediate (I) in place of the intermediate (A).","The result of mass spectrographic analysis was m/e=708 to the molecular weight of 708 of the compound H8.Synthesis Example 9: Synthesis of Compound H9 The compound H9 was synthesized in the same manner as in Synthesis Example 5 except for using the intermediate (I) in place of the intermediate (A).","The result of mass spectrographic analysis was m/e=708 to the molecular weight of 708 of the compound H9.Synthesis Example 10: Synthesis of Compound H10 The compound H10 was synthesized in the same manner as in Synthesis Example 1 except for using the intermediate (J) in place of the intermediate (A).","The result of mass spectrographic analysis was m/e=658 to the molecular weight of 658 of the compound H10.Synthesis Example 11: Synthesis of Compound H11 The compound H11 was synthesized in the same manner as in Synthesis Example 3 except for using the intermediate (J) in place of the intermediate (A).","The result of mass spectrographic analysis was m/e=734 to the molecular weight of 734 of the compound H11.Synthesis Example 12: Synthesis of Compound H12 The compound H12 was synthesized in the same manner as in Synthesis Example 4 except for using the intermediate (J) in place of the intermediate (A).","The result of mass spectrographic analysis was m/e=784 to the molecular weight of 784 of the compound H12.Synthesis Example 13: Synthesis of Compound H13 The compound H13 was synthesized in the same manner as in Synthesis Example 5 except for using the intermediate (J) in place of the intermediate (A).","The result of mass spectrographic analysis was m/e=658 to the molecular weight of 658 of the compound H13.Synthesis Example 14: Synthesis of Compound H14 The compound H14 was synthesized in the same manner as in Synthesis Example 1 except for using the intermediate (K) in place of the intermediate (A).","The result of mass spectrographic analysis was m/e=658 to the molecular weight of 658 of the compound H14.Synthesis Example 15: Synthesis of Compound H15 The compound H15 was synthesized in the same manner as in Synthesis Example 5 except for using the intermediate (K) in place of the intermediate (A).","The result of mass spectrographic analysis was m/e=658 to the molecular weight of 658 the compound H15.Example 1 Production of Organic EL Device A glass substrate of 25 mm×75 mm×1.1 mm having an ITO transparent electrode (product of Geomatec Company) was cleaned by ultrasonic cleaning in isopropyl alcohol for 5 min and then UV/ozone cleaning for 30 min.","The thickness of the ITO transparent electrode was 130 nm.","The cleaned glass substrate was mounted to a substrate holder of a vacuum vapor deposition apparatus.","First, the following compound HAT was vapor-deposited so as to cover the transparent electrode line to form an acceptor layer with a thickness of 5 nm.","On the acceptor layer, the following compound HT1 was vapor-deposited to form a first hole transporting layer with a thickness of 100 nm.","Successively, the following compound HT2 was vapor-deposited to form a second hole transporting layer with a thickness of 65 nm.","On the second hole transporting layer, the compound H1 obtained in Synthesis Example 1 (host material) and Ir(piq)3 (dopant material) were vapor co-deposited to form a co-deposited film with a thickness of 40 nm.","The concentration of Ir(piq)3 was 2% by mass.","The co-deposited film works as a light emitting layer.","On the light emitting layer, the following compound ET was vapor-deposited to form an electron transporting layer with a thickness of 30 nm.","Then, on the electron transporting layer, LiF was vapor-deposited in a film-forming speed of 0.1 Å/min to form an electron injecting cathode with a thickness of 1 nm.","Further, on the LiF film, metallic Al was deposited into a thickness of 80 nm to form a metallic Al cathode, thereby producing an organic EL device.","Evaluation of Organic EL Device The organic EL device thus produced was driven at a constant direct current to measure the driving voltage at a current density of 10 mA/cm2 by using a luminance meter.","From the measured results, the external quantum efficiency EQE (%) was determined.","Separately, the organic EL device thus obtained was driven at a constant direct current at a current density of 10 mA/cm2 to measure the time taken until the luminance was reduced to 97% of the initial luminance (LT97).","The results are shown in Table 1.Comparative Example 1 An organic EL device was produced in the same manner as in Example 1 except for using the following comparative compound 1 as the host material.","The obtained organic EL device was evaluated in the same manner as in Example 1.The results are shown in Table 1.TABLE 1 Driving External quantum LT97 Host material voltage (V) efficiency (%) (h) Example 1 compound H1 3.70 15.2 1790 Comparative comparative 3.68 14.8 1087 Example 1 compound 1 The compound H1 of the invention is structurally different from the comparative compound 1 in that one of the carbazole structures of the comparative compound 1 is changed to a 1,2-benzocarbazole (benzo[a]carbazole) structure.","As seen from Table 1, as compared with the organic EL device comprising the comparative compound 1, the lifetime of the organic EL device comprising the compound H1 is improved without deteriorating other EL performances.","Example 1 Production of Organic EL Device A glass substrate of 25 mm×75 mm×1.1 mm having an ITO transparent electrode (product of Geomatec Company) was cleaned by ultrasonic cleaning in isopropyl alcohol for 5 min and then UV/ozone cleaning for 30 min.","The thickness of the ITO transparent electrode was 130 nm.","The cleaned glass substrate was mounted to a substrate holder of a vacuum vapor deposition apparatus.","First, the following compound H1 was vapor-deposited so as to cover the transparent electrode line to form a hole injecting layer with a thickness of 5 nm.","Successively, the following compound HT was vapor-deposited to form a hole transporting layer with a thickness of 210 nm.","On the hole transporting layer, the compound H1 obtained in Synthesis Example 1 (host material) and the following compound PRD-1 (dopant material) were vapor co-deposited to form a co-deposited film with a thickness of 40 nm.","The concentration of PRD-1 was 2% by mass.","The co-deposited film works as a light emitting layer.","On the light emitting layer, the following compound ET-1 and the following compound Liq were vapor co-deposited to form an electron transporting layer with a thickness of 30 nm.","The concentration of Liq in the electron transporting layer was 50% by mass.","Then, on the electron transporting layer, the compound Liq (electron injecting material) was vapor-deposited in a film-forming speed of 0.1 Å/min to form an electron injecting layer with a thickness of 1 nm.","Further, on the electron injecting layer, metallic Al was deposited into a thickness of 80 nm to form a metallic Al cathode, thereby producing an organic EL device.","Evaluation of Organic EL Device The organic EL device thus obtained was driven at a constant direct current at a current density of 10 mA/cm2 to measure the time taken until the luminance was reduced to 80% of the initial luminance (LT80).","The results are shown in Table 2.Comparative Example 2 to 5 Each organic EL device was produced in the same manner as in Example 2 except for using each of the following comparative compounds 2 to 5.The obtained organic EL devices were evaluated in the same manner as in Example 2.The results are shown in Table 2.TABLE 2 Host material LT80 (h) Example 2 compound H1 534 Comparative Example 2 comparative compound 2 411 Comparative Example 3 comparative compound 3 378 Comparative Example 4 comparative compound 4 360 Comparative Example 5 comparative compound 5 304 Table 2 shows the dependency of the lifetime of EL device on the fused position of the benzene ring on the carbazole structure.","It can be seen that the lifetime is drastically improved by the benzo[a]carbazole structure of the compound H1 as compared with the benzo[b]carbazole structure (comparative compounds 4 and 5) and the benzo[c]carbazole structure (comparative compounds 2 and 3).","REFERENCE SIGNS LIST 1: Organic EL device 2: Substrate 3: Anode 4: Cathode 5: Light emitting layer 6: Anode-side organic thin film layer 7: Cathode-side organic thin film layer 10: Emission unit"]],"string":"[\n [\n \"COMPOUND, MATERIAL FOR ORGANIC ELECTROLUMINESCENCE ELEMENT, ORGANIC ELECTROLUMINESCENCE ELEMENT, AND ELECTRONIC DEVICE\",\n \"A compound represented by formula (1): wherein R1 to R6, R7 to R10, R11 to R14, R15 to R18, L1, L2, Ar1, and Ar2 are as defined in the description realizes an organic electroluminescence device with long lifetime.\"\n ],\n [\n \"1.A compound represented by formula (1): wherein: each of R1 to R6 is independently a hydrogen atom, a substituted or unsubstituted alkyl group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted cycloalkyl group having 3 to 10 ring carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted aryl group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted haloalkyl group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted alkoxy group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted haloalkoxy group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted aryloxy group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms, a halogen atom, or a cyano group; one of R7 to R10 is a single bond bonded to *a, and each of the others of R7 to R10 is independently a hydrogen atom, a substituted or unsubstituted alkyl group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted cycloalkyl group having 3 to 10 ring carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted aryl group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted haloalkyl group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted alkoxy group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted haloalkoxy group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted aryloxy group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms, a halogen atom, or a cyano group; one of R11 to R14 is a single bond bonded to *b, and each of the others of R11 to R14 is independently a hydrogen atom, a substituted or unsubstituted alkyl group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted cycloalkyl group having 3 to 10 ring carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted aryl group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted haloalkyl group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted alkoxy group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted haloalkoxy group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted aryloxy group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms, a halogen atom, or a cyano group; each of R15 to R18 is independently a hydrogen atom, a substituted or unsubstituted alkyl group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted cycloalkyl group having 3 to 10 ring carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted aryl group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted haloalkyl group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted alkoxy group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted haloalkoxy group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted aryloxy group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms, a halogen atom, or a cyano group; each of L1 and L2 is independently a single bond, a substituted or unsubstituted arylene group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms, or a substituted or unsubstituted heteroarylene group having 5 to 18 ring atoms; and each of Ar1 and Ar2 is independently a substituted or unsubstituted aryl group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms; provided that at least one selected from Ar1 and Ar2 is a substituted or unsubstituted fluoranthenyl group.\",\n \"2.The compound according to claim 1, wherein the compound is represented by formula (2): wherein R1 to R7, R9 to R12, R14 to R18, L1, L2, Ar1, and Ar2 are the same as defined above.\",\n \"3.The compound according to claim 1, wherein the compound is represented by formula (3): wherein R1 to R7, R9 to R11, R13 to R18, L1, L2, Ar1, and Ar2 are the same as defined above.\",\n \"4.The compound according to claim 1, wherein the compound is represented by formula (4): wherein R1 to R8, R10 to R12, R14 to R18, L1, L2, Ar1, and Ar2 are the same as defined above.\",\n \"5.The compound according to claim 1, wherein the compound is represented by formula (5): wherein R1 to R8, R10, R11, R13 to R18, L1, L2, Ar1, and Ar2 are the same as defined above.\",\n \"6.The compound according to claim 1, wherein: the an alkyl group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms in the substituted or unsubstituted alkyl group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms for R1 to R18 is selected from the group consisting of a methyl group, an ethyl group, a n-propyl group, an isopropyl group, a n-butyl group, an isobutyl group, as-butyl group, a t-butyl group, a pentyl group (inclusive of isomeric groups), a hexyl group (inclusive of isomeric groups), a heptyl group (inclusive of isomeric groups), an octyl group (inclusive of isomeric groups), a nonyl group (inclusive of isomeric groups), a decyl group (inclusive of isomeric groups), an undecyl group (inclusive of isomeric groups), and a dodecyl group (inclusive of isomeric groups); the cycloalkyl group having 3 to 10 ring carbon atoms in the substituted or unsubstituted cycloalkyl group having 3 to 10 ring carbon atoms for R1 to R18 is selected from the group consisting of a cyclopropyl group, a cyclobutyl group, a cyclopentyl group, a cyclohexyl group, and a cycloheptyl group; the aryl group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms in the substituted or unsubstituted aryl group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms for R1 to R18 is selected from the group consisting of a phenyl group, a biphenylyl group, a terphenylyl group, a biphenylenyl group, a naphthyl group, an acenaphthylenyl group, an anthryl group, a benzanthryl group, an aceanthryl group, a phenanthryl group, a benzophenanthryl group, a triphenylenyl group, a phenalenyl group, a fluorenyl group, a pyrenyl group, a chrysenyl group, as-indanyl group, an as-indanyl group, and a fluoranthenyl group; the haloalkyl group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms in the substituted or unsubstituted haloalkyl group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms for R1 to R18 is selected from the group consisting of a heptafluoropropyl group (inclusive of isomeric groups), a pentafluoroethyl group, a 2,2,2-trifluoroethyl group, and a trifluoromethyl group; the alkoxy group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms in the substituted or unsubstituted alkoxy group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms for R1 to R18 is selected from the group consisting of a t-butoxy group, a propoxy group (inclusive of isomeric groups), an ethoxy group, and a methoxy group; the haloalkoxy group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms in the substituted or unsubstituted haloalkoxy group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms for R1 to R18 is selected from the group consisting of a heptafluoropropoxy group (inclusive of isomeric groups), a pentafluoroethoxy group, a 2,2,2-trifluoroethoxy group, and a trifluoromethoxy group; the aryloxy group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms in the substituted or unsubstituted aryloxy group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms for R1 to R18 comprises an aryl group selected from the group consisting of a phenyl group, a biphenylyl group, a terphenylyl group, a biphenylenyl group, a naphthyl group, an acenaphthylenyl group, an anthryl group, a benzanthryl group, an aceanthryl group, a phenanthryl group, a benzophenanthryl group, a triphenylenyl group, a phenalenyl group, a fluorenyl group, a pyrenyl group, a chrysenyl group, as-indanyl group, an as-indanyl group, and a fluoranthenyl group; the halogen atom for R1 to R18 is selected from the group consisting of a fluorine atom, a chlorine atom, a bromine atom, and an iodine atom; the arylene group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms in the substituted or unsubstituted arylene group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms for L1 and L2 is a group obtained by removing one hydrogen atom from an aryl group selected from the group consisting of a phenyl group, a biphenylyl group, a terphenylyl group, a biphenylenyl group, a naphthyl group, an acenaphthylenyl group, an anthryl group, a benzanthryl group, an aceanthryl group, a phenanthryl group, a benzophenanthryl group, a triphenylenyl group, a phenalenyl group, a fluorenyl group, a pyrenyl group, a chrysenyl group, as-indanyl group, an as-indanyl group, and a fluoranthenyl group; the heteroarylene group having 5 to 18 ring atoms in the substituted or unsubstituted heteroarylene group having 5 to 18 ring atoms for L1 and L2 is a group obtained by removing one hydrogen atom from a heteroaryl group selected from the group consisting of a pyrrolyl group, a furyl group, a thienyl group, a pyridyl group, a pyridazinyl group, a pyrimidinyl group, a pyrazinyl group, a triazinyl group, an imidazolyl group, an oxazolyl group, a thiazolyl group, a pyrazolyl group, an isoxazolyl group, an isothiazolyl group, an oxadiazolyl group, a thiadiazolyl group, a triazolyl group, an indolyl group, an isoindolyl group, a benzofuranyl group, an isobenzofuranyl group, a benzotiophenyl group, an indolizinyl group, a quinolizinyl group, a quinolyl group, an isoquinolyl group, a cinnolyl group, a phthalazinyl group, a quinazolinyl group, a quinoxalinyl group, a benzimidazolyl group, a benzoxazolyl group, a benzothiazolyl group, an indazolyl group, a benzisoxazoly group, a benzisothiazolyl group, a dibenzofuranyl group, a naphthobenzofuranyl group, a dibenzotiophenyl group, a naphthobenzotiophenyl group, a carbazolyl group, a benzocarbazolyl group, a phenanthridinyl group, an acridinyl group, a phenanthrolinyl group, a phenazinyl group, a phenothiazinyl group, a phenoxazinyl group, and a xanthenyl group; and the aryl group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms in the substituted or unsubstituted aryl group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms for Ar1 and Ar2 is selected from the group consisting of a phenyl group, a biphenylyl group, a terphenylyl group, a biphenylenyl group, a naphthyl group, an acenaphthylenyl group, an anthryl group, a benzanthryl group, an aceanthryl group, a phenanthryl group, a benzophenanthryl group, a triphenylenyl group, a phenalenyl group, a fluorenyl group, a pyrenyl group, a chrysenyl group, as-indanyl group, an as-indanyl group, and a fluoranthenyl group.\",\n \"7.The compound according to claim 1, wherein each of adjacent two groups selected from R1 to R6, adjacent two groups selected from R7 to R10, adjacent two groups selected from R11 to R14, and adjacent two groups selected from R15 to R18 may be respectively bonded to each other to from a substituted or unsubstituted ring.\",\n \"8.The compound according to claim 1, wherein adjacent two groups selected from R1 to R6, R7 to R10, to R14, and R15 to R18 do not form a ring.\",\n \"9.The compound according to claim 1, wherein R1 to R6, R7 to R10 which is not a single bond bonded to *a, R11 to R14 which is not a single bond bonded to *b, and R15 to R18 are all hydrogen atoms.\",\n \"10.The compound according to claim 1, wherein L1 is a single bond and L2 is a substituted or unsubstituted arylene group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms or a substituted or unsubstituted heteroarylene group having 5 to 18 ring atoms.\",\n \"11.The compound according to claim 1, wherein L2 is a single bond and L1 is a substituted or unsubstituted arylene group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms or a substituted or unsubstituted heteroarylene group having 5 to 18 ring atoms.\",\n \"12.The compound according to claim 1, wherein each of L1 and L2 is independently a substituted or unsubstituted arylene group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms or a substituted or unsubstituted heteroarylene group having 5 to 18 ring atoms.\",\n \"13.The compound according to claim 10, wherein the arylene group in the substituted or unsubstituted arylene group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms is selected from the group consisting of a phenylene group, a naphthylene group, and a biphenylylene group.\",\n \"14.The compound according to claim 1, wherein each of L1 and L2 is a single bond.\",\n \"15.The compound according to claim 1, wherein Ar1 is a substituted or unsubstituted aryl group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms and Ar2 is a substituted or unsubstituted fluoranthenyl group.\",\n \"16.The compound according to claim 1, wherein Ar2 is a substituted or unsubstituted aryl group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms and Ar1 is a substituted or unsubstituted fluoranthenyl group.\",\n \"17.The compound according to claim 15, wherein the aryl group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms in the substituted or unsubstituted aryl group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms is selected from the group consisting of a phenyl group, a naphthyl group, a biphenylyl group, a phenanthryl group, and a triphenylenyl group.\",\n \"18.The compound according to claim 1, wherein the substituted or unsubstituted fluoranthenyl group is a substituted or unsubstituted 1-fluoranthenyl group, a substituted or unsubstituted 3-fluoranthenyl group, a substituted or unsubstituted 7-fluoranthenyl group, or a substituted or unsubstituted 8-fluoranthenyl group.\",\n \"19.The compound according to claim 1, wherein an optional substituent referred to by “substituted or unsubstituted” is at least one group selected from the group consisting of an alkyl group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, a cycloalkyl group having 3 to 10 ring carbon atoms, an aralkyl group having 7 to 30 carbon atoms comprising an aryl group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms, an aryl group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms, an alkoxy group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, an aryloxy group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms, a mono-, di-, or tri-substituted silyl group, wherein the substituent is selected from an alkyl group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms and an aryl group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms, a haloalkyl group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, a haloalkoxy group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, a halogen atom, a cyano group, and a nitro group.\",\n \"20.A material for organic electroluminescence devices comprising the compound according to claim 1.21.An organic electroluminescence device comprising a cathode, an anode, and an organic thin film layer between the cathode and the anode, wherein the organic thin film layer comprises one or more layers, the organic thin film layer comprises a light emitting layer, and at least one layer of the organic thin film layer comprises the compound according to claim 1.22.The organic electroluminescence device according to claim 21, wherein the light emitting layer comprises a host material and the host material is the compound.\",\n \"23.The organic electroluminescence device according to claim 21, wherein the light emitting layer comprises a dopant material and the dopant material is a phosphorescent emitting material.\",\n \"24.The organic electroluminescence device according to claim 23, wherein the phosphorescent emitting material is an ortho metallated complex of a metal atom selected from the group consisting of iridium, osmium, ruthenium, and platinum.\",\n \"25.An electronic device comprising the organic electroluminescence device according to claim 21.26.The compound according to claim 1, wherein the compound is any one selected from the following compounds: 27.An organic electroluminescence device comprising a cathode, an anode, and an organic thin film layer between the cathode and the anode, wherein the organic thin film layer comprises one or more layers, the organic thin film layer comprises a light emitting layer, and at least one layer of the organic thin film layer comprises the compound according to claim 26.28.The organic electroluminescence device according to claim 27, wherein the light emitting layer comprises a host material and the host material is the compound.\",\n \"29.An electronic device comprising the organic electroluminescence device according to claim 27.\"\n ],\n [\n \" BACKGROUND ART Organic electroluminescence devices (hereinafter also referred to as “organic EL device”) comprising an organic compound are much expected to be useful as inexpensive, large-sized full color display devices of solid state emission type and many developments have been made thereon.\",\n \"An organic EL device is generally constructed from a light emitting layer and a pair of opposite electrodes sandwiching the light emitting layer.\",\n \"When an electric field is applied between the electrodes, electrons are injected from a cathode and holes are injected from an anode into the light emitting layer.\",\n \"The injected electrons recombine with the injected holes in the light emitting layer to form excited states.\",\n \"When the excited state returns to the ground state, the energy is released as light.\",\n \"Many researches have been made on the applications of organic EL device to display, etc.\",\n \"because of its possibility of a wide selection of emission colors by using various emitting materials in a light emitting layer.\",\n \"Particularly, the research on the materials which emit three primary red, green, and blue colors has been made most actively, and the intensive research has been made to improve their properties.\",\n \"As a material for organic electroluminescence device, Patent Literature 1 describes a compound having a 3,3′-biscarbazole structure in which a benzene ring is fused to 6,7-position or 5,6-position of one of the carbazole structures and a phenyl group and a 3-fluoranthenyl group are respectively bonded to two nitrogen atoms.\",\n \"Patent Literature 2 describes a compound having a 3,3′-biscarbazole structure in which two benzene rings are fused to 7,8-position of one of the carbazole structures and 7′,8′-position of the other and a 1-naphthyl group and a 2-a pyrenyl group are respectively bonded to two nitrogen atoms.\",\n \"Patent Literature 2 further describes a compound in which a benzo[a]carbazole structure is bonded to a phenaleno[1,9-b,c]carbazole structure.\"\n ],\n [\n \" SUMMARY OF INVENTION \"\n ],\n [\n \"CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application is a continuation application of prior U.S. application Ser.\",\n \"No.\",\n \"15/502,354, filed Feb. 7, 2017, the disclosure of which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.\",\n \"U.S. application Ser.\",\n \"No.\",\n \"15/502,354 in the national stage of PCT/JP2016/067696, filed Jun.\",\n \"14, 2016, the disclosure of which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.\",\n \"U.S. application Ser.\",\n \"No.\",\n \"15/502,354 claims priority to Japanese Application No.\",\n \"2015-120993, filed Jun.\",\n \"16, 2015, to PCT/JP2015/070045, filed Jul.\",\n \"13, 2015, and Japanese Application No.\",\n \"2015-212049, filed Oct. 28, 2015, the disclosures of which are incorporated herein by reference in their entireties.\",\n \"TECHNICAL FIELD The present invention relates to compounds, materials for organic electroluminescence devices comprising the compound, organic electroluminescence devices comprising the compound, and electronic devices comprising the organic electroluminescence device.\",\n \"BACKGROUND ART Organic electroluminescence devices (hereinafter also referred to as “organic EL device”) comprising an organic compound are much expected to be useful as inexpensive, large-sized full color display devices of solid state emission type and many developments have been made thereon.\",\n \"An organic EL device is generally constructed from a light emitting layer and a pair of opposite electrodes sandwiching the light emitting layer.\",\n \"When an electric field is applied between the electrodes, electrons are injected from a cathode and holes are injected from an anode into the light emitting layer.\",\n \"The injected electrons recombine with the injected holes in the light emitting layer to form excited states.\",\n \"When the excited state returns to the ground state, the energy is released as light.\",\n \"Many researches have been made on the applications of organic EL device to display, etc.\",\n \"because of its possibility of a wide selection of emission colors by using various emitting materials in a light emitting layer.\",\n \"Particularly, the research on the materials which emit three primary red, green, and blue colors has been made most actively, and the intensive research has been made to improve their properties.\",\n \"As a material for organic electroluminescence device, Patent Literature 1 describes a compound having a 3,3′-biscarbazole structure in which a benzene ring is fused to 6,7-position or 5,6-position of one of the carbazole structures and a phenyl group and a 3-fluoranthenyl group are respectively bonded to two nitrogen atoms.\",\n \"Patent Literature 2 describes a compound having a 3,3′-biscarbazole structure in which two benzene rings are fused to 7,8-position of one of the carbazole structures and 7′,8′-position of the other and a 1-naphthyl group and a 2-a pyrenyl group are respectively bonded to two nitrogen atoms.\",\n \"Patent Literature 2 further describes a compound in which a benzo[a]carbazole structure is bonded to a phenaleno[1,9-b,c]carbazole structure.\",\n \"CITATION LIST Patent Literature Patent Literature 1: WO 2012/108388 A1 Patent Literature 2: KR 2015-0012835A SUMMARY OF INVENTION Technical Problem To further improve the performance of an organic EL device, it has been required to further develop a material useful for use in an organic EL device.\",\n \"Thus, an object of the invention is to provide an organic EL device with a long lifetime and a compound capable of realizing such an organic EL device.\",\n \"Solution to Problem As a result of extensive research in view of achieving the above object, the inventors have found that a compound represented by formula (1) realizes an organic EL device with a long lifetime.\",\n \"In an aspect of the invention, the following (1) to (4) are provided: (1) a compound represented by formula (1) (hereinafter also referred to as “compound (1)”): wherein: each of R1 to R6 is independently a hydrogen atom, a substituted or unsubstituted alkyl group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted cycloalkyl group having 3 to 10 ring carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted aryl group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted haloalkyl group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted alkoxy group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted haloalkoxy group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted aryloxy group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms, a halogen atom, or a cyano group; one of R7 to R10 is a single bond bonded to *a and each of the others of R7 to R10 is independently a hydrogen atom, a substituted or unsubstituted alkyl group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted cycloalkyl group having 3 to 10 ring carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted aryl group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted haloalkyl group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted alkoxy group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted haloalkoxy group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted aryloxy group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms, a halogen atom, or a cyano group; one of R11 to R14 is a single bond bonded to *b and each of the others of R11 to R14 is independently a hydrogen atom, a substituted or unsubstituted alkyl group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted cycloalkyl group having 3 to 10 ring carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted aryl group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted haloalkyl group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted alkoxy group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted haloalkoxy group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted aryloxy group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms, a halogen atom, or a cyano group; each of R15 to R18 is independently a hydrogen atom, a substituted or unsubstituted alkyl group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted cycloalkyl group having 3 to 10 ring carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted aryl group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted haloalkyl group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted alkoxy group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted haloalkoxy group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted aryloxy group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms, a halogen atom, or a cyano group; each of L1 and L2 is independently a single bond, a substituted or unsubstituted arylene group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms, or a substituted or unsubstituted heteroarylene group having 5 to 18 ring atoms; and each of Ar1 and Ar2 is independently a substituted or unsubstituted aryl group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms; provided that at least one selected from Ar1 and Ar2 is a substituted or unsubstituted fluoranthenyl group; (2) a material for organic electroluminescence devices comprising the compound of item (1); (3) an organic electroluminescence device comprising a cathode, an anode, and an organic thin film layer between the cathode and the anode, wherein the organic thin film layer comprises one or more layers, the organic thin film layer comprises a light emitting layer, and at least one layer of the organic thin film layer comprises the compound of item (1); and (4) an electronic device comprising the organic electroluminescence device of item (3).\",\n \"Advantageous Effects of Invention By using the compound of the invention as a material for organic EL devices, an organic EL device with a long lifetime is obtained.\",\n \"BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF DRAWINGS FIG.\",\n \"1 is a schematic view showing the structure of the organic EL device in an aspect of the invention.\",\n \"DESCRIPTION OF EMBODIMENTS The term of “XX to YY carbon atoms” referred to by “a substituted or unsubstituted group ZZ having XX to YY carbon atoms” used herein is the number of carbon atoms of the unsubstituted group ZZ and does not include any carbon atom in the substituent of the substituted group ZZ.\",\n \"The term of “XX to YY atoms” referred to by “a substituted or unsubstituted group ZZ having XX to YY atoms” used herein is the number of atoms of the unsubstituted group ZZ and does not include any atom in the substituent of the substituted group ZZ.\",\n \"The term of “unsubstituted group ZZ” referred to by “substituted or unsubstituted group ZZ” used herein means that no hydrogen atom in the group ZZ is substituted by a substituent.\",\n \"The definition of “hydrogen atom” used herein includes isotopes different in the neutron numbers, i.e., light hydrogen (protium), heavy hydrogen (deuterium), and tritium.\",\n \"The number of “ring carbon atoms” referred to herein means, unless otherwise noted, the number of the carbon atoms included in the atoms which are members forming the ring itself of a compound in which a series of atoms is bonded to form a ring (for example, a monocyclic compound, a fused ring compound, a cross-linked compound, a carbocyclic compound, and a heterocyclic compound).\",\n \"If the ring has a substituent, the carbon atom in the substituent is not included in the ring carbon atom.\",\n \"For example, a benzene ring has 6 ring carbon atoms, a naphthalene ring has 10 ring carbon atoms, a pyridinyl group has 5 ring carbon atoms, and a furanyl group has 4 ring carbon atoms.\",\n \"If a benzene ring or a naphthalene ring has, for example, an alkyl substituent, the carbon atom in the alkyl substituent is not counted as the ring carbon atom of the benzene or naphthalene ring.\",\n \"In case of a fluorene ring to which a fluorene substituent is bonded (inclusive of a spirofluorene ring), the carbon atom in the fluorene substituent is not counted as the ring carbon atom of the fluorene ring.\",\n \"The number of “ring atom” referred to herein means, unless otherwise noted, the number of the atoms which are members forming the ring itself (for example, a monocyclic ring, a fused ring, and a ring assembly) of a compound in which a series of atoms is bonded to form the ring (for example, a monocyclic compound, a fused ring compound, a cross-linked compound, a carbocyclic compound, and a heterocyclic compound).\",\n \"The atom not forming the ring (for example, hydrogen atom(s) for saturating the valence of the atom which forms the ring) and the atom in a substituent, if the ring is substituted, are not counted as the ring atom.\",\n \"For example, a pyridine ring has 6 ring atoms, a quinazoline ring has 10 ring atoms, and a furan ring has 5 ring atoms.\",\n \"The hydrogen atom on the ring carbon atom of a pyridine ring or a quinazoline ring and the atom in a substituent are not counted as the ring atom.\",\n \"In case of a fluorene ring to which a fluorene substituent is bonded (inclusive of a spirofluorene ring), the atom in the fluorene substituent is not counted as the ring atom of the fluorene ring.\",\n \"The optional substituent referred to by “substituted or unsubstituted” used herein is at least one selected from the group consisting of an alkyl group having 1 to 20, preferably 1 to 5, and more preferably 1 to 4 carbon atoms; a cycloalkyl group having 3 to 10, preferably 3 to 6, and more preferably 5 or 6 ring carbon atoms; an aryl group having 6 to 18, preferably 6 to 10, and more preferably 6 ring carbon atoms; an aralkyl group having an aryl group having 6 to 18, preferably 6 to 10, and more preferably 6 ring carbon atoms; an alkoxy group having 1 to 20, preferably 1 to 5, and more preferably 1 to 4 carbon atoms; an aryloxy group having 6 to 18, preferably 6 to 10, and more preferably 6 ring carbon atoms; a mono-, di-, or tri-substituted silyl group, wherein the substituent is selected from an alkyl group having 1 to 20, preferably 1 to 5, and more preferably 1 to 4 carbon atoms and an aryl group having 6 to 18, preferably 6 to 10, and more preferably 6 ring carbon atoms; a haloalkyl group having 1 to 20, preferably 1 to 5, and more preferably 1 to 4 carbon atoms; a haloalkoxy group having 1 to 20, preferably 1 to 5, and more preferably 1 to 4 carbon atoms; a halogen atom; a cyano group; and a nitro group.\",\n \"The optional substituent may be a group other than those mentioned above, as long as the effect of the invention is obtained.\",\n \"The details of the groups mentioned above are described below with respect to R1 to R6.In the present invention, examples, preferred examples, etc.\",\n \"described with respect to a group may be combined with examples, preferred examples, etc.\",\n \"described with respect to any of other groups.\",\n \"A specific group selected from examples, preferred examples, etc.\",\n \"described with respect to a group may be combined with another specific group selected from examples, preferred examples, etc.\",\n \"described with respect to any of other groups.\",\n \"The same also applies to the number of atoms, the number of carbon atoms, and other features.\",\n \"In addition, the same also applies to any of the combinations between the groups, the number of atoms, the number of carbon atoms, and other features.\",\n \"The compound in an aspect of the invention is represented by formula (1): wherein: each of R1 to R6 is independently a hydrogen atom, a substituted or unsubstituted alkyl group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted cycloalkyl group having 3 to 10 ring carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted aryl group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted haloalkyl group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted alkoxy group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted haloalkoxy group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted aryloxy group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms, a halogen atom, or a cyano group; one of R7 to R10 is a single bond bonded to *a and each of the others of R7 to R10 is independently a hydrogen atom, a substituted or unsubstituted alkyl group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted cycloalkyl group having 3 to 10 ring carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted aryl group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted haloalkyl group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted alkoxy group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted haloalkoxy group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted aryloxy group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms, a halogen atom, or a cyano group; one of R11 to R14 is a single bond bonded to *b and each of the others of R11 to R14 is independently a hydrogen atom, a substituted or unsubstituted alkyl group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted cycloalkyl group having 3 to 10 ring carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted aryl group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted haloalkyl group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted alkoxy group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted haloalkoxy group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted aryloxy group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms, a halogen atom, or a cyano group; each of R15 to R18 is independently a hydrogen atom, a substituted or unsubstituted alkyl group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted cycloalkyl group having 3 to 10 ring carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted aryl group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted haloalkyl group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted alkoxy group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted haloalkoxy group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted aryloxy group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms, a halogen atom, or a cyano group; each of L1 and L2 is independently a single bond, a substituted or unsubstituted arylene group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms, or a substituted or unsubstituted heteroarylene group having 5 to 18 ring atoms: and each of Ar1 and Ar2 is independently a substituted or unsubstituted aryl group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms; provided that at least one selected from Ar1 and Ar2 is a substituted or unsubstituted fluoranthenyl group.\",\n \"The compound (1) is preferably represented by formula (2): wherein R1 to R7, R9 to R12, R14 to R18, L1, L2, Ar1, and Ar2 are the same as defined above.\",\n \"The compound (1) is preferably represented by formula (3): wherein R1 to R7, R9 to R11, R13 to R18, L1, L2, Ar1, and Ar2 are the same as defined above.\",\n \"The compound (1) is preferably represented by formula (4): wherein R1 to R8, R10 to R12, R14 to R18, L1, L2, Ar1, and Ar2 are the same as defined above.\",\n \"The compound (1) is preferably represented by formula (5): wherein R1 to R8, R10, R11, R13 to R18, L1, L2, Ar1, and Ar2 are the same as defined above.\",\n \"The compound (1) may be represented by any of formulae (6), (7) and (1a): wherein R1 to R6, R7 to R10, R11 to R14, R15 to R18, L1, L2, Ar1, and Ar2 are the same as defined above; provided that when R8 is a single bond bonded to *a, R13 is a single bond bonded to *b, R1 to R7, R9 to R12, and R14 to R18 are all hydrogen atoms, L1 and L2 are both single bonds, and one of Ar1 and Ar2 is a phenyl group, the other of Ar1 and Ar2 is a substituted or unsubstituted fluoranthenyl group selected from the group consisting of a substituted or unsubstituted 1-fluoranthenyl group, a substituted or unsubstituted 2-fluoranthenyl group, a substituted or unsubstituted 3-fluoranthenyl group, a substituted or unsubstituted 7-fluoranthenyl group, and a substituted or unsubstituted 8-fluoranthenyl group.\",\n \"R1 to R6, R7 to R10, R11 to R14, R15 to R18, L1, L2, Ar1, Ar2 of formulae (1) to (5) and (1a) are described below in more detail.\",\n \"Each of R1 to R6 is independently a hydrogen atom; a substituted or unsubstituted alkyl group having 1 to 20, preferably 1 to 5, and more preferably 1 to 4 carbon atoms; a substituted or unsubstituted cycloalkyl group having 3 to 10, preferably 3 to 6, and more preferably 5 or 6 ring carbon atoms; a substituted or unsubstituted aryl group having 6 to 18, preferably 6 to 10, and more preferably 6 ring carbon atoms; a substituted or unsubstituted haloalkyl group having 1 to 20, preferably 1 to 5, and more preferably 1 to 4 carbon atoms; a substituted or unsubstituted alkoxy group having 1 to 20, preferably 1 to 5, and more preferably 1 to 4 carbon atoms; a substituted or unsubstituted haloalkoxy group having 1 to 20, preferably 1 to 5, and more preferably 1 to 4 carbon atoms; a substituted or unsubstituted aryloxy group having 6 to 18, preferably 6 to 10, and more preferably 6 ring carbon atoms; a halogen atom; or a cyano group.\",\n \"Each of R1 to R6 is independently and preferably selected from the group consisting of a hydrogen atom, a substituted or unsubstituted alkyl group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted aryl group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted aryloxy group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms, and a cyano group, and more preferably selected from the group consisting of a hydrogen atom, a substituted or unsubstituted alkyl group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, and a substituted or unsubstituted aryl group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms.\",\n \"R1 to R6 may be all hydrogen atoms.\",\n \"In the substituted or unsubstituted alkyl group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, examples of the alkyl group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms include a methyl group, an ethyl group, a n-propyl group, an isopropyl group, a n-butyl group, an isobutyl group, as-butyl group, a t-butyl group, a pentyl group (inclusive of isomeric groups), a hexyl group (inclusive of isomeric groups), a heptyl group (inclusive of isomeric groups), an octyl group (inclusive of isomeric groups), a nonyl group (inclusive of isomeric groups), a decyl group (inclusive of isomeric groups), an undecyl group (inclusive of isomeric groups), and a dodecyl group (inclusive of isomeric groups), with a methyl group, an ethyl group, a n-propyl group, an isopropyl group, a n-butyl group, an isobutyl group, as-butyl group, a t-butyl group, and a pentyl group (inclusive of isomeric groups) being preferred, a methyl group, an ethyl group, a n-propyl group, an isopropyl group, a n-butyl group, an isobutyl group, as-butyl group, and a t-butyl group being more preferred, and a methyl group and a t-butyl group being still more preferred.\",\n \"In the substituted or unsubstituted cycloalkyl group having 3 to 10 ring carbon atoms, examples of the cycloalkyl group having 3 to 10 ring carbon atoms include a cyclopropyl group, a cyclobutyl group, a cyclopentyl group, a cyclohexyl group, and a cycloheptyl group, with a cyclopropyl group, a cyclobutyl group, a cyclopentyl group, and a cyclohexyl group being preferred, and a cyclopentyl group and a cyclohexyl group being more preferred.\",\n \"In the substituted or unsubstituted aryl group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms, examples of the aryl group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms include a phenyl group, a biphenylyl group, a terphenylyl group, a biphenylenyl group, a naphthyl group, an acenaphthylenyl group, an anthryl group, a benzanthryl group, an aceanthryl group, a phenanthryl group, a benzophenanthryl group, a triphenylenyl group, a phenalenyl group, a fluorenyl group, a pyrenyl group, a chrysenyl group, as-indanyl group, an as-indanyl group, and a fluoranthenyl group, with a phenyl group, a 1-naphthyl group, a 2-naphthyl group, a biphenylyl group, such as a 2-, 3- or 4-biphenylyl group, and a terphenylyl group, such as a 2-p-terphenylyl group, a 4-p-terphenylyl group, a 2′-m-terphenylyl group, and a 5′-m-terphenylyl group being preferred, a phenyl group, a 1-naphthyl group, and a 2-naphthyl group being more preferred, and a phenyl group being still more preferred.\",\n \"Examples of the substituted aryl group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms include a 9,9-dimethylfluorenyl group and a 9,9-diphenylfluorenyl group.\",\n \"In the substituted or unsubstituted haloalkyl group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, the haloalkyl group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms is, for example, a group obtained by replacing at least one, preferably 1 to 7 hydrogen atoms, or all the hydrogen atoms of the alkyl group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms mentioned above with a halogen atom selected from the group consisting of a fluorine atom, a chlorine atom, a bromine atom, and an iodine atom, preferably a fluorine atom.\",\n \"Examples thereof include a fluoroalkyl group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, with a heptafluoropropyl group (inclusive of isomeric groups), a pentafluoroethyl group, a 2,2,2-trifluoroethyl group, and a trifluoromethyl group being more preferred, a pentafluoroethyl group, a 2,2,2-trifluoroethyl group, and a trifluoromethyl group being still more preferred, and a trifluoromethyl group being particularly preferred.\",\n \"The substituted or unsubstituted alkoxy group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms is represented by —ORa, wherein Ra is the substituted or unsubstituted alkyl group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms mentioned above.\",\n \"The alkoxy group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms is preferably a t-butoxy group, a propoxy group (inclusive of isomeric groups), an ethoxy group, or a methoxy group, more preferably an ethoxy group or a methoxy group, and still more preferably a methoxy group.\",\n \"The substituted or unsubstituted haloalkoxy group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms is represented by —ORb, wherein Rb is the substituted or unsubstituted haloalkyl group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms and preferably a substituted or unsubstituted fluoroalkyl group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, each mentioned above.\",\n \"The haloalkoxy group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms is preferably a fluoroalkoxy group, more preferably a heptafluoropropoxy group (inclusive of isomeric groups), a pentafluoroethoxy group, a 2,2,2-trifluoroethoxy group, or a trifluoromethoxy group, still more preferably a pentafluoroethoxy group, a 2,2,2-trifluoroethoxy group, or a trifluoromethoxy group, and particularly preferably a trifluoromethoxy group.\",\n \"The substituted or unsubstituted aryloxy group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms is represented by —ORc, wherein Rc is the substituted or unsubstituted aryl group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms mentioned above.\",\n \"Examples of the aryl group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms include a phenyl group, a biphenylyl group, a terphenylyl group, a biphenylenyl group, a naphthyl group, an acenaphthylenyl group, an anthryl group, a benzanthryl group, an aceanthryl group, a phenanthryl group, a benzophenanthryl group, a triphenylenyl group, a phenalenyl group, a fluorenyl group, a pyrenyl group, a chrysenyl group, as-indanyl group, an as-indanyl group, and a fluoranthenyl group, with a phenyl group, a 1-naphthyl group, a 2-naphthyl group, a biphenylyl group, such as a 2-, 3- or 4-biphenylyl group, and a terphenylyl group, such as a 2-p-terphenylyl group, a 4-p-terphenylyl group, a 2′-m-terphenylyl group, and a 5′-m-terphenylyl group being preferred, a phenyl group, a 1-naphthyl group and a 2-naphthyl group being more preferred, and a phenyl group being still more preferred.\",\n \"The halogen atom includes a fluorine atom, a chlorine atom, a bromine atom, and an iodine atom, with a fluorine atom being preferred.\",\n \"One of R7 to R10, preferably R8 or R9, is a single bond bonded to *a.\",\n \"Each of the others of R7 to R10 is independently a hydrogen atom, a substituted or unsubstituted alkyl group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted cycloalkyl group having 3 to 10 ring carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted aryl group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted haloalkyl group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted alkoxy group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted haloalkoxy group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted aryloxy group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms, a halogen atom, or a cyano group.\",\n \"The details of the groups for the others of R7 to R10 are the same as those of the corresponding groups mentioned above with respect to R1 to R6 Each of the others of R7 to R10 is independently and preferably selected from the group consisting of a hydrogen atom, a substituted or unsubstituted alkyl group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted aryl group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted aryloxy group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms, and a cyano group, and more preferably selected from the group consisting of a hydrogen atom, a substituted or unsubstituted alkyl group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, and a substituted or unsubstituted aryl group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms.\",\n \"The others of R7 to R10 may be all hydrogen atoms.\",\n \"One of R11 to R14, preferably R12 or R13, is a single bond bonded to *b.\",\n \"Each of the others of R11 to R14 is independently a hydrogen atom, a substituted or unsubstituted alkyl group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted cycloalkyl group having 3 to 10 ring carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted aryl group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted haloalkyl group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted alkoxy group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted haloalkoxy group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted aryloxy group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms, a halogen atom, or a cyano group.\",\n \"The details of the groups for the others of R11 to R14 are the same as those of the corresponding groups mentioned above with respect to R1 to R6.Each of the others of R11 to R14 is independently and preferably selected from the group consisting of a hydrogen atom, a substituted or unsubstituted alkyl group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted aryl group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted aryloxy group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms, and a cyano group, and more preferably selected from the group consisting of a hydrogen atom, a substituted or unsubstituted alkyl group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, and a substituted or unsubstituted aryl group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms.\",\n \"The others of R11 to R14 may be all hydrogen atoms.\",\n \"Each of R15 to R18 is independently a hydrogen atom, a substituted or unsubstituted alkyl group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted cycloalkyl group having 3 to 10 ring carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted aryl group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted haloalkyl group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted alkoxy group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted haloalkoxy group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted aryloxy group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms, a halogen atom, or a cyano group.\",\n \"The details of the groups for R15 to R18 are the same as those of the corresponding groups mentioned above with respect to R1 to R6.Each of R15 to R18 is independently and preferably selected from the group consisting of a hydrogen atom, a substituted or unsubstituted alkyl group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted aryl group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted aryloxy group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms, and a cyano group, and more preferably selected from the group consisting of a hydrogen atom, a substituted or unsubstituted alkyl group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, and a substituted or unsubstituted aryl group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms.\",\n \"R15 to R18 may be all hydrogen atoms.\",\n \"Each of adjacent two groups selected from R1 to R6, adjacent two groups selected from R7 to R10, adjacent two groups selected from R11 to R14, and adjacent two groups selected from R15 to R18 may be respectively bonded to each other to from a substituted or unsubstituted ring, or may not form a ring.\",\n \"In an embodiment of the invention, adjacent two groups selected from R1 to R6, R7 to R10, R11 to R14, and R15 to R18 preferably do not form a ring.\",\n \"Example of the ring to be formed by the adjacent two groups together with two ring carbon atoms to which the adjacent two groups are bonded includes a substituted or unsubstituted hydrocarbon ring, preferably a substituted or unsubstituted aromatic hydrocarbon ring, more preferably a substituted or unsubstituted benzene ring, and still more preferably an unsubstituted benzene ring.\",\n \"Each of L1 and L2 is independently, a single bond, a substituted or unsubstituted arylene group having 6 to 18, preferably 6 to 10, and more preferably 6 ring carbon atoms, or a substituted or unsubstituted heteroarylene group 5 to 18, preferably 5 to 14, and more preferably 5 to 10 ring atoms, preferably a single bond or a substituted or unsubstituted arylene group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms, and more preferably a single bond or an unsubstituted arylene group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms.\",\n \"In the substituted or unsubstituted arylene group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms, the arylene group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms is a group obtained by removing one hydrogen atom from the aryl group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms mentioned above, preferably a group obtained by removing one hydrogen atom from an aryl group selected from the group consisting of a phenyl group, a biphenylyl group, a terphenylyl group, a biphenylenyl group, a naphthyl group, an acenaphthylenyl group, an anthryl group, a benzanthryl group, an aceanthryl group, a phenanthryl group, a benzophenanthryl group, a triphenylenyl group, a phenalenyl group, a fluorenyl group, a pyrenyl group, a chrysenyl group, as-indanyl group, an as-indanyl group, and a fluoranthenyl group, more preferably a group selected from the group consisting of a phenylene group, a naphthylene group, and a biphenylylene group, and still more preferably a group selected from the group consisting of an o-phenylene group, a m-phenylene group, a p-phenylene group, a 1,4-naphthalenediyl group, a 1,5-naphthalenediyl group, a 2,6-naphthalenediyl group, a 2,7-naphthalenediyl group, a 2,2′-biphenyldiyl group, a 2,3′-biphenyldiyl group, a 2,4′-biphenyldiyl group, a 3,3′-biphenyldiyl group, a 3,4′-biphenyldiyl group, and a 4,4′-biphenyldiyl group.\",\n \"In the substituted or unsubstituted heteroarylene group having 5 to 18 ring atoms, the heteroarylene group having 5 to 18 ring atoms comprises 1 to 5, preferably 1 to 3, and more preferably 1 or 2 ring heteroatoms, such as a nitrogen atom, a sulfur atom, and an oxygen atom.\",\n \"Example thereof is a group obtained by removing one hydrogen atom from a heteroaryl group selected from the group consisting of a pyrrolyl group, a furyl group, a thienyl group, a pyridyl group, a pyridazinyl group, a pyrimidinyl group, a pyrazinyl group, a triazinyl group, an imidazolyl group, an oxazolyl group, a thiazolyl group, a pyrazolyl group, an isoxazolyl group, an isothiazolyl group, an oxadiazolyl group, a thiadiazolyl group, a triazolyl group, an indolyl group, an isoindolyl group, a benzofuranyl group, an isobenzofuranyl group, a benzotiophenyl group (benzothienyl group), an indolizinyl group, a quinolizinyl group, a quinolyl group, an isoquinolyl group, a cinnolyl group, a phthalazinyl group, a quinazolinyl group, a quinoxalinyl group, a benzimidazolyl group, a benzoxazolyl group, a benzothiazolyl group, an indazolyl group, a benzisoxazoly group, a benzisothiazolyl group, a dibenzofuranyl group, a naphthobenzofuranyl group, group (dibenzothienyl group), a naphthobenzotiophenyl group, a N-carbazolyl group, a C-carbazolyl group, a benzo-N-carbazolyl group, a benzo-C-carbazolyl group, a phenanthridinyl group, an acridinyl group, a phenanthrolinyl group, a phenazinyl group, a phenothiazinyl group, a phenoxazinyl group, and a xanthenyl group.\",\n \"Preferred example thereof is a group obtained by removing one hydrogen atom from a heteroaryl group selected from the group consisting of a pyridyl group, a pyrimidinyl group, a pyrazinyl group, a triazinyl group, an imidazolyl group, an oxazolyl group, a thiazolyl group, an isoxazolyl group, an isothiazolyl group, a triazolyl group, an indolyl group, a benzofuranyl group, an isobenzofuranyl group, a benzotiophenyl group (a benzothienyl group), a quinolizinyl group, a quinolyl group, an isoquinolyl group, a quinazolinyl group, a quinoxalinyl group, a benzimidazolyl group, a benzoxazolyl group, a benzothiazolyl group, an indazolyl group, a benzisoxazoly group, a benzisothiazolyl group, a dibenzofuranyl group, a naphthobenzofuranyl group, a dibenzotiophenyl group (a dibenzothienyl group), a naphthobenzotiophenyl group, a N-carbazolyl group, a C-carbazolyl group, a benzo-N-carbazolyl group, a benzo-C-carbazolyl group, a phenanthridinyl group, an acridinyl group, a phenanthrolinyl group, a phenazinyl group, a phenothiazinyl group, a phenoxazinyl group, and a xanthenyl group.\",\n \"More preferred example thereof is a group obtained by removing one hydrogen atom from a heteroaryl group selected from the group consisting of a pyridyl group, a pyrimidinyl group, a triazinyl group, an indolyl group, a quinolizinyl group, a quinolyl group, a quinazolinyl group, a quinoxalinyl group, a benzimidazolyl group, a benzothiazolyl group, a benzisoxazoly group, a benzisothiazolyl group, a dibenzofuranyl group, a naphthobenzofuranyl group, a dibenzotiophenyl group (a dibenzothienyl group), a naphthobenzotiophenyl group, a N-carbazolyl group, a C-carbazolyl group, a benzo-N-carbazolyl group, a benzo-C-carbazolyl group, and a phenanthrolinyl group.\",\n \"Still more preferred example is a group obtained by removing one hydrogen atom from a heteroaryl group selected from the group consisting of a pyridyl group, a pyrimidinyl group, a triazinyl group, a quinazolinyl group, a N-carbazolyl group, and a C-carbazolyl group.\",\n \"Each of Ar1 and Ar2 is independently a substituted or unsubstituted aryl group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms, provided that at least one selected from Ar1 and Ar2 is a substituted or unsubstituted fluoranthenyl group.\",\n \"In the substituted or unsubstituted aryl group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms for Ar1 and Ar2, the aryl group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms is selected from the aryl group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms mentioned above with respect to R1 to R6.The aryl group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms is preferably selected from the group consisting of a phenyl group, a naphthyl group, a biphenylyl group, a phenanthryl group, and a triphenylenyl group, more preferably selected from the group consisting of a phenyl group, a 1-naphthyl group, a 2-naphthyl group, a 2-biphenylyl group, a 3-biphenylyl group, and a 4-biphenylyl group, and still more preferably a phenyl group.\",\n \"The substituted or unsubstituted fluoranthenyl group is represented by formula (8): wherein one of R21 to R30 is a single bond bonded to *c, each of the others of R21 to R30 is independently a hydrogen atom, a substituted or unsubstituted alkyl group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted cycloalkyl group having 3 to 10 ring carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted aryl group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted haloalkyl group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted alkoxy group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted haloalkoxy group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted aryloxy group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms, a halogen atom, or a cyano group.\",\n \"The details of the groups for the others of R21 to R30 are the same as those of the corresponding groups mentioned above with respect to R1 to R6.Each of the others of R21 to R30 is independently and preferably selected from the group consisting of a hydrogen atom, a substituted or unsubstituted alkyl group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted aryl group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms, a substituted or unsubstituted aryloxy group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms, and a cyano group, and more preferably selected from the group consisting of a hydrogen atom, a substituted or unsubstituted alkyl group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, and a substituted or unsubstituted aryl group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms.\",\n \"The others of R21 to R30 may be all hydrogen atoms.\",\n \"In the substituted or unsubstituted fluoranthenyl group, the fluoranthenyl group is selected from the group consisting of a 1-fluoranthenyl group (R21 or R26 is a single bond bonded to *c), a 2-fluoranthenyl group (R22 or R25 is a single bond bonded to *c), a 3-fluoranthenyl group (R23 or R24 is a single bond bonded to *c), a 7-fluoranthenyl group (R27 or R30 is a single bond bonded to *c), and a 8-fluoranthenyl group (R28 or R29 is a single bond bonded to *c), and preferably a 1-fluoranthenyl group, a 3-fluoranthenyl group, a 7-fluoranthenyl group, or a 8-fluoranthenyl group.\",\n \"In view of improving the performance of EL devices, for example, prolonging the lifetime, a 3-fluoranthenyl group and a 8-fluoranthenyl group are preferred.\",\n \"In formulae (1) to (5) and (1a), L1 and L2 satisfy any one of the following (a) to (d), preferably (a) or (b): (a) L1 is a single bond, and L2 is a substituted or unsubstituted arylene group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms or a substituted or unsubstituted heteroarylene group having 5 to 18 ring atoms, preferably a substituted or unsubstituted arylene group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms, and more preferably an unsubstituted arylene group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms, each mentioned above; (b) L2 is a single bond, and L1 is a substituted or unsubstituted arylene group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms or a substituted or unsubstituted heteroarylene group having 5 to 18 ring atoms, preferably a substituted or unsubstituted arylene group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms, and more preferably an unsubstituted arylene group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms, each mentioned above; (c) each of L1 and L2 is independently a substituted or unsubstituted arylene group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms or a substituted or unsubstituted heteroarylene group having 5 to 18 ring atoms, preferably a substituted or unsubstituted arylene group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms, and more preferably an unsubstituted arylene group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms, each mentioned above; and (d) L1 and L2 are both single bonds.\",\n \"In formulae (1) to (5) and (1a), Ar1 and Ar2 satisfy any one of the following (e) to (g), preferably (e) or (f): (e) Ar1 is a substituted or unsubstituted aryl group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms and Ar2 is a substituted or unsubstituted fluoranthenyl group, each mentioned above; (f) Ar2 is a substituted or unsubstituted aryl group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms and Ar1 is a substituted or unsubstituted fluoranthenyl group, each mentioned above; and (g) each of Ar1 and Ar2 is independently a substituted or unsubstituted fluoranthenyl group mentioned above.\",\n \"In the substituted or unsubstituted aryl group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms of formula (e) or (f), the aryl group having 6 to 18 ring carbon atoms is preferably selected from the group consisting of a phenyl group, a naphthyl group, a biphenylyl group, a phenanthryl group, and a triphenylenyl group, more preferably selected from the group consisting of a phenyl group, a 1-naphthyl group, a 2-naphthyl group, a 2-biphenylyl group, a 3-biphenylyl group, and a 4-biphenylyl group, and still more preferably a phenyl group.\",\n \"Each of (a) to (d) may be combined with any of (e) to (g).\",\n \"The above substituted or unsubstituted fluoranthenyl group is as described above with respect to formula (8).\",\n \"One of ordinary skill in the art could easily produce the compound (1) by selecting a starting compound corresponding to an aimed compound and reacting the selected starting compound with reference to the synthesis examples described below.\",\n \"Examples of the compound (1) of the invention are shown below, although not limited thereto.\",\n \"Material for Organic Electroluminescence Devices The material for organic electroluminescence devices in an aspect of the invention comprises the compound represented by formula (1) (compound (1)).\",\n \"The content of the compound (1) in the material for organic electroluminescence devices is, but not particularly limited, 1% by mass or more (inclusive of 100%), preferably 10% by mass or more (inclusive of 100%), more preferably 50% by mass or more (inclusive of 100%), still more preferably 80% by mass or more (inclusive of 100%), and particularly preferably 90% by mass or more (inclusive of 100%).\",\n \"The material for organic EL devices of the invention is useful as a material for producing an organic EL device and may be used, for example, in a light emitting layer of a phosphorescent emitting unit as a host material.\",\n \"Organic Electroluminescence Device The organic EL device in an aspect of the invention will be described below.\",\n \"The organic EL device comprises an organic thin film layer between a cathode and an anode.\",\n \"The organic thin film layer comprises one or more layers and a light emitting layer, and at least one layer of the organic thin film layer comprises the compound (1).\",\n \"Examples of the organic thin film layer which comprises the compound (1) include a light emitting layer, although not limited thereto.\",\n \"For example, the compound (1) is preferably used in a phosphorescent emission unit as a host material in a light emitting layer.\",\n \"The organic EL device in an aspect of the invention may be any of a fluorescent or phosphorescent single color emitting device, a white-emitting device of fluorescent-phosphorescent hybrid type, a simple-type emitting device having a single emission unit, and a tandem emitting device having two or more emission units, with a fluorescent device being preferred.\",\n \"The “emission unit” referred to herein is the smallest unit for emitting light by the recombination of injected holes and injected electrons, which comprises an organic thin film layer comprising one or more layers, wherein at least one layer is a light emitting layer.\",\n \"Representative device structures of the simple-type organic EL device are shown below: (1) Anode/Emission Unit/Cathode The emission unit may be a laminated unit comprising two or more layers selected from a phosphorescent light emitting layer and a fluorescent light emitting layer.\",\n \"A space layer may be disposed between the light emitting layers to prevent the diffusion of excitons generated in the phosphorescent light emitting layer into the fluorescent light emitting layer.\",\n \"Representative layered structures of the simple-type emission unit are shown below: (a) (hole injecting layer/) hole transporting layer/fluorescent emitting layer (/electron transporting layer); (b) (hole injecting layer/) hole transporting layer/first fluorescent emitting layer/second fluorescent emitting layer (/electron transporting layer); (c) (hole injecting layer/) hole transporting layer/phosphorescent emitting layer/space layer/fluorescent emitting layer (/electron transporting layer); (d) (hole injecting layer/) hole transporting layer/first phosphorescent emitting layer/second phosphorescent emitting layer/space layer/fluorescent emitting layer (/electron transporting layer); (e) (hole injecting layer/) hole transporting layer/first phosphorescent emitting layer/space layer/second phosphorescent emitting layer/space layer/fluorescent emitting layer (/electron transporting layer); (f) (hole injecting layer/) hole transporting layer/phosphorescent emitting layer/space layer/first fluorescent emitting layer/second fluorescent emitting layer (/electron transporting layer); (g) (hole injecting layer/) hole transporting layer/electron blocking layer/fluorescent emitting layer (/electron transporting layer); (h) (hole injecting layer/) hole transporting layer/electron blocking layer/phosphorescent emitting layer (/electron transporting layer); (i) (hole injecting layer/) hole transporting layer/exciton blocking layer/fluorescent emitting layer (/electron transporting layer); (j) (hole injecting layer/) hole transporting layer/exciton blocking layer/phosphorescent emitting layer (/electron transporting layer); (k) (hole injecting layer/) first hole transporting layer/second hole transporting layer/fluorescent emitting layer (/electron transporting layer); (l) (hole injecting layer/) first hole transporting layer/second hole transporting layer/phosphorescent emitting layer (/electron transporting layer); (m) (hole injecting layer/) hole transporting layer/fluorescent emitting layer/hole blocking layer (/electron transporting layer); and (n) (hole injecting layer/) hole transporting layer/fluorescent emitting layer/triplet blocking layer (/electron transporting layer).\",\n \"The emission color of the fluorescent emitting layer and that of the phosphorescent emitting layer may be different.\",\n \"For example, the layered structure of the laminated emission unit (d) may be (hole injecting layer/) hole transporting layer/first phosphorescent emitting layer (red emission)/second phosphorescent emitting layer (green emission)/space layer/fluorescent emitting layer (blue emission)/electron transporting layer.\",\n \"An electron blocking layer may be disposed between the light emitting layer and the hole transporting layer or between the light emitting layer and the space layer, if necessary.\",\n \"Also, a hole blocking layer may be disposed between the light emitting layer and the electron transporting layer, if necessary.\",\n \"With such an electron blocking layer or a hole blocking layer, electrons and holes are confined in the light emitting layer to increase the charge recombination in the light emitting layer, thereby improving the emission efficiency.\",\n \"Representative device structure of the tandem-type organic EL device is shown below: (2) anode/first emission unit/intermediate layer/second emission unit/cathode.\",\n \"The layered structure of the first emission unit and the second emission unit may be selected from those described above with respect to the emission unit.\",\n \"Generally, the intermediate layer is also called an intermediate electrode, an intermediate conductive layer, a charge generation layer, an electron withdrawing layer, a connecting layer, or an intermediate insulating layer.\",\n \"The intermediate layer may be formed by known materials which can supply electrons to the first emission unit and holes to the second emission unit.\",\n \"A schematic structure of an example of the organic EL device is shown in FIG.\",\n \"1, wherein the organic EL device 1 comprises a substrate 2, an anode 3, a cathode 4, and an emission unit 10 disposed between the anode 3 and the cathode 4.The emission unit 10 comprises a light emitting layer 5.A hole injecting layer or a hole transporting layer 6 (anode-side organic thin film layer) may be disposed between the light emitting layer 5 and the anode 3, and an electron injecting layer or a electron transporting layer 7 (cathode-side organic thin film layer) may be disposed between the light emitting layer 5 and the cathode 4.An electron blocking layer (not shown) may be disposed on the side of anode 3 of the light emitting layer 5, and a hole blocking layer (not shown) may be disposed on the side of cathode 4 of the light emitting layer 5.With these blocking layers, electrons and holes are confined in the light emitting layer 5 to increase the exciton generation in the light emitting layer 5.In the present specification, a host is referred to as a fluorescent host when combinedly used with a fluorescent dopant (fluorescent emitting material) and as a phosphorescent host when combinedly used with a phosphorescent dopant.\",\n \"Therefore, the fluorescent host and the phosphorescent host are not distinguished from each other merely by the difference in their molecular structures.\",\n \"Namely, in the present invention, the term “phosphorescent host” means a material for constituting a phosphorescent emitting layer containing a phosphorescent dopant and does not mean a material that cannot be utilized as a material for a fluorescent emitting layer.\",\n \"The same applies to the fluorescent host.\",\n \"Substrate The substrate is a support for the emitting device and made of, for example, glass, quartz, and plastics.\",\n \"The substrate may be a flexible substrate, for example, a plastic substrate made of polycarbonate, polyarylate, polyether sulfone, polypropylene, polyester, polyvinyl fluoride, and polyvinyl chloride.\",\n \"An inorganic deposition film is also usable.\",\n \"Anode The anode is formed on the substrate preferably from a metal, an alloy, an electrically conductive compound, and a mixture thereof, each having a large work function, for example, 4.5 eV or more.\",\n \"Examples of the material for the anode include indium oxide-tin oxide (ITO: indium tin oxide), indium oxide-tin oxide doped with silicon or silicon oxide, indium oxide-zinc oxide, indium oxide doped with tungsten oxide and zinc oxide, and graphene.\",\n \"In addition, gold (Au), platinum (Pt), nickel (Ni), tungsten (W), chromium (Cr), molybdenum (Mo), iron (Fe), cobalt (Co), copper (Cu), palladium (Pd), titanium (Ti), and a nitride of the above metal (for example, titanium nitride) are also usable.\",\n \"These materials are made into a film generally by a sputtering method.\",\n \"For example, a film of indium oxide-zinc oxide is formed by sputtering an indium oxide target doped with 1 to 10 wt % of zinc oxide, and a film of indium oxide doped with tungsten oxide and zinc oxide is formed by sputtering an indium oxide target doped with 0.5 to 5 wt % of tungsten oxide and 0.1 to 1 wt % of zinc oxide.\",\n \"In addition, a vacuum vapor deposition method, a coating method, an inkjet method, and a spin coating method are usable.\",\n \"A hole injecting layer to be optionally formed in contact with the anode is formed from a material which is capable of easily injecting holes independently of the work function of the anode.\",\n \"Therefore, the anode can be formed by a material generally known as an electrode material, for example, a metal, an alloy, an electroconductive compound, a mixture thereof, and a group 1 element and a group 2 element of the periodic table.\",\n \"A material having a small work function, for example, the group 1 element and the group 2 element of the periodic table, i.e., an alkali metal, such as lithium (Li) and cesium (Cs), an alkaline earth metal, such as magnesium (Mg), calcium (Ca), and strontium (Sr), and an alloy thereof, such as MgAg and AlLi, are also usable.\",\n \"In addition, a rare earth metal, such as europium (Eu) and ytterbium (Yb), and an alloy thereof are also usable.\",\n \"The alkali metal, the alkaline earth metal, and the alloy thereof can be made into the anode by a vacuum vapor deposition or a sputtering method.\",\n \"When a silver paste, etc.\",\n \"is used, a coating method and an inkjet method are usable.\",\n \"Hole Injecting Layer The hole injecting layer comprises a highly hole injecting material (hole injecting material).\",\n \"Examples of the hole injecting material include molybdenum oxide, titanium oxide, vanadium oxide, rhenium oxide, ruthenium oxide, chromium oxide, zirconium oxide, hafnium oxide, tantalum oxide, silver oxide, tungsten oxide, and manganese oxide.\",\n \"The following low molecular aromatic amine compound is also usable as the hole injecting material: 4,4′,4″-tris(N,N-diphenylamino)triphenylamine (TDATA), 4,4′,4″-tris[N-(3-methylphenyl)-N-phenylamino]triphenylamine (MTDATA), 4,4′-bis[N-(4-diphenylaminophenyl)-N-phenylamino]biphenyl (DPAB), 4,4′-bis(N-{4-[N′-(3-methylphenyl)-N′-phenylamino]phenyl}-N-phenylamino)biphenyl (DNTPD), 1,3,5-tris[N-(4-diphenylaminophenyl)-N-phenylamino]benzene (DPA3B), 3-[N-(9-phenylcarbazole-3-yl)-N-phenylamino]-9-phenylcarbazole (PCzPCA1), 3,6-bis[N-(9-phenylcarbazole-3-yl)-N-phenylamino]-9-phenylcarbazole (PCzPCA2), and 3-[N-(1-naphthyl)-N-(9-phenylcarbazole-3-yl)amino]-9-phenylcarbazole (PCzPCN1).\",\n \"A macromolecular compound, such as an oligomer, a dendrimer, a polymer, is also usable.\",\n \"Examples thereof include poly(N-vinylcarbazole) (PVK), poly(4-vinyltriphenylamine) (PVTPA), poly[N-(4-{N′-[4-(4-diphenylamino)phenyl]phenyl-N′-phenylamino}phenyl)methacrylamide] (PTPDMA), and poly[N,N′-bis(4-butylphenyl)-N,N′-bis(phenyl)benzidine] (Poly-TPD).\",\n \"An acid-added macromolecular compound, such as poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene)/poly(styrenesulfonic acid) (PEDOT/PSS) and polyaniline/poly(styrenesulfonic acid) (PAni/PSS), is also usable.\",\n \"In addition, an acceptor material, such as a hexaazatriphenylene (HAT) compound represented by formula (K), is preferably used in combination with the compound (1): wherein R21 to R26 may be the same or different and each of R21 to R26 is independently a cyano group, —CONH2, a carboxyl group, or —COOR27 wherein R27 is an alkyl group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms or a cycloalkyl group having 3 to 20 carbon atoms, or R21 and R22, R23 and R24, or R25 and R26 may be bonded to each other to form a group represented by —CO—O—CO—.\",\n \"Examples of R27 include a methyl group, an ethyl group, a n-propyl group, an isopropyl group, a n-butyl group, an isobutyl group, a t-butyl group, a cyclopentyl group, and a cyclohexyl group.\",\n \"Hole Transporting Layer The hole transporting layer comprises a highly hole transporting material (hole transporting material).\",\n \"Examples of the hole transporting material include an aromatic amine compound, a carbazole derivative, and an anthracene derivative.\",\n \"Examples of the aromatic amine compound are 4,4′-bis[N-(1-naphthyl)-N-phenylamino]biphenyl (NPB), N,N′-bis(3-methylphenyl)-N,N′-diphenyl-[1,1′-biphenyl]-4,4′-diamine (TPD), 4-phenyl-4′-(9-phenylfluorene-9-yl)triphenylamine (BAFLP), 4,4′-bis[N-(9,9-dimethylfluorene-2-yl)-N-phenylamino]biphenyl (DFLDPBi), 4,4′,4″-tris(N,N-diphenylamino)triphenylamine (TDATA), 4,4′,4″-tris[N-(3-methylphenyl)-N-phenylamino]triphenylamine (MTDATA), and 4,4′-bis[N-(spiro-9,9′-bifluorene-2-yl)-N-phenylamino]biphenyl (BSPB).\",\n \"The above compounds have a hole mobility of mainly 10−6 cm2/Vs or more.\",\n \"The hole transporting layer may comprise a carbazole derivative, such as 4,4′-di(9-carbazolyl)biphenyl (CBP), 9-[4-(9-carbazolyl)phenyl]-10-phenylanthracene (CzPA), and 9-phenyl-3-[4-(10-phenyl-9-anthryl)phenyl]-9H-carbazole (PCzPA); an anthracene derivative, such as 2-t-butyl-9,10-di(2-naphthyl)anthracene (t-BuDNA), 9,10-di(2-naphthyl)anthracene (DNA), and 9,10-diphenylanthracene (DPAnth); and a macromolecular compound, such as poly(N-vinylcarbazole) (PVK) and poly(4-vinyltriphenylamine) (PVTPA).\",\n \"Compounds other than those mentioned above are also usable if their hole transporting ability is higher than their electron transporting ability.\",\n \"The layer comprising a highly hole-transporting material may be a single layer or a laminate of two or more layers each comprising the compound mentioned above.\",\n \"For example, the hole transporting layer may be a two-layered structure of a first hole transporting layer (anode side) and a second hole transporting layer (cathode side).\",\n \"In this case, the compound (1) may be used in either of the first hole transporting layer and the second hole transporting layer.\",\n \"In an embodiment of the invention, the compound (1) is preferably used in the first hole transporting layer.\",\n \"In another embodiment of the invention, the compound (1) is preferably used in the second hole transporting layer.\",\n \"Dopant Material of Light Emitting Layer The light emitting layer comprises a highly light-emitting material (dopant material) and may be formed from a various kind of materials.\",\n \"For example, a fluorescent emitting material and a phosphorescent emitting material are usable as the dopant material.\",\n \"The fluorescent emitting material is a compound capable of emitting light from a singlet excited state, and the phosphorescent emitting material is a compound capable of emitting light from a triplet excited state.\",\n \"Examples of blue fluorescent emitting material for use in the light emitting layer include a pyrene derivative, a styrylamine derivative, a chrysene derivative, a fluoranthene derivative, a fluorene derivative, a diamine derivative, and a triarylamine derivative, such as N,N′-bis[4-(9H-carbazole-9-yl)phenyl]-N,N′-diphenylstilbene-4,4′-diamine (YGA2S), 4-(9H-carbazole-9-yl)-4′-(10-phenyl-9-anthryl)triphenylamine (YGAPA), and 4-(10-phenyl-9-anthryl)-4′-(9-phenyl-9H-carbazole-3-yl)triphenylamine (PCBAPA).\",\n \"Examples of green fluorescent emitting material for use in the light emitting layer include an aromatic amine derivative, such as N-(9,10-diphenyl-2-anthryl)-N,9-diphenyl-9H-carbazole-3-amine (2PCAPA), N-[9,10-bis(1,1′-biphenyl-2-yl)-2-anthryl]-N,9-diphenyl-9H-carbazole-3-amine (2PCABPhA), N-(9,10-diphenyl-2-anthryl)-N,N′,N′-triphenyl-1,4-phenylenediamine (2DPAPA), N-[9,10-bis(1,1′-biphenyl-2-yl)-2-anthryl]-N,N′,N′-triphenyl-1,4-phenylenediamine (2DPABPhA), N-[9,10-bis(1,1′-biphenyl-2-yl)]-N-[4-(9H-carbazole-9-yl)phenyl]-N-phenylanthracene-2-amine (2YGABPhA), and N,N,9-triphenylanthracene-9-amine (DPhAPhA).\",\n \"Examples of red fluorescent emitting material for use in the light emitting layer include a tetracene derivative and a diamine derivative, such as N,N,N′,N′-tetrakis(4-methylphenyl)tetracene-5,11-diamine (p-mPhTD) and 7,14-diphenyl-N,N,N′,N′-tetrakis(4-methylphenyl)acenaphtho[1,2-a]fluoranthene-3,10-diamine (p-mPhAFD).\",\n \"Examples of blue phosphorescent emitting material for use in the light emitting layer include a metal complex, such as an iridium complex, an osmium complex, and a platinum complex.\",\n \"Examples thereof include bis[2-(4′,6′-difluorophenyl)pyridinato-N,C2′]iridium(III) tetrakis(1-pyrazolyl)borato (FIr6), bis[2-(4′,6′-difluorophenyl)pyridinato-N,C2′]iridium(III) picolinato (FIrpic), bis[2-(3′,5′-bistrifluoromethylphenyl)pyridinato-N,C2′]iridium(III) picolinato (Ir(CF3ppy)2(pic)), and bis[2-(4′,6′-difluorophenyl)pyridinato-N,C2′]iridium(III) acetylacetonato (FIracac).\",\n \"Examples of green phosphorescent emitting material for use in the light emitting layer include an iridium complex, such as tris(2-phenylpyridinato-N,C2′)iridium(III) (Ir(ppy)3), bis(2-phenylpyridinato-N,C2′)iridium(III) acetylacetonato (Ir(ppy)2(acac)), bis(1,2-diphenyl-1H-benzimidazolato)iridium(III) acetylacetonato (Ir(pbi)2(acac)), and bis(benzo[h]quinolinato)iridium(III) acetylacetonato (Ir(bzq)2(acac)).\",\n \"Examples of red phosphorescent emitting material for use in the light emitting layer include a metal complex, such as an iridium complex, a platinum complex, a terbium complex, and a europium complex.\",\n \"Examples thereof include an organometallic complex, such as bis[2-(2′-benzo[4,5-α]thienyl)pyridinato-N,C3′]iridium(III) acetylacetonato (Ir(btp)2(acac)), bis(1-phenylisoquinolinato-N,C2′)iridium(III) acetylacetonato (Ir(piq)2(acac)), (acetylacetonato)bis[2,3-bis(4-fluorophenyl)quinoxalinato]iridium(III) (Ir(Fdpq)2(acac)), and 2,3,7,8,12,13,17,18-octaethyl-21H,23H-porphyrin platinum(II) (PtOEP).\",\n \"Examples of red phosphorescent emitting material for use in the light emitting layer include a metal complex, such as an iridium complex, a platinum complex, a terbium complex, and a europium complex.\",\n \"Examples thereof include an organometallic complex, such as bis[2-(2′-benzo[4,5-α]thienyl)pyridinato-N,C3′]iridium(III) acetylacetonato (Ir(btp)2(acac)), bis(1-phenylisoquinolinato-N,C2′)iridium(III) acetylacetonato (Ir(piq)2(acac)), (acetylacetonato)bis[2,3-bis(4-fluorophenyl)quinoxalinato]iridium(III) (Ir(Fdpq)2(acac)), and 2,3,7,8,12,13,17,18-octaethyl-21H,23H-porphyrin platinum(II) (PtOEP).\",\n \"A rare earth metal complex, such as tris(acetylacetonato) (monophenanthroline)terbium(III) (Tb(acac)3(Phen)), tris(1, 3-diphenyl-1,3-propanedionato)(monophenanthroline)europium(III) (Eu(DBM)3(Phen)), and tris[1-(2-thenoyl)-3,3,3-trifluoroacetonato](monophenanthroline)europium(III) (Eu(TTA)3(Phen)), emits light from the rare earth metal ion (electron transition between different multiple states), and therefore, usable as a phosphorescent emitting compound.\",\n \"Host Material for Light Emitting Layer The light emitting layer may be formed by dispersing the dopant material mentioned above in another material (host material).\",\n \"The host material is preferably the compound (1) of the invention which can be used in combination with another material.\",\n \"The host material preferably has a lowest unoccupied molecular orbital level (LUMO level) higher than that of the dopant material and a highest occupied molecular orbital level (HOMO level) lower than that of the dopant material.\",\n \"The host material other than the compound (1) may include, for example, (1) a metal complex, such as an aluminum complex, a beryllium complex, and a zinc complex; (2) a heterocyclic compound, such as an oxadiazole derivative, a benzimidazole derivative, and a phenanthroline derivative; (3) a fused aromatic compound, such as a carbazole derivative, an anthracene derivative, a phenanthrene derivative, a pyrene derivative, and a chrysene derivative; and (4) an aromatic amine compound, such as a triarylamine derivative and a fused aromatic polycyclic amine derivative.\",\n \"Examples thereof include: a metal complex, such as tris(8-quinolinolato)aluminum(III) (Alq), tris(4-methyl-8-quinolinolato)aluminum(III) (Almq3), bis(10-hydroxybenzo[h]quinolinato)beryllium(H) (BeBq2), bis(2-methyl-8-quinolinolato)(4-phenylphenolato)aluminum(III) (BAlq), bis(8-quinolinolato)zinc(II) (Znq), bis[2-(2-benzoxazolyl)phenolato]zinc(II) (ZnPBO), and bis[2-(2-benzothiazolyl)phenolato]zinc(II) (ZnBTZ); a heterocyclic compound, such as 2-(4-biphenylyl)-5-(4-tert-butylphenyl)-1,3,4-oxadiazole (PBD), 1,3-bis[5-(p-tert-butylphenyl)-1,3,4-oxadiazole-2-yl]benzene (OXD-7), 3-(4-biphenylyl)-4-phenyl-5-(4-tert-butylphenyl)-1,2,4-triazole (TAZ), 2,2′,2″-(1,3,5-benzenetriyl)tris(1-phenyl-1H-benzimidazole) (TPBI), bathophenanthroline (BPhen), and bathocuproin (BCP); a fused aromatic compound, such as 9-[4-(10-phenyl-9-anthryl)phenyl]-9H-carbazole (CzPA), 3,6-diphenyl-9-[4-(10-phenyl-9-anthryl)phenyl]-9H-carbazole (DPCzPA), 9,10-bis(3,5-diphenylphenyl)anthracene (DPPA), 9,10-di(2-naphthyl)anthracene (DNA), 2-tert-butyl-9,10-di(2-naphthyl)anthracene (t-BuDNA), 9,9′-bianthryl (BANT), 9,9′-(stilbene-3,3′-diyl)diphenanthrene (DPNS), 9,9′-(stilbene-4,4′-diyl)diphenanthrene (DPNS2), 3,3′,3″-(benzene-1,3,5-triyl)tripyrene (TPB3), 9,10-diphenylanthracene (DPAnth), and 6,12-dimethoxy-5,11-diphenylchrysene; and an aromatic amine compound, such as N,N-diphenyl-9-[4-(10-phenyl-9-anthryl)phenyl]-9H-carbazole-3-amine (CzA1PA), 4-(10-phenyl-9-anthryl)triphenylamine (DPhPA), N,9-diphenyl-N-[4-(10-phenyl-9-anthryl)phenyl]-9H-carbazole-3-amine (PCAPA), N,9-diphenyl-N-{4-[4-(10-phenyl-9-anthryl)phenyl]phenyl}-9H-carbazole-3-amine (PCAPBA), N-(9,10-diphenyl-2-anthryl)-N,9-diphenyl-9H-carbazole-3-amine (2PCAPA), 4,4′-bis[N-(1-anthryl)-N-phenylamino]biphenyl (NPB or α-NPD), N,N′-bis(3-methylphenyl)-N,N′-diphenyl-[1,1′-biphenyl]-4,4′-diamine (TPD), 4,4′-bis[N-(9,9-dimethylfluorene-2-yl)-N-phenylamino]biphenyl (DFLDPBi), and 4,4′-bis[N-(spiro-9,9′-bifluorene-2-yl)-N-phenylamino]biphenyl (BSPB).\",\n \"The host material may be used alone or in combination of two or more.\",\n \"Electron Transporting Layer The electron transporting layer comprises a highly electron-transporting material (electron transporting material).\",\n \"Examples thereof are: (1) a metal complex, such as an aluminum complex, a beryllium complex, and a zinc complex; (2) a heteroaromatic compound, such as an imidazole derivative, a benzimidazole derivative, an azine derivative, a carbazole derivative, and a phenanthroline derivative; and (3) a macromolecular compound.\",\n \"Examples of the metal complex include tris(8-quinolinolato)aluminum (III) (Alq), tris(4-methyl-8-quinolinolato)aluminum (Almq3), bis(10-hydroxybenzo[h]quinolinato)beryllium (BeBq2), bis(2-methyl-8-quinolinato)(4-phenylphenolato)aluminum (III)(BAlq), bis(8-quinolinato)zinc(II) (Znq), bis[2-(2-benzoxazolyl)phenolato]zinc(II) (ZnPBO), and bis[2-(2-benzothiazolyl)phenolato]zinc(II)(ZnBTZ).\",\n \"Examples of the heteroaromatic compound include 2-(4-biphenylyl)-5-(4-tert-butylphenyl)-1,3,4-oxadiazole (PBD), 1,3-bis[5-(p-tert-butylphenyl)-1,3,4-oxadiazole-2-yl]benzene (OXD-7), 3-(4-tert-butylphenyl)-4-phenyl-5-(4-biphenylyl)-1,2,4-triazole (TAZ), 3-(4-tert-butylphenyl)-4-(4-ethylphenyl)-5-(4-biphenylyl)-1,2,4-triazole (p-EtTAZ), bathophenanthroline (BPhen), bathocuproine (BCP), and 4,4′-bis(5-methylbenzoxazole-2-yl)stilbene (BzOs).\",\n \"Examples of the macromolecular compound include poly[(9,9-dihexylfluorene-2,7-diyl)-co-(pyridine-3,5-diyl)] (PF-Py), and poly[(9,9-dioctylfluorene-2,7-diyl)-co-(2,2′-bipyridine-6,6′-diyl)] (PF-BPy).\",\n \"The above compounds have an electron mobility of mainly 10−6 cm2/Vs or more.\",\n \"Materials other than those mentioned above are also usable in the electron transporting layer if their electron transporting ability is higher than their hole transporting ability.\",\n \"The electron transporting layer may be a single layer or a laminate of two or more layers each comprising the material mentioned above.\",\n \"Electron Injecting Layer The electron injecting layer comprises a highly electron-injecting material, for example, an alkali metal, an alkaline earth metal, and a compound of these metals, such as lithium (Li), cesium (Cs), calcium (Ca), lithium fluoride (LiF), cesium fluoride (CsF), calcium fluoride (CaF2), and lithium oxide (LiOx).\",\n \"In addition, an electron transporting material which is doped with an alkali metal, an alkaline earth metal or a compound thereof, for example, Alq doped with magnesium (Mg), is also usable.\",\n \"By using such a material, electrons are efficiently injected from the cathode.\",\n \"A composite material obtained by mixing an organic compound and an electron donor is also usable in the electron injecting layer.\",\n \"Such a composite material is excellent in the electron injecting ability and the electron transporting ability, because the organic compound receives electrons from the electron donor.\",\n \"The organic compound is preferably a material excellent in transporting the received electrons.\",\n \"Examples thereof are the materials for the electron transporting layer mentioned above, such as the metal complex and the aromatic heterocyclic compound.\",\n \"Any material capable of giving its electron to another organic compound is usable as the electron donor.\",\n \"Preferred examples thereof are an alkali metal, an alkaline earth metal, and a rare earth metal, such as lithium, cesium, magnesium, calcium, erbium, and ytterbium; an alkali metal oxide and an alkaline earth metal oxide, such as, lithium oxide, calcium oxide, and barium oxide; a Lewis base, such as magnesium oxide; and an organic compound, such as tetrathiafulvalene (TTF).\",\n \"Cathode The cathode is formed preferably from a metal, an alloy, an electrically conductive compound, or a mixture thereof, each having a small work function, for example, a work function of 3.8 eV or less.\",\n \"Examples of the material for the cathode include a metal of the group 1 or 2 of the periodic table, for example, an alkali metal, such as lithium (Li) and cesium (Cs), an alkaline earth metal, such as magnesium (Mg), an alloy containing these metals (for example, MgAg and AlLi), a rare earth metal, such as europium (Eu) and ytterbium (Yb), and an alloy containing a rare earth metal.\",\n \"The alkali metal, the alkaline earth metal, and the alloy thereof can be made into the cathode by a vacuum vapor deposition or a sputtering method.\",\n \"When a silver paste, etc.\",\n \"is used, a coating method and an inkjet method are usable.\",\n \"When the electron injecting layer is formed, the material for the cathode can be selected independently from the work function and various electroconductive materials, such as Al, Ag, ITO, graphene, and indium oxide-tin oxide doped with silicon or silicon oxide, are usable.\",\n \"These electroconductive materials are made into films by a sputtering method, an inkjet method, and a spin coating method.\",\n \"Insulating Layer Since electric field is applied to the ultra-thin films of organic EL devices, the pixel defects due to leak and short circuit tends to occur.\",\n \"To prevent the defects, an insulating thin film layer is preferably interposed between the pair of electrodes.\",\n \"Examples of the material for the insulating layer include aluminum oxide, lithium fluoride, lithium oxide, cesium fluoride, cesium oxide, magnesium oxide, magnesium fluoride, calcium oxide, calcium fluoride, aluminum nitride, titanium oxide, silicon oxide, germanium oxide, silicon nitride, boron nitride, molybdenum oxide, ruthenium oxide, and vanadium oxide.\",\n \"These materials may be used in combination or may be made into laminated layers.\",\n \"Space Layer For example, in an organic EL device wherein a fluorescent emitting layer and a phosphorescent emitting layer are laminated, a space layer is disposed between the fluorescent emitting layer and the phosphorescent emitting layer to prevent the diffusion of excitons generated in the phosphorescent emitting layer to the fluorescent emitting layer or to control the carrier balance.\",\n \"The space layer may be disposed between two or more phosphorescent emitting layers.\",\n \"Since the space layer is disposed between the light emitting layers, a material combining the electron transporting ability and the hole transporting ability is preferably used for forming the space layer.\",\n \"To prevent the diffusion of triplet energy in the adjacent phosphorescent emitting layer, the triplet energy of the material for the space layer is preferably 2.6 eV or more.\",\n \"The materials described with respect to the hole transporting layer are usable as the material for the space layer.\",\n \"Blocking Layer In the organic EL device, a blocking layer, such as an electron blocking layer, a hole blocking layer, and a triplet blocking layer, may be provided in the portion adjacent to the light emitting layer.\",\n \"The electron blocking layer is a layer which prevents the diffusion of electrons from the light emitting layer to the hole transporting layer.\",\n \"The hole blocking layer is a layer which prevents the diffusion of holes from the light emitting layer to the electron transporting layer.\",\n \"The triplet blocking layer prevents the diffusion of excitons generated in the light emitting layer to adjacent layers and has a function of confining the excitons in the light emitting layer.\",\n \"The compound (1) of the invention is also suitable as the material for the electron blocking layer and the triplet blocking layer.\",\n \"Each layer of the organic EL device can be formed by a known method, such as a vapor deposition method and a coating method.\",\n \"For example, each layer can be formed by a known vapor deposition method, such as a vacuum vapor deposition method and a molecular beam evaporation method (MBE method), and a known coating method using a solution of the compound for forming the layer, such as a dipping method, a spin coating method, a casting method, a bar coating method, and a roll coating method.\",\n \"The thickness of each layer is not particularly limited and preferably 5 nm to 10 μm, more preferably 10 nm to 0.2 μm, because an excessively small thickness may cause defects such as pin holes and an excessively large thickness may require a high driving voltage.\",\n \"The organic EL device can be used in an electronic device, for example, as display parts, such as organic EL panel module, display devices of television sets, mobile phones, personal computer, etc., and light emitting sources of lighting equipment and vehicle lighting equipment.\",\n \"EXAMPLES The invention will be described in more detail with reference to the examples and comparative examples.\",\n \"It should be noted that the scope of the invention is not limited to the following examples.\",\n \"Intermediate Synthesis 1: Synthesis of Intermediate (A) (1) Synthesis of 8-bromo-11-phenylbenzo[a]carbazole Under argon atmosphere, 29.6 g of 8-bromo-11H-benzo[a]carbazole, 12.7 g of copper, 41.5 g of potassium carbonate, 40.8 g of iodobenzene, and 80 mL of xylene were charged in a flask, and the contents were stirred at 135° C. for 65 h under heating.\",\n \"After adding 21.0 g of L-proline, the contents were stirred at the same temperature for 67 h under heating.\",\n \"After cooling to room temperature, the reaction solution was filtered and then extracted with toluene.\",\n \"The filtrate was washed with water and the obtained organic layer was concentrated.\",\n \"The residue was purified by a column chromatography and further by a recrystallization to obtain 22.2 g of 8-bromo-11-phenylbenzo[a]carbazole.\",\n \"The result of mass spectrographic analysis was m/e=371 to the molecular weight of 371 of 8-bromo-11-phenylbenzo[a]carbazole.\",\n \"(2) Synthesis of Intermediate (A) Under argon atmosphere, 26.7 g of 8-bromo-11-phenylbenzo[a]carbazole, 2.34 g of [1,1′-bis(diphenylphosphino)ferrocene]palladium(II) dichloride dichloromethane adduct, 270 mL of toluene, 90 mL of ethanol, and 107 mL of a 2 M aqueous solution of sodium carbonate were charged in a flask, and the contents were stirred at 70° C. under heating.\",\n \"After adding 21.0 g of 3-(4,4,5,5-tetramethyl-1,3,2-dioxaborolan-2-yl)carbazole, the contents were stirred at the same temperature for 56 h under heating.\",\n \"After cooling to room temperature, the reaction solution was filtered and then extracted with toluene.\",\n \"The filtrate was washed with water and the obtained organic layer was concentrated.\",\n \"The residue was purified by a column chromatography and further by a recrystallization to obtain 16.5 g of the intermediate (A).\",\n \"The result of mass spectrographic analysis was m/e=458 to the molecular weight of 458 of the intermediate (A).\",\n \"Intermediate Synthesis 2: Synthesis of Intermediate (F) The intermediate (F) was synthesized in the same manner as in the synthesis of 8-bromo-11-phenylbenzo[a]carbazole of Intermediate Synthesis 1 except for using 3-iodobiphenyl in place of iodobenzene.\",\n \"The result of mass spectrographic analysis was m/e=447 to the molecular weight of 447 of the intermediate (F).\",\n \"Intermediate Synthesis 3: Synthesis of Intermediate (G) The intermediate (G) was synthesized in the same manner as in the synthesis of the intermediate (A) of Intermediate Synthesis 1 except for using the intermediate (F) in place of 8-bromo-11-phenylbenzo[a]carbazole.\",\n \"The result of mass spectrographic analysis was m/e=534 to the molecular weight of 534 of the intermediate (G).\",\n \"Intermediate Synthesis 4: Synthesis of Intermediate (H) The intermediate (H) was synthesized in the same manner as in the synthesis of 8-bromo-11-phenylbenzo[a]carbazole of Intermediate Synthesis 1 except for using 2-iodonaphthalene in place of iodobenzene.\",\n \"The result of mass spectrographic analysis was m/e=421 to the molecular weight of 421 of the intermediate (H).\",\n \"Intermediate Synthesis 4: Synthesis of Intermediate (I) The intermediate (I) was synthesized in the same manner as in the synthesis of the intermediate (A) of Intermediate Synthesis 1 except for using the intermediate (H) in place of 8-bromo-11-phenylbenzo[a]carbazole.\",\n \"The result of mass spectrographic analysis was m/e=508 to the molecular weight of 508 of the intermediate (I).\",\n \"Intermediate Synthesis 5: Synthesis of Intermediate (J) Under argon atmosphere, 12.7 g of 8-bromo-11H-benzo[a]carbazole, 1.4 g of [1,1′-bis(diphenylphosphino)ferrocene]palladium(II)dichloride dichloromethane adduct, 110 mL of toluene, 55 mL of ethanol, and 64 mL of a 2 M aqueous solution of sodium carbonate were charged in a flask, and the contents were stirred at 70° C. After adding 15.8 g of 9-phenyl-3-(4,4,5,5-tetramethyl-1,3,2-dioxaborolan-2-yl)carbazole, the contents were stirred at the same temperature for 64 h under heating.\",\n \"After cooling to room temperature, the reaction solution was filtered and then extracted with toluene.\",\n \"The filtrate was washed with water and then the obtained organic layer was concentrated.\",\n \"The residue was purified by a column chromatography and further by a recrystallization to obtain 10.5 g of the intermediate (J).\",\n \"The result of mass spectrographic analysis was m/e=458 to the molecular weight of 458 of the intermediate (J).\",\n \"Intermediate Synthesis 6: Synthesis of Intermediate (K) The intermediate (K) was synthesized in the same manner as in the synthesis of the intermediate (A) of Intermediate Synthesis 1 except for using 2-(4,4,5,5-tetramethyl-1,3,2-dioxaborolan-2-yl)carbazole synthesized by a known method in place of 3-(4,4,5,5-tetramethyl-1,3,2-dioxaborolan-2-yl)carbazole.\",\n \"The result of mass spectrographic analysis was m/e=458 to the molecular weight of 458 of the intermediate (K).\",\n \"Synthesis Example 1: Synthesis of Compound H1 Under argon atmosphere, 11.3 g of the intermediate (A), 7.0 g of 3-bromofluoranthene, 460 mg of tris(dibenzylideneacetone)dipalladium(0), 1.1 g of 4,5-bis(diphenylphosphino)-9,9-dimethylxanthene, 7.15 g of sodium t-butoxide, and 250 mL of xylene were charged in a flask, and the contents were refluxed for 10 h under heating.\",\n \"After cooling to room temperature, the reaction solution was extracted with toluene, and the organic layer was dried and concentrated.\",\n \"The obtained residue was purified by a column chromatography to obtain the compound H1 (8.0 g, 49%).\",\n \"The result of mass spectrographic analysis was m/e=658 to the molecular weight of 658 of the compound H1.Synthesis Example 2: Synthesis of Compound H2 The compound H2 was synthesized in the same manner as in Synthesis Example 1 except for using the intermediate (B) synthesized by a known method in place of 3-bromofluoranthene.\",\n \"The result of mass spectrographic analysis was m/e=734 to the molecular weight of 734 of the compound H2.Synthesis Example 3: Synthesis of Compound H3 The compound H3 was synthesized in the same manner as in Synthesis Example 1 except for using the intermediate (C) in place of 3-bromofluoranthene.\",\n \"The result of mass spectrographic analysis was m/e=685 to the molecular weight of 685 of the compound H3.Synthesis Example 4: Synthesis of Compound H4 The compound H4 was synthesized in the same manner as in Synthesis Example 1 except for using the intermediate (D) in place of 3-bromofluoranthene.\",\n \"The result of mass spectrographic analysis was m/e=784 to the molecular weight of 784 of the compound H4.Synthesis Example 5: Synthesis of Compound H5 The compound H5 was synthesized in the same manner as in Synthesis Example 1 except for using the intermediate (E) in place of 3-bromofluoranthene.\",\n \"The result of mass spectrographic analysis was m/e=658 to the molecular weight of 658 of the compound H5.Synthesis Example 6: Synthesis of Compound H6 The compound H6 was synthesized in the same manner as in Synthesis Example 1 except for using the intermediate (G) in place of the intermediate (A).\",\n \"The result of mass spectrographic analysis was m/e=734 to the molecular weight of 734 of the compound H6.Synthesis Example 7: Synthesis of Compound H7 Intermediate (E) The compound H7 was synthesized in the same manner as in Synthesis Example 5 except for using the intermediate (G) in place of the intermediate (A).\",\n \"The result of mass spectrographic analysis was m/e=734 to the molecular weight of 734 of the compound H7.Synthesis Example 8: Synthesis of Compound H8 The compound H8 was synthesized in the same manner as in Synthesis Example 1 except for using the intermediate (I) in place of the intermediate (A).\",\n \"The result of mass spectrographic analysis was m/e=708 to the molecular weight of 708 of the compound H8.Synthesis Example 9: Synthesis of Compound H9 The compound H9 was synthesized in the same manner as in Synthesis Example 5 except for using the intermediate (I) in place of the intermediate (A).\",\n \"The result of mass spectrographic analysis was m/e=708 to the molecular weight of 708 of the compound H9.Synthesis Example 10: Synthesis of Compound H10 The compound H10 was synthesized in the same manner as in Synthesis Example 1 except for using the intermediate (J) in place of the intermediate (A).\",\n \"The result of mass spectrographic analysis was m/e=658 to the molecular weight of 658 of the compound H10.Synthesis Example 11: Synthesis of Compound H11 The compound H11 was synthesized in the same manner as in Synthesis Example 3 except for using the intermediate (J) in place of the intermediate (A).\",\n \"The result of mass spectrographic analysis was m/e=734 to the molecular weight of 734 of the compound H11.Synthesis Example 12: Synthesis of Compound H12 The compound H12 was synthesized in the same manner as in Synthesis Example 4 except for using the intermediate (J) in place of the intermediate (A).\",\n \"The result of mass spectrographic analysis was m/e=784 to the molecular weight of 784 of the compound H12.Synthesis Example 13: Synthesis of Compound H13 The compound H13 was synthesized in the same manner as in Synthesis Example 5 except for using the intermediate (J) in place of the intermediate (A).\",\n \"The result of mass spectrographic analysis was m/e=658 to the molecular weight of 658 of the compound H13.Synthesis Example 14: Synthesis of Compound H14 The compound H14 was synthesized in the same manner as in Synthesis Example 1 except for using the intermediate (K) in place of the intermediate (A).\",\n \"The result of mass spectrographic analysis was m/e=658 to the molecular weight of 658 of the compound H14.Synthesis Example 15: Synthesis of Compound H15 The compound H15 was synthesized in the same manner as in Synthesis Example 5 except for using the intermediate (K) in place of the intermediate (A).\",\n \"The result of mass spectrographic analysis was m/e=658 to the molecular weight of 658 the compound H15.Example 1 Production of Organic EL Device A glass substrate of 25 mm×75 mm×1.1 mm having an ITO transparent electrode (product of Geomatec Company) was cleaned by ultrasonic cleaning in isopropyl alcohol for 5 min and then UV/ozone cleaning for 30 min.\",\n \"The thickness of the ITO transparent electrode was 130 nm.\",\n \"The cleaned glass substrate was mounted to a substrate holder of a vacuum vapor deposition apparatus.\",\n \"First, the following compound HAT was vapor-deposited so as to cover the transparent electrode line to form an acceptor layer with a thickness of 5 nm.\",\n \"On the acceptor layer, the following compound HT1 was vapor-deposited to form a first hole transporting layer with a thickness of 100 nm.\",\n \"Successively, the following compound HT2 was vapor-deposited to form a second hole transporting layer with a thickness of 65 nm.\",\n \"On the second hole transporting layer, the compound H1 obtained in Synthesis Example 1 (host material) and Ir(piq)3 (dopant material) were vapor co-deposited to form a co-deposited film with a thickness of 40 nm.\",\n \"The concentration of Ir(piq)3 was 2% by mass.\",\n \"The co-deposited film works as a light emitting layer.\",\n \"On the light emitting layer, the following compound ET was vapor-deposited to form an electron transporting layer with a thickness of 30 nm.\",\n \"Then, on the electron transporting layer, LiF was vapor-deposited in a film-forming speed of 0.1 Å/min to form an electron injecting cathode with a thickness of 1 nm.\",\n \"Further, on the LiF film, metallic Al was deposited into a thickness of 80 nm to form a metallic Al cathode, thereby producing an organic EL device.\",\n \"Evaluation of Organic EL Device The organic EL device thus produced was driven at a constant direct current to measure the driving voltage at a current density of 10 mA/cm2 by using a luminance meter.\",\n \"From the measured results, the external quantum efficiency EQE (%) was determined.\",\n \"Separately, the organic EL device thus obtained was driven at a constant direct current at a current density of 10 mA/cm2 to measure the time taken until the luminance was reduced to 97% of the initial luminance (LT97).\",\n \"The results are shown in Table 1.Comparative Example 1 An organic EL device was produced in the same manner as in Example 1 except for using the following comparative compound 1 as the host material.\",\n \"The obtained organic EL device was evaluated in the same manner as in Example 1.The results are shown in Table 1.TABLE 1 Driving External quantum LT97 Host material voltage (V) efficiency (%) (h) Example 1 compound H1 3.70 15.2 1790 Comparative comparative 3.68 14.8 1087 Example 1 compound 1 The compound H1 of the invention is structurally different from the comparative compound 1 in that one of the carbazole structures of the comparative compound 1 is changed to a 1,2-benzocarbazole (benzo[a]carbazole) structure.\",\n \"As seen from Table 1, as compared with the organic EL device comprising the comparative compound 1, the lifetime of the organic EL device comprising the compound H1 is improved without deteriorating other EL performances.\",\n \"Example 1 Production of Organic EL Device A glass substrate of 25 mm×75 mm×1.1 mm having an ITO transparent electrode (product of Geomatec Company) was cleaned by ultrasonic cleaning in isopropyl alcohol for 5 min and then UV/ozone cleaning for 30 min.\",\n \"The thickness of the ITO transparent electrode was 130 nm.\",\n \"The cleaned glass substrate was mounted to a substrate holder of a vacuum vapor deposition apparatus.\",\n \"First, the following compound H1 was vapor-deposited so as to cover the transparent electrode line to form a hole injecting layer with a thickness of 5 nm.\",\n \"Successively, the following compound HT was vapor-deposited to form a hole transporting layer with a thickness of 210 nm.\",\n \"On the hole transporting layer, the compound H1 obtained in Synthesis Example 1 (host material) and the following compound PRD-1 (dopant material) were vapor co-deposited to form a co-deposited film with a thickness of 40 nm.\",\n \"The concentration of PRD-1 was 2% by mass.\",\n \"The co-deposited film works as a light emitting layer.\",\n \"On the light emitting layer, the following compound ET-1 and the following compound Liq were vapor co-deposited to form an electron transporting layer with a thickness of 30 nm.\",\n \"The concentration of Liq in the electron transporting layer was 50% by mass.\",\n \"Then, on the electron transporting layer, the compound Liq (electron injecting material) was vapor-deposited in a film-forming speed of 0.1 Å/min to form an electron injecting layer with a thickness of 1 nm.\",\n \"Further, on the electron injecting layer, metallic Al was deposited into a thickness of 80 nm to form a metallic Al cathode, thereby producing an organic EL device.\",\n \"Evaluation of Organic EL Device The organic EL device thus obtained was driven at a constant direct current at a current density of 10 mA/cm2 to measure the time taken until the luminance was reduced to 80% of the initial luminance (LT80).\",\n \"The results are shown in Table 2.Comparative Example 2 to 5 Each organic EL device was produced in the same manner as in Example 2 except for using each of the following comparative compounds 2 to 5.The obtained organic EL devices were evaluated in the same manner as in Example 2.The results are shown in Table 2.TABLE 2 Host material LT80 (h) Example 2 compound H1 534 Comparative Example 2 comparative compound 2 411 Comparative Example 3 comparative compound 3 378 Comparative Example 4 comparative compound 4 360 Comparative Example 5 comparative compound 5 304 Table 2 shows the dependency of the lifetime of EL device on the fused position of the benzene ring on the carbazole structure.\",\n \"It can be seen that the lifetime is drastically improved by the benzo[a]carbazole structure of the compound H1 as compared with the benzo[b]carbazole structure (comparative compounds 4 and 5) and the benzo[c]carbazole structure (comparative compounds 2 and 3).\",\n \"REFERENCE SIGNS LIST 1: Organic EL device 2: Substrate 3: Anode 4: Cathode 5: Light emitting layer 6: Anode-side organic thin film layer 7: Cathode-side organic thin film layer 10: Emission unit\"\n ]\n]"},"source":{"kind":"string","value":"Patent_15875394"}}},{"rowIdx":4494867,"cells":{"text":{"kind":"list like","value":[["MOUTH PIECE FOR COOLING OF ORAL TISSUE OF A PATIENT DURING CHEMOTHERAPY TREATMENT","The invention is directed to a mouth piece for cooling of oral tissue of a patient during chemotherapy treatment.","The mouth piece includes a cooling medium contained within the top element and the bottom element and able to retain a cooling environment within the mouth sufficient to reduce capillary blood flow to the patient's mouth.","In one embodiment, an external chamber extends from the front of the mouth piece to house a cooling medium.","A bladder is positioned inside the external chamber for storing a solution having a freezing temperature above the freezing point temperature of the cooling medium to assist in cooling the cooling medium."],["1.A mouth piece for cooling of oral tissue of a patient during chemotherapy treatment comprising: a. a malleable top element configured to rest adjacent at least major surfaces of the upper gums and teeth of a patient's mouth in a close-fitting relationship; b. a malleable bottom element configured to rest adjacent at least major surfaces of the lower gums and teeth of a patient's mouth in a close-fitting relationship; c. wherein the top element is integral with or connected to the bottom element to permit emplacement in the mouth as a one-piece unit; d. an external chamber extending from the front of the mouth piece for storing a cooling medium comprised of a first solution having a freezing temperature below 0 degrees C.; e. a bladder positioned inside the external chamber for storing a second solution having a freezing temperature above the freezing point temperature of the first solution to assist in cooling the first solution; f. wherein the first solution flows throughout the top element and the bottom element for retaining a cooling environment within the mouth sufficient to reduce capillary blood flow to the patient's mouth.","2.The mouth piece according to claim 1, in which the first solution is salt water.","3.The mouth piece according to claim 1, in which the second solution is water.","4.The mouth piece according to claim 1, wherein the bladder includes a proximal end, a central portion, and a distal end, wherein the bladder is dimensioned and configured such that the proximal end is positioned at least partly between the top element and the bottom element.","5.The mouth piece according to claim 4, in which the proximal end of the bladder has a rectangular cross-section profile.","6.The mouth piece according to claim 4, in which the central portion has a circular cross-section profile.","7.The mouth piece according to claim 1, in which the external chamber includes a proximal end and distal end, wherein the external chamber is dimensioned and configured such that the proximal end has a rectangular cross-section profile.","8.The mouth piece according to claim 1, in which the external chamber includes a proximal end and distal end, wherein the external chamber is dimensioned and configured such that the distal end has a circular cross-section profile.","9.The mouth piece according to claim 1, in which the external chamber includes a proximal end and distal end, wherein the distal end includes a distal wall that seals the external chamber closed.","10.The mouth piece according to claim 1, in which the external chamber includes a proximal end and distal end, wherein the distal end includes an opening that is configured and dimensioned to receive the bladder.","11.The mouth piece according to claim 10, further comprising a cap that is dimensioned and configured to seal the opening.","12.The mouth piece according to claim 1, in which the external chamber includes an outer insulation wall.","13.The mouth piece according to claim 12, in which the outer insulation wall provides elasticity to allow a user to squeeze the contents and assist the flow of the cooling medium.","14.The mouth piece according to claim 1, further comprising a proximal wall that connects the top element to the bottom element.","15.The mouth piece according to claim 1, wherein the top element, the bottom element, and the external chamber are integrally formed as a one-piece unit.","16.The mouth piece according to claim 1, wherein the external chamber is a separate part which is bonded to the top element and the bottom element during manufacturing to create a water tight seal.","17.The mouth piece according to claim 1, wherein the external chamber includes a cavity that is configured and dimensioned to receive the bladder in a nested arrangement.","18.The mouth piece according to claim 17, wherein each of the external chamber and the bladder include tapered proximal end portions.","19.The mouth piece according to claim 1, further comprising a first aperture positioned in a lateral location and extending adjacent the external chamber that permits a patient to breathe through the mouth when the mouth piece is emplaced within the mouth in said operative close-fitting relationship.","20.The mouth piece according to claim 19, further comprising a second aperture positioned in a lateral location opposite the first aperture and extending adjacent the external chamber that permits a patient to breathe through the mouth when the mouth piece is emplaced within the mouth in said operative close-fitting relationship."],[" BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION One of the most limiting side effects associated with chemotherapy treatments of cancer patients is the condition characterized by severe inflammation of the oral mucous membrane tissues known as mucositis.","This inflammation produces oral sores that are so painful for the patient that frequently the chemotherapy treatments must be weakened or even discontinued before they are completed.","As a result, cancer patients oftentimes can not be given the necessary amount of chemotherapy to effectively treat their conditions.","As well, often new treatments undergoing investigator evaluation have patients who withdraw from the protocol because of a lack of tolerance of the mucositis often creating significant issues in evaluating the tests.","It has been known, however, that keeping the oral tissues cold during chemotherapy treatments causes vasoconstriction of the associated blood vessels which reduces the amount of chemotherapy agent flowing into this tissue.","The known method of cooling the oral tissues comprises periodically placing ice within the patient's mouth during the administration of the chemotherapy agent.","This method lessens the formation of oral sores for short treatment periods of less than about one hour.","Although the known method of cooling the oral tissues has been acceptable for short treatments, it is impractical for extended chemotherapy treatments that may continue for extended periods, for at least the following reasons.","First, it is quite difficult for the patient to sleep because the rapidly melting ice must be constantly replaced.","Second, and, more importantly, it fails to constantly and uniformly cool all of the oral tissues that are prone to form inflammation.","The known method does not maintain the oral tissues at a constant desired temperature for the duration of extended treatments, and mucositis and oral sores inevitably form and become a limiting problem that forces the chemotherapy dose to be reduced or the treatment discontinued.","Although the patient may be able to withstand the lessened chemotherapy treatment, its effectiveness is limited and the cancer may grow at an uncontrollable rate despite the treatment.","Thus, in view of the inadequacies of the known method, there has been a need for an oral therapeutic apparatus, and a method of using the device, for effectively cooling selected oral tissues to reduce absorption of the chemotherapy agent and the subsequent formation of inflammation and oral sores, throughout extended periods of chemotherapy treatment.","Such a device would reduce or eliminate the problem that have not been overcome by the known method and have reduced the effectiveness of previous chemotherapy treatments.","Furthermore, there has been a need for an oral device that remains comfortable to the patient throughout the length of any treatment so that relaxation and even sleep can be obtained.","The present invention provides a solution to the above problems."],[" SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The invention is directed to a mouth piece for cooling of oral tissue of a patient during chemotherapy treatment.","The mouth piece includes a malleable top element configured to rest adjacent at least major surfaces of the upper gums and teeth of a patient's mouth in a close-fitting relationship.","The mouth piece further includes a malleable bottom element configured to rest adjacent to at least major surfaces of the lower gums and teeth of a patient's mouth in a close-fitting relationship.","The top element is integral with or connected to the bottom element to permit emplacement in the mouth as a one-piece unit.","The mouth piece further includes an aperture positioned in a frontal location that permits a patient to breathe through the mouth when the mouth piece is emplaced within the mouth in said operative close-fitting relationship.","The mouth piece further includes a cooling medium contained within the top element and the bottom element and able to retain a cooling environment within the mouth sufficient to reduce capillary blood flow to the patient's mouth.","In another embodiment of the invention, the mouth piece includes an external chamber extending from the front of the mouth piece for storing a cooling medium comprised of a salt water solution.","An aperture is positioned in a frontal location and extends through the external chamber that permits a patient to breathe through the mouth when the mouth piece is emplaced within the mouth in an operative close-fitting relationship.","A series of bladders are positioned within the top element and the bottom element, wherein the bladders are connected to the external chamber for receiving the cooling medium which flows throughout the top element and the bottom element and for retaining a cooling environment within the mouth sufficient to reduce capillary blood flow to the patient's mouth.","In another embodiment, the external chamber and the elements that fit within the mouth are separable thus permitting coolants to be cooled as further described herein and introduced into the elements within the mouth, thus permitting the elements within the mouth to be sized best suited to the patient.","For example, the mouth piece can include mating elements which are dimensioned and configured to permit a proximal end of the first external chamber to be removably attached to the front of the mouth piece.","The mating elements can include tongue and groove mating surfaces to permit a removable snap fit attachment.","Alternatively, the mating elements include threaded mating surfaces to permit a removable screw fit attachment.","In one embodiment, at least one valve is fixedly positioned between the bladders and the external chamber for controlling the flow of the cooling medium.","The at least one valve can be a duck bill valve, including a flexible tunnel that is configured to open when pressure is applied by the flow of the cooling medium.","Other types of valves can be utilized with the invention, including one-way type valves.","In other embodiments, the valves can include handles that are adjustable by a user to open and close them.","In other embodiments, the valves can include ball valves.","In one embodiment, the first external chamber is positioned between the mouth piece and the second chamber.","In another embodiment, the first external chamber includes a cavity forming a distal opening that is configured and dimensioned to receive the second chamber in a nested arrangement.","Each of the first external chamber and the second chamber can include tapered proximal end portions.","In another embodiment, a support device is utilized for supporting the mouth piece having an external chamber.","The device includes a sling having a surface for receiving the external chamber.","The device further includes at least two support legs extending from the sling, wherein the support legs are configured to rest on a rigid surface for supporting the external chamber during use.","Preferably, the support legs are configured to telescope and adjust to accommodate various environments and provide sturdy support.","In another embodiment, the mouth piece includes a malleable top element configured to rest adjacent at least major surfaces of the upper gums and teeth of a patient's mouth in a close-fitting relationship.","The mouth piece includes a malleable bottom element configured to rest adjacent at least major surfaces of the lower gums and teeth of a patient's mouth in a close-fitting relationship.","The top element is integral with or connected to the bottom element to permit emplacement in the mouth as a one-piece unit.","An external chamber extends from the front of the mouth piece for storing a cooling medium comprised of a first solution having a freezing temperature below 0 degrees C. A bladder is positioned inside the external chamber for storing a second solution having a freezing temperature above the freezing point temperature of the first solution to assist in cooling the first solution.","The first solution flows throughout the top element and the bottom element for retaining a cooling environment within the mouth sufficient to reduce capillary blood flow to the patient's mouth."],["CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application is a continuation-in-part of U.S. application Ser.","No.","15/687,969, filed Aug. 28, 2017, which is a continuation-in-part of PCT International Application No.","PCT/US2017/025870, filed Apr.","4, 2017, which claims the benefit of U.S.","Provisional Application No.","62/317,786, filed Apr.","4, 2016, and U.S.","Provisional Application No.","62/460,195, filed Feb. 17, 2017, all of which are hereby incorporated by reference.","FIELD OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to a mouth piece for cooling of oral tissue of a patient during chemotherapy treatment.","BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION One of the most limiting side effects associated with chemotherapy treatments of cancer patients is the condition characterized by severe inflammation of the oral mucous membrane tissues known as mucositis.","This inflammation produces oral sores that are so painful for the patient that frequently the chemotherapy treatments must be weakened or even discontinued before they are completed.","As a result, cancer patients oftentimes can not be given the necessary amount of chemotherapy to effectively treat their conditions.","As well, often new treatments undergoing investigator evaluation have patients who withdraw from the protocol because of a lack of tolerance of the mucositis often creating significant issues in evaluating the tests.","It has been known, however, that keeping the oral tissues cold during chemotherapy treatments causes vasoconstriction of the associated blood vessels which reduces the amount of chemotherapy agent flowing into this tissue.","The known method of cooling the oral tissues comprises periodically placing ice within the patient's mouth during the administration of the chemotherapy agent.","This method lessens the formation of oral sores for short treatment periods of less than about one hour.","Although the known method of cooling the oral tissues has been acceptable for short treatments, it is impractical for extended chemotherapy treatments that may continue for extended periods, for at least the following reasons.","First, it is quite difficult for the patient to sleep because the rapidly melting ice must be constantly replaced.","Second, and, more importantly, it fails to constantly and uniformly cool all of the oral tissues that are prone to form inflammation.","The known method does not maintain the oral tissues at a constant desired temperature for the duration of extended treatments, and mucositis and oral sores inevitably form and become a limiting problem that forces the chemotherapy dose to be reduced or the treatment discontinued.","Although the patient may be able to withstand the lessened chemotherapy treatment, its effectiveness is limited and the cancer may grow at an uncontrollable rate despite the treatment.","Thus, in view of the inadequacies of the known method, there has been a need for an oral therapeutic apparatus, and a method of using the device, for effectively cooling selected oral tissues to reduce absorption of the chemotherapy agent and the subsequent formation of inflammation and oral sores, throughout extended periods of chemotherapy treatment.","Such a device would reduce or eliminate the problem that have not been overcome by the known method and have reduced the effectiveness of previous chemotherapy treatments.","Furthermore, there has been a need for an oral device that remains comfortable to the patient throughout the length of any treatment so that relaxation and even sleep can be obtained.","The present invention provides a solution to the above problems.","SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The invention is directed to a mouth piece for cooling of oral tissue of a patient during chemotherapy treatment.","The mouth piece includes a malleable top element configured to rest adjacent at least major surfaces of the upper gums and teeth of a patient's mouth in a close-fitting relationship.","The mouth piece further includes a malleable bottom element configured to rest adjacent to at least major surfaces of the lower gums and teeth of a patient's mouth in a close-fitting relationship.","The top element is integral with or connected to the bottom element to permit emplacement in the mouth as a one-piece unit.","The mouth piece further includes an aperture positioned in a frontal location that permits a patient to breathe through the mouth when the mouth piece is emplaced within the mouth in said operative close-fitting relationship.","The mouth piece further includes a cooling medium contained within the top element and the bottom element and able to retain a cooling environment within the mouth sufficient to reduce capillary blood flow to the patient's mouth.","In another embodiment of the invention, the mouth piece includes an external chamber extending from the front of the mouth piece for storing a cooling medium comprised of a salt water solution.","An aperture is positioned in a frontal location and extends through the external chamber that permits a patient to breathe through the mouth when the mouth piece is emplaced within the mouth in an operative close-fitting relationship.","A series of bladders are positioned within the top element and the bottom element, wherein the bladders are connected to the external chamber for receiving the cooling medium which flows throughout the top element and the bottom element and for retaining a cooling environment within the mouth sufficient to reduce capillary blood flow to the patient's mouth.","In another embodiment, the external chamber and the elements that fit within the mouth are separable thus permitting coolants to be cooled as further described herein and introduced into the elements within the mouth, thus permitting the elements within the mouth to be sized best suited to the patient.","For example, the mouth piece can include mating elements which are dimensioned and configured to permit a proximal end of the first external chamber to be removably attached to the front of the mouth piece.","The mating elements can include tongue and groove mating surfaces to permit a removable snap fit attachment.","Alternatively, the mating elements include threaded mating surfaces to permit a removable screw fit attachment.","In one embodiment, at least one valve is fixedly positioned between the bladders and the external chamber for controlling the flow of the cooling medium.","The at least one valve can be a duck bill valve, including a flexible tunnel that is configured to open when pressure is applied by the flow of the cooling medium.","Other types of valves can be utilized with the invention, including one-way type valves.","In other embodiments, the valves can include handles that are adjustable by a user to open and close them.","In other embodiments, the valves can include ball valves.","In one embodiment, the first external chamber is positioned between the mouth piece and the second chamber.","In another embodiment, the first external chamber includes a cavity forming a distal opening that is configured and dimensioned to receive the second chamber in a nested arrangement.","Each of the first external chamber and the second chamber can include tapered proximal end portions.","In another embodiment, a support device is utilized for supporting the mouth piece having an external chamber.","The device includes a sling having a surface for receiving the external chamber.","The device further includes at least two support legs extending from the sling, wherein the support legs are configured to rest on a rigid surface for supporting the external chamber during use.","Preferably, the support legs are configured to telescope and adjust to accommodate various environments and provide sturdy support.","In another embodiment, the mouth piece includes a malleable top element configured to rest adjacent at least major surfaces of the upper gums and teeth of a patient's mouth in a close-fitting relationship.","The mouth piece includes a malleable bottom element configured to rest adjacent at least major surfaces of the lower gums and teeth of a patient's mouth in a close-fitting relationship.","The top element is integral with or connected to the bottom element to permit emplacement in the mouth as a one-piece unit.","An external chamber extends from the front of the mouth piece for storing a cooling medium comprised of a first solution having a freezing temperature below 0 degrees C. A bladder is positioned inside the external chamber for storing a second solution having a freezing temperature above the freezing point temperature of the first solution to assist in cooling the first solution.","The first solution flows throughout the top element and the bottom element for retaining a cooling environment within the mouth sufficient to reduce capillary blood flow to the patient's mouth.","BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS In the accompanying drawings: FIG.","1 is an illustrational view of a mouth piece in accordance with the invention located within the mouth of a patient undergoing chemotherapy treatment; FIGS.","2-5 illustrate a first embodiment of the invention, wherein: FIG.","2 is a cross-sectional view of a mouth piece taken in the direction of line 2-2 of FIG.","1, in accordance with the first embodiment; FIG.","3 is a front, top, and left perspective view of the mouth piece of FIG.","2, wherein the cooling medium bladders for the upper gums are shown; FIG.","4 is a top view of the mouth piece of FIG.","2 illustrating a plurality of bladders housing the cooling medium; FIG.","5 is a side elevation view of the inside surface of the right upper outer wall of the mouth piece of FIG.","2 illustrating two rows of bladders being separately by a row of air pockets; FIGS.","6-10 illustrate a second embodiment of the invention, wherein: FIG.","6 is a cross-sectional view of a mouth piece taken in the direction of line 2-2 of FIG.","1, in accordance with the second embodiment; FIG.","7 is a front, top, and left perspective view of the mouth piece of FIG.","6, wherein a single U-shaped bladder for insulating the upper teeth is shown; FIG.","8 is a top view of the mouth piece of FIG.","2 illustrating the biting surface of the U-shaped upper insulation bladder; FIG.","9 is a front, top, and left perspective view of the mouth piece of FIG.","6, further comprising an expandable upper wall for contacting the roof of the mouth; and FIG.","10 is a front, top, and left perspective view of the mouth piece of FIG.","9, further comprising four flexible arms for contacting the corners of the mouth; FIGS.","11-14 illustrate a third embodiment of the invention, wherein: FIG.","11 is an illustrational view of a mouth piece located within the mouth of a patient undergoing chemotherapy treatment, wherein an external chamber extends from the front of the mouth piece; FIG.","12 is a cross-sectional view of a mouth piece taken in the direction of line 12-12 of FIG.","11, in accordance with the third embodiment; FIG.","13 is a front, top, and left perspective view of the mouth piece of FIG.","12, wherein the cooling medium bladders for the upper gums are shown and are connected to the external chamber; FIG.","14 is a top view of the mouth piece of FIG.","12 illustrating a series of connected bladders for receiving the cooling medium which flows throughout the top element and the bottom element; FIG.","15 illustrates a fourth embodiment of the invention, showing a front, top, and left perspective view of the mouth piece of FIG.","12, wherein the cooling medium bladders for the upper gums are shown and are connected to the external chamber, wherein the external chamber includes a salt water chamber and a pure water chamber that moves freely inside the salt water chamber; FIGS.","16-20 illustrate a fifth embodiment of the invention, wherein: FIG.","16 is an illustrational view of a mouth piece located within the mouth of a patient undergoing chemotherapy treatment, wherein a removable external chamber extends from the front of the mouth piece; FIG.","17 is a cross-sectional view of a mouth piece taken in the direction of line 17-17 of FIG.","16, in accordance with the fifth embodiment; FIG.","18 is a front, top, and left side perspective view of the mouth piece of FIG.","16, wherein the cooling medium bladders for the upper gums are shown and are connected to the external removable chamber; FIG.","19 is a top view of the mouth piece of FIG.","16 illustrating a series of connected bladders for receiving the cooling medium which flows throughout the top element and the bottom element; FIG.","20A is a front, top, and left side perspective exploded view of the mouth piece of FIG.","16, wherein the external chamber is removed from the mouth piece; FIG.","20B is a front and left side perspective exploded view of the proximal end of the external chamber showing a cylindrical member and valves for controlling the flow of the cooling medium; FIGS.","21-22 illustrate a sixth embodiment of the invention, wherein: FIG.","21 illustrates a front, top, and left perspective view of the mouth piece of FIG.","12, wherein the cooling medium bladders for the upper gums are shown and are connected to the external chamber, wherein the external chamber includes a salt water chamber and a plurality of pure water capsules that move freely inside the salt water chamber and flow freely through the cooling medium bladders; FIG.","22 is a top view of the mouth piece of FIG.","21 illustrating a series of connected bladders for receiving both the salt water cooling medium and the pure water capsules which flow freely throughout the top element and the bottom element; FIG.","23 illustrates a seventh embodiment of the invention, further comprising a support device including support legs and a sling.","FIGS.","24-34 illustrate an eighth embodiment of the invention, wherein: FIG.","24 is an illustrational view of a mouth piece located within the mouth of a patient undergoing chemotherapy treatment, wherein an external chamber extends from the front of the mouth piece; FIG.","25 is a cross-sectional view of a mouth piece taken in the direction of line 25-25 of FIG.","24, in accordance with the eighth embodiment; FIG.","26 is a right side perspective exploded view of the mouth piece of FIG.","24, wherein the bladder is shown positioned for insertion between the mouth piece and the external chamber; FIG.","27 is a right side perspective exploded view of the mouth piece of FIG.","24, wherein the bladder is shown positioned for insertion between the external chamber and a cap; FIG.","28 is a right side perspective exploded view of the mouth piece of FIG.","24, showing the proximal wall of the mouthpiece that connects the top element and the bottom element; FIG.","29 is a right side perspective exploded view of the mouth piece of FIG.","24, showing the bladder inserted inside the external chamber; FIG.","30 is a top view of the mouth piece of FIG.","24 illustrating the bladder for receiving the cooling medium which flows throughout the top element and the bottom element; FIGS.","31-32 are intra oral infrared temperature images showing the cooling effects of the mouth piece on a first test subject; FIGS.","33-34 are intra oral infrared temperature images showing the cooling effects of the mouth piece on a second test subject.","DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS The present invention will now be described in detail with reference to the drawings.","FIG.","1 illustrates a mouth piece 10 in accordance with the present invention which is located within the mouth of a patient undergoing chemotherapy treatment.","As depicted in FIGS.","2 and 6, the therapeutic device is engaged simultaneously by the upper teeth 201 and 202 and lower teeth 203 and 204 of the patient, and includes an aperture 70 in a frontal location that permits the patient to breathe through the mouth when the mouth piece is emplaced with the mouth in an operative close-fitting relationship.","In one embodiment, a flexible tube (not shown) can be inserted through or otherwise connected with the aperture 70 and positioned inside the patient's mouth to assist the patient with inhaling air from outside the mouth while breathing comfortably.","In another embodiment, this flexible tube can be used to supply oxygen to the patient if medically warranted.","FIGS.","2-5 illustrate a first embodiment of the invention, wherein the mouth piece 10 is composed of a material that is malleable and biocompatible with the patient's oral tissues and can be used to form the device according to the size and shape of the patient's mouth as will be described in greater detail below.","Suitable materials include, for example, acrylic, plastic, silicon and rubber.","Unlike the second embodiment of the invention described below, the material of the mouth piece itself is not intended to be a cooling medium, but rather forms a framework with which to house bladders or other elements that are configured to act as the cooling medium as will be discussed below.","The mouth piece includes a top element 18 and a bottom element 19, which collectively provide total mouth coverage during chemotherapy treatment.","The top element 18 is integral with or connected to the bottom element 19 to permit emplacement in the mouth as a one-piece unit.","The top element 18 consists of a malleable material and is configured to rest adjacent at least major surfaces of the upper gums 211 and 212 and upper teeth 201 and 202 of a patient's mouth in a close-fitting relationship.","The bottom element 19 consists of a malleable material and is configured to rest adjacent at least major surfaces of the lower gums 213 and 214 and lower teeth 203 and 204 of a patient's mouth in a close-fitting relationship.","In one embodiment, the therapeutic device is formed by first making stone casts of the patient's teeth along with a bite registration.","The casts are mounted on an articulator to simulate the patient's occlusal, and the articulator is adjusted to form a 4-6 mm vertical occlusal space.","Next, a buildup is initiated with the preferred therapeutic device.","A wax pattern is fabricated and added to the buildup, which pattern defines the inner and outer walls of the mouth piece.","The preferred material is added to enclose the wax pattern as well as the position of the aperture 70.The preferred material is allowed to harden or cure either at room temperature, or at an elevated temperature within a heating source such as a pressure pot.","The hardened device is then placed in boiling water or within a hot atmosphere such as in an oven to melt the wax pattern, and the wax is poured out to produce a hollow device.","The device is then finished, shaped and contoured.","Finally, to assure that the outer surface of the finished device properly conforms to the contour of the patient's mouth, it is placed therein to verify an accurate fit.","The device must fit comfortably and not extend so far into the patient's mouth that it causes the patient to gag.","In another embodiment, the mouth piece material has sufficient malleability and is manufactured in a variety of sizes in order to fit the patient's mouth according to his or her size without the need for making a custom device each time from a stone cast as was described above.","For example, the mouth piece can be offered in sizes small, medium, large, and extra-large.","The mouth piece can include flexible inner and outer walls to self-adjust its configuration to the size and shape of a patient's mouth.","Referring to FIG.","2, a separate cooling medium is contained within the top element 18 and the bottom element 19 and is able to retain a cooling environment within the mouth sufficient to reduce capillary blood flow to the patient's mouth to prevent mouth sores and oral discomfort following chemotherapy treatment.","The cooling medium can be housed in a plurality of bladders 81-88 located at predetermined locations along the inner cavities of the mouth piece.","Prior to use, the mouth piece is stored in a freezer or other temperature controlled environment in order to cool the cooling medium to a desired temperature.","Preferably, the cooling medium of the mouth piece is able to maintain the necessary temperature while the mouth piece is in the patient's mouth to cool the oral tissues throughout a portion of time of chemotherapy treatment, depending on the types of drugs being administered and their known effects on the gums and mouth of the patient.","For example, during a two hour chemotherapy treatment session, only a fifteen minute portion of the treatment may cause adverse effects on the gums and mouth.","Therefore, the mouth piece of the present invention can be inserted into the mouth of the patient during the time of the chemotherapy treatment when it is most needed, such that the cooling effect of the mouth piece can be maximized at the most effective time.","The cooling medium is positioned within the mouth piece in order to contact and cool selected oral tissues within the patient's mouth.","The cooling medium also partially cools the mouth piece which functions as a heat sink for heat generated in the oral tissues.","The cooling medium functions such that heat is continuously transferred away from the oral tissues and the device, to keep the oral tissues cold and prevent the device from significantly warming during the chemotherapy treatment.","Significant warming of the therapeutic device would allow inflammation and oral sores to form and consequently force the treatment to be reduced or discontinued.","Preferably, the cooling medium is maintained at a temperature of approximately 0 degrees C. to approximately 5 degrees C. The cooling medium can be carried by the device in sealed chambers, and the device is cooled in a freezer or other cooling device to the proper temperature prior to use.","The cooling medium may be a non-toxic gel or a like substance made by adding hydroxyethyl cellulose (CELLUSIZE (™)), sodium polyacrylate, or vinyl-coated silica gel that can maintain its initial temperature.","FIG.","2 is a cross-sectional view taken in the direction of line 2-2 of FIG.","1.The patient's right upper teeth 201 and right upper gums 211 engage the top right walls 41, 51 and 61, which collectively form a U-shaped cavity.","Bladders 81 and 82 are attached to the vertical walls 41 and 51, respectively, and house the cooling medium as described above.","The bladders are dimensioned to rest adjacent at least major surfaces of the right upper gums 211, as shown in FIG.","2 Similarly, the other remaining quadrants of the patient's mouth are treated in the same manner as described above and therefore do not require further discussion.","FIG.","3 illustrates a front, top, and left perspective view of the mouth piece, wherein the cooling medium bladders for the upper gums are shown.","An aperture 70 is positioned in a frontal location that permits a patient to breathe through the mouth when the mouth piece 10 is emplaced within the mouth in the operative close-fitting relationship.","Although the aperture 70 is illustrated as a single aperture, in other embodiments of the invention more than one aperture can be included.","As illustrated, the top element 18 is integral with the bottom element 19 along their adjacent surfaces, collectively forming a single continuous side wall there between and permitting emplacement in the mouth as a one-piece unit.","In other embodiments, the top element 18 can be hingedly connected to the bottom element 19 at the distal ends adjacent the joint of the jaw bones.","In this embodiment, the patient can open and close his mouth while maintaining the cooling medium in contact with the top and bottom gums and teeth.","FIG.","4 is a top view of the mouth piece illustrating the plurality of bladders housing the cooling medium.","In the illustrated embodiment, several discreet cooling chambers (bladders) 81-84 are provided along the interior walls of the mouth piece 10.The distribution of the cooling medium between several discreet chambers provides a malleable surface for contacting the gums of the patient without interfering with the breathing hole 70.The number and sizes of the discreet chambers can vary depending on the overall size of the mouth piece and the particular patient being treated.","Preferably, each chamber is fixedly attached to the mouth piece with an appropriate adhesive or other means to prevent its dislodgement during use.","In another embodiment, the chambers are removably attached and can be interchanged with various size bladders to control the amount and timing of cooling; or to adjust the fit of the mouth piece for the user's unique dental anatomy.","For example, patients may have one or more teeth that are recessed or crooked from the adjacent teeth and a smaller or larger bladder can be fitted in this location of the mouth piece to accommodate for this discrepancy and therefore create more of a custom fit.","FIG.","5 is a side elevation view of the inside surface of the right upper outer wall 41 of the mouth piece illustrating two rows of bladders being separately by a row of air pockets.","A first row of bladders 801 is positioned near the bottom and is intended to sit near the right upper teeth 201 (see FIG.","2) of the patient.","A second row of bladders 802 is positioned near the top and is intended to sit near the right upper gums 211 (see FIG.","2) of the patient.","Different volumes and/or types of cooling materials can be positioned in the first and second rows, respectively, to provide various cooling zones for gums vs. teeth.","For example, the first row of bladders 801 can contain a cooling medium that warms up faster and removes less heat from the teeth (thus cooling the teeth less), as compared with the cooling medium that is contained within the second row of bladders 802.This can also be accomplished by utilizing a rubber or plastic material with a low specific heat.","In general, it is preferred that the teeth are cooled less than the gums of the patient, especially if the patient has sensitive teeth for a variety of reasons.","In another embodiment, a row of air pockets 803 is positioned between the first and second rows of bladders.","The air pockets act to thermally separate the first and second rows of bladders 801 and 802 and minimize thermal transfer between them.","In other embodiments, the row of air pockets is not included with the device.","Other thermal barriers can be utilized in place of the row of air pockets.","In another embodiment, the mouth piece includes a separate cooling medium (not shown) along the outer lateral surfaces of the sidewalls of the mouth piece to make contact with the patient's cheeks and cool the oral tissues thereof and also cool the gums along the upper and lower jaw.","In another embodiment, the mouth piece includes cooling medium (not shown) along an optional upper wall 29 (see FIG.","2) which contacts the roof of the mouth, and along an optional lower wall 30 (see FIG.","2) which contacts the base of the mouth, and a portion of the interior walls contacting the tongue.","These wall portions can be utilized to cool the surrounding roof and base of the mouth, and the tongue as well as the adjacent gums.","FIGS.","6-10 illustrate a second embodiment of the invention, wherein the mouth piece 10 itself is composed of a material that is not only malleable and biocompatible with the patient's oral tissues and can be used to form the device according to the size and shape of the patient's mouth, but wherein the material forming the mouth piece itself is intended to act as the cooling medium as will be described in greater detail below.","The material forming the mouth piece may include a non-toxic gel or a like substance made by adding hydroxyethyl cellulose (CELLUSIZE (™)), sodium polyacrylate, or vinyl-coated silica gel that can maintain its initial temperature.","The mouth piece includes a top element 18 and a bottom element 19, which collectively provide total mouth coverage and cooling during chemotherapy treatment.","The top element 18 is integral with or connected to the bottom element 19 to permit emplacement in the mouth as a one-piece unit.","The top element 18 consists of a malleable material and is configured to rest adjacent at least major surfaces of the upper gums 211 and 212 and upper teeth 201 and 202 of a patient's mouth in a close-fitting relationship.","The bottom element 19 consists of a malleable material and is configured to rest adjacent at least major surfaces of the lower gums 213 and 214 and lower teeth 203 and 204 of a patient's mouth in a close-fitting relationship.","FIG.","6 is a cross-sectional view taken in the direction of line 2-2 of FIG.","1.The patient's right upper teeth 201 and right upper gums 211 engage the top right walls 41, 51 and 61, which collectively form a U-shaped cavity.","Because the mouth piece itself is the cooling medium, the additional bladders described with reference to FIGS.","2-5 above are not necessary and are not included.","A U-shaped insulation bladder 91 is attached between the vertical walls 41 and 51, respectively, and is composed of a material that becomes warm very quickly after removing the mouth piece from its cooling storage device.","The U-shaped insulation bladder 91 thereby substantially prevents the teeth from cooling during use of the mouth piece.","The U-shaped bladder 91 is dimensioned to rest adjacent at least major surfaces of the right upper teeth 201, as shown in FIG.","6.Similarly, the other remaining quadrants of the patient's mouth are treated in the same manner as described above and therefore do not require further discussion.","FIG.","7 illustrates a front, top, and left perspective view of the mouth piece, wherein a single U-shaped bladder 90 for insulating the upper teeth is shown as described above.","In other embodiments, the U-shaped bladder can be comprised of multiple sections.","FIG.","8 is a top view of the mouth piece illustrating the biting surface of the U-shaped upper insulation bladder 90 as described above.","The material forming the U-shaped insulation bladder can be malleable and provide a comfortable biting surface during insertion in the patient's mouth.","FIG.","9 is a front, top, and left perspective view of the mouth piece of FIG.","6, further comprising an expandable upper wall for contacting the roof of the mouth.","In particular, the upper wall is formed by a first section 29a that extends vertically from the right upper inner wall 51 (see FIG.","6) and by a second section 29b that extends vertically from the left upper inner wall 52 (see FIG.","6) respectively of the mouth piece.","The first section 29a slides over the second section 29b to form a generally continuous top surface for contacting the roof of the patient's mouth thereby also cooling this area during chemotherapy treatment.","The first section 29a and second section 29b are composed of a similar cooling material as the rest of the mouth piece and can also include additional material and/or internal structural reinforcement to ensure that the top portion maintains suitable structural integrity and generally have an upward biasing force to maintain contact with the roof of the mouth.","The top portion includes the ability to widen and narrow because of the overlapping arrangement of the first section 29a and second section 29b.","Accordingly, the mouth piece can accommodate various size mouth widths while maintaining the ability to cool the roof of the patient's mouth.","Although not shown in perspective view, the bottom of the mouth piece includes a similar lower portion (see FIG.","6) configured to contact the bottom/floor of the patient's mouth, while not interfering with the frenulum of the tongue (also known as tongue web, lingual frenulum, or frenulum linguae) which is the small fold of mucous membrane extending from the floor of the mouth to the midline of the underside of the tongue.","FIG.","10 is a front, top, and left perspective view of the mouth piece of FIG.","9, further comprising four flexible arms 301-304 configured to contact the corners of the mouth during use.","Each flexible arm is attached at a proximal end near the aperture 70 positioned at the front of the mouth piece and extends out in a radial direction when the mouth piece is not positioned inside the patient's mouth.","The flexible arms 301-304 are composed of a similar cooling material as the rest of the mouth piece and can also include additional material and/or internal structural reinforcement to ensure suitable structural integrity.","For example, a resilient longitudinal core can be housed inside each flexible arm to provide the proper structural integrity and the proper flexibility.","During use, the mouth piece 10 is inserted into the patient's mouth.","Then each flexible arm is inserted and positioned into each corner of the patient's mouth.","The flexible arms thereby provide additional cooling zones in the hard to reach areas located in the corners of the patient's mouth near the wisdom teeth.","Accordingly, in this embodiment the mouth piece can accommodate various size mouths while maintaining the ability to cool the corners of the patient's mouth, including the gums and cheeks adjacent these areas of the mouth.","The therapeutic device in accordance with the present invention constantly and uniformly cools the patient's cheeks, gums, tongue, and roof and floor of the mouth.","Because it closely conforms to the contour of the patient's mouth, it can be used for extensive treatments without causing discomfort.","Furthermore, its uniform cooling action reduces or prevents the formation of inflammation and oral sores throughout extended chemotherapy treatments.","In another embodiment of the invention, a system for cooling of oral tissue of a patient during chemotherapy treatment is disclosed.","The system includes a plurality of mouth pieces which are simultaneously cooled.","During use, a first mouth piece is selected and inserted into the patient's mouth, while the remaining mouth pieces continue to be stored in a temperature controlled cooled environment.","After a preselected time or after a preselected temperature of the mouth is reached, the first mouth piece is removed and replaced by a second mouth piece to regain the desired cooling effect that began to fade from the first mouth piece.","In this way, a constant supply of cooled mouth pieces is available for the patient for use during chemotherapy treatment.","For example, the plurality of mouth pieces can be stored in a refrigerator, freezer, cooling tub with ice, and the like and available to access within close proximity of the patient.","FIGS.","11-14 illustrate a third embodiment of the invention, wherein an external chamber 300 extends from the front of the mouth piece 10.An insulation wall 301 surrounds the external chamber 300 to help maintain a cold temperature of the liquid contents.","The external chamber 300 preferably includes a salt water chamber 303 and a pure water chamber 304.A separation wall 302 provides a barrier between the salt water chamber 303 and the pure water chamber 304.In one embodiment, the salt water chamber 303 and the pure water chamber have surfaces that lie adjacent to each other, along the separation wall 302.The separation wall can be made of a flexible material, such as a thin rubber or plastic material.","In another embodiment, the separation wall can be made of aluminum or other type of highly conductive material.","Although salt water and pure water are preferred because of their safety and ready availability, other materials which, like salt water, have a freezing point well below 0 degrees C. and pure water with a freezing point of 0 degrees C., other solutions in which the freezing point of one solution is close to 0 degrees C. and the other of which has a freezing point below 0 degrees C. can be substituted either for the salt water, pure water or both.","The mouth piece includes a top element 18 and a bottom element 19, which collectively provide total mouth coverage and cooling during chemotherapy treatment.","The top element 18 is integral with or connected to the bottom element 19 to permit emplacement in the mouth as a one-piece unit.","The top element 18 consists of a malleable material and is configured to rest adjacent at least major surfaces of the upper gums 211 and 212 and upper teeth 201 and 202 of a patient's mouth in a close-fitting relationship.","The bottom element 19 consists of a malleable material and is configured to rest adjacent at least major surfaces of the lower gums 213 and 214 and lower teeth 203 and 204 of a patient's mouth in a close-fitting relationship.","FIG.","12 is a cross-sectional view taken in the direction of line 12-12 of FIG.","11.The patient's right upper teeth 201 and right upper gums 211 engage the top right walls 41, 51 and 61, which collectively form a U-shaped cavity.","Bladders 181 and 182 are attached to the vertical walls 41 and 51, respectively, and house the cooling medium as described above.","The bladders are dimensioned to rest adjacent at least major surfaces of the right upper gums 211, as shown in FIG.","12 Similarly, the other remaining quadrants of the patient's mouth are treated in the same manner as described above and therefore do not require further discussion.","FIG.","13 illustrates a front, top, and left perspective view of the mouth piece, wherein the cooling medium bladders 181, 189, 183, and 190 for the upper gums are shown.","An aperture 70 is positioned in a frontal location and extends through the external chamber 300 that permits a patient to breathe through the mouth when the mouth piece 10 is emplaced within the mouth in the operative close-fitting relationship.","Although the aperture 70 is illustrated as a single aperture, in other embodiments of the invention more than one aperture can be included.","The interior wall of the aperture 70 is made from a rigid or semi-rigid material, such as plastic, hard rubber, etc., in order to maintain its shape under the weight of the external chamber 300 without crimping.","As illustrated, the top element 18 is integral with the bottom element 19 along their adjacent surfaces, collectively forming a single continuous side wall there between and permitting emplacement in the mouth as a one-piece unit.","In other embodiments, the top element 18 can be hingedly connected to the bottom element 19 at the distal ends adjacent the joint of the jaw bones.","In this embodiment, the patient can open and close his mouth while maintaining the cooling medium in contact with the top and bottom gums and teeth.","FIG.","14 is a top view of the mouth piece illustrating the plurality of bladders housing the salt water solution which flows from the salt water chamber 303 via one or more channels 305 and 306.The mouth piece and external chamber are kept in a freezer before use so that the water that is stored in the pure water chamber 304 is frozen.","The pure water chamber 304 will provide a cooling effect for the salt water flowing through the bladders in the mouth piece as illustrated by the arrows in the drawing.","In the illustrated embodiment, a series of cooling chambers (bladders) 181-184 are provided along the interior walls of the mouth piece 10.The distribution of the cooling medium between several connected chambers provides a malleable surface for contacting the gums of the patient without interfering with the breathing hole 70.The number and sizes of the discreet chambers can vary depending on the overall size of the mouth piece and the particular patient being treated.","The series of bladders form a completely connected network.","For example, bladder 189 is positioned at the rear surface of the mouth piece and connects bladder 181 to bladder 182.Similarly, bladder 190 is positioned at the rear surface of the mouth piece and connects bladder 183 to bladder 184.Preferably, each bladder is fixedly attached to the mouth piece with an appropriate adhesive or other means to prevent its dislodgement during use.","In another embodiment, the chambers are removably attached and can be interchanged with various size bladders to control the amount and timing of cooling; or to adjust the fit of the mouth piece for the user's unique dental anatomy.","For example, patients may have one or more teeth that are recessed or crooked from the adjacent teeth and a smaller or larger bladder can be fitted in this location of the mouth piece to accommodate for this discrepancy and therefore create more of a custom fit.","FIG.","15 a fourth embodiment of the invention, showing a front, top, and left perspective view of the mouth piece of FIG.","12, wherein the cooling medium bladders for the upper gums are shown and are connected to the external chamber, wherein the external chamber includes a salt water chamber 303 and a pure water chamber 304 that moves freely inside the salt water chamber.","In the example illustrated, the pure water chamber 304 is spherically-shaped, but other shapes can be employed.","Furthermore, more than one water chamber 304 can be included with this embodiment of the invention.","The outer insulation wall of the external chamber 303 is selected to maintain its shape, yet also provides elasticity to allow a user to periodically squeeze the contents and assist the flow of the salt water solution through the series of bladders of the mouth piece.","In another embodiment (not shown), there is only a salt water chamber 303 and there is no pure water chamber 304.The size of the salt water chamber 303 can be adjusted depending on the amount and length of time that the cooling effect is required, without the need for a pure water (frozen) chamber.","In another embodiment (not shown), an adjustable support band is attached to the external chamber for wrapping around the users head to help support the weight of the external chamber.","The support band can be secured via hook-and-loop fasteners, buckles, snaps, and the like.","FIGS.","16-20 illustrate a fifth embodiment of the invention.","FIG.","16 is an illustrational view of a mouth piece located within the mouth of a patient undergoing chemotherapy treatment, wherein a removable external chamber 300 extends from the front of the mouth piece.","The external chamber 300 preferably includes a salt water chamber 303 and a pure water chamber 304.An insulation layer (not shown) can be included to provide a barrier between the salt water chamber 303 and the pure water chamber 304.Although salt water and pure water are preferred because of their safety and ready availability, other materials which, like salt water, have a freezing point well below 0 degrees C. and pure water with a freezing point of 0 degrees C., other solutions in which the freezing point of one solution is close to 0 degrees C. and the other of which has a freezing point below 0 degrees C. can be substituted either for the salt water, pure water or both.","The mouth piece includes a top element 18 and a bottom element 19, which collectively provide total mouth coverage and cooling during chemotherapy treatment.","The top element 18 is integral with or connected to the bottom element 19 to permit emplacement in the mouth as a one-piece unit.","The top element 18 consists of a malleable material and is configured to rest adjacent at least major surfaces of the upper gums 211 and 212 and upper teeth 201 and 202 of a patient's mouth in a close-fitting relationship.","The bottom element 19 consists of a malleable material and is configured to rest adjacent at least major surfaces of the lower gums 213 and 214 and lower teeth 203 and 204 of a patient's mouth in a close-fitting relationship.","FIG.","17 is a cross-sectional view of a mouth piece taken in the direction of line 17-17 of FIG.","16, in accordance with the fifth embodiment.","The patient's right upper teeth 201 and right upper gums 211 engage the top right walls 41, 51 and 61, which collectively form a U-shaped cavity.","Bladders 181 and 182 are attached to the vertical walls 41 and 51, respectively, and house the cooling medium as described above.","The bladders are dimensioned to rest adjacent at least major surfaces of the right upper gums 211, as shown in FIG.","17.Similarly, the other remaining quadrants of the patient's mouth are treated in the same manner as described above and therefore do not require further discussion.","FIG.","18 is a front, top, and left side perspective view of the mouth piece of FIG.","16, wherein the cooling medium bladders 181, 189, 183, and 190 for the upper gums are shown and are connected to the external removable chamber.","An aperture 70 is positioned in a frontal location and extends through the external chamber 300 that permits a patient to breathe through the mouth when the mouth piece 10 is emplaced within the mouth in the operative close-fitting relationship.","Although the aperture 70 is illustrated as a single aperture, in other embodiments of the invention more than one aperture can be included.","For all embodiments of the invention, the aperture 70 can be round, slotted, oval, rectangular, or any other shape.","The interior wall of the aperture 70 can be made from a rigid or semi-rigid material, such as plastic, hard rubber, etc., in order to maintain its shape under the weight of the external chamber 300 without crimping.","As illustrated, the top element 18 is integral with the bottom element 19 along their adjacent surfaces, collectively forming a single continuous side wall there between and permitting emplacement in the mouth as a one-piece unit.","In other embodiments, the top element 18 can be hingedly connected to the bottom element 19 at the distal ends adjacent the joint of the jaw bones.","In this embodiment, the patient can open and close his mouth while maintaining the cooling medium in contact with the top and bottom gums and teeth.","FIG.","19 is a top view of the mouth piece illustrating the plurality of bladders housing the salt water solution which flows from the salt water chamber 303 via one or more channels 305 and 306.The mouth piece and external chamber are kept in a freezer before use so that the water that is stored in the pure water chamber 304 is frozen.","The pure water chamber 304 will provide a cooling effect for the salt water flowing through the bladders in the mouth piece as illustrated by the arrows in the drawing.","In the illustrated embodiment, a series of cooling chambers (bladders) 181-184 are provided along the interior walls of the mouth piece 10.The distribution of the cooling medium between several connected chambers provides a malleable surface for contacting the gums of the patient without interfering with the breathing hole 70.The number and sizes of the discreet chambers can vary depending on the overall size of the mouth piece and the particular patient being treated.","The series of bladders form a completely connected network.","For example, bladder 189 is positioned at the rear surface of the mouth piece and connects bladder 181 to bladder 182.Similarly, bladder 190 is positioned at the rear surface of the mouth piece and connects bladder 183 to bladder 184.Preferably, each bladder is fixedly attached to the mouth piece with an appropriate adhesive or other means to prevent its dislodgement during use.","In another embodiment, the chambers are removably attached and can be interchanged with various size bladders to control the amount and timing of cooling; or to adjust the fit of the mouth piece for the user's unique dental anatomy.","For example, patients may have one or more teeth that are recessed or crooked from the adjacent teeth and a smaller or larger bladder can be fitted in this location of the mouth piece to accommodate for this discrepancy and therefore create more of a custom fit.","FIG.","20A is a front, top, and left side perspective exploded view of the mouth piece of FIG.","16, wherein the external chamber 300 is removed from the mouth piece 10.In one embodiment, the external chamber 300 includes a salt water chamber 303 having a cavity forming a distal opening that is configured and dimensioned to receive the pure water chamber 304 in a nested arrangement.","Each of the salt water chamber 303 and pure water chamber 304 can include tapered proximal end portions.","A flexible, insulation membrane (not shown) can surround the external chamber to provide insulation to the surrounding air, which is presumably a warmer temperature of about of 72 degrees F., when treating a patient in a clinical setting.","Because the external chamber 300 is removable from the mouth piece 10, the mouth piece can be manufactured in a variety of sizes to accommodate various patients, ranging from pediatric patients to adult men.","However, the external chamber only needs to be manufactured in a limited number of sizes because it is able to connect to any size mouth piece.","This allows a highly customizable fit for the elements that fit within the mouth, while minimizing unnecessary manufacturing and tooling costs for the external chamber.","Furthermore, only the external chamber needs to be put into a refrigerator prior to use, thereby allowing a maximum number of external chambers to be stored per refrigerator.","In addition, and especially for longer treatments, a second external chamber can be kept in the refrigerator and then swapped with the first external chamber originally attached to the mouth piece, and this can all be done while the mouth piece remains inside the patient's mouth, making this swap very easy to do.","Mating elements are dimensioned and configured to permit a proximal end of the first external chamber 303 to be removably attached to the front of the mouth piece 10.In one embodiment, the mating elements include tongue and groove mating surfaces 401 and 411 to permit a snap fit attachment.","In another embodiment, the mating elements include threaded mating surfaces (not shown) to permit a removable screw fit attachment.","This can also be accomplished by utilizing a separate threaded collar.","In one embodiment, the mouth piece includes a cylindrical protrusion 400 having a side wall that includes grooves 401.One or more channels 305 and 306 can extend from the cylindrical protrusion 400 and are configured to align with one or more corresponding apertures 417 and 418 (see FIG.","20B) that provide conduit(s) into the salt water chamber 303.FIG.","20B is a front and left side perspective exploded view of the proximal end of the external chamber showing a cylindrical member 410 and valves 501 and 502 for controlling the flow of the cooling medium.","In one embodiment the valves 501 and 502 are duck bill valves, which include a flexible tunnel that is configured to open when pressure is applied by the flow of the cooling medium.","The flexible tunnel can be conically-shaped as illustrated or can be other suitable shapes.","The pressure can be applied by a user squeezing the outside of the salt water chamber 303, which is configured to remain pliable during use.","Preferably, the valves are oriented to direct the fluid in a one-way flow pattern through the mouth piece to reduce turbulence and maximize the heat transfer and cooling effects inside the mouth by providing continuing circulation of the salt water to assist in maintaining the temperature.","For example, valve 501 can direct flow in a distal direction and valve 502 can direct flow in a proximal direction.","Other types of valves can be utilized with the invention, including one-way type valves.","In other embodiments, the valves can include handles that are adjustable by a user to open and close them.","In other embodiments, the valves can include ball valves.","The valves should be fixedly attached to the apertures 417 and 418.Alternatively, the valves can be positioned and fixedly attached to the channels 305 and 306 of the mouthpiece.","In still another embodiment, valves can be included on both the apertures 417 and 48 and on the channels 305 and 306.In another embodiment, no valves are used and instead one or more flaps secured by adhesive or the like covers the conduits until a suitable pressure is applied which then opens or breaks the flap material to allow flow of the cooling medium.","In another embodiment, nothing is used to seal the conduits and instead the external chamber 300 is maintained in an upright position so that gravity prevents any fluid from leaking out of the apertures 417 and 418.In another embodiment, one or more relief apertures are included with the device to allow entrapped air bubbles to escape from the otherwise closed loop system, should any such air bubbles exist.","FIGS.","21-22 illustrate a sixth embodiment of the invention.","FIG.","21 illustrates a front, top, and left perspective view of the mouth piece of FIG.","12, wherein the cooling medium bladders for the upper gums are shown and are connected to the external chamber 300, wherein the external chamber includes a salt water chamber 303 and a plurality of pure water capsules 307 that move freely inside the salt water chamber 303 and flow freely through the cooling medium bladders.","The pure water capsules 307 can be spherically shaped or can be other shapes, including random amorphous shapes.","Preferably, each pure water capsule 30 is uniformly sized to be of approximately similar volume.","FIG.","22 is a top view of the mouth piece of FIG.","21 illustrating a series of connected bladders for receiving both the salt water cooling medium and the pure water capsules 307 which flow freely throughout the top element and the bottom element.","In one embodiment, the pure water capsules 307 are about 4 to 5 mm in diameter and the channels 305 and 306 are about 23 to 28 mm in diameter to permit the free flow of the pure water capsules throughout the mouthpiece 10.The water capsules 307 and channels 305 and 306 can be of any other suitable dimensions, as long as the water capsules are small enough to freely pass through the channels without becoming clogged.","FIG.","23 illustrates a seventh embodiment of the invention, further comprising an optional auxiliary support device 800 including support legs 801-804 and a sling 805.The auxiliary support device for the external chamber provides greater comfort in use and prevents muscle fatigue to the user.","The support legs can be configured to telescope and adjust to accommodate various positions and provide sturdy support.","For example, the support device 800 can be utilized to support the external chamber 300 by resting the support legs 801 and 802 on a right arm rest 701 and then resting support legs 803 and 804 on a left arm rest 702 of a chair 700 while a user 600 is seated.","In another example (not shown), the support device 800 can be utilized to support the external chamber 300 by resting the support legs 801-804 on the chest of the user 600 while seated in a more reclined positioned.","FIGS.","24-34 illustrate an eighth embodiment of the invention.","FIG.","24 is an illustrational view of a mouth piece located within the mouth of a patient undergoing chemotherapy treatment, wherein an external chamber 900 extends from the front of the mouth piece.","The external chamber 900 preferably includes a pure water bladder 910 and a gap 920 is formed between the bladder 910 and external chamber 900 for holding salt water.","An insulation layer (not shown) can be included to provide a barrier between the pure water bladder 910 and the surrounding salt water.","In one embodiment, the bladder 910 is made from a material that is not permeable to salt, such as a latex based material.","The bladder 910 stores a second solution having a freezing temperature above the freezing point temperature of the salt water to assist in cooling the salt water.","In a preferred embodiment, the second solution that is stored inside the bladder 910 is pure water.","In one embodiment, the external chamber 900 includes an outer insulation wall (not shown) that provides elasticity to allow a user to squeeze the contents and assist the flow of the cooling medium.","Although salt water and pure water are preferred because of their safety and ready availability, other materials which, like salt water, have a freezing point well below 0 degrees C. and pure water with a freezing point of 0 degrees C., other solutions in which the freezing point of one solution is close to 0 degrees C. and the other of which has a freezing point below 0 degrees C. can be substituted either for the salt water, pure water or both.","In one embodiment, the salt water solution includes a mixture of salt in the range of 1% to 25% ratio.","In one embodiment, the salt water solution includes a mixture of salt at a 10% ratio, which allows the solution to remain in liquid form down to about 17 degrees F. In one embodiment, the temperature of the mouth piece is in the range of 20 degrees to 25 degrees F. during treatment.","The mouth piece includes a top element 18 and a bottom element 19, which collectively provide total mouth coverage and cooling during chemotherapy treatment.","The top element 18 is integral with or connected to the bottom element 19 to permit emplacement in the mouth as a one-piece unit.","The top element 18 consists of a malleable material and is configured to rest adjacent at least major surfaces of the upper gums 211 and 212 and upper teeth 201 and 202 of a patient's mouth in a close-fitting relationship.","The bottom element 19 consists of a malleable material and is configured to rest adjacent at least major surfaces of the lower gums 213 and 214 and lower teeth 203 and 204 of a patient's mouth in a close-fitting relationship.","FIG.","25 is a cross-sectional view of a mouth piece taken in the direction of line 25-25 of FIG.","24, in accordance with the eighth embodiment.","The patient's right upper teeth 201 and right upper gums 211 engage the top right walls 41, 51 and 61, which collectively form a U-shaped cavity.","The mouth piece includes is preferably formed from a single layer of material that is bent and folded at certain predetermined locations to form a single, continuous internal cavity 920 that surrounds the proximal end 911 of the pure water bladder 910.In particular, the wall of the mouth piece is bent to form a right outer wall 45 that holds the mouth piece together and forms areas of the cavity that reside adjacent the patient's right teeth and gums (both upper and lower).","Similarly, the wall of the mouth piece is bent to form a left outer wall 46 that joins the mouth piece and forms areas of the cavity that reside adjacent the patient's left teeth and gums (both upper and lower).","It should be understood that the mouth piece is sized appropriately, such that the patient's teeth and gums fit inside the U-shaped cavities in a close-fitting relationship.","Therefore, although FIG.","25 illustrates a space between the outer surfaces of the patient's teeth and gums and the walls of the U-shaped cavities, in other embodiments (not shown), there is no such spacing (or minimal spacing) and the patient's teeth and gums rest directly against the walls of the U-shaped cavities Similarly, the other remaining quadrants of the patient's mouth are treated in the same manner as described above and therefore do not require further discussion.","The proximal end 911 of the pure water bladder 910 can be rectangular in cross-section.","In other embodiments, the proximal end 911 of the pure water bladder 910 can be oval in cross-section or can have other cross-section shapes, including amorphous shapes.","The proximal end 911 of the pure water bladder 910 is configured and dimensioned to fit between the right biting surface walls 61 and 63 and to fit between the left biting surface walls 62 and 64.In addition, the proximal end 911 of the pure water bladder 910 is configured and dimensioned to fit between right outer wall 45 and left outer wall 46.Furthermore, a sufficient gap or space should be permitted fully surrounding the proximal end 911 of the pure water bladder 910 to permit the surrounding salt water to freely flow over and in-between all surfaces of the mouth piece to maximize the cooling effect and to attempt to maintain substantially uniform temperatures inside the mouth.","FIG.","26 is a right side perspective exploded view of the mouth piece of FIG.","24, wherein the bladder 910 is shown positioned ready for insertion between the mouth piece 10 and the external chamber 900.Two opposing apertures 931 and 932 are positioned in lateral locations and extend along the outside of the external chamber 900 that permits a patient to breathe through the mouth when the mouth piece 10 is emplaced within the mouth in the operative close-fitting relationship.","Although the apertures 931 and 932 are illustrated as two separate apertures, in other embodiments of the invention, only one aperture can be included, or three or more apertures can be included.","In other embodiments, the one or more breathing apertures can be positioned along the top and/or bottom edges of the external chamber 900 or positioned along any other axis.","For all embodiments of the invention, the apertures can be round, slotted, oval, rectangular, or any other shape.","The interior wall of the apertures can be made from a rigid or semi-rigid material, such as plastic, hard rubber, etc., in order to maintain its shape under the weight of the external chamber 900 without crimping.","As illustrated, the mouth piece 10 includes a frontal opening 11 that is configured and dimensioned to permit the insertion of the proximal end 911 of the pure water bladder 910.In addition, the frontal opening 11 is configured and dimensioned to correspond to the size of the proximal opening 904 that is formed in the proximal end 901 of the external chamber 900.In the embodiment illustrated in FIG.","26, the mouth piece 10 and the external chamber 900 are separate parts.","Although not shown, the distal end 902 of the external chamber 900 includes a distal wall that seals the external chamber closed.","In this embodiment, the bladder 910 is filled with pure water and then the opening 913 is sealed.","Then, the bladder is inserted between the mouth piece 10 and the external chamber 900.Next, the mouth piece 10 is sealed to the external chamber to form a water-tight seal, by using an adhesive sealant or other type of bonding agent.","Finally, a syringe is used to pump salt water inside the external chamber 900 into the gap surrounding the bladder 910.FIG.","27 is a right side perspective exploded view of the mouth piece of FIG.","24, wherein the bladder 910 is shown positioned ready for insertion between the external chamber 900 and a cap 940.The mouth piece and external chamber are kept in a freezer before use so that the water that is stored in the pure water bladder 910 is frozen.","The pure water bladder 910 will provide a cooling effect for the salt water flowing through the external chamber 900 and the mouth piece 10.In the illustrated embodiment, the mouth piece 10 and the external chamber 900 are integrally formed as a one-piece unit, for example by manufacturing from a single mold.","In this embodiment, once the bladder 910 is filled with pure water, it is inserted into the external chamber 900, and then a cap 940 is used to seal the external chamber as a water-tight seal.","The cap can be sealed through a screw-fit arrangement, a snap-fit arrangement, a heat activated adhesive, and/or any other type of bonding agent or adhesive.","The distribution of the cooling medium between the external chamber 900 and the mouth piece 10 provides a cooling effect to the patient's mouth without interfering with the breathing holes positioned along the outside of the external chamber 900.In a preferred embodiment, the bladder 910 includes a proximal end 911 and a distal end 912 and a central portion 914.The proximal end 911 and the central portion 914 form an outer surface profile that corresponds to the inner surface profile of the external chamber 900 to permit emplacement in a nest arrangement.","Preferably, the bladder 910 is freely placed inside the external chamber 900.This allows the bladder 910 to expand during freezing, and contract should the ice begin to melt.","However, in other embodiments, the bladder 910 can be attached to the inside surface of the external chamber 900 at one or more locations to maintain its relative position within the external chamber.","FIG.","28 is a right side perspective exploded view of the mouth piece of FIG.","24, showing the proximal wall 15 of the mouthpiece 10 that connects the top element and the bottom element.","Furthermore, an upper wall 29 and corresponding lower wall 30 (not shown) act together with the proximal wall 15 to both form the outer surfaces of the cavity of the mouth piece while also providing a general framework for supporting the mouth piece and its liquid contents.","In one embodiment, the material used for these surfaces in particular of the mouth piece can be somewhat more rigid than other surfaces to maintain the desired shape of the mouth piece during use.","In all embodiments of the invention, the material should be durable enough to maintain a water-tight seal during treatment of a patient and be able to withstand any forces applied should the patient bite down on the mouth piece during use.","For example, a metallic mesh material can be embedded within the external surfaces to prevent puncturing or other possible damage that could cause a leak to occur.","In any event, should a leak occur, there is no harm to the patient because the contents are non-toxic and preferably include water, salt, and other harmless substances.","In all embodiments of the invention, the mouth piece can be manufactured in a variety of sizes to accommodate various patients, ranging from pediatric patients to adult men.","However, the external chamber only needs to be manufactured in a limited number of sizes.","FIG.","29 is a right side perspective exploded view of the mouth piece of FIG.","24, showing the bladder inserted inside the external chamber 900.In one embodiment, the distal end 912 of the bladder extends beyond the length of the external chamber 900.The opening 913 of the pure water bladder 910 is sealed before placing the cap 940 over the external chamber 900.In one embodiment, a stopper (not shown) can be placed inside the opening 913 of the bladder to create a water tight seal.","FIG.","30 is a top view of the mouth piece of FIG.","24 illustrating the bladder 910 for receiving the cooling medium which flows throughout the top element and the bottom element.","As discussed above, the proximal end 911 of the bladder 910 preferably extends, at least partially, between the upper and lower teeth of the patient to maximize the cooling effect during treatment.","In one embodiment, the gap 920 that surrounds the bladder 910 extends substantially all the way around the bladder 910, including the proximal most end of the mouth piece.","In the embodiment described in FIGS.","24-30, a patient may only need to retain the mouth piece inside the mouth for 30 minutes to achieve the desired cooling effect during treatment.","In one embodiment, the mouth piece achieves a temperature inside the mouth between 50 degrees and 60 degrees F. In another embodiment, the external chamber can further include one or more heat sensitive indicia that change color to indicate when the temperature has reached the desired starting temperature and ending temperature for use during treatment.","For example, the indicia can show a green color when a predetermined temperature has been reached during storage that is considered sufficient to be inserted inside the mouth.","Likewise, the indicia can show a yellow color when a predetermined temperature has been reached during use such that the effectiveness of the mouth piece has subsided and it is time to remove the mouth piece from the mouth, thereby ending the use and possible replacement with another secondary mouth piece that is ready and waiting to be placed inside the mouth.","In another embodiment, the indicia can show a red color if the temperature of the device has reached a predetermined temperature that is considered too cold for placement inside the mouth of the patient, which could cause discomfort or possible harm to the patient.","Any other color coding can be utilized or other types of indicia that is reactive to temperature changes.","In one embodiment of the invention, the device is shipped to the customer in a ready-to-use assembly, such that the bladder is not removable from the external bladder, and both the bladder and external chamber have been pre-filled with the first solution and the second solution.","In one embodiment, the device is intended to be used as a one-time use only device.","FIGS.","31-32 are intra oral infrared temperature images showing the cooling effects of the mouth piece on a first test subject.","FIGS.","33-34 are intra oral infrared temperature images showing the cooling effects of the mouth piece on a second test subject.","In another embodiment (not shown), an electric cooling device can be utilized that is battery powered or is directly plugged into an electrical wall socket, wherein the cooling device is adapted to cool the external chamber.","The cooling device includes a power switch and can be used to supplement the cooling of the cooling medium or as the primary means for cooling the cooling medium.","The foregoing description of the preferred embodiment of the invention has been presented to illustrate the principles of the invention and not to limit the invention to the particular embodiment illustrated.","It is intended that the scope of the invention be defined by all of the embodiments encompassed within the following claims, and their equivalents."]],"string":"[\n [\n \"MOUTH PIECE FOR COOLING OF ORAL TISSUE OF A PATIENT DURING CHEMOTHERAPY TREATMENT\",\n \"The invention is directed to a mouth piece for cooling of oral tissue of a patient during chemotherapy treatment.\",\n \"The mouth piece includes a cooling medium contained within the top element and the bottom element and able to retain a cooling environment within the mouth sufficient to reduce capillary blood flow to the patient's mouth.\",\n \"In one embodiment, an external chamber extends from the front of the mouth piece to house a cooling medium.\",\n \"A bladder is positioned inside the external chamber for storing a solution having a freezing temperature above the freezing point temperature of the cooling medium to assist in cooling the cooling medium.\"\n ],\n [\n \"1.A mouth piece for cooling of oral tissue of a patient during chemotherapy treatment comprising: a. a malleable top element configured to rest adjacent at least major surfaces of the upper gums and teeth of a patient's mouth in a close-fitting relationship; b. a malleable bottom element configured to rest adjacent at least major surfaces of the lower gums and teeth of a patient's mouth in a close-fitting relationship; c. wherein the top element is integral with or connected to the bottom element to permit emplacement in the mouth as a one-piece unit; d. an external chamber extending from the front of the mouth piece for storing a cooling medium comprised of a first solution having a freezing temperature below 0 degrees C.; e. a bladder positioned inside the external chamber for storing a second solution having a freezing temperature above the freezing point temperature of the first solution to assist in cooling the first solution; f. wherein the first solution flows throughout the top element and the bottom element for retaining a cooling environment within the mouth sufficient to reduce capillary blood flow to the patient's mouth.\",\n \"2.The mouth piece according to claim 1, in which the first solution is salt water.\",\n \"3.The mouth piece according to claim 1, in which the second solution is water.\",\n \"4.The mouth piece according to claim 1, wherein the bladder includes a proximal end, a central portion, and a distal end, wherein the bladder is dimensioned and configured such that the proximal end is positioned at least partly between the top element and the bottom element.\",\n \"5.The mouth piece according to claim 4, in which the proximal end of the bladder has a rectangular cross-section profile.\",\n \"6.The mouth piece according to claim 4, in which the central portion has a circular cross-section profile.\",\n \"7.The mouth piece according to claim 1, in which the external chamber includes a proximal end and distal end, wherein the external chamber is dimensioned and configured such that the proximal end has a rectangular cross-section profile.\",\n \"8.The mouth piece according to claim 1, in which the external chamber includes a proximal end and distal end, wherein the external chamber is dimensioned and configured such that the distal end has a circular cross-section profile.\",\n \"9.The mouth piece according to claim 1, in which the external chamber includes a proximal end and distal end, wherein the distal end includes a distal wall that seals the external chamber closed.\",\n \"10.The mouth piece according to claim 1, in which the external chamber includes a proximal end and distal end, wherein the distal end includes an opening that is configured and dimensioned to receive the bladder.\",\n \"11.The mouth piece according to claim 10, further comprising a cap that is dimensioned and configured to seal the opening.\",\n \"12.The mouth piece according to claim 1, in which the external chamber includes an outer insulation wall.\",\n \"13.The mouth piece according to claim 12, in which the outer insulation wall provides elasticity to allow a user to squeeze the contents and assist the flow of the cooling medium.\",\n \"14.The mouth piece according to claim 1, further comprising a proximal wall that connects the top element to the bottom element.\",\n \"15.The mouth piece according to claim 1, wherein the top element, the bottom element, and the external chamber are integrally formed as a one-piece unit.\",\n \"16.The mouth piece according to claim 1, wherein the external chamber is a separate part which is bonded to the top element and the bottom element during manufacturing to create a water tight seal.\",\n \"17.The mouth piece according to claim 1, wherein the external chamber includes a cavity that is configured and dimensioned to receive the bladder in a nested arrangement.\",\n \"18.The mouth piece according to claim 17, wherein each of the external chamber and the bladder include tapered proximal end portions.\",\n \"19.The mouth piece according to claim 1, further comprising a first aperture positioned in a lateral location and extending adjacent the external chamber that permits a patient to breathe through the mouth when the mouth piece is emplaced within the mouth in said operative close-fitting relationship.\",\n \"20.The mouth piece according to claim 19, further comprising a second aperture positioned in a lateral location opposite the first aperture and extending adjacent the external chamber that permits a patient to breathe through the mouth when the mouth piece is emplaced within the mouth in said operative close-fitting relationship.\"\n ],\n [\n \" BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION One of the most limiting side effects associated with chemotherapy treatments of cancer patients is the condition characterized by severe inflammation of the oral mucous membrane tissues known as mucositis.\",\n \"This inflammation produces oral sores that are so painful for the patient that frequently the chemotherapy treatments must be weakened or even discontinued before they are completed.\",\n \"As a result, cancer patients oftentimes can not be given the necessary amount of chemotherapy to effectively treat their conditions.\",\n \"As well, often new treatments undergoing investigator evaluation have patients who withdraw from the protocol because of a lack of tolerance of the mucositis often creating significant issues in evaluating the tests.\",\n \"It has been known, however, that keeping the oral tissues cold during chemotherapy treatments causes vasoconstriction of the associated blood vessels which reduces the amount of chemotherapy agent flowing into this tissue.\",\n \"The known method of cooling the oral tissues comprises periodically placing ice within the patient's mouth during the administration of the chemotherapy agent.\",\n \"This method lessens the formation of oral sores for short treatment periods of less than about one hour.\",\n \"Although the known method of cooling the oral tissues has been acceptable for short treatments, it is impractical for extended chemotherapy treatments that may continue for extended periods, for at least the following reasons.\",\n \"First, it is quite difficult for the patient to sleep because the rapidly melting ice must be constantly replaced.\",\n \"Second, and, more importantly, it fails to constantly and uniformly cool all of the oral tissues that are prone to form inflammation.\",\n \"The known method does not maintain the oral tissues at a constant desired temperature for the duration of extended treatments, and mucositis and oral sores inevitably form and become a limiting problem that forces the chemotherapy dose to be reduced or the treatment discontinued.\",\n \"Although the patient may be able to withstand the lessened chemotherapy treatment, its effectiveness is limited and the cancer may grow at an uncontrollable rate despite the treatment.\",\n \"Thus, in view of the inadequacies of the known method, there has been a need for an oral therapeutic apparatus, and a method of using the device, for effectively cooling selected oral tissues to reduce absorption of the chemotherapy agent and the subsequent formation of inflammation and oral sores, throughout extended periods of chemotherapy treatment.\",\n \"Such a device would reduce or eliminate the problem that have not been overcome by the known method and have reduced the effectiveness of previous chemotherapy treatments.\",\n \"Furthermore, there has been a need for an oral device that remains comfortable to the patient throughout the length of any treatment so that relaxation and even sleep can be obtained.\",\n \"The present invention provides a solution to the above problems.\"\n ],\n [\n \" SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The invention is directed to a mouth piece for cooling of oral tissue of a patient during chemotherapy treatment.\",\n \"The mouth piece includes a malleable top element configured to rest adjacent at least major surfaces of the upper gums and teeth of a patient's mouth in a close-fitting relationship.\",\n \"The mouth piece further includes a malleable bottom element configured to rest adjacent to at least major surfaces of the lower gums and teeth of a patient's mouth in a close-fitting relationship.\",\n \"The top element is integral with or connected to the bottom element to permit emplacement in the mouth as a one-piece unit.\",\n \"The mouth piece further includes an aperture positioned in a frontal location that permits a patient to breathe through the mouth when the mouth piece is emplaced within the mouth in said operative close-fitting relationship.\",\n \"The mouth piece further includes a cooling medium contained within the top element and the bottom element and able to retain a cooling environment within the mouth sufficient to reduce capillary blood flow to the patient's mouth.\",\n \"In another embodiment of the invention, the mouth piece includes an external chamber extending from the front of the mouth piece for storing a cooling medium comprised of a salt water solution.\",\n \"An aperture is positioned in a frontal location and extends through the external chamber that permits a patient to breathe through the mouth when the mouth piece is emplaced within the mouth in an operative close-fitting relationship.\",\n \"A series of bladders are positioned within the top element and the bottom element, wherein the bladders are connected to the external chamber for receiving the cooling medium which flows throughout the top element and the bottom element and for retaining a cooling environment within the mouth sufficient to reduce capillary blood flow to the patient's mouth.\",\n \"In another embodiment, the external chamber and the elements that fit within the mouth are separable thus permitting coolants to be cooled as further described herein and introduced into the elements within the mouth, thus permitting the elements within the mouth to be sized best suited to the patient.\",\n \"For example, the mouth piece can include mating elements which are dimensioned and configured to permit a proximal end of the first external chamber to be removably attached to the front of the mouth piece.\",\n \"The mating elements can include tongue and groove mating surfaces to permit a removable snap fit attachment.\",\n \"Alternatively, the mating elements include threaded mating surfaces to permit a removable screw fit attachment.\",\n \"In one embodiment, at least one valve is fixedly positioned between the bladders and the external chamber for controlling the flow of the cooling medium.\",\n \"The at least one valve can be a duck bill valve, including a flexible tunnel that is configured to open when pressure is applied by the flow of the cooling medium.\",\n \"Other types of valves can be utilized with the invention, including one-way type valves.\",\n \"In other embodiments, the valves can include handles that are adjustable by a user to open and close them.\",\n \"In other embodiments, the valves can include ball valves.\",\n \"In one embodiment, the first external chamber is positioned between the mouth piece and the second chamber.\",\n \"In another embodiment, the first external chamber includes a cavity forming a distal opening that is configured and dimensioned to receive the second chamber in a nested arrangement.\",\n \"Each of the first external chamber and the second chamber can include tapered proximal end portions.\",\n \"In another embodiment, a support device is utilized for supporting the mouth piece having an external chamber.\",\n \"The device includes a sling having a surface for receiving the external chamber.\",\n \"The device further includes at least two support legs extending from the sling, wherein the support legs are configured to rest on a rigid surface for supporting the external chamber during use.\",\n \"Preferably, the support legs are configured to telescope and adjust to accommodate various environments and provide sturdy support.\",\n \"In another embodiment, the mouth piece includes a malleable top element configured to rest adjacent at least major surfaces of the upper gums and teeth of a patient's mouth in a close-fitting relationship.\",\n \"The mouth piece includes a malleable bottom element configured to rest adjacent at least major surfaces of the lower gums and teeth of a patient's mouth in a close-fitting relationship.\",\n \"The top element is integral with or connected to the bottom element to permit emplacement in the mouth as a one-piece unit.\",\n \"An external chamber extends from the front of the mouth piece for storing a cooling medium comprised of a first solution having a freezing temperature below 0 degrees C. A bladder is positioned inside the external chamber for storing a second solution having a freezing temperature above the freezing point temperature of the first solution to assist in cooling the first solution.\",\n \"The first solution flows throughout the top element and the bottom element for retaining a cooling environment within the mouth sufficient to reduce capillary blood flow to the patient's mouth.\"\n ],\n [\n \"CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application is a continuation-in-part of U.S. application Ser.\",\n \"No.\",\n \"15/687,969, filed Aug. 28, 2017, which is a continuation-in-part of PCT International Application No.\",\n \"PCT/US2017/025870, filed Apr.\",\n \"4, 2017, which claims the benefit of U.S.\",\n \"Provisional Application No.\",\n \"62/317,786, filed Apr.\",\n \"4, 2016, and U.S.\",\n \"Provisional Application No.\",\n \"62/460,195, filed Feb. 17, 2017, all of which are hereby incorporated by reference.\",\n \"FIELD OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to a mouth piece for cooling of oral tissue of a patient during chemotherapy treatment.\",\n \"BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION One of the most limiting side effects associated with chemotherapy treatments of cancer patients is the condition characterized by severe inflammation of the oral mucous membrane tissues known as mucositis.\",\n \"This inflammation produces oral sores that are so painful for the patient that frequently the chemotherapy treatments must be weakened or even discontinued before they are completed.\",\n \"As a result, cancer patients oftentimes can not be given the necessary amount of chemotherapy to effectively treat their conditions.\",\n \"As well, often new treatments undergoing investigator evaluation have patients who withdraw from the protocol because of a lack of tolerance of the mucositis often creating significant issues in evaluating the tests.\",\n \"It has been known, however, that keeping the oral tissues cold during chemotherapy treatments causes vasoconstriction of the associated blood vessels which reduces the amount of chemotherapy agent flowing into this tissue.\",\n \"The known method of cooling the oral tissues comprises periodically placing ice within the patient's mouth during the administration of the chemotherapy agent.\",\n \"This method lessens the formation of oral sores for short treatment periods of less than about one hour.\",\n \"Although the known method of cooling the oral tissues has been acceptable for short treatments, it is impractical for extended chemotherapy treatments that may continue for extended periods, for at least the following reasons.\",\n \"First, it is quite difficult for the patient to sleep because the rapidly melting ice must be constantly replaced.\",\n \"Second, and, more importantly, it fails to constantly and uniformly cool all of the oral tissues that are prone to form inflammation.\",\n \"The known method does not maintain the oral tissues at a constant desired temperature for the duration of extended treatments, and mucositis and oral sores inevitably form and become a limiting problem that forces the chemotherapy dose to be reduced or the treatment discontinued.\",\n \"Although the patient may be able to withstand the lessened chemotherapy treatment, its effectiveness is limited and the cancer may grow at an uncontrollable rate despite the treatment.\",\n \"Thus, in view of the inadequacies of the known method, there has been a need for an oral therapeutic apparatus, and a method of using the device, for effectively cooling selected oral tissues to reduce absorption of the chemotherapy agent and the subsequent formation of inflammation and oral sores, throughout extended periods of chemotherapy treatment.\",\n \"Such a device would reduce or eliminate the problem that have not been overcome by the known method and have reduced the effectiveness of previous chemotherapy treatments.\",\n \"Furthermore, there has been a need for an oral device that remains comfortable to the patient throughout the length of any treatment so that relaxation and even sleep can be obtained.\",\n \"The present invention provides a solution to the above problems.\",\n \"SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The invention is directed to a mouth piece for cooling of oral tissue of a patient during chemotherapy treatment.\",\n \"The mouth piece includes a malleable top element configured to rest adjacent at least major surfaces of the upper gums and teeth of a patient's mouth in a close-fitting relationship.\",\n \"The mouth piece further includes a malleable bottom element configured to rest adjacent to at least major surfaces of the lower gums and teeth of a patient's mouth in a close-fitting relationship.\",\n \"The top element is integral with or connected to the bottom element to permit emplacement in the mouth as a one-piece unit.\",\n \"The mouth piece further includes an aperture positioned in a frontal location that permits a patient to breathe through the mouth when the mouth piece is emplaced within the mouth in said operative close-fitting relationship.\",\n \"The mouth piece further includes a cooling medium contained within the top element and the bottom element and able to retain a cooling environment within the mouth sufficient to reduce capillary blood flow to the patient's mouth.\",\n \"In another embodiment of the invention, the mouth piece includes an external chamber extending from the front of the mouth piece for storing a cooling medium comprised of a salt water solution.\",\n \"An aperture is positioned in a frontal location and extends through the external chamber that permits a patient to breathe through the mouth when the mouth piece is emplaced within the mouth in an operative close-fitting relationship.\",\n \"A series of bladders are positioned within the top element and the bottom element, wherein the bladders are connected to the external chamber for receiving the cooling medium which flows throughout the top element and the bottom element and for retaining a cooling environment within the mouth sufficient to reduce capillary blood flow to the patient's mouth.\",\n \"In another embodiment, the external chamber and the elements that fit within the mouth are separable thus permitting coolants to be cooled as further described herein and introduced into the elements within the mouth, thus permitting the elements within the mouth to be sized best suited to the patient.\",\n \"For example, the mouth piece can include mating elements which are dimensioned and configured to permit a proximal end of the first external chamber to be removably attached to the front of the mouth piece.\",\n \"The mating elements can include tongue and groove mating surfaces to permit a removable snap fit attachment.\",\n \"Alternatively, the mating elements include threaded mating surfaces to permit a removable screw fit attachment.\",\n \"In one embodiment, at least one valve is fixedly positioned between the bladders and the external chamber for controlling the flow of the cooling medium.\",\n \"The at least one valve can be a duck bill valve, including a flexible tunnel that is configured to open when pressure is applied by the flow of the cooling medium.\",\n \"Other types of valves can be utilized with the invention, including one-way type valves.\",\n \"In other embodiments, the valves can include handles that are adjustable by a user to open and close them.\",\n \"In other embodiments, the valves can include ball valves.\",\n \"In one embodiment, the first external chamber is positioned between the mouth piece and the second chamber.\",\n \"In another embodiment, the first external chamber includes a cavity forming a distal opening that is configured and dimensioned to receive the second chamber in a nested arrangement.\",\n \"Each of the first external chamber and the second chamber can include tapered proximal end portions.\",\n \"In another embodiment, a support device is utilized for supporting the mouth piece having an external chamber.\",\n \"The device includes a sling having a surface for receiving the external chamber.\",\n \"The device further includes at least two support legs extending from the sling, wherein the support legs are configured to rest on a rigid surface for supporting the external chamber during use.\",\n \"Preferably, the support legs are configured to telescope and adjust to accommodate various environments and provide sturdy support.\",\n \"In another embodiment, the mouth piece includes a malleable top element configured to rest adjacent at least major surfaces of the upper gums and teeth of a patient's mouth in a close-fitting relationship.\",\n \"The mouth piece includes a malleable bottom element configured to rest adjacent at least major surfaces of the lower gums and teeth of a patient's mouth in a close-fitting relationship.\",\n \"The top element is integral with or connected to the bottom element to permit emplacement in the mouth as a one-piece unit.\",\n \"An external chamber extends from the front of the mouth piece for storing a cooling medium comprised of a first solution having a freezing temperature below 0 degrees C. A bladder is positioned inside the external chamber for storing a second solution having a freezing temperature above the freezing point temperature of the first solution to assist in cooling the first solution.\",\n \"The first solution flows throughout the top element and the bottom element for retaining a cooling environment within the mouth sufficient to reduce capillary blood flow to the patient's mouth.\",\n \"BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS In the accompanying drawings: FIG.\",\n \"1 is an illustrational view of a mouth piece in accordance with the invention located within the mouth of a patient undergoing chemotherapy treatment; FIGS.\",\n \"2-5 illustrate a first embodiment of the invention, wherein: FIG.\",\n \"2 is a cross-sectional view of a mouth piece taken in the direction of line 2-2 of FIG.\",\n \"1, in accordance with the first embodiment; FIG.\",\n \"3 is a front, top, and left perspective view of the mouth piece of FIG.\",\n \"2, wherein the cooling medium bladders for the upper gums are shown; FIG.\",\n \"4 is a top view of the mouth piece of FIG.\",\n \"2 illustrating a plurality of bladders housing the cooling medium; FIG.\",\n \"5 is a side elevation view of the inside surface of the right upper outer wall of the mouth piece of FIG.\",\n \"2 illustrating two rows of bladders being separately by a row of air pockets; FIGS.\",\n \"6-10 illustrate a second embodiment of the invention, wherein: FIG.\",\n \"6 is a cross-sectional view of a mouth piece taken in the direction of line 2-2 of FIG.\",\n \"1, in accordance with the second embodiment; FIG.\",\n \"7 is a front, top, and left perspective view of the mouth piece of FIG.\",\n \"6, wherein a single U-shaped bladder for insulating the upper teeth is shown; FIG.\",\n \"8 is a top view of the mouth piece of FIG.\",\n \"2 illustrating the biting surface of the U-shaped upper insulation bladder; FIG.\",\n \"9 is a front, top, and left perspective view of the mouth piece of FIG.\",\n \"6, further comprising an expandable upper wall for contacting the roof of the mouth; and FIG.\",\n \"10 is a front, top, and left perspective view of the mouth piece of FIG.\",\n \"9, further comprising four flexible arms for contacting the corners of the mouth; FIGS.\",\n \"11-14 illustrate a third embodiment of the invention, wherein: FIG.\",\n \"11 is an illustrational view of a mouth piece located within the mouth of a patient undergoing chemotherapy treatment, wherein an external chamber extends from the front of the mouth piece; FIG.\",\n \"12 is a cross-sectional view of a mouth piece taken in the direction of line 12-12 of FIG.\",\n \"11, in accordance with the third embodiment; FIG.\",\n \"13 is a front, top, and left perspective view of the mouth piece of FIG.\",\n \"12, wherein the cooling medium bladders for the upper gums are shown and are connected to the external chamber; FIG.\",\n \"14 is a top view of the mouth piece of FIG.\",\n \"12 illustrating a series of connected bladders for receiving the cooling medium which flows throughout the top element and the bottom element; FIG.\",\n \"15 illustrates a fourth embodiment of the invention, showing a front, top, and left perspective view of the mouth piece of FIG.\",\n \"12, wherein the cooling medium bladders for the upper gums are shown and are connected to the external chamber, wherein the external chamber includes a salt water chamber and a pure water chamber that moves freely inside the salt water chamber; FIGS.\",\n \"16-20 illustrate a fifth embodiment of the invention, wherein: FIG.\",\n \"16 is an illustrational view of a mouth piece located within the mouth of a patient undergoing chemotherapy treatment, wherein a removable external chamber extends from the front of the mouth piece; FIG.\",\n \"17 is a cross-sectional view of a mouth piece taken in the direction of line 17-17 of FIG.\",\n \"16, in accordance with the fifth embodiment; FIG.\",\n \"18 is a front, top, and left side perspective view of the mouth piece of FIG.\",\n \"16, wherein the cooling medium bladders for the upper gums are shown and are connected to the external removable chamber; FIG.\",\n \"19 is a top view of the mouth piece of FIG.\",\n \"16 illustrating a series of connected bladders for receiving the cooling medium which flows throughout the top element and the bottom element; FIG.\",\n \"20A is a front, top, and left side perspective exploded view of the mouth piece of FIG.\",\n \"16, wherein the external chamber is removed from the mouth piece; FIG.\",\n \"20B is a front and left side perspective exploded view of the proximal end of the external chamber showing a cylindrical member and valves for controlling the flow of the cooling medium; FIGS.\",\n \"21-22 illustrate a sixth embodiment of the invention, wherein: FIG.\",\n \"21 illustrates a front, top, and left perspective view of the mouth piece of FIG.\",\n \"12, wherein the cooling medium bladders for the upper gums are shown and are connected to the external chamber, wherein the external chamber includes a salt water chamber and a plurality of pure water capsules that move freely inside the salt water chamber and flow freely through the cooling medium bladders; FIG.\",\n \"22 is a top view of the mouth piece of FIG.\",\n \"21 illustrating a series of connected bladders for receiving both the salt water cooling medium and the pure water capsules which flow freely throughout the top element and the bottom element; FIG.\",\n \"23 illustrates a seventh embodiment of the invention, further comprising a support device including support legs and a sling.\",\n \"FIGS.\",\n \"24-34 illustrate an eighth embodiment of the invention, wherein: FIG.\",\n \"24 is an illustrational view of a mouth piece located within the mouth of a patient undergoing chemotherapy treatment, wherein an external chamber extends from the front of the mouth piece; FIG.\",\n \"25 is a cross-sectional view of a mouth piece taken in the direction of line 25-25 of FIG.\",\n \"24, in accordance with the eighth embodiment; FIG.\",\n \"26 is a right side perspective exploded view of the mouth piece of FIG.\",\n \"24, wherein the bladder is shown positioned for insertion between the mouth piece and the external chamber; FIG.\",\n \"27 is a right side perspective exploded view of the mouth piece of FIG.\",\n \"24, wherein the bladder is shown positioned for insertion between the external chamber and a cap; FIG.\",\n \"28 is a right side perspective exploded view of the mouth piece of FIG.\",\n \"24, showing the proximal wall of the mouthpiece that connects the top element and the bottom element; FIG.\",\n \"29 is a right side perspective exploded view of the mouth piece of FIG.\",\n \"24, showing the bladder inserted inside the external chamber; FIG.\",\n \"30 is a top view of the mouth piece of FIG.\",\n \"24 illustrating the bladder for receiving the cooling medium which flows throughout the top element and the bottom element; FIGS.\",\n \"31-32 are intra oral infrared temperature images showing the cooling effects of the mouth piece on a first test subject; FIGS.\",\n \"33-34 are intra oral infrared temperature images showing the cooling effects of the mouth piece on a second test subject.\",\n \"DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS The present invention will now be described in detail with reference to the drawings.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"1 illustrates a mouth piece 10 in accordance with the present invention which is located within the mouth of a patient undergoing chemotherapy treatment.\",\n \"As depicted in FIGS.\",\n \"2 and 6, the therapeutic device is engaged simultaneously by the upper teeth 201 and 202 and lower teeth 203 and 204 of the patient, and includes an aperture 70 in a frontal location that permits the patient to breathe through the mouth when the mouth piece is emplaced with the mouth in an operative close-fitting relationship.\",\n \"In one embodiment, a flexible tube (not shown) can be inserted through or otherwise connected with the aperture 70 and positioned inside the patient's mouth to assist the patient with inhaling air from outside the mouth while breathing comfortably.\",\n \"In another embodiment, this flexible tube can be used to supply oxygen to the patient if medically warranted.\",\n \"FIGS.\",\n \"2-5 illustrate a first embodiment of the invention, wherein the mouth piece 10 is composed of a material that is malleable and biocompatible with the patient's oral tissues and can be used to form the device according to the size and shape of the patient's mouth as will be described in greater detail below.\",\n \"Suitable materials include, for example, acrylic, plastic, silicon and rubber.\",\n \"Unlike the second embodiment of the invention described below, the material of the mouth piece itself is not intended to be a cooling medium, but rather forms a framework with which to house bladders or other elements that are configured to act as the cooling medium as will be discussed below.\",\n \"The mouth piece includes a top element 18 and a bottom element 19, which collectively provide total mouth coverage during chemotherapy treatment.\",\n \"The top element 18 is integral with or connected to the bottom element 19 to permit emplacement in the mouth as a one-piece unit.\",\n \"The top element 18 consists of a malleable material and is configured to rest adjacent at least major surfaces of the upper gums 211 and 212 and upper teeth 201 and 202 of a patient's mouth in a close-fitting relationship.\",\n \"The bottom element 19 consists of a malleable material and is configured to rest adjacent at least major surfaces of the lower gums 213 and 214 and lower teeth 203 and 204 of a patient's mouth in a close-fitting relationship.\",\n \"In one embodiment, the therapeutic device is formed by first making stone casts of the patient's teeth along with a bite registration.\",\n \"The casts are mounted on an articulator to simulate the patient's occlusal, and the articulator is adjusted to form a 4-6 mm vertical occlusal space.\",\n \"Next, a buildup is initiated with the preferred therapeutic device.\",\n \"A wax pattern is fabricated and added to the buildup, which pattern defines the inner and outer walls of the mouth piece.\",\n \"The preferred material is added to enclose the wax pattern as well as the position of the aperture 70.The preferred material is allowed to harden or cure either at room temperature, or at an elevated temperature within a heating source such as a pressure pot.\",\n \"The hardened device is then placed in boiling water or within a hot atmosphere such as in an oven to melt the wax pattern, and the wax is poured out to produce a hollow device.\",\n \"The device is then finished, shaped and contoured.\",\n \"Finally, to assure that the outer surface of the finished device properly conforms to the contour of the patient's mouth, it is placed therein to verify an accurate fit.\",\n \"The device must fit comfortably and not extend so far into the patient's mouth that it causes the patient to gag.\",\n \"In another embodiment, the mouth piece material has sufficient malleability and is manufactured in a variety of sizes in order to fit the patient's mouth according to his or her size without the need for making a custom device each time from a stone cast as was described above.\",\n \"For example, the mouth piece can be offered in sizes small, medium, large, and extra-large.\",\n \"The mouth piece can include flexible inner and outer walls to self-adjust its configuration to the size and shape of a patient's mouth.\",\n \"Referring to FIG.\",\n \"2, a separate cooling medium is contained within the top element 18 and the bottom element 19 and is able to retain a cooling environment within the mouth sufficient to reduce capillary blood flow to the patient's mouth to prevent mouth sores and oral discomfort following chemotherapy treatment.\",\n \"The cooling medium can be housed in a plurality of bladders 81-88 located at predetermined locations along the inner cavities of the mouth piece.\",\n \"Prior to use, the mouth piece is stored in a freezer or other temperature controlled environment in order to cool the cooling medium to a desired temperature.\",\n \"Preferably, the cooling medium of the mouth piece is able to maintain the necessary temperature while the mouth piece is in the patient's mouth to cool the oral tissues throughout a portion of time of chemotherapy treatment, depending on the types of drugs being administered and their known effects on the gums and mouth of the patient.\",\n \"For example, during a two hour chemotherapy treatment session, only a fifteen minute portion of the treatment may cause adverse effects on the gums and mouth.\",\n \"Therefore, the mouth piece of the present invention can be inserted into the mouth of the patient during the time of the chemotherapy treatment when it is most needed, such that the cooling effect of the mouth piece can be maximized at the most effective time.\",\n \"The cooling medium is positioned within the mouth piece in order to contact and cool selected oral tissues within the patient's mouth.\",\n \"The cooling medium also partially cools the mouth piece which functions as a heat sink for heat generated in the oral tissues.\",\n \"The cooling medium functions such that heat is continuously transferred away from the oral tissues and the device, to keep the oral tissues cold and prevent the device from significantly warming during the chemotherapy treatment.\",\n \"Significant warming of the therapeutic device would allow inflammation and oral sores to form and consequently force the treatment to be reduced or discontinued.\",\n \"Preferably, the cooling medium is maintained at a temperature of approximately 0 degrees C. to approximately 5 degrees C. The cooling medium can be carried by the device in sealed chambers, and the device is cooled in a freezer or other cooling device to the proper temperature prior to use.\",\n \"The cooling medium may be a non-toxic gel or a like substance made by adding hydroxyethyl cellulose (CELLUSIZE (™)), sodium polyacrylate, or vinyl-coated silica gel that can maintain its initial temperature.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"2 is a cross-sectional view taken in the direction of line 2-2 of FIG.\",\n \"1.The patient's right upper teeth 201 and right upper gums 211 engage the top right walls 41, 51 and 61, which collectively form a U-shaped cavity.\",\n \"Bladders 81 and 82 are attached to the vertical walls 41 and 51, respectively, and house the cooling medium as described above.\",\n \"The bladders are dimensioned to rest adjacent at least major surfaces of the right upper gums 211, as shown in FIG.\",\n \"2 Similarly, the other remaining quadrants of the patient's mouth are treated in the same manner as described above and therefore do not require further discussion.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"3 illustrates a front, top, and left perspective view of the mouth piece, wherein the cooling medium bladders for the upper gums are shown.\",\n \"An aperture 70 is positioned in a frontal location that permits a patient to breathe through the mouth when the mouth piece 10 is emplaced within the mouth in the operative close-fitting relationship.\",\n \"Although the aperture 70 is illustrated as a single aperture, in other embodiments of the invention more than one aperture can be included.\",\n \"As illustrated, the top element 18 is integral with the bottom element 19 along their adjacent surfaces, collectively forming a single continuous side wall there between and permitting emplacement in the mouth as a one-piece unit.\",\n \"In other embodiments, the top element 18 can be hingedly connected to the bottom element 19 at the distal ends adjacent the joint of the jaw bones.\",\n \"In this embodiment, the patient can open and close his mouth while maintaining the cooling medium in contact with the top and bottom gums and teeth.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"4 is a top view of the mouth piece illustrating the plurality of bladders housing the cooling medium.\",\n \"In the illustrated embodiment, several discreet cooling chambers (bladders) 81-84 are provided along the interior walls of the mouth piece 10.The distribution of the cooling medium between several discreet chambers provides a malleable surface for contacting the gums of the patient without interfering with the breathing hole 70.The number and sizes of the discreet chambers can vary depending on the overall size of the mouth piece and the particular patient being treated.\",\n \"Preferably, each chamber is fixedly attached to the mouth piece with an appropriate adhesive or other means to prevent its dislodgement during use.\",\n \"In another embodiment, the chambers are removably attached and can be interchanged with various size bladders to control the amount and timing of cooling; or to adjust the fit of the mouth piece for the user's unique dental anatomy.\",\n \"For example, patients may have one or more teeth that are recessed or crooked from the adjacent teeth and a smaller or larger bladder can be fitted in this location of the mouth piece to accommodate for this discrepancy and therefore create more of a custom fit.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"5 is a side elevation view of the inside surface of the right upper outer wall 41 of the mouth piece illustrating two rows of bladders being separately by a row of air pockets.\",\n \"A first row of bladders 801 is positioned near the bottom and is intended to sit near the right upper teeth 201 (see FIG.\",\n \"2) of the patient.\",\n \"A second row of bladders 802 is positioned near the top and is intended to sit near the right upper gums 211 (see FIG.\",\n \"2) of the patient.\",\n \"Different volumes and/or types of cooling materials can be positioned in the first and second rows, respectively, to provide various cooling zones for gums vs. teeth.\",\n \"For example, the first row of bladders 801 can contain a cooling medium that warms up faster and removes less heat from the teeth (thus cooling the teeth less), as compared with the cooling medium that is contained within the second row of bladders 802.This can also be accomplished by utilizing a rubber or plastic material with a low specific heat.\",\n \"In general, it is preferred that the teeth are cooled less than the gums of the patient, especially if the patient has sensitive teeth for a variety of reasons.\",\n \"In another embodiment, a row of air pockets 803 is positioned between the first and second rows of bladders.\",\n \"The air pockets act to thermally separate the first and second rows of bladders 801 and 802 and minimize thermal transfer between them.\",\n \"In other embodiments, the row of air pockets is not included with the device.\",\n \"Other thermal barriers can be utilized in place of the row of air pockets.\",\n \"In another embodiment, the mouth piece includes a separate cooling medium (not shown) along the outer lateral surfaces of the sidewalls of the mouth piece to make contact with the patient's cheeks and cool the oral tissues thereof and also cool the gums along the upper and lower jaw.\",\n \"In another embodiment, the mouth piece includes cooling medium (not shown) along an optional upper wall 29 (see FIG.\",\n \"2) which contacts the roof of the mouth, and along an optional lower wall 30 (see FIG.\",\n \"2) which contacts the base of the mouth, and a portion of the interior walls contacting the tongue.\",\n \"These wall portions can be utilized to cool the surrounding roof and base of the mouth, and the tongue as well as the adjacent gums.\",\n \"FIGS.\",\n \"6-10 illustrate a second embodiment of the invention, wherein the mouth piece 10 itself is composed of a material that is not only malleable and biocompatible with the patient's oral tissues and can be used to form the device according to the size and shape of the patient's mouth, but wherein the material forming the mouth piece itself is intended to act as the cooling medium as will be described in greater detail below.\",\n \"The material forming the mouth piece may include a non-toxic gel or a like substance made by adding hydroxyethyl cellulose (CELLUSIZE (™)), sodium polyacrylate, or vinyl-coated silica gel that can maintain its initial temperature.\",\n \"The mouth piece includes a top element 18 and a bottom element 19, which collectively provide total mouth coverage and cooling during chemotherapy treatment.\",\n \"The top element 18 is integral with or connected to the bottom element 19 to permit emplacement in the mouth as a one-piece unit.\",\n \"The top element 18 consists of a malleable material and is configured to rest adjacent at least major surfaces of the upper gums 211 and 212 and upper teeth 201 and 202 of a patient's mouth in a close-fitting relationship.\",\n \"The bottom element 19 consists of a malleable material and is configured to rest adjacent at least major surfaces of the lower gums 213 and 214 and lower teeth 203 and 204 of a patient's mouth in a close-fitting relationship.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"6 is a cross-sectional view taken in the direction of line 2-2 of FIG.\",\n \"1.The patient's right upper teeth 201 and right upper gums 211 engage the top right walls 41, 51 and 61, which collectively form a U-shaped cavity.\",\n \"Because the mouth piece itself is the cooling medium, the additional bladders described with reference to FIGS.\",\n \"2-5 above are not necessary and are not included.\",\n \"A U-shaped insulation bladder 91 is attached between the vertical walls 41 and 51, respectively, and is composed of a material that becomes warm very quickly after removing the mouth piece from its cooling storage device.\",\n \"The U-shaped insulation bladder 91 thereby substantially prevents the teeth from cooling during use of the mouth piece.\",\n \"The U-shaped bladder 91 is dimensioned to rest adjacent at least major surfaces of the right upper teeth 201, as shown in FIG.\",\n \"6.Similarly, the other remaining quadrants of the patient's mouth are treated in the same manner as described above and therefore do not require further discussion.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"7 illustrates a front, top, and left perspective view of the mouth piece, wherein a single U-shaped bladder 90 for insulating the upper teeth is shown as described above.\",\n \"In other embodiments, the U-shaped bladder can be comprised of multiple sections.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"8 is a top view of the mouth piece illustrating the biting surface of the U-shaped upper insulation bladder 90 as described above.\",\n \"The material forming the U-shaped insulation bladder can be malleable and provide a comfortable biting surface during insertion in the patient's mouth.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"9 is a front, top, and left perspective view of the mouth piece of FIG.\",\n \"6, further comprising an expandable upper wall for contacting the roof of the mouth.\",\n \"In particular, the upper wall is formed by a first section 29a that extends vertically from the right upper inner wall 51 (see FIG.\",\n \"6) and by a second section 29b that extends vertically from the left upper inner wall 52 (see FIG.\",\n \"6) respectively of the mouth piece.\",\n \"The first section 29a slides over the second section 29b to form a generally continuous top surface for contacting the roof of the patient's mouth thereby also cooling this area during chemotherapy treatment.\",\n \"The first section 29a and second section 29b are composed of a similar cooling material as the rest of the mouth piece and can also include additional material and/or internal structural reinforcement to ensure that the top portion maintains suitable structural integrity and generally have an upward biasing force to maintain contact with the roof of the mouth.\",\n \"The top portion includes the ability to widen and narrow because of the overlapping arrangement of the first section 29a and second section 29b.\",\n \"Accordingly, the mouth piece can accommodate various size mouth widths while maintaining the ability to cool the roof of the patient's mouth.\",\n \"Although not shown in perspective view, the bottom of the mouth piece includes a similar lower portion (see FIG.\",\n \"6) configured to contact the bottom/floor of the patient's mouth, while not interfering with the frenulum of the tongue (also known as tongue web, lingual frenulum, or frenulum linguae) which is the small fold of mucous membrane extending from the floor of the mouth to the midline of the underside of the tongue.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"10 is a front, top, and left perspective view of the mouth piece of FIG.\",\n \"9, further comprising four flexible arms 301-304 configured to contact the corners of the mouth during use.\",\n \"Each flexible arm is attached at a proximal end near the aperture 70 positioned at the front of the mouth piece and extends out in a radial direction when the mouth piece is not positioned inside the patient's mouth.\",\n \"The flexible arms 301-304 are composed of a similar cooling material as the rest of the mouth piece and can also include additional material and/or internal structural reinforcement to ensure suitable structural integrity.\",\n \"For example, a resilient longitudinal core can be housed inside each flexible arm to provide the proper structural integrity and the proper flexibility.\",\n \"During use, the mouth piece 10 is inserted into the patient's mouth.\",\n \"Then each flexible arm is inserted and positioned into each corner of the patient's mouth.\",\n \"The flexible arms thereby provide additional cooling zones in the hard to reach areas located in the corners of the patient's mouth near the wisdom teeth.\",\n \"Accordingly, in this embodiment the mouth piece can accommodate various size mouths while maintaining the ability to cool the corners of the patient's mouth, including the gums and cheeks adjacent these areas of the mouth.\",\n \"The therapeutic device in accordance with the present invention constantly and uniformly cools the patient's cheeks, gums, tongue, and roof and floor of the mouth.\",\n \"Because it closely conforms to the contour of the patient's mouth, it can be used for extensive treatments without causing discomfort.\",\n \"Furthermore, its uniform cooling action reduces or prevents the formation of inflammation and oral sores throughout extended chemotherapy treatments.\",\n \"In another embodiment of the invention, a system for cooling of oral tissue of a patient during chemotherapy treatment is disclosed.\",\n \"The system includes a plurality of mouth pieces which are simultaneously cooled.\",\n \"During use, a first mouth piece is selected and inserted into the patient's mouth, while the remaining mouth pieces continue to be stored in a temperature controlled cooled environment.\",\n \"After a preselected time or after a preselected temperature of the mouth is reached, the first mouth piece is removed and replaced by a second mouth piece to regain the desired cooling effect that began to fade from the first mouth piece.\",\n \"In this way, a constant supply of cooled mouth pieces is available for the patient for use during chemotherapy treatment.\",\n \"For example, the plurality of mouth pieces can be stored in a refrigerator, freezer, cooling tub with ice, and the like and available to access within close proximity of the patient.\",\n \"FIGS.\",\n \"11-14 illustrate a third embodiment of the invention, wherein an external chamber 300 extends from the front of the mouth piece 10.An insulation wall 301 surrounds the external chamber 300 to help maintain a cold temperature of the liquid contents.\",\n \"The external chamber 300 preferably includes a salt water chamber 303 and a pure water chamber 304.A separation wall 302 provides a barrier between the salt water chamber 303 and the pure water chamber 304.In one embodiment, the salt water chamber 303 and the pure water chamber have surfaces that lie adjacent to each other, along the separation wall 302.The separation wall can be made of a flexible material, such as a thin rubber or plastic material.\",\n \"In another embodiment, the separation wall can be made of aluminum or other type of highly conductive material.\",\n \"Although salt water and pure water are preferred because of their safety and ready availability, other materials which, like salt water, have a freezing point well below 0 degrees C. and pure water with a freezing point of 0 degrees C., other solutions in which the freezing point of one solution is close to 0 degrees C. and the other of which has a freezing point below 0 degrees C. can be substituted either for the salt water, pure water or both.\",\n \"The mouth piece includes a top element 18 and a bottom element 19, which collectively provide total mouth coverage and cooling during chemotherapy treatment.\",\n \"The top element 18 is integral with or connected to the bottom element 19 to permit emplacement in the mouth as a one-piece unit.\",\n \"The top element 18 consists of a malleable material and is configured to rest adjacent at least major surfaces of the upper gums 211 and 212 and upper teeth 201 and 202 of a patient's mouth in a close-fitting relationship.\",\n \"The bottom element 19 consists of a malleable material and is configured to rest adjacent at least major surfaces of the lower gums 213 and 214 and lower teeth 203 and 204 of a patient's mouth in a close-fitting relationship.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"12 is a cross-sectional view taken in the direction of line 12-12 of FIG.\",\n \"11.The patient's right upper teeth 201 and right upper gums 211 engage the top right walls 41, 51 and 61, which collectively form a U-shaped cavity.\",\n \"Bladders 181 and 182 are attached to the vertical walls 41 and 51, respectively, and house the cooling medium as described above.\",\n \"The bladders are dimensioned to rest adjacent at least major surfaces of the right upper gums 211, as shown in FIG.\",\n \"12 Similarly, the other remaining quadrants of the patient's mouth are treated in the same manner as described above and therefore do not require further discussion.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"13 illustrates a front, top, and left perspective view of the mouth piece, wherein the cooling medium bladders 181, 189, 183, and 190 for the upper gums are shown.\",\n \"An aperture 70 is positioned in a frontal location and extends through the external chamber 300 that permits a patient to breathe through the mouth when the mouth piece 10 is emplaced within the mouth in the operative close-fitting relationship.\",\n \"Although the aperture 70 is illustrated as a single aperture, in other embodiments of the invention more than one aperture can be included.\",\n \"The interior wall of the aperture 70 is made from a rigid or semi-rigid material, such as plastic, hard rubber, etc., in order to maintain its shape under the weight of the external chamber 300 without crimping.\",\n \"As illustrated, the top element 18 is integral with the bottom element 19 along their adjacent surfaces, collectively forming a single continuous side wall there between and permitting emplacement in the mouth as a one-piece unit.\",\n \"In other embodiments, the top element 18 can be hingedly connected to the bottom element 19 at the distal ends adjacent the joint of the jaw bones.\",\n \"In this embodiment, the patient can open and close his mouth while maintaining the cooling medium in contact with the top and bottom gums and teeth.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"14 is a top view of the mouth piece illustrating the plurality of bladders housing the salt water solution which flows from the salt water chamber 303 via one or more channels 305 and 306.The mouth piece and external chamber are kept in a freezer before use so that the water that is stored in the pure water chamber 304 is frozen.\",\n \"The pure water chamber 304 will provide a cooling effect for the salt water flowing through the bladders in the mouth piece as illustrated by the arrows in the drawing.\",\n \"In the illustrated embodiment, a series of cooling chambers (bladders) 181-184 are provided along the interior walls of the mouth piece 10.The distribution of the cooling medium between several connected chambers provides a malleable surface for contacting the gums of the patient without interfering with the breathing hole 70.The number and sizes of the discreet chambers can vary depending on the overall size of the mouth piece and the particular patient being treated.\",\n \"The series of bladders form a completely connected network.\",\n \"For example, bladder 189 is positioned at the rear surface of the mouth piece and connects bladder 181 to bladder 182.Similarly, bladder 190 is positioned at the rear surface of the mouth piece and connects bladder 183 to bladder 184.Preferably, each bladder is fixedly attached to the mouth piece with an appropriate adhesive or other means to prevent its dislodgement during use.\",\n \"In another embodiment, the chambers are removably attached and can be interchanged with various size bladders to control the amount and timing of cooling; or to adjust the fit of the mouth piece for the user's unique dental anatomy.\",\n \"For example, patients may have one or more teeth that are recessed or crooked from the adjacent teeth and a smaller or larger bladder can be fitted in this location of the mouth piece to accommodate for this discrepancy and therefore create more of a custom fit.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"15 a fourth embodiment of the invention, showing a front, top, and left perspective view of the mouth piece of FIG.\",\n \"12, wherein the cooling medium bladders for the upper gums are shown and are connected to the external chamber, wherein the external chamber includes a salt water chamber 303 and a pure water chamber 304 that moves freely inside the salt water chamber.\",\n \"In the example illustrated, the pure water chamber 304 is spherically-shaped, but other shapes can be employed.\",\n \"Furthermore, more than one water chamber 304 can be included with this embodiment of the invention.\",\n \"The outer insulation wall of the external chamber 303 is selected to maintain its shape, yet also provides elasticity to allow a user to periodically squeeze the contents and assist the flow of the salt water solution through the series of bladders of the mouth piece.\",\n \"In another embodiment (not shown), there is only a salt water chamber 303 and there is no pure water chamber 304.The size of the salt water chamber 303 can be adjusted depending on the amount and length of time that the cooling effect is required, without the need for a pure water (frozen) chamber.\",\n \"In another embodiment (not shown), an adjustable support band is attached to the external chamber for wrapping around the users head to help support the weight of the external chamber.\",\n \"The support band can be secured via hook-and-loop fasteners, buckles, snaps, and the like.\",\n \"FIGS.\",\n \"16-20 illustrate a fifth embodiment of the invention.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"16 is an illustrational view of a mouth piece located within the mouth of a patient undergoing chemotherapy treatment, wherein a removable external chamber 300 extends from the front of the mouth piece.\",\n \"The external chamber 300 preferably includes a salt water chamber 303 and a pure water chamber 304.An insulation layer (not shown) can be included to provide a barrier between the salt water chamber 303 and the pure water chamber 304.Although salt water and pure water are preferred because of their safety and ready availability, other materials which, like salt water, have a freezing point well below 0 degrees C. and pure water with a freezing point of 0 degrees C., other solutions in which the freezing point of one solution is close to 0 degrees C. and the other of which has a freezing point below 0 degrees C. can be substituted either for the salt water, pure water or both.\",\n \"The mouth piece includes a top element 18 and a bottom element 19, which collectively provide total mouth coverage and cooling during chemotherapy treatment.\",\n \"The top element 18 is integral with or connected to the bottom element 19 to permit emplacement in the mouth as a one-piece unit.\",\n \"The top element 18 consists of a malleable material and is configured to rest adjacent at least major surfaces of the upper gums 211 and 212 and upper teeth 201 and 202 of a patient's mouth in a close-fitting relationship.\",\n \"The bottom element 19 consists of a malleable material and is configured to rest adjacent at least major surfaces of the lower gums 213 and 214 and lower teeth 203 and 204 of a patient's mouth in a close-fitting relationship.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"17 is a cross-sectional view of a mouth piece taken in the direction of line 17-17 of FIG.\",\n \"16, in accordance with the fifth embodiment.\",\n \"The patient's right upper teeth 201 and right upper gums 211 engage the top right walls 41, 51 and 61, which collectively form a U-shaped cavity.\",\n \"Bladders 181 and 182 are attached to the vertical walls 41 and 51, respectively, and house the cooling medium as described above.\",\n \"The bladders are dimensioned to rest adjacent at least major surfaces of the right upper gums 211, as shown in FIG.\",\n \"17.Similarly, the other remaining quadrants of the patient's mouth are treated in the same manner as described above and therefore do not require further discussion.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"18 is a front, top, and left side perspective view of the mouth piece of FIG.\",\n \"16, wherein the cooling medium bladders 181, 189, 183, and 190 for the upper gums are shown and are connected to the external removable chamber.\",\n \"An aperture 70 is positioned in a frontal location and extends through the external chamber 300 that permits a patient to breathe through the mouth when the mouth piece 10 is emplaced within the mouth in the operative close-fitting relationship.\",\n \"Although the aperture 70 is illustrated as a single aperture, in other embodiments of the invention more than one aperture can be included.\",\n \"For all embodiments of the invention, the aperture 70 can be round, slotted, oval, rectangular, or any other shape.\",\n \"The interior wall of the aperture 70 can be made from a rigid or semi-rigid material, such as plastic, hard rubber, etc., in order to maintain its shape under the weight of the external chamber 300 without crimping.\",\n \"As illustrated, the top element 18 is integral with the bottom element 19 along their adjacent surfaces, collectively forming a single continuous side wall there between and permitting emplacement in the mouth as a one-piece unit.\",\n \"In other embodiments, the top element 18 can be hingedly connected to the bottom element 19 at the distal ends adjacent the joint of the jaw bones.\",\n \"In this embodiment, the patient can open and close his mouth while maintaining the cooling medium in contact with the top and bottom gums and teeth.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"19 is a top view of the mouth piece illustrating the plurality of bladders housing the salt water solution which flows from the salt water chamber 303 via one or more channels 305 and 306.The mouth piece and external chamber are kept in a freezer before use so that the water that is stored in the pure water chamber 304 is frozen.\",\n \"The pure water chamber 304 will provide a cooling effect for the salt water flowing through the bladders in the mouth piece as illustrated by the arrows in the drawing.\",\n \"In the illustrated embodiment, a series of cooling chambers (bladders) 181-184 are provided along the interior walls of the mouth piece 10.The distribution of the cooling medium between several connected chambers provides a malleable surface for contacting the gums of the patient without interfering with the breathing hole 70.The number and sizes of the discreet chambers can vary depending on the overall size of the mouth piece and the particular patient being treated.\",\n \"The series of bladders form a completely connected network.\",\n \"For example, bladder 189 is positioned at the rear surface of the mouth piece and connects bladder 181 to bladder 182.Similarly, bladder 190 is positioned at the rear surface of the mouth piece and connects bladder 183 to bladder 184.Preferably, each bladder is fixedly attached to the mouth piece with an appropriate adhesive or other means to prevent its dislodgement during use.\",\n \"In another embodiment, the chambers are removably attached and can be interchanged with various size bladders to control the amount and timing of cooling; or to adjust the fit of the mouth piece for the user's unique dental anatomy.\",\n \"For example, patients may have one or more teeth that are recessed or crooked from the adjacent teeth and a smaller or larger bladder can be fitted in this location of the mouth piece to accommodate for this discrepancy and therefore create more of a custom fit.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"20A is a front, top, and left side perspective exploded view of the mouth piece of FIG.\",\n \"16, wherein the external chamber 300 is removed from the mouth piece 10.In one embodiment, the external chamber 300 includes a salt water chamber 303 having a cavity forming a distal opening that is configured and dimensioned to receive the pure water chamber 304 in a nested arrangement.\",\n \"Each of the salt water chamber 303 and pure water chamber 304 can include tapered proximal end portions.\",\n \"A flexible, insulation membrane (not shown) can surround the external chamber to provide insulation to the surrounding air, which is presumably a warmer temperature of about of 72 degrees F., when treating a patient in a clinical setting.\",\n \"Because the external chamber 300 is removable from the mouth piece 10, the mouth piece can be manufactured in a variety of sizes to accommodate various patients, ranging from pediatric patients to adult men.\",\n \"However, the external chamber only needs to be manufactured in a limited number of sizes because it is able to connect to any size mouth piece.\",\n \"This allows a highly customizable fit for the elements that fit within the mouth, while minimizing unnecessary manufacturing and tooling costs for the external chamber.\",\n \"Furthermore, only the external chamber needs to be put into a refrigerator prior to use, thereby allowing a maximum number of external chambers to be stored per refrigerator.\",\n \"In addition, and especially for longer treatments, a second external chamber can be kept in the refrigerator and then swapped with the first external chamber originally attached to the mouth piece, and this can all be done while the mouth piece remains inside the patient's mouth, making this swap very easy to do.\",\n \"Mating elements are dimensioned and configured to permit a proximal end of the first external chamber 303 to be removably attached to the front of the mouth piece 10.In one embodiment, the mating elements include tongue and groove mating surfaces 401 and 411 to permit a snap fit attachment.\",\n \"In another embodiment, the mating elements include threaded mating surfaces (not shown) to permit a removable screw fit attachment.\",\n \"This can also be accomplished by utilizing a separate threaded collar.\",\n \"In one embodiment, the mouth piece includes a cylindrical protrusion 400 having a side wall that includes grooves 401.One or more channels 305 and 306 can extend from the cylindrical protrusion 400 and are configured to align with one or more corresponding apertures 417 and 418 (see FIG.\",\n \"20B) that provide conduit(s) into the salt water chamber 303.FIG.\",\n \"20B is a front and left side perspective exploded view of the proximal end of the external chamber showing a cylindrical member 410 and valves 501 and 502 for controlling the flow of the cooling medium.\",\n \"In one embodiment the valves 501 and 502 are duck bill valves, which include a flexible tunnel that is configured to open when pressure is applied by the flow of the cooling medium.\",\n \"The flexible tunnel can be conically-shaped as illustrated or can be other suitable shapes.\",\n \"The pressure can be applied by a user squeezing the outside of the salt water chamber 303, which is configured to remain pliable during use.\",\n \"Preferably, the valves are oriented to direct the fluid in a one-way flow pattern through the mouth piece to reduce turbulence and maximize the heat transfer and cooling effects inside the mouth by providing continuing circulation of the salt water to assist in maintaining the temperature.\",\n \"For example, valve 501 can direct flow in a distal direction and valve 502 can direct flow in a proximal direction.\",\n \"Other types of valves can be utilized with the invention, including one-way type valves.\",\n \"In other embodiments, the valves can include handles that are adjustable by a user to open and close them.\",\n \"In other embodiments, the valves can include ball valves.\",\n \"The valves should be fixedly attached to the apertures 417 and 418.Alternatively, the valves can be positioned and fixedly attached to the channels 305 and 306 of the mouthpiece.\",\n \"In still another embodiment, valves can be included on both the apertures 417 and 48 and on the channels 305 and 306.In another embodiment, no valves are used and instead one or more flaps secured by adhesive or the like covers the conduits until a suitable pressure is applied which then opens or breaks the flap material to allow flow of the cooling medium.\",\n \"In another embodiment, nothing is used to seal the conduits and instead the external chamber 300 is maintained in an upright position so that gravity prevents any fluid from leaking out of the apertures 417 and 418.In another embodiment, one or more relief apertures are included with the device to allow entrapped air bubbles to escape from the otherwise closed loop system, should any such air bubbles exist.\",\n \"FIGS.\",\n \"21-22 illustrate a sixth embodiment of the invention.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"21 illustrates a front, top, and left perspective view of the mouth piece of FIG.\",\n \"12, wherein the cooling medium bladders for the upper gums are shown and are connected to the external chamber 300, wherein the external chamber includes a salt water chamber 303 and a plurality of pure water capsules 307 that move freely inside the salt water chamber 303 and flow freely through the cooling medium bladders.\",\n \"The pure water capsules 307 can be spherically shaped or can be other shapes, including random amorphous shapes.\",\n \"Preferably, each pure water capsule 30 is uniformly sized to be of approximately similar volume.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"22 is a top view of the mouth piece of FIG.\",\n \"21 illustrating a series of connected bladders for receiving both the salt water cooling medium and the pure water capsules 307 which flow freely throughout the top element and the bottom element.\",\n \"In one embodiment, the pure water capsules 307 are about 4 to 5 mm in diameter and the channels 305 and 306 are about 23 to 28 mm in diameter to permit the free flow of the pure water capsules throughout the mouthpiece 10.The water capsules 307 and channels 305 and 306 can be of any other suitable dimensions, as long as the water capsules are small enough to freely pass through the channels without becoming clogged.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"23 illustrates a seventh embodiment of the invention, further comprising an optional auxiliary support device 800 including support legs 801-804 and a sling 805.The auxiliary support device for the external chamber provides greater comfort in use and prevents muscle fatigue to the user.\",\n \"The support legs can be configured to telescope and adjust to accommodate various positions and provide sturdy support.\",\n \"For example, the support device 800 can be utilized to support the external chamber 300 by resting the support legs 801 and 802 on a right arm rest 701 and then resting support legs 803 and 804 on a left arm rest 702 of a chair 700 while a user 600 is seated.\",\n \"In another example (not shown), the support device 800 can be utilized to support the external chamber 300 by resting the support legs 801-804 on the chest of the user 600 while seated in a more reclined positioned.\",\n \"FIGS.\",\n \"24-34 illustrate an eighth embodiment of the invention.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"24 is an illustrational view of a mouth piece located within the mouth of a patient undergoing chemotherapy treatment, wherein an external chamber 900 extends from the front of the mouth piece.\",\n \"The external chamber 900 preferably includes a pure water bladder 910 and a gap 920 is formed between the bladder 910 and external chamber 900 for holding salt water.\",\n \"An insulation layer (not shown) can be included to provide a barrier between the pure water bladder 910 and the surrounding salt water.\",\n \"In one embodiment, the bladder 910 is made from a material that is not permeable to salt, such as a latex based material.\",\n \"The bladder 910 stores a second solution having a freezing temperature above the freezing point temperature of the salt water to assist in cooling the salt water.\",\n \"In a preferred embodiment, the second solution that is stored inside the bladder 910 is pure water.\",\n \"In one embodiment, the external chamber 900 includes an outer insulation wall (not shown) that provides elasticity to allow a user to squeeze the contents and assist the flow of the cooling medium.\",\n \"Although salt water and pure water are preferred because of their safety and ready availability, other materials which, like salt water, have a freezing point well below 0 degrees C. and pure water with a freezing point of 0 degrees C., other solutions in which the freezing point of one solution is close to 0 degrees C. and the other of which has a freezing point below 0 degrees C. can be substituted either for the salt water, pure water or both.\",\n \"In one embodiment, the salt water solution includes a mixture of salt in the range of 1% to 25% ratio.\",\n \"In one embodiment, the salt water solution includes a mixture of salt at a 10% ratio, which allows the solution to remain in liquid form down to about 17 degrees F. In one embodiment, the temperature of the mouth piece is in the range of 20 degrees to 25 degrees F. during treatment.\",\n \"The mouth piece includes a top element 18 and a bottom element 19, which collectively provide total mouth coverage and cooling during chemotherapy treatment.\",\n \"The top element 18 is integral with or connected to the bottom element 19 to permit emplacement in the mouth as a one-piece unit.\",\n \"The top element 18 consists of a malleable material and is configured to rest adjacent at least major surfaces of the upper gums 211 and 212 and upper teeth 201 and 202 of a patient's mouth in a close-fitting relationship.\",\n \"The bottom element 19 consists of a malleable material and is configured to rest adjacent at least major surfaces of the lower gums 213 and 214 and lower teeth 203 and 204 of a patient's mouth in a close-fitting relationship.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"25 is a cross-sectional view of a mouth piece taken in the direction of line 25-25 of FIG.\",\n \"24, in accordance with the eighth embodiment.\",\n \"The patient's right upper teeth 201 and right upper gums 211 engage the top right walls 41, 51 and 61, which collectively form a U-shaped cavity.\",\n \"The mouth piece includes is preferably formed from a single layer of material that is bent and folded at certain predetermined locations to form a single, continuous internal cavity 920 that surrounds the proximal end 911 of the pure water bladder 910.In particular, the wall of the mouth piece is bent to form a right outer wall 45 that holds the mouth piece together and forms areas of the cavity that reside adjacent the patient's right teeth and gums (both upper and lower).\",\n \"Similarly, the wall of the mouth piece is bent to form a left outer wall 46 that joins the mouth piece and forms areas of the cavity that reside adjacent the patient's left teeth and gums (both upper and lower).\",\n \"It should be understood that the mouth piece is sized appropriately, such that the patient's teeth and gums fit inside the U-shaped cavities in a close-fitting relationship.\",\n \"Therefore, although FIG.\",\n \"25 illustrates a space between the outer surfaces of the patient's teeth and gums and the walls of the U-shaped cavities, in other embodiments (not shown), there is no such spacing (or minimal spacing) and the patient's teeth and gums rest directly against the walls of the U-shaped cavities Similarly, the other remaining quadrants of the patient's mouth are treated in the same manner as described above and therefore do not require further discussion.\",\n \"The proximal end 911 of the pure water bladder 910 can be rectangular in cross-section.\",\n \"In other embodiments, the proximal end 911 of the pure water bladder 910 can be oval in cross-section or can have other cross-section shapes, including amorphous shapes.\",\n \"The proximal end 911 of the pure water bladder 910 is configured and dimensioned to fit between the right biting surface walls 61 and 63 and to fit between the left biting surface walls 62 and 64.In addition, the proximal end 911 of the pure water bladder 910 is configured and dimensioned to fit between right outer wall 45 and left outer wall 46.Furthermore, a sufficient gap or space should be permitted fully surrounding the proximal end 911 of the pure water bladder 910 to permit the surrounding salt water to freely flow over and in-between all surfaces of the mouth piece to maximize the cooling effect and to attempt to maintain substantially uniform temperatures inside the mouth.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"26 is a right side perspective exploded view of the mouth piece of FIG.\",\n \"24, wherein the bladder 910 is shown positioned ready for insertion between the mouth piece 10 and the external chamber 900.Two opposing apertures 931 and 932 are positioned in lateral locations and extend along the outside of the external chamber 900 that permits a patient to breathe through the mouth when the mouth piece 10 is emplaced within the mouth in the operative close-fitting relationship.\",\n \"Although the apertures 931 and 932 are illustrated as two separate apertures, in other embodiments of the invention, only one aperture can be included, or three or more apertures can be included.\",\n \"In other embodiments, the one or more breathing apertures can be positioned along the top and/or bottom edges of the external chamber 900 or positioned along any other axis.\",\n \"For all embodiments of the invention, the apertures can be round, slotted, oval, rectangular, or any other shape.\",\n \"The interior wall of the apertures can be made from a rigid or semi-rigid material, such as plastic, hard rubber, etc., in order to maintain its shape under the weight of the external chamber 900 without crimping.\",\n \"As illustrated, the mouth piece 10 includes a frontal opening 11 that is configured and dimensioned to permit the insertion of the proximal end 911 of the pure water bladder 910.In addition, the frontal opening 11 is configured and dimensioned to correspond to the size of the proximal opening 904 that is formed in the proximal end 901 of the external chamber 900.In the embodiment illustrated in FIG.\",\n \"26, the mouth piece 10 and the external chamber 900 are separate parts.\",\n \"Although not shown, the distal end 902 of the external chamber 900 includes a distal wall that seals the external chamber closed.\",\n \"In this embodiment, the bladder 910 is filled with pure water and then the opening 913 is sealed.\",\n \"Then, the bladder is inserted between the mouth piece 10 and the external chamber 900.Next, the mouth piece 10 is sealed to the external chamber to form a water-tight seal, by using an adhesive sealant or other type of bonding agent.\",\n \"Finally, a syringe is used to pump salt water inside the external chamber 900 into the gap surrounding the bladder 910.FIG.\",\n \"27 is a right side perspective exploded view of the mouth piece of FIG.\",\n \"24, wherein the bladder 910 is shown positioned ready for insertion between the external chamber 900 and a cap 940.The mouth piece and external chamber are kept in a freezer before use so that the water that is stored in the pure water bladder 910 is frozen.\",\n \"The pure water bladder 910 will provide a cooling effect for the salt water flowing through the external chamber 900 and the mouth piece 10.In the illustrated embodiment, the mouth piece 10 and the external chamber 900 are integrally formed as a one-piece unit, for example by manufacturing from a single mold.\",\n \"In this embodiment, once the bladder 910 is filled with pure water, it is inserted into the external chamber 900, and then a cap 940 is used to seal the external chamber as a water-tight seal.\",\n \"The cap can be sealed through a screw-fit arrangement, a snap-fit arrangement, a heat activated adhesive, and/or any other type of bonding agent or adhesive.\",\n \"The distribution of the cooling medium between the external chamber 900 and the mouth piece 10 provides a cooling effect to the patient's mouth without interfering with the breathing holes positioned along the outside of the external chamber 900.In a preferred embodiment, the bladder 910 includes a proximal end 911 and a distal end 912 and a central portion 914.The proximal end 911 and the central portion 914 form an outer surface profile that corresponds to the inner surface profile of the external chamber 900 to permit emplacement in a nest arrangement.\",\n \"Preferably, the bladder 910 is freely placed inside the external chamber 900.This allows the bladder 910 to expand during freezing, and contract should the ice begin to melt.\",\n \"However, in other embodiments, the bladder 910 can be attached to the inside surface of the external chamber 900 at one or more locations to maintain its relative position within the external chamber.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"28 is a right side perspective exploded view of the mouth piece of FIG.\",\n \"24, showing the proximal wall 15 of the mouthpiece 10 that connects the top element and the bottom element.\",\n \"Furthermore, an upper wall 29 and corresponding lower wall 30 (not shown) act together with the proximal wall 15 to both form the outer surfaces of the cavity of the mouth piece while also providing a general framework for supporting the mouth piece and its liquid contents.\",\n \"In one embodiment, the material used for these surfaces in particular of the mouth piece can be somewhat more rigid than other surfaces to maintain the desired shape of the mouth piece during use.\",\n \"In all embodiments of the invention, the material should be durable enough to maintain a water-tight seal during treatment of a patient and be able to withstand any forces applied should the patient bite down on the mouth piece during use.\",\n \"For example, a metallic mesh material can be embedded within the external surfaces to prevent puncturing or other possible damage that could cause a leak to occur.\",\n \"In any event, should a leak occur, there is no harm to the patient because the contents are non-toxic and preferably include water, salt, and other harmless substances.\",\n \"In all embodiments of the invention, the mouth piece can be manufactured in a variety of sizes to accommodate various patients, ranging from pediatric patients to adult men.\",\n \"However, the external chamber only needs to be manufactured in a limited number of sizes.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"29 is a right side perspective exploded view of the mouth piece of FIG.\",\n \"24, showing the bladder inserted inside the external chamber 900.In one embodiment, the distal end 912 of the bladder extends beyond the length of the external chamber 900.The opening 913 of the pure water bladder 910 is sealed before placing the cap 940 over the external chamber 900.In one embodiment, a stopper (not shown) can be placed inside the opening 913 of the bladder to create a water tight seal.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"30 is a top view of the mouth piece of FIG.\",\n \"24 illustrating the bladder 910 for receiving the cooling medium which flows throughout the top element and the bottom element.\",\n \"As discussed above, the proximal end 911 of the bladder 910 preferably extends, at least partially, between the upper and lower teeth of the patient to maximize the cooling effect during treatment.\",\n \"In one embodiment, the gap 920 that surrounds the bladder 910 extends substantially all the way around the bladder 910, including the proximal most end of the mouth piece.\",\n \"In the embodiment described in FIGS.\",\n \"24-30, a patient may only need to retain the mouth piece inside the mouth for 30 minutes to achieve the desired cooling effect during treatment.\",\n \"In one embodiment, the mouth piece achieves a temperature inside the mouth between 50 degrees and 60 degrees F. In another embodiment, the external chamber can further include one or more heat sensitive indicia that change color to indicate when the temperature has reached the desired starting temperature and ending temperature for use during treatment.\",\n \"For example, the indicia can show a green color when a predetermined temperature has been reached during storage that is considered sufficient to be inserted inside the mouth.\",\n \"Likewise, the indicia can show a yellow color when a predetermined temperature has been reached during use such that the effectiveness of the mouth piece has subsided and it is time to remove the mouth piece from the mouth, thereby ending the use and possible replacement with another secondary mouth piece that is ready and waiting to be placed inside the mouth.\",\n \"In another embodiment, the indicia can show a red color if the temperature of the device has reached a predetermined temperature that is considered too cold for placement inside the mouth of the patient, which could cause discomfort or possible harm to the patient.\",\n \"Any other color coding can be utilized or other types of indicia that is reactive to temperature changes.\",\n \"In one embodiment of the invention, the device is shipped to the customer in a ready-to-use assembly, such that the bladder is not removable from the external bladder, and both the bladder and external chamber have been pre-filled with the first solution and the second solution.\",\n \"In one embodiment, the device is intended to be used as a one-time use only device.\",\n \"FIGS.\",\n \"31-32 are intra oral infrared temperature images showing the cooling effects of the mouth piece on a first test subject.\",\n \"FIGS.\",\n \"33-34 are intra oral infrared temperature images showing the cooling effects of the mouth piece on a second test subject.\",\n \"In another embodiment (not shown), an electric cooling device can be utilized that is battery powered or is directly plugged into an electrical wall socket, wherein the cooling device is adapted to cool the external chamber.\",\n \"The cooling device includes a power switch and can be used to supplement the cooling of the cooling medium or as the primary means for cooling the cooling medium.\",\n \"The foregoing description of the preferred embodiment of the invention has been presented to illustrate the principles of the invention and not to limit the invention to the particular embodiment illustrated.\",\n \"It is intended that the scope of the invention be defined by all of the embodiments encompassed within the following claims, and their equivalents.\"\n ]\n]"},"source":{"kind":"string","value":"Patent_15875395"}}},{"rowIdx":4494868,"cells":{"text":{"kind":"list like","value":[["PLUG VALVE AND METHODS","A plug valve including a valve body defining a cavity and a pair of fluid passages intersecting the cavity, the cavity defining a tapered interior surface of the valve body, a plug extending within the cavity, the plug defining an exterior surface and a fluid passage adapted to be substantially aligned with the fluid passages of the valve body, and an insert extending within the cavity and circumferentially about at least a portion of the plug, the insert defining a pair of fluid passages substantially aligned with the fluid passages of the valve body, respectively.","In several exemplary embodiments, the plug valve is used in oil or gas operations, such as, for example, the fracturing or gravel packing of a subterranean wellbore, with the plug valve being used to control the flow of fracturing and/or gravel-packing fluids.","Exemplary embodiments of methods associated with the plug valve are also described."],["1.A plug valve, comprising: a valve body defining a first fluid passage, a second fluid passage, and a cavity from which the first and second fluid passages extend; an insert defining third and fourth fluid passages, the insert extending within the cavity so that the third and fourth fluid passages are substantially aligned with the first and second fluid passages, respectively; a plug defining a fifth fluid passage and extending within the cavity of the valve body so that the fifth fluid passage is substantially alignable with the third and fourth fluid passages of the insert; an annular groove formed in one of the plug and the insert; and an annular tongue extending along the other of the plug and the insert; wherein the valve body and the insert are engaged in a manner that permits relative movement between the insert and the valve body in one, or both, of first and second opposing axial directions; and wherein the annular tongue interlocks with the annular groove to prevent, or at least reduce, relative movement between the plug and the insert in both of the first and second opposing axial directions.","2.The plug valve of claim 1, wherein the plug is rotatable relative to the insert to an open configuration, in which the fifth fluid passage of the plug is substantially aligned with the third and fourth fluid passages of the insert so that the first and second fluid passages of the valve body are in fluid communication with each other via the third, fourth, and fifth fluid passages.","3.The plug valve of claim 2, wherein, when the plug is in the open configuration, the interlocking of the annular tongue with the annular groove substantially aligns the fifth fluid passage of the plug with the third and fourth fluid passages of the insert.","4.The plug valve of claim 1, wherein the plug is rotatable relative to the insert to a closed configuration, in which the third and fourth fluid passages of the insert are substantially aligned entirely with respective portions of an exterior surface of the plug so that fluid communication via the fifth fluid passage of the plug between the first and second fluid passages of the valve body is prevented, or at least reduced.","5.The plug valve of claim 1, wherein the insert engages a tapered interior surface of the valve body, resulting in a normal contacting force between the insert and an exterior surface of the plug.","6.The plug valve of claim 1, wherein the insert comprises first and second sections that abut, or nearly abut, one another along one or more longitudinal planes; and wherein the first and second sections define the respective third and fourth fluid passages of the insert.","7.The plug valve of claim 1, wherein the annular groove is formed in the plug, and the annular tongue extends along the insert.","8.The plug valve of claim 1, further comprising a biasing member that biases the insert in one of the first and second opposing axial directions to establish and/or maintain the substantial alignment of the third and fourth fluid passages of the insert with the respective first and second fluid passages of the valve body.","9.The plug valve of claim 8, further comprising a bonnet connected to the valve body to secure the plug and the insert within the cavity, wherein the biasing member is constrained against the bonnet.","10.The plug valve of claim 1, further comprising a threaded cap threadably connected to the valve body to secure the plug and the insert within the cavity, the threaded cap being configured to urge the insert in one of the first and second opposing axial directions to establish the substantial alignment of the third and fourth fluid passages of the insert with the respective first and second fluid passages of the valve body.","11.A method, comprising: engaging a valve body and an insert in a manner that permits relative movement between the insert and the valve body in one, or both, of first and second opposing axial directions; substantially aligning first and second fluid passages of the insert with third and fourth fluid passages of the valve body, respectively, the valve body defining a cavity from which the third and fourth fluid passages extend, and the insert extending within the cavity; and preventing, or at least reducing, relative movement between the insert and a plug in both of the first and second opposing axial directions, the plug defining a fifth fluid passage and extending within the cavity of the valve body so that the fifth fluid passage is substantially alignable with the first and second fluid passages of the insert; wherein preventing, or at least reducing, relative movement between the insert and the plug in both of the first and second opposing axial directions comprises interlocking an annular tongue extending along one of the plug and the insert with an annular groove formed in the other of the plug and the insert.","12.The method of claim 10, further comprising rotating the plug relative to the insert to an open configuration, in which the fifth fluid passage of the plug is substantially aligned with the first and second fluid passages of the insert so that the third and fourth fluid passages of the valve body are in fluid communication with each other via the first, second, and fifth fluid passages.","13.The method of claim 12, wherein, when the plug is in the open configuration, the interlocking of the annular tongue with the annular groove substantially aligns the fifth fluid passage of the plug with the first and second fluid passages of the insert.","14.The method of claim 11, further comprising rotating the plug relative to the insert to a closed configuration, in which the first and second fluid passages of the insert are substantially aligned entirely with respective portions of an exterior surface of the plug so that fluid communication via the fifth fluid passage of the plug between the third and fourth fluid passages of the valve body is prevented, or at least reduced.","15.The method of claim 11, further comprising engaging the insert with a tapered interior surface of the valve body to produce a normal contacting force between the insert and an exterior surface of the plug.","16.The method of claim 11, wherein the insert comprises first and second sections that abut, or nearly abut, one another along one or more longitudinal planes; and wherein the first and second sections define the respective first and second fluid passages of the insert.","17.The method of claim 11, wherein the annular groove is formed in the plug, and the annular tongue extends along the insert.","18.The method of claim 11, further comprising biasing, using a biasing member, the insert in one of the first and second opposing axial directions to establish and/or maintain the substantial alignment of the first and second fluid passages of the insert with the respective third and fourth fluid passages of the valve body.","19.The method of claim 18, further comprising connecting a bonnet to the valve body to secure the plug and the insert within the cavity, wherein the biasing member is constrained against the bonnet.","20.The method of claim 11, further comprising threadably connecting a threaded cap to the valve body to secure the plug and the insert within the cavity, wherein the threaded cap is configured to urge the insert in one of the first and second opposing axial directions to establish the substantial alignment of the first and second fluid passages of the insert with the respective third and fourth fluid passages of the valve body."],[" BACKGROUND In oil or gas operations, such as, for example, the fracturing or gravel packing of a subterranean wellbore, one or more plug valves may be used to control the flow of fracturing and/or gravel-packing fluids.","A plug valve generally includes a valve body defining a pair of fluid passages that intersect an internal cavity formed in the valve body.","The internal cavity of the valve body accommodates an insert and a plug.","The plug extends within and engages the insert, which insert, in turn, extends within and engages the valve body.","The plug and the insert include fluid passages that are adapted to be substantially aligned with the respective fluid passages of the valve body.","Moreover, the plug is adapted to rotate relative to the insert and the valve body to selectively prevent or allow the flow of a fracturing or gravel-packing fluid through the respective fluid passages of the valve body, the insert, and the plug.","The extreme pressures, temperatures, and flow rates encountered by the plug valve during oil or gas operations often cause thermal expansion of the plug valve.","Moreover, axial forces such as, for example, hydraulic lift, are imparted to the insert and/or the plug during operation of the plug valve.","In some cases, due to the thermal expansion of the plug valve, the plug valve is unable to maintain the substantial alignment between the respective fluid passages of the plug, the insert, and the valve body.","As a result, the axial forces imparted to the plug and/or the insert during operation of the plug valve urge the fluid passages of the plug, the insert, and the valve body out of substantial alignment with one another.","The resulting misalignment causes wear, erosion, or complete wash-out of the plug, the insert, and/or the valve body.","Therefore, what is needed is an apparatus or method to address one or more of the foregoing issues, and/or one or more other issues."],[" BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG.","1A is a perspective view of a plug valve, including a valve body, a bonnet, a tapered insert, a plug, and a biasing member, according to an exemplary embodiment.","FIG.","1B is a perspective view of the plug valve of FIG.","1A in a disassembled state, according to an exemplary embodiment.","FIG.","2A is a perspective view of the valve body of FIGS.","1A and 1B , according to an exemplary embodiment.","FIG.","2B is a sectional view of the valve body taken along line 2 B- 2 B of FIG.","2A , according to an exemplary embodiment.","FIG.","2C is another sectional view of the valve body taken along line 2 C- 2 C of FIG.","2A , according to an exemplary embodiment.","FIG.","3 is a partial sectional view of the bonnet taken along line 3 - 3 of FIG.","1B , according to an exemplary embodiment.","FIG.","4 is a perspective view of the tapered insert of FIGS.","1A and 1B in a disassembled state, according to an exemplary embodiment.","FIG.","5 is an elevational view of the plug of FIGS.","1A and 1B , according to an exemplary embodiment.","FIG.","6 is a sectional view of the biasing member of FIGS.","1A and 1B , according to an exemplary embodiment.","FIG.","7 is a sectional view of the plug valve taken along line 7 - 7 of FIG.","1A , illustrating the valve body of FIGS.","2A-2C , the bonnet of FIG.","3 , the tapered insert of FIG.","4 , the plug of FIG.","5 , and the biasing member of FIG.","6 , according to an exemplary embodiment.","FIG.","8A is a sectional view similar to that of FIG.","7 and illustrates the plug valve in an open configuration, according to an exemplary embodiment.","FIG.","8B is a sectional view similar to that of FIG.","8A , but illustrates the plug valve in a closed configuration, according to an exemplary embodiment.","detailed-description description=\"Detailed Description\" end=\"lead\"?"],["CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION This application is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser.","No.","15/350,304, filed Nov. 14, 2016, which claims priority to, and the benefit of the filing date of, U.S. patent application No.","62/256,483, filed Nov. 17, 2015, the entire disclosures of which are hereby incorporated herein by reference.","TECHNICAL FIELD The present disclosure relates in general to valves and, in particular, to plug valves used in oil or gas operations.","BACKGROUND In oil or gas operations, such as, for example, the fracturing or gravel packing of a subterranean wellbore, one or more plug valves may be used to control the flow of fracturing and/or gravel-packing fluids.","A plug valve generally includes a valve body defining a pair of fluid passages that intersect an internal cavity formed in the valve body.","The internal cavity of the valve body accommodates an insert and a plug.","The plug extends within and engages the insert, which insert, in turn, extends within and engages the valve body.","The plug and the insert include fluid passages that are adapted to be substantially aligned with the respective fluid passages of the valve body.","Moreover, the plug is adapted to rotate relative to the insert and the valve body to selectively prevent or allow the flow of a fracturing or gravel-packing fluid through the respective fluid passages of the valve body, the insert, and the plug.","The extreme pressures, temperatures, and flow rates encountered by the plug valve during oil or gas operations often cause thermal expansion of the plug valve.","Moreover, axial forces such as, for example, hydraulic lift, are imparted to the insert and/or the plug during operation of the plug valve.","In some cases, due to the thermal expansion of the plug valve, the plug valve is unable to maintain the substantial alignment between the respective fluid passages of the plug, the insert, and the valve body.","As a result, the axial forces imparted to the plug and/or the insert during operation of the plug valve urge the fluid passages of the plug, the insert, and the valve body out of substantial alignment with one another.","The resulting misalignment causes wear, erosion, or complete wash-out of the plug, the insert, and/or the valve body.","Therefore, what is needed is an apparatus or method to address one or more of the foregoing issues, and/or one or more other issues.","BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG.","1A is a perspective view of a plug valve, including a valve body, a bonnet, a tapered insert, a plug, and a biasing member, according to an exemplary embodiment.","FIG.","1B is a perspective view of the plug valve of FIG.","1A in a disassembled state, according to an exemplary embodiment.","FIG.","2A is a perspective view of the valve body of FIGS.","1A and 1B, according to an exemplary embodiment.","FIG.","2B is a sectional view of the valve body taken along line 2B-2B of FIG.","2A, according to an exemplary embodiment.","FIG.","2C is another sectional view of the valve body taken along line 2C-2C of FIG.","2A, according to an exemplary embodiment.","FIG.","3 is a partial sectional view of the bonnet taken along line 3-3 of FIG.","1B, according to an exemplary embodiment.","FIG.","4 is a perspective view of the tapered insert of FIGS.","1A and 1B in a disassembled state, according to an exemplary embodiment.","FIG.","5 is an elevational view of the plug of FIGS.","1A and 1B, according to an exemplary embodiment.","FIG.","6 is a sectional view of the biasing member of FIGS.","1A and 1B, according to an exemplary embodiment.","FIG.","7 is a sectional view of the plug valve taken along line 7-7 of FIG.","1A, illustrating the valve body of FIGS.","2A-2C, the bonnet of FIG.","3, the tapered insert of FIG.","4, the plug of FIG.","5, and the biasing member of FIG.","6, according to an exemplary embodiment.","FIG.","8A is a sectional view similar to that of FIG.","7 and illustrates the plug valve in an open configuration, according to an exemplary embodiment.","FIG.","8B is a sectional view similar to that of FIG.","8A, but illustrates the plug valve in a closed configuration, according to an exemplary embodiment.","DETAILED DESCRIPTION Referring initially to FIGS.","1A and 1B, an exemplary embodiment of a plug valve, generally referred to by the reference numeral 10, is illustrated in assembled and disassembled states, respectively.","The plug valve 10 includes a valve body 12, a bonnet 14, a tapered insert 16, a plug 18, and a biasing member 20.The plug 18 is adapted to extend within and engage the tapered insert 16, which insert, in turn, is adapted to extend within and engage the valve body 12.The bonnet 14 is adapted to be connected to the valve body 12 via, for example, a plurality of fasteners 22, to secure the tapered insert 16, the plug 18, and the biasing member 20 within the valve body 12.When the bonnet 14 is connected to the valve body 12, the biasing member 20 is adapted to be constrained between the bonnet 14 and the tapered insert 16.As a result, the biasing member 20 urges the tapered insert 16 into engagement with the valve body 12, as will be discussed in further detail below.","A metal ring seal 24 is adapted to be crushed between the bonnet 14 and the valve body 12 when the bonnet 14 is connected to the valve body 12.Moreover, a pair of packing elements 26a and 26b are adapted to sealingly engage respective portions of the valve body 12 and the plug 18.Consequently, when the plug valve 10 is assembled, the metal ring seal 24 and the packing elements 26a and 26b prevent, or at least reduce, leakage of a fluid from the interior of the valve body 12 to atmosphere.","Additionally, roll pins 28a and 28b are adapted to engage both the tapered insert 16 and the interior of the valve body 12 to prevent, or at least obstruct, turning, shifting, and/or rotation of the tapered insert 16 relative to the valve body 12.Finally, grease fittings 30a and 30b are adapted to be connected to the valve body 12 to permit the pumping of a lubrication fluid into the valve body 12.The lubrication fluid lubricates and seals the interface between the plug 18 and the tapered insert 16.The grease fittings 30a and 30b may include external threads to threadably engage a portion of the valve body 12.Referring to FIGS.","2A-2C, an exemplary embodiment of the valve body 12 is illustrated, the valve body 12 defining opposing faces 12a and 12b.","The face 12a faces in an axial direction 32.In contrast, the face 12b faces in an axial direction 34, which is substantially opposite the axial direction 32.In several exemplary embodiments, the opposing faces 12a and 12b are spaced in a parallel relation.","A generally cylindrical opening 36 is formed in the face 12a of the valve body 12.Further, a generally frusto-conical cavity 38 is formed in the valve body 12, contiguous with the opening 36.The opening 36 and the cavity 38 will be described in further detail below.","Additionally, an annular groove 40 is formed in the face 12a of the valve body 12.The annular groove 40 extends concentrically about the opening 36 and is adapted to receive the metal ring seal 24.A plurality of threaded holes 42 are formed in the face 12a of the valve body 12.The threaded holes 42 are distributed concentrically about the annular groove 40 and are adapted to receive respective ones of the fasteners 22 to connect the bonnet 14 to the valve body 12.One or more holes 44a (shown in FIGS.","2A and 2B) and 44b (shown in FIG.","2C) are formed in the interior of the valve body 12.The holes 44a and 44b are adapted to receive the roll pins 28a and 28b, respectively, to prevent, or at least obstruct, turning, shifting, and/or rotation of the tapered insert 16 relative to the valve body 12.The holes 44a and 44b may retain the roll pins 28a and 28b via a friction fit, a threaded fit, or the like.","Additionally, one or more lubrication ports 46a (shown in FIGS.","2A and 2C) and 46b (shown in FIG.","2B) are formed in the valve body 12 from the exterior thereof and into the cavity 38.The lubrication ports 46a and 46b receive the grease fittings 30a and 30b, respectively, and permit the pumping of a lubrication fluid into the valve body 12.The lubrication fluid lubricates the interface between the plug 18 and the tapered insert 16.Moreover, the lubrication fluid establishes a seal between the plug 18 and the tapered insert 16, as will be discussed in further detail below.","The lubrication ports 46a and 46b may include internal threads adapted to be threadably engaged by the external threads of the grease fittings 30a and 30b.","Additionally, one or more lubrication lines (not shown) may be placed in fluid communication with the lubrication ports 46a and 46b to provide the lubrication fluid to the interior of the valve body 12 during operation of the plug valve 10.A pair of generally cylindrical protrusions 48a and 48b extend from the exterior of the valve body 12 on opposing sides thereof.","In several exemplary embodiments, the protrusions 48a and 48b are co-axial.","In several exemplary embodiments, the protrusions 48a and 48b are, include, or are part of, the valve body 12.A pair of fluid-line connectors 50a and 50b are included at the respective distal ends of the protrusions 48a and 48b.","In several exemplary embodiments, the fluid-line connector 50a is the female half of a hammer union.","Alternatively, the fluid-line connector 50a may be the male half of a hammer union.","In several exemplary embodiments, the fluid-line connector 50b is the male half of a hammer union.","Alternatively, the fluid-line connector 50b may be the female half of a hammer union.","Furthermore, one or both of the fluid-line connectors 50a and 50b may be some other type of connector that is not the male or female half of a hammer union, such as, for example, a hammerless union, a flange, another fluid-line connector, or any combination thereof.","As shown in FIGS.","2B and 2C, the opening 36 defines an interior surface 52 extending about a longitudinal center axis 54.The cavity 38, which is contiguous with the opening 36, defines a tapered interior surface 56 and an annular interior surface 58, each extending about the longitudinal center axis 54.The tapered interior surface 56 defines opposing end portions 56a and 56b.","Moreover, the tapered interior surface 56 is tapered inwardly towards the longitudinal center axis 54, from the end portion 56a to the end portion 56b thereof.","The annular interior surface 58 adjoins the end portion 56b of the tapered interior surface 56 and faces in the axial direction 32.The lubrication port 46a extends from the exterior of the valve body 12, through the tapered interior surface 56, and into the cavity 38, as shown in FIG.","2C.","Similarly, the lubrication port 46b extends from the exterior of the valve body 12, through the tapered interior surface 56, and into the cavity 38, as shown in FIG.","2B.","In several exemplary embodiments, the lubrication port 46a extends through the valve body 12 and into the cavity 38 at a position above the lubrication port 46b.","Moreover, in several exemplary embodiments, the lubrication ports 46a and 46b extend through the valve body 12 and into the cavity 38 on opposing sides of the valve body 12.The interior surface 52 of the opening 36 is located adjacent the end portion 56a of the tapered interior surface 56 of the cavity 38.In several exemplary embodiments, the interior surface 52 has a slightly larger diameter than the end portion 56a of the tapered interior surface 56.Accordingly, a sloping annular lip 60 is formed in the valve body 12 at the border between the interior surfaces 52 and 56.In several exemplary embodiments, the annular lip 60 eases the installation of the tapered insert 16 into the cavity 38.A trio of contiguous bores 62, 64, and 66 are formed in the valve body 12.The bore 62 is formed in the annular interior surface 58 of the valve body 12 and is contiguous with the cavity 38.Moreover, the bore 62 defines an interior surface 68 and an annular shoulder 70, each extending about the longitudinal center axis 54.The interior surface 68 adjoins both the annular shoulder 70 and the annular interior surface 58.The annular shoulder 70 faces in the axial direction 32.In several exemplary embodiments, a sloping annular lip 72 is formed in the valve body 12 at the border between the interior surface 68 and the annular interior surface 58.Further, the bore 64 is contiguous with, and has a smaller diameter than, the bore 62.The bore 64 defines an interior surface 74 and an annular shoulder 76, each extending about the longitudinal center axis 54.The interior surface 74 adjoins both the annular shoulder 76 and the annular shoulder 70 defined by the bore 62.The annular shoulder 76 faces in the axial direction 32.Further still, the bore 66 is contiguous with, and has a smaller diameter than, the bore 64.The bore 66 defines an interior surface 78 that extends about the longitudinal center axis 54.The interior surface 78 adjoins both the face 12b of the valve body 12 and the annular shoulder 76 defined by the bore 64.A fluid passage 80 extends through the protrusion 48a and into the valve body 12, intersecting the cavity 38.Consequently, a fluid may be communicated through the fluid passage 80 to and/or from the cavity 38 by, for example, connecting a fluid line (not shown) to the protrusion 48a via the fluid-line connector 50a.","The fluid passage 80 defines a cylindrical surface 82 extending about a longitudinal center axis 84.Moreover, at the junction of the fluid passage 80 and the cavity 38, the interior of the valve body 12 defines an intersection 86.Similarly, a fluid passage 88 extends through the protrusion 48b and into the valve body 12, intersecting the cavity 38.Consequently, a fluid may be communicated through the fluid passage 88 to and/or from the cavity 38 by, for example, connecting a fluid line (not shown) to the protrusion 48b via the fluid-line connector 50b.","The fluid passage 88 defines a cylindrical surface 90 extending about the longitudinal center axis 84.Moreover, at the junction of the fluid passage 88 and the cavity 38, the interior of the valve body 12 defines an intersection 92.In several exemplary embodiments, the longitudinal center axis 84 lies in a plane that is substantially perpendicular to a plane in which the longitudinal center axis 54 lies.","In several exemplary embodiments, the longitudinal center axis 84 intersects the longitudinal center axis 52.Referring now to FIG.","3, an exemplary embodiment of the bonnet 14 is illustrated.","The bonnet 14 includes a generally cylindrical flange 94 that extends about a longitudinal center axis 96 and defines opposing faces 94a and 94b.","The face 94a faces in an axial direction 98.In contrast, the face 94b faces in an axial direction 100, which is substantially opposite the axial direction 98.The face 94b is adapted to abut, or nearly abut, the face 12a of the valve body 12 when the bonnet 14 is connected to the valve body 12.In several exemplary embodiments, when the bonnet 14 is connected to the valve body 12 so that the end face 94b of the flange 94 abuts, or nearly abuts, the face 12a of the valve body 12, the bonnet 14 is axially immovable relative to the valve body 12.A pair of generally cylindrical protrusions 102 and 104 extend from the face 94b of the flange 94 in the axial direction 100.The protrusion 102 extends from the face 94b and is contiguous with the flange 94.An annular groove 106 is formed in the face 94b of the flange 94, concentrically about the protrusion 102.The annular groove 106 is adapted to receive the metal ring seal 24.Moreover, a plurality of holes (not shown) are formed through the flange 94.The holes (not shown) are distributed concentrically about the annular groove 106 and are adapted to accommodate respective ones of the fasteners 22 to connect the bonnet 14 to the valve body 12.Accordingly, when the bonnet 14 is connected to the valve body 12 via the fasteners 22, the metal ring seal 24 is adapted to be crushed within the respective annular grooves 106 and 40 of the bonnet 14 and the valve body 12.The protrusion 102 defines an exterior surface 108 and an annular shoulder 110, each extending about the longitudinal center axis 96.The exterior surface 108 adjoins both the annular shoulder 110 and the face 94b defined by the flange 94.Moreover, when the bonnet 14 is connected to the valve body 12, the exterior surface 108 is adapted to engage, or nearly engage, at least a portion of the interior surface 52 defined by the opening 36.The annular shoulder 110 faces in the axial direction 100 and is adapted to constrain the biasing member 20, as will be discussed in further detail below.","The protrusion 104 is contiguous with, and has a smaller diameter than, the protrusion 102.The protrusion 104 defines an exterior surface 112 and an end face 114, each extending about the longitudinal center axis 96.The exterior surface 112 adjoins both the end face 114 and the annular shoulder 110 defined by the protrusion 102.Moreover, the exterior surface 112 is adapted to extend within at least a portion of the biasing member 20.The end face 114 faces in the axial direction 100 and is adapted to abut, or nearly abut, the tapered insert 16, as will be discussed in further detail below.","A trio of contiguous bores 116, 118, and 120 are formed in the bonnet 14.The bore 116 is formed in the end face 114 of the protrusion 104.The bore 116 defines an interior surface 122 and an annular shoulder 124, each extending about the longitudinal center axis 96.The interior surface 122 adjoins both the annular shoulder 124 and the end face 114 of the protrusion 104.The annular shoulder 124 faces in the axial direction 100.In several exemplary embodiments, a sloping annular lip 126 is formed in the bonnet 14 at the border between the interior surface 122 and the end face 114.Further, the bore 118 is contiguous with, and has a smaller diameter than, the bore 116.The bore 118 defines an interior surface 128 and an annular shoulder 130, each extending about the longitudinal center axis 96.The interior surface 128 adjoins both the annular shoulder 130 and the annular shoulder 124 defined by the bore 116.The annular shoulder 130 faces in the axial direction 100.Further still, the bore 120 is contiguous with, and has a smaller diameter than, the bore 118.The bore 120 defines an interior surface 132 that extends about the longitudinal center axis 96.The interior surface 132 adjoins both the end face 94a defined by the flange 94 and the annular shoulder 130 defined by the bore 118.Referring to FIG.","4, an exemplary embodiment of the tapered insert 16 is illustrated.","The tapered insert 16 is split longitudinally so as to include opposing sections 134 and 136.The opposing sections 134 and 136 are adapted to abut, or nearly abut, one another along a longitudinal plane.","Moreover, the tapered insert 16 defines opposing end portions 16a and 16b.","The tapered insert 16 includes an exterior surface 138 that is tapered inwardly from the end portion 16a to the end portion 16b thereof.","The exterior surface 138 is adapted to conform to the tapered interior surface 56 defined by the cavity 38 of the valve body 12.In contrast, the tapered insert 16 includes an interior surface 140 that outlines a generally cylindrical profile when the sections 134 and 136 of the tapered insert 16 abut, or nearly abut, one another.","A pair of fluid passages 142a and 142b are formed through the sections 134 and 136, respectively, of the tapered insert 16.The fluid passages 142a and 142b are substantially co-axial with one another when the sections 134 and 136 of the tapered insert 16 abut, or nearly abut, one another.","Moreover, in several exemplary embodiments, the fluid passages 142a and 142b define a common axis that intersects the longitudinal plane, along which the sections 134 and 136 abut one another, at an oblique angle.","The fluid passage 142a defines a cylindrical surface 144a in the section 134 of the tapered insert 16.When the section 134 of the tapered insert 16 conforms to the tapered interior surface 56 of the cavity 38, the cylindrical surface 144a is substantially aligned with the cylindrical surface 82 formed in the valve body 12.As a result, the fluid passage 80 is in fluid communication with the fluid passage 142a.","Moreover, a groove 146a is formed in the exterior surface 138 of the section 134.The groove 146a extends concentrically about the fluid passage 142a and is adapted to accommodate an annular seal (not shown), which seal, in turn, sealingly engages the valve body 12 about the intersection 86.Similarly, the fluid passage 142b defines a cylindrical surface 144b in the section 136 of the tapered insert 16.When the section 136 of the tapered insert 16 conforms to the tapered interior surface 56 of the cavity 38, the cylindrical surface 144b is substantially aligned with the cylindrical surface 90 formed in the valve body 12.As a result, the fluid passage 88 is in fluid communication with the fluid passage 142b.","Moreover, a groove 146b (not visible in FIG.","4) is formed in the exterior surface 138 of the section 136.The groove 146b extends concentrically about the fluid passage 142b and is adapted to accommodate an annular seal (not shown), which seal, in turn, sealingly engages the valve body 12 about the intersection 92.An annular tongue 148 extends along the tapered insert 16 at the end portion 16a thereof, extending inwardly beyond the interior surface 140.The annular tongue 148 defines an annular shoulder 150 adjoining the interior surface 140 and facing in an axial direction 152.Further, an end face 154 is defined at the end portion 16a of the tapered insert 16.In several exemplary embodiments, the end face 154 is at least partially defined by the annular tongue 148.The end face 154 faces in an axial direction 156, which is substantially opposite the axial direction 152.The end face 154 is adapted to constrain the biasing member 20, as will be discussed in further detail below.","Moreover, an annular rim 158 is formed by the extension of the exterior surface 138 beyond the end face 154.The annular rim 158 engages, or nearly engages, the biasing member 20 when the plug valve 10 is assembled.","Further, one or more notches 160 extend radially through the annular tongue 148, the annular rim 158, and the exterior surface 138 at the end portion 16a of the tapered insert 16.In several exemplary embodiments, each of the sections 134 and 136 of the tapered insert 16 includes one or more of the notches 160.In several exemplary embodiments, the notches 160 are evenly distributed about the insert 16.Further still, one or more longitudinal grooves 162 are formed into the tapered insert 16.Each of the longitudinal grooves 162 extends longitudinally along at least a portion of the exterior surface 138 of the tapered insert 16 and through the annular rim 158.In several exemplary embodiments, each of the sections 134 and 136 of the tapered insert 16 includes one of the longitudinal grooves 162.In several exemplary embodiments, the longitudinal grooves 162 are located on substantially opposite sides of the tapered insert 16 when the sections 134 and 136 abut, or nearly abut, one another.","The longitudinal grooves 162 are adapted to receive respective ones of the roll pins 28a and 28b to prevent, or at least obstruct, turning, shifting, and/or rotation of the tapered insert 16 relative to the valve body 12.Finally, an end face 164 is defined at the end portion 16b of the tapered insert 16.The end face 164 faces in the axial direction 152 and is adapted to abut, or nearly abut, at least a portion of the annular interior surface 58 defined by the cavity 38.Referring now to FIG.","5, an exemplary embodiment of the plug 18 is illustrated.","The plug 18 includes a valve cylinder 166 that defines opposing end faces 166a and 166b adjoining a generally cylindrical exterior surface 166c.","The end face 166a faces in an axial direction 168.Moreover, the end face 114 of the bonnet 14 is adapted to abut, or nearly abut, the end face 166a.","In contrast, the end face 166b faces in an axial direction 170, which is substantially opposite the axial direction 168.The end face 166b is adapted to abut, or nearly abut, at least a portion of the annular interior surface 58 defined by the cavity 38.Further, the exterior surface 166c extends about a longitudinal center axis 172 and defines opposing end portions 166ca and 166cb.","When the respective sections 134 and 136 of the tapered insert 16 abut, or nearly abut, one another, the interior surface 140 of the tapered insert 16 is adapted to conform to the exterior surface 166c of the valve cylinder 166.An annular groove 174 is formed in the exterior surface 166c of the valve cylinder 166 at the end portion 166ca thereof.","Alternatively, the annular groove 174 may be formed at the end portion 166cb of the valve cylinder 166.The annular groove 174 is adapted to receive the annular tongue 148 of the tapered insert 16 when the interior surface 140 of the tapered insert 16 conforms to the exterior surface 166c of the valve cylinder 166.Accordingly, when the plug 18 is subjected to external forces that tend to move it axially, such as, for example, hydraulic lift, the tapered insert 16 remains in a fixed position relative to the plug 18.Moreover, when the tapered insert 16 is subject to external forces that tend to move it axially, such as, for example, an axial force imparted by the biasing member 20, the plug 18 remains in a fixed position relative to the tapered insert 16.In several exemplary embodiments, instead of the annular groove 174 being formed in the valve cylinder 166 and the annular tongue 148 extending along the tapered insert 16, the annular groove 174 is formed in the tapered insert 16 and the annular tongue extends along the valve cylinder 166.A fluid passage 176 extends through the valve cylinder 166.The fluid passage 176 defines a cylindrical surface 178 extending about a longitudinal center axis 180.When the interior surface 140 of the tapered insert 16 conforms to the exterior surface 166c of the valve cylinder 166, the cylindrical surface 178 of the plug 18 is substantially aligned with the cylindrical surfaces 144a and 144b of the tapered insert 16 and the cylindrical surfaces 82 and 90 of the valve body 12.As a result, the fluid passage 176 of the plug 18 is in fluid communication with the fluid passages 80 and 88 of the valve body 12 via the fluid passages 142a and 142b, respectively, of the tapered insert 16.In several exemplary embodiments, the longitudinal center axis 180 lies in a plane that is substantially perpendicular to a plane in which the longitudinal center axis 172 lies.","In several exemplary embodiments, the longitudinal center axis 180 intersects the longitudinal center axis 172.In an exemplary embodiment, the plug 18 includes a pair of generally cylindrical protrusions 182 and 184 extending from the end face 166a of the valve cylinder 166 in the axial direction 168.The protrusion 182 extends from the end face 166a and is contiguous with the valve cylinder 166.The protrusion 182 defines an exterior surface 186 and an annular shoulder 188, each extending about the longitudinal center axis 172.The exterior surface 186 adjoins both the annular shoulder 188 and the end face 166a defined by the valve cylinder 166.Moreover, the exterior surface 186 is adapted to engage, or nearly engage, the interior surface 122 of the bonnet 14.The annular shoulder 188 faces in the axial direction 168.At least a portion of the annular shoulder 188 is adapted to abut, or nearly abut, the annular shoulder 124 of the bonnet 14.In several exemplary embodiments, a sloping annular lip 189 is formed in the plug 18 at the border between the exterior surface 186 and the annular shoulder 188.The annular lip 189 is adapted to engage the annular lip 126 of the bonnet 14 to ease the installation of the protrusion 182 into the bore 116 of the bonnet 14.The protrusion 184 is contiguous with, and has a smaller diameter than, the protrusion 182.The protrusion 184 defines an exterior surface 190 and an end face 192, each extending about the longitudinal center axis 172.The exterior surface 190 adjoins both the end face 192 and the annular shoulder 188 defined by the protrusion 182.Moreover, at least a portion of the exterior surface 190 is adapted to engage, or nearly engage, the interior surface 132 of the bonnet 14.The end face 192 faces in the axial direction 168.The packing element 26a is adapted to be constrained between the annular shoulder 130 of the bonnet 14 and at least a portion of the annular shoulder 188 of the protrusion 182.Constrained as such, the packing element 26a sealingly engages both the interior surface 128 of the bonnet 14 and at least a portion of the exterior surface 190 of the protrusion 184 to prevent, or at least reduce, leakage of a fluid from the interior of the valve body 12 to atmosphere.","Similarly, in an exemplary embodiment, the plug 18 includes a pair of generally cylindrical protrusions 194 and 196 extending from the end face 166b of the valve cylinder 166 in the axial direction 170.The protrusion 194 extends from the end face 166b and is contiguous with the valve cylinder 166.The protrusion 194 defines an exterior surface 198 and an annular shoulder 200, each extending about the longitudinal center axis 172.The exterior surface 198 adjoins both the annular shoulder 200 and the end face 166b defined by the valve cylinder 166.Moreover, the exterior surface 198 is adapted to engage, or nearly engage, the interior surface 68 of the valve body 12.The annular shoulder 200 faces in the axial direction 170.At least a portion of the annular shoulder 200 is adapted to abut, or nearly abut, the annular shoulder 70 of the valve body 12.In several exemplary embodiments, a sloping annular lip 201 is formed in the plug 18 at the border between the exterior surface 198 and the annular shoulder 200.The annular lip 201 is adapted to engage the annular lip 72 of the valve body 12 to ease the installation of the protrusion 194 into the bore 62 of the valve body 12.The protrusion 196 is contiguous with, and has a smaller diameter than, the protrusion 194.The protrusion 196 defines an exterior surface 202 and an end face 204, each extending about the longitudinal center axis 172.The exterior surface 202 adjoins both the end face 204 and the annular shoulder 200 defined by the protrusion 194.Moreover, at least a portion of the exterior surface 202 is adapted to engage, or nearly engage, the interior surface 78 of the valve body 12.The end face 204 faces in the axial direction 170.The packing element 26b is adapted to be constrained between the annular shoulder 76 of the valve body 12 and at least a portion of the annular shoulder 200 of the protrusion 194.Constrained as such, the packing element 26b sealingly engages both the interior surface 74 of the valve body 12 and at least a portion of the exterior surface 202 of the protrusion 196 to prevent, or at least reduce, leakage of a fluid from the interior of the valve body 12 to atmosphere.","In several exemplary embodiments, a socket 206 (visible in FIG.","7) is formed in the end face 204 of the plug 18.The socket 206 is adapted to receive a tool (not shown) such as, for example, a handle or a wheel, to rotate the plug 18, as will be discussed in further detail below.","Referring to FIG.","6, an exemplary embodiment of the biasing member 20 is illustrated.","The biasing member 20 includes a trio of frusto-conical spring washers 208 (a.k.a.","Belleville washers).","The spring washers 208 are adapted to be constrained between the annular shoulder 110 of the bonnet 14 and the end face 154 of the tapered insert 16.Accordingly, when the plug valve 10 is assembled, the spring washers 208 are adapted to urge the tapered insert 16 into engagement, or near engagement, with the valve body 12.Specifically, the spring washers 208 urge the end face 164 and the exterior surface 138 of the tapered insert 16 into engagement, or near engagement, with the annular interior surface 58 and the tapered interior surface 56, respectively, of the valve body 12.Although the biasing member 20 has been described as a trio of frusto-conical spring washers 208, the biasing member 20 may include any suitable number of the spring washers 208 such as, for example, one spring washer, two spring washers, four spring washers, five spring washers, six spring washers, seven spring washers, eight spring washers, nine spring washers, ten spring washers, or more.","Moreover, in several exemplary embodiments, the biasing member 20 is or includes one or more components that are not the spring washers 208, such as, for example, a wave spring, a helical spring, a compressed elastic material, another type of biasing member, or any combination thereof.","Referring now to FIG.","7, the plug valve 10 is illustrated in an assembled state, including the valve body 12, the bonnet 14, the tapered insert 16, the plug 18, and the biasing member 20.In the assembled state, the plug 18 extends within and engages the tapered insert 16, which insert, in turn, extends within and engages the valve body 12.As a result, the exterior surface 138 of the tapered insert 16 conforms to the tapered interior surface 56 of the valve body 12.The annular groove 146a in the section 134 of the tapered insert 16 accommodates a seal (not shown) that sealingly engages the valve body 12 concentrically about the intersection 86.Similarly, the annular groove 146b in the section 136 of the tapered insert 16 accommodates a seal (not shown) that sealingly engages the valve body 12 concentrically about the intersection 92.Additionally, the roll pins 28a and 28b engage both the tapered insert 16 and the interior of the valve body 12 to prevent, or at least obstruct, turning, shifting, and/or rotation of the tapered insert 16 relative to the valve body 12.Specifically, the longitudinal grooves 162 in the tapered insert 16 and the holes 44a and 44b in the valve body 12 receive respective ones of the roll pins 28a and 28b.","Further, the opposing sections 134 and 136 of the tapered insert 16 envelop the plug 18 so that the interior surface 140 of the tapered insert 16 conforms to the exterior surface 166c of the plug 18.In this position, the opposing section 134 and 136 abut, or nearly abut, one another, and the annular tongue 148 of the tapered insert 16 interlocks with the annular groove 174 of the plug 18.The interlocking of the annular tongue 148 with the annular groove 174 maintains the tapered insert 16 and the plug 18 in substantially fixed positions relative to one another.","As a result, the tapered insert 16 and the plug 18 stay together when the tapered insert 16 and/or the plug 18 are subject to external forces that tend to move them axially, such as, for example, an axial force imparted to the tapered insert 16 by the biasing member 20, hydraulic lift imparted to the plug 18, or some other axial force.","Although the interlocking of the annular tongue 148 with the annular groove 174 prevents, or at least obstructs, relative axial movement of the tapered insert 16 and the plug 18, the plug 18 is still permitted to rotate relative to the tapered insert 16, as will be discussed in further detail below.","Further still, the bonnet 14 is connected to the valve body 12 with the fasteners 22, thus securing the tapered insert 16, the plug 18, and the biasing member 20 within the valve body 12.As a result, the face 94b of the bonnet 14 abuts, or nearly abuts, the face 12a of the valve body 12.Moreover, the exterior surface 108 of the bonnet 14 engages, or nearly engages, at least a portion of the interior surface 52 of the valve body 12.In this position, the metal ring seal 24 is crushed within the respective annular grooves 106 and 40 of the bonnet 14 and the valve body 12.The crushed metal ring seal 24 prevents, or at least reduces, leakage of a fluid from the interior of the plug valve 10 to atmosphere.","The end face 114 of the bonnet 14 abuts, or nearly abuts, the end face 166a of the plug 18.Additionally, the annular shoulder 124 and the interior surfaces 122 and 132 of the bonnet 14 engage, or nearly engage, the annular shoulder 188 the exterior surfaces 186 and 190, respectively, of the plug 18.The packing element 26a is thus constrained between the annular shoulder 130 of the bonnet 14 and at least a portion of the annular shoulder 188 of the plug 18.In this position, the packing element 26a sealingly engages both the interior surface 128 of the bonnet 14 and at least a portion of the exterior surface 190 of the plug 18 to prevent, or at least reduce, leakage of a fluid from the interior of the plug valve 10 to atmosphere.","The end face 166b of the plug 18 abuts, or nearly abuts, the annular interior surface 58 of the valve body 12.Additionally, the annular shoulder 200 and the exterior surfaces 198 and 202 of the plug 18 engage, or nearly engage, the annular shoulder 70 and the interior surfaces 68 and 78, respectively, of the valve body 12.The packing element 26b is thus constrained between the annular shoulder 76 of the valve body 12 and at least a portion of the annular shoulder 200 of the plug 18.In this position, the packing element 26b sealingly engages both the interior surface 74 of the valve body 76 and at least a portion of the exterior surface 202 of the plug 18 to prevent, or at least reduce, leakage of a fluid from the interior of the valve body 12 to atmosphere.","In several exemplary embodiments, the protrusion 196 of the plug 18 extends through the bore 66 of the valve body 12 so that the end face 204 of the plug 18 protrudes beyond the face 12b of the valve body 12.In several exemplary embodiments, the end face 204 of the plug 18 is flush with the face 12b of the valve body 12.In several exemplary embodiments, the end face 204 of the plug 18 is disposed within the bore 66 of the valve body 12.In any event, the end face 204 of the plug 18 is accessible from the exterior of the valve body 12.Finally, the biasing member 20 is constrained between the annular shoulder 110 of the bonnet 14 and the end face 154 of the tapered insert 16.As a result, the annular rim 158 of the tapered insert 16 engages, or nearly engages, the biasing member 20.In this position, the biasing member 20 urges the tapered insert 16 into engagement, or near engagement, with the valve body 12.Specifically, the biasing member 20 urges the end face 164 and the exterior surface 138 of the tapered insert 16 to abut, or nearly abut, the annular interior surface 58 and the tapered interior surface 56, respectively, of the valve body 12.As a result of the tapering of the tapered interior surface 56 and the exterior surface 138, the force imparted on the tapered insert 16 by the biasing member 20 resolves into a normal contacting force between the plug 18 and the opposing sections 134 and 136 of the tapered insert 16.In operation, an exemplary embodiment of which is illustrated in FIGS.","8A and 8B, with continuing reference to FIG.","7, the plug valve 10 is actuable between an open configuration and a closed configuration to control the flow of a fluid 210.The plug valve 10 is actuated by engaging a tool (not shown) such as, for example, a handle or a wheel, in the socket 206 (visible in FIG.","7) to rotate the plug 18 relative to the valve body 12, the bonnet 14, and the tapered insert 16.The rotation of the plug 18 causes the annular groove 174 of the plug 18 to slidably engage the annular tongue 148 of the tapered insert 16, thus actuating the plug valve 10 between the open configuration and the closed configuration.","In the open configuration, as shown in FIG.","8A, the fluid passage 176 of the plug 18 is in fluid communication with the fluid passages 80 and 88 of the valve body 12 via the fluid passages 142a and 142b, respectively, of the tapered insert 16.As a result, the fluid 210 is communicated from the fluid passage 80 to the fluid passage 88, as shown in FIG.","8A.","Ideally, to prevent turbulence in the flow of the fluid 210 and resultant wear to the components of the plug valve 10, the cylindrical surface 178 of the plug 18 is substantially aligned with the cylindrical surfaces 82 and 90 of the valve body 12 and the cylindrical surfaces 144a and 144b of the tapered insert 16.However, axial forces such as, for example, hydraulic lift caused by the flow of the fluid 210, may be imparted to the tapered insert 16 and/or the plug 18 in an axial direction 212.Such axial forces tend to cause misalignment between the cylindrical surfaces 144a and 144b of the tapered insert 16 and the cylindrical surfaces 82 and 90, respectively, of the valve body 12.At the same time, the interlocking of the annular tongue 148 with the annular groove 174 prevents, or at least reduces, misalignment between the cylindrical surface 178 of the plug 18 and the cylindrical surfaces 144a and 144b of the tapered insert 16.The biasing member 20 counteracts the axial forces imparted to the tapered insert 16 and/or the plug 18 in the axial direction 212 by urging the tapered insert 16 in an axial direction 214, which is substantially opposite the axial direction 212.In this manner, the biasing member 20 maintains the substantial alignment between the cylindrical surfaces 144a and 144b of the tapered insert 16 and the cylindrical surfaces 82 and 90 of the valve body 12.At the same time, the interlocking of the annular tongue 148 with the annular groove 174 maintains the substantial alignment between the cylindrical surface 178 of the plug 18 and the cylindrical surfaces 144a and 144b of the tapered insert 16.The force imparted to the tapered insert 16 by the biasing member 20 resolves into a normal contacting force between the plug 18 and the opposing sections 134 and 136 of the tapered insert 16.The lubrication ports 46a and 46b receive the grease fittings 30a and 30b, respectively, to permit the pumping of a lubrication fluid into the valve body 12.In several exemplary embodiments, a lubrication fluid is pumped into the plug valve 10 via at least one of the grease fittings 30a and 30b and a corresponding one of the lubrication ports 46a and 46b to lubricate and seal the interface between the plug 18 and the tapered insert 16.The lubrication fluid migrates into an annular space defined between the tapered insert 16 and the plug 18.As a result, the normal contacting force between the plug 18 and the opposing sections 134 and 136 of the tapered insert 16 causes the lubrication fluid to form a seal, thus preventing, or at least reducing, leakage of the fluid 210 into the annular space between the tapered insert 16 and the plug 18.Moreover, as the fluid 210 is communicated between the fluid passages 80 and 88 of the valve body 12, the seals (not shown) in the annular grooves 146a and 146b prevent, or at least obstruct, leakage of the fluid 210 into an annular space defined between the valve body 12 and the tapered insert 16.In the closed configuration, as shown in FIG.","8B, the plug 18 is rotated to prevent, or at least obstruct, communication of the fluid 210 between the fluid passages 80 and 88 of the valve body 12.Specifically, when the plug 18 is rotated roughly 90 degrees from the open configuration (shown in FIG.","8A), the fluid passage 176 of the plug 18 is no longer substantially aligned with the fluid passages 142a and 142b of the tapered insert 16 or the fluid passages 80 and 88 of the valve body 12.Instead, the exterior surface 166c of the plug 18 is substantially aligned with the fluid passages 142a and 142b of the tapered insert 16 and the fluid passages 80 and 88 of the valve body 12.As discussed above, the lubrication fluid pumped into the plug valve 10 migrates into an annular space defined between the tapered insert 16 and the plug 18.As a result, the normal contacting force between the plug 18 and the opposing sections 134 and 136 of the tapered insert 16 causes the lubrication fluid to form a seal, thus preventing, or at least reducing, leakage of the fluid 210 into the annular space between the tapered insert 16 and the plug 18.Moreover, the seals (not shown) in the annular grooves 146a and 146b prevent, or at least obstruct, leakage of the fluid 210 into an annular space defined between the valve body 12 and the tapered insert 16.As a result, the plug 18 prevents, or at least obstructs, communication of the fluid 210 between the fluid passages 80 and 88 of the valve body 12.In several exemplary embodiments, even with the extreme pressures, temperatures, and flow rates encountered by the plug valve 10 during operation, the biasing member 20 maintains the substantial alignment between the cylindrical surfaces 144a and 144b of the tapered insert 16 and the cylindrical surfaces 82 and 90 of the valve body 12.In several exemplary embodiments, despite the thermal expansion or contraction of the various components of the plug valve 10 during operation, the biasing member 20 maintains the substantial alignment between the cylindrical surfaces 144a and 144b of the tapered insert 16 and the cylindrical surfaces 82 and 90 of the valve body 12.In several exemplary embodiments, regardless of the axial forces imparted to the tapered insert 12 and/or the plug 18 during operation of the plug valve 10, the biasing member 20 maintains the substantial alignment between the cylindrical surfaces 144a and 144b of the tapered insert 16 and the cylindrical surfaces 82 and 90 of the valve body 12.In several exemplary embodiments, even with the extreme pressures, temperatures, and flow rates encountered by the plug valve 10 during operation, the interlocking of the annular tongue 148 with the annular groove 174 maintains the substantial alignment between the cylindrical surface 178 of the plug 18 and the cylindrical surfaces 144a and 144b of the tapered insert 16.In several exemplary embodiments, despite the thermal expansion or contraction of the various components of the plug valve 10 during operation, the interlocking of the annular tongue 148 with the annular groove 174 maintains the substantial alignment between the cylindrical surface 178 of the plug 18 and the cylindrical surfaces 144a and 144b of the tapered insert 16.In several exemplary embodiments, regardless of the axial forces imparted to the tapered insert 12 and/or the plug 18 during operation of the plug valve 10, the interlocking of the annular tongue 148 with the annular groove 174 maintains the substantial alignment between the cylindrical surface 178 of the plug 18 and the cylindrical surfaces 144a and 144b of the tapered insert 16.In several exemplary embodiments, even with the extreme pressures, temperatures, and flow rates encountered by the plug valve 10 during operation, the crushing of the metal ring seal 24 within the respective annular grooves 40 and 106 of the valve body 12 and the bonnet 14 prevents, or at least reduces, leakage of a fluid from the interior of the plug valve 10 to atmosphere.","In several exemplary embodiments, despite the thermal expansion or contraction of the various components of the plug valve 10 during operation, the crushing of the metal ring seal 24 within the respective annular grooves 40 and 106 of the valve body 12 and the bonnet 14 prevents, or at least reduces, leakage of a fluid from the interior of the plug valve 10 to atmosphere.","In several exemplary embodiments, regardless of the axial forces imparted to the tapered insert 12 and/or the plug 18 during operation of the plug valve 10, the crushing of the metal ring seal 24 within the respective annular grooves 40 and 106 of the valve body 12 and the bonnet 14 prevents, or at least reduces, leakage of a fluid from the interior of the plug valve 10 to atmosphere.","In several exemplary embodiments, the wear, erosion, and/or complete wash-out of the plug valve 10, including the valve body 12, the bonnet 14, the insert 16, and/or the plug 18, is prevented, or at least reduced, as a result of the biasing member 20 maintaining the substantial alignment between the cylindrical surfaces 144a and 144b of the tapered insert 16 and the cylindrical surfaces 82 and 90 of the valve body 12.In several exemplary embodiments, the wear, erosion, and/or complete wash-out of the plug valve 10, including the valve body 12, the bonnet 14, the insert 16, and/or the plug 18, is prevented, or at least reduced, as a result of the annular tongue 148 interlocking with the annular groove 174 to maintain the substantial alignment between the cylindrical surface 178 of the plug 18 and the cylindrical surfaces 144a and 144b of the tapered insert 16.In several exemplary embodiments, the fasteners 22 are omitted in favor of threads on the exterior of the bonnet 14, the threads being adapted to threadably engage the valve body 12 to secure the tapered insert 16 and the plug 18 within the cavity 38.In several exemplary embodiments, the biasing member 20 is omitted and the bonnet 14 directly engages the tapered insert 16.Accordingly, the bonnet 14 may take the form of a threaded cap in some embodiments.","In several exemplary embodiments, rather than being split into the opposing sections 134 and 136, the tapered insert 16 is split into more than two sections, such as, for example, three sections, four sections, five sections, or more.","In several exemplary embodiments, rather than extending along the common longitudinal center axis 84, the fluid passages 80 and 88 extend along separate axes.","Further, in several exemplary embodiments, rather than defining a common axis, the fluid passages 142a and 142b of the tapered insert 16 define separate axes so that the fluid passages 142a and 142b of the tapered insert 16 remain substantially aligned with the fluid passages 80 and 88 of the valve body 12.Further still, in several exemplary embodiments, rather than extending along the longitudinal center axis 180, the fluid passage 176 of the plug 18 is divided into separate sections each extending along separate axes so that the fluid passage remains substantially aligned with the fluid passages 142a and 142b when the plug valve 10 is in the open configuration.","The present disclosure introduces a plug valve, including a valve body defining a cavity and a pair of fluid passages intersecting the cavity, the cavity defining a tapered interior surface of the valve body; a plug extending within the cavity of the valve body, the plug defining an exterior surface and a fluid passage adapted to be substantially aligned with the fluid passages of the valve body; an insert extending within the cavity and circumferentially about at least a portion of the plug, the insert defining a pair of fluid passages substantially aligned with each of the fluid passages of the valve body, respectively; a bonnet connected to the valve body to secure the plug and the insert within the cavity; and a biasing member constrained between the bonnet and the insert.","In an exemplary embodiment, the bonnet includes a flange connected to the valve body and axially immovable relative thereto, and a first protrusion extending from the flange, the first protrusion defining an annular shoulder; and the biasing member is constrained axially between the insert and the annular shoulder of the first protrusion.","In an exemplary embodiment, the bonnet includes a second protrusion about which the biasing member extends, the second protrusion extending from the first protrusion and defining an end face; the plug includes a valve cylinder through which the fluid passage of the plug is formed, the valve cylinder defining an end face; and the end face of the second protrusion abuts, or nearly abuts, the end face of the valve cylinder.","In an exemplary embodiment, the biasing member includes one or more frusto-conical spring washers, at least one of which extends about the second protrusion.","In an exemplary embodiment, first and second annular grooves are formed in the valve body and the flange, respectively; the plug valve further includes a metal ring seal extending within the first and second annular grooves; and the metal ring seal is crushed between the flange and the valve body to prevent, or at least reduce, the leakage of a fluid from the interior of the valve body to atmosphere.","In an exemplary embodiment, the plug is adapted to rotate, relative to the insert, to an open configuration in which the fluid passage of the plug is substantially aligned with the fluid passages of the insert so that the fluid passages of the valve body are in fluid communication with one another via the fluid passages of the insert and the fluid passage of the plug.","In an exemplary embodiment, an annular tongue extends along one of the insert and the plug and an annular groove is formed in the other of the insert and the plug; and the annular tongue and the annular groove interlock with one another so that, when the plug is in the open configuration, the fluid passage of the plug is substantially aligned with each of the fluid passages of the insert.","In an exemplary embodiment, the biasing member urges the insert to engage the tapered interior surface of the valve body, resulting in a normal contacting force between the insert and the exterior surface of the plug.","In an exemplary embodiment, the biasing member maintains the substantial alignment between the fluid passages of the insert and the fluid passages of the valve body, respectively, by urging the insert to engage the tapered interior surface of the valve body.","In an exemplary embodiment, the plug is adapted to rotate, relative to the insert, to a closed configuration in which the fluid passages of the insert are substantially aligned entirely with respective portions of the exterior surface of the plug so that fluid communication between the respective fluid passages of the valve body is blocked by the exterior surface of the plug.","In an exemplary embodiment, a pair of annular grooves are formed in respective faces of the bonnet and the valve body, the respective faces of the bonnet and the valve body engaging one another so that the respective annular grooves are substantially aligned; the plug valve further includes a metal ring seal extending within the respective annular grooves of the bonnet and the valve body; and the metal ring seal is crushed between the bonnet and the valve body to prevent, or at least reduce, the leakage of a fluid from the interior of the valve body to atmosphere.","In an exemplary embodiment, the insert includes a pair of sections adapted to abut, or nearly abut, one another along a longitudinal plane; and each of the sections includes a respective one of the fluid passages of the insert.","The present disclosure also introduces a plug valve, including a valve body defining a cavity and a pair of fluid passages intersecting the cavity, the cavity defining a tapered interior surface of the valve body; a plug extending within the cavity of the valve body, the plug defining an exterior surface and a fluid passage adapted to be substantially aligned with each of the fluid passages of the valve body; an insert extending within the cavity and circumferentially about at least a portion of the plug, the insert defining a pair of fluid passages substantially aligned with the fluid passages of the valve body, respectively; an annular groove formed in one of the plug and the insert; and an annular tongue extending along the other of the plug and the insert, the annular tongue being adapted to interlock with the annular groove.","In an exemplary embodiment, the plug is adapted to rotate, relative to the insert, to an open configuration in which the fluid passage of the plug is substantially aligned with the fluid passages of the insert so that the fluid passages of the valve body are in fluid communication with one another via the fluid passages of the insert and the fluid passage of the plug.","In an exemplary embodiment, when the plug is in the open configuration, the interlocking of the annular tongue with the annular groove aligns the fluid passage of the plug with the fluid passages of the insert.","In an exemplary embodiment, the plug is adapted to rotate, relative to the insert, to a closed configuration in which the fluid passages of the insert are substantially aligned entirely with respective portions of the exterior surface of the plug so that fluid communication between the respective fluid passages of the valve body is blocked by the exterior surface of the plug.","In an exemplary embodiment, the insert engages the tapered interior surface of the valve body, resulting in a normal contacting force between the insert and the exterior surface of the plug.","In an exemplary embodiment, the insert includes a pair of sections adapted to abut, or nearly abut, one another along a longitudinal plane; and each of the sections includes a respective one of the fluid passages of the insert.","The present disclosure also introduces a plug valve, including a valve body defining a face, a cavity formed in the face, and a pair of fluid passages intersecting the cavity, the cavity defining a tapered interior surface of the valve body; a plug extending within the cavity of the valve body, the plug defining an exterior surface and a fluid passage adapted to be substantially aligned with each of the fluid passages of the valve body; an insert extending within the cavity and circumferentially about at least a portion of the plug, the insert defining a pair of fluid passages substantially aligned with the fluid passages of the valve body, respectively; and a bonnet connected to the valve body to secure the plug and the insert within the cavity, the bonnet defining a face that engages the face of the valve body; wherein a pair of annular grooves are formed in the respective faces of the bonnet and the valve body, the respective annular grooves being substantially aligned with one another.","In an exemplary embodiment, the plug valve further includes a metal ring seal extending within the respective annular grooves of the bonnet and the valve body; and the metal ring seal is crushed between the bonnet and the valve body to prevent, or at least reduce, leakage of a fluid from the interior of the valve body to atmosphere.","In an exemplary embodiment, the plug is adapted to rotate, relative to the insert, to an open configuration in which the fluid passage of the plug is substantially aligned with the fluid passages of the insert so that the fluid passages of the valve body are in fluid communication with one another via the fluid passages of the insert and the fluid passage of the plug.","In an exemplary embodiment, an annular tongue extends along one of the insert and the plug and an annular groove is formed in the other of the insert and the plug; and the annular tongue and the annular groove interlock with one another so that, when the plug is in the open configuration, the fluid passage of the plug is substantially aligned with the fluid passages of the insert.","In an exemplary embodiment, the plug is adapted to rotate relative to the insert to a closed configuration, in which the fluid passages of the insert are substantially aligned entirely with respective portions of the exterior surface of the plug so that fluid communication between the respective fluid passages of the valve body is blocked by the exterior surface of the plug.","In an exemplary embodiment, the insert includes a pair of sections adapted to abut, or nearly abut, one another along a longitudinal plane; and each of the sections includes a respective one of the fluid passages of the insert.","The present disclosure also introduces a method that includes actuating a plug valve from a closed configuration to an open configuration; wherein the plug valve includes: a valve body defining a cavity and a pair of fluid passages intersecting the cavity, the cavity defining a tapered interior surface of the valve body; a plug extending within the cavity of the valve body, the plug defining an exterior surface and a fluid passage adapted to be substantially aligned with the fluid passages of the valve body when the plug valve is in the open configuration; and an insert extending within the cavity and circumferentially about at least a portion of the plug, the insert defining a pair of fluid passages substantially aligned with each of the fluid passages of the valve body, respectively; wherein actuating the plug valve to the open configuration causes fluid to flow from one of the fluid passages of the valve body to the other of the fluid passages of the valve body; and wherein, during the fluid flow, an axial force is imparted to the insert and/or the plug in a first axial direction; and counteracting the axial force imparted to the insert and/or the plug in the first axial direction, including urging the insert in a second axial direction that is substantially opposite the first axial direction; wherein urging the insert in the second axial direction maintains the substantially alignment between the pair of fluid passages of the insert and each of the fluid passages of the valve body, respectively.","In an exemplary embodiment, the insert includes opposing sections through which the pair of fluid passages of the insert are formed, respectively; and wherein urging the insert in the second axial direction results in a force being imparted to the insert, the force being imparted to the insert resolving into a normal contacting force between the plug and the opposing sections of the insert.","In an exemplary embodiment, the method includes permitting a lubrication fluid to migrate into an annular space defined between the insert and the plug; wherein the normal contacting force between the plug and the opposing sections of the insert causes the lubrication fluid to form a seal, thus preventing, or at least reducing, leakage of the fluid flow into the annular spaced defined between the insert and the plug.","The present disclosure also introduces a method that includes actuating a plug valve from a closed configuration to an open configuration; wherein the plug valve includes: a valve body defining a cavity and a pair of fluid passages intersecting the cavity, the cavity defining a tapered interior surface of the valve body; a plug extending within the cavity of the valve body, the plug defining an exterior surface and a fluid passage adapted to be substantially aligned with each of the fluid passages of the valve body when the plug valve is in the open configuration; an insert extending within the cavity and circumferentially about at least a portion of the plug, the insert defining a pair of fluid passages substantially aligned with the fluid passages of the valve body, respectively; an annular groove formed in one of the plug and the insert; and an annular tongue extending along the other of the plug and the insert; and aligning the fluid passage of the plug with the fluid passages of the insert when the plug valve is in the open configuration, including interlocking the annular tongue with the annular groove.","In an exemplary embodiment, actuating the plug valve from the closed configuration to the open configuration includes rotating the plug, relative to the insert, so that the fluid passage of the plug is substantially aligned with the fluid passages of the insert and thus the fluid passages of the valve body are in fluid communication with one another via the fluid passages of the insert and the fluid passage of the plug.","The present disclosure also introduces a method that includes providing a valve body defining a face, a cavity formed in the face, and a pair of fluid passages intersecting the cavity, the cavity defining a tapered interior surface of the valve body; positioning an insert and a plug within the cavity of the valve body, the insert extending circumferentially about at least a portion of the plug, the insert defining a pair of fluid passages substantially aligned with the fluid passages of the valve body, respectively, the plug defining an exterior surface and a fluid passage adapted to be substantially aligned with each of the fluid passages of the valve body; connecting a bonnet to the valve body to secure the plug and the insert within the cavity, the bonnet defining a face that engages the face of the valve body; and crushing a metal ring seal between the bonnet and the valve body to prevent, or at least reduce, leakage of a fluid from the interior of the valve body to atmosphere.","In an exemplary embodiment, a pair of annular grooves are formed in the respective faces of the bonnet and the valve body, the respective annular grooves being substantially aligned with one another; wherein the metal ring seal extends within the respective annular grooves of the bonnet and the valve body.","It is understood that variations may be made in the foregoing without departing from the scope of the present disclosure.","In several exemplary embodiments, the elements and teachings of the various illustrative exemplary embodiments may be combined in whole or in part in some or all of the illustrative exemplary embodiments.","In addition, one or more of the elements and teachings of the various illustrative exemplary embodiments may be omitted, at least in part, and/or combined, at least in part, with one or more of the other elements and teachings of the various illustrative embodiments.","Any spatial references, such as, for example, “upper,” “lower,” “above,” “below,” “between,” “bottom,” “vertical,” “horizontal,” “angular,” “upwards,” “downwards,” “side-to-side,” “left-to-right,” “right-to-left,” “top-to-bottom,” “bottom-to-top,” “top,” “bottom,” “bottom-up,” “top-down,” etc., are for the purpose of illustration only and do not limit the specific orientation or location of the structure described above.","In several exemplary embodiments, while different steps, processes, and procedures are described as appearing as distinct acts, one or more of the steps, one or more of the processes, and/or one or more of the procedures may also be performed in different orders, simultaneously and/or sequentially.","In several exemplary embodiments, the steps, processes, and/or procedures may be merged into one or more steps, processes and/or procedures.","In several exemplary embodiments, one or more of the operational steps in each embodiment may be omitted.","Moreover, in some instances, some features of the present disclosure may be employed without a corresponding use of the other features.","Moreover, one or more of the above-described embodiments and/or variations may be combined in whole or in part with any one or more of the other above-described embodiments and/or variations.","Although several exemplary embodiments have been described in detail above, the embodiments described are exemplary only and are not limiting, and those skilled in the art will readily appreciate that many other modifications, changes and/or substitutions are possible in the exemplary embodiments without materially departing from the novel teachings and advantages of the present disclosure.","Accordingly, all such modifications, changes, and/or substitutions are intended to be included within the scope of this disclosure as defined in the following claims.","In the claims, any means-plus-function clauses are intended to cover the structures described herein as performing the recited function and not only structural equivalents, but also equivalent structures.","Moreover, it is the express intention of the applicant not to invoke 35 U.S.C.","§ 112, paragraph 6 for any limitations of any of the claims herein, except for those in which the claim expressly uses the word “means” together with an associated function."]],"string":"[\n [\n \"PLUG VALVE AND METHODS\",\n \"A plug valve including a valve body defining a cavity and a pair of fluid passages intersecting the cavity, the cavity defining a tapered interior surface of the valve body, a plug extending within the cavity, the plug defining an exterior surface and a fluid passage adapted to be substantially aligned with the fluid passages of the valve body, and an insert extending within the cavity and circumferentially about at least a portion of the plug, the insert defining a pair of fluid passages substantially aligned with the fluid passages of the valve body, respectively.\",\n \"In several exemplary embodiments, the plug valve is used in oil or gas operations, such as, for example, the fracturing or gravel packing of a subterranean wellbore, with the plug valve being used to control the flow of fracturing and/or gravel-packing fluids.\",\n \"Exemplary embodiments of methods associated with the plug valve are also described.\"\n ],\n [\n \"1.A plug valve, comprising: a valve body defining a first fluid passage, a second fluid passage, and a cavity from which the first and second fluid passages extend; an insert defining third and fourth fluid passages, the insert extending within the cavity so that the third and fourth fluid passages are substantially aligned with the first and second fluid passages, respectively; a plug defining a fifth fluid passage and extending within the cavity of the valve body so that the fifth fluid passage is substantially alignable with the third and fourth fluid passages of the insert; an annular groove formed in one of the plug and the insert; and an annular tongue extending along the other of the plug and the insert; wherein the valve body and the insert are engaged in a manner that permits relative movement between the insert and the valve body in one, or both, of first and second opposing axial directions; and wherein the annular tongue interlocks with the annular groove to prevent, or at least reduce, relative movement between the plug and the insert in both of the first and second opposing axial directions.\",\n \"2.The plug valve of claim 1, wherein the plug is rotatable relative to the insert to an open configuration, in which the fifth fluid passage of the plug is substantially aligned with the third and fourth fluid passages of the insert so that the first and second fluid passages of the valve body are in fluid communication with each other via the third, fourth, and fifth fluid passages.\",\n \"3.The plug valve of claim 2, wherein, when the plug is in the open configuration, the interlocking of the annular tongue with the annular groove substantially aligns the fifth fluid passage of the plug with the third and fourth fluid passages of the insert.\",\n \"4.The plug valve of claim 1, wherein the plug is rotatable relative to the insert to a closed configuration, in which the third and fourth fluid passages of the insert are substantially aligned entirely with respective portions of an exterior surface of the plug so that fluid communication via the fifth fluid passage of the plug between the first and second fluid passages of the valve body is prevented, or at least reduced.\",\n \"5.The plug valve of claim 1, wherein the insert engages a tapered interior surface of the valve body, resulting in a normal contacting force between the insert and an exterior surface of the plug.\",\n \"6.The plug valve of claim 1, wherein the insert comprises first and second sections that abut, or nearly abut, one another along one or more longitudinal planes; and wherein the first and second sections define the respective third and fourth fluid passages of the insert.\",\n \"7.The plug valve of claim 1, wherein the annular groove is formed in the plug, and the annular tongue extends along the insert.\",\n \"8.The plug valve of claim 1, further comprising a biasing member that biases the insert in one of the first and second opposing axial directions to establish and/or maintain the substantial alignment of the third and fourth fluid passages of the insert with the respective first and second fluid passages of the valve body.\",\n \"9.The plug valve of claim 8, further comprising a bonnet connected to the valve body to secure the plug and the insert within the cavity, wherein the biasing member is constrained against the bonnet.\",\n \"10.The plug valve of claim 1, further comprising a threaded cap threadably connected to the valve body to secure the plug and the insert within the cavity, the threaded cap being configured to urge the insert in one of the first and second opposing axial directions to establish the substantial alignment of the third and fourth fluid passages of the insert with the respective first and second fluid passages of the valve body.\",\n \"11.A method, comprising: engaging a valve body and an insert in a manner that permits relative movement between the insert and the valve body in one, or both, of first and second opposing axial directions; substantially aligning first and second fluid passages of the insert with third and fourth fluid passages of the valve body, respectively, the valve body defining a cavity from which the third and fourth fluid passages extend, and the insert extending within the cavity; and preventing, or at least reducing, relative movement between the insert and a plug in both of the first and second opposing axial directions, the plug defining a fifth fluid passage and extending within the cavity of the valve body so that the fifth fluid passage is substantially alignable with the first and second fluid passages of the insert; wherein preventing, or at least reducing, relative movement between the insert and the plug in both of the first and second opposing axial directions comprises interlocking an annular tongue extending along one of the plug and the insert with an annular groove formed in the other of the plug and the insert.\",\n \"12.The method of claim 10, further comprising rotating the plug relative to the insert to an open configuration, in which the fifth fluid passage of the plug is substantially aligned with the first and second fluid passages of the insert so that the third and fourth fluid passages of the valve body are in fluid communication with each other via the first, second, and fifth fluid passages.\",\n \"13.The method of claim 12, wherein, when the plug is in the open configuration, the interlocking of the annular tongue with the annular groove substantially aligns the fifth fluid passage of the plug with the first and second fluid passages of the insert.\",\n \"14.The method of claim 11, further comprising rotating the plug relative to the insert to a closed configuration, in which the first and second fluid passages of the insert are substantially aligned entirely with respective portions of an exterior surface of the plug so that fluid communication via the fifth fluid passage of the plug between the third and fourth fluid passages of the valve body is prevented, or at least reduced.\",\n \"15.The method of claim 11, further comprising engaging the insert with a tapered interior surface of the valve body to produce a normal contacting force between the insert and an exterior surface of the plug.\",\n \"16.The method of claim 11, wherein the insert comprises first and second sections that abut, or nearly abut, one another along one or more longitudinal planes; and wherein the first and second sections define the respective first and second fluid passages of the insert.\",\n \"17.The method of claim 11, wherein the annular groove is formed in the plug, and the annular tongue extends along the insert.\",\n \"18.The method of claim 11, further comprising biasing, using a biasing member, the insert in one of the first and second opposing axial directions to establish and/or maintain the substantial alignment of the first and second fluid passages of the insert with the respective third and fourth fluid passages of the valve body.\",\n \"19.The method of claim 18, further comprising connecting a bonnet to the valve body to secure the plug and the insert within the cavity, wherein the biasing member is constrained against the bonnet.\",\n \"20.The method of claim 11, further comprising threadably connecting a threaded cap to the valve body to secure the plug and the insert within the cavity, wherein the threaded cap is configured to urge the insert in one of the first and second opposing axial directions to establish the substantial alignment of the first and second fluid passages of the insert with the respective third and fourth fluid passages of the valve body.\"\n ],\n [\n \" BACKGROUND In oil or gas operations, such as, for example, the fracturing or gravel packing of a subterranean wellbore, one or more plug valves may be used to control the flow of fracturing and/or gravel-packing fluids.\",\n \"A plug valve generally includes a valve body defining a pair of fluid passages that intersect an internal cavity formed in the valve body.\",\n \"The internal cavity of the valve body accommodates an insert and a plug.\",\n \"The plug extends within and engages the insert, which insert, in turn, extends within and engages the valve body.\",\n \"The plug and the insert include fluid passages that are adapted to be substantially aligned with the respective fluid passages of the valve body.\",\n \"Moreover, the plug is adapted to rotate relative to the insert and the valve body to selectively prevent or allow the flow of a fracturing or gravel-packing fluid through the respective fluid passages of the valve body, the insert, and the plug.\",\n \"The extreme pressures, temperatures, and flow rates encountered by the plug valve during oil or gas operations often cause thermal expansion of the plug valve.\",\n \"Moreover, axial forces such as, for example, hydraulic lift, are imparted to the insert and/or the plug during operation of the plug valve.\",\n \"In some cases, due to the thermal expansion of the plug valve, the plug valve is unable to maintain the substantial alignment between the respective fluid passages of the plug, the insert, and the valve body.\",\n \"As a result, the axial forces imparted to the plug and/or the insert during operation of the plug valve urge the fluid passages of the plug, the insert, and the valve body out of substantial alignment with one another.\",\n \"The resulting misalignment causes wear, erosion, or complete wash-out of the plug, the insert, and/or the valve body.\",\n \"Therefore, what is needed is an apparatus or method to address one or more of the foregoing issues, and/or one or more other issues.\"\n ],\n [\n \" BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG.\",\n \"1A is a perspective view of a plug valve, including a valve body, a bonnet, a tapered insert, a plug, and a biasing member, according to an exemplary embodiment.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"1B is a perspective view of the plug valve of FIG.\",\n \"1A in a disassembled state, according to an exemplary embodiment.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"2A is a perspective view of the valve body of FIGS.\",\n \"1A and 1B , according to an exemplary embodiment.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"2B is a sectional view of the valve body taken along line 2 B- 2 B of FIG.\",\n \"2A , according to an exemplary embodiment.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"2C is another sectional view of the valve body taken along line 2 C- 2 C of FIG.\",\n \"2A , according to an exemplary embodiment.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"3 is a partial sectional view of the bonnet taken along line 3 - 3 of FIG.\",\n \"1B , according to an exemplary embodiment.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"4 is a perspective view of the tapered insert of FIGS.\",\n \"1A and 1B in a disassembled state, according to an exemplary embodiment.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"5 is an elevational view of the plug of FIGS.\",\n \"1A and 1B , according to an exemplary embodiment.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"6 is a sectional view of the biasing member of FIGS.\",\n \"1A and 1B , according to an exemplary embodiment.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"7 is a sectional view of the plug valve taken along line 7 - 7 of FIG.\",\n \"1A , illustrating the valve body of FIGS.\",\n \"2A-2C , the bonnet of FIG.\",\n \"3 , the tapered insert of FIG.\",\n \"4 , the plug of FIG.\",\n \"5 , and the biasing member of FIG.\",\n \"6 , according to an exemplary embodiment.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"8A is a sectional view similar to that of FIG.\",\n \"7 and illustrates the plug valve in an open configuration, according to an exemplary embodiment.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"8B is a sectional view similar to that of FIG.\",\n \"8A , but illustrates the plug valve in a closed configuration, according to an exemplary embodiment.\",\n \"detailed-description description=\\\"Detailed Description\\\" end=\\\"lead\\\"?\"\n ],\n [\n \"CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION This application is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser.\",\n \"No.\",\n \"15/350,304, filed Nov. 14, 2016, which claims priority to, and the benefit of the filing date of, U.S. patent application No.\",\n \"62/256,483, filed Nov. 17, 2015, the entire disclosures of which are hereby incorporated herein by reference.\",\n \"TECHNICAL FIELD The present disclosure relates in general to valves and, in particular, to plug valves used in oil or gas operations.\",\n \"BACKGROUND In oil or gas operations, such as, for example, the fracturing or gravel packing of a subterranean wellbore, one or more plug valves may be used to control the flow of fracturing and/or gravel-packing fluids.\",\n \"A plug valve generally includes a valve body defining a pair of fluid passages that intersect an internal cavity formed in the valve body.\",\n \"The internal cavity of the valve body accommodates an insert and a plug.\",\n \"The plug extends within and engages the insert, which insert, in turn, extends within and engages the valve body.\",\n \"The plug and the insert include fluid passages that are adapted to be substantially aligned with the respective fluid passages of the valve body.\",\n \"Moreover, the plug is adapted to rotate relative to the insert and the valve body to selectively prevent or allow the flow of a fracturing or gravel-packing fluid through the respective fluid passages of the valve body, the insert, and the plug.\",\n \"The extreme pressures, temperatures, and flow rates encountered by the plug valve during oil or gas operations often cause thermal expansion of the plug valve.\",\n \"Moreover, axial forces such as, for example, hydraulic lift, are imparted to the insert and/or the plug during operation of the plug valve.\",\n \"In some cases, due to the thermal expansion of the plug valve, the plug valve is unable to maintain the substantial alignment between the respective fluid passages of the plug, the insert, and the valve body.\",\n \"As a result, the axial forces imparted to the plug and/or the insert during operation of the plug valve urge the fluid passages of the plug, the insert, and the valve body out of substantial alignment with one another.\",\n \"The resulting misalignment causes wear, erosion, or complete wash-out of the plug, the insert, and/or the valve body.\",\n \"Therefore, what is needed is an apparatus or method to address one or more of the foregoing issues, and/or one or more other issues.\",\n \"BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG.\",\n \"1A is a perspective view of a plug valve, including a valve body, a bonnet, a tapered insert, a plug, and a biasing member, according to an exemplary embodiment.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"1B is a perspective view of the plug valve of FIG.\",\n \"1A in a disassembled state, according to an exemplary embodiment.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"2A is a perspective view of the valve body of FIGS.\",\n \"1A and 1B, according to an exemplary embodiment.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"2B is a sectional view of the valve body taken along line 2B-2B of FIG.\",\n \"2A, according to an exemplary embodiment.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"2C is another sectional view of the valve body taken along line 2C-2C of FIG.\",\n \"2A, according to an exemplary embodiment.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"3 is a partial sectional view of the bonnet taken along line 3-3 of FIG.\",\n \"1B, according to an exemplary embodiment.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"4 is a perspective view of the tapered insert of FIGS.\",\n \"1A and 1B in a disassembled state, according to an exemplary embodiment.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"5 is an elevational view of the plug of FIGS.\",\n \"1A and 1B, according to an exemplary embodiment.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"6 is a sectional view of the biasing member of FIGS.\",\n \"1A and 1B, according to an exemplary embodiment.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"7 is a sectional view of the plug valve taken along line 7-7 of FIG.\",\n \"1A, illustrating the valve body of FIGS.\",\n \"2A-2C, the bonnet of FIG.\",\n \"3, the tapered insert of FIG.\",\n \"4, the plug of FIG.\",\n \"5, and the biasing member of FIG.\",\n \"6, according to an exemplary embodiment.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"8A is a sectional view similar to that of FIG.\",\n \"7 and illustrates the plug valve in an open configuration, according to an exemplary embodiment.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"8B is a sectional view similar to that of FIG.\",\n \"8A, but illustrates the plug valve in a closed configuration, according to an exemplary embodiment.\",\n \"DETAILED DESCRIPTION Referring initially to FIGS.\",\n \"1A and 1B, an exemplary embodiment of a plug valve, generally referred to by the reference numeral 10, is illustrated in assembled and disassembled states, respectively.\",\n \"The plug valve 10 includes a valve body 12, a bonnet 14, a tapered insert 16, a plug 18, and a biasing member 20.The plug 18 is adapted to extend within and engage the tapered insert 16, which insert, in turn, is adapted to extend within and engage the valve body 12.The bonnet 14 is adapted to be connected to the valve body 12 via, for example, a plurality of fasteners 22, to secure the tapered insert 16, the plug 18, and the biasing member 20 within the valve body 12.When the bonnet 14 is connected to the valve body 12, the biasing member 20 is adapted to be constrained between the bonnet 14 and the tapered insert 16.As a result, the biasing member 20 urges the tapered insert 16 into engagement with the valve body 12, as will be discussed in further detail below.\",\n \"A metal ring seal 24 is adapted to be crushed between the bonnet 14 and the valve body 12 when the bonnet 14 is connected to the valve body 12.Moreover, a pair of packing elements 26a and 26b are adapted to sealingly engage respective portions of the valve body 12 and the plug 18.Consequently, when the plug valve 10 is assembled, the metal ring seal 24 and the packing elements 26a and 26b prevent, or at least reduce, leakage of a fluid from the interior of the valve body 12 to atmosphere.\",\n \"Additionally, roll pins 28a and 28b are adapted to engage both the tapered insert 16 and the interior of the valve body 12 to prevent, or at least obstruct, turning, shifting, and/or rotation of the tapered insert 16 relative to the valve body 12.Finally, grease fittings 30a and 30b are adapted to be connected to the valve body 12 to permit the pumping of a lubrication fluid into the valve body 12.The lubrication fluid lubricates and seals the interface between the plug 18 and the tapered insert 16.The grease fittings 30a and 30b may include external threads to threadably engage a portion of the valve body 12.Referring to FIGS.\",\n \"2A-2C, an exemplary embodiment of the valve body 12 is illustrated, the valve body 12 defining opposing faces 12a and 12b.\",\n \"The face 12a faces in an axial direction 32.In contrast, the face 12b faces in an axial direction 34, which is substantially opposite the axial direction 32.In several exemplary embodiments, the opposing faces 12a and 12b are spaced in a parallel relation.\",\n \"A generally cylindrical opening 36 is formed in the face 12a of the valve body 12.Further, a generally frusto-conical cavity 38 is formed in the valve body 12, contiguous with the opening 36.The opening 36 and the cavity 38 will be described in further detail below.\",\n \"Additionally, an annular groove 40 is formed in the face 12a of the valve body 12.The annular groove 40 extends concentrically about the opening 36 and is adapted to receive the metal ring seal 24.A plurality of threaded holes 42 are formed in the face 12a of the valve body 12.The threaded holes 42 are distributed concentrically about the annular groove 40 and are adapted to receive respective ones of the fasteners 22 to connect the bonnet 14 to the valve body 12.One or more holes 44a (shown in FIGS.\",\n \"2A and 2B) and 44b (shown in FIG.\",\n \"2C) are formed in the interior of the valve body 12.The holes 44a and 44b are adapted to receive the roll pins 28a and 28b, respectively, to prevent, or at least obstruct, turning, shifting, and/or rotation of the tapered insert 16 relative to the valve body 12.The holes 44a and 44b may retain the roll pins 28a and 28b via a friction fit, a threaded fit, or the like.\",\n \"Additionally, one or more lubrication ports 46a (shown in FIGS.\",\n \"2A and 2C) and 46b (shown in FIG.\",\n \"2B) are formed in the valve body 12 from the exterior thereof and into the cavity 38.The lubrication ports 46a and 46b receive the grease fittings 30a and 30b, respectively, and permit the pumping of a lubrication fluid into the valve body 12.The lubrication fluid lubricates the interface between the plug 18 and the tapered insert 16.Moreover, the lubrication fluid establishes a seal between the plug 18 and the tapered insert 16, as will be discussed in further detail below.\",\n \"The lubrication ports 46a and 46b may include internal threads adapted to be threadably engaged by the external threads of the grease fittings 30a and 30b.\",\n \"Additionally, one or more lubrication lines (not shown) may be placed in fluid communication with the lubrication ports 46a and 46b to provide the lubrication fluid to the interior of the valve body 12 during operation of the plug valve 10.A pair of generally cylindrical protrusions 48a and 48b extend from the exterior of the valve body 12 on opposing sides thereof.\",\n \"In several exemplary embodiments, the protrusions 48a and 48b are co-axial.\",\n \"In several exemplary embodiments, the protrusions 48a and 48b are, include, or are part of, the valve body 12.A pair of fluid-line connectors 50a and 50b are included at the respective distal ends of the protrusions 48a and 48b.\",\n \"In several exemplary embodiments, the fluid-line connector 50a is the female half of a hammer union.\",\n \"Alternatively, the fluid-line connector 50a may be the male half of a hammer union.\",\n \"In several exemplary embodiments, the fluid-line connector 50b is the male half of a hammer union.\",\n \"Alternatively, the fluid-line connector 50b may be the female half of a hammer union.\",\n \"Furthermore, one or both of the fluid-line connectors 50a and 50b may be some other type of connector that is not the male or female half of a hammer union, such as, for example, a hammerless union, a flange, another fluid-line connector, or any combination thereof.\",\n \"As shown in FIGS.\",\n \"2B and 2C, the opening 36 defines an interior surface 52 extending about a longitudinal center axis 54.The cavity 38, which is contiguous with the opening 36, defines a tapered interior surface 56 and an annular interior surface 58, each extending about the longitudinal center axis 54.The tapered interior surface 56 defines opposing end portions 56a and 56b.\",\n \"Moreover, the tapered interior surface 56 is tapered inwardly towards the longitudinal center axis 54, from the end portion 56a to the end portion 56b thereof.\",\n \"The annular interior surface 58 adjoins the end portion 56b of the tapered interior surface 56 and faces in the axial direction 32.The lubrication port 46a extends from the exterior of the valve body 12, through the tapered interior surface 56, and into the cavity 38, as shown in FIG.\",\n \"2C.\",\n \"Similarly, the lubrication port 46b extends from the exterior of the valve body 12, through the tapered interior surface 56, and into the cavity 38, as shown in FIG.\",\n \"2B.\",\n \"In several exemplary embodiments, the lubrication port 46a extends through the valve body 12 and into the cavity 38 at a position above the lubrication port 46b.\",\n \"Moreover, in several exemplary embodiments, the lubrication ports 46a and 46b extend through the valve body 12 and into the cavity 38 on opposing sides of the valve body 12.The interior surface 52 of the opening 36 is located adjacent the end portion 56a of the tapered interior surface 56 of the cavity 38.In several exemplary embodiments, the interior surface 52 has a slightly larger diameter than the end portion 56a of the tapered interior surface 56.Accordingly, a sloping annular lip 60 is formed in the valve body 12 at the border between the interior surfaces 52 and 56.In several exemplary embodiments, the annular lip 60 eases the installation of the tapered insert 16 into the cavity 38.A trio of contiguous bores 62, 64, and 66 are formed in the valve body 12.The bore 62 is formed in the annular interior surface 58 of the valve body 12 and is contiguous with the cavity 38.Moreover, the bore 62 defines an interior surface 68 and an annular shoulder 70, each extending about the longitudinal center axis 54.The interior surface 68 adjoins both the annular shoulder 70 and the annular interior surface 58.The annular shoulder 70 faces in the axial direction 32.In several exemplary embodiments, a sloping annular lip 72 is formed in the valve body 12 at the border between the interior surface 68 and the annular interior surface 58.Further, the bore 64 is contiguous with, and has a smaller diameter than, the bore 62.The bore 64 defines an interior surface 74 and an annular shoulder 76, each extending about the longitudinal center axis 54.The interior surface 74 adjoins both the annular shoulder 76 and the annular shoulder 70 defined by the bore 62.The annular shoulder 76 faces in the axial direction 32.Further still, the bore 66 is contiguous with, and has a smaller diameter than, the bore 64.The bore 66 defines an interior surface 78 that extends about the longitudinal center axis 54.The interior surface 78 adjoins both the face 12b of the valve body 12 and the annular shoulder 76 defined by the bore 64.A fluid passage 80 extends through the protrusion 48a and into the valve body 12, intersecting the cavity 38.Consequently, a fluid may be communicated through the fluid passage 80 to and/or from the cavity 38 by, for example, connecting a fluid line (not shown) to the protrusion 48a via the fluid-line connector 50a.\",\n \"The fluid passage 80 defines a cylindrical surface 82 extending about a longitudinal center axis 84.Moreover, at the junction of the fluid passage 80 and the cavity 38, the interior of the valve body 12 defines an intersection 86.Similarly, a fluid passage 88 extends through the protrusion 48b and into the valve body 12, intersecting the cavity 38.Consequently, a fluid may be communicated through the fluid passage 88 to and/or from the cavity 38 by, for example, connecting a fluid line (not shown) to the protrusion 48b via the fluid-line connector 50b.\",\n \"The fluid passage 88 defines a cylindrical surface 90 extending about the longitudinal center axis 84.Moreover, at the junction of the fluid passage 88 and the cavity 38, the interior of the valve body 12 defines an intersection 92.In several exemplary embodiments, the longitudinal center axis 84 lies in a plane that is substantially perpendicular to a plane in which the longitudinal center axis 54 lies.\",\n \"In several exemplary embodiments, the longitudinal center axis 84 intersects the longitudinal center axis 52.Referring now to FIG.\",\n \"3, an exemplary embodiment of the bonnet 14 is illustrated.\",\n \"The bonnet 14 includes a generally cylindrical flange 94 that extends about a longitudinal center axis 96 and defines opposing faces 94a and 94b.\",\n \"The face 94a faces in an axial direction 98.In contrast, the face 94b faces in an axial direction 100, which is substantially opposite the axial direction 98.The face 94b is adapted to abut, or nearly abut, the face 12a of the valve body 12 when the bonnet 14 is connected to the valve body 12.In several exemplary embodiments, when the bonnet 14 is connected to the valve body 12 so that the end face 94b of the flange 94 abuts, or nearly abuts, the face 12a of the valve body 12, the bonnet 14 is axially immovable relative to the valve body 12.A pair of generally cylindrical protrusions 102 and 104 extend from the face 94b of the flange 94 in the axial direction 100.The protrusion 102 extends from the face 94b and is contiguous with the flange 94.An annular groove 106 is formed in the face 94b of the flange 94, concentrically about the protrusion 102.The annular groove 106 is adapted to receive the metal ring seal 24.Moreover, a plurality of holes (not shown) are formed through the flange 94.The holes (not shown) are distributed concentrically about the annular groove 106 and are adapted to accommodate respective ones of the fasteners 22 to connect the bonnet 14 to the valve body 12.Accordingly, when the bonnet 14 is connected to the valve body 12 via the fasteners 22, the metal ring seal 24 is adapted to be crushed within the respective annular grooves 106 and 40 of the bonnet 14 and the valve body 12.The protrusion 102 defines an exterior surface 108 and an annular shoulder 110, each extending about the longitudinal center axis 96.The exterior surface 108 adjoins both the annular shoulder 110 and the face 94b defined by the flange 94.Moreover, when the bonnet 14 is connected to the valve body 12, the exterior surface 108 is adapted to engage, or nearly engage, at least a portion of the interior surface 52 defined by the opening 36.The annular shoulder 110 faces in the axial direction 100 and is adapted to constrain the biasing member 20, as will be discussed in further detail below.\",\n \"The protrusion 104 is contiguous with, and has a smaller diameter than, the protrusion 102.The protrusion 104 defines an exterior surface 112 and an end face 114, each extending about the longitudinal center axis 96.The exterior surface 112 adjoins both the end face 114 and the annular shoulder 110 defined by the protrusion 102.Moreover, the exterior surface 112 is adapted to extend within at least a portion of the biasing member 20.The end face 114 faces in the axial direction 100 and is adapted to abut, or nearly abut, the tapered insert 16, as will be discussed in further detail below.\",\n \"A trio of contiguous bores 116, 118, and 120 are formed in the bonnet 14.The bore 116 is formed in the end face 114 of the protrusion 104.The bore 116 defines an interior surface 122 and an annular shoulder 124, each extending about the longitudinal center axis 96.The interior surface 122 adjoins both the annular shoulder 124 and the end face 114 of the protrusion 104.The annular shoulder 124 faces in the axial direction 100.In several exemplary embodiments, a sloping annular lip 126 is formed in the bonnet 14 at the border between the interior surface 122 and the end face 114.Further, the bore 118 is contiguous with, and has a smaller diameter than, the bore 116.The bore 118 defines an interior surface 128 and an annular shoulder 130, each extending about the longitudinal center axis 96.The interior surface 128 adjoins both the annular shoulder 130 and the annular shoulder 124 defined by the bore 116.The annular shoulder 130 faces in the axial direction 100.Further still, the bore 120 is contiguous with, and has a smaller diameter than, the bore 118.The bore 120 defines an interior surface 132 that extends about the longitudinal center axis 96.The interior surface 132 adjoins both the end face 94a defined by the flange 94 and the annular shoulder 130 defined by the bore 118.Referring to FIG.\",\n \"4, an exemplary embodiment of the tapered insert 16 is illustrated.\",\n \"The tapered insert 16 is split longitudinally so as to include opposing sections 134 and 136.The opposing sections 134 and 136 are adapted to abut, or nearly abut, one another along a longitudinal plane.\",\n \"Moreover, the tapered insert 16 defines opposing end portions 16a and 16b.\",\n \"The tapered insert 16 includes an exterior surface 138 that is tapered inwardly from the end portion 16a to the end portion 16b thereof.\",\n \"The exterior surface 138 is adapted to conform to the tapered interior surface 56 defined by the cavity 38 of the valve body 12.In contrast, the tapered insert 16 includes an interior surface 140 that outlines a generally cylindrical profile when the sections 134 and 136 of the tapered insert 16 abut, or nearly abut, one another.\",\n \"A pair of fluid passages 142a and 142b are formed through the sections 134 and 136, respectively, of the tapered insert 16.The fluid passages 142a and 142b are substantially co-axial with one another when the sections 134 and 136 of the tapered insert 16 abut, or nearly abut, one another.\",\n \"Moreover, in several exemplary embodiments, the fluid passages 142a and 142b define a common axis that intersects the longitudinal plane, along which the sections 134 and 136 abut one another, at an oblique angle.\",\n \"The fluid passage 142a defines a cylindrical surface 144a in the section 134 of the tapered insert 16.When the section 134 of the tapered insert 16 conforms to the tapered interior surface 56 of the cavity 38, the cylindrical surface 144a is substantially aligned with the cylindrical surface 82 formed in the valve body 12.As a result, the fluid passage 80 is in fluid communication with the fluid passage 142a.\",\n \"Moreover, a groove 146a is formed in the exterior surface 138 of the section 134.The groove 146a extends concentrically about the fluid passage 142a and is adapted to accommodate an annular seal (not shown), which seal, in turn, sealingly engages the valve body 12 about the intersection 86.Similarly, the fluid passage 142b defines a cylindrical surface 144b in the section 136 of the tapered insert 16.When the section 136 of the tapered insert 16 conforms to the tapered interior surface 56 of the cavity 38, the cylindrical surface 144b is substantially aligned with the cylindrical surface 90 formed in the valve body 12.As a result, the fluid passage 88 is in fluid communication with the fluid passage 142b.\",\n \"Moreover, a groove 146b (not visible in FIG.\",\n \"4) is formed in the exterior surface 138 of the section 136.The groove 146b extends concentrically about the fluid passage 142b and is adapted to accommodate an annular seal (not shown), which seal, in turn, sealingly engages the valve body 12 about the intersection 92.An annular tongue 148 extends along the tapered insert 16 at the end portion 16a thereof, extending inwardly beyond the interior surface 140.The annular tongue 148 defines an annular shoulder 150 adjoining the interior surface 140 and facing in an axial direction 152.Further, an end face 154 is defined at the end portion 16a of the tapered insert 16.In several exemplary embodiments, the end face 154 is at least partially defined by the annular tongue 148.The end face 154 faces in an axial direction 156, which is substantially opposite the axial direction 152.The end face 154 is adapted to constrain the biasing member 20, as will be discussed in further detail below.\",\n \"Moreover, an annular rim 158 is formed by the extension of the exterior surface 138 beyond the end face 154.The annular rim 158 engages, or nearly engages, the biasing member 20 when the plug valve 10 is assembled.\",\n \"Further, one or more notches 160 extend radially through the annular tongue 148, the annular rim 158, and the exterior surface 138 at the end portion 16a of the tapered insert 16.In several exemplary embodiments, each of the sections 134 and 136 of the tapered insert 16 includes one or more of the notches 160.In several exemplary embodiments, the notches 160 are evenly distributed about the insert 16.Further still, one or more longitudinal grooves 162 are formed into the tapered insert 16.Each of the longitudinal grooves 162 extends longitudinally along at least a portion of the exterior surface 138 of the tapered insert 16 and through the annular rim 158.In several exemplary embodiments, each of the sections 134 and 136 of the tapered insert 16 includes one of the longitudinal grooves 162.In several exemplary embodiments, the longitudinal grooves 162 are located on substantially opposite sides of the tapered insert 16 when the sections 134 and 136 abut, or nearly abut, one another.\",\n \"The longitudinal grooves 162 are adapted to receive respective ones of the roll pins 28a and 28b to prevent, or at least obstruct, turning, shifting, and/or rotation of the tapered insert 16 relative to the valve body 12.Finally, an end face 164 is defined at the end portion 16b of the tapered insert 16.The end face 164 faces in the axial direction 152 and is adapted to abut, or nearly abut, at least a portion of the annular interior surface 58 defined by the cavity 38.Referring now to FIG.\",\n \"5, an exemplary embodiment of the plug 18 is illustrated.\",\n \"The plug 18 includes a valve cylinder 166 that defines opposing end faces 166a and 166b adjoining a generally cylindrical exterior surface 166c.\",\n \"The end face 166a faces in an axial direction 168.Moreover, the end face 114 of the bonnet 14 is adapted to abut, or nearly abut, the end face 166a.\",\n \"In contrast, the end face 166b faces in an axial direction 170, which is substantially opposite the axial direction 168.The end face 166b is adapted to abut, or nearly abut, at least a portion of the annular interior surface 58 defined by the cavity 38.Further, the exterior surface 166c extends about a longitudinal center axis 172 and defines opposing end portions 166ca and 166cb.\",\n \"When the respective sections 134 and 136 of the tapered insert 16 abut, or nearly abut, one another, the interior surface 140 of the tapered insert 16 is adapted to conform to the exterior surface 166c of the valve cylinder 166.An annular groove 174 is formed in the exterior surface 166c of the valve cylinder 166 at the end portion 166ca thereof.\",\n \"Alternatively, the annular groove 174 may be formed at the end portion 166cb of the valve cylinder 166.The annular groove 174 is adapted to receive the annular tongue 148 of the tapered insert 16 when the interior surface 140 of the tapered insert 16 conforms to the exterior surface 166c of the valve cylinder 166.Accordingly, when the plug 18 is subjected to external forces that tend to move it axially, such as, for example, hydraulic lift, the tapered insert 16 remains in a fixed position relative to the plug 18.Moreover, when the tapered insert 16 is subject to external forces that tend to move it axially, such as, for example, an axial force imparted by the biasing member 20, the plug 18 remains in a fixed position relative to the tapered insert 16.In several exemplary embodiments, instead of the annular groove 174 being formed in the valve cylinder 166 and the annular tongue 148 extending along the tapered insert 16, the annular groove 174 is formed in the tapered insert 16 and the annular tongue extends along the valve cylinder 166.A fluid passage 176 extends through the valve cylinder 166.The fluid passage 176 defines a cylindrical surface 178 extending about a longitudinal center axis 180.When the interior surface 140 of the tapered insert 16 conforms to the exterior surface 166c of the valve cylinder 166, the cylindrical surface 178 of the plug 18 is substantially aligned with the cylindrical surfaces 144a and 144b of the tapered insert 16 and the cylindrical surfaces 82 and 90 of the valve body 12.As a result, the fluid passage 176 of the plug 18 is in fluid communication with the fluid passages 80 and 88 of the valve body 12 via the fluid passages 142a and 142b, respectively, of the tapered insert 16.In several exemplary embodiments, the longitudinal center axis 180 lies in a plane that is substantially perpendicular to a plane in which the longitudinal center axis 172 lies.\",\n \"In several exemplary embodiments, the longitudinal center axis 180 intersects the longitudinal center axis 172.In an exemplary embodiment, the plug 18 includes a pair of generally cylindrical protrusions 182 and 184 extending from the end face 166a of the valve cylinder 166 in the axial direction 168.The protrusion 182 extends from the end face 166a and is contiguous with the valve cylinder 166.The protrusion 182 defines an exterior surface 186 and an annular shoulder 188, each extending about the longitudinal center axis 172.The exterior surface 186 adjoins both the annular shoulder 188 and the end face 166a defined by the valve cylinder 166.Moreover, the exterior surface 186 is adapted to engage, or nearly engage, the interior surface 122 of the bonnet 14.The annular shoulder 188 faces in the axial direction 168.At least a portion of the annular shoulder 188 is adapted to abut, or nearly abut, the annular shoulder 124 of the bonnet 14.In several exemplary embodiments, a sloping annular lip 189 is formed in the plug 18 at the border between the exterior surface 186 and the annular shoulder 188.The annular lip 189 is adapted to engage the annular lip 126 of the bonnet 14 to ease the installation of the protrusion 182 into the bore 116 of the bonnet 14.The protrusion 184 is contiguous with, and has a smaller diameter than, the protrusion 182.The protrusion 184 defines an exterior surface 190 and an end face 192, each extending about the longitudinal center axis 172.The exterior surface 190 adjoins both the end face 192 and the annular shoulder 188 defined by the protrusion 182.Moreover, at least a portion of the exterior surface 190 is adapted to engage, or nearly engage, the interior surface 132 of the bonnet 14.The end face 192 faces in the axial direction 168.The packing element 26a is adapted to be constrained between the annular shoulder 130 of the bonnet 14 and at least a portion of the annular shoulder 188 of the protrusion 182.Constrained as such, the packing element 26a sealingly engages both the interior surface 128 of the bonnet 14 and at least a portion of the exterior surface 190 of the protrusion 184 to prevent, or at least reduce, leakage of a fluid from the interior of the valve body 12 to atmosphere.\",\n \"Similarly, in an exemplary embodiment, the plug 18 includes a pair of generally cylindrical protrusions 194 and 196 extending from the end face 166b of the valve cylinder 166 in the axial direction 170.The protrusion 194 extends from the end face 166b and is contiguous with the valve cylinder 166.The protrusion 194 defines an exterior surface 198 and an annular shoulder 200, each extending about the longitudinal center axis 172.The exterior surface 198 adjoins both the annular shoulder 200 and the end face 166b defined by the valve cylinder 166.Moreover, the exterior surface 198 is adapted to engage, or nearly engage, the interior surface 68 of the valve body 12.The annular shoulder 200 faces in the axial direction 170.At least a portion of the annular shoulder 200 is adapted to abut, or nearly abut, the annular shoulder 70 of the valve body 12.In several exemplary embodiments, a sloping annular lip 201 is formed in the plug 18 at the border between the exterior surface 198 and the annular shoulder 200.The annular lip 201 is adapted to engage the annular lip 72 of the valve body 12 to ease the installation of the protrusion 194 into the bore 62 of the valve body 12.The protrusion 196 is contiguous with, and has a smaller diameter than, the protrusion 194.The protrusion 196 defines an exterior surface 202 and an end face 204, each extending about the longitudinal center axis 172.The exterior surface 202 adjoins both the end face 204 and the annular shoulder 200 defined by the protrusion 194.Moreover, at least a portion of the exterior surface 202 is adapted to engage, or nearly engage, the interior surface 78 of the valve body 12.The end face 204 faces in the axial direction 170.The packing element 26b is adapted to be constrained between the annular shoulder 76 of the valve body 12 and at least a portion of the annular shoulder 200 of the protrusion 194.Constrained as such, the packing element 26b sealingly engages both the interior surface 74 of the valve body 12 and at least a portion of the exterior surface 202 of the protrusion 196 to prevent, or at least reduce, leakage of a fluid from the interior of the valve body 12 to atmosphere.\",\n \"In several exemplary embodiments, a socket 206 (visible in FIG.\",\n \"7) is formed in the end face 204 of the plug 18.The socket 206 is adapted to receive a tool (not shown) such as, for example, a handle or a wheel, to rotate the plug 18, as will be discussed in further detail below.\",\n \"Referring to FIG.\",\n \"6, an exemplary embodiment of the biasing member 20 is illustrated.\",\n \"The biasing member 20 includes a trio of frusto-conical spring washers 208 (a.k.a.\",\n \"Belleville washers).\",\n \"The spring washers 208 are adapted to be constrained between the annular shoulder 110 of the bonnet 14 and the end face 154 of the tapered insert 16.Accordingly, when the plug valve 10 is assembled, the spring washers 208 are adapted to urge the tapered insert 16 into engagement, or near engagement, with the valve body 12.Specifically, the spring washers 208 urge the end face 164 and the exterior surface 138 of the tapered insert 16 into engagement, or near engagement, with the annular interior surface 58 and the tapered interior surface 56, respectively, of the valve body 12.Although the biasing member 20 has been described as a trio of frusto-conical spring washers 208, the biasing member 20 may include any suitable number of the spring washers 208 such as, for example, one spring washer, two spring washers, four spring washers, five spring washers, six spring washers, seven spring washers, eight spring washers, nine spring washers, ten spring washers, or more.\",\n \"Moreover, in several exemplary embodiments, the biasing member 20 is or includes one or more components that are not the spring washers 208, such as, for example, a wave spring, a helical spring, a compressed elastic material, another type of biasing member, or any combination thereof.\",\n \"Referring now to FIG.\",\n \"7, the plug valve 10 is illustrated in an assembled state, including the valve body 12, the bonnet 14, the tapered insert 16, the plug 18, and the biasing member 20.In the assembled state, the plug 18 extends within and engages the tapered insert 16, which insert, in turn, extends within and engages the valve body 12.As a result, the exterior surface 138 of the tapered insert 16 conforms to the tapered interior surface 56 of the valve body 12.The annular groove 146a in the section 134 of the tapered insert 16 accommodates a seal (not shown) that sealingly engages the valve body 12 concentrically about the intersection 86.Similarly, the annular groove 146b in the section 136 of the tapered insert 16 accommodates a seal (not shown) that sealingly engages the valve body 12 concentrically about the intersection 92.Additionally, the roll pins 28a and 28b engage both the tapered insert 16 and the interior of the valve body 12 to prevent, or at least obstruct, turning, shifting, and/or rotation of the tapered insert 16 relative to the valve body 12.Specifically, the longitudinal grooves 162 in the tapered insert 16 and the holes 44a and 44b in the valve body 12 receive respective ones of the roll pins 28a and 28b.\",\n \"Further, the opposing sections 134 and 136 of the tapered insert 16 envelop the plug 18 so that the interior surface 140 of the tapered insert 16 conforms to the exterior surface 166c of the plug 18.In this position, the opposing section 134 and 136 abut, or nearly abut, one another, and the annular tongue 148 of the tapered insert 16 interlocks with the annular groove 174 of the plug 18.The interlocking of the annular tongue 148 with the annular groove 174 maintains the tapered insert 16 and the plug 18 in substantially fixed positions relative to one another.\",\n \"As a result, the tapered insert 16 and the plug 18 stay together when the tapered insert 16 and/or the plug 18 are subject to external forces that tend to move them axially, such as, for example, an axial force imparted to the tapered insert 16 by the biasing member 20, hydraulic lift imparted to the plug 18, or some other axial force.\",\n \"Although the interlocking of the annular tongue 148 with the annular groove 174 prevents, or at least obstructs, relative axial movement of the tapered insert 16 and the plug 18, the plug 18 is still permitted to rotate relative to the tapered insert 16, as will be discussed in further detail below.\",\n \"Further still, the bonnet 14 is connected to the valve body 12 with the fasteners 22, thus securing the tapered insert 16, the plug 18, and the biasing member 20 within the valve body 12.As a result, the face 94b of the bonnet 14 abuts, or nearly abuts, the face 12a of the valve body 12.Moreover, the exterior surface 108 of the bonnet 14 engages, or nearly engages, at least a portion of the interior surface 52 of the valve body 12.In this position, the metal ring seal 24 is crushed within the respective annular grooves 106 and 40 of the bonnet 14 and the valve body 12.The crushed metal ring seal 24 prevents, or at least reduces, leakage of a fluid from the interior of the plug valve 10 to atmosphere.\",\n \"The end face 114 of the bonnet 14 abuts, or nearly abuts, the end face 166a of the plug 18.Additionally, the annular shoulder 124 and the interior surfaces 122 and 132 of the bonnet 14 engage, or nearly engage, the annular shoulder 188 the exterior surfaces 186 and 190, respectively, of the plug 18.The packing element 26a is thus constrained between the annular shoulder 130 of the bonnet 14 and at least a portion of the annular shoulder 188 of the plug 18.In this position, the packing element 26a sealingly engages both the interior surface 128 of the bonnet 14 and at least a portion of the exterior surface 190 of the plug 18 to prevent, or at least reduce, leakage of a fluid from the interior of the plug valve 10 to atmosphere.\",\n \"The end face 166b of the plug 18 abuts, or nearly abuts, the annular interior surface 58 of the valve body 12.Additionally, the annular shoulder 200 and the exterior surfaces 198 and 202 of the plug 18 engage, or nearly engage, the annular shoulder 70 and the interior surfaces 68 and 78, respectively, of the valve body 12.The packing element 26b is thus constrained between the annular shoulder 76 of the valve body 12 and at least a portion of the annular shoulder 200 of the plug 18.In this position, the packing element 26b sealingly engages both the interior surface 74 of the valve body 76 and at least a portion of the exterior surface 202 of the plug 18 to prevent, or at least reduce, leakage of a fluid from the interior of the valve body 12 to atmosphere.\",\n \"In several exemplary embodiments, the protrusion 196 of the plug 18 extends through the bore 66 of the valve body 12 so that the end face 204 of the plug 18 protrudes beyond the face 12b of the valve body 12.In several exemplary embodiments, the end face 204 of the plug 18 is flush with the face 12b of the valve body 12.In several exemplary embodiments, the end face 204 of the plug 18 is disposed within the bore 66 of the valve body 12.In any event, the end face 204 of the plug 18 is accessible from the exterior of the valve body 12.Finally, the biasing member 20 is constrained between the annular shoulder 110 of the bonnet 14 and the end face 154 of the tapered insert 16.As a result, the annular rim 158 of the tapered insert 16 engages, or nearly engages, the biasing member 20.In this position, the biasing member 20 urges the tapered insert 16 into engagement, or near engagement, with the valve body 12.Specifically, the biasing member 20 urges the end face 164 and the exterior surface 138 of the tapered insert 16 to abut, or nearly abut, the annular interior surface 58 and the tapered interior surface 56, respectively, of the valve body 12.As a result of the tapering of the tapered interior surface 56 and the exterior surface 138, the force imparted on the tapered insert 16 by the biasing member 20 resolves into a normal contacting force between the plug 18 and the opposing sections 134 and 136 of the tapered insert 16.In operation, an exemplary embodiment of which is illustrated in FIGS.\",\n \"8A and 8B, with continuing reference to FIG.\",\n \"7, the plug valve 10 is actuable between an open configuration and a closed configuration to control the flow of a fluid 210.The plug valve 10 is actuated by engaging a tool (not shown) such as, for example, a handle or a wheel, in the socket 206 (visible in FIG.\",\n \"7) to rotate the plug 18 relative to the valve body 12, the bonnet 14, and the tapered insert 16.The rotation of the plug 18 causes the annular groove 174 of the plug 18 to slidably engage the annular tongue 148 of the tapered insert 16, thus actuating the plug valve 10 between the open configuration and the closed configuration.\",\n \"In the open configuration, as shown in FIG.\",\n \"8A, the fluid passage 176 of the plug 18 is in fluid communication with the fluid passages 80 and 88 of the valve body 12 via the fluid passages 142a and 142b, respectively, of the tapered insert 16.As a result, the fluid 210 is communicated from the fluid passage 80 to the fluid passage 88, as shown in FIG.\",\n \"8A.\",\n \"Ideally, to prevent turbulence in the flow of the fluid 210 and resultant wear to the components of the plug valve 10, the cylindrical surface 178 of the plug 18 is substantially aligned with the cylindrical surfaces 82 and 90 of the valve body 12 and the cylindrical surfaces 144a and 144b of the tapered insert 16.However, axial forces such as, for example, hydraulic lift caused by the flow of the fluid 210, may be imparted to the tapered insert 16 and/or the plug 18 in an axial direction 212.Such axial forces tend to cause misalignment between the cylindrical surfaces 144a and 144b of the tapered insert 16 and the cylindrical surfaces 82 and 90, respectively, of the valve body 12.At the same time, the interlocking of the annular tongue 148 with the annular groove 174 prevents, or at least reduces, misalignment between the cylindrical surface 178 of the plug 18 and the cylindrical surfaces 144a and 144b of the tapered insert 16.The biasing member 20 counteracts the axial forces imparted to the tapered insert 16 and/or the plug 18 in the axial direction 212 by urging the tapered insert 16 in an axial direction 214, which is substantially opposite the axial direction 212.In this manner, the biasing member 20 maintains the substantial alignment between the cylindrical surfaces 144a and 144b of the tapered insert 16 and the cylindrical surfaces 82 and 90 of the valve body 12.At the same time, the interlocking of the annular tongue 148 with the annular groove 174 maintains the substantial alignment between the cylindrical surface 178 of the plug 18 and the cylindrical surfaces 144a and 144b of the tapered insert 16.The force imparted to the tapered insert 16 by the biasing member 20 resolves into a normal contacting force between the plug 18 and the opposing sections 134 and 136 of the tapered insert 16.The lubrication ports 46a and 46b receive the grease fittings 30a and 30b, respectively, to permit the pumping of a lubrication fluid into the valve body 12.In several exemplary embodiments, a lubrication fluid is pumped into the plug valve 10 via at least one of the grease fittings 30a and 30b and a corresponding one of the lubrication ports 46a and 46b to lubricate and seal the interface between the plug 18 and the tapered insert 16.The lubrication fluid migrates into an annular space defined between the tapered insert 16 and the plug 18.As a result, the normal contacting force between the plug 18 and the opposing sections 134 and 136 of the tapered insert 16 causes the lubrication fluid to form a seal, thus preventing, or at least reducing, leakage of the fluid 210 into the annular space between the tapered insert 16 and the plug 18.Moreover, as the fluid 210 is communicated between the fluid passages 80 and 88 of the valve body 12, the seals (not shown) in the annular grooves 146a and 146b prevent, or at least obstruct, leakage of the fluid 210 into an annular space defined between the valve body 12 and the tapered insert 16.In the closed configuration, as shown in FIG.\",\n \"8B, the plug 18 is rotated to prevent, or at least obstruct, communication of the fluid 210 between the fluid passages 80 and 88 of the valve body 12.Specifically, when the plug 18 is rotated roughly 90 degrees from the open configuration (shown in FIG.\",\n \"8A), the fluid passage 176 of the plug 18 is no longer substantially aligned with the fluid passages 142a and 142b of the tapered insert 16 or the fluid passages 80 and 88 of the valve body 12.Instead, the exterior surface 166c of the plug 18 is substantially aligned with the fluid passages 142a and 142b of the tapered insert 16 and the fluid passages 80 and 88 of the valve body 12.As discussed above, the lubrication fluid pumped into the plug valve 10 migrates into an annular space defined between the tapered insert 16 and the plug 18.As a result, the normal contacting force between the plug 18 and the opposing sections 134 and 136 of the tapered insert 16 causes the lubrication fluid to form a seal, thus preventing, or at least reducing, leakage of the fluid 210 into the annular space between the tapered insert 16 and the plug 18.Moreover, the seals (not shown) in the annular grooves 146a and 146b prevent, or at least obstruct, leakage of the fluid 210 into an annular space defined between the valve body 12 and the tapered insert 16.As a result, the plug 18 prevents, or at least obstructs, communication of the fluid 210 between the fluid passages 80 and 88 of the valve body 12.In several exemplary embodiments, even with the extreme pressures, temperatures, and flow rates encountered by the plug valve 10 during operation, the biasing member 20 maintains the substantial alignment between the cylindrical surfaces 144a and 144b of the tapered insert 16 and the cylindrical surfaces 82 and 90 of the valve body 12.In several exemplary embodiments, despite the thermal expansion or contraction of the various components of the plug valve 10 during operation, the biasing member 20 maintains the substantial alignment between the cylindrical surfaces 144a and 144b of the tapered insert 16 and the cylindrical surfaces 82 and 90 of the valve body 12.In several exemplary embodiments, regardless of the axial forces imparted to the tapered insert 12 and/or the plug 18 during operation of the plug valve 10, the biasing member 20 maintains the substantial alignment between the cylindrical surfaces 144a and 144b of the tapered insert 16 and the cylindrical surfaces 82 and 90 of the valve body 12.In several exemplary embodiments, even with the extreme pressures, temperatures, and flow rates encountered by the plug valve 10 during operation, the interlocking of the annular tongue 148 with the annular groove 174 maintains the substantial alignment between the cylindrical surface 178 of the plug 18 and the cylindrical surfaces 144a and 144b of the tapered insert 16.In several exemplary embodiments, despite the thermal expansion or contraction of the various components of the plug valve 10 during operation, the interlocking of the annular tongue 148 with the annular groove 174 maintains the substantial alignment between the cylindrical surface 178 of the plug 18 and the cylindrical surfaces 144a and 144b of the tapered insert 16.In several exemplary embodiments, regardless of the axial forces imparted to the tapered insert 12 and/or the plug 18 during operation of the plug valve 10, the interlocking of the annular tongue 148 with the annular groove 174 maintains the substantial alignment between the cylindrical surface 178 of the plug 18 and the cylindrical surfaces 144a and 144b of the tapered insert 16.In several exemplary embodiments, even with the extreme pressures, temperatures, and flow rates encountered by the plug valve 10 during operation, the crushing of the metal ring seal 24 within the respective annular grooves 40 and 106 of the valve body 12 and the bonnet 14 prevents, or at least reduces, leakage of a fluid from the interior of the plug valve 10 to atmosphere.\",\n \"In several exemplary embodiments, despite the thermal expansion or contraction of the various components of the plug valve 10 during operation, the crushing of the metal ring seal 24 within the respective annular grooves 40 and 106 of the valve body 12 and the bonnet 14 prevents, or at least reduces, leakage of a fluid from the interior of the plug valve 10 to atmosphere.\",\n \"In several exemplary embodiments, regardless of the axial forces imparted to the tapered insert 12 and/or the plug 18 during operation of the plug valve 10, the crushing of the metal ring seal 24 within the respective annular grooves 40 and 106 of the valve body 12 and the bonnet 14 prevents, or at least reduces, leakage of a fluid from the interior of the plug valve 10 to atmosphere.\",\n \"In several exemplary embodiments, the wear, erosion, and/or complete wash-out of the plug valve 10, including the valve body 12, the bonnet 14, the insert 16, and/or the plug 18, is prevented, or at least reduced, as a result of the biasing member 20 maintaining the substantial alignment between the cylindrical surfaces 144a and 144b of the tapered insert 16 and the cylindrical surfaces 82 and 90 of the valve body 12.In several exemplary embodiments, the wear, erosion, and/or complete wash-out of the plug valve 10, including the valve body 12, the bonnet 14, the insert 16, and/or the plug 18, is prevented, or at least reduced, as a result of the annular tongue 148 interlocking with the annular groove 174 to maintain the substantial alignment between the cylindrical surface 178 of the plug 18 and the cylindrical surfaces 144a and 144b of the tapered insert 16.In several exemplary embodiments, the fasteners 22 are omitted in favor of threads on the exterior of the bonnet 14, the threads being adapted to threadably engage the valve body 12 to secure the tapered insert 16 and the plug 18 within the cavity 38.In several exemplary embodiments, the biasing member 20 is omitted and the bonnet 14 directly engages the tapered insert 16.Accordingly, the bonnet 14 may take the form of a threaded cap in some embodiments.\",\n \"In several exemplary embodiments, rather than being split into the opposing sections 134 and 136, the tapered insert 16 is split into more than two sections, such as, for example, three sections, four sections, five sections, or more.\",\n \"In several exemplary embodiments, rather than extending along the common longitudinal center axis 84, the fluid passages 80 and 88 extend along separate axes.\",\n \"Further, in several exemplary embodiments, rather than defining a common axis, the fluid passages 142a and 142b of the tapered insert 16 define separate axes so that the fluid passages 142a and 142b of the tapered insert 16 remain substantially aligned with the fluid passages 80 and 88 of the valve body 12.Further still, in several exemplary embodiments, rather than extending along the longitudinal center axis 180, the fluid passage 176 of the plug 18 is divided into separate sections each extending along separate axes so that the fluid passage remains substantially aligned with the fluid passages 142a and 142b when the plug valve 10 is in the open configuration.\",\n \"The present disclosure introduces a plug valve, including a valve body defining a cavity and a pair of fluid passages intersecting the cavity, the cavity defining a tapered interior surface of the valve body; a plug extending within the cavity of the valve body, the plug defining an exterior surface and a fluid passage adapted to be substantially aligned with the fluid passages of the valve body; an insert extending within the cavity and circumferentially about at least a portion of the plug, the insert defining a pair of fluid passages substantially aligned with each of the fluid passages of the valve body, respectively; a bonnet connected to the valve body to secure the plug and the insert within the cavity; and a biasing member constrained between the bonnet and the insert.\",\n \"In an exemplary embodiment, the bonnet includes a flange connected to the valve body and axially immovable relative thereto, and a first protrusion extending from the flange, the first protrusion defining an annular shoulder; and the biasing member is constrained axially between the insert and the annular shoulder of the first protrusion.\",\n \"In an exemplary embodiment, the bonnet includes a second protrusion about which the biasing member extends, the second protrusion extending from the first protrusion and defining an end face; the plug includes a valve cylinder through which the fluid passage of the plug is formed, the valve cylinder defining an end face; and the end face of the second protrusion abuts, or nearly abuts, the end face of the valve cylinder.\",\n \"In an exemplary embodiment, the biasing member includes one or more frusto-conical spring washers, at least one of which extends about the second protrusion.\",\n \"In an exemplary embodiment, first and second annular grooves are formed in the valve body and the flange, respectively; the plug valve further includes a metal ring seal extending within the first and second annular grooves; and the metal ring seal is crushed between the flange and the valve body to prevent, or at least reduce, the leakage of a fluid from the interior of the valve body to atmosphere.\",\n \"In an exemplary embodiment, the plug is adapted to rotate, relative to the insert, to an open configuration in which the fluid passage of the plug is substantially aligned with the fluid passages of the insert so that the fluid passages of the valve body are in fluid communication with one another via the fluid passages of the insert and the fluid passage of the plug.\",\n \"In an exemplary embodiment, an annular tongue extends along one of the insert and the plug and an annular groove is formed in the other of the insert and the plug; and the annular tongue and the annular groove interlock with one another so that, when the plug is in the open configuration, the fluid passage of the plug is substantially aligned with each of the fluid passages of the insert.\",\n \"In an exemplary embodiment, the biasing member urges the insert to engage the tapered interior surface of the valve body, resulting in a normal contacting force between the insert and the exterior surface of the plug.\",\n \"In an exemplary embodiment, the biasing member maintains the substantial alignment between the fluid passages of the insert and the fluid passages of the valve body, respectively, by urging the insert to engage the tapered interior surface of the valve body.\",\n \"In an exemplary embodiment, the plug is adapted to rotate, relative to the insert, to a closed configuration in which the fluid passages of the insert are substantially aligned entirely with respective portions of the exterior surface of the plug so that fluid communication between the respective fluid passages of the valve body is blocked by the exterior surface of the plug.\",\n \"In an exemplary embodiment, a pair of annular grooves are formed in respective faces of the bonnet and the valve body, the respective faces of the bonnet and the valve body engaging one another so that the respective annular grooves are substantially aligned; the plug valve further includes a metal ring seal extending within the respective annular grooves of the bonnet and the valve body; and the metal ring seal is crushed between the bonnet and the valve body to prevent, or at least reduce, the leakage of a fluid from the interior of the valve body to atmosphere.\",\n \"In an exemplary embodiment, the insert includes a pair of sections adapted to abut, or nearly abut, one another along a longitudinal plane; and each of the sections includes a respective one of the fluid passages of the insert.\",\n \"The present disclosure also introduces a plug valve, including a valve body defining a cavity and a pair of fluid passages intersecting the cavity, the cavity defining a tapered interior surface of the valve body; a plug extending within the cavity of the valve body, the plug defining an exterior surface and a fluid passage adapted to be substantially aligned with each of the fluid passages of the valve body; an insert extending within the cavity and circumferentially about at least a portion of the plug, the insert defining a pair of fluid passages substantially aligned with the fluid passages of the valve body, respectively; an annular groove formed in one of the plug and the insert; and an annular tongue extending along the other of the plug and the insert, the annular tongue being adapted to interlock with the annular groove.\",\n \"In an exemplary embodiment, the plug is adapted to rotate, relative to the insert, to an open configuration in which the fluid passage of the plug is substantially aligned with the fluid passages of the insert so that the fluid passages of the valve body are in fluid communication with one another via the fluid passages of the insert and the fluid passage of the plug.\",\n \"In an exemplary embodiment, when the plug is in the open configuration, the interlocking of the annular tongue with the annular groove aligns the fluid passage of the plug with the fluid passages of the insert.\",\n \"In an exemplary embodiment, the plug is adapted to rotate, relative to the insert, to a closed configuration in which the fluid passages of the insert are substantially aligned entirely with respective portions of the exterior surface of the plug so that fluid communication between the respective fluid passages of the valve body is blocked by the exterior surface of the plug.\",\n \"In an exemplary embodiment, the insert engages the tapered interior surface of the valve body, resulting in a normal contacting force between the insert and the exterior surface of the plug.\",\n \"In an exemplary embodiment, the insert includes a pair of sections adapted to abut, or nearly abut, one another along a longitudinal plane; and each of the sections includes a respective one of the fluid passages of the insert.\",\n \"The present disclosure also introduces a plug valve, including a valve body defining a face, a cavity formed in the face, and a pair of fluid passages intersecting the cavity, the cavity defining a tapered interior surface of the valve body; a plug extending within the cavity of the valve body, the plug defining an exterior surface and a fluid passage adapted to be substantially aligned with each of the fluid passages of the valve body; an insert extending within the cavity and circumferentially about at least a portion of the plug, the insert defining a pair of fluid passages substantially aligned with the fluid passages of the valve body, respectively; and a bonnet connected to the valve body to secure the plug and the insert within the cavity, the bonnet defining a face that engages the face of the valve body; wherein a pair of annular grooves are formed in the respective faces of the bonnet and the valve body, the respective annular grooves being substantially aligned with one another.\",\n \"In an exemplary embodiment, the plug valve further includes a metal ring seal extending within the respective annular grooves of the bonnet and the valve body; and the metal ring seal is crushed between the bonnet and the valve body to prevent, or at least reduce, leakage of a fluid from the interior of the valve body to atmosphere.\",\n \"In an exemplary embodiment, the plug is adapted to rotate, relative to the insert, to an open configuration in which the fluid passage of the plug is substantially aligned with the fluid passages of the insert so that the fluid passages of the valve body are in fluid communication with one another via the fluid passages of the insert and the fluid passage of the plug.\",\n \"In an exemplary embodiment, an annular tongue extends along one of the insert and the plug and an annular groove is formed in the other of the insert and the plug; and the annular tongue and the annular groove interlock with one another so that, when the plug is in the open configuration, the fluid passage of the plug is substantially aligned with the fluid passages of the insert.\",\n \"In an exemplary embodiment, the plug is adapted to rotate relative to the insert to a closed configuration, in which the fluid passages of the insert are substantially aligned entirely with respective portions of the exterior surface of the plug so that fluid communication between the respective fluid passages of the valve body is blocked by the exterior surface of the plug.\",\n \"In an exemplary embodiment, the insert includes a pair of sections adapted to abut, or nearly abut, one another along a longitudinal plane; and each of the sections includes a respective one of the fluid passages of the insert.\",\n \"The present disclosure also introduces a method that includes actuating a plug valve from a closed configuration to an open configuration; wherein the plug valve includes: a valve body defining a cavity and a pair of fluid passages intersecting the cavity, the cavity defining a tapered interior surface of the valve body; a plug extending within the cavity of the valve body, the plug defining an exterior surface and a fluid passage adapted to be substantially aligned with the fluid passages of the valve body when the plug valve is in the open configuration; and an insert extending within the cavity and circumferentially about at least a portion of the plug, the insert defining a pair of fluid passages substantially aligned with each of the fluid passages of the valve body, respectively; wherein actuating the plug valve to the open configuration causes fluid to flow from one of the fluid passages of the valve body to the other of the fluid passages of the valve body; and wherein, during the fluid flow, an axial force is imparted to the insert and/or the plug in a first axial direction; and counteracting the axial force imparted to the insert and/or the plug in the first axial direction, including urging the insert in a second axial direction that is substantially opposite the first axial direction; wherein urging the insert in the second axial direction maintains the substantially alignment between the pair of fluid passages of the insert and each of the fluid passages of the valve body, respectively.\",\n \"In an exemplary embodiment, the insert includes opposing sections through which the pair of fluid passages of the insert are formed, respectively; and wherein urging the insert in the second axial direction results in a force being imparted to the insert, the force being imparted to the insert resolving into a normal contacting force between the plug and the opposing sections of the insert.\",\n \"In an exemplary embodiment, the method includes permitting a lubrication fluid to migrate into an annular space defined between the insert and the plug; wherein the normal contacting force between the plug and the opposing sections of the insert causes the lubrication fluid to form a seal, thus preventing, or at least reducing, leakage of the fluid flow into the annular spaced defined between the insert and the plug.\",\n \"The present disclosure also introduces a method that includes actuating a plug valve from a closed configuration to an open configuration; wherein the plug valve includes: a valve body defining a cavity and a pair of fluid passages intersecting the cavity, the cavity defining a tapered interior surface of the valve body; a plug extending within the cavity of the valve body, the plug defining an exterior surface and a fluid passage adapted to be substantially aligned with each of the fluid passages of the valve body when the plug valve is in the open configuration; an insert extending within the cavity and circumferentially about at least a portion of the plug, the insert defining a pair of fluid passages substantially aligned with the fluid passages of the valve body, respectively; an annular groove formed in one of the plug and the insert; and an annular tongue extending along the other of the plug and the insert; and aligning the fluid passage of the plug with the fluid passages of the insert when the plug valve is in the open configuration, including interlocking the annular tongue with the annular groove.\",\n \"In an exemplary embodiment, actuating the plug valve from the closed configuration to the open configuration includes rotating the plug, relative to the insert, so that the fluid passage of the plug is substantially aligned with the fluid passages of the insert and thus the fluid passages of the valve body are in fluid communication with one another via the fluid passages of the insert and the fluid passage of the plug.\",\n \"The present disclosure also introduces a method that includes providing a valve body defining a face, a cavity formed in the face, and a pair of fluid passages intersecting the cavity, the cavity defining a tapered interior surface of the valve body; positioning an insert and a plug within the cavity of the valve body, the insert extending circumferentially about at least a portion of the plug, the insert defining a pair of fluid passages substantially aligned with the fluid passages of the valve body, respectively, the plug defining an exterior surface and a fluid passage adapted to be substantially aligned with each of the fluid passages of the valve body; connecting a bonnet to the valve body to secure the plug and the insert within the cavity, the bonnet defining a face that engages the face of the valve body; and crushing a metal ring seal between the bonnet and the valve body to prevent, or at least reduce, leakage of a fluid from the interior of the valve body to atmosphere.\",\n \"In an exemplary embodiment, a pair of annular grooves are formed in the respective faces of the bonnet and the valve body, the respective annular grooves being substantially aligned with one another; wherein the metal ring seal extends within the respective annular grooves of the bonnet and the valve body.\",\n \"It is understood that variations may be made in the foregoing without departing from the scope of the present disclosure.\",\n \"In several exemplary embodiments, the elements and teachings of the various illustrative exemplary embodiments may be combined in whole or in part in some or all of the illustrative exemplary embodiments.\",\n \"In addition, one or more of the elements and teachings of the various illustrative exemplary embodiments may be omitted, at least in part, and/or combined, at least in part, with one or more of the other elements and teachings of the various illustrative embodiments.\",\n \"Any spatial references, such as, for example, “upper,” “lower,” “above,” “below,” “between,” “bottom,” “vertical,” “horizontal,” “angular,” “upwards,” “downwards,” “side-to-side,” “left-to-right,” “right-to-left,” “top-to-bottom,” “bottom-to-top,” “top,” “bottom,” “bottom-up,” “top-down,” etc., are for the purpose of illustration only and do not limit the specific orientation or location of the structure described above.\",\n \"In several exemplary embodiments, while different steps, processes, and procedures are described as appearing as distinct acts, one or more of the steps, one or more of the processes, and/or one or more of the procedures may also be performed in different orders, simultaneously and/or sequentially.\",\n \"In several exemplary embodiments, the steps, processes, and/or procedures may be merged into one or more steps, processes and/or procedures.\",\n \"In several exemplary embodiments, one or more of the operational steps in each embodiment may be omitted.\",\n \"Moreover, in some instances, some features of the present disclosure may be employed without a corresponding use of the other features.\",\n \"Moreover, one or more of the above-described embodiments and/or variations may be combined in whole or in part with any one or more of the other above-described embodiments and/or variations.\",\n \"Although several exemplary embodiments have been described in detail above, the embodiments described are exemplary only and are not limiting, and those skilled in the art will readily appreciate that many other modifications, changes and/or substitutions are possible in the exemplary embodiments without materially departing from the novel teachings and advantages of the present disclosure.\",\n \"Accordingly, all such modifications, changes, and/or substitutions are intended to be included within the scope of this disclosure as defined in the following claims.\",\n \"In the claims, any means-plus-function clauses are intended to cover the structures described herein as performing the recited function and not only structural equivalents, but also equivalent structures.\",\n \"Moreover, it is the express intention of the applicant not to invoke 35 U.S.C.\",\n \"§ 112, paragraph 6 for any limitations of any of the claims herein, except for those in which the claim expressly uses the word “means” together with an associated function.\"\n ]\n]"},"source":{"kind":"string","value":"Patent_15875405"}}},{"rowIdx":4494869,"cells":{"text":{"kind":"list like","value":[["METHODS OF FORMING SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICE STRUCTURES INCLUDING STAIRCASE STRUCTURES","A semiconductor device structure comprises stacked tiers each comprising a conductive structure and an insulating structure longitudinally adjacent the at least one conductive structure, at least one staircase structure having steps comprising lateral ends of the stacked tiers, and an opening laterally adjacent a first side of the at least one staircase structure and extending through the stacked tiers and continuously across an entire length of the at least one staircase structure.","Conductive structures of the stacked tiers laterally extend from the steps of the at least one staircase structure completely across a second side of the at least one staircase structure opposing the first side to form continuous conductive paths laterally extending completely across the stacked tiers.","Additional semiconductor device structures, methods of forming semiconductor device structures, and electronic systems are also described."],["1.A method of forming a semiconductor device structure, comprising: forming a stack structure comprising stacked tiers each comprising a conductive structure and an insulating structure longitudinally adjacent the conductive structure; forming a masking structure over a portion of the stack structure; removing portions of the stacked tiers of the stack structure not covered by the masking structure to form a secondary stack structure comprising at least one staircase structure having steps comprising lateral ends of the stacked tiers; removing the masking structure after forming the secondary stack structure; removing portions of the secondary stack structure to form a tertiary stack structure comprising: opposing end sections exhibiting a first width; an interior section laterally intervening between the opposing end sections and exhibiting a second width smaller than the first width, the interior section comprising at least one additional staircase structure exhibiting a smaller width than the at least one staircase structure of the secondary stack structure and an elongate middle region directly laterally adjacent a first side of the at least one additional staircase structure; and an opening laterally adjacent a second side of the at least one additional staircase structure opposing the first side and extending through the tertiary stack structure and continuously across an entire length of the at least one additional staircase structure, additional conductive structures of the tertiary stack structure laterally extending from additional steps of the at least one additional staircase structure and completely across the elongate middle region of the interior section; coupling at least one contact structure to one or more of the additional conductive structures of the tertiary stack structure at one or more of the additional steps of the at least one additional staircase structure; and forming at least one routing structure coupled to the at least one contact structure and extending from the at least one contact structure, through the opening, and to at least one string driver device.","2.The method of claim 1, wherein removing portions of the secondary stack structure comprises removing portions of the at least one staircase structure to form the at least one additional staircase structure and at least one opening directly laterally adjacent a second side of the at least one additional staircase structure opposing the first side of the at least one additional staircase structure.","3.The method of claim 2, wherein removing portions of the at least one staircase structure to form the at least one additional staircase structure and the at least one opening comprises forming the at least one opening to longitudinally extend completely through the stacked tiers and to continuously laterally extend across an entire length of the at least one additional staircase structure.","4.The method of claim 1, wherein: removing portions of the stacked tiers of the stack structure not covered by the masking structure to form a secondary stack structure comprising at least one staircase structure comprises forming at least one stadium structure comprising a first staircase structure and a second staircase structure that mirrors the first staircase structure; and removing portions of the secondary stack structure to form a tertiary stack structure comprises removing portions of the at least one stadium structure to form at least one additional stadium structure exhibiting a smaller width than the at least one stadium structure and comprising a first additional staircase structure and a second additional staircase structure that mirrors the first additional staircase structure.","5.The method of claim 1, further comprising: coupling at least one contact structure to the conductive structure of one or more of the stacked tiers at one or more steps of the at least one additional staircase structure; and forming at least one routing structure coupled to and extending between the at least one contact structure and at least one string driver device.","6.The method of claim 1, wherein coupling at least one contact structure to one or more of the additional conductive structures comprises forming multiple contact structures on multiple additional steps of the at least one additional staircase structure.","7.The method of claim 6, wherein forming the multiple contact structures on multiple additional steps of the at least one additional staircase structure comprises aligning the multiple contact structures on the multiple additional steps of the at least one additional staircase structure.","8.The method of claim 1, wherein forming at least one routing structure comprises: forming a first portion of the at least one routing structure to outwardly laterally extend from the at least one contact structure in a direction perpendicular to the tertiary stack structure; forming a second portion of the at least one routing structure to longitudinally extend away from the first portion in an additional direction perpendicular to the direction of the first portion; and forming a third portion of the at least one routing structure to outwardly laterally extend away from the second portion and to the at least one string driver device in another direction perpendicular to the additional direction of the second portion and parallel to the tertiary stack structure.","9.The method of claim 1, wherein: coupling at least one contact structure to one or more of the additional conductive structures of the tertiary stack structure comprises coupling multiple contact structures to multiple additional conductive structures of the tertiary stack structure; and forming at least one routing structure comprises forming multiple routing structures each independently coupled to and extending between the multiple contact structures and the at least one string driver device.","10.The method of claim 9, wherein forming multiple routing structures each independently coupled to and extending between the multiple contact structures and the at least one string driver device comprises coupling the multiple routing structures to switching devices of only one string driver device.","11.A method of forming a semiconductor device structure, comprising: forming stacked tiers each comprising a conductive structure and an insulating structure longitudinally adjacent the conductive structure; removing portions of the stacked tiers to form at least one staircase structure having steps comprising lateral ends of the stacked tiers; forming an opening laterally adjacent a first side of the at least one staircase structure and extending through the stacked tiers and continuously across an entire length of the at least one staircase structure, conductive structures of the stacked tiers laterally extending from the steps of the at least one staircase structure completely across a second side of the at least one staircase structure opposing the first side to form continuous conductive paths laterally extending completely across the stacked tiers; coupling at least one contact structure to the conductive structure of one or more of the stacked tiers at one or more of the steps of the at least one staircase structure; and coupling at least one routing structure to the at least one contact structure, the at least one routing structure extending from the at least one contact structure, through the opening, and to at least one string driver device.","12.The method of claim 11, wherein removing portions of the stacked tiers to form at least one staircase structure comprises: forming a hard mask material over a portion of the stacked tiers; selectively etching the stacked tiers using to the hard mask material to form a stadium structure comprising a first staircase structure and a second staircase structure mirroring the first staircase structure.","13.The method of claim 11, wherein removing portions of the stacked tiers to form at least one staircase structure comprises removing portions of the stacked tiers to form at least two staircase structures extending parallel to one another in a first lateral direction and positioned adjacent one another in a second lateral direction.","14.The method of claim 13, wherein removing portions of the stacked tiers to form at least two staircase structures comprises forming the at least two staircase structures to exhibit different geometric configurations than one another.","15.The method of claim 13, wherein removing portions of the stacked tiers to form at least two staircase structures comprises forming at least one of the at least two staircase structures to comprise steps directly laterally adjacent one another and comprising lateral ends of tiers not directly longitudinally adjacent one another.","16.The method of claim 11, wherein coupling at least one contact structure to the conductive structure of one or more of the stacked tiers at one or more of the steps of the at least one staircase structure comprises coupling multiple, substantially aligned contact structures to the steps of the at least one staircase structure.","17.The method of claim 11, wherein coupling at least one routing structure to the at least one contact structure comprises forming the at least one routing structure to comprise: at least one first portion coupled to the at least one contact structure and outwardly laterally extending in a direction oriented perpendicular to the stacked tiers; at least one second portion coupled to the at least one first portion and longitudinally extending through the opening in an additional direction oriented perpendicular to the direction of the at least one first portion; and at least one third portion coupled to the at least one second portion and outwardly laterally extending in another direction oriented perpendicular to the additional direction of the at least one second portion and parallel to the stacked tiers.","18.The method of claim 11, wherein coupling at least one routing structure to the at least one contact structure comprises coupling multiple routing structures to multiple contact structures, some of the multiple routing structures extending to a first string driver device underlying the stacked tiers, and other of the multiple routing structures extending to a second string driver device underlying the stacked tiers.","19.A method of forming a semiconductor device structure, comprising: forming a stack structure comprising tiers each comprising a conductive structure and an insulating structure longitudinally adjacent the conductive structure; forming an opening extending through the stack structure; removing remaining portions of the stack structure laterally adjacent the opening to form at least one staircase structure laterally adjacent the opening, conductive structures of the tiers of the stack structure terminating at steps of the at least one staircase structure and forming continuous conductive paths laterally extending completely across the tiers; coupling contact structures to the steps of the at least one staircase structure; and coupling routing structures to the contact structures, the routing structures extending from contact structures, through the opening, and to one or more string driver devices.","20.The method of claim 19, wherein: forming an opening extending through the stack structure comprises: forming a masking material over a portion of the stack structure; and removing another portion of the stack structure not covered by the masking material; and removing remaining portions of the stack structure laterally adjacent the opening comprises: removing a portion of the masking material; and selectively etching the stack structure using a remaining portion of the masking material."],[" BACKGROUND A continuing goal of the semiconductor industry has been to increase the memory density (e.g., the number of memory cells per memory die) of memory devices, such as non-volatile memory devices (e.g., NAND Flash memory devices).","One way of increasing memory density in non-volatile memory devices is to utilize vertical memory array (also referred to as a “three-dimensional (3D) memory array”) architectures.","A typical vertical memory array includes semiconductor pillars extending through openings in tiers of conductive structures (e.g., word line plates, control gate plates) and dielectric materials at each junction of the semiconductor pillars and the conductive structures.","Such a configuration permits a greater number of switching devices (e.g., transistors) to be located in a unit of die area by building the array upwards (e.g., longitudinally, vertically) on a die, as compared to structures with conventional planar (e.g., two-dimensional) arrangements of transistors.","Conventional vertical memory arrays include electrical connections between the conductive structures and access lines (e.g., word lines) so that memory cells in the vertical memory array can be uniquely selected for writing, reading, or erasing operations.","One method of forming such an electrical connection includes forming a so-called “staircase” or “stair step” structure at edges of the tiers of conductive structures.","The staircase structure includes individual “steps” defining contact regions of the conductive structures upon which contact structures can be positioned to provide electrical access to the conductive structures.","Unfortunately, conventional staircase structure fabrication techniques can segment one or more conductive structures of a given tier, resulting in discontinuous conductive paths through the tier that can require the use of multiple (e.g., more than one) switching devices to drive voltages completely across the tier and/or in opposing directions across the tier.","In addition, as the number of tiers of conductive structures increases the number of interconnections required to drive voltages across the tiers also increases, requiring undesirable increases in the lateral dimensions of the tiers and/or of the steps of the staircase structures associated with the tiers to accommodate the increased number of interconnections and circumvent undesirable capacitive coupling between the interconnections.","There remains a need for new semiconductor device structures, such as memory array blocks for 3D non-volatile memory devices (e.g., 3D NAND Flash memory devices), as well as for associated memory devices and electronic systems including the semiconductor device structures, and simple, cost-efficient methods of forming semiconductor device structures."],[" BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIGS.","1A through 7B are perspective ( FIGS.","1A, 2A, 3A, 4A, 5A, 5C, 6A, and 7A ) and top-down ( FIGS.","1B, 2B, 3B, 4B, 5B, 5D, 6B, 7B, and 7C ) views illustrating methods of forming a semiconductor device structure, in accordance with embodiments of the disclosure.","FIG.","8 is a schematic block diagram illustrating an electronic system in accordance with embodiments of the disclosure.","detailed-description description=\"Detailed Description\" end=\"lead\"?"],["CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION This application is a divisional of U.S. patent application Ser.","No.","15/095,401, filed Apr.","11, 2016, pending, the disclosure of which is hereby incorporated herein in its entirety by this reference.","TECHNICAL FIELD The disclosure, in various embodiments, relates generally to the field of semiconductor device design and fabrication.","More specifically, the disclosure relates to semiconductor device structures including staircase structures, and to related methods and electronic systems.","BACKGROUND A continuing goal of the semiconductor industry has been to increase the memory density (e.g., the number of memory cells per memory die) of memory devices, such as non-volatile memory devices (e.g., NAND Flash memory devices).","One way of increasing memory density in non-volatile memory devices is to utilize vertical memory array (also referred to as a “three-dimensional (3D) memory array”) architectures.","A typical vertical memory array includes semiconductor pillars extending through openings in tiers of conductive structures (e.g., word line plates, control gate plates) and dielectric materials at each junction of the semiconductor pillars and the conductive structures.","Such a configuration permits a greater number of switching devices (e.g., transistors) to be located in a unit of die area by building the array upwards (e.g., longitudinally, vertically) on a die, as compared to structures with conventional planar (e.g., two-dimensional) arrangements of transistors.","Conventional vertical memory arrays include electrical connections between the conductive structures and access lines (e.g., word lines) so that memory cells in the vertical memory array can be uniquely selected for writing, reading, or erasing operations.","One method of forming such an electrical connection includes forming a so-called “staircase” or “stair step” structure at edges of the tiers of conductive structures.","The staircase structure includes individual “steps” defining contact regions of the conductive structures upon which contact structures can be positioned to provide electrical access to the conductive structures.","Unfortunately, conventional staircase structure fabrication techniques can segment one or more conductive structures of a given tier, resulting in discontinuous conductive paths through the tier that can require the use of multiple (e.g., more than one) switching devices to drive voltages completely across the tier and/or in opposing directions across the tier.","In addition, as the number of tiers of conductive structures increases the number of interconnections required to drive voltages across the tiers also increases, requiring undesirable increases in the lateral dimensions of the tiers and/or of the steps of the staircase structures associated with the tiers to accommodate the increased number of interconnections and circumvent undesirable capacitive coupling between the interconnections.","There remains a need for new semiconductor device structures, such as memory array blocks for 3D non-volatile memory devices (e.g., 3D NAND Flash memory devices), as well as for associated memory devices and electronic systems including the semiconductor device structures, and simple, cost-efficient methods of forming semiconductor device structures.","BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIGS.","1A through 7B are perspective (FIGS.","1A, 2A, 3A, 4A, 5A, 5C, 6A, and 7A) and top-down (FIGS.","1B, 2B, 3B, 4B, 5B, 5D, 6B, 7B, and 7C) views illustrating methods of forming a semiconductor device structure, in accordance with embodiments of the disclosure.","FIG.","8 is a schematic block diagram illustrating an electronic system in accordance with embodiments of the disclosure.","DETAILED DESCRIPTION Semiconductor device structures (e.g., memory array blocks) including staircase structures are described, as are related methods and electronic systems.","In some embodiments, a semiconductor device structure includes a stack structure having opposing end sections exhibiting a first width and an interior section laterally intervening between the opposing end sections and exhibiting a second width smaller than the first width.","The stack structure includes stacked tiers each comprising at least one conductive structure and at least one insulating structure longitudinally adjacent the conductive structure, one or more staircase structures within the interior section and including steps defined by lateral ends of the stacked tiers, and an elongate middle region laterally adjacent the one or more staircase structures within the interior section and laterally extending completely between the opposing end sections.","The conductive structures of the stacked tiers may form continuous conductive paths laterally extending completely across the stacked tiers.","The semiconductor device structure may also include contact structures coupled to the conductive structures of the stacked tiers at steps of the one or more staircase structures, and routing structures coupled to the contact structures and extending from the contact structures, through an opening adjacent the one or more staircase structures, and to at least one string driver device.","The structures and methods of the disclosure may permit individual (e.g., single) switching devices (e.g., transistors, such as field effect transistors (FETs)) of a string driver device electrically connected to one or more conductive structures of an individual tier to drive voltages completely across and/or in opposing directions across the tier.","In addition, the structures and methods of the disclosure may permit one or more portions of the interconnections (e.g., one or more portions of the routing structures, one or more portions of the contact structures) utilized to drive voltages across different tiers to be spaced farther apart from one another without increasing the lateral dimensions of the tiers so as to reduce the risk of undesirable capacitive coupling between the interconnections while maintaining desirable feature dimensions.","The structures and methods of the disclosure may decrease the number of switching devices and interconnections required to effectively operate a memory device, and may increase one or more of memory device performance, scalability, efficiency, and simplicity as compared to many conventional structures and methods.","The following description provides specific details, such as material compositions and processing conditions, in order to provide a thorough description of embodiments of the present disclosure.","However, a person of ordinary skill in the art would understand that the embodiments of the present disclosure may be practiced without employing these specific details.","Indeed, the embodiments of the present disclosure may be practiced in conjunction with conventional semiconductor fabrication techniques employed in the industry.","In addition, the description provided below does not form a complete process flow for manufacturing a semiconductor device (e.g., a memory device).","The semiconductor device structures described below do not form a complete semiconductor device.","Only those process acts and structures necessary to understand the embodiments of the present disclosure are described in detail below.","Additional acts to form a complete semiconductor device from the semiconductor device structures may be performed by conventional fabrication techniques.","Drawings presented herein are for illustrative purposes only, and are not meant to be actual views of any particular material, component, structure, device, or system.","Variations from the shapes depicted in the drawings as a result, for example, of manufacturing techniques and/or tolerances, are to be expected.","Thus, embodiments described herein are not to be construed as being limited to the particular shapes or regions as illustrated, but include deviations in shapes that result, for example, from manufacturing.","For example, a region illustrated or described as box-shaped may have rough and/or nonlinear features, and a region illustrated or described as round may include some rough and/or linear features.","Moreover, sharp angles that are illustrated may be rounded, and vice versa.","Thus, the regions illustrated in the figures are schematic in nature, and their shapes are not intended to illustrate the precise shape of a region and do not limit the scope of the present claims.","The drawings are not necessarily to scale.","Additionally, elements common between figures may retain the same numerical designation.","As used herein, the terms “vertical”, “longitudinal”, “horizontal”, and “lateral” are in reference to a major plane of a structure and are not necessarily defined by earth's gravitational field.","A “horizontal” or “lateral” direction is a direction that is substantially parallel to the major plane of the structure, while a “vertical” or “longitudinal” direction is a direction that is substantially perpendicular to the major plane of the structure.","The major plane of the structure is defined by a surface of the structure having a relatively large area compared to other surfaces of the structure.","As used herein, spatially relative terms, such as “beneath,” “below,” “lower,” “bottom,” “above,” “upper,” “top,” “front,” “rear,” “left,” “right,” and the like, may be used for ease of description to describe one element's or feature's relationship to another element(s) or feature(s) as illustrated in the figures.","Unless otherwise specified, the spatially relative terms are intended to encompass different orientations of the materials in addition to the orientation depicted in the figures.","For example, if materials in the figures are inverted, elements described as “below” or “beneath” or “under” or “on bottom of” other elements or features would then be oriented “above” or “on top of” the other elements or features.","Thus, the term “below” can encompass both an orientation of above and below, depending on the context in which the term is used, which will be evident to one of ordinary skill in the art.","The materials may be otherwise oriented (e.g., rotated 90 degrees, inverted, flipped) and the spatially relative descriptors used herein interpreted accordingly.","As used herein, the singular forms “a,” “an,” and “the” are intended to include the plural forms as well, unless the context clearly indicates otherwise.","As used herein, “and/or” includes any and all combinations of one or more of the associated listed items.","As used herein, the term “configured” refers to a size, shape, material composition, and arrangement of one or more of at least one structure and at least one apparatus facilitating operation of one or more of the structure and the apparatus in a pre-determined way.","As used herein, the phrase “coupled to” refers to structures operatively connected with each other, such as electrically connected through a direct ohmic connection or through an indirect connection (e.g., via another structure).","As used herein, the term “substantially” in reference to a given parameter, property, or condition means and includes to a degree that one of ordinary skill in the art would understand that the given parameter, property, or condition is met with a degree of variance, such as within acceptable manufacturing tolerances.","By way of example, depending on the particular parameter, property, or condition that is substantially met, the parameter, property, or condition may be at least 90.0% met, at least 95.0% met, at least 99.0% met, or even at least 99.9% met.","As used herein, the term “about” in reference to a given parameter is inclusive of the stated value and has the meaning dictated by the context (e.g., it includes the degree of error associated with measurement of the given parameter).","FIGS.","1A through 7C are simplified perspective (FIGS.","1A, 2A, 3A, 4A, 5A, 5C, 6A, and 7A) and top-down (FIGS.","1B, 2B, 3B, 4B, 5B, 5D, 6B, 7B, and 7C) views illustrating embodiments of methods of forming a semiconductor device structure including a staircase structure, such as a memory array structure (e.g., a memory array block) for a 3D non-volatile memory device (e.g., a 3D NAND Flash memory device).","With the description provided below, it will be apparent to one of ordinary skill in the art that the methods described herein may be used in various devices.","In other words, the methods of the disclosure may be used whenever it is desired to form a semiconductor device including a staircase structure.","Referring to FIG.","1A, a semiconductor device structure 100 may include a stack structure 102 exhibiting an alternating sequence of conductive structures 104 and insulating structures 106 arranged in tiers 108.Each of the tiers 108 may include one of the conductive structures 104 and one of the insulating structures 106.For clarity and ease of understanding of the drawings and related description, FIG.","1A shows the stack structure 102 as including seven (7) tiers 108 (i.e., tiers 108a through 108g) of the conductive structures 104 and the insulating structures 106.However, the stack structure 102 may include a different number of tiers 108.For example, in additional embodiments, the stack structure 102 may include greater than seven (7) tiers 108 (e.g., greater than or equal to ten (10) tiers 108, greater than or equal to fifteen (15) tiers 108, greater than or equal to twenty-five (25) tiers 108, greater than or equal to fifty (50) tiers 108, greater than or equal to one hundred (100) tiers 108) of the conductive structures 104 and the insulating structures 106, or may include less than seven (7) tiers 108 (e.g., less than or equal to five (5) tiers 108, less than or equal to three (3) tiers 108) of the conductive structures 104 and the insulating structures 106.FIG.","1B is a top-down view of the semiconductor device structure 100 at the processing stage depicted in FIG.","1A.","The conductive structures 104 may be formed of and include at least one conductive material, such as a metal (e.g., tungsten, titanium, molybdenum, niobium, vanadium, hafnium, tantalum, chromium, zirconium, iron, ruthenium, osmium, cobalt, rhodium, iridium, nickel, palladium, platinum, copper, silver, gold, aluminum), a metal alloy (e.g., a cobalt-based alloy, an iron-based alloy, a nickel-based alloy, an iron- and nickel-based alloy, a cobalt- and nickel-based alloy, an iron- and cobalt-based alloy, a cobalt- and nickel- and iron-based alloy, an aluminum-based alloy, a copper-based alloy, a magnesium-based alloy, a titanium-based alloy, a steel, a low-carbon steel, a stainless steel), a conductive metal-containing material (e.g., a conductive metal nitride, a conductive metal silicide, a conductive metal carbide, a conductive metal oxide), a conductively-doped semiconductor material (e.g., conductively-doped silicon, conductively-doped germanium, conductively-doped silicon germanium), or combinations thereof.","Each of the conductive structures 104 may independently include a substantially homogeneous distribution or a substantially heterogeneous distribution of the at least one conductive material.","As used herein, the term “homogeneous distribution” means amounts of a material do not vary throughout different portions (e.g., different lateral and longitudinal portions) of a structure.","Conversely, as used herein, the term “heterogeneous distribution” means amounts of a material vary throughout different portions of a structure.","Amounts of the material may vary stepwise (e.g., change abruptly), or may vary continuously (e.g., change progressively, such as linearly, parabolically) throughout different portions of the structure.","In some embodiments, each of the conductive structures 104 exhibits a substantially homogeneous distribution of conductive material.","In additional embodiments, at least one of the conductive structures 104 exhibits a substantially heterogeneous distribution of at least one conductive material.","The conductive structure 104 may, for example, be formed of and include a stack of at least two different conductive materials.","The conductive structures 104 may each be substantially planar, and may each independently exhibit any desired thickness.","Each of the conductive structures 104 may be substantially the same (e.g., exhibit substantially the same material composition, material distribution, size, and shape) as one another, or at least one of the conductive structures 104 may be different (e.g., exhibit one or more of a different material composition, a different material distribution, a different size, and a different shape) than at least one other of the conductive structures 104.In some embodiments, each of the conductive structures 104 is substantially the same as each other of the conductive structures 104.The insulating structures 106 may be formed of and include at least one insulating material, such as one or more of an oxide material (e.g., silicon dioxide, phosphosilicate glass, borosilicate glass, borophosphosilicate glass, fluorosilicate glass, titanium dioxide, zirconium dioxide, hafnium dioxide, tantalum oxide, magnesium oxide, aluminum oxide, or a combination thereof), a nitride material (e.g., silicon nitride), an oxynitride material (e.g., silicon oxynitride), and amphorous carbon.","Each of the insulating structures 106 may independently include a substantially homogeneous distribution or a substantially heterogeneous distribution of the at least one insulating material.","In some embodiments, each of the insulating structures 106 exhibits a substantially homogeneous distribution of insulating material.","In additional embodiments, at least one of the insulating structures 106 exhibits a substantially heterogeneous distribution of at least one conductive material.","One or more of the insulating structures 106 may, for example, be formed of and include a stack (e.g., laminate) of at least two different insulating materials.","In some embodiments, each of the insulating structures 106 is formed of and includes silicon dioxide.","The insulating structures 106 may each be substantially planar, and may each independently exhibit a desired thickness.","In addition, each of the insulating structures 106 may be substantially the same (e.g., exhibit substantially the same material composition, material distribution, size, and shape) as one another, or at least one of the insulating structures 106 may be different (e.g., exhibit one or more of a different material composition, a different material distribution, a different size, and a different shape) than at least one other of the insulating structures 106.In some embodiments, each of the insulating structures 106 is substantially the same as each other of the insulating structures 106.As shown in FIG.","1A, in some embodiments, the alternating sequence of the conductive structures 104 and the insulating structures 106 begins with one of the insulating structures 106.In additional embodiments, the conductive structures 104 and the insulating structures 106 exhibit a different arrangement relative to one another.","By way of non-limiting example, the conductive structures 104 and the insulating structures 106 may be arranged in an alternating sequence beginning with one of the conductive structures 104.A semiconductor device (e.g., a vertical memory device, such as a 3D NAND Flash memory device) employing a semiconductor device structure having such a configuration may have little or no difference in terms of functionality or operability as compared to a semiconductor device employing the arrangement of the conductive structures 104 and the insulating structures 106 shown in FIG.","1A.","In some embodiments, each of the tiers 108 includes one of the conductive structures 104 on or over one of the insulating structures 106.In additional embodiments, each of the tiers 108 includes one of the insulating structures 106 on or over one of the conductive structures 104.The stack structure 102 may exhibit an elongate shape (e.g., a rectangular shape) extending (e.g., in the X-direction) between a first end 110 and a second, opposing end 112.The first end 110 and the second, opposing end 112 of the stack structure 102 may each be, or may each later become, coupled to other components of a semiconductor device (e.g., a memory device) including the semiconductor device structure 100, such as one or more memory cell arrays (e.g., vertical memory cell arrays).","The stack structure 102, including the each of the tiers 108 thereof, may be formed using conventional processes (e.g., conventional deposition processes, conventional material removal processes) and conventional processing equipment, which are not described in detail herein.","By way of non-limiting example, the conductive structures 104 and the insulating structures 106 may be formed through one or more of in situ growth, spin-on coating, blanket coating, chemical vapor deposition (CVD), plasma enhanced chemical vapor deposition (PECVD), atomic layer deposition (ALD), and physical vapor deposition (PVD).","Referring next to FIG.","2A, a masking structure 114 may be formed on or over the stack structure 102.The masking structure 114 may be formed of and include at least one material (e.g., at least one hard mask material) suitable for use as an etch mask to pattern portions of the stack structure 102 (e.g., portions of the tiers 108, including portions of the conductive structures 104 and portions of the insulating structures 106, remaining uncovered by the masking structure 114) to form at least one staircase structure, as described in further detail below.","By way of non-limiting example, the masking structure 114 may be formed of and include at least one of amorphous carbon, silicon, a silicon oxide, a silicon nitride, a silicon oxycarbide, aluminum oxide, and a silicon oxynitride.","The masking structure 114 may be homogeneous (e.g., may comprise a single material layer), or may be heterogeneous (e.g., may comprise a stack exhibiting at least two different material layers).","FIG.","2B is a top-down view of the semiconductor device structure 100 at the processing stage depicted in FIG.","2A.","The position and dimensions of the masking structure 114 may be selected at least partially based on desired positions and desired dimensions of one or more staircase structures to be subsequently formed in the stack structure 102.By way of non-limiting example, as shown in FIG.","2A, the masking structure 114 may be non-centrally positioned on or over the stack structure 102 in the Y-direction, may have a width W2 less than the width W1 of the stack structure 102, and may have substantially the same length L1 as the stack structure 102.Widths of portions of the stack structure 102 remaining uncovered by (e.g., not underlying) the masking structure 114 may correspond to widths of the one or more staircase structures to be subsequently formed in the stack structure 102.In additional embodiments, the masking structure 114 may exhibit one or more of a different position (e.g., a different position in one or more of the X-direction and the Y-direction), a different width W2, and a different length (e.g., a length less than the length L1).","As a non-limiting example, the masking structure 114 may be non-centrally positioned on or over the stack structure 102 in the Y-direction, may be centrally positioned on or over the stack structure 102 in the X-direction, may have a width W2 less than the width W1 of the stack structure 102, and may have a length less than the length L1 of the stack structure 102.As another non-limiting example, the masking structure 114 may be centrally positioned over the stack structure 102 in each of the Y-direction and the X-direction, may have a width W2 less than the width W1 of the stack structure 102, and may have a length less than the length L1 of the stack structure 102.As a further non-limiting example, the masking structure 114 may be centrally positioned over the stack structure 102 in each of the Y-direction and the X-direction, may have a width W2 less than the width W1 of the stack structure 102, and may have substantially the same length L1 as the stack structure 102.The masking structure 114 may be formed on or over the stack structure 102 to any desired thickness.","The masking structure 114 may be formed using conventional processes (e.g., conventional deposition processes, such as at least one of in situ growth, spin-on coating, blanket coating, CVD, PECVD, ALD, and PVD, conventional photolithography processes, conventional material removal processes) and conventional processing equipment, which are not described in detail herein.","Referring to next to FIG.","3A, portions of the stack structure 102 (FIG.","2A) (e.g., portions of one of more of the tiers 108) remaining uncovered by the masking structure 114 may be subjected to at least one material removal process (e.g., one or more of a trimming process and a chopping process) to form a secondary stack structure 116.The secondary stack structure 116 may include one or more staircase structures 118 each independently formed of and including one or more steps 120.The steps 120 of the one or more staircase structures 118 may be at least partially defined by exposed portions of one or more of the tiers 108 remaining following the at least one material removal process.","FIG.","3B is a top-down view of the semiconductor device structure 100 at the processing stage depicted in FIG.","3A.","The secondary stack structure 116 may include a single (e.g., only one) staircase structure 118, or may include multiple (e.g., more than one) staircase structures 118.In some embodiments, the secondary stack structure 116 includes multiple staircase structures 118.By way of non-limiting example, as shown in FIG.","3A, the secondary stack structure 116 may include at least one stadium structure 119 including a first staircase structure 118a exhibiting a generally negative slope, and a second staircase structure 118b opposing the first staircase structure 118a and exhibiting a generally positive slope.","The second staircase structure 118b may mirror the first staircase structure 118a.","As used herein, the term “mirror” means and includes that at least two structures are mirror images of one another.","For example, the first staircase structure 118a and the second staircase structure 118b may exhibit the substantially same size and substantially the same shape, but the first staircase structure 118a may outwardly extend in a direction (e.g., the negative X-direction) that opposes a direction (e.g., the positive X-direction) in which the second staircase structure 118b outwardly extends.","In some embodiments, the first staircase structure 118a and the second staircase structure 118b are substantially similar to one another.","Multiple staircase structures 118 (e.g., the first staircase structure 118a and the second staircase structure 118b) may facilitate redundant and/or alternative means of connecting to one or more of the tiers 108 following subsequent processing of the semiconductor device structure 100, as described in further detail below.","In additional embodiments, the secondary stack structure 116 may exhibit one or more of a different number and different configuration of the staircase structures 118.As a non-limiting example, the secondary stack structure 116 may include multiple (e.g., more than one) staircase structures 118 exhibiting one or more generally negative slopes extending in parallel with one another in the X-direction, may include multiple staircase structures 118 exhibiting one or more generally positive slopes extending in parallel with one another in the X-direction, and/or may include multiple staircase structures 118 extending in parallel with one another in the X-direction wherein at least one of the multiple staircase structures 118 exhibits a generally negative slope and at least one other of the multiple staircase structures 118 exhibits a generally positive slope.","In such embodiments, the multiple staircase structures 118 may be directly adjacent one another in the Y-direction, and/or may be separated (e.g., spaced apart) from one another in the Y-direction.","As another non-limiting example, the secondary stack structure 116 may include multiple staircase structures 118 exhibiting one or more generally negative slopes extending in series with one another in the X-direction, and/or may include multiple staircase structures 118 exhibiting one or more generally positive slopes extending in series with one another in the X-direction.","In such embodiments, the multiple staircase structures 118 may be directly adjacent one another in the X-direction, and/or may be separated from one another in the X-direction.","As a further non-limiting example, the secondary stack structure 116 may include one or more staircase structures 118 exhibiting one or more generally negative slopes (e.g., the first staircase structure 118a) but not one or more staircase structures 118 exhibiting one or more generally positive slopes (e.g., the second staircase structure 118b may be omitted).","As an additional non-limiting example, the secondary stack structure 116 may include may include one or more staircase structures 118 exhibiting one or more generally positive slopes (e.g., the second staircase structure 118b) but not one or more staircase structures 118 exhibiting one or more generally negative slopes (e.g., the first staircase structure 118a may be omitted).","As a yet additional non-limiting example, the secondary stack structure 116 may include multiple stadium structures 119 extending parallel to one another in the X-direction, and/or may include multiple stadium structures 119 extending series with one another in the X-direction.","In such embodiments, the multiple stadium structures 119 may be directly adjacent one another (e.g., in the Y-direction and/or in the X-direction), and/or may be separated from one another (e.g., in the Y-direction and/or in the X-direction).","In embodiments wherein the secondary stack structure 116 includes multiple staircase structures 118 (e.g., multiple stadium structures 119), each of the multiple staircase structures 118 may exhibit substantially the same geometric configuration (e.g., substantially the same shape, and substantially the same dimensions), or at least one of the multiple staircase structures 118 may exhibit a different geometric configuration (e.g., a different shape, and/or at least one different dimension) than at least one other of the multiple staircase structures 118.In addition, if the secondary stack structure 116 includes multiple staircase structures 118 (e.g., multiple stadium structures 119), each of the multiple staircase structures 118 may exhibit substantially the same longitudinal position (e.g., in the Z-direction) within the secondary stack structure 116, or at least one of the multiple staircase structures 118 may exhibit a different longitudinal position within the secondary stack structure 116 than at least one other of the multiple staircase structures 118.Each of the staircase structures 118 included in the secondary stack structure 116 may independently include a desired number of steps 120.The number of steps 120 included in one or more of the staircase structures 118 may be substantially the same as (e.g., equal to) or may be different than (e.g., less than, or greater than) the number of tiers 108 in the secondary stack structure 116.In some embodiments, the number of steps 120 included in each of the staircase structures 118 is less than the number of tiers 108 in the secondary stack structure 116.As a non-limiting example, as shown in FIG.","3B, each of the staircase structures 118 may include (5) steps 120 at least partially defined by ends of a portion (e.g., tiers 108b through 108f) of the seven (7) tiers 108 (e.g., tiers 108a through 108g) of the secondary stack structure 116.In additional embodiments, one or more of the staircase structures 118 may include a different number of steps 120 (e.g., less than five (5) steps 120, greater than five (5) steps 120).","By way of non-limiting example, if the secondary stack structure 116 includes seven (7) tiers 108, at least one of the staircase structures 118 may include three (3) steps 120 at least partially defined by ends of a relatively lower group of the tiers 108 (e.g., tier 108d through tier 108f), and at least one other of the staircase structures 118 may include two (2) steps 120 at least partially defined by ends of a relatively higher group of the tiers 108 (e.g., tier 108b and tier 108c).","The dimensions of each of the steps 120 may independently be tailored to desired dimensions and positions of one or more structures (e.g., conductive contact structures) and/or one or more openings (e.g., recesses) to be formed in, on, over, and/or adjacent to the steps 120 during subsequent processing of the semiconductor device structure 100, as described in further detail below.","In some embodiments, each of the steps 120 exhibits substantially the same dimensions (e.g., substantially the same width, substantially the same length, and substantially the same height) as each other of the steps 120.In additional embodiments, at least one of the steps 120 exhibits different dimensions (e.g., one or more of a different width, a different length, and a different height) than at least one other of the steps 120.The staircase structures 118 may be formed using conventional processes (e.g., conventional photolithography processes, conventional material removal processes) and conventional processing equipment, which are not described in detail herein.","By way of non-limiting example, a photoresist structure may be formed on or over at least uncovered portions of the stack structure 102 (FIGS.","2A and 2B), the photoresist structure may be photolithographically processed (e.g., photoexposed and developed) to remove at least one width thereof, one or more of the tiers 108 may be etched (e.g., anisotropically etched, such as anisotropically dry etched) using the masking structure 114 and remaining portions of the photoresist structure as etching masks, the photoresist structure may be subjected to additional photolithographic processing to remove at least one additional width thereof, at least another group of the tiers 108 (e.g., previously etched tiers 108 and one or more additional tiers 108) may be etched using the masking structure 114 and newly remaining portions of the photoresist structure as etching masks, and so on, until the secondary stack structure 116 including the one or more staircase structures 118 is formed.","If the secondary stack structure 116 includes multiple staircase structures 118 (e.g., staircase structures 118 extending in parallel in the X-direction, and/or staircase structures 118 extending in series in the X-direction), such as multiple stadium structures 119 (e.g., multiple stadium structures 119 extending in parallel in the X-direction, and/or multiple stadium structures 119 extending in series in the X-direction), different staircase structures 118 may be formed using a single material removal process, or may be formed using multiple material removal processes.","For example, a first staircase structure 118 may be formed using a first material removal process similar to that described above, and then a second staircase structure 118 may be formed using a second material removal process similar to that described above.","A region of the stack structure 102 (FIGS.","2A and 2B) corresponding to a desired position of the second staircase structure 118 may, for example, be at least partially covered with a masking material (e.g., a photoresist material, a hard mask material) during the first material removal process, and the masking material may be at least partially removed before and/or during the second first material removal process.","Referring next to FIG.","4A, the masking structure 114 (FIGS.","3A and 3B) may be removed.","The masking structure 114 may be selectively removed relative to the secondary stack structure 116.The removal of the masking structure 114 may expose portions of the secondary stack structure 116 previously covered by the masking structure 114, such as portions of the secondary stack structure 116 laterally adjacent (e.g., in the Y-direction) the staircase structures 118 (e.g., laterally adjacent the stadium structure 119 including the first staircase structure 118a and the second staircase structure 118b).","The masking structure 114 may be removed using one or more conventional material removal processes, which are not described in detail herein.","By way of non-limiting example, the masking structure 114 may be selectively removed through at least one conventional etching process (e.g., a conventional wet etching process, a conventional dry etching process).","FIG.","4B is a top-down view of the semiconductor device structure 100 at the processing stage depicted in FIG.","4A.","Referring next to FIG.","5A, portions of the secondary stack structure 116 (FIGS.","4A and 4B) may be removed to form a tertiary stack structure 122 exhibiting at least one opening 124 therein.","The opening 124, which may also be characterized as a recess, may longitudinally extend through (e.g., completely through) the tertiary stack structure 122, and may laterally extend into and across the tertiary stack structure 122 to form additional staircase structures 126 exhibiting relatively smaller widths than the staircase structures 118 (FIGS.","4A and 4B) of the secondary stack structure 116.The opening 124 may be positioned laterally outward (e.g., in the Y-direction) of the additional staircase structures 126 and may continuously laterally extend (e.g., in the X-direction) across entire lengths of the additional staircase structures 126.FIG.","5B is a top-down view of the semiconductor device structure 100 at the processing stage depicted in FIG.","5A, including dashed lines showing the lateral dimensions of the secondary stack structure 116 (FIG.","4A).","As shown in FIG.","5B, the tertiary stack structure 122 may exhibit substantially the same length L1 as the secondary stack structure 116 (FIGS.","4A and 4B), but may exhibit smaller widths than the width W1 of the secondary stack structure 116.Opposing end sections 133 of the tertiary stack structure 122 laterally outward of the opening 124 in the X-direction and proximate the first end 110 and the second, opposing end 112 of the tertiary stack structure 122 may exhibit a first width W3 smaller than the width W1 of the of the secondary stack structure 116.In addition, an interior section 131 laterally intervening between the opposing end sections 133 in the X-direction and laterally inward of (e.g., laterally adjacent) the opening 124 in the Y-direction may exhibit a second with W4 smaller than the first width W3.The interior section 131 of the tertiary stack structure 122 may comprise the additional staircase structures 126 and an elongate middle region 129 laterally adjacent the additional staircase structures 126 in the Y-direction.","The elongate middle region 129 may exhibit a width W6 in the Y-direction, and may continuously laterally extend from and between the opposing end sections 133 of the tertiary stack structure 122 in the X-direction.","The additional staircase structures 126 may include steps 128, and may laterally intervene between the elongate middle region 129 and the opening 124 in the Y-direction.","The additional staircase structures 126 may be substantially similar to the staircase structures 118 (FIGS.","4A and 4B) of the secondary stack structure 116 (FIG.","4A and 4B), except that a width W7 of at least some of the additional staircase structures 126 may be less than the width of the staircase structures 118 of the secondary stack structure 116.For example, as shown in FIGS.","5A and 5B, the tertiary stack structure 122 may include at least one additional stadium structure 127 including a first additional staircase structure 126a exhibiting a generally negative slope, and a second additional staircase structure 126b opposing the first additional staircase structure 126a and exhibiting a generally positive slope.","The second additional staircase structure 126b may mirror the first additional staircase structure 126a.","The additional stadium structure 127 may be substantially similar to the stadium structure 119 (FIGS.","4A and 4B) of the secondary stack structure 116 (e.g., lengths, quantities, and arrangements of the steps 128 of the additional stadium structure 127 may be substantially similar to the lengths, quantities, and arrangements of the steps 120 of the stadium structure 119), except that the width W7 of the additional stadium structure 127 may be less than the width of the stadium structure 119 of the secondary stack structure 116.The width W4 of the interior section 131 may include the width W6 of the elongate middle region 129 and the width W7 of the additional staircase structures 126.With continued reference to FIG.","5A, the dimensions (e.g., length, width, height) and lateral position of the opening 124 may be selected to provide desired dimensions (e.g., the width W7) to the additional staircase structures 126, to provide desired continuity to the conductive structures 104 of the tiers 108 of the tertiary stack structure 122, and to provide sufficient space to extend routing structures through the opening 124, as described in further detail below.","The opening 124 may extend into an outer lateral surface 125 of the tertiary stack structure 122, may continuously extend across and between the additional staircase structures 126 of the tertiary stack structure 122, and may extend completely through the tertiary stack structure 122.By way of non-limiting example, as shown in FIG.","5A, the opening 124 may inwardly laterally extend a width W5 in the Y-direction into the each of the tiers 108 of the tertiary stack structure 122 from the outer lateral surface 125 of the tertiary stack structure 122, may continuously laterally extend in the X-direction across an entire length L2 of the additional stadium structure 127 of the tertiary stack structure 122, and may extend in the Z-direction completely through each of the tiers 108 of the tertiary stack structure 122.The opening 124 may be laterally confined between the opposing end sections 133 of the tertiary stack structure 122 in the X-direction, and may laterally extend in the X-direction from a top (e.g., a laterally inward end of tier 108a) of the first additional staircase structure 126a of the additional stadium structure 127 to a top (e.g., an opposing laterally inward end of tier 108a) of the second additional staircase structure 126b of the additional stadium structure 127.As shown in FIG.","5A, the conductive structures 104 of the tiers 108 of the tertiary stack structure 122 may individually inwardly laterally extend completely across the opposing end sections 133 of the tertiary stack structure 122 and the elongate middle region 129 of the interior section 131 of the tertiary stack structure 122, and may also inwardly laterally extend to the steps 128 of the additional staircase structures 126 of the interior section 131 of the tertiary stack structure 122.For each of the conductive structures 104, portions thereof laterally extending to and at least partially defining the additional staircase structures 126 may be integral and continuous with additional portions thereof laterally extending completely across the opposing end sections 133 of the tertiary stack structure 122 and the elongate middle region 129 of the interior section 131 of the tertiary stack structure 122.Accordingly, the conductive structures 104 of the tertiary stack structure 122 may individually form continuous conductive paths extending from the first end 110 of the tertiary stack structure 122 to the second, opposing end 112 of the tertiary stack structure 122.Each of the conductive structures 104 of the tertiary stack structure 122 may exhibit a different shape and at least one different dimension than each other of the conductive structures 104, or at least one of the conductive structures 104 may exhibit one or more of substantially the same shape and substantially the same dimensions as at least one other of the conductive structures 104.By way of non-limiting example, as shown in FIG.","5A, the conductive structures 104 of different tiers 108 may exhibit different shapes and different dimensions (e.g., different shapes and different dimensions associated with differences in the steps 128 of the additional staircase structures 126) than one another.","In additional embodiments, conductive structures 104 of two or more different tiers 108 may exhibit substantially the same shapes and substantially the same dimensions as one another.","The tertiary stack structure 122 (including the opposing end sections 133 and the interior section 131 thereof) may be formed from the secondary stack structure 116 (FIGS.","4A and 4B) using one or more conventional material removal processes, which are not described in detail herein.","For example, the secondary stack structure 116 may be subjected to at least one etching process (e.g., at least one dry etching process, such as at least one of an RIE process, a deep RIE process, a plasma etching process, a reactive ion beam etching process, and a chemically assisted ion beam etching process; at least one wet etching process, such as at least one of a hydrofluoric acid etching process, a buffered hydrofluoric acid etching process, and a buffered oxide etching process) to remove portions thereof and form the tertiary stack structure 122.Thus, in accordance with embodiments of the disclosure, a method of forming a semiconductor device structure comprises forming a stack structure comprising stacked tiers each comprising a conductive structure and an insulating structure longitudinally adjacent the conductive structure.","A masking structure is formed over a portion of the stack structure.","Portions of the stacked tiers of the stack structure not covered by the masking structure are removed to form a secondary stack structure comprising at least one staircase structure having steps comprising lateral ends of the stacked tiers.","The masking structure is removed after forming the secondary stack structure.","Portions of the secondary stack structure are removed to form a tertiary stack structure comprising opposing end sections exhibiting a first width and an interior section laterally intervening between the opposing end sections and exhibiting a second width smaller than the first width.","The interior section comprises at least one additional staircase structure exhibiting a smaller width than the staircase structure of the secondary stack structure and an elongate middle region directly laterally adjacent a first side of the at least one additional staircase structure.","Furthermore, in accordance with additional embodiments of the disclosure, a semiconductor device structure comprises stacked tiers each comprising a conductive structure and an insulating structure longitudinally adjacent the at least one conductive structure, at least one staircase structure having steps comprising lateral ends of the stacked tiers, and an opening laterally adjacent a first side of the at least one staircase structure and extending through the stacked tiers and continuously across an entire length of the at least one staircase structure.","Conductive structures of the stacked tiers laterally extend from the steps of the at least one staircase structure completely across a second side of the at least one staircase structure opposing the first side to form continuous conductive paths laterally extending completely across the stacked tiers.","While FIGS.","3A through 5B depict the opening 124 (FIGS.","5A and 5B) and the additional staircase structures 126 (FIGS.","5A and 5B) as being formed subsequent to the formation of the staircase structures 118 (FIGS.","3A and 3B), in additional embodiments, the opening 124 and the additional staircase structures 126 may be formed without previously forming the staircase structures 118 (FIGS.","3A and 3B).","By way of non-limiting example, upon forming the masking structure 114 (FIG.","2A) over the stack structure 102 (FIG.","2A), the stack structure 102 may be subjected to at least one material removal process to form the opening 124 therein, and then the resulting secondary (e.g., modified) stack structure may be subjected to at least one additional material removal process to form the tertiary stack structure 122 including the additional staircase structures 126 laterally inward of (e.g., adjacent) the opening 124 in the Y-direction.","The material removal process may, for example, include selectively covering one or more exposed portions (e.g., exposed peripheral portions) of the stack structure 102 with at least one masking material (e.g., a photoresist material, a hard mask material) and then removing (e.g., etching, such as anisotropically dry etching) one or more remaining exposed portions (e.g., an exposed central portion) of the stack structure 102 to form the modified stack structure including the opening 124 therein.","The additional material removal process may, for example, include removing one or more portions of the masking material and/or forming an additional masking material on or over one or more exposed portions of the secondary stack structure, removing (e.g., etching, such as anisotropically dry etching) one or more of the tiers 108 using the masking structure 114 and one or more of the remaining masking material (if any) and the additional masking material (if any), removing portions of the remaining masking material (if any) and/or the additional masking material (if any), etching at least another group of the tiers 108 (e.g., previously etched tiers 108 and one or more additional tiers 108) using the masking structure 114 and newly remaining portions of the masking material (if any) and/or the remaining additional masking material (if any) as etching masks, and so on, until the tertiary stack structure 122 including the additional staircase structures 126 is formed.","In addition, as previously described above, the tertiary stack structure 122 may be formed to exhibit a different configuration than that depicted in FIGS.","5A and 5B.","By way of non-limiting example and referring to FIG.","5C, in additional embodiments, a semiconductor device structure 100′ may include a tertiary stack structure 122′ exhibiting a different configuration than that of the tertiary stack structure 122 of the semiconductor device structure 100 shown in FIGS.","5A and 5B.","FIG.","5D is a top-down view of the semiconductor device structure 100′ at the processing stage depicted in FIG.","5C.","To avoid repetition, not all features shown in FIGS.","5C and 5D are described in detail herein.","Rather, unless described otherwise below, features designated by a primed (′) reference numeral (e.g., 104′, 106′, 108′, 110′, 112′) corresponding to a reference numeral (e.g., 104, 106, 108, 110, 112) of a feature described previously in relation to one or more of FIGS.","1A through 5B will be understood to be substantially similar to the feature described previously.","As shown in FIG.","5C, the tertiary stack structure 122′ may include opposing end sections 133′ and each of an opening 124′ and an interior section 131′ laterally intervening between the opposing end sections 133′ in the X-direction.","The interior section 131′ may be positioned laterally inward of (e.g., laterally adjacent) the opening 124′ in the Y-direction.","The interior section 131′ may include additional staircase structures 126′ exhibiting additional steps 128′ laterally inward of (e.g., laterally adjacent) the opening 124′ in the Y-direction, and an elongate middle region 129′ laterally adjacent the additional staircase structures 126′ in the Y-direction.","As described in further detail below, the additional staircase structures 126′ may exhibit different geometric configurations (e.g., different shapes, different dimensions) than the additional staircase structures 126 (FIG.","5A) of the tertiary stack structure 122 (FIG.","5A).","As depicted in FIG.","5C, the additional staircase structures 126′ of the tertiary stack structure 122′ may extend in parallel with one another in the X-direction.","A first of the additional staircase structures 126′ may be positioned laterally inward of (e.g., laterally adjacent) the opening 124′ in the Y-direction, and a second of the additional staircase structures 126′ may be positioned laterally between the first of the additional staircase structures 126′ and the elongate middle region 129′ in the Y-direction.","In addition, the additional staircase structures 126′ may exhibit different longitudinal positions (e.g., in the Z-direction) within the secondary tertiary stack structure 122′.","For example, steps 128′ of the first of the additional staircase structures 126′ may be at least partially defined by ends of a relatively lower group of tiers 108′, and steps 128′ of the second of the additional staircase structures 126′ may be at least partially defined by ends of a relatively higher group of the tiers 108′.","Accordingly, the steps 128′ of the first of the additional staircase structures 126′ may define contact regions for conductive structures 104′ of the relatively lower group of the tiers 108′, and the steps 128′ of the second of the additional staircase structures 126′ may define contact regions for the conductive structures 104′ of the relatively higher group of the tiers 108′.","In further embodiments, the tertiary stack structure 122′ may exhibit one or more of a different quantity and a different arrangement of the additional staircase structures 126′.","For example, the tertiary stack structure 122′ may include greater than two (2) additional staircase structures 126′ extending in parallel with one another in the X-direction, and/or one or more of the additional staircase structures 126′ may exhibit substantially the same longitudinal position (e.g., in the Z-direction) as one or more other of the additional staircase structures 126′.","The additional staircase structures 126′ of the tertiary stack structure 122′ may exhibit different geometric configurations than one another.","For example, as shown in FIG.","5C, the first of the additional staircase structures 126′ may exhibit a first shape extending in the X-direction, and the second of the additional staircase structures 126′ may exhibit a second, different shape extending in the X-direction.","The steps 128′ of the first of the additional staircase structures 126′ may be arranged in order such that steps 128′ of the first of the additional staircase structures 126′ directly laterally adjacent (e.g., in the X-direction) one another correspond to tiers 108′ of the first of the additional staircase structures 126′ directly longitudinally adjacent (e.g., in the Z-direction) one another.","The steps 128′ of the second of the additional staircase structures 126′ may be arranged out of order such that at least some steps 128′ of the second of the additional staircase structures 126′ directly laterally adjacent (e.g., in the X-direction) one another correspond to tiers 108′ of the second of the additional staircase structures 126′ not directly longitudinally adjacent (e.g., in the Z-direction) one another.","In additional embodiments, the additional staircase structures 126′ exhibit different geometric configurations than one another, but at least one of the additional staircase structures 126′ (e.g., the first of the additional staircase structures 126′, the second of the additional staircase structures 126′) exhibits a different geometric configuration (e.g., a different arrangement of the steps 128′ thereof) than that depicted in FIG.","5C.","In further embodiments, one or more of the additional staircase structures 126′ exhibits substantially the same geometric configuration as one or more other of the additional staircase structures 126′.","The additional staircase structures 126′ may be formed using conventional processes and conventional processing equipment, which are not described in detail herein.","As a non-limiting example, a secondary stack structure including multiple staircase structures extending in parallel in the X-direction may be subjected to at least one material removal process (e.g., an etching process, such as an anisotropic dry etching process) to remove portions of a laterally outermost (e.g., in the Y-direction) staircase structure and form the tertiary stack structure 122′ including the opening 124′ and the additional staircase structures 126′ laterally inward (e.g., in the Y-direction) of the opening 124′.","As another non-limiting example, upon forming the masking structure 114 (FIG.","2A) over the stack structure 102 (FIG.","2A), the stack structure 102 may be subjected to at least one material removal process (e.g., an etching process, such as an anisotropic dry etching process) to form the opening 124′ therein, and then the resulting secondary stack structure may be subjected to one or more additional material removal processes to form the tertiary stack structure 122′ including the additional staircase structures 126′ laterally inward of (e.g., in the Y-direction) the opening 124′.","The material removal process may, for example, include selectively covering one or more exposed portions (e.g., exposed peripheral portions) of the stack structure 102 with at least one masking material (e.g., a photoresist material, a hard mask material), and then removing (e.g., etching, such as anisotropically dry etching) one or more remaining exposed portions (e.g., an exposed central portion) of the stack structure 102 to form the secondary stack structure including the opening 124′ therein.","The additional material removal processes may, for example, include removing one or more portions of the masking material and/or selectively forming an additional masking material on or over one or more exposed portions of the secondary stack structure, removing (e.g., etching, such as anisotropically dry etching) a portion of one or more of the tiers 108′ using the masking structure 114 and one or more of the remaining masking material (if any) and the additional masking material (if any) to further modify the secondary stack structure, removing one or more portions of the remaining masking material (if any) and the additional masking material (if any) and/or selectively forming another masking material on or over one or more exposed portions of the further modified stack structure, removing portions of at least another group of the tiers 108′ (e.g., previously etched tiers 108′ and one or more additional tiers 108′) using the masking structure 114 and one or more of the newly remaining masking material (if any), the remaining additional masking material (if any), and the another masking material (if any) as etching masks, and so on, until the tertiary stack structure 122′ including the additional staircase structures 126′ is formed.","Referring next to FIG.","6A, which is a perspective view of the semiconductor device structure 100 depicted in FIG.","5A at a subsequent processing stage, contact structures 130 (e.g., plugs, vertical interconnections) may be formed on, over, and/or within one or more of the additional staircase structures 126 of the tertiary stack structure 122.The contact structures 130 may be coupled to the conductive structures 104 of the tiers 108 of the tertiary stack structure 122 at the steps 128 of the additional staircase structures 126.Each of the tiers 108 (e.g., each of the tiers 108a through 108g) may have one or more of the contact structures 130 coupled to the conductive structure 104 thereof, or less than all of the tiers 108 (e.g., less than all of the tiers 108a through 108g, such as only tiers 108b through 108g) may have one or more of the contact structures 130 coupled to the conductive structure 104 thereof.","Each of the tiers 108 including one or more of the contact structures 130 coupled to the conductive structure 104 thereof may include a single (e.g., only one) contact structure 130 coupled to the conductive structure 104 thereof, or may include multiple (e.g., more than one) contact structures 130 coupled to the conductive structure 104 thereof.","As a non-limiting example, the conductive structure 104 of one or more (e.g., each) of the tiers 108 may have at least one of the contact structures 130 coupled thereto at one or more of the steps 128 (e.g., one or more of the steps 128 of additional stadium structure 127, such as a step 128 of the first additional staircase structure 126a and/or a step 128 of the second additional staircase structure 126b) at least partially defined by the conductive structure 104.FIG.","6B is a top-down view of the semiconductor device structure 100 at the processing stage depicted in FIG.","6A.","The contact structures 130 may be formed on or over a single (e.g., only one) additional staircase structure 126 of the tertiary stack structure 122, or may be formed on or over multiple (e.g., more than one) additional staircase structures 126 of the tertiary stack structure 122.By way of non-limiting example, as shown in FIGS.","6A and 6B, within the additional stadium structure 127 of the tertiary stack structure 122, each of the steps 128 of the first additional staircase structure 126a may have a contact structure 130 formed thereon or thereover.","In additional embodiments, within the additional stadium structure 127, each of the steps 128 of the second additional staircase structure 126b may have a contact structure 130 formed thereon or thereover.","In further embodiments, at least a portion of the steps 128 of the first additional staircase structure 126a may each have a contact structure 130 formed thereon or thereover, and at least a portion of the steps 128 of the second additional staircase structure 126b may each have a contact structure 130 formed thereon or thereover.","By way of non-limiting example, steps 128 of the first additional staircase structure 126a defined by ends of a relatively higher (e.g., in the Z-direction) group of the tiers 108 may have contact structures 130 formed thereon, and steps 128 of the second additional staircase structure 126b defined by ends of a relatively lower (e.g., in the Z-direction) group of the tiers 108 may also have contact structures 130 formed thereon, or vice versa.","Contact structures 130 formed on or over the same additional staircase structure 126 (e.g., one of the first additional staircase structure 126a and the second additional staircase structure 126b) may be substantially uniformly (e.g., evenly) spaced apart from one another, or may be non-uniformly (e.g., unevenly) spaced apart from one another.","Contact structures 130 formed on or over the same additional staircase structure 126 may be formed to be generally centrally positioned (e.g., in at least the X-direction) on or over the steps 128 associated therewith.","Accordingly, distances between adjacent contact structures 130 located on or over the same additional staircase structure 126 may vary in accordance with variance in the lengths (e.g., in the X-direction) of the adjacent steps 128 associated with the adjacent contact structures 130.A pitch between adjacent contact structures 130 located on or over the same additional staircase structure 126 may be substantially similar to a pitch between the adjacent steps 128 associated with (e.g., coupled to) the adjacent contact structures 130.In addition, contact structures 130 formed on or over the same additional staircase structure 126 may be substantially aligned with one another (e.g., not offset from one another in the Y-direction), or may be at least partially non-aligned with one another (e.g., offset from one another in the Y-direction).","The contact structures 130 may be formed of and include at least one conductive material, such as a metal (e.g., tungsten, titanium, molybdenum, niobium, vanadium, hafnium, tantalum, chromium, zirconium, iron, ruthenium, osmium, cobalt, rhodium, iridium, nickel, palladium, platinum, copper, silver, gold, aluminum), a metal alloy (e.g., a cobalt-based alloy, an iron-based alloy, a nickel-based alloy, an iron- and nickel-based alloy, a cobalt- and nickel-based alloy, an iron- and cobalt-based alloy, a cobalt- and nickel- and iron-based alloy, an aluminum-based alloy, a copper-based alloy, a magnesium-based alloy, a titanium-based alloy, a steel, a low-carbon steel, a stainless steel), a conductive metal-containing material (e.g., a conductive metal nitride, a conductive metal silicide, a conductive metal carbide, a conductive metal oxide), a conductively-doped semiconductor material (e.g., conductively-doped silicon, conductively-doped germanium, conductively-doped silicon germanium), or combinations thereof.","Each of the contact structures 130 may have substantially the same material composition, or at least one of the contact structures 130 may have a different material composition than at least one other of the contact structures 130.The contact structures 130 may be formed on, over, and/or within one or more of the additional staircase structures 126 of the tertiary stack structure 122 using conventional processes (e.g., conventional deposition processes, conventional photolithography processes, conventional material removal processes) and conventional processing equipment, which are not described in detail herein.","Referring next to FIG.","7A, routing structures 132 may be coupled (e.g., attached, connected) to the contact structures 130 and at least one string driver device 134.The string driver device 134 may be formed of and include a plurality of switching devices (e.g., transistors, such as FETs).","Suitable designs and configurations for the at least one string driver device 134 are well known in the art, and are therefore not described in detail herein.","The string driver device 134 may, for example, underlie one or more sections (e.g., one or more of the opposing end sections 133, the interior section 131, or combinations thereof) of the tertiary stack structure 122.The combination of the contact structures 130 and the routing structures 132 may electrically connect the conductive structures 104 of one or more of the tiers 108 to the string driver device 134, facilitating application of voltages to the conductive structures 104 using the string driver device 134.In addition, the continuous conductive paths across the tertiary stack structure 122 (e.g., from the first end 110 to the second, opposing end 112) provided by the configurations of the conductive structures 104 may permit an individual (e.g., single) switching device (e.g., an individual transistor, such as an individual FET) of the string driver device 134 to drive voltages completely across (e.g., from the first end 110 to the second, opposing end 112) and/or in opposing directions across (e.g., toward the first end 110 and toward the second, opposing end 112) an individual tier 108 electrically connected thereto.","Accordingly, the configuration of the semiconductor device structure 100 (including the configurations of the tertiary stack structure 122, the contact structures 130, the routing structures 132, and the string driver devices 134 relative to one another) may permit an individual switching device of an individual string driver device 134 to simultaneously drive voltages to different (e.g., separate, distinct) semiconductor device components (e.g., different memory cell arrays) coupled to an individual tier 108 of the tertiary stack structure 122 at opposing ends (e.g., the first end 110, and the second, opposing end 112) of the tertiary stack structure 122.FIG.","7B is a top-down view of the semiconductor device structure 100 at the processing stage depicted in FIG.","7A.","The routing structures 132 may extend from the contact structures 130, through the opening 124, and to one or more of the string driver devices 134.By way of non-limiting example, as shown in FIG.","7A, each of the routing structures 132 may independently include a first portion 135a laterally extending from a contact structure 130 associated therewith to a location above the opening 124; a second portion 135b longitudinally extending from the first portion 135a, through the opening 124, and to a location below the opening 124; and a third portion 135c laterally extending from the second portion 135b to a string driver device 134.The first portion 135a of each of the routing structures 132 may laterally extend in a direction perpendicular to that of the tertiary stack structure 122.For example, as shown in FIGS.","7A and 7B, if the tertiary stack structure 122 laterally extends in the X-direction, the first portions 135a of the routing structures 132 may individually laterally extend in the Y-direction (e.g., the negative Y-direction).","The spacing (e.g., distance in the X-direction) between the first portions 135a of adjacent routing structures 132 may correspond to the spacing between the adjacent contact structures 130 associated with (e.g., coupled to) the adjacent routing structures 132.Each of the first portions 135a of the routing structures 132 may exhibit a different length in the Y-direction, or at least one of the first portions 135a of the routing structures 132 may exhibit substantially the same length in the Y-direction as at least one other of the first portions 135a of the routing structures 132.In some embodiments, each of the first portions 135a of the routing structures 132 exhibits a different length in the Y-direction.","For example, as shown in FIGS.","7A and 7B, in embodiments wherein the contact structures 130 are formed on or over a single (e.g., only one) additional staircase structure 126 (e.g., the first additional staircase structure 126a or the second additional staircase structure 126b), lengths of the first portions 135a of the routing structures 132 may progressively increase or may progressively decrease in a direction extending from a top of the additional staircase structure 126 to a bottom of the additional staircase structure 126.In additional embodiments, at least one of the first portions 135a of the routing structures 132 exhibits substantially the same length in the Y-direction as at least one other of the first portions 135a of the routing structures 132.For example, in embodiments wherein the contact structures 130 are formed on or over a single (e.g., only one) additional staircase structure 126 (e.g., the first additional staircase structure 126a or the second additional staircase structure 126b), a length of a first portion 135a of one routing structure 132 associated with the additional staircase structure 126 may be substantially the same as a length of a first portion 135a of another routing structure 132 associated with the additional staircase structure 126.As another example, in embodiments wherein the contact structures 130 are formed on or over multiple (e.g., more than one) additional staircase structures 126 (e.g., the first additional staircase structure 126a and the second additional staircase structure 126b), a length of a first portion 135a of a routing structure 132 associated with one of the additional staircase structures 126 (e.g., the first additional staircase structure 126a) may be substantially the same as a length of a first portion 135a of another routing structure 132 associated with another of the additional staircase structures 126 (e.g., the second additional staircase structure 126b).","The second portion 135b of each of the routing structures 132 may longitudinally extend in a direction perpendicular to that of the first portion 135a of each of the routing structures 132.For example, as shown in FIG.","7A, if the first portions 135a of the routing structures 132 individually laterally extend in the Y-direction, the second portions 135b of the routing structures 132 may individually longitudinally extend in the Z-direction (e.g., the negative Z-direction).","The spacing (e.g., distances in the X-direction and the Y-direction) between the second portions 135b of adjacent routing structures 132 may correspond to the spacing (e.g., in the X-direction) and lengths (e.g., in the Y-direction) of the first portions 133a of the adjacent routing structures 132.Each of the second portions 135b of the routing structures 132 may exhibit substantially the same length in the Z-direction, or at least one of the second portions 135b of the routing structures 132 may exhibit a different length in the Z-direction than at least one other of the second portions 135b of the routing structures 132.In some embodiments, each of the second portions 135b of the routing structures 132 exhibits substantially the same length in the Z-direction.","In additional embodiments, at least one of the second portions 135b of the routing structures 132 exhibits a different length in the Z-direction than at least one other of the second portions 135b of the routing structures 132.The third portion 135c of each of the routing structures 132 may laterally extend in a direction perpendicular to that of the second portion 135b of each of the routing structures 132 and parallel to that of the tertiary stack structure 122.For example, as shown in FIGS.","7A and 7B, if the second portions 135b of the routing structures 132 individually longitudinally extend in the Z-direction and the tertiary stack structure 122 laterally extends in the X-direction, the third portions 135c of the routing structures 132 may individually longitudinally extend in the X-direction (e.g., the negative X-direction and/or the positive X-direction).","The spacing (e.g., distances in the Y-direction and the Z-direction) between the third portions 135c of adjacent routing structures 132 may correspond to the lengths (e.g., in the X-direction) of the first portions 135a of the adjacent routing structures 132 and the lengths (e.g., in the Z-direction) of the second portions 135b of the adjacent routing structures 132.Each of the third portions 135c of the routing structures 132 may exhibit a different length in the X-direction, or at least one of the third portions 135c of the routing structures 132 may exhibit substantially the same length in the X-direction as at least one other of the third portions 135c of the routing structures 132.In some embodiments, each of the third portions 135c of the routing structures 132 exhibits a different length in the X-direction.","For example, as shown in FIGS.","7A and 7B, in embodiments wherein the contact structures 130 are formed on or over a single (e.g., only one) additional staircase structure 126 (e.g., the first additional staircase structure 126a or the second additional staircase structure 126b), lengths of the third portions 135c of the routing structures 132 may progressively increase or may progressively decrease in a direction extending from away of the additional staircase structures 126 in the Y-direction.","In additional embodiments, at least one of the third portions 135c of the routing structures 132 exhibits substantially the same length in the x-direction as at least one other of the third portions 135c of the routing structures 132.For example, in embodiments wherein the contact structures 130 are formed on or over a single (e.g., only one) additional staircase structure 126 (e.g., the first additional staircase structure 126a or the second additional staircase structure 126b), a length of a third portion 135c of one routing structure 132 associated with the additional staircase structure 126 may be substantially the same as a length of a third portion 135c of another routing structure 132 associated with the additional staircase structure 126.Third portions 135c of routing structures 132 associated with the same additional staircase structure 126 and exhibiting substantially the same length as one another may, for example, outwardly extend in the same direction (e.g., the negative X-direction or the positive X-direction).","As another example, in embodiments wherein the contact structures 130 are formed on or over multiple (e.g., more than one) additional staircase structures 126 (e.g., the first additional staircase structure 126a and the second additional staircase structure 126b), a length of a third portion 135c of a routing structure 132 associated with one of the additional staircase structures 126 (e.g., the first additional staircase structure 126a) may be substantially the same as a length of a first portion 135a of another routing structure 132 associated with another of the additional staircase structures 126 (e.g., the second additional staircase structure 126b).","Third portions 135c of routing structures 132 associated with different additional staircase structures 126 and exhibiting substantially the same length as one another may, for example, outwardly extend in opposite directions (e.g., the negative X-direction and the positive X-direction).","Each of the routing structures 132 may extend to the same string driver device 134, or at least one of the routing structures 132 may extend to a different string driver device 134 than at least one other of the routing structures 132.In some embodiments, each of the routing structures 132 to the same string driver device 134.In additional embodiments, a first group of the routing structures 132 extend to one string driver device 134, and a second group of the routing structures 132 extend to another string driver device 134.By way of non-limiting example, as shown in FIG.","7C, which is a top-down view of an alternate configuration of the semiconductor device structure 100 in accordance with an additional embodiment of the disclosure, a first group of the routing structures 132 may extend to a string driver device 134 (FIG.","7A) underlying the tertiary stack structure 122 and located proximate the first end 110 of the tertiary stack structure 122, and a second group of the routing structures 132 may extend to another string driver device 134 (FIG.","7A) underlying the tertiary stack structure 122 and located proximate the second, opposing end 112 of the tertiary stack structure 122.Extending the first group of the routing structures 132 and the second group of the routing structures 132 to different string driver device 134 may reduce the likelihood of capacitive coupling between adjacent routing structures 132 by increasing the spacing (e.g., distance) between one or more portions (e.g., the second portions 135b, the third portions 135c) of the adjacent routing structures 132.In addition, in further embodiments wherein two or more of the additional staircase structures 126 extend in parallel with one another in the X-direction (e.g., such as the arrangement of the additional staircase structures 126′ of the tertiary stack structure 122′ depicted in FIGS.","5C and 5D), the routing structures 132 associated with each of the additional staircase structures 126 may extend to the same string driver device 134, or one or more the routing structures 132 associated with at least one of the additional staircase structures 126 may extend to a different string driver device 134 than one or more other of the routing structures 132.Whether each of the routing structures 132 extend to the same string driver device 134 (e.g., as depicted in FIGS.","7A and 7B), or whether at least some of the routing structures 132 extend to different string driver devices 134 than one another (e.g., as depicted in FIG.","7C), the continuous conductive paths across the tertiary stack structure 122 provided by the configurations of the conductive structures 104 permit an individual switching device (e.g., an individual transistor, such as an individual FET) of an individual string driver device 134 to drive voltages completely across (e.g., from the first end 110 to the second, opposing end 112) and/or in opposing directions across (e.g., toward the first end 110 and toward the second, opposing end 112) an individual tier 108 electrically connected thereto.","The routing structures 132 may be formed of and include at least one conductive material, such as a metal (e.g., W, Ti, Mo, Nb, V, Hf, Ta, Cr, Zr, Fe, Ru, Os, Co, Rh, Ir, Ni, Pd, Pt, Cu, Ag, Au, Al), a metal alloy (e.g., a Co-based alloy, an Fe-based alloy, a Ni-based alloy, an Fe-and Ni-based alloy, a Co- and Ni-based alloy, an Fe- and Cu-based alloy, a Co- and Ni- and Fe-based alloy, an Al-based alloy, a Cu-based alloy, a Mg-based alloy, a Ti-based alloy, a steel, a low-carbon steel, a stainless steel), a conductive metal-containing material (e.g., a conductive metal nitride, a conductive metal silicide, a conductive metal carbide, a conductive metal oxide), a conductively-doped semiconductor material (e.g., conductively-doped silicon, conductively-doped germanium, conductively-doped silicon germanium), or combinations thereof.","Each of the routing structures 132 may have substantially the same material composition, or at least one of the routing structures 132 may have a different material composition than at least one other of the routing structures 132.Synergy The routing structures 132 and the string driver devices 134 may each independently be formed using conventional processes (e.g., conventional deposition processes, conventional photolithography processes, conventional material removal processes) and conventional processing equipment, which are not described in detail herein.","Furthermore, in accordance with embodiments of the disclosure, a semiconductor device structure comprises a stack structure, contact structures, and routing structures.","The stack structure has opposing end sections exhibiting a first width and an interior section laterally intervening between the opposing end sections and exhibiting a second width smaller than the first width.","The stack structure comprises stacked tiers each comprising a conductive structure and an insulating structure longitudinally adjacent the conductive structure, a stadium structure within the interior section and comprising opposing staircase structures each having steps comprising lateral ends of the stacked tiers, and an elongate middle region directly laterally adjacent a first side of the stadium structure within the interior section and laterally extending completely between the opposing end sections.","The contact structures are coupled to the conductive structures of the stacked tiers at the steps of one or more of the opposing staircase structures of the stadium structure.","The routing structures are coupled to the contact structures and extend from the contact structures, through an opening directly laterally adjacent a second side of the stadium structure, and to at least one string driver device underlying the stack structure.","Semiconductor devices (e.g., memory devices, such as 3D NAND Flash memory devices) including semiconductor device structures (e.g., the semiconductor device structure 100) in accordance with embodiments of the disclosure may be used in embodiments of electronic systems of the disclosure.","For example, FIG.","8 is a block diagram of an illustrative electronic system 800 according to embodiments of disclosure.","The electronic system 800 may comprise, for example, a computer or computer hardware component, a server or other networking hardware component, a cellular telephone, a digital camera, a personal digital assistant (PDA), portable media (e.g., music) player, a WiFi or cellular-enabled tablet such as, for example, an iPad® or SURFACE® tablet, an electronic book, a navigation device, etc.","The electronic system 800 includes at least one memory device 802.The at least one memory device 802 may include, for example, an embodiment of the semiconductor device structure 100 shown in FIGS.","7A and 7B.","The electronic system 800 may further include at least one electronic signal processor device 804 (often referred to as a “microprocessor”).","The electronic signal processor device 804 may, optionally, include a semiconductor device structure similar to an embodiment of the semiconductor device structure 100 shown in FIGS.","7A and 7B.","The electronic system 800 may further include one or more input devices 806 for inputting information into the electronic system 800 by a user, such as, for example, a mouse or other pointing device, a keyboard, a touchpad, a button, or a control panel.","The electronic system 800 may further include one or more output devices 808 for outputting information (e.g., visual or audio output) to a user such as, for example, a monitor, a display, a printer, an audio output jack, a speaker, etc.","In some embodiments, the input device 806 and the output device 808 may comprise a single touch screen device that can be used both to input information to the electronic system 800 and to output visual information to a user.","The one or more input devices 806 and output devices 808 may communicate electrically with at least one of the memory device 802 and the electronic signal processor device 804.Thus, in accordance with embodiments of the disclosure, an electronic system comprises at least one semiconductor device structure comprising a stack structure exhibiting opposing end sections having a first width and an interior section laterally intervening between the opposing end sections and having a second width smaller than the first width.","The stack structure comprises stacked tiers each comprising a conductive structure and an insulating structure longitudinally adjacent the conductive structure, a stadium structure within the interior section and comprising opposing staircase structures having steps comprising lateral ends of the stacked tiers, and an elongate middle region directly adjacent a side of the stadium structure within the interior section and extending completely between the opposing ends sections.","The methods and structures of the disclosure may decrease the number of switching devices and interconnections required to drive voltages completely across and/or in different directions across a conductive structure of a tier as compared to conventional methods and structures associated with various semiconductor devices (e.g., memory devices, such as 3D NAND Flash memory).","The methods and structures of the disclosure may permit a single switching device to drive an access line (e.g., word line) of a memory cell array from a more centralized (e.g., middle, non-edge) location, which may reduce resistance x current (RC) delay by one-fourth (¼) as compared to conventional methods and structures.","In addition, the methods and structures of the disclosure may permit the interconnections utilized to drive voltages across different tiers to be spaced farther apart from one another without increasing the lateral dimensions of the tiers, which may reduce undesirable capacitive coupling between the interconnections as compared to conventional methods and structures while maintaining or even decreasing feature sizes.","The methods and structures of the disclosure may reduce costs (e.g., manufacturing costs, material costs) and performance, scalability, efficiency, and simplicity as compared to conventional methods and structures.","While the disclosure is susceptible to various modifications and alternative forms, specific embodiments have been shown by way of example in the drawings and have been described in detail herein.","However, the disclosure is not limited to the particular forms disclosed.","Rather, the disclosure is to cover all modifications, equivalents, and alternatives falling within the scope of the following appended claims and their legal equivalents."]],"string":"[\n [\n \"METHODS OF FORMING SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICE STRUCTURES INCLUDING STAIRCASE STRUCTURES\",\n \"A semiconductor device structure comprises stacked tiers each comprising a conductive structure and an insulating structure longitudinally adjacent the at least one conductive structure, at least one staircase structure having steps comprising lateral ends of the stacked tiers, and an opening laterally adjacent a first side of the at least one staircase structure and extending through the stacked tiers and continuously across an entire length of the at least one staircase structure.\",\n \"Conductive structures of the stacked tiers laterally extend from the steps of the at least one staircase structure completely across a second side of the at least one staircase structure opposing the first side to form continuous conductive paths laterally extending completely across the stacked tiers.\",\n \"Additional semiconductor device structures, methods of forming semiconductor device structures, and electronic systems are also described.\"\n ],\n [\n \"1.A method of forming a semiconductor device structure, comprising: forming a stack structure comprising stacked tiers each comprising a conductive structure and an insulating structure longitudinally adjacent the conductive structure; forming a masking structure over a portion of the stack structure; removing portions of the stacked tiers of the stack structure not covered by the masking structure to form a secondary stack structure comprising at least one staircase structure having steps comprising lateral ends of the stacked tiers; removing the masking structure after forming the secondary stack structure; removing portions of the secondary stack structure to form a tertiary stack structure comprising: opposing end sections exhibiting a first width; an interior section laterally intervening between the opposing end sections and exhibiting a second width smaller than the first width, the interior section comprising at least one additional staircase structure exhibiting a smaller width than the at least one staircase structure of the secondary stack structure and an elongate middle region directly laterally adjacent a first side of the at least one additional staircase structure; and an opening laterally adjacent a second side of the at least one additional staircase structure opposing the first side and extending through the tertiary stack structure and continuously across an entire length of the at least one additional staircase structure, additional conductive structures of the tertiary stack structure laterally extending from additional steps of the at least one additional staircase structure and completely across the elongate middle region of the interior section; coupling at least one contact structure to one or more of the additional conductive structures of the tertiary stack structure at one or more of the additional steps of the at least one additional staircase structure; and forming at least one routing structure coupled to the at least one contact structure and extending from the at least one contact structure, through the opening, and to at least one string driver device.\",\n \"2.The method of claim 1, wherein removing portions of the secondary stack structure comprises removing portions of the at least one staircase structure to form the at least one additional staircase structure and at least one opening directly laterally adjacent a second side of the at least one additional staircase structure opposing the first side of the at least one additional staircase structure.\",\n \"3.The method of claim 2, wherein removing portions of the at least one staircase structure to form the at least one additional staircase structure and the at least one opening comprises forming the at least one opening to longitudinally extend completely through the stacked tiers and to continuously laterally extend across an entire length of the at least one additional staircase structure.\",\n \"4.The method of claim 1, wherein: removing portions of the stacked tiers of the stack structure not covered by the masking structure to form a secondary stack structure comprising at least one staircase structure comprises forming at least one stadium structure comprising a first staircase structure and a second staircase structure that mirrors the first staircase structure; and removing portions of the secondary stack structure to form a tertiary stack structure comprises removing portions of the at least one stadium structure to form at least one additional stadium structure exhibiting a smaller width than the at least one stadium structure and comprising a first additional staircase structure and a second additional staircase structure that mirrors the first additional staircase structure.\",\n \"5.The method of claim 1, further comprising: coupling at least one contact structure to the conductive structure of one or more of the stacked tiers at one or more steps of the at least one additional staircase structure; and forming at least one routing structure coupled to and extending between the at least one contact structure and at least one string driver device.\",\n \"6.The method of claim 1, wherein coupling at least one contact structure to one or more of the additional conductive structures comprises forming multiple contact structures on multiple additional steps of the at least one additional staircase structure.\",\n \"7.The method of claim 6, wherein forming the multiple contact structures on multiple additional steps of the at least one additional staircase structure comprises aligning the multiple contact structures on the multiple additional steps of the at least one additional staircase structure.\",\n \"8.The method of claim 1, wherein forming at least one routing structure comprises: forming a first portion of the at least one routing structure to outwardly laterally extend from the at least one contact structure in a direction perpendicular to the tertiary stack structure; forming a second portion of the at least one routing structure to longitudinally extend away from the first portion in an additional direction perpendicular to the direction of the first portion; and forming a third portion of the at least one routing structure to outwardly laterally extend away from the second portion and to the at least one string driver device in another direction perpendicular to the additional direction of the second portion and parallel to the tertiary stack structure.\",\n \"9.The method of claim 1, wherein: coupling at least one contact structure to one or more of the additional conductive structures of the tertiary stack structure comprises coupling multiple contact structures to multiple additional conductive structures of the tertiary stack structure; and forming at least one routing structure comprises forming multiple routing structures each independently coupled to and extending between the multiple contact structures and the at least one string driver device.\",\n \"10.The method of claim 9, wherein forming multiple routing structures each independently coupled to and extending between the multiple contact structures and the at least one string driver device comprises coupling the multiple routing structures to switching devices of only one string driver device.\",\n \"11.A method of forming a semiconductor device structure, comprising: forming stacked tiers each comprising a conductive structure and an insulating structure longitudinally adjacent the conductive structure; removing portions of the stacked tiers to form at least one staircase structure having steps comprising lateral ends of the stacked tiers; forming an opening laterally adjacent a first side of the at least one staircase structure and extending through the stacked tiers and continuously across an entire length of the at least one staircase structure, conductive structures of the stacked tiers laterally extending from the steps of the at least one staircase structure completely across a second side of the at least one staircase structure opposing the first side to form continuous conductive paths laterally extending completely across the stacked tiers; coupling at least one contact structure to the conductive structure of one or more of the stacked tiers at one or more of the steps of the at least one staircase structure; and coupling at least one routing structure to the at least one contact structure, the at least one routing structure extending from the at least one contact structure, through the opening, and to at least one string driver device.\",\n \"12.The method of claim 11, wherein removing portions of the stacked tiers to form at least one staircase structure comprises: forming a hard mask material over a portion of the stacked tiers; selectively etching the stacked tiers using to the hard mask material to form a stadium structure comprising a first staircase structure and a second staircase structure mirroring the first staircase structure.\",\n \"13.The method of claim 11, wherein removing portions of the stacked tiers to form at least one staircase structure comprises removing portions of the stacked tiers to form at least two staircase structures extending parallel to one another in a first lateral direction and positioned adjacent one another in a second lateral direction.\",\n \"14.The method of claim 13, wherein removing portions of the stacked tiers to form at least two staircase structures comprises forming the at least two staircase structures to exhibit different geometric configurations than one another.\",\n \"15.The method of claim 13, wherein removing portions of the stacked tiers to form at least two staircase structures comprises forming at least one of the at least two staircase structures to comprise steps directly laterally adjacent one another and comprising lateral ends of tiers not directly longitudinally adjacent one another.\",\n \"16.The method of claim 11, wherein coupling at least one contact structure to the conductive structure of one or more of the stacked tiers at one or more of the steps of the at least one staircase structure comprises coupling multiple, substantially aligned contact structures to the steps of the at least one staircase structure.\",\n \"17.The method of claim 11, wherein coupling at least one routing structure to the at least one contact structure comprises forming the at least one routing structure to comprise: at least one first portion coupled to the at least one contact structure and outwardly laterally extending in a direction oriented perpendicular to the stacked tiers; at least one second portion coupled to the at least one first portion and longitudinally extending through the opening in an additional direction oriented perpendicular to the direction of the at least one first portion; and at least one third portion coupled to the at least one second portion and outwardly laterally extending in another direction oriented perpendicular to the additional direction of the at least one second portion and parallel to the stacked tiers.\",\n \"18.The method of claim 11, wherein coupling at least one routing structure to the at least one contact structure comprises coupling multiple routing structures to multiple contact structures, some of the multiple routing structures extending to a first string driver device underlying the stacked tiers, and other of the multiple routing structures extending to a second string driver device underlying the stacked tiers.\",\n \"19.A method of forming a semiconductor device structure, comprising: forming a stack structure comprising tiers each comprising a conductive structure and an insulating structure longitudinally adjacent the conductive structure; forming an opening extending through the stack structure; removing remaining portions of the stack structure laterally adjacent the opening to form at least one staircase structure laterally adjacent the opening, conductive structures of the tiers of the stack structure terminating at steps of the at least one staircase structure and forming continuous conductive paths laterally extending completely across the tiers; coupling contact structures to the steps of the at least one staircase structure; and coupling routing structures to the contact structures, the routing structures extending from contact structures, through the opening, and to one or more string driver devices.\",\n \"20.The method of claim 19, wherein: forming an opening extending through the stack structure comprises: forming a masking material over a portion of the stack structure; and removing another portion of the stack structure not covered by the masking material; and removing remaining portions of the stack structure laterally adjacent the opening comprises: removing a portion of the masking material; and selectively etching the stack structure using a remaining portion of the masking material.\"\n ],\n [\n \" BACKGROUND A continuing goal of the semiconductor industry has been to increase the memory density (e.g., the number of memory cells per memory die) of memory devices, such as non-volatile memory devices (e.g., NAND Flash memory devices).\",\n \"One way of increasing memory density in non-volatile memory devices is to utilize vertical memory array (also referred to as a “three-dimensional (3D) memory array”) architectures.\",\n \"A typical vertical memory array includes semiconductor pillars extending through openings in tiers of conductive structures (e.g., word line plates, control gate plates) and dielectric materials at each junction of the semiconductor pillars and the conductive structures.\",\n \"Such a configuration permits a greater number of switching devices (e.g., transistors) to be located in a unit of die area by building the array upwards (e.g., longitudinally, vertically) on a die, as compared to structures with conventional planar (e.g., two-dimensional) arrangements of transistors.\",\n \"Conventional vertical memory arrays include electrical connections between the conductive structures and access lines (e.g., word lines) so that memory cells in the vertical memory array can be uniquely selected for writing, reading, or erasing operations.\",\n \"One method of forming such an electrical connection includes forming a so-called “staircase” or “stair step” structure at edges of the tiers of conductive structures.\",\n \"The staircase structure includes individual “steps” defining contact regions of the conductive structures upon which contact structures can be positioned to provide electrical access to the conductive structures.\",\n \"Unfortunately, conventional staircase structure fabrication techniques can segment one or more conductive structures of a given tier, resulting in discontinuous conductive paths through the tier that can require the use of multiple (e.g., more than one) switching devices to drive voltages completely across the tier and/or in opposing directions across the tier.\",\n \"In addition, as the number of tiers of conductive structures increases the number of interconnections required to drive voltages across the tiers also increases, requiring undesirable increases in the lateral dimensions of the tiers and/or of the steps of the staircase structures associated with the tiers to accommodate the increased number of interconnections and circumvent undesirable capacitive coupling between the interconnections.\",\n \"There remains a need for new semiconductor device structures, such as memory array blocks for 3D non-volatile memory devices (e.g., 3D NAND Flash memory devices), as well as for associated memory devices and electronic systems including the semiconductor device structures, and simple, cost-efficient methods of forming semiconductor device structures.\"\n ],\n [\n \" BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIGS.\",\n \"1A through 7B are perspective ( FIGS.\",\n \"1A, 2A, 3A, 4A, 5A, 5C, 6A, and 7A ) and top-down ( FIGS.\",\n \"1B, 2B, 3B, 4B, 5B, 5D, 6B, 7B, and 7C ) views illustrating methods of forming a semiconductor device structure, in accordance with embodiments of the disclosure.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"8 is a schematic block diagram illustrating an electronic system in accordance with embodiments of the disclosure.\",\n \"detailed-description description=\\\"Detailed Description\\\" end=\\\"lead\\\"?\"\n ],\n [\n \"CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION This application is a divisional of U.S. patent application Ser.\",\n \"No.\",\n \"15/095,401, filed Apr.\",\n \"11, 2016, pending, the disclosure of which is hereby incorporated herein in its entirety by this reference.\",\n \"TECHNICAL FIELD The disclosure, in various embodiments, relates generally to the field of semiconductor device design and fabrication.\",\n \"More specifically, the disclosure relates to semiconductor device structures including staircase structures, and to related methods and electronic systems.\",\n \"BACKGROUND A continuing goal of the semiconductor industry has been to increase the memory density (e.g., the number of memory cells per memory die) of memory devices, such as non-volatile memory devices (e.g., NAND Flash memory devices).\",\n \"One way of increasing memory density in non-volatile memory devices is to utilize vertical memory array (also referred to as a “three-dimensional (3D) memory array”) architectures.\",\n \"A typical vertical memory array includes semiconductor pillars extending through openings in tiers of conductive structures (e.g., word line plates, control gate plates) and dielectric materials at each junction of the semiconductor pillars and the conductive structures.\",\n \"Such a configuration permits a greater number of switching devices (e.g., transistors) to be located in a unit of die area by building the array upwards (e.g., longitudinally, vertically) on a die, as compared to structures with conventional planar (e.g., two-dimensional) arrangements of transistors.\",\n \"Conventional vertical memory arrays include electrical connections between the conductive structures and access lines (e.g., word lines) so that memory cells in the vertical memory array can be uniquely selected for writing, reading, or erasing operations.\",\n \"One method of forming such an electrical connection includes forming a so-called “staircase” or “stair step” structure at edges of the tiers of conductive structures.\",\n \"The staircase structure includes individual “steps” defining contact regions of the conductive structures upon which contact structures can be positioned to provide electrical access to the conductive structures.\",\n \"Unfortunately, conventional staircase structure fabrication techniques can segment one or more conductive structures of a given tier, resulting in discontinuous conductive paths through the tier that can require the use of multiple (e.g., more than one) switching devices to drive voltages completely across the tier and/or in opposing directions across the tier.\",\n \"In addition, as the number of tiers of conductive structures increases the number of interconnections required to drive voltages across the tiers also increases, requiring undesirable increases in the lateral dimensions of the tiers and/or of the steps of the staircase structures associated with the tiers to accommodate the increased number of interconnections and circumvent undesirable capacitive coupling between the interconnections.\",\n \"There remains a need for new semiconductor device structures, such as memory array blocks for 3D non-volatile memory devices (e.g., 3D NAND Flash memory devices), as well as for associated memory devices and electronic systems including the semiconductor device structures, and simple, cost-efficient methods of forming semiconductor device structures.\",\n \"BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIGS.\",\n \"1A through 7B are perspective (FIGS.\",\n \"1A, 2A, 3A, 4A, 5A, 5C, 6A, and 7A) and top-down (FIGS.\",\n \"1B, 2B, 3B, 4B, 5B, 5D, 6B, 7B, and 7C) views illustrating methods of forming a semiconductor device structure, in accordance with embodiments of the disclosure.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"8 is a schematic block diagram illustrating an electronic system in accordance with embodiments of the disclosure.\",\n \"DETAILED DESCRIPTION Semiconductor device structures (e.g., memory array blocks) including staircase structures are described, as are related methods and electronic systems.\",\n \"In some embodiments, a semiconductor device structure includes a stack structure having opposing end sections exhibiting a first width and an interior section laterally intervening between the opposing end sections and exhibiting a second width smaller than the first width.\",\n \"The stack structure includes stacked tiers each comprising at least one conductive structure and at least one insulating structure longitudinally adjacent the conductive structure, one or more staircase structures within the interior section and including steps defined by lateral ends of the stacked tiers, and an elongate middle region laterally adjacent the one or more staircase structures within the interior section and laterally extending completely between the opposing end sections.\",\n \"The conductive structures of the stacked tiers may form continuous conductive paths laterally extending completely across the stacked tiers.\",\n \"The semiconductor device structure may also include contact structures coupled to the conductive structures of the stacked tiers at steps of the one or more staircase structures, and routing structures coupled to the contact structures and extending from the contact structures, through an opening adjacent the one or more staircase structures, and to at least one string driver device.\",\n \"The structures and methods of the disclosure may permit individual (e.g., single) switching devices (e.g., transistors, such as field effect transistors (FETs)) of a string driver device electrically connected to one or more conductive structures of an individual tier to drive voltages completely across and/or in opposing directions across the tier.\",\n \"In addition, the structures and methods of the disclosure may permit one or more portions of the interconnections (e.g., one or more portions of the routing structures, one or more portions of the contact structures) utilized to drive voltages across different tiers to be spaced farther apart from one another without increasing the lateral dimensions of the tiers so as to reduce the risk of undesirable capacitive coupling between the interconnections while maintaining desirable feature dimensions.\",\n \"The structures and methods of the disclosure may decrease the number of switching devices and interconnections required to effectively operate a memory device, and may increase one or more of memory device performance, scalability, efficiency, and simplicity as compared to many conventional structures and methods.\",\n \"The following description provides specific details, such as material compositions and processing conditions, in order to provide a thorough description of embodiments of the present disclosure.\",\n \"However, a person of ordinary skill in the art would understand that the embodiments of the present disclosure may be practiced without employing these specific details.\",\n \"Indeed, the embodiments of the present disclosure may be practiced in conjunction with conventional semiconductor fabrication techniques employed in the industry.\",\n \"In addition, the description provided below does not form a complete process flow for manufacturing a semiconductor device (e.g., a memory device).\",\n \"The semiconductor device structures described below do not form a complete semiconductor device.\",\n \"Only those process acts and structures necessary to understand the embodiments of the present disclosure are described in detail below.\",\n \"Additional acts to form a complete semiconductor device from the semiconductor device structures may be performed by conventional fabrication techniques.\",\n \"Drawings presented herein are for illustrative purposes only, and are not meant to be actual views of any particular material, component, structure, device, or system.\",\n \"Variations from the shapes depicted in the drawings as a result, for example, of manufacturing techniques and/or tolerances, are to be expected.\",\n \"Thus, embodiments described herein are not to be construed as being limited to the particular shapes or regions as illustrated, but include deviations in shapes that result, for example, from manufacturing.\",\n \"For example, a region illustrated or described as box-shaped may have rough and/or nonlinear features, and a region illustrated or described as round may include some rough and/or linear features.\",\n \"Moreover, sharp angles that are illustrated may be rounded, and vice versa.\",\n \"Thus, the regions illustrated in the figures are schematic in nature, and their shapes are not intended to illustrate the precise shape of a region and do not limit the scope of the present claims.\",\n \"The drawings are not necessarily to scale.\",\n \"Additionally, elements common between figures may retain the same numerical designation.\",\n \"As used herein, the terms “vertical”, “longitudinal”, “horizontal”, and “lateral” are in reference to a major plane of a structure and are not necessarily defined by earth's gravitational field.\",\n \"A “horizontal” or “lateral” direction is a direction that is substantially parallel to the major plane of the structure, while a “vertical” or “longitudinal” direction is a direction that is substantially perpendicular to the major plane of the structure.\",\n \"The major plane of the structure is defined by a surface of the structure having a relatively large area compared to other surfaces of the structure.\",\n \"As used herein, spatially relative terms, such as “beneath,” “below,” “lower,” “bottom,” “above,” “upper,” “top,” “front,” “rear,” “left,” “right,” and the like, may be used for ease of description to describe one element's or feature's relationship to another element(s) or feature(s) as illustrated in the figures.\",\n \"Unless otherwise specified, the spatially relative terms are intended to encompass different orientations of the materials in addition to the orientation depicted in the figures.\",\n \"For example, if materials in the figures are inverted, elements described as “below” or “beneath” or “under” or “on bottom of” other elements or features would then be oriented “above” or “on top of” the other elements or features.\",\n \"Thus, the term “below” can encompass both an orientation of above and below, depending on the context in which the term is used, which will be evident to one of ordinary skill in the art.\",\n \"The materials may be otherwise oriented (e.g., rotated 90 degrees, inverted, flipped) and the spatially relative descriptors used herein interpreted accordingly.\",\n \"As used herein, the singular forms “a,” “an,” and “the” are intended to include the plural forms as well, unless the context clearly indicates otherwise.\",\n \"As used herein, “and/or” includes any and all combinations of one or more of the associated listed items.\",\n \"As used herein, the term “configured” refers to a size, shape, material composition, and arrangement of one or more of at least one structure and at least one apparatus facilitating operation of one or more of the structure and the apparatus in a pre-determined way.\",\n \"As used herein, the phrase “coupled to” refers to structures operatively connected with each other, such as electrically connected through a direct ohmic connection or through an indirect connection (e.g., via another structure).\",\n \"As used herein, the term “substantially” in reference to a given parameter, property, or condition means and includes to a degree that one of ordinary skill in the art would understand that the given parameter, property, or condition is met with a degree of variance, such as within acceptable manufacturing tolerances.\",\n \"By way of example, depending on the particular parameter, property, or condition that is substantially met, the parameter, property, or condition may be at least 90.0% met, at least 95.0% met, at least 99.0% met, or even at least 99.9% met.\",\n \"As used herein, the term “about” in reference to a given parameter is inclusive of the stated value and has the meaning dictated by the context (e.g., it includes the degree of error associated with measurement of the given parameter).\",\n \"FIGS.\",\n \"1A through 7C are simplified perspective (FIGS.\",\n \"1A, 2A, 3A, 4A, 5A, 5C, 6A, and 7A) and top-down (FIGS.\",\n \"1B, 2B, 3B, 4B, 5B, 5D, 6B, 7B, and 7C) views illustrating embodiments of methods of forming a semiconductor device structure including a staircase structure, such as a memory array structure (e.g., a memory array block) for a 3D non-volatile memory device (e.g., a 3D NAND Flash memory device).\",\n \"With the description provided below, it will be apparent to one of ordinary skill in the art that the methods described herein may be used in various devices.\",\n \"In other words, the methods of the disclosure may be used whenever it is desired to form a semiconductor device including a staircase structure.\",\n \"Referring to FIG.\",\n \"1A, a semiconductor device structure 100 may include a stack structure 102 exhibiting an alternating sequence of conductive structures 104 and insulating structures 106 arranged in tiers 108.Each of the tiers 108 may include one of the conductive structures 104 and one of the insulating structures 106.For clarity and ease of understanding of the drawings and related description, FIG.\",\n \"1A shows the stack structure 102 as including seven (7) tiers 108 (i.e., tiers 108a through 108g) of the conductive structures 104 and the insulating structures 106.However, the stack structure 102 may include a different number of tiers 108.For example, in additional embodiments, the stack structure 102 may include greater than seven (7) tiers 108 (e.g., greater than or equal to ten (10) tiers 108, greater than or equal to fifteen (15) tiers 108, greater than or equal to twenty-five (25) tiers 108, greater than or equal to fifty (50) tiers 108, greater than or equal to one hundred (100) tiers 108) of the conductive structures 104 and the insulating structures 106, or may include less than seven (7) tiers 108 (e.g., less than or equal to five (5) tiers 108, less than or equal to three (3) tiers 108) of the conductive structures 104 and the insulating structures 106.FIG.\",\n \"1B is a top-down view of the semiconductor device structure 100 at the processing stage depicted in FIG.\",\n \"1A.\",\n \"The conductive structures 104 may be formed of and include at least one conductive material, such as a metal (e.g., tungsten, titanium, molybdenum, niobium, vanadium, hafnium, tantalum, chromium, zirconium, iron, ruthenium, osmium, cobalt, rhodium, iridium, nickel, palladium, platinum, copper, silver, gold, aluminum), a metal alloy (e.g., a cobalt-based alloy, an iron-based alloy, a nickel-based alloy, an iron- and nickel-based alloy, a cobalt- and nickel-based alloy, an iron- and cobalt-based alloy, a cobalt- and nickel- and iron-based alloy, an aluminum-based alloy, a copper-based alloy, a magnesium-based alloy, a titanium-based alloy, a steel, a low-carbon steel, a stainless steel), a conductive metal-containing material (e.g., a conductive metal nitride, a conductive metal silicide, a conductive metal carbide, a conductive metal oxide), a conductively-doped semiconductor material (e.g., conductively-doped silicon, conductively-doped germanium, conductively-doped silicon germanium), or combinations thereof.\",\n \"Each of the conductive structures 104 may independently include a substantially homogeneous distribution or a substantially heterogeneous distribution of the at least one conductive material.\",\n \"As used herein, the term “homogeneous distribution” means amounts of a material do not vary throughout different portions (e.g., different lateral and longitudinal portions) of a structure.\",\n \"Conversely, as used herein, the term “heterogeneous distribution” means amounts of a material vary throughout different portions of a structure.\",\n \"Amounts of the material may vary stepwise (e.g., change abruptly), or may vary continuously (e.g., change progressively, such as linearly, parabolically) throughout different portions of the structure.\",\n \"In some embodiments, each of the conductive structures 104 exhibits a substantially homogeneous distribution of conductive material.\",\n \"In additional embodiments, at least one of the conductive structures 104 exhibits a substantially heterogeneous distribution of at least one conductive material.\",\n \"The conductive structure 104 may, for example, be formed of and include a stack of at least two different conductive materials.\",\n \"The conductive structures 104 may each be substantially planar, and may each independently exhibit any desired thickness.\",\n \"Each of the conductive structures 104 may be substantially the same (e.g., exhibit substantially the same material composition, material distribution, size, and shape) as one another, or at least one of the conductive structures 104 may be different (e.g., exhibit one or more of a different material composition, a different material distribution, a different size, and a different shape) than at least one other of the conductive structures 104.In some embodiments, each of the conductive structures 104 is substantially the same as each other of the conductive structures 104.The insulating structures 106 may be formed of and include at least one insulating material, such as one or more of an oxide material (e.g., silicon dioxide, phosphosilicate glass, borosilicate glass, borophosphosilicate glass, fluorosilicate glass, titanium dioxide, zirconium dioxide, hafnium dioxide, tantalum oxide, magnesium oxide, aluminum oxide, or a combination thereof), a nitride material (e.g., silicon nitride), an oxynitride material (e.g., silicon oxynitride), and amphorous carbon.\",\n \"Each of the insulating structures 106 may independently include a substantially homogeneous distribution or a substantially heterogeneous distribution of the at least one insulating material.\",\n \"In some embodiments, each of the insulating structures 106 exhibits a substantially homogeneous distribution of insulating material.\",\n \"In additional embodiments, at least one of the insulating structures 106 exhibits a substantially heterogeneous distribution of at least one conductive material.\",\n \"One or more of the insulating structures 106 may, for example, be formed of and include a stack (e.g., laminate) of at least two different insulating materials.\",\n \"In some embodiments, each of the insulating structures 106 is formed of and includes silicon dioxide.\",\n \"The insulating structures 106 may each be substantially planar, and may each independently exhibit a desired thickness.\",\n \"In addition, each of the insulating structures 106 may be substantially the same (e.g., exhibit substantially the same material composition, material distribution, size, and shape) as one another, or at least one of the insulating structures 106 may be different (e.g., exhibit one or more of a different material composition, a different material distribution, a different size, and a different shape) than at least one other of the insulating structures 106.In some embodiments, each of the insulating structures 106 is substantially the same as each other of the insulating structures 106.As shown in FIG.\",\n \"1A, in some embodiments, the alternating sequence of the conductive structures 104 and the insulating structures 106 begins with one of the insulating structures 106.In additional embodiments, the conductive structures 104 and the insulating structures 106 exhibit a different arrangement relative to one another.\",\n \"By way of non-limiting example, the conductive structures 104 and the insulating structures 106 may be arranged in an alternating sequence beginning with one of the conductive structures 104.A semiconductor device (e.g., a vertical memory device, such as a 3D NAND Flash memory device) employing a semiconductor device structure having such a configuration may have little or no difference in terms of functionality or operability as compared to a semiconductor device employing the arrangement of the conductive structures 104 and the insulating structures 106 shown in FIG.\",\n \"1A.\",\n \"In some embodiments, each of the tiers 108 includes one of the conductive structures 104 on or over one of the insulating structures 106.In additional embodiments, each of the tiers 108 includes one of the insulating structures 106 on or over one of the conductive structures 104.The stack structure 102 may exhibit an elongate shape (e.g., a rectangular shape) extending (e.g., in the X-direction) between a first end 110 and a second, opposing end 112.The first end 110 and the second, opposing end 112 of the stack structure 102 may each be, or may each later become, coupled to other components of a semiconductor device (e.g., a memory device) including the semiconductor device structure 100, such as one or more memory cell arrays (e.g., vertical memory cell arrays).\",\n \"The stack structure 102, including the each of the tiers 108 thereof, may be formed using conventional processes (e.g., conventional deposition processes, conventional material removal processes) and conventional processing equipment, which are not described in detail herein.\",\n \"By way of non-limiting example, the conductive structures 104 and the insulating structures 106 may be formed through one or more of in situ growth, spin-on coating, blanket coating, chemical vapor deposition (CVD), plasma enhanced chemical vapor deposition (PECVD), atomic layer deposition (ALD), and physical vapor deposition (PVD).\",\n \"Referring next to FIG.\",\n \"2A, a masking structure 114 may be formed on or over the stack structure 102.The masking structure 114 may be formed of and include at least one material (e.g., at least one hard mask material) suitable for use as an etch mask to pattern portions of the stack structure 102 (e.g., portions of the tiers 108, including portions of the conductive structures 104 and portions of the insulating structures 106, remaining uncovered by the masking structure 114) to form at least one staircase structure, as described in further detail below.\",\n \"By way of non-limiting example, the masking structure 114 may be formed of and include at least one of amorphous carbon, silicon, a silicon oxide, a silicon nitride, a silicon oxycarbide, aluminum oxide, and a silicon oxynitride.\",\n \"The masking structure 114 may be homogeneous (e.g., may comprise a single material layer), or may be heterogeneous (e.g., may comprise a stack exhibiting at least two different material layers).\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"2B is a top-down view of the semiconductor device structure 100 at the processing stage depicted in FIG.\",\n \"2A.\",\n \"The position and dimensions of the masking structure 114 may be selected at least partially based on desired positions and desired dimensions of one or more staircase structures to be subsequently formed in the stack structure 102.By way of non-limiting example, as shown in FIG.\",\n \"2A, the masking structure 114 may be non-centrally positioned on or over the stack structure 102 in the Y-direction, may have a width W2 less than the width W1 of the stack structure 102, and may have substantially the same length L1 as the stack structure 102.Widths of portions of the stack structure 102 remaining uncovered by (e.g., not underlying) the masking structure 114 may correspond to widths of the one or more staircase structures to be subsequently formed in the stack structure 102.In additional embodiments, the masking structure 114 may exhibit one or more of a different position (e.g., a different position in one or more of the X-direction and the Y-direction), a different width W2, and a different length (e.g., a length less than the length L1).\",\n \"As a non-limiting example, the masking structure 114 may be non-centrally positioned on or over the stack structure 102 in the Y-direction, may be centrally positioned on or over the stack structure 102 in the X-direction, may have a width W2 less than the width W1 of the stack structure 102, and may have a length less than the length L1 of the stack structure 102.As another non-limiting example, the masking structure 114 may be centrally positioned over the stack structure 102 in each of the Y-direction and the X-direction, may have a width W2 less than the width W1 of the stack structure 102, and may have a length less than the length L1 of the stack structure 102.As a further non-limiting example, the masking structure 114 may be centrally positioned over the stack structure 102 in each of the Y-direction and the X-direction, may have a width W2 less than the width W1 of the stack structure 102, and may have substantially the same length L1 as the stack structure 102.The masking structure 114 may be formed on or over the stack structure 102 to any desired thickness.\",\n \"The masking structure 114 may be formed using conventional processes (e.g., conventional deposition processes, such as at least one of in situ growth, spin-on coating, blanket coating, CVD, PECVD, ALD, and PVD, conventional photolithography processes, conventional material removal processes) and conventional processing equipment, which are not described in detail herein.\",\n \"Referring to next to FIG.\",\n \"3A, portions of the stack structure 102 (FIG.\",\n \"2A) (e.g., portions of one of more of the tiers 108) remaining uncovered by the masking structure 114 may be subjected to at least one material removal process (e.g., one or more of a trimming process and a chopping process) to form a secondary stack structure 116.The secondary stack structure 116 may include one or more staircase structures 118 each independently formed of and including one or more steps 120.The steps 120 of the one or more staircase structures 118 may be at least partially defined by exposed portions of one or more of the tiers 108 remaining following the at least one material removal process.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"3B is a top-down view of the semiconductor device structure 100 at the processing stage depicted in FIG.\",\n \"3A.\",\n \"The secondary stack structure 116 may include a single (e.g., only one) staircase structure 118, or may include multiple (e.g., more than one) staircase structures 118.In some embodiments, the secondary stack structure 116 includes multiple staircase structures 118.By way of non-limiting example, as shown in FIG.\",\n \"3A, the secondary stack structure 116 may include at least one stadium structure 119 including a first staircase structure 118a exhibiting a generally negative slope, and a second staircase structure 118b opposing the first staircase structure 118a and exhibiting a generally positive slope.\",\n \"The second staircase structure 118b may mirror the first staircase structure 118a.\",\n \"As used herein, the term “mirror” means and includes that at least two structures are mirror images of one another.\",\n \"For example, the first staircase structure 118a and the second staircase structure 118b may exhibit the substantially same size and substantially the same shape, but the first staircase structure 118a may outwardly extend in a direction (e.g., the negative X-direction) that opposes a direction (e.g., the positive X-direction) in which the second staircase structure 118b outwardly extends.\",\n \"In some embodiments, the first staircase structure 118a and the second staircase structure 118b are substantially similar to one another.\",\n \"Multiple staircase structures 118 (e.g., the first staircase structure 118a and the second staircase structure 118b) may facilitate redundant and/or alternative means of connecting to one or more of the tiers 108 following subsequent processing of the semiconductor device structure 100, as described in further detail below.\",\n \"In additional embodiments, the secondary stack structure 116 may exhibit one or more of a different number and different configuration of the staircase structures 118.As a non-limiting example, the secondary stack structure 116 may include multiple (e.g., more than one) staircase structures 118 exhibiting one or more generally negative slopes extending in parallel with one another in the X-direction, may include multiple staircase structures 118 exhibiting one or more generally positive slopes extending in parallel with one another in the X-direction, and/or may include multiple staircase structures 118 extending in parallel with one another in the X-direction wherein at least one of the multiple staircase structures 118 exhibits a generally negative slope and at least one other of the multiple staircase structures 118 exhibits a generally positive slope.\",\n \"In such embodiments, the multiple staircase structures 118 may be directly adjacent one another in the Y-direction, and/or may be separated (e.g., spaced apart) from one another in the Y-direction.\",\n \"As another non-limiting example, the secondary stack structure 116 may include multiple staircase structures 118 exhibiting one or more generally negative slopes extending in series with one another in the X-direction, and/or may include multiple staircase structures 118 exhibiting one or more generally positive slopes extending in series with one another in the X-direction.\",\n \"In such embodiments, the multiple staircase structures 118 may be directly adjacent one another in the X-direction, and/or may be separated from one another in the X-direction.\",\n \"As a further non-limiting example, the secondary stack structure 116 may include one or more staircase structures 118 exhibiting one or more generally negative slopes (e.g., the first staircase structure 118a) but not one or more staircase structures 118 exhibiting one or more generally positive slopes (e.g., the second staircase structure 118b may be omitted).\",\n \"As an additional non-limiting example, the secondary stack structure 116 may include may include one or more staircase structures 118 exhibiting one or more generally positive slopes (e.g., the second staircase structure 118b) but not one or more staircase structures 118 exhibiting one or more generally negative slopes (e.g., the first staircase structure 118a may be omitted).\",\n \"As a yet additional non-limiting example, the secondary stack structure 116 may include multiple stadium structures 119 extending parallel to one another in the X-direction, and/or may include multiple stadium structures 119 extending series with one another in the X-direction.\",\n \"In such embodiments, the multiple stadium structures 119 may be directly adjacent one another (e.g., in the Y-direction and/or in the X-direction), and/or may be separated from one another (e.g., in the Y-direction and/or in the X-direction).\",\n \"In embodiments wherein the secondary stack structure 116 includes multiple staircase structures 118 (e.g., multiple stadium structures 119), each of the multiple staircase structures 118 may exhibit substantially the same geometric configuration (e.g., substantially the same shape, and substantially the same dimensions), or at least one of the multiple staircase structures 118 may exhibit a different geometric configuration (e.g., a different shape, and/or at least one different dimension) than at least one other of the multiple staircase structures 118.In addition, if the secondary stack structure 116 includes multiple staircase structures 118 (e.g., multiple stadium structures 119), each of the multiple staircase structures 118 may exhibit substantially the same longitudinal position (e.g., in the Z-direction) within the secondary stack structure 116, or at least one of the multiple staircase structures 118 may exhibit a different longitudinal position within the secondary stack structure 116 than at least one other of the multiple staircase structures 118.Each of the staircase structures 118 included in the secondary stack structure 116 may independently include a desired number of steps 120.The number of steps 120 included in one or more of the staircase structures 118 may be substantially the same as (e.g., equal to) or may be different than (e.g., less than, or greater than) the number of tiers 108 in the secondary stack structure 116.In some embodiments, the number of steps 120 included in each of the staircase structures 118 is less than the number of tiers 108 in the secondary stack structure 116.As a non-limiting example, as shown in FIG.\",\n \"3B, each of the staircase structures 118 may include (5) steps 120 at least partially defined by ends of a portion (e.g., tiers 108b through 108f) of the seven (7) tiers 108 (e.g., tiers 108a through 108g) of the secondary stack structure 116.In additional embodiments, one or more of the staircase structures 118 may include a different number of steps 120 (e.g., less than five (5) steps 120, greater than five (5) steps 120).\",\n \"By way of non-limiting example, if the secondary stack structure 116 includes seven (7) tiers 108, at least one of the staircase structures 118 may include three (3) steps 120 at least partially defined by ends of a relatively lower group of the tiers 108 (e.g., tier 108d through tier 108f), and at least one other of the staircase structures 118 may include two (2) steps 120 at least partially defined by ends of a relatively higher group of the tiers 108 (e.g., tier 108b and tier 108c).\",\n \"The dimensions of each of the steps 120 may independently be tailored to desired dimensions and positions of one or more structures (e.g., conductive contact structures) and/or one or more openings (e.g., recesses) to be formed in, on, over, and/or adjacent to the steps 120 during subsequent processing of the semiconductor device structure 100, as described in further detail below.\",\n \"In some embodiments, each of the steps 120 exhibits substantially the same dimensions (e.g., substantially the same width, substantially the same length, and substantially the same height) as each other of the steps 120.In additional embodiments, at least one of the steps 120 exhibits different dimensions (e.g., one or more of a different width, a different length, and a different height) than at least one other of the steps 120.The staircase structures 118 may be formed using conventional processes (e.g., conventional photolithography processes, conventional material removal processes) and conventional processing equipment, which are not described in detail herein.\",\n \"By way of non-limiting example, a photoresist structure may be formed on or over at least uncovered portions of the stack structure 102 (FIGS.\",\n \"2A and 2B), the photoresist structure may be photolithographically processed (e.g., photoexposed and developed) to remove at least one width thereof, one or more of the tiers 108 may be etched (e.g., anisotropically etched, such as anisotropically dry etched) using the masking structure 114 and remaining portions of the photoresist structure as etching masks, the photoresist structure may be subjected to additional photolithographic processing to remove at least one additional width thereof, at least another group of the tiers 108 (e.g., previously etched tiers 108 and one or more additional tiers 108) may be etched using the masking structure 114 and newly remaining portions of the photoresist structure as etching masks, and so on, until the secondary stack structure 116 including the one or more staircase structures 118 is formed.\",\n \"If the secondary stack structure 116 includes multiple staircase structures 118 (e.g., staircase structures 118 extending in parallel in the X-direction, and/or staircase structures 118 extending in series in the X-direction), such as multiple stadium structures 119 (e.g., multiple stadium structures 119 extending in parallel in the X-direction, and/or multiple stadium structures 119 extending in series in the X-direction), different staircase structures 118 may be formed using a single material removal process, or may be formed using multiple material removal processes.\",\n \"For example, a first staircase structure 118 may be formed using a first material removal process similar to that described above, and then a second staircase structure 118 may be formed using a second material removal process similar to that described above.\",\n \"A region of the stack structure 102 (FIGS.\",\n \"2A and 2B) corresponding to a desired position of the second staircase structure 118 may, for example, be at least partially covered with a masking material (e.g., a photoresist material, a hard mask material) during the first material removal process, and the masking material may be at least partially removed before and/or during the second first material removal process.\",\n \"Referring next to FIG.\",\n \"4A, the masking structure 114 (FIGS.\",\n \"3A and 3B) may be removed.\",\n \"The masking structure 114 may be selectively removed relative to the secondary stack structure 116.The removal of the masking structure 114 may expose portions of the secondary stack structure 116 previously covered by the masking structure 114, such as portions of the secondary stack structure 116 laterally adjacent (e.g., in the Y-direction) the staircase structures 118 (e.g., laterally adjacent the stadium structure 119 including the first staircase structure 118a and the second staircase structure 118b).\",\n \"The masking structure 114 may be removed using one or more conventional material removal processes, which are not described in detail herein.\",\n \"By way of non-limiting example, the masking structure 114 may be selectively removed through at least one conventional etching process (e.g., a conventional wet etching process, a conventional dry etching process).\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"4B is a top-down view of the semiconductor device structure 100 at the processing stage depicted in FIG.\",\n \"4A.\",\n \"Referring next to FIG.\",\n \"5A, portions of the secondary stack structure 116 (FIGS.\",\n \"4A and 4B) may be removed to form a tertiary stack structure 122 exhibiting at least one opening 124 therein.\",\n \"The opening 124, which may also be characterized as a recess, may longitudinally extend through (e.g., completely through) the tertiary stack structure 122, and may laterally extend into and across the tertiary stack structure 122 to form additional staircase structures 126 exhibiting relatively smaller widths than the staircase structures 118 (FIGS.\",\n \"4A and 4B) of the secondary stack structure 116.The opening 124 may be positioned laterally outward (e.g., in the Y-direction) of the additional staircase structures 126 and may continuously laterally extend (e.g., in the X-direction) across entire lengths of the additional staircase structures 126.FIG.\",\n \"5B is a top-down view of the semiconductor device structure 100 at the processing stage depicted in FIG.\",\n \"5A, including dashed lines showing the lateral dimensions of the secondary stack structure 116 (FIG.\",\n \"4A).\",\n \"As shown in FIG.\",\n \"5B, the tertiary stack structure 122 may exhibit substantially the same length L1 as the secondary stack structure 116 (FIGS.\",\n \"4A and 4B), but may exhibit smaller widths than the width W1 of the secondary stack structure 116.Opposing end sections 133 of the tertiary stack structure 122 laterally outward of the opening 124 in the X-direction and proximate the first end 110 and the second, opposing end 112 of the tertiary stack structure 122 may exhibit a first width W3 smaller than the width W1 of the of the secondary stack structure 116.In addition, an interior section 131 laterally intervening between the opposing end sections 133 in the X-direction and laterally inward of (e.g., laterally adjacent) the opening 124 in the Y-direction may exhibit a second with W4 smaller than the first width W3.The interior section 131 of the tertiary stack structure 122 may comprise the additional staircase structures 126 and an elongate middle region 129 laterally adjacent the additional staircase structures 126 in the Y-direction.\",\n \"The elongate middle region 129 may exhibit a width W6 in the Y-direction, and may continuously laterally extend from and between the opposing end sections 133 of the tertiary stack structure 122 in the X-direction.\",\n \"The additional staircase structures 126 may include steps 128, and may laterally intervene between the elongate middle region 129 and the opening 124 in the Y-direction.\",\n \"The additional staircase structures 126 may be substantially similar to the staircase structures 118 (FIGS.\",\n \"4A and 4B) of the secondary stack structure 116 (FIG.\",\n \"4A and 4B), except that a width W7 of at least some of the additional staircase structures 126 may be less than the width of the staircase structures 118 of the secondary stack structure 116.For example, as shown in FIGS.\",\n \"5A and 5B, the tertiary stack structure 122 may include at least one additional stadium structure 127 including a first additional staircase structure 126a exhibiting a generally negative slope, and a second additional staircase structure 126b opposing the first additional staircase structure 126a and exhibiting a generally positive slope.\",\n \"The second additional staircase structure 126b may mirror the first additional staircase structure 126a.\",\n \"The additional stadium structure 127 may be substantially similar to the stadium structure 119 (FIGS.\",\n \"4A and 4B) of the secondary stack structure 116 (e.g., lengths, quantities, and arrangements of the steps 128 of the additional stadium structure 127 may be substantially similar to the lengths, quantities, and arrangements of the steps 120 of the stadium structure 119), except that the width W7 of the additional stadium structure 127 may be less than the width of the stadium structure 119 of the secondary stack structure 116.The width W4 of the interior section 131 may include the width W6 of the elongate middle region 129 and the width W7 of the additional staircase structures 126.With continued reference to FIG.\",\n \"5A, the dimensions (e.g., length, width, height) and lateral position of the opening 124 may be selected to provide desired dimensions (e.g., the width W7) to the additional staircase structures 126, to provide desired continuity to the conductive structures 104 of the tiers 108 of the tertiary stack structure 122, and to provide sufficient space to extend routing structures through the opening 124, as described in further detail below.\",\n \"The opening 124 may extend into an outer lateral surface 125 of the tertiary stack structure 122, may continuously extend across and between the additional staircase structures 126 of the tertiary stack structure 122, and may extend completely through the tertiary stack structure 122.By way of non-limiting example, as shown in FIG.\",\n \"5A, the opening 124 may inwardly laterally extend a width W5 in the Y-direction into the each of the tiers 108 of the tertiary stack structure 122 from the outer lateral surface 125 of the tertiary stack structure 122, may continuously laterally extend in the X-direction across an entire length L2 of the additional stadium structure 127 of the tertiary stack structure 122, and may extend in the Z-direction completely through each of the tiers 108 of the tertiary stack structure 122.The opening 124 may be laterally confined between the opposing end sections 133 of the tertiary stack structure 122 in the X-direction, and may laterally extend in the X-direction from a top (e.g., a laterally inward end of tier 108a) of the first additional staircase structure 126a of the additional stadium structure 127 to a top (e.g., an opposing laterally inward end of tier 108a) of the second additional staircase structure 126b of the additional stadium structure 127.As shown in FIG.\",\n \"5A, the conductive structures 104 of the tiers 108 of the tertiary stack structure 122 may individually inwardly laterally extend completely across the opposing end sections 133 of the tertiary stack structure 122 and the elongate middle region 129 of the interior section 131 of the tertiary stack structure 122, and may also inwardly laterally extend to the steps 128 of the additional staircase structures 126 of the interior section 131 of the tertiary stack structure 122.For each of the conductive structures 104, portions thereof laterally extending to and at least partially defining the additional staircase structures 126 may be integral and continuous with additional portions thereof laterally extending completely across the opposing end sections 133 of the tertiary stack structure 122 and the elongate middle region 129 of the interior section 131 of the tertiary stack structure 122.Accordingly, the conductive structures 104 of the tertiary stack structure 122 may individually form continuous conductive paths extending from the first end 110 of the tertiary stack structure 122 to the second, opposing end 112 of the tertiary stack structure 122.Each of the conductive structures 104 of the tertiary stack structure 122 may exhibit a different shape and at least one different dimension than each other of the conductive structures 104, or at least one of the conductive structures 104 may exhibit one or more of substantially the same shape and substantially the same dimensions as at least one other of the conductive structures 104.By way of non-limiting example, as shown in FIG.\",\n \"5A, the conductive structures 104 of different tiers 108 may exhibit different shapes and different dimensions (e.g., different shapes and different dimensions associated with differences in the steps 128 of the additional staircase structures 126) than one another.\",\n \"In additional embodiments, conductive structures 104 of two or more different tiers 108 may exhibit substantially the same shapes and substantially the same dimensions as one another.\",\n \"The tertiary stack structure 122 (including the opposing end sections 133 and the interior section 131 thereof) may be formed from the secondary stack structure 116 (FIGS.\",\n \"4A and 4B) using one or more conventional material removal processes, which are not described in detail herein.\",\n \"For example, the secondary stack structure 116 may be subjected to at least one etching process (e.g., at least one dry etching process, such as at least one of an RIE process, a deep RIE process, a plasma etching process, a reactive ion beam etching process, and a chemically assisted ion beam etching process; at least one wet etching process, such as at least one of a hydrofluoric acid etching process, a buffered hydrofluoric acid etching process, and a buffered oxide etching process) to remove portions thereof and form the tertiary stack structure 122.Thus, in accordance with embodiments of the disclosure, a method of forming a semiconductor device structure comprises forming a stack structure comprising stacked tiers each comprising a conductive structure and an insulating structure longitudinally adjacent the conductive structure.\",\n \"A masking structure is formed over a portion of the stack structure.\",\n \"Portions of the stacked tiers of the stack structure not covered by the masking structure are removed to form a secondary stack structure comprising at least one staircase structure having steps comprising lateral ends of the stacked tiers.\",\n \"The masking structure is removed after forming the secondary stack structure.\",\n \"Portions of the secondary stack structure are removed to form a tertiary stack structure comprising opposing end sections exhibiting a first width and an interior section laterally intervening between the opposing end sections and exhibiting a second width smaller than the first width.\",\n \"The interior section comprises at least one additional staircase structure exhibiting a smaller width than the staircase structure of the secondary stack structure and an elongate middle region directly laterally adjacent a first side of the at least one additional staircase structure.\",\n \"Furthermore, in accordance with additional embodiments of the disclosure, a semiconductor device structure comprises stacked tiers each comprising a conductive structure and an insulating structure longitudinally adjacent the at least one conductive structure, at least one staircase structure having steps comprising lateral ends of the stacked tiers, and an opening laterally adjacent a first side of the at least one staircase structure and extending through the stacked tiers and continuously across an entire length of the at least one staircase structure.\",\n \"Conductive structures of the stacked tiers laterally extend from the steps of the at least one staircase structure completely across a second side of the at least one staircase structure opposing the first side to form continuous conductive paths laterally extending completely across the stacked tiers.\",\n \"While FIGS.\",\n \"3A through 5B depict the opening 124 (FIGS.\",\n \"5A and 5B) and the additional staircase structures 126 (FIGS.\",\n \"5A and 5B) as being formed subsequent to the formation of the staircase structures 118 (FIGS.\",\n \"3A and 3B), in additional embodiments, the opening 124 and the additional staircase structures 126 may be formed without previously forming the staircase structures 118 (FIGS.\",\n \"3A and 3B).\",\n \"By way of non-limiting example, upon forming the masking structure 114 (FIG.\",\n \"2A) over the stack structure 102 (FIG.\",\n \"2A), the stack structure 102 may be subjected to at least one material removal process to form the opening 124 therein, and then the resulting secondary (e.g., modified) stack structure may be subjected to at least one additional material removal process to form the tertiary stack structure 122 including the additional staircase structures 126 laterally inward of (e.g., adjacent) the opening 124 in the Y-direction.\",\n \"The material removal process may, for example, include selectively covering one or more exposed portions (e.g., exposed peripheral portions) of the stack structure 102 with at least one masking material (e.g., a photoresist material, a hard mask material) and then removing (e.g., etching, such as anisotropically dry etching) one or more remaining exposed portions (e.g., an exposed central portion) of the stack structure 102 to form the modified stack structure including the opening 124 therein.\",\n \"The additional material removal process may, for example, include removing one or more portions of the masking material and/or forming an additional masking material on or over one or more exposed portions of the secondary stack structure, removing (e.g., etching, such as anisotropically dry etching) one or more of the tiers 108 using the masking structure 114 and one or more of the remaining masking material (if any) and the additional masking material (if any), removing portions of the remaining masking material (if any) and/or the additional masking material (if any), etching at least another group of the tiers 108 (e.g., previously etched tiers 108 and one or more additional tiers 108) using the masking structure 114 and newly remaining portions of the masking material (if any) and/or the remaining additional masking material (if any) as etching masks, and so on, until the tertiary stack structure 122 including the additional staircase structures 126 is formed.\",\n \"In addition, as previously described above, the tertiary stack structure 122 may be formed to exhibit a different configuration than that depicted in FIGS.\",\n \"5A and 5B.\",\n \"By way of non-limiting example and referring to FIG.\",\n \"5C, in additional embodiments, a semiconductor device structure 100′ may include a tertiary stack structure 122′ exhibiting a different configuration than that of the tertiary stack structure 122 of the semiconductor device structure 100 shown in FIGS.\",\n \"5A and 5B.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"5D is a top-down view of the semiconductor device structure 100′ at the processing stage depicted in FIG.\",\n \"5C.\",\n \"To avoid repetition, not all features shown in FIGS.\",\n \"5C and 5D are described in detail herein.\",\n \"Rather, unless described otherwise below, features designated by a primed (′) reference numeral (e.g., 104′, 106′, 108′, 110′, 112′) corresponding to a reference numeral (e.g., 104, 106, 108, 110, 112) of a feature described previously in relation to one or more of FIGS.\",\n \"1A through 5B will be understood to be substantially similar to the feature described previously.\",\n \"As shown in FIG.\",\n \"5C, the tertiary stack structure 122′ may include opposing end sections 133′ and each of an opening 124′ and an interior section 131′ laterally intervening between the opposing end sections 133′ in the X-direction.\",\n \"The interior section 131′ may be positioned laterally inward of (e.g., laterally adjacent) the opening 124′ in the Y-direction.\",\n \"The interior section 131′ may include additional staircase structures 126′ exhibiting additional steps 128′ laterally inward of (e.g., laterally adjacent) the opening 124′ in the Y-direction, and an elongate middle region 129′ laterally adjacent the additional staircase structures 126′ in the Y-direction.\",\n \"As described in further detail below, the additional staircase structures 126′ may exhibit different geometric configurations (e.g., different shapes, different dimensions) than the additional staircase structures 126 (FIG.\",\n \"5A) of the tertiary stack structure 122 (FIG.\",\n \"5A).\",\n \"As depicted in FIG.\",\n \"5C, the additional staircase structures 126′ of the tertiary stack structure 122′ may extend in parallel with one another in the X-direction.\",\n \"A first of the additional staircase structures 126′ may be positioned laterally inward of (e.g., laterally adjacent) the opening 124′ in the Y-direction, and a second of the additional staircase structures 126′ may be positioned laterally between the first of the additional staircase structures 126′ and the elongate middle region 129′ in the Y-direction.\",\n \"In addition, the additional staircase structures 126′ may exhibit different longitudinal positions (e.g., in the Z-direction) within the secondary tertiary stack structure 122′.\",\n \"For example, steps 128′ of the first of the additional staircase structures 126′ may be at least partially defined by ends of a relatively lower group of tiers 108′, and steps 128′ of the second of the additional staircase structures 126′ may be at least partially defined by ends of a relatively higher group of the tiers 108′.\",\n \"Accordingly, the steps 128′ of the first of the additional staircase structures 126′ may define contact regions for conductive structures 104′ of the relatively lower group of the tiers 108′, and the steps 128′ of the second of the additional staircase structures 126′ may define contact regions for the conductive structures 104′ of the relatively higher group of the tiers 108′.\",\n \"In further embodiments, the tertiary stack structure 122′ may exhibit one or more of a different quantity and a different arrangement of the additional staircase structures 126′.\",\n \"For example, the tertiary stack structure 122′ may include greater than two (2) additional staircase structures 126′ extending in parallel with one another in the X-direction, and/or one or more of the additional staircase structures 126′ may exhibit substantially the same longitudinal position (e.g., in the Z-direction) as one or more other of the additional staircase structures 126′.\",\n \"The additional staircase structures 126′ of the tertiary stack structure 122′ may exhibit different geometric configurations than one another.\",\n \"For example, as shown in FIG.\",\n \"5C, the first of the additional staircase structures 126′ may exhibit a first shape extending in the X-direction, and the second of the additional staircase structures 126′ may exhibit a second, different shape extending in the X-direction.\",\n \"The steps 128′ of the first of the additional staircase structures 126′ may be arranged in order such that steps 128′ of the first of the additional staircase structures 126′ directly laterally adjacent (e.g., in the X-direction) one another correspond to tiers 108′ of the first of the additional staircase structures 126′ directly longitudinally adjacent (e.g., in the Z-direction) one another.\",\n \"The steps 128′ of the second of the additional staircase structures 126′ may be arranged out of order such that at least some steps 128′ of the second of the additional staircase structures 126′ directly laterally adjacent (e.g., in the X-direction) one another correspond to tiers 108′ of the second of the additional staircase structures 126′ not directly longitudinally adjacent (e.g., in the Z-direction) one another.\",\n \"In additional embodiments, the additional staircase structures 126′ exhibit different geometric configurations than one another, but at least one of the additional staircase structures 126′ (e.g., the first of the additional staircase structures 126′, the second of the additional staircase structures 126′) exhibits a different geometric configuration (e.g., a different arrangement of the steps 128′ thereof) than that depicted in FIG.\",\n \"5C.\",\n \"In further embodiments, one or more of the additional staircase structures 126′ exhibits substantially the same geometric configuration as one or more other of the additional staircase structures 126′.\",\n \"The additional staircase structures 126′ may be formed using conventional processes and conventional processing equipment, which are not described in detail herein.\",\n \"As a non-limiting example, a secondary stack structure including multiple staircase structures extending in parallel in the X-direction may be subjected to at least one material removal process (e.g., an etching process, such as an anisotropic dry etching process) to remove portions of a laterally outermost (e.g., in the Y-direction) staircase structure and form the tertiary stack structure 122′ including the opening 124′ and the additional staircase structures 126′ laterally inward (e.g., in the Y-direction) of the opening 124′.\",\n \"As another non-limiting example, upon forming the masking structure 114 (FIG.\",\n \"2A) over the stack structure 102 (FIG.\",\n \"2A), the stack structure 102 may be subjected to at least one material removal process (e.g., an etching process, such as an anisotropic dry etching process) to form the opening 124′ therein, and then the resulting secondary stack structure may be subjected to one or more additional material removal processes to form the tertiary stack structure 122′ including the additional staircase structures 126′ laterally inward of (e.g., in the Y-direction) the opening 124′.\",\n \"The material removal process may, for example, include selectively covering one or more exposed portions (e.g., exposed peripheral portions) of the stack structure 102 with at least one masking material (e.g., a photoresist material, a hard mask material), and then removing (e.g., etching, such as anisotropically dry etching) one or more remaining exposed portions (e.g., an exposed central portion) of the stack structure 102 to form the secondary stack structure including the opening 124′ therein.\",\n \"The additional material removal processes may, for example, include removing one or more portions of the masking material and/or selectively forming an additional masking material on or over one or more exposed portions of the secondary stack structure, removing (e.g., etching, such as anisotropically dry etching) a portion of one or more of the tiers 108′ using the masking structure 114 and one or more of the remaining masking material (if any) and the additional masking material (if any) to further modify the secondary stack structure, removing one or more portions of the remaining masking material (if any) and the additional masking material (if any) and/or selectively forming another masking material on or over one or more exposed portions of the further modified stack structure, removing portions of at least another group of the tiers 108′ (e.g., previously etched tiers 108′ and one or more additional tiers 108′) using the masking structure 114 and one or more of the newly remaining masking material (if any), the remaining additional masking material (if any), and the another masking material (if any) as etching masks, and so on, until the tertiary stack structure 122′ including the additional staircase structures 126′ is formed.\",\n \"Referring next to FIG.\",\n \"6A, which is a perspective view of the semiconductor device structure 100 depicted in FIG.\",\n \"5A at a subsequent processing stage, contact structures 130 (e.g., plugs, vertical interconnections) may be formed on, over, and/or within one or more of the additional staircase structures 126 of the tertiary stack structure 122.The contact structures 130 may be coupled to the conductive structures 104 of the tiers 108 of the tertiary stack structure 122 at the steps 128 of the additional staircase structures 126.Each of the tiers 108 (e.g., each of the tiers 108a through 108g) may have one or more of the contact structures 130 coupled to the conductive structure 104 thereof, or less than all of the tiers 108 (e.g., less than all of the tiers 108a through 108g, such as only tiers 108b through 108g) may have one or more of the contact structures 130 coupled to the conductive structure 104 thereof.\",\n \"Each of the tiers 108 including one or more of the contact structures 130 coupled to the conductive structure 104 thereof may include a single (e.g., only one) contact structure 130 coupled to the conductive structure 104 thereof, or may include multiple (e.g., more than one) contact structures 130 coupled to the conductive structure 104 thereof.\",\n \"As a non-limiting example, the conductive structure 104 of one or more (e.g., each) of the tiers 108 may have at least one of the contact structures 130 coupled thereto at one or more of the steps 128 (e.g., one or more of the steps 128 of additional stadium structure 127, such as a step 128 of the first additional staircase structure 126a and/or a step 128 of the second additional staircase structure 126b) at least partially defined by the conductive structure 104.FIG.\",\n \"6B is a top-down view of the semiconductor device structure 100 at the processing stage depicted in FIG.\",\n \"6A.\",\n \"The contact structures 130 may be formed on or over a single (e.g., only one) additional staircase structure 126 of the tertiary stack structure 122, or may be formed on or over multiple (e.g., more than one) additional staircase structures 126 of the tertiary stack structure 122.By way of non-limiting example, as shown in FIGS.\",\n \"6A and 6B, within the additional stadium structure 127 of the tertiary stack structure 122, each of the steps 128 of the first additional staircase structure 126a may have a contact structure 130 formed thereon or thereover.\",\n \"In additional embodiments, within the additional stadium structure 127, each of the steps 128 of the second additional staircase structure 126b may have a contact structure 130 formed thereon or thereover.\",\n \"In further embodiments, at least a portion of the steps 128 of the first additional staircase structure 126a may each have a contact structure 130 formed thereon or thereover, and at least a portion of the steps 128 of the second additional staircase structure 126b may each have a contact structure 130 formed thereon or thereover.\",\n \"By way of non-limiting example, steps 128 of the first additional staircase structure 126a defined by ends of a relatively higher (e.g., in the Z-direction) group of the tiers 108 may have contact structures 130 formed thereon, and steps 128 of the second additional staircase structure 126b defined by ends of a relatively lower (e.g., in the Z-direction) group of the tiers 108 may also have contact structures 130 formed thereon, or vice versa.\",\n \"Contact structures 130 formed on or over the same additional staircase structure 126 (e.g., one of the first additional staircase structure 126a and the second additional staircase structure 126b) may be substantially uniformly (e.g., evenly) spaced apart from one another, or may be non-uniformly (e.g., unevenly) spaced apart from one another.\",\n \"Contact structures 130 formed on or over the same additional staircase structure 126 may be formed to be generally centrally positioned (e.g., in at least the X-direction) on or over the steps 128 associated therewith.\",\n \"Accordingly, distances between adjacent contact structures 130 located on or over the same additional staircase structure 126 may vary in accordance with variance in the lengths (e.g., in the X-direction) of the adjacent steps 128 associated with the adjacent contact structures 130.A pitch between adjacent contact structures 130 located on or over the same additional staircase structure 126 may be substantially similar to a pitch between the adjacent steps 128 associated with (e.g., coupled to) the adjacent contact structures 130.In addition, contact structures 130 formed on or over the same additional staircase structure 126 may be substantially aligned with one another (e.g., not offset from one another in the Y-direction), or may be at least partially non-aligned with one another (e.g., offset from one another in the Y-direction).\",\n \"The contact structures 130 may be formed of and include at least one conductive material, such as a metal (e.g., tungsten, titanium, molybdenum, niobium, vanadium, hafnium, tantalum, chromium, zirconium, iron, ruthenium, osmium, cobalt, rhodium, iridium, nickel, palladium, platinum, copper, silver, gold, aluminum), a metal alloy (e.g., a cobalt-based alloy, an iron-based alloy, a nickel-based alloy, an iron- and nickel-based alloy, a cobalt- and nickel-based alloy, an iron- and cobalt-based alloy, a cobalt- and nickel- and iron-based alloy, an aluminum-based alloy, a copper-based alloy, a magnesium-based alloy, a titanium-based alloy, a steel, a low-carbon steel, a stainless steel), a conductive metal-containing material (e.g., a conductive metal nitride, a conductive metal silicide, a conductive metal carbide, a conductive metal oxide), a conductively-doped semiconductor material (e.g., conductively-doped silicon, conductively-doped germanium, conductively-doped silicon germanium), or combinations thereof.\",\n \"Each of the contact structures 130 may have substantially the same material composition, or at least one of the contact structures 130 may have a different material composition than at least one other of the contact structures 130.The contact structures 130 may be formed on, over, and/or within one or more of the additional staircase structures 126 of the tertiary stack structure 122 using conventional processes (e.g., conventional deposition processes, conventional photolithography processes, conventional material removal processes) and conventional processing equipment, which are not described in detail herein.\",\n \"Referring next to FIG.\",\n \"7A, routing structures 132 may be coupled (e.g., attached, connected) to the contact structures 130 and at least one string driver device 134.The string driver device 134 may be formed of and include a plurality of switching devices (e.g., transistors, such as FETs).\",\n \"Suitable designs and configurations for the at least one string driver device 134 are well known in the art, and are therefore not described in detail herein.\",\n \"The string driver device 134 may, for example, underlie one or more sections (e.g., one or more of the opposing end sections 133, the interior section 131, or combinations thereof) of the tertiary stack structure 122.The combination of the contact structures 130 and the routing structures 132 may electrically connect the conductive structures 104 of one or more of the tiers 108 to the string driver device 134, facilitating application of voltages to the conductive structures 104 using the string driver device 134.In addition, the continuous conductive paths across the tertiary stack structure 122 (e.g., from the first end 110 to the second, opposing end 112) provided by the configurations of the conductive structures 104 may permit an individual (e.g., single) switching device (e.g., an individual transistor, such as an individual FET) of the string driver device 134 to drive voltages completely across (e.g., from the first end 110 to the second, opposing end 112) and/or in opposing directions across (e.g., toward the first end 110 and toward the second, opposing end 112) an individual tier 108 electrically connected thereto.\",\n \"Accordingly, the configuration of the semiconductor device structure 100 (including the configurations of the tertiary stack structure 122, the contact structures 130, the routing structures 132, and the string driver devices 134 relative to one another) may permit an individual switching device of an individual string driver device 134 to simultaneously drive voltages to different (e.g., separate, distinct) semiconductor device components (e.g., different memory cell arrays) coupled to an individual tier 108 of the tertiary stack structure 122 at opposing ends (e.g., the first end 110, and the second, opposing end 112) of the tertiary stack structure 122.FIG.\",\n \"7B is a top-down view of the semiconductor device structure 100 at the processing stage depicted in FIG.\",\n \"7A.\",\n \"The routing structures 132 may extend from the contact structures 130, through the opening 124, and to one or more of the string driver devices 134.By way of non-limiting example, as shown in FIG.\",\n \"7A, each of the routing structures 132 may independently include a first portion 135a laterally extending from a contact structure 130 associated therewith to a location above the opening 124; a second portion 135b longitudinally extending from the first portion 135a, through the opening 124, and to a location below the opening 124; and a third portion 135c laterally extending from the second portion 135b to a string driver device 134.The first portion 135a of each of the routing structures 132 may laterally extend in a direction perpendicular to that of the tertiary stack structure 122.For example, as shown in FIGS.\",\n \"7A and 7B, if the tertiary stack structure 122 laterally extends in the X-direction, the first portions 135a of the routing structures 132 may individually laterally extend in the Y-direction (e.g., the negative Y-direction).\",\n \"The spacing (e.g., distance in the X-direction) between the first portions 135a of adjacent routing structures 132 may correspond to the spacing between the adjacent contact structures 130 associated with (e.g., coupled to) the adjacent routing structures 132.Each of the first portions 135a of the routing structures 132 may exhibit a different length in the Y-direction, or at least one of the first portions 135a of the routing structures 132 may exhibit substantially the same length in the Y-direction as at least one other of the first portions 135a of the routing structures 132.In some embodiments, each of the first portions 135a of the routing structures 132 exhibits a different length in the Y-direction.\",\n \"For example, as shown in FIGS.\",\n \"7A and 7B, in embodiments wherein the contact structures 130 are formed on or over a single (e.g., only one) additional staircase structure 126 (e.g., the first additional staircase structure 126a or the second additional staircase structure 126b), lengths of the first portions 135a of the routing structures 132 may progressively increase or may progressively decrease in a direction extending from a top of the additional staircase structure 126 to a bottom of the additional staircase structure 126.In additional embodiments, at least one of the first portions 135a of the routing structures 132 exhibits substantially the same length in the Y-direction as at least one other of the first portions 135a of the routing structures 132.For example, in embodiments wherein the contact structures 130 are formed on or over a single (e.g., only one) additional staircase structure 126 (e.g., the first additional staircase structure 126a or the second additional staircase structure 126b), a length of a first portion 135a of one routing structure 132 associated with the additional staircase structure 126 may be substantially the same as a length of a first portion 135a of another routing structure 132 associated with the additional staircase structure 126.As another example, in embodiments wherein the contact structures 130 are formed on or over multiple (e.g., more than one) additional staircase structures 126 (e.g., the first additional staircase structure 126a and the second additional staircase structure 126b), a length of a first portion 135a of a routing structure 132 associated with one of the additional staircase structures 126 (e.g., the first additional staircase structure 126a) may be substantially the same as a length of a first portion 135a of another routing structure 132 associated with another of the additional staircase structures 126 (e.g., the second additional staircase structure 126b).\",\n \"The second portion 135b of each of the routing structures 132 may longitudinally extend in a direction perpendicular to that of the first portion 135a of each of the routing structures 132.For example, as shown in FIG.\",\n \"7A, if the first portions 135a of the routing structures 132 individually laterally extend in the Y-direction, the second portions 135b of the routing structures 132 may individually longitudinally extend in the Z-direction (e.g., the negative Z-direction).\",\n \"The spacing (e.g., distances in the X-direction and the Y-direction) between the second portions 135b of adjacent routing structures 132 may correspond to the spacing (e.g., in the X-direction) and lengths (e.g., in the Y-direction) of the first portions 133a of the adjacent routing structures 132.Each of the second portions 135b of the routing structures 132 may exhibit substantially the same length in the Z-direction, or at least one of the second portions 135b of the routing structures 132 may exhibit a different length in the Z-direction than at least one other of the second portions 135b of the routing structures 132.In some embodiments, each of the second portions 135b of the routing structures 132 exhibits substantially the same length in the Z-direction.\",\n \"In additional embodiments, at least one of the second portions 135b of the routing structures 132 exhibits a different length in the Z-direction than at least one other of the second portions 135b of the routing structures 132.The third portion 135c of each of the routing structures 132 may laterally extend in a direction perpendicular to that of the second portion 135b of each of the routing structures 132 and parallel to that of the tertiary stack structure 122.For example, as shown in FIGS.\",\n \"7A and 7B, if the second portions 135b of the routing structures 132 individually longitudinally extend in the Z-direction and the tertiary stack structure 122 laterally extends in the X-direction, the third portions 135c of the routing structures 132 may individually longitudinally extend in the X-direction (e.g., the negative X-direction and/or the positive X-direction).\",\n \"The spacing (e.g., distances in the Y-direction and the Z-direction) between the third portions 135c of adjacent routing structures 132 may correspond to the lengths (e.g., in the X-direction) of the first portions 135a of the adjacent routing structures 132 and the lengths (e.g., in the Z-direction) of the second portions 135b of the adjacent routing structures 132.Each of the third portions 135c of the routing structures 132 may exhibit a different length in the X-direction, or at least one of the third portions 135c of the routing structures 132 may exhibit substantially the same length in the X-direction as at least one other of the third portions 135c of the routing structures 132.In some embodiments, each of the third portions 135c of the routing structures 132 exhibits a different length in the X-direction.\",\n \"For example, as shown in FIGS.\",\n \"7A and 7B, in embodiments wherein the contact structures 130 are formed on or over a single (e.g., only one) additional staircase structure 126 (e.g., the first additional staircase structure 126a or the second additional staircase structure 126b), lengths of the third portions 135c of the routing structures 132 may progressively increase or may progressively decrease in a direction extending from away of the additional staircase structures 126 in the Y-direction.\",\n \"In additional embodiments, at least one of the third portions 135c of the routing structures 132 exhibits substantially the same length in the x-direction as at least one other of the third portions 135c of the routing structures 132.For example, in embodiments wherein the contact structures 130 are formed on or over a single (e.g., only one) additional staircase structure 126 (e.g., the first additional staircase structure 126a or the second additional staircase structure 126b), a length of a third portion 135c of one routing structure 132 associated with the additional staircase structure 126 may be substantially the same as a length of a third portion 135c of another routing structure 132 associated with the additional staircase structure 126.Third portions 135c of routing structures 132 associated with the same additional staircase structure 126 and exhibiting substantially the same length as one another may, for example, outwardly extend in the same direction (e.g., the negative X-direction or the positive X-direction).\",\n \"As another example, in embodiments wherein the contact structures 130 are formed on or over multiple (e.g., more than one) additional staircase structures 126 (e.g., the first additional staircase structure 126a and the second additional staircase structure 126b), a length of a third portion 135c of a routing structure 132 associated with one of the additional staircase structures 126 (e.g., the first additional staircase structure 126a) may be substantially the same as a length of a first portion 135a of another routing structure 132 associated with another of the additional staircase structures 126 (e.g., the second additional staircase structure 126b).\",\n \"Third portions 135c of routing structures 132 associated with different additional staircase structures 126 and exhibiting substantially the same length as one another may, for example, outwardly extend in opposite directions (e.g., the negative X-direction and the positive X-direction).\",\n \"Each of the routing structures 132 may extend to the same string driver device 134, or at least one of the routing structures 132 may extend to a different string driver device 134 than at least one other of the routing structures 132.In some embodiments, each of the routing structures 132 to the same string driver device 134.In additional embodiments, a first group of the routing structures 132 extend to one string driver device 134, and a second group of the routing structures 132 extend to another string driver device 134.By way of non-limiting example, as shown in FIG.\",\n \"7C, which is a top-down view of an alternate configuration of the semiconductor device structure 100 in accordance with an additional embodiment of the disclosure, a first group of the routing structures 132 may extend to a string driver device 134 (FIG.\",\n \"7A) underlying the tertiary stack structure 122 and located proximate the first end 110 of the tertiary stack structure 122, and a second group of the routing structures 132 may extend to another string driver device 134 (FIG.\",\n \"7A) underlying the tertiary stack structure 122 and located proximate the second, opposing end 112 of the tertiary stack structure 122.Extending the first group of the routing structures 132 and the second group of the routing structures 132 to different string driver device 134 may reduce the likelihood of capacitive coupling between adjacent routing structures 132 by increasing the spacing (e.g., distance) between one or more portions (e.g., the second portions 135b, the third portions 135c) of the adjacent routing structures 132.In addition, in further embodiments wherein two or more of the additional staircase structures 126 extend in parallel with one another in the X-direction (e.g., such as the arrangement of the additional staircase structures 126′ of the tertiary stack structure 122′ depicted in FIGS.\",\n \"5C and 5D), the routing structures 132 associated with each of the additional staircase structures 126 may extend to the same string driver device 134, or one or more the routing structures 132 associated with at least one of the additional staircase structures 126 may extend to a different string driver device 134 than one or more other of the routing structures 132.Whether each of the routing structures 132 extend to the same string driver device 134 (e.g., as depicted in FIGS.\",\n \"7A and 7B), or whether at least some of the routing structures 132 extend to different string driver devices 134 than one another (e.g., as depicted in FIG.\",\n \"7C), the continuous conductive paths across the tertiary stack structure 122 provided by the configurations of the conductive structures 104 permit an individual switching device (e.g., an individual transistor, such as an individual FET) of an individual string driver device 134 to drive voltages completely across (e.g., from the first end 110 to the second, opposing end 112) and/or in opposing directions across (e.g., toward the first end 110 and toward the second, opposing end 112) an individual tier 108 electrically connected thereto.\",\n \"The routing structures 132 may be formed of and include at least one conductive material, such as a metal (e.g., W, Ti, Mo, Nb, V, Hf, Ta, Cr, Zr, Fe, Ru, Os, Co, Rh, Ir, Ni, Pd, Pt, Cu, Ag, Au, Al), a metal alloy (e.g., a Co-based alloy, an Fe-based alloy, a Ni-based alloy, an Fe-and Ni-based alloy, a Co- and Ni-based alloy, an Fe- and Cu-based alloy, a Co- and Ni- and Fe-based alloy, an Al-based alloy, a Cu-based alloy, a Mg-based alloy, a Ti-based alloy, a steel, a low-carbon steel, a stainless steel), a conductive metal-containing material (e.g., a conductive metal nitride, a conductive metal silicide, a conductive metal carbide, a conductive metal oxide), a conductively-doped semiconductor material (e.g., conductively-doped silicon, conductively-doped germanium, conductively-doped silicon germanium), or combinations thereof.\",\n \"Each of the routing structures 132 may have substantially the same material composition, or at least one of the routing structures 132 may have a different material composition than at least one other of the routing structures 132.Synergy The routing structures 132 and the string driver devices 134 may each independently be formed using conventional processes (e.g., conventional deposition processes, conventional photolithography processes, conventional material removal processes) and conventional processing equipment, which are not described in detail herein.\",\n \"Furthermore, in accordance with embodiments of the disclosure, a semiconductor device structure comprises a stack structure, contact structures, and routing structures.\",\n \"The stack structure has opposing end sections exhibiting a first width and an interior section laterally intervening between the opposing end sections and exhibiting a second width smaller than the first width.\",\n \"The stack structure comprises stacked tiers each comprising a conductive structure and an insulating structure longitudinally adjacent the conductive structure, a stadium structure within the interior section and comprising opposing staircase structures each having steps comprising lateral ends of the stacked tiers, and an elongate middle region directly laterally adjacent a first side of the stadium structure within the interior section and laterally extending completely between the opposing end sections.\",\n \"The contact structures are coupled to the conductive structures of the stacked tiers at the steps of one or more of the opposing staircase structures of the stadium structure.\",\n \"The routing structures are coupled to the contact structures and extend from the contact structures, through an opening directly laterally adjacent a second side of the stadium structure, and to at least one string driver device underlying the stack structure.\",\n \"Semiconductor devices (e.g., memory devices, such as 3D NAND Flash memory devices) including semiconductor device structures (e.g., the semiconductor device structure 100) in accordance with embodiments of the disclosure may be used in embodiments of electronic systems of the disclosure.\",\n \"For example, FIG.\",\n \"8 is a block diagram of an illustrative electronic system 800 according to embodiments of disclosure.\",\n \"The electronic system 800 may comprise, for example, a computer or computer hardware component, a server or other networking hardware component, a cellular telephone, a digital camera, a personal digital assistant (PDA), portable media (e.g., music) player, a WiFi or cellular-enabled tablet such as, for example, an iPad® or SURFACE® tablet, an electronic book, a navigation device, etc.\",\n \"The electronic system 800 includes at least one memory device 802.The at least one memory device 802 may include, for example, an embodiment of the semiconductor device structure 100 shown in FIGS.\",\n \"7A and 7B.\",\n \"The electronic system 800 may further include at least one electronic signal processor device 804 (often referred to as a “microprocessor”).\",\n \"The electronic signal processor device 804 may, optionally, include a semiconductor device structure similar to an embodiment of the semiconductor device structure 100 shown in FIGS.\",\n \"7A and 7B.\",\n \"The electronic system 800 may further include one or more input devices 806 for inputting information into the electronic system 800 by a user, such as, for example, a mouse or other pointing device, a keyboard, a touchpad, a button, or a control panel.\",\n \"The electronic system 800 may further include one or more output devices 808 for outputting information (e.g., visual or audio output) to a user such as, for example, a monitor, a display, a printer, an audio output jack, a speaker, etc.\",\n \"In some embodiments, the input device 806 and the output device 808 may comprise a single touch screen device that can be used both to input information to the electronic system 800 and to output visual information to a user.\",\n \"The one or more input devices 806 and output devices 808 may communicate electrically with at least one of the memory device 802 and the electronic signal processor device 804.Thus, in accordance with embodiments of the disclosure, an electronic system comprises at least one semiconductor device structure comprising a stack structure exhibiting opposing end sections having a first width and an interior section laterally intervening between the opposing end sections and having a second width smaller than the first width.\",\n \"The stack structure comprises stacked tiers each comprising a conductive structure and an insulating structure longitudinally adjacent the conductive structure, a stadium structure within the interior section and comprising opposing staircase structures having steps comprising lateral ends of the stacked tiers, and an elongate middle region directly adjacent a side of the stadium structure within the interior section and extending completely between the opposing ends sections.\",\n \"The methods and structures of the disclosure may decrease the number of switching devices and interconnections required to drive voltages completely across and/or in different directions across a conductive structure of a tier as compared to conventional methods and structures associated with various semiconductor devices (e.g., memory devices, such as 3D NAND Flash memory).\",\n \"The methods and structures of the disclosure may permit a single switching device to drive an access line (e.g., word line) of a memory cell array from a more centralized (e.g., middle, non-edge) location, which may reduce resistance x current (RC) delay by one-fourth (¼) as compared to conventional methods and structures.\",\n \"In addition, the methods and structures of the disclosure may permit the interconnections utilized to drive voltages across different tiers to be spaced farther apart from one another without increasing the lateral dimensions of the tiers, which may reduce undesirable capacitive coupling between the interconnections as compared to conventional methods and structures while maintaining or even decreasing feature sizes.\",\n \"The methods and structures of the disclosure may reduce costs (e.g., manufacturing costs, material costs) and performance, scalability, efficiency, and simplicity as compared to conventional methods and structures.\",\n \"While the disclosure is susceptible to various modifications and alternative forms, specific embodiments have been shown by way of example in the drawings and have been described in detail herein.\",\n \"However, the disclosure is not limited to the particular forms disclosed.\",\n \"Rather, the disclosure is to cover all modifications, equivalents, and alternatives falling within the scope of the following appended claims and their legal equivalents.\"\n ]\n]"},"source":{"kind":"string","value":"Patent_15875407"}}},{"rowIdx":4494870,"cells":{"text":{"kind":"list like","value":[["INSPECTION DEVICE AND SUBSTRATE PROCESSING APPARATUS","Surface image data of a non-defective sample substrate is acquired, and surface image data of a substrate to be inspected is acquired.","Differences between gradation values are calculated for pixels of the surface image data of the substrate to be inspected and corresponding pixels of the surface image data of the sample substrate.","A constant value is added to the difference between gradation values of each pixel.","In the case where the value acquired by addition is in a predetermined allowable range, it is determined that there is no defect for the substrate to be inspected.","In the case where the value acquired by addition is outside of the allowable range, it is determined that the substrate to be inspected is defective.","A defect in appearance on the substrate to be inspected is detected based on a pixel of which the value is outside of the allowable range."],["1.An inspection method of performing appearance inspection for a substrate, comprising: acquiring image data of a substrate with no defect in appearance as first image data, and acquiring image data of a substrate to be inspected as second image data by picking up an image of the substrate to be inspected by an imaging device; setting an allowable range for determining whether there is a defect in appearance on the substrate; and calculating values related to differences between gradation values of pixels of the acquired first image data and gradation values of pixels of the acquired second image data as pieces of difference information, the pixels of the first and second image data being considered to correspond to each other, and determining whether there is a defect in appearance on the substrate to be inspected based on whether each piece of calculated difference information is in the set allowable range, wherein the setting includes calculating, for each of a plurality of predetermined target pixels of the first image data, differences between gradation values of a target pixel and a plurality of pixels in a constant region including the target pixel, determining, for each of the plurality of predetermined target pixels of the first image data, a representative value in a range from a minimum value to a maximum value of the calculated differences by a predetermined method based on the calculated differences, and respectively setting values related to a minimum value and a maximum value of a plurality of representative values respectively determined for the plurality of predetermined target pixels as a lower limit value and an upper limit value of the allowable range.","2.The inspection method according to claim 1, wherein the predetermined method is a method of determining, for each of the plurality of predetermined target pixels of the first image data, an average value of the differences between a gradation value of the target pixel and gradation values of the plurality of pixels in the constant region including the target pixels as the representative value.","3.The inspection method according to claim 1, wherein the predetermined method is a method of determining, for each of the plurality of predetermined target pixels of the first image data, a maximum value of the differences between a gradation value of the target pixel and gradation values of the plurality of pixels in the constant region including the target pixels as the representative value.","4.The inspection method according to claim 1, wherein the pieces of difference information include values acquired by addition of a constant value to differences between gradation values of pixels of the first image data and gradation values of pixels of the second image data, the pixels of the first and second image data being considered to correspond to each other, and values related to the minimum value and the maximum value of the plurality of representative values include values acquired by respective addition of the constant value to the minimum value and the maximum value of the plurality of representative values.","5.The inspection method according to claim 1, wherein the setting includes setting a first value smaller than the minimum value of the plurality of representative values by a predetermined value as the lower limit value of the allowable range instead of the value related to the minimum value of the plurality of representative values, and setting a second value larger than the maximum value of the plurality of representative values by a predetermined value as the upper limit value of the allowable range instead of the value related to the maximum value of the plurality of representative values.","6.The inspection method according to claim 1, wherein the determining includes detecting a defect in appearance on the substrate based on a pixel of which a piece of difference information is outside of the allowable range.","7.The inspection method according to claim 1, wherein the determining includes determining that there is a defect in appearance on the substrate to be inspected in the case where the number of pieces of difference information outside of the allowable range is not less than a predetermined number.","8.The inspection method according to claim 1, wherein the determining includes performing smoothing of the acquired first image data, producing first correction image data by subtracting a gradation value of each pixel of first image data after smoothing from a gradation value of each pixel of first image data before smoothing, performing smoothing of the acquired second image data, producing second correction image data by subtracting a gradation value of each pixel of second image data after smoothing from a gradation value of each pixel of second image data before smoothing, and calculating differences between gradation values of pixels of the produced first correction data and gradation values of pixels of the produced second correction data, the pixels of the produced first and second correction data being considered to correspond to each other, as the pieces of difference information for the pixels of the first image data and corresponding pixels of the second image data, and the setting includes calculating, for each of a plurality of target pixels of the produced first correction image data instead of the first image data, differences between a gradation value of the target pixel and gradation values of the plurality of pixels in the constant region including the target pixel, and determining, for each of the plurality of target pixels of the produced first correction image data instead of the first image data, the representative value in the range from the minimum value to the maximum value of the plurality of differences by the predetermined method based on the plurality of calculated differences.","9.A substrate processing method of performing processing on a substrate, comprising: forming a photosensitive film on the substrate by a coater before exposure processing by an exposer that performs the exposure processing; performing development processing on the photosensitive film on the substrate by a developer after the exposure processing by the exposer; and performing appearance inspection for the substrate after the formation of the photosensitive film by the coater, by the inspection method according to claim 1.10.The substrate processing method according to claim 9, wherein the performing the appearance inspection for the substrate by the inspection method includes performing the appearance inspection for the substrate after the formation of the photosensitive film by the coater and after the development processing by the developer."],[" BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION "],[" BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION However, in a method of detecting a defect described in JP 2011-66049 A, even in the case where there is a defect in a surface of a substrate, if brightness of the reflected light from the defect is in the allowable range, it is determined that the substrate is normal.","Therefore, a defect cannot be detected sometimes.","An object of the present invention is to provide an inspection device capable of performing appearance inspection for a substrate with high accuracy, and a substrate processing apparatus including the inspection device.","(1) An inspector according to one aspect of the present invention that performs appearance inspection for a substrate includes an image data acquirer that acquires image data of a substrate with no defect in appearance as first image data, and acquires image data of a substrate to be inspected as second image data by picking up an image of the substrate to be inspected, and a determiner that calculates values related to differences between gradation values of pixels of the of first image data acquired by the image data acquirer and gradation values of corresponding pixels of the of second image data acquired by the image data acquirer as pieces of difference information, and determines whether there is a defect in appearance on the substrate to be inspected based on whether each piece of calculated difference information is in a predetermined allowable range.","In the inspector, the image data of the substrate with no defect in appearance is acquired as the first image data, and the image data of the substrate to be inspected is acquired as the second image data.","As for a normal portion of the substrate to be inspected, a difference between a gradation value of a pixel of the first image data and a gradation value of a corresponding pixel of the second image data is small.","On the one hand, as for a defective portion of the substrate to be inspected, a difference between a gradation value of a pixel of the first image data and a gradation value of a corresponding pixel of the second image data is large.","Therefore, even in the case where the gradation value of the pixel corresponding to a defective portion is close to the gradation value of the pixel corresponding to a normal portion, the above-mentioned difference corresponding to the defective portion is larger than the above-mentioned difference corresponding to the normal portion.","A value related to a difference between a gradation value of a pixel of the first image data and a gradation value of a corresponding pixel of the second image data is calculated as a piece of difference information.","Thus, a piece of difference information for the pixel corresponding to the defective portion and a piece of difference information corresponding to the normal portion can be distinguished from each other.","Therefore, an allowable range is determined in advance to include a piece of difference information corresponding to a normal portion and not to include a piece of difference information corresponding to a defective portion, whereby it is possible to determine whether there is a defect.","As a result, a defect in appearance on the substrate can be detected with high accuracy.","(2) The determiner may detect a defect in appearance on the substrate based on a pixel of which the piece of difference information is outside of the allowable range.","In this case, in the case where there is a defect in appearance on the substrate to be inspected, a position and a shape of the defect can be identified.","(3) The pieces of difference information may include values acquired by addition of a constant value to values of the differences.","In this case, overall gradation values, of the image based on the pieces of difference information, corresponding to all of the pixels can be increased.","Thus, a user can view the image based on the pieces of difference information without an uncomfortable feeling.","(4) The determiner may determine that there is a defect in appearance on the substrate to be inspected in the case where the number of pieces of difference information being outside of the allowable range is not less than a predetermined number.","Part of the pieces of difference information not corresponding to a defect may be outside of the allowable range due to noise, disturbance or the like.","In the above-mentioned configuration, in the case where the number of the pieces of difference information outside of the allowable range is smaller a predetermined number, it is not determined that there is a defect.","Therefore, determination error due to noise, disturbance or the like can be prevented.","(5) The determiner may perform smoothing of the first image data acquired by the image data acquirer, may produce first correction image data by subtracting a gradation value of each pixel of first image data after smoothing from a gradation value of each pixel of first image data before smoothing, may perform smoothing of the second image data acquired by the image data acquirer, may produce second correction image data by subtracting a gradation value of each pixel of second image data after smoothing from a gradation value of each pixel of second image data before smoothing, and may calculate differences between gradation values of pixels of the produced first correction image data and gradation values of pixels of the produced second correction image data as the pieces of difference information for the pixels of the first image data and the corresponding pixels of the second image data.","Normally, a gradation change resulting from a defect and normal surface structure of the substrate occurs more locally or dispersively than a gradation change resulting from a moire.","Therefore, the first and second image data after smoothing includes a gradation change resulting from a moire, and does not include a gradation change resulting from a defect in appearance and a gradation change resulting from the surface structure.","The first correction image data from which a moire is removed is produced by subtraction of a gradation value of each pixel of the first image data after smoothing from a gradation value of each pixel of the first image data before smoothing.","Further, the second correction image data from which a moire is removed is produced by subtraction of a gradation value of each pixel of the second image data after smoothing from a gradation value of each pixel of the second image data before smoothing.","The pieces of difference information are calculated based on the first and second correction image data.","It is determined that there is a defect in appearance on the substrate to be inspected based on the calculated difference information.","Therefore, a reduction in detection accuracy for a defect due to a moire can be prevented, and appearance inspection for the substrate can be performed with high accuracy.","(6) The determiner may perform smoothing of the first and second image data by movement average filter processing.","In this case, the smoothing of the first and second image data can be easily performed in a short period of time.","(7) The determiner may perform smoothing of the first and second image data such that first and second image data after smoothing includes a gradation change resulting from a moire and does not include a gradation change resulting from a defect in appearance and normal surface structure.","In this case, first and second correction image data that do not include a gradation change due to a moire and includes a gradation change resulting from a defect in appearance and normal surface structure can be appropriately produced.","(8) The inspector may further include a substrate holding rotator that holds and rotates the substrate, wherein the image data acquirer may include an illuminator that irradiates a radial region extending in a radial direction of the substrate rotated by the substrate holding rotator with light, and a line sensor that receives light reflected by the radial region of the substrate.","In this case, first and second image data can be acquired with a simple configuration.","(9) An inspector according to another aspect of the present invention that performs appearance inspection for a substrate includes an image data acquirer that acquires image data of a substrate with no defect in appearance as first image data, and acquires image data of a substrate to be inspected as second image data by picking up an image of the substrate to be inspected, a range setter that sets an allowable range for determining whether there is a defect in appearance on the substrate, and a determiner that calculates values related to differences between gradation values of pixels of the first image data acquired by the image data acquirer and gradation values of pixels of the second image data acquired by the image data acquirer, the pixels of the first and second image data being considered to correspond to each other, and determines whether there is a defect in appearance on the substrate to be inspected based on whether each piece of calculated difference information is in the allowable range set by the range setter, wherein the range setter calculates, for each of a plurality of predetermined target pixels of the first image data, differences between gradation values of a target pixel and a plurality of pixels in a constant region including the target pixel, determines, for each of the plurality of predetermined target pixels of the first image data, a representative value in a range from a minimum value to a maximum value of a plurality of differences by a predetermined method based on the plurality of calculated differences, and respectively sets values related to a minimum value and a maximum value of the plurality of representative values respectively determined for the plurality of target pixels as a lower limit value and an upper limit value of the allowable range.","In the inspector, the image data of the substrate with no defect in appearance is acquired as first image data, and the image data of the substrate to be inspected is acquired as second image data.","As for a normal portion of the substrate to be inspected, a difference between a gradation value of a pixel of the first image data and a gradation value of a corresponding pixel of the second image data is small.","On the one hand, as for a defective portion of the substrate to be inspected, a difference between a gradation value of a pixel of the first image data and a gradation value of a corresponding pixel of the second image data is large.","Therefore, even in the case where a gradation value of the pixel corresponding to a defective portion is close to a gradation value of the pixel corresponding to a normal portion, the above-mentioned difference corresponding to the defective portion is larger than the above-mentioned difference corresponding to the normal portion.","A value related to a difference between a gradation value of the first image data and a gradation value of a corresponding pixel of the second image data is calculated as a piece of difference information.","Thus, the piece of difference information for the pixel corresponding to the defective portion, and the piece of difference information corresponding to the normal portion can be distinguished from each other.","Therefore, an allowable range is determined in advance to include the piece of difference information corresponding to a normal portion and not to include the piece of difference information corresponding to a defective portion, whereby it is possible to determine whether there is a defect.","However, a pixel of the second image data considered to correspond to one pixel of the first image data sometimes deviates from the truly corresponding pixel.","In this case, when an allowable range is set on assumption that a correspondence relationship between the first and second image data is accurate, the piece of difference information corresponding to a normal portion sometimes falls outside of the allowable range.","Therefore, it becomes necessary to largely set the allowable range in order to prevent determination error resulting from a deviation.","On the one hand, when the allowable range is set excessively largely, detection accuracy for a defect is reduced.","In the present invention, as for each of the plurality of target pixels of the first image data, differences between gradation values of the target pixel and gradation values of a plurality of pixels in a constant region including the target pixel are calculated.","In this case, it is considered that a plurality of differences calculated for each target pixel are substantially equivalent to the differences between gradation values calculated by a determiner with a deviation being present in correspondence relationship between the first and second image data in the case where there is no defect for the substrate to be inspected.","A representative value that is in a range from a minimum value to a maximum value of a plurality of differences is determined by a predetermined method based on the plurality of differences calculated for each target pixel.","In this case, when there is a deviation in correspondence relationship between the first and second image data, a representative value for each target pixel represents a difference between gradation values to be calculated in the case where a portion corresponding to each target pixel is normal.","Therefore, values for a minimum value and a maximum value of a plurality of representative values determined for the plurality of target pixels of the first image data are respectively set as a lower limit value and an upper limit value of the allowable range.","Thus, as for a normal portion, a piece of difference information calculated with a deviation being present in correspondence relationship is less likely to fall outside of the allowable range.","Therefore, a normal portion is less likely to be erroneously determined to be defective.","Further, a lower limit value and an upper limit value of the allowable range are limited to values for a minimum value and a maximum value of the representative value.","Thus, as for a defective portion, the piece of difference information calculated with a deviation being in correspondence relationship is less likely to be included in the allowable range.","Therefore, a defective portion is less likely to be erroneously determined to be normal.","As a result, in the case where there is a deviation between a pixel of the first image data and a corresponding pixel of the second image data, a defect in appearance on the substrate can be detected with high accuracy.","(10) The predetermined method may be a method of determining, for each of the plurality of predetermined target pixels of the first image data, an average value of the differences between gradation values of the target pixels and the plurality of pixels in the constant region including the target pixels as the representative value.","Thus, a desired allowable range can be appropriately set according to a determination condition for a defect and the like.","(11) The predetermined method may be a method of determining, for each of the plurality of predetermined target pixels of the first image data, a maximum value of the differences between gradation values of the target pixels and the plurality of pixels in the constant region including the target pixels as the representative value.","Thus, a desired allowable range can be appropriately set according to a determination condition for a defect and the like.","(12) The pieces of difference information may include values acquired by addition of a constant value to differences between gradation values of pixels of the first image data and gradation values of pixels of the second image data, the pixels of the first and second image data being considered to correspond to each other, and values related to the minimum value and the maximum value of the plurality of representative values may include values acquired by respective addition of the constant value to the minimum value and the maximum value of the plurality of representative values.","In this case, the overall gradation values, of the image based on the pieces of difference information, corresponding to all of the pixels can be increased.","Thus, the user can view the image based on the pieces of difference information without an uncomfortable feeling.","Further, the constant value added to the differences between the gradation values is added to a minimum value and a maximum value of the plurality of representative values, so that the allowable range is appropriately set.","(13) The range setter may set a first value smaller than the minimum value of the plurality of representative values by a predetermined value as the lower limit value of the allowable range instead of the value related to the minimum value of the plurality of representative values, and may set a second value larger than the maximum value of the plurality of representative values by a predetermined value as the upper limit value of the allowable range instead of the value related to the maximum value of the plurality of representative values.","Part of the pieces of difference information not corresponding to a defect may be smaller than the value for the minimum value of the plurality of representative values due to noise, disturbance or the like.","Further, part of the pieces of difference information not corresponding to a defect may be larger than a value for a maximum value of a plurality of representative values.","In the above-mentioned configuration, even in the case where the piece of difference information is smaller than the value for the minimum value of the plurality of representative values, it is not determined that there is a defect as long as the piece of difference information is not less than the first value.","Further, even in the case where the piece of difference information is larger than the value for the maximum value of the plurality of representative values, it is not determined that there is a defect as long as the piece of difference information is not more than the second value.","Therefore, determination error due to noise, disturbance or the like can be prevented.","(14) The determiner may detect a defect in appearance on the substrate based on a pixel of which a piece of difference information is outside of the allowable range.","In this case, in the case where there is a defect in appearance on the substrate to be inspected, a position and a shape of the defect can be identified.","(15) The determiner may determine that there is a defect in appearance on the substrate to be inspected in the case where the number of pieces of difference information outside of the allowable range is not less than a predetermined number.","Part of the pieces of difference information not corresponding to a defect may be outside of the allowable range due to noise, disturbance or the like.","In the above-mentioned configuration, in the case where the number of the pieces of difference information outside of the allowable range is smaller than the predetermined number, it is not determined that there is a defect.","Therefore, determination error due to noise, disturbance or the like can be prevented.","(16) The determiner may perform smoothing of the first image data acquired by the image data acquirer, may produce first correction image data by subtracting a gradation value of each pixel of first image data after smoothing from a gradation value of each pixel of first image data before smoothing, may perform smoothing of the second image data acquired by the image data acquirer, may produce second correction image data by subtracting a gradation value of each pixel of second image data after smoothing from a gradation value of each pixel of second image data before smoothing, and may calculate differences between gradation values of pixels of the produced first correction data and gradation values of pixels of the produced second correction data, the pixels of the produced first and second correction data being considered to correspond to each other, as the pieces of difference information for the pixels of the first image data and corresponding pixels of the second image data, and the range setter may calculate, for each of a plurality of target pixels of the first correction image data produced by the determiner instead of the first image data, differences between a gradation value of the target pixel and gradation values of the plurality of pixels in the constant region including the target pixel, and may determine, for each of the plurality of target pixels of the first correction image data produced by the determiner instead of the first image data, the representative value in the range from the minimum value to the maximum value of the plurality of differences by the predetermined method based on the plurality of calculated differences.","Normally, a gradation change resulting from a defect and normal surface structure of the substrate occurs more locally or dispersively than a gradation change resulting from a moire.","Therefore, the first and second image data after smoothing include a gradation change resulting from a moire, and does not include a gradation change resulting from a defect in appearance and a gradation change resulting from the surface structure.","The first correction image data from which a moire is removed is produced by subtraction of a gradation value of each pixel of the first image data after smoothing from a gradation value of each pixel of the first image data before smoothing.","Further, the second correction image data from which a moire is removed is produced by subtraction of a gradation value of each pixel of the second image data after smoothing from a gradation value of each pixel of the second image data before smoothing.","The pieces of difference information are calculated based on the first and second correction image data.","Whether there is a defect in appearance on the substrate to be inspected is determined based on the pieces of calculated difference information.","Therefore, a reduction in detection accuracy for a defect due to a moire is prevented, and appearance inspection for the substrate can be performed with high accuracy.","Further, as for each of the plurality of target pixels of the first correction image data, a difference between a gradation value of the target pixel and a gradation value a plurality of pixels in a constant region including the target pixel is calculated, and the above-mentioned representative value is determined based on the plurality of calculated differences.","Therefore, the allowable range corresponding to the second correction image data is appropriately set.","(17) The determiner may perform smoothing of the first and second image data by movement average filter processing.","In this case, smoothing of the first and second image data can be easily performed in a short period of time.","(18) The determiner may perform smoothing of the first and second image data such that first and second image data after smoothing includes a gradation change resulting from a moire and not to include a gradation change resulting from a defect in appearance and normal surface structure.","In this case, the first and second correction image data that do not include a gradation change due to a moire and includes a gradation change resulting from a defect in appearance and the normal surface structure can be appropriately produced.","(19) The inspector may further include a substrate holding rotator that holds and rotates the substrate, wherein the image data acquirer may include an illuminator that irradiates a radial region extending in a radial direction of the substrate rotated by the substrate holding rotator with light, and a line sensor that receives light reflected by the radial region of the substrate.","In this case, the first and second image data can be acquired with a simple configuration.","(20) An inspector according to yet another aspect of the present invention that performs appearance inspection for a substrate includes an image data acquirer that acquires image data indicating a first image of a substrate with no defect in appearance as first image data, and acquires image data indicating a second image of a substrate to be inspected as second image data by picking up an image of the substrate to be inspected, a corrector that corrects correspondence relationships between pixels of the first image data and pixels of the second image data, and a determiner that calculates values related to differences between gradation values of pixels of the first image data acquired by the image data acquirer and gradation values of corresponding pixels of the second image data acquired by the image data acquirer as pieces of difference information based on the correspondence relationship corrected by the corrector, and determines whether there is a defect in appearance on the substrate to be inspected based on whether each piece of calculated difference information is in a predetermined allowable range, wherein the first image is constituted by a plurality of first unit images, the first image data includes a plurality of pieces of first unit image data respectively indicating the plurality of first unit images, the second image is constituted by a plurality of second unit images, the second image data includes a plurality of pieces of second unit image data respectively indicating the plurality of second unit images, and the corrector detects relative deviation amounts between first and second unit images by comparing the pieces of first unit image data of the plurality of first unit images and the pieces of the second unit image data of the plurality of second unit images, the plurality of first and second unit images being located at corresponding positions, calculates a deviation amount for every pixel of the first and second images based on a plurality of deviation amounts detected for the plurality of first and second unit images, and corrects the correspondence relationship between a pixel of the first image data and a pixel of the second image data based on the calculated deviation amount for every pixel to resolve the deviation.","In the inspector, the image data of the substrate with no defect in appearance is acquired as the first image data, and the image data of the substrate to be inspected is acquired as the second image data.","As for a normal portion of the substrate to be inspected, a difference between a gradation value of a pixel of the first image data and a gradation value of a corresponding pixel of the second image is small.","On the one hand, as for a defective portion of the substrate to be inspected, a difference between a gradation value of a pixel of the first image data and a gradation value of a corresponding pixel of the second image data is large.","Therefore, even in the case where a gradation value of the pixel corresponding to the defective portion is close to a gradation value of the pixel corresponding to the normal portion, the above-mentioned difference corresponding to a defective portion is larger than the above-mentioned difference corresponding to a normal portion.","A value for a difference between a gradation value of a pixel of the first image data and a gradation value of a corresponding pixel of the second image data is calculated as a piece of difference information.","In this case, the piece of difference information for the pixel corresponding to the defective portion and the piece of difference information for the normal portion can be distinguished from each other.","Therefore, an allowable range is determined in advance to include the piece of difference information corresponding to a normal portion and not to include the piece of difference information corresponding to a defective portion, whereby it is possible to determine whether there is a defect.","However, local distortion that is not a defect sometimes occurs in the substrate to be inspected.","In this case, a position of the pixel of the second image corresponding to a distorted portion deviates from the position of the truly corresponding pixel of the first image.","Therefore, when the above-mentioned pieces of difference information are calculated on assumption that the correspondence relationship between the first and second image data is accurate, presence and absence of a defect cannot be accurately determined.","In the present invention, a relative deviation amount between the first and second unit images is detected by comparison between the pieces of first and second unit image data of the first and second unit images located at positions corresponding to each other.","Thus, a relative deviation amount between respective positions is detected for a plurality of portions corresponding to each other between the first and second images.","A deviation amount for every pixel between the first and second images is calculated based on the plurality of detected deviation amounts.","The correspondence relationship between a pixel of the first image data and a pixel of the second image data is corrected based on the calculated deviation amount for every pixel, and a deviation for every pixel is resolved.","Thus, even in the case where local distortion is present in the substrate to be inspected, the pixels corresponding to each other can be accurately distinguished by correction of the correspondence relationship between a pixel of the first image data and a corresponding pixel of the second image data.","A value related to a difference between a gradation value of a pixel of the first image data and a gradation value of a corresponding pixel of the second image data is calculated as a piece of difference information based on the corrected correspondence relationship.","In this case, for a normal portion, a gradation value of the pixel of the first image and a gradation value of the pixel located at a corresponding position of the second image substantially coincide with each other, so that a piece of difference information is small.","On the one hand, for a defective portion, a difference resulting from a defect occurs between a gradation value of the pixel of the first image and a gradation value of the pixel located at a corresponding position of the second image, so that a piece of difference information is large.","Therefore, a defect in appearance on the substrate can be detected with high accuracy.","(21) The determiner may detect a defect in appearance on the substrate based on a pixel of which the piece of difference information is outside of the allowable range.","In this case, in the case where there is a defect in appearance on the substrate to be inspected, a position and a shape of a defect can be identified.","(22) The corrector may calculate, for first and second unit images located at positions corresponding to each other, a plurality of coincidence degrees indicating degrees of coincidence between pieces of one unit image data and pieces of another unit image data based on differences between gradation values of pixels located at corresponding positions, while moving the other unit image with respect to the one unit image, may detect a movement amount of the other unit image in the case where the calculated coincidence degree is maximized as a relative deviation amount between the first and second unit images.","In this case, a relative deviation amount between the first and second unit images is appropriately detected based on a difference in gradation value of a pixel corresponding to a normal portion.","(23) The corrector may calculate, for first and second unit images located at positions corresponding to each other, a plurality of coincidence degrees indicating degrees of coincidence between pieces of one unit image data and pieces of another unit image data based on differences between gradation values of pixels located at corresponding positions, while moving the other unit image with respect to the one unit image, may detect, in the case where magnitude of variations of the calculated coincidence degrees is larger than a predetermined threshold value, a movement amount of the other unit image in the case where the coincidence degree is in a predetermined range of the coincidence degree and the deviation amount is minimized as a relative deviation amount between the first and second unit images, and may interpolate, in the case where magnitude of variations of the calculated coincidence degrees is not more than the predetermined threshold value, a relative deviation amount between the first and second unit images based on a deviation amount detected for other first and second unit images adjacent to the first and second unit images.","When variations in coincidence degree are excessively large, part of the coincidence degree may be erroneously calculated.","Essentially, it is considered that the first and second unit images corresponding to each other are located at positions corresponding to each other or positions in the vicinity of the positions.","Therefore, a remarkably low coincidence degree is likely to be erroneously calculated.","In the above-mentioned configuration, in the case where the magnitude of variations in coincidence degree is larger than a threshold value, a movement amount of the other unit image in the case where the coincidence degree is in a predetermined range of the coincidence degree and a deviation amount is minimized is detected as a relative deviation amount between the first and second unit images.","Therefore, the above-mentioned range is set not to include a remarkably low coincidence degree, so that detection of a relative deviation amount between the first and second unit images based on the erroneously calculated coincidence degree is prevented.","On the one hand, in the case where the plurality of calculated coincidence degrees indicate substantially the constant value, it is difficult to identify a coincidence degree in the case where the pieces of first and second unit image data truly coincide with each other.","Therefore, it is difficult to detect an accurate deviation amount.","In the above-mentioned configuration, in the case where the magnitude of variations in coincidence degree is not more than a threshold value, a relative deviation amount between the first and second unit images is interpolated based on the detected deviation amount between the other first and second unit images adjacent to the first and second unit images.","Thus, a deviation amount for every pixel can be appropriately calculated even for the substrate not having the surface structure.","(24) Each of the plurality of first and second unit images may include a representative pixel located at a predetermined position in the unit image, and the corrector may determine a relative deviation amount detected for each of the plurality of first and second unit images as a relative deviation amount for each representative pixel of each of the plurality of first and second unit images, and may interpolate a deviation amount of pixels except for the plurality of representative pixels of the first and second pixels based on the determined deviation amount for every representative pixel.","In this case, a deviation amount for every pixel between the first and second images can be easily calculated in a short period of time.","(25) The inspector may further include an emphasis processer that performs emphasis processing on the first and second image data such that contrast between the first and second images is emphasized under a predetermined condition, wherein the corrector may detect the relative deviation amount between the first and second unit images by comparing the pieces of first and second unit image data on which the emphasis processing is performed by the emphasis processer.","In this case, the surface structure of the substrate is emphasized in the pixel corresponding to a normal portion by emphasis of the contrast between the first unit image and the second unit image.","Thus, the normal surface structure of the substrate can be accurately identified.","As a result, detection error of the relative deviation amount between the first and second unit images is prevented.","(26) The inspector may further include an optimization processer that optimizes a deviation amount for every pixel calculated by the corrector, wherein the optimization processer may calculate differences between the deviation amount calculated for each pixel and correction amounts of a plurality of pixels surrounding the pixel, may determine whether to treat the pixel as a target of interpolation based on a result of calculation, and may determine, for each of one or a plurality of pixels that are treated as the target of interpolation, a deviation amount of the pixel based on a deviation amount calculated for one or a plurality of pixels that is not treated as a target of interpolation among pixels surrounding the pixel, and the corrector may perform correction of the correspondence relationship based on a deviation amount for every pixel optimized by the optimization processer.","In this case, erroneously calculated deviation amount is optimized.","Thus, the correspondence relationship between a pixel of the first image and a pixel of the second image is appropriately corrected.","Therefore, a defect in appearance on the substrate can be detected with high accuracy.","(27) The pieces of difference information may include values acquired by addition of a constant value to values of differences between gradation values of pixels of the first image data and gradation values of corresponding pixels of the second image data.","In this case, overall gradation values, of the image based on the pieces of difference information, corresponding to all of the pixels can be increased.","Thus, the user can view the image based on the pieces of difference information without an uncomfortable feeling.","(28) The determiner may determine that there is a defect in appearance on the substrate to be inspected in the case where the number of pieces of difference information outside of the allowable range is not less than a predetermined number.","Part of the pieces of difference information not corresponding to a defect may be outside of the allowable range due to noise, disturbance or the like.","In the above-mentioned configuration, in the case where the number of the pieces of difference information outside of the allowable range is smaller than the predetermined number, it is not determined that there is a defect.","Therefore, determination error due to noise, disturbance or the like can be prevented.","(29) The determiner may perform smoothing of the first image data, may produce first correction image data by subtracting a gradation value of each pixel of first image data after smoothing from a gradation value of each pixel of first image data before smoothing, may perform smoothing of the second image data, may produce second correction image data by subtracting a gradation value of each pixel of second image data after smoothing from a gradation value of each pixel of second image data before smoothing, and may calculate differences between gradation values of pixels of the first correction image data produced based on correspondence relationships corrected by the corrector and gradation values of corresponding pixels of the second correction image data produced based on the correspondence relationships corrected by the corrector as the pieces of difference information for pixels of the first image data and corresponding pixels of the second image data.","Normally, a gradation change resulting from a defect and normal structure of the substrate occurs more locally or dispersively than a gradation change resulting from a moire.","Therefore, the first and second image data after smoothing include a gradation change resulting from a moire, and does not include a gradation change resulting from a defect in appearance and a gradation change resulting from the surface structure.","The first correction image data from which a moire is removed is produced by subtraction of a gradation value of each pixel of the first image data after smoothing from a gradation value of each pixel of the first image data before smoothing.","Further, the second correction image data from which a moire is removed is produced by subtraction of a gradation value of each pixel of the second image data after smoothing from a gradation value of each pixel of the second image data before smoothing.","The pieces of difference information are calculated based on the first and second correction image data.","It is determined whether there is a defect in appearance on the substrate to be inspected based on the pieces of calculated difference information.","Therefore, a reduction in detection accuracy due to a moire is prevented, and the appearance inspection for the substrate can be performed with high accuracy.","(30) The determiner may perform smoothing of the first and second image data by movement average filter processing.","In this case, smoothing of the first and second image data can be easily performed in a short period of time.","(31) The determiner may perform smoothing of the first and second image data such that the first and second image data after smoothing includes a gradation change resulting from a moire and does not include a gradation change resulting from a defect in appearance and normal surface structure.","In this case, the first and second correction image data that do not include a gradation change resulting from a moire and includes a gradation change resulting from a defect in appearance and normal surface structure can be appropriately produced.","(32) The inspector may further include a substrate holding rotator that holds and rotates the substrate, wherein the image data acquirer may include an illuminator that irradiates a radial region extending in a radial direction of the substrate rotated by the substrate holding rotator with light, and a line sensor that receives light reflected by the radial region of the substrate.","In this case, the first and second image data can be acquired with a simple configuration.","(33) A substrate processor according to yet another aspect of the present invention arranged to be adjacent to an exposer that performs exposure processing on a substrate includes a coater that forms a photosensitive film on a substrate before exposure processing by the exposer, a developer that performs development processing on the photosensitive film on the substrate after the exposure processing by the exposer, and any of the above-mentioned inspector that performs appearance inspection for the substrate after the formation of the photosensitive film by the coater.","In the substrate processor, a photosensitive film is formed on the substrate before exposure processing, and development processing is performed on the substrate after the exposure processing.","The appearance inspection for the substrate after the formation of a photosensitive film is performed by the above-mentioned inspector.","Thus, even in the case where the gradation value of the pixel corresponding to a defective portion is close to the gradation value of the pixel corresponding to a normal portion in the second image data, the defect is distinguished from a normal portion based on the pieces of difference information.","Further, in the case where there is a deviation of pixels corresponding to each other between the first and second image data, a defect in appearance on the substrate can be detected with high accuracy.","Further, even in the case where local distortion occurs for the substrate to be inspected, a defect in appearance on the substrate can be detected with high accuracy.","Thus, the appearance inspection for a photosensitive film on the substrate can be performed with high accuracy.","(34) The inspector performs the appearance inspection for the substrate after the formation of the photosensitive film by the coater and after the development processing by the developer.","In this case, the appearance inspection for a photosensitive film that has been patterned by the development processing can be performed with high accuracy.","Other features, elements, characteristics, and advantages of the present invention will become more apparent from the following description of preferred embodiments of the present invention with reference to the attached drawings."],["CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application is a divisional of U.S. patent application Ser.","No.","15/136,336, filed Apr.","22, 2016, which claims the benefit of Japanese Patent Application Nos.","JP 2015-088541, filed Apr.","23, 2015, JP 2015-106601, filed May 26, 2015 and JP 2015-106602, filed May 26, 2015, the contents of which are incorporated herein by reference.","BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Field of the Invention The present invention relates to an inspection device and a substrate processing apparatus including the inspection device.","Description of Related Art In various processing steps for each type of substrates such as semiconductor substrates, substrates for liquid crystal display devices, substrates for plasma displays, substrates for optical discs, substrates for magnetic discs, substrates for magneto-optical discs, substrates for photomasks and other substrates, appearance inspection for a substrate is performed.","In a substrate processing apparatus described in JP 2011-66049 A, appearance inspection for a substrate is performed after a resist film is formed on the substrate and before exposure processing is performed on the substrate.","In the appearance inspection for the substrate, surface image data of the substrate is produced by picking up of an image of the substrate by an imaging device.","In the case where all of the surface image data has brightness in a predetermined allowable range, it is determined that the substrate is normal.","On the one hand, in the case where at least part of the surface image data has brightness that is not in the allowable range, it is determined that the substrate is abnormal.","In this manner, a defect in appearance on the substrate is detected.","BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION However, in a method of detecting a defect described in JP 2011-66049 A, even in the case where there is a defect in a surface of a substrate, if brightness of the reflected light from the defect is in the allowable range, it is determined that the substrate is normal.","Therefore, a defect cannot be detected sometimes.","An object of the present invention is to provide an inspection device capable of performing appearance inspection for a substrate with high accuracy, and a substrate processing apparatus including the inspection device.","(1) An inspector according to one aspect of the present invention that performs appearance inspection for a substrate includes an image data acquirer that acquires image data of a substrate with no defect in appearance as first image data, and acquires image data of a substrate to be inspected as second image data by picking up an image of the substrate to be inspected, and a determiner that calculates values related to differences between gradation values of pixels of the of first image data acquired by the image data acquirer and gradation values of corresponding pixels of the of second image data acquired by the image data acquirer as pieces of difference information, and determines whether there is a defect in appearance on the substrate to be inspected based on whether each piece of calculated difference information is in a predetermined allowable range.","In the inspector, the image data of the substrate with no defect in appearance is acquired as the first image data, and the image data of the substrate to be inspected is acquired as the second image data.","As for a normal portion of the substrate to be inspected, a difference between a gradation value of a pixel of the first image data and a gradation value of a corresponding pixel of the second image data is small.","On the one hand, as for a defective portion of the substrate to be inspected, a difference between a gradation value of a pixel of the first image data and a gradation value of a corresponding pixel of the second image data is large.","Therefore, even in the case where the gradation value of the pixel corresponding to a defective portion is close to the gradation value of the pixel corresponding to a normal portion, the above-mentioned difference corresponding to the defective portion is larger than the above-mentioned difference corresponding to the normal portion.","A value related to a difference between a gradation value of a pixel of the first image data and a gradation value of a corresponding pixel of the second image data is calculated as a piece of difference information.","Thus, a piece of difference information for the pixel corresponding to the defective portion and a piece of difference information corresponding to the normal portion can be distinguished from each other.","Therefore, an allowable range is determined in advance to include a piece of difference information corresponding to a normal portion and not to include a piece of difference information corresponding to a defective portion, whereby it is possible to determine whether there is a defect.","As a result, a defect in appearance on the substrate can be detected with high accuracy.","(2) The determiner may detect a defect in appearance on the substrate based on a pixel of which the piece of difference information is outside of the allowable range.","In this case, in the case where there is a defect in appearance on the substrate to be inspected, a position and a shape of the defect can be identified.","(3) The pieces of difference information may include values acquired by addition of a constant value to values of the differences.","In this case, overall gradation values, of the image based on the pieces of difference information, corresponding to all of the pixels can be increased.","Thus, a user can view the image based on the pieces of difference information without an uncomfortable feeling.","(4) The determiner may determine that there is a defect in appearance on the substrate to be inspected in the case where the number of pieces of difference information being outside of the allowable range is not less than a predetermined number.","Part of the pieces of difference information not corresponding to a defect may be outside of the allowable range due to noise, disturbance or the like.","In the above-mentioned configuration, in the case where the number of the pieces of difference information outside of the allowable range is smaller a predetermined number, it is not determined that there is a defect.","Therefore, determination error due to noise, disturbance or the like can be prevented.","(5) The determiner may perform smoothing of the first image data acquired by the image data acquirer, may produce first correction image data by subtracting a gradation value of each pixel of first image data after smoothing from a gradation value of each pixel of first image data before smoothing, may perform smoothing of the second image data acquired by the image data acquirer, may produce second correction image data by subtracting a gradation value of each pixel of second image data after smoothing from a gradation value of each pixel of second image data before smoothing, and may calculate differences between gradation values of pixels of the produced first correction image data and gradation values of pixels of the produced second correction image data as the pieces of difference information for the pixels of the first image data and the corresponding pixels of the second image data.","Normally, a gradation change resulting from a defect and normal surface structure of the substrate occurs more locally or dispersively than a gradation change resulting from a moire.","Therefore, the first and second image data after smoothing includes a gradation change resulting from a moire, and does not include a gradation change resulting from a defect in appearance and a gradation change resulting from the surface structure.","The first correction image data from which a moire is removed is produced by subtraction of a gradation value of each pixel of the first image data after smoothing from a gradation value of each pixel of the first image data before smoothing.","Further, the second correction image data from which a moire is removed is produced by subtraction of a gradation value of each pixel of the second image data after smoothing from a gradation value of each pixel of the second image data before smoothing.","The pieces of difference information are calculated based on the first and second correction image data.","It is determined that there is a defect in appearance on the substrate to be inspected based on the calculated difference information.","Therefore, a reduction in detection accuracy for a defect due to a moire can be prevented, and appearance inspection for the substrate can be performed with high accuracy.","(6) The determiner may perform smoothing of the first and second image data by movement average filter processing.","In this case, the smoothing of the first and second image data can be easily performed in a short period of time.","(7) The determiner may perform smoothing of the first and second image data such that first and second image data after smoothing includes a gradation change resulting from a moire and does not include a gradation change resulting from a defect in appearance and normal surface structure.","In this case, first and second correction image data that do not include a gradation change due to a moire and includes a gradation change resulting from a defect in appearance and normal surface structure can be appropriately produced.","(8) The inspector may further include a substrate holding rotator that holds and rotates the substrate, wherein the image data acquirer may include an illuminator that irradiates a radial region extending in a radial direction of the substrate rotated by the substrate holding rotator with light, and a line sensor that receives light reflected by the radial region of the substrate.","In this case, first and second image data can be acquired with a simple configuration.","(9) An inspector according to another aspect of the present invention that performs appearance inspection for a substrate includes an image data acquirer that acquires image data of a substrate with no defect in appearance as first image data, and acquires image data of a substrate to be inspected as second image data by picking up an image of the substrate to be inspected, a range setter that sets an allowable range for determining whether there is a defect in appearance on the substrate, and a determiner that calculates values related to differences between gradation values of pixels of the first image data acquired by the image data acquirer and gradation values of pixels of the second image data acquired by the image data acquirer, the pixels of the first and second image data being considered to correspond to each other, and determines whether there is a defect in appearance on the substrate to be inspected based on whether each piece of calculated difference information is in the allowable range set by the range setter, wherein the range setter calculates, for each of a plurality of predetermined target pixels of the first image data, differences between gradation values of a target pixel and a plurality of pixels in a constant region including the target pixel, determines, for each of the plurality of predetermined target pixels of the first image data, a representative value in a range from a minimum value to a maximum value of a plurality of differences by a predetermined method based on the plurality of calculated differences, and respectively sets values related to a minimum value and a maximum value of the plurality of representative values respectively determined for the plurality of target pixels as a lower limit value and an upper limit value of the allowable range.","In the inspector, the image data of the substrate with no defect in appearance is acquired as first image data, and the image data of the substrate to be inspected is acquired as second image data.","As for a normal portion of the substrate to be inspected, a difference between a gradation value of a pixel of the first image data and a gradation value of a corresponding pixel of the second image data is small.","On the one hand, as for a defective portion of the substrate to be inspected, a difference between a gradation value of a pixel of the first image data and a gradation value of a corresponding pixel of the second image data is large.","Therefore, even in the case where a gradation value of the pixel corresponding to a defective portion is close to a gradation value of the pixel corresponding to a normal portion, the above-mentioned difference corresponding to the defective portion is larger than the above-mentioned difference corresponding to the normal portion.","A value related to a difference between a gradation value of the first image data and a gradation value of a corresponding pixel of the second image data is calculated as a piece of difference information.","Thus, the piece of difference information for the pixel corresponding to the defective portion, and the piece of difference information corresponding to the normal portion can be distinguished from each other.","Therefore, an allowable range is determined in advance to include the piece of difference information corresponding to a normal portion and not to include the piece of difference information corresponding to a defective portion, whereby it is possible to determine whether there is a defect.","However, a pixel of the second image data considered to correspond to one pixel of the first image data sometimes deviates from the truly corresponding pixel.","In this case, when an allowable range is set on assumption that a correspondence relationship between the first and second image data is accurate, the piece of difference information corresponding to a normal portion sometimes falls outside of the allowable range.","Therefore, it becomes necessary to largely set the allowable range in order to prevent determination error resulting from a deviation.","On the one hand, when the allowable range is set excessively largely, detection accuracy for a defect is reduced.","In the present invention, as for each of the plurality of target pixels of the first image data, differences between gradation values of the target pixel and gradation values of a plurality of pixels in a constant region including the target pixel are calculated.","In this case, it is considered that a plurality of differences calculated for each target pixel are substantially equivalent to the differences between gradation values calculated by a determiner with a deviation being present in correspondence relationship between the first and second image data in the case where there is no defect for the substrate to be inspected.","A representative value that is in a range from a minimum value to a maximum value of a plurality of differences is determined by a predetermined method based on the plurality of differences calculated for each target pixel.","In this case, when there is a deviation in correspondence relationship between the first and second image data, a representative value for each target pixel represents a difference between gradation values to be calculated in the case where a portion corresponding to each target pixel is normal.","Therefore, values for a minimum value and a maximum value of a plurality of representative values determined for the plurality of target pixels of the first image data are respectively set as a lower limit value and an upper limit value of the allowable range.","Thus, as for a normal portion, a piece of difference information calculated with a deviation being present in correspondence relationship is less likely to fall outside of the allowable range.","Therefore, a normal portion is less likely to be erroneously determined to be defective.","Further, a lower limit value and an upper limit value of the allowable range are limited to values for a minimum value and a maximum value of the representative value.","Thus, as for a defective portion, the piece of difference information calculated with a deviation being in correspondence relationship is less likely to be included in the allowable range.","Therefore, a defective portion is less likely to be erroneously determined to be normal.","As a result, in the case where there is a deviation between a pixel of the first image data and a corresponding pixel of the second image data, a defect in appearance on the substrate can be detected with high accuracy.","(10) The predetermined method may be a method of determining, for each of the plurality of predetermined target pixels of the first image data, an average value of the differences between gradation values of the target pixels and the plurality of pixels in the constant region including the target pixels as the representative value.","Thus, a desired allowable range can be appropriately set according to a determination condition for a defect and the like.","(11) The predetermined method may be a method of determining, for each of the plurality of predetermined target pixels of the first image data, a maximum value of the differences between gradation values of the target pixels and the plurality of pixels in the constant region including the target pixels as the representative value.","Thus, a desired allowable range can be appropriately set according to a determination condition for a defect and the like.","(12) The pieces of difference information may include values acquired by addition of a constant value to differences between gradation values of pixels of the first image data and gradation values of pixels of the second image data, the pixels of the first and second image data being considered to correspond to each other, and values related to the minimum value and the maximum value of the plurality of representative values may include values acquired by respective addition of the constant value to the minimum value and the maximum value of the plurality of representative values.","In this case, the overall gradation values, of the image based on the pieces of difference information, corresponding to all of the pixels can be increased.","Thus, the user can view the image based on the pieces of difference information without an uncomfortable feeling.","Further, the constant value added to the differences between the gradation values is added to a minimum value and a maximum value of the plurality of representative values, so that the allowable range is appropriately set.","(13) The range setter may set a first value smaller than the minimum value of the plurality of representative values by a predetermined value as the lower limit value of the allowable range instead of the value related to the minimum value of the plurality of representative values, and may set a second value larger than the maximum value of the plurality of representative values by a predetermined value as the upper limit value of the allowable range instead of the value related to the maximum value of the plurality of representative values.","Part of the pieces of difference information not corresponding to a defect may be smaller than the value for the minimum value of the plurality of representative values due to noise, disturbance or the like.","Further, part of the pieces of difference information not corresponding to a defect may be larger than a value for a maximum value of a plurality of representative values.","In the above-mentioned configuration, even in the case where the piece of difference information is smaller than the value for the minimum value of the plurality of representative values, it is not determined that there is a defect as long as the piece of difference information is not less than the first value.","Further, even in the case where the piece of difference information is larger than the value for the maximum value of the plurality of representative values, it is not determined that there is a defect as long as the piece of difference information is not more than the second value.","Therefore, determination error due to noise, disturbance or the like can be prevented.","(14) The determiner may detect a defect in appearance on the substrate based on a pixel of which a piece of difference information is outside of the allowable range.","In this case, in the case where there is a defect in appearance on the substrate to be inspected, a position and a shape of the defect can be identified.","(15) The determiner may determine that there is a defect in appearance on the substrate to be inspected in the case where the number of pieces of difference information outside of the allowable range is not less than a predetermined number.","Part of the pieces of difference information not corresponding to a defect may be outside of the allowable range due to noise, disturbance or the like.","In the above-mentioned configuration, in the case where the number of the pieces of difference information outside of the allowable range is smaller than the predetermined number, it is not determined that there is a defect.","Therefore, determination error due to noise, disturbance or the like can be prevented.","(16) The determiner may perform smoothing of the first image data acquired by the image data acquirer, may produce first correction image data by subtracting a gradation value of each pixel of first image data after smoothing from a gradation value of each pixel of first image data before smoothing, may perform smoothing of the second image data acquired by the image data acquirer, may produce second correction image data by subtracting a gradation value of each pixel of second image data after smoothing from a gradation value of each pixel of second image data before smoothing, and may calculate differences between gradation values of pixels of the produced first correction data and gradation values of pixels of the produced second correction data, the pixels of the produced first and second correction data being considered to correspond to each other, as the pieces of difference information for the pixels of the first image data and corresponding pixels of the second image data, and the range setter may calculate, for each of a plurality of target pixels of the first correction image data produced by the determiner instead of the first image data, differences between a gradation value of the target pixel and gradation values of the plurality of pixels in the constant region including the target pixel, and may determine, for each of the plurality of target pixels of the first correction image data produced by the determiner instead of the first image data, the representative value in the range from the minimum value to the maximum value of the plurality of differences by the predetermined method based on the plurality of calculated differences.","Normally, a gradation change resulting from a defect and normal surface structure of the substrate occurs more locally or dispersively than a gradation change resulting from a moire.","Therefore, the first and second image data after smoothing include a gradation change resulting from a moire, and does not include a gradation change resulting from a defect in appearance and a gradation change resulting from the surface structure.","The first correction image data from which a moire is removed is produced by subtraction of a gradation value of each pixel of the first image data after smoothing from a gradation value of each pixel of the first image data before smoothing.","Further, the second correction image data from which a moire is removed is produced by subtraction of a gradation value of each pixel of the second image data after smoothing from a gradation value of each pixel of the second image data before smoothing.","The pieces of difference information are calculated based on the first and second correction image data.","Whether there is a defect in appearance on the substrate to be inspected is determined based on the pieces of calculated difference information.","Therefore, a reduction in detection accuracy for a defect due to a moire is prevented, and appearance inspection for the substrate can be performed with high accuracy.","Further, as for each of the plurality of target pixels of the first correction image data, a difference between a gradation value of the target pixel and a gradation value a plurality of pixels in a constant region including the target pixel is calculated, and the above-mentioned representative value is determined based on the plurality of calculated differences.","Therefore, the allowable range corresponding to the second correction image data is appropriately set.","(17) The determiner may perform smoothing of the first and second image data by movement average filter processing.","In this case, smoothing of the first and second image data can be easily performed in a short period of time.","(18) The determiner may perform smoothing of the first and second image data such that first and second image data after smoothing includes a gradation change resulting from a moire and not to include a gradation change resulting from a defect in appearance and normal surface structure.","In this case, the first and second correction image data that do not include a gradation change due to a moire and includes a gradation change resulting from a defect in appearance and the normal surface structure can be appropriately produced.","(19) The inspector may further include a substrate holding rotator that holds and rotates the substrate, wherein the image data acquirer may include an illuminator that irradiates a radial region extending in a radial direction of the substrate rotated by the substrate holding rotator with light, and a line sensor that receives light reflected by the radial region of the substrate.","In this case, the first and second image data can be acquired with a simple configuration.","(20) An inspector according to yet another aspect of the present invention that performs appearance inspection for a substrate includes an image data acquirer that acquires image data indicating a first image of a substrate with no defect in appearance as first image data, and acquires image data indicating a second image of a substrate to be inspected as second image data by picking up an image of the substrate to be inspected, a corrector that corrects correspondence relationships between pixels of the first image data and pixels of the second image data, and a determiner that calculates values related to differences between gradation values of pixels of the first image data acquired by the image data acquirer and gradation values of corresponding pixels of the second image data acquired by the image data acquirer as pieces of difference information based on the correspondence relationship corrected by the corrector, and determines whether there is a defect in appearance on the substrate to be inspected based on whether each piece of calculated difference information is in a predetermined allowable range, wherein the first image is constituted by a plurality of first unit images, the first image data includes a plurality of pieces of first unit image data respectively indicating the plurality of first unit images, the second image is constituted by a plurality of second unit images, the second image data includes a plurality of pieces of second unit image data respectively indicating the plurality of second unit images, and the corrector detects relative deviation amounts between first and second unit images by comparing the pieces of first unit image data of the plurality of first unit images and the pieces of the second unit image data of the plurality of second unit images, the plurality of first and second unit images being located at corresponding positions, calculates a deviation amount for every pixel of the first and second images based on a plurality of deviation amounts detected for the plurality of first and second unit images, and corrects the correspondence relationship between a pixel of the first image data and a pixel of the second image data based on the calculated deviation amount for every pixel to resolve the deviation.","In the inspector, the image data of the substrate with no defect in appearance is acquired as the first image data, and the image data of the substrate to be inspected is acquired as the second image data.","As for a normal portion of the substrate to be inspected, a difference between a gradation value of a pixel of the first image data and a gradation value of a corresponding pixel of the second image is small.","On the one hand, as for a defective portion of the substrate to be inspected, a difference between a gradation value of a pixel of the first image data and a gradation value of a corresponding pixel of the second image data is large.","Therefore, even in the case where a gradation value of the pixel corresponding to the defective portion is close to a gradation value of the pixel corresponding to the normal portion, the above-mentioned difference corresponding to a defective portion is larger than the above-mentioned difference corresponding to a normal portion.","A value for a difference between a gradation value of a pixel of the first image data and a gradation value of a corresponding pixel of the second image data is calculated as a piece of difference information.","In this case, the piece of difference information for the pixel corresponding to the defective portion and the piece of difference information for the normal portion can be distinguished from each other.","Therefore, an allowable range is determined in advance to include the piece of difference information corresponding to a normal portion and not to include the piece of difference information corresponding to a defective portion, whereby it is possible to determine whether there is a defect.","However, local distortion that is not a defect sometimes occurs in the substrate to be inspected.","In this case, a position of the pixel of the second image corresponding to a distorted portion deviates from the position of the truly corresponding pixel of the first image.","Therefore, when the above-mentioned pieces of difference information are calculated on assumption that the correspondence relationship between the first and second image data is accurate, presence and absence of a defect cannot be accurately determined.","In the present invention, a relative deviation amount between the first and second unit images is detected by comparison between the pieces of first and second unit image data of the first and second unit images located at positions corresponding to each other.","Thus, a relative deviation amount between respective positions is detected for a plurality of portions corresponding to each other between the first and second images.","A deviation amount for every pixel between the first and second images is calculated based on the plurality of detected deviation amounts.","The correspondence relationship between a pixel of the first image data and a pixel of the second image data is corrected based on the calculated deviation amount for every pixel, and a deviation for every pixel is resolved.","Thus, even in the case where local distortion is present in the substrate to be inspected, the pixels corresponding to each other can be accurately distinguished by correction of the correspondence relationship between a pixel of the first image data and a corresponding pixel of the second image data.","A value related to a difference between a gradation value of a pixel of the first image data and a gradation value of a corresponding pixel of the second image data is calculated as a piece of difference information based on the corrected correspondence relationship.","In this case, for a normal portion, a gradation value of the pixel of the first image and a gradation value of the pixel located at a corresponding position of the second image substantially coincide with each other, so that a piece of difference information is small.","On the one hand, for a defective portion, a difference resulting from a defect occurs between a gradation value of the pixel of the first image and a gradation value of the pixel located at a corresponding position of the second image, so that a piece of difference information is large.","Therefore, a defect in appearance on the substrate can be detected with high accuracy.","(21) The determiner may detect a defect in appearance on the substrate based on a pixel of which the piece of difference information is outside of the allowable range.","In this case, in the case where there is a defect in appearance on the substrate to be inspected, a position and a shape of a defect can be identified.","(22) The corrector may calculate, for first and second unit images located at positions corresponding to each other, a plurality of coincidence degrees indicating degrees of coincidence between pieces of one unit image data and pieces of another unit image data based on differences between gradation values of pixels located at corresponding positions, while moving the other unit image with respect to the one unit image, may detect a movement amount of the other unit image in the case where the calculated coincidence degree is maximized as a relative deviation amount between the first and second unit images.","In this case, a relative deviation amount between the first and second unit images is appropriately detected based on a difference in gradation value of a pixel corresponding to a normal portion.","(23) The corrector may calculate, for first and second unit images located at positions corresponding to each other, a plurality of coincidence degrees indicating degrees of coincidence between pieces of one unit image data and pieces of another unit image data based on differences between gradation values of pixels located at corresponding positions, while moving the other unit image with respect to the one unit image, may detect, in the case where magnitude of variations of the calculated coincidence degrees is larger than a predetermined threshold value, a movement amount of the other unit image in the case where the coincidence degree is in a predetermined range of the coincidence degree and the deviation amount is minimized as a relative deviation amount between the first and second unit images, and may interpolate, in the case where magnitude of variations of the calculated coincidence degrees is not more than the predetermined threshold value, a relative deviation amount between the first and second unit images based on a deviation amount detected for other first and second unit images adjacent to the first and second unit images.","When variations in coincidence degree are excessively large, part of the coincidence degree may be erroneously calculated.","Essentially, it is considered that the first and second unit images corresponding to each other are located at positions corresponding to each other or positions in the vicinity of the positions.","Therefore, a remarkably low coincidence degree is likely to be erroneously calculated.","In the above-mentioned configuration, in the case where the magnitude of variations in coincidence degree is larger than a threshold value, a movement amount of the other unit image in the case where the coincidence degree is in a predetermined range of the coincidence degree and a deviation amount is minimized is detected as a relative deviation amount between the first and second unit images.","Therefore, the above-mentioned range is set not to include a remarkably low coincidence degree, so that detection of a relative deviation amount between the first and second unit images based on the erroneously calculated coincidence degree is prevented.","On the one hand, in the case where the plurality of calculated coincidence degrees indicate substantially the constant value, it is difficult to identify a coincidence degree in the case where the pieces of first and second unit image data truly coincide with each other.","Therefore, it is difficult to detect an accurate deviation amount.","In the above-mentioned configuration, in the case where the magnitude of variations in coincidence degree is not more than a threshold value, a relative deviation amount between the first and second unit images is interpolated based on the detected deviation amount between the other first and second unit images adjacent to the first and second unit images.","Thus, a deviation amount for every pixel can be appropriately calculated even for the substrate not having the surface structure.","(24) Each of the plurality of first and second unit images may include a representative pixel located at a predetermined position in the unit image, and the corrector may determine a relative deviation amount detected for each of the plurality of first and second unit images as a relative deviation amount for each representative pixel of each of the plurality of first and second unit images, and may interpolate a deviation amount of pixels except for the plurality of representative pixels of the first and second pixels based on the determined deviation amount for every representative pixel.","In this case, a deviation amount for every pixel between the first and second images can be easily calculated in a short period of time.","(25) The inspector may further include an emphasis processer that performs emphasis processing on the first and second image data such that contrast between the first and second images is emphasized under a predetermined condition, wherein the corrector may detect the relative deviation amount between the first and second unit images by comparing the pieces of first and second unit image data on which the emphasis processing is performed by the emphasis processer.","In this case, the surface structure of the substrate is emphasized in the pixel corresponding to a normal portion by emphasis of the contrast between the first unit image and the second unit image.","Thus, the normal surface structure of the substrate can be accurately identified.","As a result, detection error of the relative deviation amount between the first and second unit images is prevented.","(26) The inspector may further include an optimization processer that optimizes a deviation amount for every pixel calculated by the corrector, wherein the optimization processer may calculate differences between the deviation amount calculated for each pixel and correction amounts of a plurality of pixels surrounding the pixel, may determine whether to treat the pixel as a target of interpolation based on a result of calculation, and may determine, for each of one or a plurality of pixels that are treated as the target of interpolation, a deviation amount of the pixel based on a deviation amount calculated for one or a plurality of pixels that is not treated as a target of interpolation among pixels surrounding the pixel, and the corrector may perform correction of the correspondence relationship based on a deviation amount for every pixel optimized by the optimization processer.","In this case, erroneously calculated deviation amount is optimized.","Thus, the correspondence relationship between a pixel of the first image and a pixel of the second image is appropriately corrected.","Therefore, a defect in appearance on the substrate can be detected with high accuracy.","(27) The pieces of difference information may include values acquired by addition of a constant value to values of differences between gradation values of pixels of the first image data and gradation values of corresponding pixels of the second image data.","In this case, overall gradation values, of the image based on the pieces of difference information, corresponding to all of the pixels can be increased.","Thus, the user can view the image based on the pieces of difference information without an uncomfortable feeling.","(28) The determiner may determine that there is a defect in appearance on the substrate to be inspected in the case where the number of pieces of difference information outside of the allowable range is not less than a predetermined number.","Part of the pieces of difference information not corresponding to a defect may be outside of the allowable range due to noise, disturbance or the like.","In the above-mentioned configuration, in the case where the number of the pieces of difference information outside of the allowable range is smaller than the predetermined number, it is not determined that there is a defect.","Therefore, determination error due to noise, disturbance or the like can be prevented.","(29) The determiner may perform smoothing of the first image data, may produce first correction image data by subtracting a gradation value of each pixel of first image data after smoothing from a gradation value of each pixel of first image data before smoothing, may perform smoothing of the second image data, may produce second correction image data by subtracting a gradation value of each pixel of second image data after smoothing from a gradation value of each pixel of second image data before smoothing, and may calculate differences between gradation values of pixels of the first correction image data produced based on correspondence relationships corrected by the corrector and gradation values of corresponding pixels of the second correction image data produced based on the correspondence relationships corrected by the corrector as the pieces of difference information for pixels of the first image data and corresponding pixels of the second image data.","Normally, a gradation change resulting from a defect and normal structure of the substrate occurs more locally or dispersively than a gradation change resulting from a moire.","Therefore, the first and second image data after smoothing include a gradation change resulting from a moire, and does not include a gradation change resulting from a defect in appearance and a gradation change resulting from the surface structure.","The first correction image data from which a moire is removed is produced by subtraction of a gradation value of each pixel of the first image data after smoothing from a gradation value of each pixel of the first image data before smoothing.","Further, the second correction image data from which a moire is removed is produced by subtraction of a gradation value of each pixel of the second image data after smoothing from a gradation value of each pixel of the second image data before smoothing.","The pieces of difference information are calculated based on the first and second correction image data.","It is determined whether there is a defect in appearance on the substrate to be inspected based on the pieces of calculated difference information.","Therefore, a reduction in detection accuracy due to a moire is prevented, and the appearance inspection for the substrate can be performed with high accuracy.","(30) The determiner may perform smoothing of the first and second image data by movement average filter processing.","In this case, smoothing of the first and second image data can be easily performed in a short period of time.","(31) The determiner may perform smoothing of the first and second image data such that the first and second image data after smoothing includes a gradation change resulting from a moire and does not include a gradation change resulting from a defect in appearance and normal surface structure.","In this case, the first and second correction image data that do not include a gradation change resulting from a moire and includes a gradation change resulting from a defect in appearance and normal surface structure can be appropriately produced.","(32) The inspector may further include a substrate holding rotator that holds and rotates the substrate, wherein the image data acquirer may include an illuminator that irradiates a radial region extending in a radial direction of the substrate rotated by the substrate holding rotator with light, and a line sensor that receives light reflected by the radial region of the substrate.","In this case, the first and second image data can be acquired with a simple configuration.","(33) A substrate processor according to yet another aspect of the present invention arranged to be adjacent to an exposer that performs exposure processing on a substrate includes a coater that forms a photosensitive film on a substrate before exposure processing by the exposer, a developer that performs development processing on the photosensitive film on the substrate after the exposure processing by the exposer, and any of the above-mentioned inspector that performs appearance inspection for the substrate after the formation of the photosensitive film by the coater.","In the substrate processor, a photosensitive film is formed on the substrate before exposure processing, and development processing is performed on the substrate after the exposure processing.","The appearance inspection for the substrate after the formation of a photosensitive film is performed by the above-mentioned inspector.","Thus, even in the case where the gradation value of the pixel corresponding to a defective portion is close to the gradation value of the pixel corresponding to a normal portion in the second image data, the defect is distinguished from a normal portion based on the pieces of difference information.","Further, in the case where there is a deviation of pixels corresponding to each other between the first and second image data, a defect in appearance on the substrate can be detected with high accuracy.","Further, even in the case where local distortion occurs for the substrate to be inspected, a defect in appearance on the substrate can be detected with high accuracy.","Thus, the appearance inspection for a photosensitive film on the substrate can be performed with high accuracy.","(34) The inspector performs the appearance inspection for the substrate after the formation of the photosensitive film by the coater and after the development processing by the developer.","In this case, the appearance inspection for a photosensitive film that has been patterned by the development processing can be performed with high accuracy.","Other features, elements, characteristics, and advantages of the present invention will become more apparent from the following description of preferred embodiments of the present invention with reference to the attached drawings.","BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE SEVERAL VIEWS OF THE DRAWING FIG.","1 is a schematic plan view showing the configuration of a substrate processing apparatus according to a first embodiment; FIG.","2 is a schematic side view of the substrate processing apparatus mainly showing a coating processing section, a coating development processing section and a cleaning drying processing section; FIG.","3 is a schematic side view of the substrate processing apparatus mainly showing a thermal processing section and the cleaning drying processing section of FIG.","1; FIG.","4 is a schematic side view mainly showing a transport section of FIG.","1; FIG.","5 is a schematic side view for explaining the configuration of an inspection unit; FIG.","6 is a schematic perspective view for explaining the configuration of the inspection unit; FIGS.","7A to 7F are diagrams for explaining production of surface image data; FIG.","8 is a diagram showing a surface image of a non-defective sample substrate; FIG.","9 is a diagram showing appearance frequency of a gradation value in surface image data of the non-defective sample substrate; FIG.","10 is a flow chart of defect determination processing according to the first embodiment; FIG.","11 is a flow chart of the defect determination processing according to the first embodiment; FIGS.","12A to 12E are diagrams showing a plurality of surface images produced in the defect determination processing; FIG.","13 is a flow chart showing a modified example of the defect determination processing according to the first embodiment; FIG.","14 is a diagram schematically showing moires that occurs in the surface image; FIG.","15 is a flow chart of moire removal processing; FIGS.","16A and 16B are diagrams for explaining a change in surface image in the case where the moire removal processing is performed for an inspection substrate; FIGS.","17A and 17B are diagrams for explaining a change in surface image in the case where the moire removal processing is performed for the inspection substrate; FIG.","18 is a flow chart showing part of the defect determination processing according to a second embodiment; FIGS.","19 and 20 are flow charts of the defect determination processing according to a third embodiment; FIGS.","21A to 21C are diagrams for explaining difference image data produced with a deviation being present in a correspondence relationship between a pixel of the surface image data of the inspection substrate and a pixel of the surface image data of the sample substrate; FIGS.","22A and 22B are diagrams showing variations of determination image data acquired for every inspection substrate; FIG.","23 is a flow chart of allowable range setting processing; FIG.","24 is a flow chart showing a modified example of the defect determination processing according to a third embodiment; FIG.","25 is a flow chart showing part of the defect determination processing according to a fourth embodiment; FIG.","26 is a flow chart of the defect determination processing according to a fifth embodiment; FIG.","27 is a flow chart of the defect determination processing according to the fifth embodiment; FIGS.","28A and 28B are diagrams for explaining an example in which a deviation has occurred in a correspondence relationship between a pixel of a surface image of the sample substrate and a pixel of a surface image of the inspection substrate; FIG.","29 is a flow chart of correspondence relationship correction processing; FIGS.","30A and 30B are diagrams for conceptually explaining the contents of each processing of the correspondence relationship correction processing of FIG.","29; FIG.","31 is a diagram for conceptually explaining contents of each processing of the correspondence relationship correction processing of FIG.","29; FIG.","32 is a diagram for conceptually explaining contents of each processing of the correspondence relationship correction processing of FIG.","29; FIGS.","33A to 33C are diagrams for conceptually explaining the contents of each processing of the correspondence relationship correction processing of FIG.","29; FIG.","34 is flow chart showing a modified example of the defect determination processing according to the fifth embodiment; FIGS.","35A to 35C are diagrams showing an example in which a relative deviation amount between the first and second unit images is erroneously detected; FIG.","36 is a flow chart showing part of the defect determination processing according to a sixth embodiment; FIG.","37 is a flow chart of the correspondence relationship correction processing according to a seventh embodiment; FIG.","38 is a flow chart of deviation amount optimization processing; FIG.","39 is a flow chart of the deviation amount optimization processing; FIGS.","40A to 40C are diagrams showing a state of deviation amounts of a plurality of pixels optimized by the deviation amount optimization processing; FIG.","41 is a flow chart showing part of defect determination processing according to an eighth embodiment; and FIG.","42 is a flow chart showing part of the defect determination processing according to a ninth embodiment.","DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS An inspection device and a substrate processing apparatus according to one embodiment of the present invention will be described below with reference to the drawings.","In the following description, a substrate refers to a semiconductor substrate, a substrate for a liquid crystal display device, a substrate for a plasma display, a glass substrate for a photomask, a substrate for an optical disc, a substrate for a magnetic disc, a substrate for a magneto-optical disc, a substrate for a photomask or the like.","[1] First Embodiment (1) Overall Configuration of Substrate Processing Apparatus FIG.","1 is a schematic plan view showing the configuration of the substrate processing apparatus 100 according to the first embodiment.","FIG.","1 and subsequently given diagrams are accompanied by arrows that indicate X, Y, and Z directions orthogonal to one another for clarity of a positional relationship.","The X and Y directions are orthogonal to each other within a horizontal plane, and the Z direction corresponds to a vertical direction.","As shown in FIG.","1, the substrate processing apparatus 100 includes an indexer block 11, a first processing block 12, a second processing block 13, a cleaning drying processing block 14A and a carry-in carry-out (indexer) block 14B.","An interface block 14 is constituted by the cleaning drying processing block 14A and the carry-in carry-out block 14B.","An exposure device 15 is arranged to be adjacent to the carry-in carry-out block 14B.","In the exposure device 15, exposure processing is performed on the substrate W using a liquid immersion method.","The indexer block 11 includes a plurality of carrier platforms 111 and a transport section (a transport space) 112.In each carrier platform 111, a carrier 113 for storing the plurality of substrates W in multiple stages is placed.","A controller 114 and a transport mechanism (a transport robot) 115 are provided in the transport section 112.The controller 114 includes a CPU (Central Processing Unit) and a memory, or a microcomputer, for example, and controls various constituent elements of the substrate processing apparatus 100.The transport mechanism 115 has a hand 116 for holding the substrate W. The transport mechanism 115 holds the substrate W by the hand 116 and transports the substrate W. A main panel PN is provided on a side surface of the transport section 112.The main panel PN is connected to the controller 114.A user can confirm the processing status of the substrate W in the substrate processing apparatus 100 and other pieces of information on the main panel PN.","The first processing block 12 includes a coating processing section (a coating processing space) 121, a transport section (a transport processing space) 122 and a thermal processing section (a thermal processing space) 123.The coating processing section 121 and the thermal processing section 123 are provided to be opposite to each other with the transport section 122 sandwiched therebetween.","Substrate platform PASS1, and substrate platforms PASS2 to PASS4 (see FIG.","4), described below, on which the substrates W are placed are provided between the transport section 122 and the transport section 112.A transport mechanism (a transport robot) 127 and a transport mechanism (a transport robot) 128 (see FIG.","4) that is described below, which transport the substrates W, are provided in the transport section 122.The second processing block 13 includes a coating development processing section (a coating development processing space) 131, a transport section (a transport space) 132 and a thermal processing section (a thermal processing space) 133.The coating development processing section 131 and the thermal processing section 133 are provided to be opposite to each other with the transport section 132 sandwiched therebetween.","Substrate platform PASS5, and substrate platforms PASS6 to PASS8 (see FIG.","4), described below, on which the substrates W are placed are provided between the transport section 132 and the transport section 122.A transport mechanism (a transport robot) 137 and a transport mechanism 138 (a transport robot) (see FIG.","4) that is described below, which transport the substrates W, are provided in the transport section 132.The cleaning drying processing block 14A includes cleaning drying processing sections (cleaning drying processing spaces) 161, 162 and a transport section (a transport space) 163.The cleaning drying processing sections 161, 162 are provided to be opposite to each other with the transport section 163 sandwiched therebetween.","Transport mechanisms (transport robots) 141, 142 are provided in the transport section 163.A placement buffer unit P-BF1 and a placement buffer unit P-BF2 (see FIG.","4) that is described below are provided between the transport section 163 and the transport section 132.Further, a substrate platform PASS9 and placement cooling platforms P-CP (see FIG.","4) that are described below are provided to be adjacent to the carry-in carry-out block 14B between the transport mechanisms 141, 142.In the placement cooling platform P-CP, the substrate W is cooled to a temperature suitable for the exposure processing.","A transport mechanism (a transport robot) 146 is provided in the carry-in carry-out block 14B.","The transport mechanism 146 carries in the substrate W to and carries out the substrate W from the exposure device 15.A substrate inlet 15a for carrying in the substrate W and a substrate outlet 15b for carrying out the substrate W are provided at the exposure device 15.FIG.","2 is a schematic side view of the substrate processing apparatus 100 mainly showing the coating processing section 121, the coating development processing section 131 and the cleaning drying processing section 161 of FIG.","1.As shown in FIG.","2, in the coating processing section 121, coating processing chambers 21, 22, 23, 24 are provided in a stack.","In the coating development processing section 131, development processing chambers 31, 33, and coating processing chambers 32, 34 are provided in a stack.","In each of the coating processing chambers 21 to 24, 32, 34, a coating processing unit (a coater) 129 is provided.","In each of the development processing chambers 31, 33, a development processing unit (a developer) 139 is provided.","Each coating processing unit 129 includes spin chucks 25 that hold the substrates W and cups 27 provided to cover the surroundings of the spin chucks 25.In the present embodiment, two pairs of the spin chucks 25 and the cups 27 are provided in each coating processing unit 129.Each spin chuck 25 is driven to be rotated by a driving device that is not shown (an electric motor, for example).","Further, as shown in FIG.","1, each coating processing unit 129 includes a plurality of coating nozzles 28 that discharge a processing liquid and a nozzle transport mechanism (a nozzle transport robot) 29 that transports these coating nozzles 28.In each coating processing unit 129, any one of the plurality of coating nozzles 28 is moved to a position above the substrate W by the nozzle transport mechanism 29.With the spin chuck 25 being rotated by a driving device (not shown), the processing liquid is discharged from the coating nozzle 28.Thus, the processing liquid is applied to an upper surface of the substrate W. Further, a rinse liquid is discharged to a peripheral portion of the substrate W from an edge rinse nozzle (not shown).","Thus, the processing liquid adhering to the peripheral portion of the substrate W is removed.","In the present embodiment, in the coating processing unit 129 in each of the coating processing chambers 22, 24, a processing liquid for an anti-reflection film is supplied to the substrate W from the coating nozzle 28.In the coating processing unit 129 in each of the coating processing chambers 21, 23, a processing liquid for a resist film is supplied to the substrate W from the coating nozzle 28.In the coating processing unit 129 in each of the coating processing chambers 32, 34, a processing liquid for a resist cover film is supplied to the substrate W from the coating nozzle 28.As shown in FIG.","2, each development processing unit 139 includes spin chucks 35 and cups 37 similarly to the coating processing unit 129.In the present embodiment, three pairs of the spin chucks 35 and the cups 37 are provided in the development processing unit 139.The spin chuck 35 is driven to be rotated by a driving device (not shown) (an electrical motor, for example).","Further, as shown in FIG.","1, the development processing unit 139 includes two development nozzles 38 that discharge a development liquid and a moving mechanism (a moving robot) 39 that moves the development nozzles 38 in the X direction.","In the development processing unit 139, one development nozzle 38 supplies a development liquid to each substrate W while moving in the X direction.","Subsequently, the other development nozzle 38 supplies a development liquid to each substrate W while moving.","In this case, the development liquid is supplied to the substrate W, so that a resist cover film on the substrate W is removed, and the development processing for the substrate W is performed.","A plurality (four in the present example) of cleaning drying processing units CD1 are provided in the cleaning drying processing section 161.In each cleaning drying processing unit CD1, cleaning and drying processing for the substrate W before the exposure processing are performed.","FIG.","3 is a schematic side view of the substrate processing apparatus 100 mainly showing the thermal processing sections 123, 133 and the cleaning drying processing section 162 of FIG.","1.As shown in FIG.","3, the thermal processing section 123 has an upper thermal processing section (an upper thermal processing space) 301 provided above, and a lower thermal processing section (a lower thermal processing space) 302 provided below.","In each of the upper thermal processing section 301 and the lower thermal processing section 302, a plurality of thermal processing units PHP, a plurality of adhesion reinforcement processing units PAHP and a plurality of cooling units (a cooling plate) CP are provided.","In each thermal processing unit PHP, heating processing and cooling processing for the substrate W are performed.","Hereinafter, the heating processing and the cooling processing in the thermal processing unit PHP are simply referred to as thermal processing.","In the adhesion reinforcement processing unit PAHP, adhesion reinforcement processing for improving adhesion between the substrate W and the anti-reflection film is performed.","Specifically, in the adhesion reinforcement processing unit PAHP, an adhesion reinforcement agent such as HMDS (hexamethyldisilazane) is applied to the substrate W, and the heating processing is performed on the substrate W. In each cooling unit CP, the cooling processing for the substrate W is performed.","The thermal processing section 133 has an upper thermal processing section (an upper thermal processing space) 303 provided above and a lower thermal processing section (a lower thermal processing space) 304 provided below.","In each of the upper thermal processing section 303 and the lower thermal processing section 304, a cooling unit CP, an edge exposure unit EEW, an inspection unit IP, and a plurality of thermal processing units PHP are provided.","In the edge exposure unit EEW, exposure processing (edge exposure processing) for a peripheral portion of the substrate W is performed.","In the inspection unit IP, appearance inspection for the substrate W after the development processing is performed.","An inspection device (an inspector) is constituted by the inspection unit IP and the controller 114 of FIG.","1.Details of the inspection unit IP will be described below.","In the upper thermal processing section 303 and the lower thermal processing section 304, each thermal processing unit PHP provided to be adjacent to the cleaning drying processing block 14A is configured to be capable of carrying in the substrate W from the cleaning drying processing block 14A.","A plurality (four in the present example) of cleaning drying processing units CD2 are provided in the cleaning drying processing section 162.In each cleaning drying processing unit CD2, the cleaning and drying processing for the substrate W after the exposure processing are performed.","FIG.","4 is a schematic side view mainly showing the transport sections 122, 132, 163 of FIG.","1.As shown in FIG.","4, the transport section 122 has an upper transport chamber 125 and a lower transport chamber 126.The transport section 132 has an upper transport chamber 135 and a lower transport chamber 136.The transport mechanism 127 is provided in the upper transport chamber 125, and the transport mechanism 128 is provided in the lower transport chamber 126.Further, the transport mechanism 137 is provided in the upper transport chamber 135, and the transport mechanism 138 is provided in the lower transport chamber 136.Each of the transport mechanisms 127, 128, 137, 138 has hands H1, H2.Each of the transport mechanisms 127, 128, 137, 138 can hold the substrate W using the hands H1, H2, and transport the substrate W by freely moving the hands H1, H2 in the X and Z directions.","The substrate platforms PASS1, PASS2 are provided between the transport section 112 and the upper transport chamber 125, and the substrate platforms PASS3, PASS4 are provided between the transport section 112 and the lower transport chamber 126.The substrate platforms PASS5, PASS6 are provided between the upper transport chamber 125 and the upper transport chamber 135, and the substrate platforms PASS7, PASS8 are provided between the lower transport chamber 126 and the lower transport chamber 136.The placement buffer unit P-BF1 is provided between the upper transport chamber 135 and the transport section 163, and the placement buffer unit P-BF2 is provided between the lower transport chamber 136 and the transport section 163.The substrate platform PASS9 and the plurality of placement cooling platforms P-CP are provided to be adjacent to the interface block 14 in the transport section 163.The transport mechanism 127 is configured to be capable of transporting the substrate W among the substrate platforms PASS1, PASS2, PASS5, PASS6, the coating processing chambers 21, 22 (FIG.","2) and the upper thermal processing section 301 (FIG.","3).","The transport mechanism 128 is configured to be capable of transporting the substrate W among the substrate platforms PASS3, PASS4, PASS7, PASS8, the coating processing chambers 23, 24 (FIG.","2) and the lower thermal processing section 302 (FIG.","3).","The transport mechanism 137 is configured to be capable of transporting the substrate W among the substrate platforms PASS5, PASS6, the placement buffer unit P-BF1, the development processing chamber 31 (FIG.","2), the coating processing chamber 32 and the upper thermal processing section 303 (FIG.","3).","The transport mechanism 138 is configured to be capable of transporting the substrate W among the substrate platforms PASS7, PASS8, the placement buffer unit P-BF2, the development processing chamber 33 (FIG.","2), the coating processing chamber 34 and the lower thermal processing section 304 (FIG.","3).","(2) Configuration of Inspection Units FIGS.","5 and 6 are a schematic side view and a schematic perspective view for explaining the configuration of the inspection unit IP.","As shown in FIG.","5, the inspection unit IP includes a holding rotator 51, an illuminator 52, a reflection mirror 53 and a CCD line sensor 54.The holding rotator 51 includes a spin chuck 511, a rotation shaft 512, and a motor 513.The spin chuck 511 holds the substrate W in a horizontal attitude by sucking substantially the center of a lower surface of the substrate W under vacuum.","The rotation shaft 512 and the spin chuck 511 are integrally rotated by the motor 513.Thus, the substrate W held by the spin chuck 511 is rotated about the shaft extending in a vertical direction (the Z direction).","In the present example, a surface of the substrate W is directed upward.","The surface of the substrate W is the surface of the substrate W on which a circuit pattern is formed.","As shown in FIG.","6, the illuminator 52 emits strip-shape inspection light.","A line region (hereinafter referred to as a radial region) RR extending in a radial direction of the surface of the substrate W held by the spin chuck 511 is irradiated with the inspection light.","The inspection light reflected by the radial region RR is further reflected by the reflection mirror 53, and is led to the CCD line sensor 54.The distribution of the light reception amount of the CCD line sensor 54 is equivalent to the distribution of the brightness of the reflected light in the radial region RR.","Surface image data of the substrate W is produced based on the distribution of the light reception amount of the CCD line sensor 54.The surface image data shows an image of the surface of the substrate W (hereinafter referred to as a surface image).","In the present example, the distribution of the light reception amount of the CCD line sensor 54 is supplied to the controller 114 of FIG.","1, and the surface image data is produced by the controller 114.FIGS.","7A to 7F are diagrams for explaining the production of surface image data.","In FIGS.","7A, 7B and 7C, illumination states of the inspection light on the substrate W are sequentially shown.","In FIGS.","7D, 7E and 7F, the surface images corresponding to the surface image data produced in the states of the FIGS.","7A, 7B and 7C are shown.","In FIGS.","7A to 7C, a dotted pattern is applied to the regions on the substrate W irradiated with the inspection light.","As shown in each of FIGS.","7A to 7C, the substrate W is rotated while the radial region RR on the substrate W is intermittently irradiated with the inspection light.","Thus, the substrate W is successively irradiated with the inspection light in a circumferential direction of the substrate W. When the substrate W is rotated once, the entire surface of the substrate W is irradiated with the inspection light.","Based on the distribution of the light reception amount of the CCD line sensor 54 acquired in a period in which the substrate W is rotated once, the surface image data indicating a rectangular surface image SD1 is produced as shown in each of FIGS.","7D to 7F.","In each of FIGS.","7D to 7F, the abscissa of the surface image SD1 corresponds to a position of each pixel of the CCD line sensor 54, and the ordinate of the surface image SD1 corresponds to a rotation angle of the substrate W. In this case, the distribution of the brightness of the reflected light on the surface of the substrate W in the radial direction of the substrate W is shown in a direction of the abscissa of the surface image SD1.Further, the distribution of the brightness of the reflected light on the surface of the substrate Win a circumferential direction of the substrate W is shown in a direction of the ordinate of the surface image SD1.At a time point where the substrate W is rotated once, the distribution of the brightness of the reflected light on the entire surface of the substrate W is acquired as the surface image data indicating one rectangular surface image SD1.The acquired surface image data of the surface image SD1 is corrected to show the surface image in the shape (circular) of the substrate W. The appearance inspection for the substrate W is performed based on the corrected surface image data.","In the present embodiment, the appearance inspection for the resist film that has been patterned by the development processing (hereinafter referred to as a resist pattern) is performed.","(3) Method of Appearance Inspection The brightness of a normal portion of the surface image of the substrate W can be found based on surface image data of a non-defective sample substrate, for example.","FIG.","8 is a diagram showing a surface image of a non-defective sample substrate.","In a surface image SD2 of FIG.","8, the surface structure of the substrate W including a net-like resist pattern RP is shown.","The surface structure of the substrate W does not mean a defect, but means the normally formed structure such as a circuit pattern and a resist pattern.","In the present example, the brightness of the surface image SD2 is indicated by a gradation value of each pixel.","The higher the gradation value is, the brighter the pixel is.","FIG.","9 is a diagram showing the appearance frequency of the gradation value in the surface image data of the non-defective sample substrate.","In FIG.","9, the abscissa indicates the gradation value, and the ordinate indicates the appearance frequency of each gradation value.","As shown in FIG.","9, in the present example, a lower limit value of the gradation value in the surface image data is TH1, and an upper limit value of the gradation value in the surface image data is TH2.Two peaks are shown between the lower limit value TH1 and the upper limit value TH2.The peak with a smaller gradation value between the two peaks is mainly based on the gradation value of the resist pattern RP of FIG.","8, and the peak with a larger gradation value is mainly based on the gradation value of the surface structure of the substrate W except for the resist pattern RP.","Normally, the gradation value of a defect is different from the gradation value of a normal portion.","Therefore, as indicated by outlined arrows a1 and dotted lines, it can be determined that there is a defect in appearance on the substrate W in which a gradation value that falls outside of a range between the above-mentioned lower limit value TH1 and upper limit value TH2 is detected.","Further, it can be determined that there is no defect in appearance on the substrate W in which a gradation value that falls outside of the range between the lower limit value TH1 and the upper limit value TH2 is not detected.","However, depending on a defect formed on the substrate W, as indicated by an outlined arrow a2 and one-dot and dash lines in FIG.","9, the gradation value of the pixel corresponding to the defect may be located between the above-mentioned lower limit value TH1 and the upper limit value TH2.In this case, it is determined that there is no defect in appearance by the above-mentioned determination method.","In the present embodiment, defect determination processing, described below, is performed by the controller 114 of FIG.","1.FIGS.","10 and 11 are flow charts of the defect determination processing according to the first embodiment.","FIGS.","12A to 12E are diagrams showing a plurality of surface images generated in the defect determination processing.","In the following description, a substrate W to be inspected is referred to as an inspection substrate W. Inspection is performed in advance with high accuracy before start of the defect determination processing, and the substrate that is determined to be non-defective in the inspection is prepared as a sample substrate.","As shown in FIG.","10, the controller 114 first acquires the surface image data of the non-defective sample substrate (step S11), and corrects the acquired surface image data to produce a surface image in the shape of the substrate W (step S12).","In the present embodiment, the surface image data is acquired by the above-mentioned inspection unit IP.","The surface image data may be acquired by another device instead of the inspection unit IP.","In FIG.","12A, a surface image SD2 of the sample substrate produced by the processing of the step S12 is shown.","In the surface image SD2 of FIG.","12A, the surface structure of the sample substrate including the resist pattern RP is shown.","Next, the controller 114 acquires the surface image data of the inspection substrate W similarly to the processing of the steps S11 and S12 (step S13), and corrects the acquired surface image data to produce the surface image in the shape of the substrate W (step S14).","In FIG.","12B, a surface image SD3 of the inspection substrate W produced by the processing of the step S14 is shown.","In the surface image SD3 of FIG.","12B, a defect DP in appearance is shown in addition to the surface structure of the inspection substrate W. In each of the FIG.","12B and FIGS.","12C, 12D and 12E, described below, an outer edge of the defect DP is indicated by a dotted line in order to facilitate understanding of the shape of the defect DP.","Subsequently, as shown in FIG.","11, the controller 114 calculates a difference between a gradation value of a pixel of the surface image data of the inspection substrate W and a gradation value of a corresponding pixel of the surface image data of the sample substrate (step S15).","More specifically, the controller 114 subtracts a gradation value of each pixel of the surface image SD2 of the sample substrate from a gradation value of each pixel of the surface image SD3 of the inspection substrate W. In this case, a correspondence relationship between the pixel of the surface image SD2 and the pixel of the surface image SD3 can be found by pattern matching between the surface structure of the sample substrate included in the surface image SD2 and the surface structure of the inspection substrate W included in the surface image SD3, for example.","Alternatively, the above-mentioned correspondence relationship can be found based on a positional relationship between a cutout (an orientation flat or notch) for positioning that is commonly formed in the sample substrate and the inspection substrate W, and each pixel, for example.","In the surface image SD3 of the inspection substrate W, an image similar to the surface structure of the sample substrate included in the surface image SD2 is included together with the image of the defect DP.","Therefore, as for the pixel corresponding to a normal portion of the inspection substrate W, a difference acquired by the processing of the step S15 is small.","On the one hand, in the case where there is a defect in appearance on the inspection substrate W, as for the pixel corresponding to the defective portion, the above-mentioned difference is large.","Thus, a difference in gradation value of the pixel corresponding to a defective portion and a difference in gradation value of the pixel corresponding to a normal portion can be distinguished from each other.","In the following description, surface image data made of the differences acquired by the processing of the step S15 is referred to as difference image data.","In FIG.","12C, a surface image SD4 indicated by the difference image data is shown.","In the surface image SD4 of FIG.","12C, the brightness of the defect DP is sufficiently darker than the brightness of a normal portion of the inspection substrate W. Next, the controller 114 adds a constant value to a gradation value of each pixel of the difference image data (step S16).","Hereinafter, the surface image data after the processing of the step S16 is referred to as determination image data.","For example, a center value of a range of gradation values is added to a gradation value of each pixel.","Specifically, in the case where gradation values are indicated by numerical values of not less than 0 and not more than 255, 128 is added to a gradation value of each pixel.","In FIG.","12D, a surface image SD5 indicated by the determination image data is shown.","The surface image SD5 of FIG.","12D has appropriate brightness.","The controller 114 displays the produced surface image SD5 in the main panel PN of FIG.","1, for example.","In this case, the user can view the surface image SD5 of FIG.","12D without an uncomfortable feeling.","In the case where the user does not view the surface image SD5, the processing of the above-mentioned step S16 does not have to be performed.","Thereafter, the controller 114 determines whether a gradation value of each pixel of the determination image data is in a predetermined allowable range (step S17).","In the present embodiment, the allowable range is determined in advance as a parameter specific to the device to include gradation values of pixels corresponding to normal portions of the determination image data, and not to include gradation values of pixels corresponding to defective portions of the determination image data.","In the case where a gradation value of each pixel of the determination image data is in the allowable range, the controller 114 determines that there is no defect in appearance on the inspection substrate W (step S18), and ends the defect determination processing.","On the one hand, in the case where a gradation value of any pixel is outside of the allowable range, the controller 114 determines that there is a defect in appearance on the inspection substrate W (step S19).","Further, the controller 114 detects the defect by extracting one or a plurality of pixels of which a gradation value is outside of the allowable range (step S20), and ends the defect determination processing.","In the above-mentioned step S20, as shown in FIG.","12E, the controller 114 may produce a surface image SD6 showing the extracted defect DP.","Further, the controller 114 may display the produced surface image SD6 in the main panel PN of FIG.","1.As described above, a position and a shape of the defect can be identified by the detection of a defect in appearance on the inspection substrate W. For the inspection substrate W that is determined to be defective in the defect determination processing, after the inspection substrate W is carried out from the substrate processing apparatus 100, processing different from the processing for the substrate W that is determined to be non-defective is performed.","For example, detailed examination, regeneration processing, or the like is performed on the inspection substrate W that is determined to be defective.","(4) Overall Operation of Substrate Processing Apparatus The operation of the substrate processing apparatus 100 will be described with reference to FIGS.","1 to 4.The carrier 113 in which the unprocessed substrates W are stored is placed on the carrier platform 111 (FIG.","1) in the indexer block 11.The transport mechanism 115 transports the unprocessed substrate W from the carrier 113 to the substrate platform PASS1, PASS3 (FIG.","4).","Further, the transport mechanism 115 transports the processed substrate W that is placed on the substrate platform PASS2, PASS4 (FIG.","4) to the carrier 113.In the first processing block 12, the transport mechanism 127 (FIG.","4) sequentially transports the substrate W placed on the substrate platform PASS1 (FIG.","4) to the adhesion reinforcement processing unit PAHP (FIG.","3), the cooling unit CP (FIG.","3), the coating processing chamber 22 (FIG.","2), the thermal processing unit PHP (FIG.","3), the cooling unit CP (FIG.","3), the coating processing chamber 21 (FIG.","2), the thermal processing unit PHP (FIG.","3) and the substrate platform PASS5 (FIG.","4).","In this case, after the adhesion reinforcement processing is performed on the substrate W in the adhesion reinforcement processing unit PAHP, the substrate W is cooled to a temperature suitable for formation of the anti-reflection film in the cooling unit CP.","Next, an anti-reflection film is formed on the substrate W by the coating processing unit 129 (FIG.","2) in the coating processing chamber 22.Subsequently, after the thermal processing for the substrate W is performed in the thermal processing unit PHP, the substrate W is cooled to a temperature suitable for the formation of a resist film in the cooling unit CP.","Next, in the coating processing chamber 21, a resist film is formed on the substrate W by the coating processing unit 129 (FIG.","2).","Thereafter, the thermal processing for the substrate W is performed in the thermal processing unit PHP, and the substrate W is placed on the substrate platform PASS5.Further, the transport mechanism 127 transports the substrate W after the development processing that is placed on the substrate platform PASS6 (FIG.","4) to the substrate platform PASS2 (FIG.","4).","The transport mechanism 128 (FIG.","4) sequentially transports the substrate W placed on the substrate platform PASS3 (FIG.","4) to the adhesion reinforcement processing unit PAHP (FIG.","3), the cooling unit CP (FIG.","3), the coating processing chamber 24 (FIG.","2), the thermal processing unit PHP (FIG.","3), the cooling unit CP (FIG.","3), the coating processing chamber 23 (FIG.","2), the thermal processing unit PHP (FIG.","3), and the substrate platform PASS7 (FIG.","4).","Further, the transport mechanism 128 (FIG.","4) transports the substrate W after the development processing that is placed on the substrate platform PASS8 (FIG.","4) to the substrate platform PASS4 (FIG.","4).","The contents of processing for the substrate W in the coating processing chambers 23, 24 (FIG.","2) and the lower thermal processing section 302 (FIG.","3) are similar to the contents of processing for the substrate W in the above-mentioned coating processing chambers 21, 22 (FIG.","2) and upper thermal processing section 301 (FIG.","3).","In the second processing block 13, the transport mechanism 137 (FIG.","4) sequentially transports the substrate W after the resist film formation that is placed on the substrate platform PASS5 (FIG.","4) to the coating processing chamber 32 (FIG.","2), the thermal processing unit PHP (FIG.","3), the edge exposure unit EEW (FIG.","3), and the placement buffer unit P-BF1 (FIG.","4).","In this case, a resist cover film is formed on the substrate W by the coating processing unit 129 in the coating processing chamber 32.Subsequently, the edge exposure processing for the substrate W is performed in the edge exposure unit EEW after the thermal processing is performed on the substrate W in the thermal processing unit PHP, and the substrate W is placed on the placement buffer unit P-BF1.Further, the transport mechanism 137 (FIG.","4) takes out the substrate W after the exposure processing and the thermal processing from the thermal processing unit PHP (FIG.","3) adjacent to the cleaning drying processing block 14A, and sequentially transports the substrate W to the cooling unit CP (FIG.","3), the development processing chamber 31 (FIG.","2), the thermal processing unit PHP (FIG.","3), the inspection unit IP (FIG.","3), and the substrate platform PASS6 (FIG.","4).","In this case, after the substrate W is cooled to a temperature suitable for the development processing in the cooling unit CP, the development processing for the substrate W is performed by the development processing unit 139 in the development processing chambers 31.Subsequently, after the thermal processing for the substrate W is performed in the thermal processing unit PHP, the appearance inspection for the substrate W is performed in the inspection unit IP.","The substrate W after the appearance inspection is placed on the substrate platform PASS6.The transport mechanism 138 (FIG.","4) sequentially transports the substrate W after the resist film formation that is placed on the substrate platform PASS7 (FIG.","4) to the coating processing chamber 34 (FIG.","2), the thermal processing unit PHP (FIG.","3), the edge exposure unit EEW (FIG.","3), and the placement buffer unit P-BF2 (FIG.","4).","Further, the transport mechanism 138 (FIG.","4) takes out the substrate W after the exposure processing and the thermal processing from the thermal processing unit PHP (FIG.","3) adjacent to the cleaning drying processing block 14A, and sequentially transports the substrate W to the cooling unit CP (FIG.","3), the development processing chamber 33 (FIG.","2), the thermal processing unit PHP (FIG.","3), the inspection unit IP (FIG.","3), and the substrate platform PASS8 (FIG.","4).","The contents of processing for the substrate W in the coating processing chamber 34, the development processing chamber 33 and the lower thermal processing section 304 are similar to the contents of the processing for the substrate W in the above-mentioned coating processing chamber 32, the development processing chamber 31, and the upper thermal processing section 303.In the cleaning drying processing block 14A, the transport mechanism 141 (FIG.","1) sequentially transports the substrate W placed on the placement buffer unit P-BF1, P-BF2 (FIG.","4) to the cleaning drying processing unit CD1 in the cleaning drying processing section 161 (FIG.","2), and the placement cooling platform P-CP (FIG.","4).","In this case, after the cleaning and drying processing for the substrate W are performed in the cleaning drying processing unit CD1, the substrate W is cooled to a temperature suitable for the exposure processing in the exposure device 15 (FIGS.","1 to 3) in the placement cooling platform P-CP.","The transport mechanism 142 (FIG.","1) transports the substrate W after the exposure processing that is placed on the substrate platform PASS9 (FIG.","4) to the cleaning drying processing unit CD2 in the cleaning drying processing section 162 (FIG.","3), and transports the substrate W after the cleaning and drying processing from the cleaning drying processing unit CD2 to the thermal processing unit PHP in the upper thermal processing section 303 (FIG.","3) or the thermal processing unit PHP in the lower thermal processing section 304 (FIG.","3).","In this thermal processing unit PHP, the exposure bake (PEB) processing is performed.","In the interface block 14, the transport mechanism 146 (FIG.","1) transports the substrate W before the exposure processing that is placed on the placement cooling platform P-CP (FIG.","4) to the substrate inlet 15a of the exposure device 15 (FIG.","1).","Further, the transport mechanism 146 (FIG.","1) takes out the substrate W after the exposure processing from the substrate outlet 15b of the exposure device 15 (FIG.","1), and transports the substrate W to the substrate platform PASS9 (FIG.","4).","In the case where the exposure device 15 cannot receive the substrate W, the substrate W before the exposure processing is temporarily stored in the placement buffer unit P-BF1, P-BF2.Further, in the case where the development processing unit 139 in the second processing block 13 (FIG.","2) cannot receive the substrate W after the exposure processing, the substrate W after the exposure processing is temporarily stored in the placement buffer unit P-BF1, P-BF2.","(5) Effects In the defect determination processing according to the first embodiment, the surface image data of the sample substrate with no defect in appearance is acquired, and the surface image data of the inspection substrate W is acquired.","For a normal portion of the inspection substrate W, a difference between a gradation value of a pixel of the surface image data of the inspection substrate W and a gradation value of a corresponding pixel of the surface image data of the sample substrate is small.","On the one hand, for the pixel corresponding to a defective portion, the above-mentioned difference is large.","Therefore, even in the case where a gradation value of the pixel corresponding to a defective portion is close to a gradation value of the pixel corresponding to a normal portion, the above-mentioned difference corresponding to a defective portion is larger than the above-mentioned difference corresponding to a normal portion.","A difference between a gradation value of a pixel of the surface image data of the inspection substrate W and a gradation value of a corresponding pixel of the surface image data of the sample substrate is calculated, and the difference image data is produced.","Thus, a difference for the pixel corresponding to a defective portion and a difference for the pixel corresponding to a normal portion can be distinguished from each other.","Therefore, the allowable range is determined in advance to include differences corresponding to normal portions and not to include differences corresponding to defective portions, whereby it is possible to determine whether there is a defect.","As a result, a defect in appearance on the substrate W can be detected with high accuracy.","(6) Modified Example of Defect Determination Processing In the step S17 of the above-mentioned defect determination processing, it is determined that there is a defect in appearance on the inspection substrate W in the case where a gradation value of each pixel of the determination image data is outside of the allowable range.","However, the present invention is not limited to this.","In the determination image data, gradation values of part of the pixels not corresponding to a defect may be outside of the allowable range due to noise, disturbance or the like.","In the defect determination processing, the following processing may be performed instead of the processing of the step S17 of FIG.","11.FIG.","13 is a flow chart showing the modified example of the defect determination processing according to the first embodiment.","In the present example, the controller 114 performs the processing of the steps S11 to S16 of FIGS.","10 and 11, and then, counts the number of pixels indicating the gradation values outside of the allowable range instead of the processing of the step S17 (step S41).","Further, the controller 114 determines whether the counted number is not less than a predetermined number (step S42).","Further, in step S42, the controller 114 determines that there is no defect in appearance on the inspection substrate W in the case where the counted number is smaller than the predetermined number (step S18).","On the one hand, the controller 114 determines that there is a defect in appearance on the inspection substrate W in the case where the counted number is not less than the predetermined number (step S19).","In this case, in the case where the number of pixels indicating the gradation values outside of the allowable range is smaller than the predetermined number, it is not determined that there is a defect.","Therefore, determination error due to noise, disturbance or the like can be prevented.","[2] Second Embodiment The substrate processing apparatus according to the second embodiment has the same configuration and operation as the substrate processing apparatus 100 according to the first embodiment except for the following point.","In the substrate processing apparatus according to the present embodiment, the controller 114 (FIG.","1) performs moire removal processing in the above-mentioned defect determination processing.","The moire removal processing will be described below.","(1) Moire In the defect determination processing, a moire (fringes) may occur in the surface images SD2, SD3 produced by the steps S12 and S14.FIG.","14 is a diagram schematically showing moires that have occurred in the surface image SD2.In FIG.","14, an example in which a plurality (two in the present example) of moires are present in the surface image SD2 of the sample substrate is shown.","Each moire of FIG.","14 has a form of a sector, and the brightness successively changes in a circumferential direction.","A moire is likely to occur in the case where there is a periodical pattern in the surface image.","For the substrate W that is processed in the substrate processing apparatus 100, a plurality of circuit patterns respectively corresponding to a plurality of devices are formed.","These circuit patterns have the same configuration as one another.","Therefore, the plurality of circuit patterns become a periodical pattern on the substrate W. For example, the resist pattern RP corresponds to a plurality of circuit patterns, and becomes a periodical pattern in the substrate W. Therefore, moires as shown in FIG.","14 are likely to occur in the surface images SD2, SD3 of FIGS.","12A and 12B including the resist pattern RP.","Further, in the process of manufacturing the substrate W, photo lithography processing including the resist film formation processing, the exposure processing, and the development processing, described above, is performed a plurality of number of times on one substrate W. Therefore, except for the initial processing, at least part of the circuit pattern is formed on the substrate W. Even if another film such as a resist film is formed on the circuit pattern, inspection light is transmitted through these films in the inspection unit IP.","Thus, a moire sometimes occurs in the surface image due to the circuit pattern that is formed in advance.","Further, the circuit pattern of the substrate W has periodicity also in a circumferential direction of the substrate W. As described above, the surface image is produced by irradiation of a constant radial region RR (FIGS.","7A to 7C) with the inspection light while the substrate W is rotated, and reception of the reflected light by the CCD line sensor 54.Therefore, a method of producing the surface image with such rotation of the substrate W may be a reason why a moire occurs in the surface image.","When a moire occurs in the surface image SD3 of FIG.","12B, it may not be possible to distinguish between a defect in appearance on the substrate W and a moire in the surface image SD3.Further, a moire that occurs in the surface image SD2 of FIG.","12A and a moire that occurs in the surface image SD3 of FIG.","12B may be different from each other.","In this case, it becomes necessary to widely set the allowable range in advance such that a gradation value resulting from a moire not a defect is in the allowable range in the step S17 of the defect determination processing (FIG.","11).","(2) Moire Removal Processing In the present embodiment, during the defect determination processing, the moire removal processing for removing a moire from the surface image SD2 of the sample substrate is performed, and the moire removal processing for removing a moire from the surface image SD3 of the inspection substrate W is performed.","In the present example, the controller 114 of FIG.","1 performs the moire removal processing.","FIG.","15 is a flow chart of the moire removal processing.","FIGS.","16A to 17B are diagrams for explaining the change of the surface image SD3 in the case where the moire removal processing is performed for the inspection substrate W. In the example of FIGS.","15 to 17B, moires are removed from the surface image SD3 of the inspection substrate W having a defect DP in appearance.","In FIG.","16A, the surface image SD3 before the moire removal processing is shown.","In the surface image SD3 of FIG.","16A, moires and a defect DP of the inspection substrate W are shown.","In each of FIGS.","16A, 17A and 17B, described below, an outer edge of the defect DP is indicated by a dotted line in order to facilitate understanding of the shape of the defect DP.","Further, as shown in FIG.","16A, the surface structure of the inspection substrate W including a net-like resist pattern RP is shown in this surface image SD3.As shown in FIG.","15, the controller 114 first performs smoothing of the surface image data (step S1).","The smoothing of the surface image data refers to reducing contrast variations of the surface image SD3.For example, the surface image data is smoothed by movement average filter processing.","In the movement average filter processing, an average of gradation values is calculated for the specified number of peripheral pixels around a target pixel, and the average value is set as a gradation value of the target pixel.","In the present example, all pixels of the surface image SD3 are target pixels, and a gradation value of each pixel is changed to an average value of the peripheral pixels.","The number of the peripheral pixels in the movement average filter processing is 100 (in a lateral direction) and 100 (in a longitudinal direction), for example.","The number of peripheral pixels in the movement average filter processing may be suitably set according to the presumed magnitude of a defect, the presumed magnitude of a moire, and the like.","The surface image data can be easily smoothed in a short period of time by the movement average filter processing.","The smoothing of the surface image data may be performed by another smoothing processing such as Gaussian filter processing or Median filter processing instead of the movement average filter processing.","In FIG.","16B, the surface image SD3 after smoothing in the step S1 of FIG.","15 is shown.","Variations in gradation value due to a defect and variations in gradation value due to the surface structure of the inspection substrate W occur more locally or more dispersively than variations in gradation value due to a moire.","Therefore, variations in gradation value due to a defect and variations in gradation value due to the surface structure of the inspection substrate W are removed by the processing of the step S1.On the one hand, variations in gradation value due to a moire successively occur in a wide range, thereby not being removed by the processing of the step S1.Therefore, in the surface image SD3 of FIG.","16B, only moires are shown, and the defect DP and the surface structure of the inspection substrate W are not shown.","Then, as shown in FIG.","15, the controller 114 subtracts a gradation value of each pixel of the surface image data after smoothing from a gradation value of each pixel of the surface image data before smoothing (step S2).","Thus, moires are removed from the surface image SD3.Hereinafter, the surface image data after the processing of the step S2 are referred to as correction image data.","In FIG.","17A, the surface image SD3 corresponding to the correction image data is shown.","In the surface image SD3 of FIG.","17A, only the defect DP and the surface structure of the inspection substrate W are shown, and the moires are not shown.","Further, the surface image SD3 is overall dark.","Next, as shown in FIG.","15, the controller 114 adds a constant value to a gradation value of each pixel of the correction image data (step S3).","Hereinafter, the surface image data after the processing of the step S3 is referred to as addition image data.","For example, a center value of a range of gradation values is added to a gradation value of each pixel similarly to the processing of the step S16 of FIG.","11.In FIG.","17B, the surface image SD3 corresponding to addition image data is shown.","The surface image SD3 of FIG.","17B has the appropriate brightness.","Thus, the controller 114 ends the moire removal processing.","After the moire removal processing is ended, the controller 114 displays the produced surface image SD3 in the main panel PN of FIG.","1, for example.","Thus, the user can view the surface image SD3 of FIG.","17B without an uncomfortable feeling.","In the case where the user does not view the surface image SD3, the processing of the above-mentioned step S3 does not have to be performed.","While the moire removal processing in the case where moires are removed from the surface image SD3 of the inspection substrate W is described in the examples of FIGS.","15 to 17B, processing similar to the above-mentioned example is performed also in the case where moires are removed from the surface image SD2 of the sample substrate.","(3) Method of Appearance Inspection FIG.","18 is a flow chart showing part of the defect determination processing according to the second embodiment.","As shown in FIG.","18, after performing the processing of the steps S11 to S14 similarly to the first embodiment, the controller 114 performs the moire removal processing for the surface image SD2 of the sample substrate (step S31).","Subsequently, the controller 114 performs the moire removal processing for the surface image SD3 of the inspection substrate W (step S32).","Thereafter, the controller 114 performs subsequent processing after the step S15 of FIG.","11 based on the surface images SD2, SD3 on which the moire removal processing is performed.","(4) Effects In the present embodiment, in the appearance inspection for the substrate W in the inspection unit IP, the moire removal processing is performed for the surface image SD2 of the sample substrate and the surface image SD3 of the inspection substrate W. In the moire removal processing, the acquired surface image data is smoothed, and a gradation value of each pixel of the surface image data after smoothing is subtracted from a gradation value of each pixel of the surface image data before smoothing.","Thus, the correction image data from which a moire is removed is produced.","The surface images SD2, SD3 from which moires are removed are acquired based on the correction image data.","In this case, in the inspection substrate W including the defect DP, it is easy to distinguish the defect DP and the moire from each other.","Further, in the step S16 of the defect determination processing, an occurrence of variations in gradation value resulting from the moire in the determination image data is prevented.","Therefore, it is not necessary to consider the variations in gradation value resulting from the moire, so that an allowable range used in the step S17 is prevented from being wide.","Thus, presence and absence of a defect in appearance can be accurately determined.","[3] Third Embodiment The substrate processing apparatus according to the third embodiment has the same configuration and operation as the substrate processing apparatus 100 according to the first embodiment except for the following point.","In the substrate processing apparatus according to the present embodiment, the defect determination processing performed by the controller 114 (FIG.","1) is partially different from the defect determination processing performed in the first embodiment.","(1) Method of Appearance Inspection FIGS.","19 and 20 are flow charts of the defect determination processing according to the third embodiment.","Also in the present embodiment, inspection is performed in advance with high accuracy before the start of the defect determination processing, and the substrate that is determined to be non-defective in the inspection is prepared as a sample substrate.","As shown in FIG.","19, the controller 114 first acquires the surface image data of the non-defective sample substrate (step S111), and corrects the acquired surface image data to produce a surface image in the shape of the substrate W (step S112).","In the present embodiment, the surface image data is acquired by the above-mentioned inspection unit IP.","The surface image data may be acquired by another device instead of the inspection unit IP.","In this case, the surface image SD2 of FIG.","12A is acquired, for example.","Subsequently, the controller 114 performs allowable range setting processing based on the corrected surface image data of the sample substrate (step S113).","In the allowable range setting processing, an allowable range used in processing of the step S118, described below, is set.","The details of the allowable range setting processing will be described below.","Then, the controller 114 acquires the surface image data of the inspection substrate W (step S114), and corrects the acquired surface image data to produce the surface image in a shape of the substrate W (step S115), similarly to the processing of the steps S111 and S112.In this case, the surface image SD3 of FIG.","12B is acquired, for example.","Then, as shown in FIG.","20, the controller 114 calculates a difference between a gradation value of a pixel of the surface image data of the inspection substrate W and a gradation value of a pixel of the surface image data of the sample substrate, the pixels of the surface image data of the inspection substrate W and the sample substrate being considered to correspond to each other (step S116).","More specifically, the controller 114 subtracts a gradation value of each pixel of the surface image SD2 from a gradation value of each pixel of the surface image SD3, the pixels of the surface images SD2, SD3 being considered to correspond to each other.","In this case, the pixel of the surface image data SD2 and the pixel of the surface image data SD3, the pixels of the surface image data SD2, SD3 being considered to correspond to each other, are found by pattern matching between the surface structure of the sample substrate included in the surface image SD2 and the surface structure of the inspection substrate W included in the surface image SD3, for example.","Alternatively, the pixel of the surface image SD2 and the pixel of the surface image SD3, the pixels of the surface images SD2, SD3 being considered to correspond to each other, are found based on a positional relationship between a cutout for positioning of each of the sample substrate and the inspection substrate W and each pixel of the CCD line sensor 54 of FIG.","6, for example.","A cutout is an orientation flat or a notch, for example.","For the surface image SD3 of the inspection substrate W, an image of a defect DP and an image similar to the surface structure of the sample substrate included in the surface image SD2 is included.","Therefore, as for a pixel corresponding to a normal portion of the inspection substrate W, a difference acquired by the processing of the step S116 is small.","On the one hand, in the case where a defect in appearance is present for the inspection substrate W, as for a pixel corresponding to a defective portion, the above-mentioned difference is large.","Thus, a difference in gradation value for the pixel corresponding to a defective portion, and a difference in gradation value for the pixel corresponding to a normal portion can be distinguished from each other.","In the following description, the surface image data made of the differences acquired by the processing of the step S116 is referred to as difference image data.","In this case, the surface image SD4 of FIG.","12C is acquired based on the difference image data, for example.","Next, the controller 114 adds a constant value to a gradation value of each pixel of the difference image data (step S117).","Hereinafter, the surface image data after the processing of the step S117 is referred to as determination image data.","For example, a center value of a range of gradation values is added to a gradation value of each pixel.","Specifically, in the case where the gradation values are indicated by numerical values of not less than 0 and not more than 255, 128 is added to a gradation value of each pixel.","In this case, the surface image SD5 of FIG.","12D is acquired based on the determination image data, for example.","The controller 114 displays the produced surface image SD5 in the main panel PN of FIG.","1, for example.","In this case, the user can view the surface image SD5 of FIG.","12D without an uncomfortable feeling.","In the case where the user does not view the surface image SD5, the above-mentioned processing of the step S117 does not have to be performed.","Thereafter, the controller 114 determines whether a gradation value of each pixel of the determination image data is in the allowable range set in the allowable range setting processing of the step S113 (step S118).","In the present embodiment, the allowable range is basically set to include gradation values of pixels of the determination image data corresponding to normal portions, and not to include gradation values of pixels of the determination image data corresponding to defective portions.","In the case where a gradation value of each pixel of the determination image data is in the allowable range, the controller 114 determines that there is no defect in appearance on the inspection substrate W (step S119), and ends the defect determination processing.","On the one hand, in the case where a gradation value of any pixel is outside of the allowable range, the controller 114 determines that there is a defect in appearance on the inspection substrate W (step S120).","Further, the controller 114 detects the defect by extracting one or a plurality of pixels of which a gradation value is outside of the allowable range (step S121), and ends the defect determination processing.","In the above-mentioned step S121, the controller 114 may produce the surface image SD6 indicating the extracted defect DP as shown in FIG.","12E.","Further, the controller 114 may display the produced surface image SD6 in the main panel PN of FIG.","1.As described above, the position and the shape of the defect can be identified by detection of a defect in appearance on the inspection substrate W. For the inspection substrate W that is determined to be defective in the defect determination processing, after the inspection substrate W is carried out from the substrate processing apparatus 100, different processing from the processing for the substrate W that is determined to be non-defective is performed, for example.","For the inspection substrate W that is determined to be defective, detailed inspection, regeneration processing or the like is performed.","(2) Allowable Range Setting Processing As described above, in the processing of the step S116 of the defect determination processing, a difference between a gradation value of the pixel of the surface image data of the inspection substrate W and a gradation value of the pixel of the surface image data of the sample substrate, the pixels of the surface image data of the inspection substrate W and the sample substrate being considered to correspond to each other, is calculated.","At this time, the pixel of the surface image data of the inspection substrate W considered to correspond to the pixel of the surface image data of the sample substrate sometimes deviates from the truly corresponding pixel.","Such a deviation in a correspondence relationship between the pixels occurs due to an arrangement condition of the inspection substrate W at the time of production of the surface image data or the surface structure of the inspection substrate W, for example.","FIGS.","21A to 21C are diagrams for explaining difference image data produced with a deviation being present in a correspondence relationship between the pixel of the surface image data of the inspection substrate W and the pixel of the surface image data of the sample substrate.","A partially enlarged diagram of the surface image SD2 of the sample substrate is shown in FIG.","21A.","A partially enlarged diagram of the surface image SD3 of the inspection substrate W considered to correspond to the surface image SD2 of FIG.","21A is shown in FIG.","21B.","The surface image SD4 showing differences between the surface images SD2, SD3 of FIGS.","21A and 21B is shown in FIG.","21C.","In FIGS.","21A to 21C, pixels on the surface image are indicated by dotted lines.","Further, in the surface image SD4 of FIG.","21C, pixels having differences (a gradation value) of 0 are indicated in white, and pixels having differences (gradation value) of other than 0 are indicated by a dotted pattern.","Assuming that correspondence relationship between each set of pixels of the surface image data of the inspection substrate W and the pixel of the surface image data of the sample substrate is accurate, it is considered that a difference between a gradation value of a pixel of the surface image data of the inspection substrate W and a gradation value of a corresponding pixel of the surface image data of the sample substrate is ideally 0 for a normal portion.","However, in the example of FIGS.","21A and 21B, each pixel of the surface image SD3 considered to correspond to each pixel of the surface image SD2 deviates by one pixel from the actual corresponding pixel in the longitudinal direction and the lateral direction.","In this case, as shown in FIG.","21C, a difference (a gradation value) is not 0 for part of the pixels in the surface image SD4.Therefore, in the case where similar defect determination processing is performed for a plurality of inspection substrates W, a difference may occur in the determination image data for normal portions acquired for every inspection substrate W. FIGS.","22A and 22B are diagrams showing variations in determination image data acquired for every inspection substrate W. In FIG.","22A, one example of the surface image SD5 of the determination image data produced with a deviation not being present in the correspondence relationship between the pixels is shown.","In FIG.","22B, one example of the surface image SD5 of the determination image data generated with a deviation being present in the correspondence relationship between the pixels is shown.","As shown in FIG.","22A, a resist pattern RP does not appear in the surface image SD5 produced with a deviation not being present in the correspondence relationship between the pixels.","On the one hand, as shown in FIG.","22B, part of the resist pattern RP appears in the surface image SD5 that is produced with a deviation being present in the correspondence relationship between the pixels.","In this case, it becomes necessary to largely set the allowable range such that a gradation value of the determination image data corresponding to the normal surface structure is in the allowable range even with a deviation being present in the correspondence relationship between the pixels.","Thus, determination error resulting from the deviation in correspondence relationship between the pixels can be prevented.","On the one hand, when the allowable range is set excessively large, detection accuracy for a defect is reduced.","In the present embodiment, allowable range setting processing, described below, is performed in order to appropriately set the allowable range while a deviation in correspondence relationship between the surface image data of the inspection substrate W and the surface image data of the sample substrate is considered.","FIG.","23 is a flow chart of the allowable range setting processing.","In the present example, N pixels of the surface image SD2 (FIG.","12A) of the sample substrate produced in the step S112 of FIG.","19 are determined as target pixels in advance.","N indicates the number not less than 2 and not more than the number of all pixels of the surface image data of the sample substrate.","In the present embodiment, N is the number of all pixels of the surface image data.","As shown in FIG.","23, the controller 114 calculates differences between a gradation value of an i-th (i is a natural number) target pixel and gradation values of a plurality of pixels in a constant region including the target pixel of the surface image data of the sample substrate (step S101).","An initial value of the variable i is 1.The constant region is set to include the constant number of pixels from the target pixel with the target pixel being the center, for example.","It is considered that a plurality of differences calculated in the step S101 are substantially equivalent to the differences in gradation value calculated with a deviation being present in the correspondence relationship between the sample substrate and the inspection substrate W regarding the i-th target pixel in the case where the inspection substrate W is non-defective.","The controller 114 determines an average value of the calculated differences in gradation value as a representative value corresponding to the i-th target pixel (step S102).","In the case where there is a deviation in correspondence relationship between the pixels, and a portion of the inspection substrate W considered to correspond to the i-th target pixel is normal, the determined representative value represents a difference in gradation value to be calculated as the difference image data.","In the case where each pixel of the surface image data of the sample substrate is indicated by a plane coordinate system made of an x axis and a y axis, a constant region is set to include 9 pixels located at coordinates (a−1, b−1), (a−1, b), (a−1, b+1), (a, b−1), (a, b), (a, b+1), (a+1, b−1), (a+1, b), and (a+1, b+1) around the coordinates (a, b) of the target pixel, for example.","In this case, letting a gradation value of the target pixel of the coordinates (u,v) be expressed by P(u, v), representative value P′(a, b) determined by the processing of the steps S101 and S102 can be expressed by a following formula (1), for example.","P′(a,b)=[{(a−1,b−1)+P(a−1,b)+P(a−1,b+1)+P(a,b−1)+P(a,b)+P(a,b+1)+P(a+1,b−1)+P(a+1,b)+P(a+1,b+1)}−P(a,b)×9]/9 (1) As for the pixel of the coordinates (a, b) in the inspection substrate W, the above-mentioned representative value P′(a, b) represents a gradation value of the difference image data that may be calculated with a deviation of 1 pixel being present in the correspondence relationship.","After the representative value corresponding to the i-th target pixel is determined as describe above, the controller 114 determines whether a value of the variable i is N (step S103).","In the case where the variable i is not N, the controller 114 adds 1 to the variable i (step S104), and proceeds to the processing of the step S101.Thus, the controller 114 determines a representative value corresponding to the next target pixel.","On the one hand, in the case where the variable i is N, the controller 114 adds a constant value to all of the calculated representative values (step S105).","Hereinafter, the representative value to which a constant value is added in the step S105 is referred to as an addition representative value.","A value added to the representative value in the step S105 is equal to the value added to a gradation value of each pixel of the difference image data in the step S117 of FIG.","20.In the case where the processing of the step S117 is not preformed, the processing of the present step S105 is not performed either.","Thereafter, the controller 114 sets a minimum value and a maximum value of the calculated addition representative values as a lower limit value and an upper limit value of the allowable range, respectively (step S106).","In the case where the processing of the above-mentioned steps S117 and S105 is not performed, a minimum value and a maximum value of the N representative values calculated in the processing of the steps S101 to S104 are set as a lower limit value and an upper limit value of the allowable range, respectively.","Thereafter, the allowable range setting processing is ended.","At the time of the end of the allowable range setting processing, the variable i is reset to the initial value 1.The controller 114 may allow the variable i to be 1 after the start of the allowable range setting processing and before the processing of the step S101 instead of setting of the variable i to 1 at the time of the end of the allowable range setting processing.","The allowable range is set in this manner.","Thus, as for a normal portion, the calculated gradation value of the determination image data is less likely to fall outside of the allowable range due to a deviation in correspondence relationship between the pixels.","Therefore, a normal portion is less likely to be erroneously determined to be defective.","Further, a lower limit value and an upper limit value of the allowable range are limited to a minimum value and a maximum value of the addition representative values.","Thus, as for a defective portion, the calculated gradation value of the determination image data is less likely to be included in the allowable range due to a deviation in correspondence relationship between the pixels.","Therefore, a defective portion is less likely to be erroneously determined to be normal.","As a result, even in the case where there is a deviation in correspondence relationship between the surface image data of the inspection substrate W and the surface image data of the sample substrate, a defect in appearance on the inspection substrate W can be detected with high accuracy.","In the above-mentioned step S102, any of a minimum value, a center value and a maximum value among the calculated differences in gradation value may be determined as a representative value corresponding to the i-th target pixel instead of an average value of the calculated differences in gradation value.","In this manner, the representative value determined in the step S102 may be set to any value of the average value, the minimum value, the center value, the maximum value and the like as long as being in a range from the minimum value to the maximum value of the plurality of gradation values.","In this case, a desired allowable range can be appropriately set according to a determination condition for a defect and the like.","As for the pixel corresponding to a normal portion, a gradation value of the determination image data may be smaller than the minimum value of the addition representative values due to noise, disturbance or the like.","Further, as for the pixel corresponding to a normal portion, a gradation value of the determination image data may be larger than the maximum value of the addition representative values.","The controller 114 may perform the following processing in the processing of the step S106 instead of the respective setting of a minimum value and a maximum value of the addition representative values to a lower limit value and an upper limit value of the allowable range.","For example, the controller 114 sets a first value smaller than the minimum value of the addition representative values by a predetermined value as the lower limit value of the allowable range, and sets a second value larger than the maximum value of the addition representative values by a predetermined value as the upper limit value of the allowable range.","Thus, even in the case where a gradation value of the determination image data is smaller than the minimum value of the addition representative values for the pixel corresponding to a normal portion, determination error does not occur when the gradation value is not less than the first value.","Further, even in the case where a gradation value of the determination image data is larger than the maximum value of the addition representative values for the pixel corresponding to a normal portion, determination error does not occur when the gradation value is not more than the second value.","As a result, determination error resulting from noise, disturbance or the like can be prevented.","(3) Effects In the defect determination processing according to the third embodiment, the surface image data of the sample substrate with no defect in appearance is acquired, and the surface image data of the inspection substrate W is acquired.","As for a normal portion of the inspection substrate W, a difference between a gradation value of a pixel of the surface image data of the inspection substrate W and a gradation value of a corresponding pixel of the surface image data the sample substrate is small.","On the one hand, as for the pixel corresponding to a defective portion, the above-mentioned difference is large.","Therefore, even in the case where the gradation value of the pixel corresponding to a defective portion is close to the gradation value of the pixel corresponding to a normal portion, the above-mentioned difference corresponding to a defective portion is larger than the above-mentioned difference corresponding to a normal portion.","A difference between a gradation value of a pixel of the surface image data of the inspection substrate W and a gradation value of a pixel of the surface image data of the sample substrate, the pixels of the surface image data of the inspection substrate W and the sample substrate being considered to correspond to each other, is calculated, and the difference image data is produced.","Thus, a difference for the pixel considered to correspond to a defective portion and a difference for the pixel corresponding to a normal portion can be distinguished from each other.","Therefore, the allowable range is determined in advance to include the differences corresponding to normal portions and not to include the differences corresponding to defective portions, whereby it is possible to determine whether there is a defect.","The pixel of the inspection substrate W considered to correspond to one pixel of the sample substrate sometimes deviates from the truly corresponding pixel.","In this case, when the allowable range is set, assuming that the correspondence relationship between the surface image data of the sample substrate and the surface image data of the inspection substrate W is accurate, the determination image data corresponding to normal portions may fall outside of the allowable range.","Therefore, it becomes necessary to largely set the allowable range in order to prevent determination error resulting from a deviation.","On the one hand, when the allowable range is set excessively largely, detection accuracy for a defect is reduced.","In the present embodiment, as for each of the plurality of target pixels of the sample substrate, a difference between a gradation value of the target pixel and gradation values of the plurality of pixels in a constant region including the target pixel is calculated.","In this case, it is considered that the plurality of differences calculated for each target pixel are substantially equivalent to the differences in gradation value calculated with a deviation being present in the correspondence relationship between the surface image data of the sample substrate and the surface image data of the inspection substrate W, in the case where there is no defect for the inspection substrate W. An average value of a plurality of differences is determined as a representative value based on the plurality of differences calculated for each target pixel.","In this case, when there is a deviation in correspondence relationship between the pixels, the representative value for each target pixel represents a difference in gradation value to be calculated in the case where a portion corresponding to each target pixel is normal.","Therefore, a minimum value and a maximum value of the plurality of addition representative values determined for the plurality of target pixels of the surface image data of the sample substrate are set as a lower limit value and an upper limit value of the allowable range, respectively.","Thus, as for a normal portion, the determination image data calculated with a deviation being present in the correspondence relationship between pixels is less likely to fall outside of the allowable range.","Therefore, a normal portion is less likely to be erroneously determined to be defective.","Further, a lower limit value and an upper limit value of the allowable range are limited to a minimum value and a maximum value of the addition representative values.","Thus, as for a defective portion, the determination image data calculated with a deviation being present in the correspondence relationship between the pixels is less likely to be included in the allowable range.","Therefore, a defective portion is less likely to be erroneously determined to be normal.","As a result, even in the case where there is a deviation between the pixel of the surface image data of the sample substrate and the corresponding pixel of the surface image data of the inspection substrate W, a defect in appearance on the inspection substrate W can be detected with high accuracy.","(4) Modified Example of Defect Determination Processing In the step S118 of the above-mentioned defect determination processing, it is determined that there is a defect in appearance on the inspection substrate W in the case where a gradation value of each pixel of the determination image data is outside of the allowable range.","However, the present invention is not limited to this.","In the determination image data, gradation values of part of pixels not corresponding to a defect may be outside of the allowable range due to noise, disturbance or the like.","In the defect determination processing, following processing may be performed instead of the processing of the step S118 of FIG.","20.FIG.","24 is a flow chart showing the modified example of the defect determination processing according to the third embodiment.","In the present example, after performing the processing of the steps S111 to S117 of FIGS.","19 and 20, the controller 114 counts the number of pixels indicating the gradation values outside of the allowable range instead of the processing of the step S118 (step S141).","Further, the controller 114 determines whether the counted number is not less than a predetermined number (step S142).","Further, in the step S142, the controller 114 determines that there is no defect in appearance on the inspection substrate W in the case where the counted number is smaller than the predetermined number (step S119).","On the one hand, the controller 114 determines that there is a defect in appearance on the inspection substrate W in the case where the counted number is not less than the predetermined number (step S120), and detects a defect (step S121).","In this case, in the case where the number of the pixels indicating gradation values outside of the allowable range is smaller than the predetermine number, it is not determined that there is a defect.","Therefore, determination error due to noise, disturbance or the like can be prevented.","[4] Fourth Embodiment The substrate processing apparatus according to the fourth embodiment has the same configuration and operation as the substrate processing apparatus according to the third embodiment expect for the following point.","In the substrate processing apparatus according to the present embodiment, the controller 114 (FIG.","1) performs the moire removal processing of FIG.","15 according to the second embodiment in the defect determination processing.","FIG.","25 is a flow chart showing part of the defect determination processing according to the fourth embodiment.","As shown in FIG.","25, after performing the processing of the steps S111 to S115 of FIG.","19 similarly to the third embodiment, the controller 114 performs the moire removal processing of the surface image SD2 of the sample substrate (step S131).","Subsequently, the controller 114 performs the moire removal processing for the surface image SD3 of the inspection substrate W (step S132).","Thereafter, the controller 114 performs the subsequent processing after the step S116 of FIG.","20 based on the surface images SD2, SD3 on which the moire removal processing is performed.","In the preset embodiment, the moire removal processing is performed for the surface image SD2 of the sample substrate and the surface image SD3 of the inspection substrate W. In the moire removal processing, the acquired surface image data is smoothed, and a gradation value of each pixel of the surface image data after smoothing is subtracted from a gradation value of each pixel of the surface image data before smoothing.","Thus, the corrected image data from which a moire is removed is produced.","The surface images SD2, SD3 from which moires are removed are acquired based on the corrected image data.","In this case, in the inspection substrate W including a defect DP, it is easy to distinguish the defect DP and a moire from each other.","Further, in the steps S116 and S117, an occurrence of variations in gradation value resulting from a moire in the difference image data and the determination image data is prevented.","Thus, it is not necessary to widely set the allowable range to include variations in gradation value resulting from a moire.","Therefore, a defect in appearance on the inspection substrate W can be detected with higher accuracy.","[5] Fifth Embodiment The substrate processing apparatus according to the fifth embodiment has the same configuration and operation as the substrate processing substrate 100 according to the first embodiment except for the following point.","In the substrate processing apparatus according to the present embodiment, the defect determination processing performed by the controller 114 (FIG.","1) is partially different from the defect determination processing performed in the first embodiment.","In the appearance inspection for the substrate W in the inspection unit IP, the substrate W is positioned on the spin chuck 511 (FIG.","5) in a predetermined attitude.","Further, irradiation timing with the inspection light, acquisition timing of the surface image data or the like is controlled based on a cutout (an orientation flat or notch) for positioning that is formed in advance at the substrate W. Thus, in the inspection unit IP, the surface image data of a plurality of substrates W is acquired under a common condition.","(1) Method of Appearance Inspection FIGS.","26 and 27 are flow charts of the defect determination processing according to the fifth embodiment.","Also in the present embodiment, before the start of the defect determination processing, the inspection is performed in advance with high accuracy, and the substrate that is determined to be non-defective in the inspection is prepared as a sample substrate.","Further, in the present embodiment, the sample substrate has no distortion.","As shown in FIG.","26, the controller 114 acquires the surface image data of the non-defective sample substrate (step S211), and corrects the acquired surface image data to produce a surface image in the shape of the substrate W (step S212).","In the present embodiment, the surface image data is acquired by the above-mentioned inspection unit IP.","The surface image data may be acquired by another device instead of the inspection unit IP.","In this case, the surface image SD2 of FIG.","12A is acquired, for example.","Next, similarly to the processing of the steps S211 and S212, the controller 114 acquires the surface image data of the inspection substrate W (step S213), and corrects the acquired surface image data to produce the surface image in the shape of the substrate W (step S214).","In this case, the surface image SD3 of FIG.","12B is acquired, for example.","The position of each pixel of the surface image data of the sample substrate and the inspection substrate W acquired under the common condition by the inspection unit IP can be indicated by a two-dimensional coordinate system specific to the device, for example.","In the present embodiment, the two-dimensional coordinate system specific to the device is an xy coordinate system having an x axis and a y axis orthogonal to each other.","In this case, it is considered that the pixels located at positions of the same coordinates of the surface images SD2, SD3 ideally correspond to each other.","However, non-defective local distortion sometimes occurs in the inspection substrate W. Such distortion occurs due to thermal processing, for example.","In this case, the position of the pixel of the surface image SD3 of the inspection substrate W corresponding to the distortion deviates from the position of the truly corresponding pixel of the surface image SD2 of the sample substrate.","FIGS.","28A and 28B are diagrams for explaining an example in which a deviation is present in the correspondence relationship between the pixel of the surface image SD2 of the sample substrate and the pixel of the surface image SD3 of the inspection substrate W. An enlarged diagram of a partial region of the surface image SD2 is shown in FIG.","28A.","An enlarged diagram of a partial region of the surface image SD3 at position of the same coordinates of the surface image SD2 of FIG.","28A (the position of the same coordinates) is shown in FIG.","28B.","In FIGS.","28A and 28B, the plurality of pixels on the surface images SD2, SD3 are shown by dotted lines.","In the present example, as indicated by thick arrows in FIG.","28B, each pixel of the surface image SD3 truly corresponding to each pixel of the surface image SD2 deviates by one pixel from the position at which the pixel is supposed to be located (the position of the same coordinates as each pixel of the surface image SD2) in the x direction and the y direction.","In this manner, when the subsequent steps S216 to S221 are performed with a deviation being present in the correspondence relationship between the pixel of the surface image SD2 of the inspection substrate W and the pixel of the surface image SD3 of the sample substrate, presence or absence of a defect may not be accurately determined.","The controller 114 performs correspondence relationship correction processing in order to resolve a deviation that occurs in correspondence relationship between each set of pixels of the surface images SD2, SD3 of the sample substrate and the inspection substrate W, as shown in FIG.","26 (step S215).","Details of the correspondence relationship correction processing will be described below.","Then, the controller 114 calculates a difference between a gradation value of a pixel of the surface image data of the sample substrate and a gradation value a corresponding pixel of the surface image data of the inspection substrate W (step S216), as shown in FIG.","27.More specifically, the controller 114 subtracts a gradation value of each pixel of the surface image SD2 of the sample substrate from a gradation value of a pixel of the surface image SD3 of the inspection substrate W corresponding to the pixel based on the correspondence relationship corrected by the correspondence relationship correction processing.","In the surface image SD3 of the inspection substrate W, an image similar to the surface structure of the sample substrate included in the surface image SD2 is included in addition to the image of a defect DP.","Therefore, as for the pixel corresponding to a normal portion of the inspection substrate W, a difference acquired by the processing of the step S216 is small.","On the one hand, in the case where there is a defect in appearance on the inspection substrate W, as for the pixel corresponding to a defective portion, the above-mentioned difference is large.","Thus, a difference in gradation value for the pixel corresponding to a defective portion and a difference in gradation value for the pixel corresponding to a normal portion can be distinguished from each other.","In the following description, the surface image data made of differences acquired by the processing of the step S216 is referred to as difference image data.","In this case, the surface image SD4 of FIG.","12C is acquired based on the difference image data, for example.","Next, the controller 114 adds a constant value to a gradation value of each pixel of the difference image data (step S217).","Hereinafter, the surface image data after the processing of the step S217 is referred to as determination image data.","For example, a center value of the range of the gradation values is added to a gradation value of each pixel.","For example, in the case where the gradation values are indicated by numerical values of not less than 0 and not more than 255, 128 is added to a gradation value of each pixel.","In this case, the surface image SD5 of FIG.","12D is acquired based on the determination image data, for example.","The controller 114 displays the produced surface image SD5 in the main panel PN of FIG.","1, for example.","In this case, the user can view the surface image SD5 of FIG.","12D without an uncomfortable feeling.","In the case where the user does not view the surface image SD5, the above-mentioned processing of the step S217 does not have to be performed.","Thereafter, the controller 114 determines whether a gradation value of each pixel of the determination image data is in a predetermined allowable range (step S218).","In the present embodiment, the allowable range is determined in advance as a parameter specific to the device to include a gradation value for the pixel corresponding to a normal portion, and not to include a gradation value for the pixel corresponding to a defective portion.","In the case where a gradation value of each pixel of the determination image data is in the allowable range, the controller 114 determines that there is no defect in appearance on the inspection substrate W (step S219), and ends the defect determination processing.","On the one hand, in the case where a gradation value of any pixel is outside of the allowable range, the controller 114 determines that there is a defect in appearance on the inspection substrate W (step S220).","Further, the controller 114 detects the defect by extracting one or a plurality of pixels of which a gradation value is outside of the allowable range (step S221), and ends the defect determination processing.","In the above-mentioned step S221, the controller 114 may produce a surface image SD6 showing the extracted defect DP as shown in FIG.","12E.","Further, the controller 114 may display the produced surface image SD6 in the main panel PN of FIG.","1.As described above, a defect in appearance on the inspection substrate W is detected, so that a position and a shape of the defect can be identified.","For the inspection substrate W determined to be defective in the defect determination processing, different processing from the processing for the substrate W determined to be non-defective is performed after the inspection substrate W is carried out from the substrate processing apparatus 100.","(2) Correspondence Relationship Correction Processing FIG.","29 is a flow chart of the correspondence relationship correction processing.","FIGS.","30A to 33C are diagrams for conceptually explaining the contents of each processing of the correspondence relationship correction processing of FIG.","29.In the present example, the controller 114 of FIG.","1 performs the correspondence relationship correction processing.","The surface image of the substrate W acquired by the above-mentioned inspection unit IP includes a plurality of unit images.","The unit images have a predetermined measurement.","In the following description, each of the plurality of unit images included in the surface image SD2 of the sample substrate is referred to as a first unit image 1U, and a plurality of surface image data respectively indicating the plurality of first unit images 1U are referred to as pieces of first unit image data.","Further, each of the plurality of unit images included in the surface image SD3 of the inspection substrate W is referred to as a second unit image 2U, and a plurality of surface image data respectively indicating the plurality of second unit images are referred to as pieces of second unit image data.","As shown in FIG.","29, as for the surface images SD2, SD3 produced in the steps S212, S214 of FIG.","26, the controller 114 detects a relative deviation amount between the first and second unit images 1U, 2U located at positions corresponding to each other (step S301).","The plurality of first unit images 1U included in the surface image SD2 of the sample substrate are indicated by thick one-dot and dash lines in FIG.","30A, and the plurality of second unit images 2U included in the surface image SD3 of the inspection substrate W are indicated by thick one-dot and dash lines in FIG.","30B.","A specific example in which a relative deviation amount between the first and second unit images 1U, 2U indicated by outlined arrows in FIGS.","30A and 30B is detected will be explained in the above-mentioned step S101.First, differences between gradation values of the pixels of the first second unit image 1U and gradation values of the pixels located at corresponding positions of the second unit image 2U are calculated.","A coincidence degree that indicates the degree of coincidence between the pieces of first and second unit image data is calculated based on the plurality of calculated differences.","More specifically, the total of absolute values of the plurality of calculated differences is calculated as the coincidence degree.","In the case where a position of an arbitrary pixel is indicated by coordinates (x, y), the gradation value of the pixel of the first unit image 1U in the coordinates (x, y) is indicated by g1 (x, y), and the gradation value of the pixel of the second unit image 2U in the coordinates (x, y) is indicated by g2 (x, y), the coincidence degree AL can be expressed by a following formula (2).","AL = ∑ x = a m ∑ y = b n abs { g 2 ( x , y ) - g 1 ( x .","y ) } ( 2 ) In the above-mentioned formula (2), ‘a’ indicates a minimum value of the x coordinate of the first unit image 1U, and ‘m’ indicates a maximum value of the x coordinate of the first unit image 1U.","Further, ‘b’ indicates a minimum value of the y coordinate of the first unit image 1U, and ‘n’ indicates a maximum value of the y coordinate of the first unit image 1U.","In this case, the closer the value of the coincidence degree AL is to 0, the higher the degree of coincidence between the pieces of first and second unit image data is.","On the one hand, the farther the value of the coincidence degree AL is from 0, the lower the degree of coincidence between the pieces of first and second unit image data is.","Next, as indicated by outlined arrows in FIG.","31, the first unit image 1U is moved in the x direction and the y direction by one pixel with respect to the second unit image 2U in a predetermined region AA.","At this time, the coincidence degree AL is calculated using the above-mentioned formula (2) every time the first unit image 1U is moved by one pixel.","The predetermined region AA is set to surround a region deviating in the respective x direction and y direction by 7 pixels from to the second unit image 2U, for example.","Thereafter, a movement amount of the first unit image 1U in the x direction and the y direction in the case where the coincidence degree AL that is 0 or closest to 0 among the plurality of calculated coincidence degrees AL is acquired is detected as a relative deviation amount between the first and second unit images 1U, 2U.","In this manner, a relative deviation amount between the first and second unit images 1U, 2U is appropriately detected for each of all of the first and second unit images 1U, 2U based on the difference in gradation value of the pixel corresponding to a normal portion.","Next, as shown in FIG.","29, the controller 114 calculates a relative deviation amount for every pixel between the surface images SD2, SD3 of the sample substrate and the inspection substrate W based on the plurality of detected deviation amounts (step S302).","For example, the calculated deviation amount between the first and second unit images 1U, 2U located at positions corresponding to each other is determined as a deviation amount of the center pixel of the first unit image 1U with respect to the center pixel of the second unit image 2U.","Further, a deviation amount of each pixel in a region surrounded by center pixels of the four first unit images 1U adjacent to one another is calculated by bilinear interpolation based on the deviation amount determined for the four center pixels.","In FIG.","32, one example of a method of calculating a deviation amount for every pixel by the bilinear interpolation is shown.","As shown in FIG.","32, let the coordinates of the center pixels 1UC of the four first unit images 1U be (X0, Y0), (X1, Y0), (X1, Y1), (X0, Y1), and let the respectively determined deviation amounts be P00, P10, P11, P01.Further, as for an arbitrary coordinates (x, y) in the region surrounded by the four center pixels 1UC, let the coordinates that are converted in order to perform the bilinear interpolation be (x′, y′).","In this case, x′ and y′ can be expressed by the following formulas (3), (4).","X′=(x−X0)/(X1−X0) (3) Y′=(y−Y0)/(Y1−Y0) (4) Further, coefficients K00, K10, K11, K01 for the deviation amounts P00, P10, P11, P01 can be expressed by following formulas (5), (6), (7), (8), respectively.","K00=(1−x)×(1−y) (5) K10=(1−x′)×y′ (6) K11=x′×y′ (7) K01=x′×(1−y) (8) The deviation amount P in the coordinates (x, y) is expressed by a following formula (9).","P=K00×P00+K10×P10+K11×P11+K01×P01 (9) After deviation amounts for all of the pixels on the surface image SD2 are calculated using the above-mentioned formulas (3) to (9), the controller 114 corrects the correspondence relationship between the pixel of the surface image data of the sample substrate and the pixel of the surface image data of the inspection substrate W based on the deviation amount calculated for every pixel, as shown in FIG.","29 (step S303).","For example, the controller 114 corrects a gradation value of each pixel of the surface image SD2 of the sample substrate based on the deviation amount calculated for each pixel such that a deviation in correspondence relationship for each pixel of the surface image SD3 of the inspection substrate W is resolved as correction of correspondence relationship.","One example of the second unit image 2U is shown in FIG.","33A.","One example of the first unit image 1U is shown in FIG.","33B.","It is assumed that the second unit image 2U of FIG.","33A and the first unit image 1U of FIG.","33B are located at positions corresponding to each other.","The coordinates of the pixel indicated by hatching in FIGS.","33A and 33B are treated as (xa, ya).","Further, it is assumed that the deviation amounts calculated for the pixel of the coordinates (xa, ya) are α and −β in the x direction and the y direction, respectively.","In this case, as for the first unit image 1U, the controller 114 treats the gradation value of the pixel located at the coordinates (xa−α, ya+β) as the gradation value of the pixel of the coordinates (xa, ya).","In this manner, similar processing based on each deviation amount is performed for each pixel of the first unit image 1U, whereby the first unit image 1U of which a deviation in correspondence relationship with the second unit image 2U is resolved can be acquired as shown in FIG.","33C.","At this time, the first unit image 1U of FIG.","33C has distortion included in the second unit image 2U.","In this manner, the surface image SD2 of the sample substrate is corrected based on the deviation amount of each pixel, so that the correspondence relationship between the pixel of the surface image SD2 of the sample substrate and the pixel of the surface image SD3 of the inspection substrate W is corrected.","Thereafter, the controller 114 ends the correspondence relationship correction processing.","In the step S216 of the defect determination processing, the controller 114 can calculate a difference between gradation values of the truly corresponding pixels by calculating a difference between a gradation value of a pixel of the corrected surface image SD2 and a gradation value of a pixel located at a corresponding position of the surface image SD3.In the above-mentioned step S301, when variations in correspondence degree are large, part of the correspondence degrees may be erroneously calculated.","Essentially, it is considered that the first and second unit images 1U, 2U corresponding to each other are located at positions corresponding to each other or positions in the vicinity of them.","Therefore, the coincidence degree having an extremely high value is likely to be erroneously calculated.","On the one hand, in the case where the plurality of coincidence degrees calculated for the first and second unit images 1U, 2U located at positions corresponding to each other indicate substantially the constant value, it is difficult to identify the coincidence degree in the case where the pieces of first and second unit image data coincides with each other.","The controller 114 may detect a relative deviation amount between the first and second unit images 1U, 2U located at positions corresponding to each other as described below.","First, similarly to the above-mentioned example, the controller 114 calculates a plurality of coincidence degrees for the first and second unit images 1U, 2U located at positions corresponding to each other.","Thereafter, the controller 114 subtracts a minimum value from a maximum value of the plurality of coincidence degrees.","In this case, the calculated subtraction value is equivalent to the magnitude of the variations of the plurality of coincidence degrees calculated for the first and second unit images 1U, 2U.","Thereafter, the controller 114 determines whether the subtraction value of the coincidence degree is not more than a predetermined threshold value.","In the case where the subtraction value of the coincidence degree is larger than the predetermined threshold value, the controller 114 detects the movement amounts of the first unit image 1U in the x direction and the y direction in the case where the coincidence degree is in a predetermined range of the coincidence degree, and the deviation amount is minimized as a relative deviation amount between the first and second unit images 1U, 2U.","In the case where letting a maximum value and a minimum value of the plurality of coincidence degrees be AL(max) and AL(min), and letting a coincidence allowable ratio be AP, a predetermined range ALA of the coincidence degree can be expressed by a following formula (10).","AL(min)≤ALA<{AL(max)−AL(min)}×AP+AL(min) (10) The coincidence allowable ratio AP is set to about 10%, for example.","In this manner, in the case where the subtraction value of the coincidence degree is larger than the predetermined threshold value, the movement amount of the first unit image 1U in the case where the coincidence degree with high reliability is acquired is appropriately detected as a deviation amount.","Therefore, detection of a relative deviation amount between the first and second unit images 1U, 2U based on the erroneously calculated coincidence degree is prevented.","On the one hand, in the case where the subtraction value of the coincidence degree is not more than the predetermined threshold value, the controller 114 treats the deviation amount between the first and second unit images 1U, 2U as a target of interpolation.","Further, the controller 114 interpolates the deviation amount between the first and second unit images 1U, 2U with an average amount of the plurality of deviation amounts detected for a plurality of sets of the other first and second unit images 1U, 2U adjacent to the first and second unit images 1U, 2U.","Thus, even for the inspection substrate W having the surface structure in which a difference between gradation values of images is unlikely to occur, or an unprocessed bare wafer, the deviation amount for every pixel can be appropriately calculated.","The controller 114 may interpolate the deviation amount for the first and second unit images 1U, 2U with the deviation amount detected for the adjacent one set of the other first and second unit images 1U, 2U.","Further, in the case where deviation amounts for all of other first and second unit images 1U, 2U adjacent to the first and second unit images 1U, 2U are targets of interpolation, the controller 114 may determine that the deviation amount is 0 (not deviating).","In the above-mentioned step S302, a deviation amount of each pixel in a region surrounded by center pixels of four first unit images 1U adjacent to one another is calculated by the bilinear interpolation based on the deviation amounts determined for the four center pixels.","The invention is not limited to the above-mentioned example.","The deviation amount of each pixel in the region surrounded by four center pixels may be calculated by another interpolation method such as nearest neighbor interpolation based on a deviation amount of any of the four center pixels.","(3) Effects In the defect determination processing according to the fifth embodiment, the surface image data of the sample substrate with no defect in appearance is acquired, and the surface image data of the inspection substrate W is acquired.","As for a normal portion of the inspection substrate W, a difference between a gradation value of a pixel of the surface image data of the inspection substrate W and a gradation value of a corresponding pixel of the surface image data of the sample substrate is small.","On the one hand, as for the pixel corresponding to a defective portion, the above-mentioned difference is large.","Therefore, even in the case where a gradation value of the pixel corresponding to a defective portion is close to a gradation value of the pixel corresponding to a normal portion, the above-mentioned difference corresponding to a defective portion is larger than the above-mentioned difference corresponding to a normal portion.","A difference in gradation value is calculated for the pixel of the surface image data of the inspection substrate W and the corresponding pixel of the surface image data of the sample substrate, and the difference image data is produced.","In this case, a difference for the pixel corresponding to a defective portion and a difference for the pixel corresponding to a normal portion can be distinguished from each other.","Therefore, the allowable range is determined in advance to include a difference corresponding to a normal portion and not to include a difference corresponding to a defective portion, whereby it is possible to determine whether there is a defect.","However, local distortion, which is not a defect, sometimes occurs in the inspection substrate W. In this case, a position of the pixel of the inspection substrate W corresponding to a distorted portion deviates from a position of the truly corresponding pixel of the sample substrate.","Therefore, when the above-mentioned difference image data is calculated on the assumption that the correspondence relationship between the surface image data of the sample substrate and the surface image data of the inspection substrate W is accurate, presence and absence of a defect cannot be accurately determined.","In the present embodiment, the correspondence relationship correction processing is performed.","In the correspondence relationship correction processing, a relative deviation amount between the first and second unit images 1U, 2U is detected by comparison between the pieces of first and second unit image data of the first and second unit images 1U, 2U located at positions corresponding to each other.","Thus, relative deviation amounts of positions are respectively detected for the plurality of portions corresponding to each other between the surface images SD2, SD3 of the sample substrate and the inspection substrate W. The deviation amount for every pixel of the surface images SD2, SD3 is calculated based on the plurality of detected deviation amounts.","The correspondence relationship between the pixels of the surface image data of the sample substrate and the pixel of the surface image data of the inspection substrate W is corrected based on the calculated deviation amount for every pixel, and a deviation for every pixel is resolved.","Thus, even in the case where local distortion is present in the inspection substrate W, the pixels corresponding to each other can be accurately distinguished by correction of the correspondence relationship between the pixel of the surface image data of the sample substrate and the pixel of the surface image data of the inspection substrate W. A difference between a gradation value of a pixel of the surface image data of the sample substrate and a gradation value of a corresponding pixel of the surface image data of the inspection substrate W is calculated, and the difference image data is produced.","In this case, for a normal portion, because gradation values of the pixels located at positions corresponding to each other of the surface images SD2, SD3 substantially coincide with each other, a difference in gradation value is small.","On the one hand, for a defective portion, because a difference resulting from a defect occurs in the gradation values of the pixels located at positions corresponding to each other of the first and second images, a difference in gradation value is large.","Therefore, a defect in appearance on the inspection substrate W can be detected with high accuracy.","(4) Modified Example of Defect Determination Processing In the step S218 of the above-mentioned defect determination processing, it is determined that there is a defect in appearance on the inspection substrate W in the case where a gradation value of each pixel of the determination image data is outside of the allowable range.","However, the present invention is not limited to this.","In the determination image data, gradation values of part of the pixels not corresponding to a defect may be outside of the allowable range due to noise, disturbance or the like.","In the defect determination processing, the following processing may be performed instead of the processing of the step S218 of FIG.","27.FIG.","34 is a flow chart showing the modified example of the defect determination processing according to the fifth embodiment.","In the present example, after performing the processing of the steps S211 to S217 of FIGS.","26 and 27 in the defect determination processing, the controller 114 counts the number of pixels indicating the gradation values outside of the allowable range instead of the processing of the step S218 (step S231).","Further, the controller 114 determines whether the counted number is not less than a predetermined number (step S232).","Further, in the step S231, the controller 114 determines that there is no defect in appearance on the inspection substrate W in the case where the counted number is smaller than the predetermined number (step S219).","On the one hand, the controller 114 determines that there is a defect in appearance on the inspection substrate W in the case where the counted number is not less than the predetermined number (step S220), and detects a defect (step S221).","In this case, in the case where the number of pixels indicating the gradation values outside of the allowable range is smaller than the predetermined number, it is not determined that there is a defect.","Therefore, determination error due to noise, disturbance or the like can be prevented.","[6] Sixth Embodiment The substrate processing apparatus according to the sixth embodiment has the same configuration and operation as the substrate processing apparatus according to the fifth embodiment except for the following point.","(1) Detection Error of Deviation Amount In the fifth embodiment, a relative deviation amount between the first and second unit images 1U, 2U located at positions corresponding to each other is detected based on the above-mentioned coincidence degree in the step S301 of the correspondence relationship correction processing.","However, depending on a type of the surface structure of the sample substrate and the inspection substrate W, a relative deviation amount between the first and second unit images 1U, 2U may be erroneously detected.","FIGS.","35A to 35C are diagrams showing an example in which a relative deviation amount between the first and second unit images 1U, 2U is erroneously detected.","One example of the second unit image 2U is shown in FIG.","35A.","One example of the first unit image 1U is shown in FIG.","35B.","The second unit image 2U of FIG.","35A and the first unit image 1U of FIG.","35B are located at positions corresponding to each other.","In the present example, four resist patterns RP1 extending in the x direction and arranged in the y direction are shown, and one resist pattern RP2 extending in the y direction is shown, in each of the first and second unit images 1U, 2U.","In the four resist patterns RP1, the gradation value gently changes in the x direction.","On the one hand, the gradation value of the resist pattern RP2 is constant.","As indicated by a thick dotted line in FIG.","35A, in each resist pattern RP1 shown in the second unit image 2U, the gradation value is locally reduced in the center portion in the x direction.","On the one hand, as indicated by a thick dotted line in FIG.","35B, in each resist pattern RP1 shown in the first unit image 1U, the gradation value is locally reduced at a position deviating from the center portion in the x direction by a constant distance.","In the present example, the area of the four resist patterns RP is larger than that of the one resist pattern RP2.Therefore, the coincidence degree calculated, in the case where the positions of portions having locally reduced gradation values of the four resist patterns RP1 coincide with the positions of the four resist patterns RP1 between the first and second unit images 1U, 2U, is closer to 0 than the coincidence degree calculated in the case where positions of the one resist patterns RP2 coincide with each other between the first and second unit images 1U, 2U.","In this case, as shown in FIGS.","35A and 35B, even when no deviation has essentially occurred in the correspondence relationship between the first and second unit images 1U, 2U, an erroneous deviation amount is detected.","As a result, as shown in FIG.","35C, each pixel of the first unit image 1U after the correspondence relationship correction processing may deviate from the truly corresponding pixel.","In the substrate processing apparatus according to the present embodiment, emphasis processing is performed in the defect determination processing.","FIG.","36 is a flow chart showing part of the defect determination processing according to the sixth embodiment.","In the present example, after performing the processing of the step S211 to S214 similarly to the fifth embodiment, the controller 114 performs the emphasis processing of the contrast under a predetermined condition (step S241).","As the emphasis processing, unsharp mask processing is used, for example.","Specifically, as for each of the surface image data of the sample substrate and the surface image data of the inspection substrate W, an average of the gradation values is calculated for the prescribed number of the peripheral pixels centered at a target pixel, and the average value is treated as the gradation value for the target pixel.","In the present example, all pixels of the surface images SD2, SD3 are treated as target pixels, and a gradation value of each pixel is changed to the average value of the peripheral pixels.","In this manner, the surface image data is smoothed.","Thereafter, a gradation value of each pixel of the surface image data after smoothing is subtracted from a gradation value of each pixel of the surface image data before smoothing.","A gradation value of each pixel of the surface image data after the subtraction processing is multiplied by a predetermined coefficient.","A gradation value of each pixel of the surface image data before smoothing is added to a gradation value of each pixel of the surface image data after the multiplication processing.","Thus, the unsharp mask processing is ended.","In this unsharp mask processing, the surface structure of the surface images SD2, SD3 of the sample substrate and the inspection substrate W and a contour of the image corresponding to a defect are emphasized.","After the processing of the step S241, the controller 114 performs the correspondence relationship correction processing of the step S215 based on the surface image data after the emphasis processing for the sample substrate and the inspection substrate W. Thereafter, the controller 114 performs the subsequent processing after the step S216 of FIG.","27.","(2) Effects In the present embodiment, emphasis processing is performed on the surface image data of each of the sample substrate and the inspection substrate W before the correspondence relationship correction processing is performed.","Thus, the normal surface structure of the sample substrate and inspection substrate can be accurately identified.","As a result, detection error of the deviation amount can be prevented in the correspondence relationship correction processing of the subsequent step S215.","[7] Seventh Embodiment The substrate processing apparatus according to the seventh embodiment has the same configuration and operation as the substrate processing apparatus according to the fifth embodiment except for the following point.","(1) Detection Error of Deviation Amount In the fifth embodiment, in the step S302 of the correspondence relationship correction processing, a relative deviation amount for every pixel between the surface images SD2, SD3 of the sample substrate and the inspection substrate W is calculated in the step S302 of the correspondence relationship correction processing.","However, part of the deviation amounts may be erroneously calculated due to noise, disturbance or the like.","It is considered that the deviation amount erroneously calculated for one pixel is largely different from the deviation amounts calculated for pixels surrounding the pixel.","In the substrate processing apparatus according to the present embodiment, deviation amount optimization processing is performed in the correspondence relationship correction processing.","FIG.","37 is a flow chart of the correspondence relationship correction processing according to the seventh embodiment.","As shown in FIG.","37, after performing the processing of the step S301, S302 similarly to the fifth embodiment, the controller 114 performs the deviation amount optimization processing (step S251).","In the deviation amount optimization processing, the deviation amount of the pixel considered to have been erroneously calculated in the processing of the step S302 is interpolated based on the deviation amounts of pixels surrounding the pixel.","Thereafter, the controller 114 performs the processing of the step S303.","(2) Deviation Amount Optimization Processing The details of the deviation amount optimization processing will be described.","FIGS.","38 and 39 are flow charts of the deviation amount optimization processing.","FIGS.","40A to 40C are diagrams showing states of the deviation amounts of the plurality of pixels to be optimized by the deviation amount optimization processing.","In the following description, N is the number of all pixels of the surface image SD2.Further, a variable i is a natural number of not more than N, and a variable k is an integer of not less than 0.As shown in FIG.","38, the controller 114 first treats the variable i as 1, and the variable k as 0 (step S401).","Next, the controller 114 counts the number of the pixels of which the deviation amounts satisfy a predetermined condition among a plurality of pixels surrounding the i-th pixel, and the number of the pixels of which the deviation amounts are treated as the targets of interpolation by processing of the below-mentioned step S404 (step S402).","The plurality of pixels surrounding the i-th pixel in the step S402 are 8 pixels surrounding the i-th pixel, for example.","Further, the predetermined condition is that at least one deviation amount of the deviation amounts in x direction and y direction is 2 or more, for example.","Subsequently, the controller 114 determines whether the counted number is not less than a predetermined first number (step S403).","The predetermined first number is 5, for example.","In the case where the counted number is smaller than the first number, the controller 114 proceeds to the processing of the step S407.On the one hand, in the case where the counted number is not less than the first number, the controller 114 treats the deviation amount of the i-th pixel as the target of interpolation (step S404).","Then, the controller 114 determines whether the target of interpolation set right before in the processing of the step S404 is newly set (step S405).","In the case where the target of interpolation is not newly set, the controller 114 proceeds to the processing of the step S407.On the one hand, in the case where the target of interpolation is newly set, the controller 114 adds 1 to the variable k (step S406), and proceeds to the processing of the step S407.In the step S407, the controller 114 determines whether the value of the variable i is N. In the case where the variable i is not N, the controller 114 adds 1 to the variable i (step S408), and proceeds to the processing of the step S402.On the one hand, in the case where the variable i is N, the controller 114 determines whether the variable k is 0 (step S409).","In the case where the variable k is not 0, the controller 114 proceeds to the processing of the step S401.On the one hand, in the case where the variable k is 0, the controller 114 proceeds to the processing of the below-mentioned step S410.The processing of the above-mentioned steps S401 to S409 is performed in order to detect the deviation amount that may be erroneously calculated for every pixel and set the detected deviation amount as the target of the interpolation.","In FIG.","40A, one example of the deviation amounts respectively calculated for the plurality of pixels in the step S302 of FIG.","37 is shown.","In FIG.","40A, total 25 pixels in which 5 pixels are arranged in the x direction and 5 pixels are arranged in the y direction, respectively, are indicated by dotted lines.","Further, the deviation amounts in the x direction and the y direction calculated for each pixel are shown.","In the present example, the deviation amounts calculated for 9 pixels located at the center are respectively (5, 0), and the deviation amounts calculated for 16 pixels surrounding the 9 pixels are respectively (0, 0).","When the optimization is performed for the plurality of deviation amounts of FIG.","40A, the processing of the steps S402, S403 is first repeated for all of the pixels.","In this case, the deviation amounts of the four pixels indicated by thick bold frames are newly treated as the targets of interpolation by the processing of the step S404.Thus, the variable k becomes 4 at a time point at which the processing of the steps S402, S403 is performed for all of the pixels.","Therefore, the processing of the steps S402, S403 is repeated for all of the pixels again by the processing of the step S409.In this case, the deviation amounts of the four pixels indicated by the thick one-dot and dash frames are newly treated as the targets of interpolation by the processing of the step S404.Thus, the variable k is 4.Therefore, the processing of the steps S402, S403 is repeated again for all of the pixels by the processing of the step S409.In this case, the deviation amount of one pixel indicated by the thick dotted frame is newly treated as the target of interpolation by the processing of the step S404.Thus, the variable k is 1.Therefore, the processing of the steps S402, S403 is repeated again for all of the pixels by the processing of the step S409.In this case, a deviation amount newly treated as the target of interpolation is not present.","Thus, the variable k is 0.As a result, as shown in FIG.","40B, with the deviation amounts of part of the pixels being the targets of interpolation, the processing of the step S410 is started.","As shown in FIG.","39, the controller 114 treats the variable i as 1 in the step S410.Thereafter, the controller 114 determines whether the deviation amount of the i-th pixel is the target of interpolation (step S411).","In the case where the deviation amount of the i-th pixel is not the target of interpolation, the controller 114 proceeds to the processing of the step S415, described below.","On the one hand, in the case where the deviation amount of the i-th pixel is the target of interpolation, the controller 114 counts the number of pixels that are treated as the targets of interpolation among the plurality of pixels surrounding the i-th pixel (step S412).","The plurality of pixels surrounding the i-th pixel in the step S412 are the four pixels adjacent to the i-th pixel in the x direction and the y direction, for example.","Subsequently, the controller 114 determines whether the counted number is not less than a predetermined second number (step S413).","The predetermined second number is 3, for example.","In the case where the counted number is not less than the second number, the controller 114 proceeds to the processing of the step S415, described below.","On the one hand, in the case where the counted number is smaller than the second number, the controller 114 treats an average value of the deviation amounts of the plurality of pixels that are not treated as the targets of interpolation as the deviation amount of the i-th pixel (step S414), and proceeds to the processing of the step S415.In the step S415, the controller 114 determines whether the value of the variable i is N. In the case where the variable i is not N, the controller 114 adds 1 to the variable i (step S416), and proceeds to the processing of the step S411.On the one hand, in the case where the variable i is N, the controller 114 determines whether the number of pixels of which the deviation amounts are treated as the targets of interpolation is 0 (step S417).","In the case where the number of pixels of which the deviation amounts are treated as the targets of the interpolation is not 0, the controller 114 proceeds to the processing of the step S410.On the one hand, in the case where the number of pixels of which the deviation amounts are treated as the targets of interpolation is 0, the controller 114 ends the deviation amount optimization processing.","The processing of the above-mentioned steps S410 to S417 is performed in order to sequentially interpolate the deviation amounts that are treated as the targets of interpolation by the processing of the steps S401 to S409.As shown in FIG.","40B, with the deviation amounts of part of the pixels being the targets of interpolation among the plurality of pixels, the processing of the steps S411 to S414 is repeated for all of the pixels.","In this case, the deviation amounts of the four pixels indicated by the thick solid frames in FIG.","40C are interpolated by the processing of the step S414.At this time point, five targets of interpolation among the 9 targets of interpolation of FIG.","40B are not interpolated.","Therefore, the processing of the steps S411 to S414 is repeated again for all of the pixels by the processing of the step S417.In this case, the deviation amounts of the four pixels indicated by the one thick one-dot and dash frames in FIG.","40C are interpolated by the processing of the step S414.At this time point, one target of interpolation among the 9 targets of interpolation of FIG.","40B is not interpolated.","Therefore, the processing of the steps S411 to S414 is repeated again for all of the pixels by the processing of the step S417.In this case, the deviation amount of one pixel indicated by the thick dotted frame in FIG.","40C is interpolated by the processing of the step S414.Thus, all of the 9 targets of interpolation of FIG.","40B are interpolated.","In this manner, the deviation amounts of all of the targets of the interpolation are determined, so that the deviation amount optimization processing is ended.","(3) Effects In the present embodiment, the deviation amount erroneously calculated in the processing of the step S302 is optimized by the deviation amount optimization processing in the correspondence relationship correction processing.","Thus, the correspondence relationship between the pixel of the surface image SD2 of the sample substrate and the pixel of the surface image SD2 of the inspection substrate W is appropriately corrected.","Therefore, a defect in appearance on the inspection substrate W can be detected with high accuracy.","Also in the present embodiment, similarly to the seventh embodiment, the emphasis processing for the surface image data of the sample substrate and the inspection substrate W may be performed before the correspondence relationship correction processing of the step S215 in the defect determination processing.","[8] Eighth Embodiment The substrate processing apparatus according to the eighth embodiment has the same configuration and operation as the substrate processing apparatus according to the fifth embodiment except for the following point.","In the substrate processing apparatus according to the present embodiment, the controller 114 (FIG.","1) performs the moire removal processing of FIG.","15 according to the second embodiment in the defect determination processing.","FIG.","41 is a flow chart showing part of the defect determination processing according to the eighth embodiment.","As shown in FIG.","41, after performing the processing of the steps S211 to S215 of FIG.","26 similarly to the fifth embodiment, the controller 114 performs the moire removal processing for the surface image SD2 of the sample substrate (step S261).","Subsequently, the controller 114 performs the moire removal processing for the surface image SD3 of the inspection substrate W (step S262).","Thereafter, the controller 114 performs the subsequent processing after the step S216 of FIG.","27 based on the surface images SD2, SD3 on which the moire removal processing is performed.","In the present embodiment, the moire removal processing is performed for the surface image SD2 of the sample substrate and the surface image SD3 of the inspection substrate W. In the moire removal processing, the acquired surface image data is smoothed, and a gradation value of each pixel of the surface image data after smoothing is subtracted from a gradation value of each pixel of the surface image data before smoothing.","Thus, the correction image data from which a moire is removed is produced.","The surface images SD2, SD3 from which moires are removed are acquired based on the correction image data.","In this case, in the inspection substrate W including a defect DP, it is easy to distinguish between the defect DP and a moire.","Further, in the steps S216, S217 of the defect determination processing, an occurrence of variations between gradation values of the difference image data and gradation values of the determination image data resulting from a moire is prevented.","Thus, it is not necessary to widely set the allowable range to include variations in gradation value resulting from a moire.","Therefore, a defect in appearance on the inspection substrate W can be detected with higher accuracy.","Also in the present embodiment, similarly to the sixth embodiment, the emphasis processing for the surface image data of the sample substrate and the inspection substrate W may be performed before the correspondence relationship correction processing of the step S215 in the defect determination processing.","Also in the present embodiment, similarly to the seventh embodiment, the deviation amount optimization processing may be performed between the processing of the steps S302, S303 in the correspondence relationship correction processing.","[9] Ninth Embodiment The substrate processing apparatus according to the ninth embodiment has the same configuration and operation as the substrate processing apparatus according to the fifth embodiment except for the following point.","As described above, in the defect determination processing according to the fifth embodiment, the correspondence relationship between the pixel of the surface image SD2 of the sample substrate and the pixel of the surface image SD3 of the inspection substrate W is corrected by the correspondence relationship correction processing.","However, depending on the influence of noise, disturbance or the like, a deviation in correspondence relationship may not be completely resolved.","In the case where a deviation in correspondence relationship is not completely resolved, it is necessary to largely set the allowable range used in the defect determination processing in order to prevent determination error resulting from a deviation in correspondence relationship between the pixels.","On the one hand, when the allowable range is set excessively large, the detection accuracy for a defect is reduced.","In the present embodiment, in order to appropriately set the allowable range while a deviation in correspondence relationship between the surface image data of the sample substrate and the surface image data of the inspection substrate W is considered, the allowable range setting processing of FIG.","23 according to the third embodiment is performed.","FIG.","42 is a flow chart showing part of the defect determination processing according to the ninth embodiment.","In the present example, after performing the processing of the step S211, S212 similarly to the fifth embodiment, the controller 114 performs the allowable range setting processing of FIG.","23 according to the third embodiment (step S271).","Thereafter, the controller 114 performs the subsequent processing after the step S213.In this case, in the processing of the step S218 of FIG.","27, the allowable range set in the processing of the step S271 is used.","As described above, the allowable range is set by the allowable range setting processing of FIG.","23.Thus, even in the case where a deviation in correspondence relationship between the pixel of the surface image SD2 of the sample substrate and the pixel of the surface image SD3 of the inspection substrate W is not completely resolved, the gradation value of the determination image data calculated with the deviation being present in the correspondence relationship between the pixels is less likely to fall outside of the allowable range.","Therefore, a normal portion is less likely to be erroneously determined as a defect.","Also in the present embodiment, similarly to the sixth embodiment, the emphasis processing for the surface image data of the sample substrate and the inspection substrate W may be performed before the correspondence relationship correction processing of the step S215 in the defect determination processing (see FIG.","36).","Further, also in the present embodiment, similarly to the seventh embodiment, the deviation optimization processing may be performed between the processing of the step S302 and the processing of the step S303 in the correspondence relationship correction processing (see FIG.","37).","Further, also in the present embodiment, similarly to the eighth embodiment, the moire removal processing for the surface images SD2, SD3 of the sample substrate and the inspection substrate W may be performed before the processing of the step S216 after the processing of the step S214 or the step S215 in the defect determination processing (see FIG.","41).","[10] Other Embodiments (1) In the above-mentioned embodiment, the surface image data of the sample substrate is acquired, and the surface image SD2 of FIG.","12A is produced, every time the defect determination processing is performed for one inspection substrate W. However, the invention is not limited to this.","In the case where the defect determination processing is performed for the plurality of inspection substrates W having the common surface structure, the surface image data of the sample substrate may be acquired before the defect determination processing and the surface image SD2 may be stored in the controller 114 in advance.","In this case, when the defect determination processing of each inspection substrate W is performed, the processing for acquiring the surface image data of the sample substrate, and the processing for correcting the acquired surface image data can be omitted.","Therefore, efficiency of the defect determination processing is improved.","Further, before the defect determination processing of the plurality of inspection substrates W, the allowable range setting processing in the third and ninth embodiments may be performed in addition to the processing for acquiring the surface image data of the sample substrate.","Further, the allowable range set by the allowable range setting processing may be stored in the memory of the controller 114 in advance together with the surface image SD2.Thus, when the defect determination processing for each inspection substrate W is performed, the allowable range setting processing can be further omitted.","Therefore, efficiency of the defect determination processing is further improved.","(2) While the surface image data of the sample substrate is acquired by picking up of an image of the sample substrate in the above-mentioned embodiment, the present invention is not limited to this.","The predetermined design data may be used as the surface image data of the sample substrate.","In this case, it is not necessary to image the sample substrate.","Therefore, in the defect determination processing, the processing for acquiring the surface image data of the sample substrate and the processing for correcting the acquired surface image data can be omitted.","(3) In the above-mentioned embodiment, after the surface image data of the sample substrate is acquired in the defect determination processing, the acquired surface image data is corrected.","Thus, the surface image SD2 in the shape of the substrate W is produced.","Further, after the surface image data of the inspection substrate W is acquired, the acquired surface image data is corrected.","Thus, the surface image SD3 in the shape of the substrate W is produced.","The present invention is not limited to the above-mentioned example.","The surface image data of the sample substrate and the surface image data of the inspection substrate W do not have to be corrected to be in the shape of the substrate W. Even in such a case, the defect determination processing similar to the above-mentioned example can be performed based on the surface image data indicating the rectangular surface image SD1 as shown in FIG.","7F.","(4) In the above-mentioned embodiment, in the inspection unit IP, the radial region RR of the substrate W is irradiated with the inspection light while the substrate W is rotated, and the reflected light is led to the CCD line sensor 54.Thus, the surface image data is produced.","However, the surface image data may be produced by another method.","For example, the surface image data may be produced by picking up of an image of the entire surface of the substrate W by an area sensor with the substrate W not being rotated.","(5) While the defect determination processing is performed by the controller 114 in the above-mentioned embodiment, the present invention is not limited to this.","For example, a controller for the appearance inspection may be provided to correspond to the inspection unit IP, and various processing in the appearance inspection may be performed by the controller.","Alternatively, a plurality of local controllers may be provided to respectively correspond to the indexer block 11, the first and second processing blocks 12, 13 and the interface block 14, and various processing in the appearance inspection may be performed by one local controller among them (a local controller corresponding to the second processing block 13, for example).","(6) While the appearance inspection for the substrate W after the development processing is performed in the inspection unit IP in the above-mentioned embodiment, the present invention is not limited to this.","For example, the appearance inspection of the substrate W after the formation of the resist film and before the exposure processing may be performed by the inspection unit IP.","Further, the appearance inspection of the substrate W before the formation of the resist film may be performed by the inspection unit IP.","(7) While the inspection unit IP is provided in the second processing block 13 in the above-mentioned embodiment, the arrangement of the inspection units IP and the number of the inspection units IP may be suitably changed.","For example, the inspection units IP may be provided in the first processing block 12, or the inspection unit IP may be provided in the interface block 14.","(8) While the inspection units IP are provided in the substrate processing apparatus 100 adjacent to the exposure device 15 that performs the exposure processing for the substrate W by an immersion method in the above-mentioned embodiment, the present invention is not limited to this.","The inspection unit IP may be provided in the substrate processing apparatus adjacent to an exposure device that performs the exposure processing for the substrate W without using liquid.","(9) While the inspection units IP are provided in the substrate processing apparatus 100 that performs the processing for the substrate W before and after the exposure processing in the above-mentioned embodiment, the inspection unit IP may be provided in another substrate processing apparatus.","For example, the inspection unit IP may be provided in a substrate processing apparatus that performs cleaning processing on the substrate W, or the inspection units IP may be provided in a substrate processing apparatus that performs etching processing for the substrate W. Alternatively, the inspection unit IP does not have to be provided in the substrate processing apparatus, and the inspection unit IP may be used alone.","[11] Correspondences Between Constituent Elements in Claims and Parts in Preferred Embodiments In the following paragraphs, non-limiting examples of correspondences between various elements recited in the claims below and those described above with respect to various preferred embodiments of the present invention are explained.","In the above-mentioned embodiment, the sample substrate is an example of a substrate with no defect in appearance, the inspection substrate W is an example of a substrate to be inspected, the inspection unit IP and the controller 114 are examples of an inspector, the controller 114 is an example of a corrector, a determiner, an emphasis processer and an optimization processer, and the illuminator 52, the CCD line sensor 54 and the controller 114 are examples of an image data acquirer.","Further, the surface image SD2 of the sample substrate is an example of a first image, the surface image data of the sample substrate is an example of first image data, the surface image SD3 of the inspection substrate W is an example of a second image, the surface image data of the inspection substrate W is an example of second image data, and the difference image data and the determination image data are examples of pieces of difference information.","Further, the plurality of first unit images 1U are examples of a plurality of first unit images, the plurality of second unit images 2U are examples of a plurality of second unit images, the center pixel 1UC of the first unit image 1U is an example of a representative pixel of a first unit image, the center pixel of the second unit image 2U is an example of a representative pixel of a second unit image, the correction image data of the sample substrate is an example of first correction image data, and the correction image data of the inspection substrate W is an example of second correction image data.","Further, the gradation values of the plurality of pixels of the determination image data are examples of values acquired by addition of a constant value to differences between gradation values of pixels of the first image data and gradation values of pixel of the second image data, the pixels of the first and second image data being considered to correspond to each other, the minimum value and the maximum value of the addition representative value are examples of values acquired by respective addition of a constant value to a minimum value and a maximum value of a plurality of representative values.","Further, the holding rotator 51 is an example of a substrate holding rotator, the illuminator 52 is an example of an illuminator, the CCD line sensor 54 is an example of a line sensor, the substrate processing apparatus 100 is an example of a substrate processor, the exposure device 15 is an example of an exposer, the coating processing unit 129 is an example of a coater, and the development processing unit 139 is an example of a developer.","As each of constituent elements recited in the claims, various other elements having configurations or functions described in the claims can be also used.","While preferred embodiments of the present invention have been described above, it is to be understood that variations and modifications will be apparent to those skilled in the art without departing the scope and spirit of the present invention.","The scope of the present invention, therefore, is to be determined solely by the following claims.","INDUSTRIAL APPLICABILITY The present invention can be effectively utilized for appearance inspection for various types of substrates."]],"string":"[\n [\n \"INSPECTION DEVICE AND SUBSTRATE PROCESSING APPARATUS\",\n \"Surface image data of a non-defective sample substrate is acquired, and surface image data of a substrate to be inspected is acquired.\",\n \"Differences between gradation values are calculated for pixels of the surface image data of the substrate to be inspected and corresponding pixels of the surface image data of the sample substrate.\",\n \"A constant value is added to the difference between gradation values of each pixel.\",\n \"In the case where the value acquired by addition is in a predetermined allowable range, it is determined that there is no defect for the substrate to be inspected.\",\n \"In the case where the value acquired by addition is outside of the allowable range, it is determined that the substrate to be inspected is defective.\",\n \"A defect in appearance on the substrate to be inspected is detected based on a pixel of which the value is outside of the allowable range.\"\n ],\n [\n \"1.An inspection method of performing appearance inspection for a substrate, comprising: acquiring image data of a substrate with no defect in appearance as first image data, and acquiring image data of a substrate to be inspected as second image data by picking up an image of the substrate to be inspected by an imaging device; setting an allowable range for determining whether there is a defect in appearance on the substrate; and calculating values related to differences between gradation values of pixels of the acquired first image data and gradation values of pixels of the acquired second image data as pieces of difference information, the pixels of the first and second image data being considered to correspond to each other, and determining whether there is a defect in appearance on the substrate to be inspected based on whether each piece of calculated difference information is in the set allowable range, wherein the setting includes calculating, for each of a plurality of predetermined target pixels of the first image data, differences between gradation values of a target pixel and a plurality of pixels in a constant region including the target pixel, determining, for each of the plurality of predetermined target pixels of the first image data, a representative value in a range from a minimum value to a maximum value of the calculated differences by a predetermined method based on the calculated differences, and respectively setting values related to a minimum value and a maximum value of a plurality of representative values respectively determined for the plurality of predetermined target pixels as a lower limit value and an upper limit value of the allowable range.\",\n \"2.The inspection method according to claim 1, wherein the predetermined method is a method of determining, for each of the plurality of predetermined target pixels of the first image data, an average value of the differences between a gradation value of the target pixel and gradation values of the plurality of pixels in the constant region including the target pixels as the representative value.\",\n \"3.The inspection method according to claim 1, wherein the predetermined method is a method of determining, for each of the plurality of predetermined target pixels of the first image data, a maximum value of the differences between a gradation value of the target pixel and gradation values of the plurality of pixels in the constant region including the target pixels as the representative value.\",\n \"4.The inspection method according to claim 1, wherein the pieces of difference information include values acquired by addition of a constant value to differences between gradation values of pixels of the first image data and gradation values of pixels of the second image data, the pixels of the first and second image data being considered to correspond to each other, and values related to the minimum value and the maximum value of the plurality of representative values include values acquired by respective addition of the constant value to the minimum value and the maximum value of the plurality of representative values.\",\n \"5.The inspection method according to claim 1, wherein the setting includes setting a first value smaller than the minimum value of the plurality of representative values by a predetermined value as the lower limit value of the allowable range instead of the value related to the minimum value of the plurality of representative values, and setting a second value larger than the maximum value of the plurality of representative values by a predetermined value as the upper limit value of the allowable range instead of the value related to the maximum value of the plurality of representative values.\",\n \"6.The inspection method according to claim 1, wherein the determining includes detecting a defect in appearance on the substrate based on a pixel of which a piece of difference information is outside of the allowable range.\",\n \"7.The inspection method according to claim 1, wherein the determining includes determining that there is a defect in appearance on the substrate to be inspected in the case where the number of pieces of difference information outside of the allowable range is not less than a predetermined number.\",\n \"8.The inspection method according to claim 1, wherein the determining includes performing smoothing of the acquired first image data, producing first correction image data by subtracting a gradation value of each pixel of first image data after smoothing from a gradation value of each pixel of first image data before smoothing, performing smoothing of the acquired second image data, producing second correction image data by subtracting a gradation value of each pixel of second image data after smoothing from a gradation value of each pixel of second image data before smoothing, and calculating differences between gradation values of pixels of the produced first correction data and gradation values of pixels of the produced second correction data, the pixels of the produced first and second correction data being considered to correspond to each other, as the pieces of difference information for the pixels of the first image data and corresponding pixels of the second image data, and the setting includes calculating, for each of a plurality of target pixels of the produced first correction image data instead of the first image data, differences between a gradation value of the target pixel and gradation values of the plurality of pixels in the constant region including the target pixel, and determining, for each of the plurality of target pixels of the produced first correction image data instead of the first image data, the representative value in the range from the minimum value to the maximum value of the plurality of differences by the predetermined method based on the plurality of calculated differences.\",\n \"9.A substrate processing method of performing processing on a substrate, comprising: forming a photosensitive film on the substrate by a coater before exposure processing by an exposer that performs the exposure processing; performing development processing on the photosensitive film on the substrate by a developer after the exposure processing by the exposer; and performing appearance inspection for the substrate after the formation of the photosensitive film by the coater, by the inspection method according to claim 1.10.The substrate processing method according to claim 9, wherein the performing the appearance inspection for the substrate by the inspection method includes performing the appearance inspection for the substrate after the formation of the photosensitive film by the coater and after the development processing by the developer.\"\n ],\n [\n \" BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION \"\n ],\n [\n \" BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION However, in a method of detecting a defect described in JP 2011-66049 A, even in the case where there is a defect in a surface of a substrate, if brightness of the reflected light from the defect is in the allowable range, it is determined that the substrate is normal.\",\n \"Therefore, a defect cannot be detected sometimes.\",\n \"An object of the present invention is to provide an inspection device capable of performing appearance inspection for a substrate with high accuracy, and a substrate processing apparatus including the inspection device.\",\n \"(1) An inspector according to one aspect of the present invention that performs appearance inspection for a substrate includes an image data acquirer that acquires image data of a substrate with no defect in appearance as first image data, and acquires image data of a substrate to be inspected as second image data by picking up an image of the substrate to be inspected, and a determiner that calculates values related to differences between gradation values of pixels of the of first image data acquired by the image data acquirer and gradation values of corresponding pixels of the of second image data acquired by the image data acquirer as pieces of difference information, and determines whether there is a defect in appearance on the substrate to be inspected based on whether each piece of calculated difference information is in a predetermined allowable range.\",\n \"In the inspector, the image data of the substrate with no defect in appearance is acquired as the first image data, and the image data of the substrate to be inspected is acquired as the second image data.\",\n \"As for a normal portion of the substrate to be inspected, a difference between a gradation value of a pixel of the first image data and a gradation value of a corresponding pixel of the second image data is small.\",\n \"On the one hand, as for a defective portion of the substrate to be inspected, a difference between a gradation value of a pixel of the first image data and a gradation value of a corresponding pixel of the second image data is large.\",\n \"Therefore, even in the case where the gradation value of the pixel corresponding to a defective portion is close to the gradation value of the pixel corresponding to a normal portion, the above-mentioned difference corresponding to the defective portion is larger than the above-mentioned difference corresponding to the normal portion.\",\n \"A value related to a difference between a gradation value of a pixel of the first image data and a gradation value of a corresponding pixel of the second image data is calculated as a piece of difference information.\",\n \"Thus, a piece of difference information for the pixel corresponding to the defective portion and a piece of difference information corresponding to the normal portion can be distinguished from each other.\",\n \"Therefore, an allowable range is determined in advance to include a piece of difference information corresponding to a normal portion and not to include a piece of difference information corresponding to a defective portion, whereby it is possible to determine whether there is a defect.\",\n \"As a result, a defect in appearance on the substrate can be detected with high accuracy.\",\n \"(2) The determiner may detect a defect in appearance on the substrate based on a pixel of which the piece of difference information is outside of the allowable range.\",\n \"In this case, in the case where there is a defect in appearance on the substrate to be inspected, a position and a shape of the defect can be identified.\",\n \"(3) The pieces of difference information may include values acquired by addition of a constant value to values of the differences.\",\n \"In this case, overall gradation values, of the image based on the pieces of difference information, corresponding to all of the pixels can be increased.\",\n \"Thus, a user can view the image based on the pieces of difference information without an uncomfortable feeling.\",\n \"(4) The determiner may determine that there is a defect in appearance on the substrate to be inspected in the case where the number of pieces of difference information being outside of the allowable range is not less than a predetermined number.\",\n \"Part of the pieces of difference information not corresponding to a defect may be outside of the allowable range due to noise, disturbance or the like.\",\n \"In the above-mentioned configuration, in the case where the number of the pieces of difference information outside of the allowable range is smaller a predetermined number, it is not determined that there is a defect.\",\n \"Therefore, determination error due to noise, disturbance or the like can be prevented.\",\n \"(5) The determiner may perform smoothing of the first image data acquired by the image data acquirer, may produce first correction image data by subtracting a gradation value of each pixel of first image data after smoothing from a gradation value of each pixel of first image data before smoothing, may perform smoothing of the second image data acquired by the image data acquirer, may produce second correction image data by subtracting a gradation value of each pixel of second image data after smoothing from a gradation value of each pixel of second image data before smoothing, and may calculate differences between gradation values of pixels of the produced first correction image data and gradation values of pixels of the produced second correction image data as the pieces of difference information for the pixels of the first image data and the corresponding pixels of the second image data.\",\n \"Normally, a gradation change resulting from a defect and normal surface structure of the substrate occurs more locally or dispersively than a gradation change resulting from a moire.\",\n \"Therefore, the first and second image data after smoothing includes a gradation change resulting from a moire, and does not include a gradation change resulting from a defect in appearance and a gradation change resulting from the surface structure.\",\n \"The first correction image data from which a moire is removed is produced by subtraction of a gradation value of each pixel of the first image data after smoothing from a gradation value of each pixel of the first image data before smoothing.\",\n \"Further, the second correction image data from which a moire is removed is produced by subtraction of a gradation value of each pixel of the second image data after smoothing from a gradation value of each pixel of the second image data before smoothing.\",\n \"The pieces of difference information are calculated based on the first and second correction image data.\",\n \"It is determined that there is a defect in appearance on the substrate to be inspected based on the calculated difference information.\",\n \"Therefore, a reduction in detection accuracy for a defect due to a moire can be prevented, and appearance inspection for the substrate can be performed with high accuracy.\",\n \"(6) The determiner may perform smoothing of the first and second image data by movement average filter processing.\",\n \"In this case, the smoothing of the first and second image data can be easily performed in a short period of time.\",\n \"(7) The determiner may perform smoothing of the first and second image data such that first and second image data after smoothing includes a gradation change resulting from a moire and does not include a gradation change resulting from a defect in appearance and normal surface structure.\",\n \"In this case, first and second correction image data that do not include a gradation change due to a moire and includes a gradation change resulting from a defect in appearance and normal surface structure can be appropriately produced.\",\n \"(8) The inspector may further include a substrate holding rotator that holds and rotates the substrate, wherein the image data acquirer may include an illuminator that irradiates a radial region extending in a radial direction of the substrate rotated by the substrate holding rotator with light, and a line sensor that receives light reflected by the radial region of the substrate.\",\n \"In this case, first and second image data can be acquired with a simple configuration.\",\n \"(9) An inspector according to another aspect of the present invention that performs appearance inspection for a substrate includes an image data acquirer that acquires image data of a substrate with no defect in appearance as first image data, and acquires image data of a substrate to be inspected as second image data by picking up an image of the substrate to be inspected, a range setter that sets an allowable range for determining whether there is a defect in appearance on the substrate, and a determiner that calculates values related to differences between gradation values of pixels of the first image data acquired by the image data acquirer and gradation values of pixels of the second image data acquired by the image data acquirer, the pixels of the first and second image data being considered to correspond to each other, and determines whether there is a defect in appearance on the substrate to be inspected based on whether each piece of calculated difference information is in the allowable range set by the range setter, wherein the range setter calculates, for each of a plurality of predetermined target pixels of the first image data, differences between gradation values of a target pixel and a plurality of pixels in a constant region including the target pixel, determines, for each of the plurality of predetermined target pixels of the first image data, a representative value in a range from a minimum value to a maximum value of a plurality of differences by a predetermined method based on the plurality of calculated differences, and respectively sets values related to a minimum value and a maximum value of the plurality of representative values respectively determined for the plurality of target pixels as a lower limit value and an upper limit value of the allowable range.\",\n \"In the inspector, the image data of the substrate with no defect in appearance is acquired as first image data, and the image data of the substrate to be inspected is acquired as second image data.\",\n \"As for a normal portion of the substrate to be inspected, a difference between a gradation value of a pixel of the first image data and a gradation value of a corresponding pixel of the second image data is small.\",\n \"On the one hand, as for a defective portion of the substrate to be inspected, a difference between a gradation value of a pixel of the first image data and a gradation value of a corresponding pixel of the second image data is large.\",\n \"Therefore, even in the case where a gradation value of the pixel corresponding to a defective portion is close to a gradation value of the pixel corresponding to a normal portion, the above-mentioned difference corresponding to the defective portion is larger than the above-mentioned difference corresponding to the normal portion.\",\n \"A value related to a difference between a gradation value of the first image data and a gradation value of a corresponding pixel of the second image data is calculated as a piece of difference information.\",\n \"Thus, the piece of difference information for the pixel corresponding to the defective portion, and the piece of difference information corresponding to the normal portion can be distinguished from each other.\",\n \"Therefore, an allowable range is determined in advance to include the piece of difference information corresponding to a normal portion and not to include the piece of difference information corresponding to a defective portion, whereby it is possible to determine whether there is a defect.\",\n \"However, a pixel of the second image data considered to correspond to one pixel of the first image data sometimes deviates from the truly corresponding pixel.\",\n \"In this case, when an allowable range is set on assumption that a correspondence relationship between the first and second image data is accurate, the piece of difference information corresponding to a normal portion sometimes falls outside of the allowable range.\",\n \"Therefore, it becomes necessary to largely set the allowable range in order to prevent determination error resulting from a deviation.\",\n \"On the one hand, when the allowable range is set excessively largely, detection accuracy for a defect is reduced.\",\n \"In the present invention, as for each of the plurality of target pixels of the first image data, differences between gradation values of the target pixel and gradation values of a plurality of pixels in a constant region including the target pixel are calculated.\",\n \"In this case, it is considered that a plurality of differences calculated for each target pixel are substantially equivalent to the differences between gradation values calculated by a determiner with a deviation being present in correspondence relationship between the first and second image data in the case where there is no defect for the substrate to be inspected.\",\n \"A representative value that is in a range from a minimum value to a maximum value of a plurality of differences is determined by a predetermined method based on the plurality of differences calculated for each target pixel.\",\n \"In this case, when there is a deviation in correspondence relationship between the first and second image data, a representative value for each target pixel represents a difference between gradation values to be calculated in the case where a portion corresponding to each target pixel is normal.\",\n \"Therefore, values for a minimum value and a maximum value of a plurality of representative values determined for the plurality of target pixels of the first image data are respectively set as a lower limit value and an upper limit value of the allowable range.\",\n \"Thus, as for a normal portion, a piece of difference information calculated with a deviation being present in correspondence relationship is less likely to fall outside of the allowable range.\",\n \"Therefore, a normal portion is less likely to be erroneously determined to be defective.\",\n \"Further, a lower limit value and an upper limit value of the allowable range are limited to values for a minimum value and a maximum value of the representative value.\",\n \"Thus, as for a defective portion, the piece of difference information calculated with a deviation being in correspondence relationship is less likely to be included in the allowable range.\",\n \"Therefore, a defective portion is less likely to be erroneously determined to be normal.\",\n \"As a result, in the case where there is a deviation between a pixel of the first image data and a corresponding pixel of the second image data, a defect in appearance on the substrate can be detected with high accuracy.\",\n \"(10) The predetermined method may be a method of determining, for each of the plurality of predetermined target pixels of the first image data, an average value of the differences between gradation values of the target pixels and the plurality of pixels in the constant region including the target pixels as the representative value.\",\n \"Thus, a desired allowable range can be appropriately set according to a determination condition for a defect and the like.\",\n \"(11) The predetermined method may be a method of determining, for each of the plurality of predetermined target pixels of the first image data, a maximum value of the differences between gradation values of the target pixels and the plurality of pixels in the constant region including the target pixels as the representative value.\",\n \"Thus, a desired allowable range can be appropriately set according to a determination condition for a defect and the like.\",\n \"(12) The pieces of difference information may include values acquired by addition of a constant value to differences between gradation values of pixels of the first image data and gradation values of pixels of the second image data, the pixels of the first and second image data being considered to correspond to each other, and values related to the minimum value and the maximum value of the plurality of representative values may include values acquired by respective addition of the constant value to the minimum value and the maximum value of the plurality of representative values.\",\n \"In this case, the overall gradation values, of the image based on the pieces of difference information, corresponding to all of the pixels can be increased.\",\n \"Thus, the user can view the image based on the pieces of difference information without an uncomfortable feeling.\",\n \"Further, the constant value added to the differences between the gradation values is added to a minimum value and a maximum value of the plurality of representative values, so that the allowable range is appropriately set.\",\n \"(13) The range setter may set a first value smaller than the minimum value of the plurality of representative values by a predetermined value as the lower limit value of the allowable range instead of the value related to the minimum value of the plurality of representative values, and may set a second value larger than the maximum value of the plurality of representative values by a predetermined value as the upper limit value of the allowable range instead of the value related to the maximum value of the plurality of representative values.\",\n \"Part of the pieces of difference information not corresponding to a defect may be smaller than the value for the minimum value of the plurality of representative values due to noise, disturbance or the like.\",\n \"Further, part of the pieces of difference information not corresponding to a defect may be larger than a value for a maximum value of a plurality of representative values.\",\n \"In the above-mentioned configuration, even in the case where the piece of difference information is smaller than the value for the minimum value of the plurality of representative values, it is not determined that there is a defect as long as the piece of difference information is not less than the first value.\",\n \"Further, even in the case where the piece of difference information is larger than the value for the maximum value of the plurality of representative values, it is not determined that there is a defect as long as the piece of difference information is not more than the second value.\",\n \"Therefore, determination error due to noise, disturbance or the like can be prevented.\",\n \"(14) The determiner may detect a defect in appearance on the substrate based on a pixel of which a piece of difference information is outside of the allowable range.\",\n \"In this case, in the case where there is a defect in appearance on the substrate to be inspected, a position and a shape of the defect can be identified.\",\n \"(15) The determiner may determine that there is a defect in appearance on the substrate to be inspected in the case where the number of pieces of difference information outside of the allowable range is not less than a predetermined number.\",\n \"Part of the pieces of difference information not corresponding to a defect may be outside of the allowable range due to noise, disturbance or the like.\",\n \"In the above-mentioned configuration, in the case where the number of the pieces of difference information outside of the allowable range is smaller than the predetermined number, it is not determined that there is a defect.\",\n \"Therefore, determination error due to noise, disturbance or the like can be prevented.\",\n \"(16) The determiner may perform smoothing of the first image data acquired by the image data acquirer, may produce first correction image data by subtracting a gradation value of each pixel of first image data after smoothing from a gradation value of each pixel of first image data before smoothing, may perform smoothing of the second image data acquired by the image data acquirer, may produce second correction image data by subtracting a gradation value of each pixel of second image data after smoothing from a gradation value of each pixel of second image data before smoothing, and may calculate differences between gradation values of pixels of the produced first correction data and gradation values of pixels of the produced second correction data, the pixels of the produced first and second correction data being considered to correspond to each other, as the pieces of difference information for the pixels of the first image data and corresponding pixels of the second image data, and the range setter may calculate, for each of a plurality of target pixels of the first correction image data produced by the determiner instead of the first image data, differences between a gradation value of the target pixel and gradation values of the plurality of pixels in the constant region including the target pixel, and may determine, for each of the plurality of target pixels of the first correction image data produced by the determiner instead of the first image data, the representative value in the range from the minimum value to the maximum value of the plurality of differences by the predetermined method based on the plurality of calculated differences.\",\n \"Normally, a gradation change resulting from a defect and normal surface structure of the substrate occurs more locally or dispersively than a gradation change resulting from a moire.\",\n \"Therefore, the first and second image data after smoothing include a gradation change resulting from a moire, and does not include a gradation change resulting from a defect in appearance and a gradation change resulting from the surface structure.\",\n \"The first correction image data from which a moire is removed is produced by subtraction of a gradation value of each pixel of the first image data after smoothing from a gradation value of each pixel of the first image data before smoothing.\",\n \"Further, the second correction image data from which a moire is removed is produced by subtraction of a gradation value of each pixel of the second image data after smoothing from a gradation value of each pixel of the second image data before smoothing.\",\n \"The pieces of difference information are calculated based on the first and second correction image data.\",\n \"Whether there is a defect in appearance on the substrate to be inspected is determined based on the pieces of calculated difference information.\",\n \"Therefore, a reduction in detection accuracy for a defect due to a moire is prevented, and appearance inspection for the substrate can be performed with high accuracy.\",\n \"Further, as for each of the plurality of target pixels of the first correction image data, a difference between a gradation value of the target pixel and a gradation value a plurality of pixels in a constant region including the target pixel is calculated, and the above-mentioned representative value is determined based on the plurality of calculated differences.\",\n \"Therefore, the allowable range corresponding to the second correction image data is appropriately set.\",\n \"(17) The determiner may perform smoothing of the first and second image data by movement average filter processing.\",\n \"In this case, smoothing of the first and second image data can be easily performed in a short period of time.\",\n \"(18) The determiner may perform smoothing of the first and second image data such that first and second image data after smoothing includes a gradation change resulting from a moire and not to include a gradation change resulting from a defect in appearance and normal surface structure.\",\n \"In this case, the first and second correction image data that do not include a gradation change due to a moire and includes a gradation change resulting from a defect in appearance and the normal surface structure can be appropriately produced.\",\n \"(19) The inspector may further include a substrate holding rotator that holds and rotates the substrate, wherein the image data acquirer may include an illuminator that irradiates a radial region extending in a radial direction of the substrate rotated by the substrate holding rotator with light, and a line sensor that receives light reflected by the radial region of the substrate.\",\n \"In this case, the first and second image data can be acquired with a simple configuration.\",\n \"(20) An inspector according to yet another aspect of the present invention that performs appearance inspection for a substrate includes an image data acquirer that acquires image data indicating a first image of a substrate with no defect in appearance as first image data, and acquires image data indicating a second image of a substrate to be inspected as second image data by picking up an image of the substrate to be inspected, a corrector that corrects correspondence relationships between pixels of the first image data and pixels of the second image data, and a determiner that calculates values related to differences between gradation values of pixels of the first image data acquired by the image data acquirer and gradation values of corresponding pixels of the second image data acquired by the image data acquirer as pieces of difference information based on the correspondence relationship corrected by the corrector, and determines whether there is a defect in appearance on the substrate to be inspected based on whether each piece of calculated difference information is in a predetermined allowable range, wherein the first image is constituted by a plurality of first unit images, the first image data includes a plurality of pieces of first unit image data respectively indicating the plurality of first unit images, the second image is constituted by a plurality of second unit images, the second image data includes a plurality of pieces of second unit image data respectively indicating the plurality of second unit images, and the corrector detects relative deviation amounts between first and second unit images by comparing the pieces of first unit image data of the plurality of first unit images and the pieces of the second unit image data of the plurality of second unit images, the plurality of first and second unit images being located at corresponding positions, calculates a deviation amount for every pixel of the first and second images based on a plurality of deviation amounts detected for the plurality of first and second unit images, and corrects the correspondence relationship between a pixel of the first image data and a pixel of the second image data based on the calculated deviation amount for every pixel to resolve the deviation.\",\n \"In the inspector, the image data of the substrate with no defect in appearance is acquired as the first image data, and the image data of the substrate to be inspected is acquired as the second image data.\",\n \"As for a normal portion of the substrate to be inspected, a difference between a gradation value of a pixel of the first image data and a gradation value of a corresponding pixel of the second image is small.\",\n \"On the one hand, as for a defective portion of the substrate to be inspected, a difference between a gradation value of a pixel of the first image data and a gradation value of a corresponding pixel of the second image data is large.\",\n \"Therefore, even in the case where a gradation value of the pixel corresponding to the defective portion is close to a gradation value of the pixel corresponding to the normal portion, the above-mentioned difference corresponding to a defective portion is larger than the above-mentioned difference corresponding to a normal portion.\",\n \"A value for a difference between a gradation value of a pixel of the first image data and a gradation value of a corresponding pixel of the second image data is calculated as a piece of difference information.\",\n \"In this case, the piece of difference information for the pixel corresponding to the defective portion and the piece of difference information for the normal portion can be distinguished from each other.\",\n \"Therefore, an allowable range is determined in advance to include the piece of difference information corresponding to a normal portion and not to include the piece of difference information corresponding to a defective portion, whereby it is possible to determine whether there is a defect.\",\n \"However, local distortion that is not a defect sometimes occurs in the substrate to be inspected.\",\n \"In this case, a position of the pixel of the second image corresponding to a distorted portion deviates from the position of the truly corresponding pixel of the first image.\",\n \"Therefore, when the above-mentioned pieces of difference information are calculated on assumption that the correspondence relationship between the first and second image data is accurate, presence and absence of a defect cannot be accurately determined.\",\n \"In the present invention, a relative deviation amount between the first and second unit images is detected by comparison between the pieces of first and second unit image data of the first and second unit images located at positions corresponding to each other.\",\n \"Thus, a relative deviation amount between respective positions is detected for a plurality of portions corresponding to each other between the first and second images.\",\n \"A deviation amount for every pixel between the first and second images is calculated based on the plurality of detected deviation amounts.\",\n \"The correspondence relationship between a pixel of the first image data and a pixel of the second image data is corrected based on the calculated deviation amount for every pixel, and a deviation for every pixel is resolved.\",\n \"Thus, even in the case where local distortion is present in the substrate to be inspected, the pixels corresponding to each other can be accurately distinguished by correction of the correspondence relationship between a pixel of the first image data and a corresponding pixel of the second image data.\",\n \"A value related to a difference between a gradation value of a pixel of the first image data and a gradation value of a corresponding pixel of the second image data is calculated as a piece of difference information based on the corrected correspondence relationship.\",\n \"In this case, for a normal portion, a gradation value of the pixel of the first image and a gradation value of the pixel located at a corresponding position of the second image substantially coincide with each other, so that a piece of difference information is small.\",\n \"On the one hand, for a defective portion, a difference resulting from a defect occurs between a gradation value of the pixel of the first image and a gradation value of the pixel located at a corresponding position of the second image, so that a piece of difference information is large.\",\n \"Therefore, a defect in appearance on the substrate can be detected with high accuracy.\",\n \"(21) The determiner may detect a defect in appearance on the substrate based on a pixel of which the piece of difference information is outside of the allowable range.\",\n \"In this case, in the case where there is a defect in appearance on the substrate to be inspected, a position and a shape of a defect can be identified.\",\n \"(22) The corrector may calculate, for first and second unit images located at positions corresponding to each other, a plurality of coincidence degrees indicating degrees of coincidence between pieces of one unit image data and pieces of another unit image data based on differences between gradation values of pixels located at corresponding positions, while moving the other unit image with respect to the one unit image, may detect a movement amount of the other unit image in the case where the calculated coincidence degree is maximized as a relative deviation amount between the first and second unit images.\",\n \"In this case, a relative deviation amount between the first and second unit images is appropriately detected based on a difference in gradation value of a pixel corresponding to a normal portion.\",\n \"(23) The corrector may calculate, for first and second unit images located at positions corresponding to each other, a plurality of coincidence degrees indicating degrees of coincidence between pieces of one unit image data and pieces of another unit image data based on differences between gradation values of pixels located at corresponding positions, while moving the other unit image with respect to the one unit image, may detect, in the case where magnitude of variations of the calculated coincidence degrees is larger than a predetermined threshold value, a movement amount of the other unit image in the case where the coincidence degree is in a predetermined range of the coincidence degree and the deviation amount is minimized as a relative deviation amount between the first and second unit images, and may interpolate, in the case where magnitude of variations of the calculated coincidence degrees is not more than the predetermined threshold value, a relative deviation amount between the first and second unit images based on a deviation amount detected for other first and second unit images adjacent to the first and second unit images.\",\n \"When variations in coincidence degree are excessively large, part of the coincidence degree may be erroneously calculated.\",\n \"Essentially, it is considered that the first and second unit images corresponding to each other are located at positions corresponding to each other or positions in the vicinity of the positions.\",\n \"Therefore, a remarkably low coincidence degree is likely to be erroneously calculated.\",\n \"In the above-mentioned configuration, in the case where the magnitude of variations in coincidence degree is larger than a threshold value, a movement amount of the other unit image in the case where the coincidence degree is in a predetermined range of the coincidence degree and a deviation amount is minimized is detected as a relative deviation amount between the first and second unit images.\",\n \"Therefore, the above-mentioned range is set not to include a remarkably low coincidence degree, so that detection of a relative deviation amount between the first and second unit images based on the erroneously calculated coincidence degree is prevented.\",\n \"On the one hand, in the case where the plurality of calculated coincidence degrees indicate substantially the constant value, it is difficult to identify a coincidence degree in the case where the pieces of first and second unit image data truly coincide with each other.\",\n \"Therefore, it is difficult to detect an accurate deviation amount.\",\n \"In the above-mentioned configuration, in the case where the magnitude of variations in coincidence degree is not more than a threshold value, a relative deviation amount between the first and second unit images is interpolated based on the detected deviation amount between the other first and second unit images adjacent to the first and second unit images.\",\n \"Thus, a deviation amount for every pixel can be appropriately calculated even for the substrate not having the surface structure.\",\n \"(24) Each of the plurality of first and second unit images may include a representative pixel located at a predetermined position in the unit image, and the corrector may determine a relative deviation amount detected for each of the plurality of first and second unit images as a relative deviation amount for each representative pixel of each of the plurality of first and second unit images, and may interpolate a deviation amount of pixels except for the plurality of representative pixels of the first and second pixels based on the determined deviation amount for every representative pixel.\",\n \"In this case, a deviation amount for every pixel between the first and second images can be easily calculated in a short period of time.\",\n \"(25) The inspector may further include an emphasis processer that performs emphasis processing on the first and second image data such that contrast between the first and second images is emphasized under a predetermined condition, wherein the corrector may detect the relative deviation amount between the first and second unit images by comparing the pieces of first and second unit image data on which the emphasis processing is performed by the emphasis processer.\",\n \"In this case, the surface structure of the substrate is emphasized in the pixel corresponding to a normal portion by emphasis of the contrast between the first unit image and the second unit image.\",\n \"Thus, the normal surface structure of the substrate can be accurately identified.\",\n \"As a result, detection error of the relative deviation amount between the first and second unit images is prevented.\",\n \"(26) The inspector may further include an optimization processer that optimizes a deviation amount for every pixel calculated by the corrector, wherein the optimization processer may calculate differences between the deviation amount calculated for each pixel and correction amounts of a plurality of pixels surrounding the pixel, may determine whether to treat the pixel as a target of interpolation based on a result of calculation, and may determine, for each of one or a plurality of pixels that are treated as the target of interpolation, a deviation amount of the pixel based on a deviation amount calculated for one or a plurality of pixels that is not treated as a target of interpolation among pixels surrounding the pixel, and the corrector may perform correction of the correspondence relationship based on a deviation amount for every pixel optimized by the optimization processer.\",\n \"In this case, erroneously calculated deviation amount is optimized.\",\n \"Thus, the correspondence relationship between a pixel of the first image and a pixel of the second image is appropriately corrected.\",\n \"Therefore, a defect in appearance on the substrate can be detected with high accuracy.\",\n \"(27) The pieces of difference information may include values acquired by addition of a constant value to values of differences between gradation values of pixels of the first image data and gradation values of corresponding pixels of the second image data.\",\n \"In this case, overall gradation values, of the image based on the pieces of difference information, corresponding to all of the pixels can be increased.\",\n \"Thus, the user can view the image based on the pieces of difference information without an uncomfortable feeling.\",\n \"(28) The determiner may determine that there is a defect in appearance on the substrate to be inspected in the case where the number of pieces of difference information outside of the allowable range is not less than a predetermined number.\",\n \"Part of the pieces of difference information not corresponding to a defect may be outside of the allowable range due to noise, disturbance or the like.\",\n \"In the above-mentioned configuration, in the case where the number of the pieces of difference information outside of the allowable range is smaller than the predetermined number, it is not determined that there is a defect.\",\n \"Therefore, determination error due to noise, disturbance or the like can be prevented.\",\n \"(29) The determiner may perform smoothing of the first image data, may produce first correction image data by subtracting a gradation value of each pixel of first image data after smoothing from a gradation value of each pixel of first image data before smoothing, may perform smoothing of the second image data, may produce second correction image data by subtracting a gradation value of each pixel of second image data after smoothing from a gradation value of each pixel of second image data before smoothing, and may calculate differences between gradation values of pixels of the first correction image data produced based on correspondence relationships corrected by the corrector and gradation values of corresponding pixels of the second correction image data produced based on the correspondence relationships corrected by the corrector as the pieces of difference information for pixels of the first image data and corresponding pixels of the second image data.\",\n \"Normally, a gradation change resulting from a defect and normal structure of the substrate occurs more locally or dispersively than a gradation change resulting from a moire.\",\n \"Therefore, the first and second image data after smoothing include a gradation change resulting from a moire, and does not include a gradation change resulting from a defect in appearance and a gradation change resulting from the surface structure.\",\n \"The first correction image data from which a moire is removed is produced by subtraction of a gradation value of each pixel of the first image data after smoothing from a gradation value of each pixel of the first image data before smoothing.\",\n \"Further, the second correction image data from which a moire is removed is produced by subtraction of a gradation value of each pixel of the second image data after smoothing from a gradation value of each pixel of the second image data before smoothing.\",\n \"The pieces of difference information are calculated based on the first and second correction image data.\",\n \"It is determined whether there is a defect in appearance on the substrate to be inspected based on the pieces of calculated difference information.\",\n \"Therefore, a reduction in detection accuracy due to a moire is prevented, and the appearance inspection for the substrate can be performed with high accuracy.\",\n \"(30) The determiner may perform smoothing of the first and second image data by movement average filter processing.\",\n \"In this case, smoothing of the first and second image data can be easily performed in a short period of time.\",\n \"(31) The determiner may perform smoothing of the first and second image data such that the first and second image data after smoothing includes a gradation change resulting from a moire and does not include a gradation change resulting from a defect in appearance and normal surface structure.\",\n \"In this case, the first and second correction image data that do not include a gradation change resulting from a moire and includes a gradation change resulting from a defect in appearance and normal surface structure can be appropriately produced.\",\n \"(32) The inspector may further include a substrate holding rotator that holds and rotates the substrate, wherein the image data acquirer may include an illuminator that irradiates a radial region extending in a radial direction of the substrate rotated by the substrate holding rotator with light, and a line sensor that receives light reflected by the radial region of the substrate.\",\n \"In this case, the first and second image data can be acquired with a simple configuration.\",\n \"(33) A substrate processor according to yet another aspect of the present invention arranged to be adjacent to an exposer that performs exposure processing on a substrate includes a coater that forms a photosensitive film on a substrate before exposure processing by the exposer, a developer that performs development processing on the photosensitive film on the substrate after the exposure processing by the exposer, and any of the above-mentioned inspector that performs appearance inspection for the substrate after the formation of the photosensitive film by the coater.\",\n \"In the substrate processor, a photosensitive film is formed on the substrate before exposure processing, and development processing is performed on the substrate after the exposure processing.\",\n \"The appearance inspection for the substrate after the formation of a photosensitive film is performed by the above-mentioned inspector.\",\n \"Thus, even in the case where the gradation value of the pixel corresponding to a defective portion is close to the gradation value of the pixel corresponding to a normal portion in the second image data, the defect is distinguished from a normal portion based on the pieces of difference information.\",\n \"Further, in the case where there is a deviation of pixels corresponding to each other between the first and second image data, a defect in appearance on the substrate can be detected with high accuracy.\",\n \"Further, even in the case where local distortion occurs for the substrate to be inspected, a defect in appearance on the substrate can be detected with high accuracy.\",\n \"Thus, the appearance inspection for a photosensitive film on the substrate can be performed with high accuracy.\",\n \"(34) The inspector performs the appearance inspection for the substrate after the formation of the photosensitive film by the coater and after the development processing by the developer.\",\n \"In this case, the appearance inspection for a photosensitive film that has been patterned by the development processing can be performed with high accuracy.\",\n \"Other features, elements, characteristics, and advantages of the present invention will become more apparent from the following description of preferred embodiments of the present invention with reference to the attached drawings.\"\n ],\n [\n \"CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application is a divisional of U.S. patent application Ser.\",\n \"No.\",\n \"15/136,336, filed Apr.\",\n \"22, 2016, which claims the benefit of Japanese Patent Application Nos.\",\n \"JP 2015-088541, filed Apr.\",\n \"23, 2015, JP 2015-106601, filed May 26, 2015 and JP 2015-106602, filed May 26, 2015, the contents of which are incorporated herein by reference.\",\n \"BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Field of the Invention The present invention relates to an inspection device and a substrate processing apparatus including the inspection device.\",\n \"Description of Related Art In various processing steps for each type of substrates such as semiconductor substrates, substrates for liquid crystal display devices, substrates for plasma displays, substrates for optical discs, substrates for magnetic discs, substrates for magneto-optical discs, substrates for photomasks and other substrates, appearance inspection for a substrate is performed.\",\n \"In a substrate processing apparatus described in JP 2011-66049 A, appearance inspection for a substrate is performed after a resist film is formed on the substrate and before exposure processing is performed on the substrate.\",\n \"In the appearance inspection for the substrate, surface image data of the substrate is produced by picking up of an image of the substrate by an imaging device.\",\n \"In the case where all of the surface image data has brightness in a predetermined allowable range, it is determined that the substrate is normal.\",\n \"On the one hand, in the case where at least part of the surface image data has brightness that is not in the allowable range, it is determined that the substrate is abnormal.\",\n \"In this manner, a defect in appearance on the substrate is detected.\",\n \"BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION However, in a method of detecting a defect described in JP 2011-66049 A, even in the case where there is a defect in a surface of a substrate, if brightness of the reflected light from the defect is in the allowable range, it is determined that the substrate is normal.\",\n \"Therefore, a defect cannot be detected sometimes.\",\n \"An object of the present invention is to provide an inspection device capable of performing appearance inspection for a substrate with high accuracy, and a substrate processing apparatus including the inspection device.\",\n \"(1) An inspector according to one aspect of the present invention that performs appearance inspection for a substrate includes an image data acquirer that acquires image data of a substrate with no defect in appearance as first image data, and acquires image data of a substrate to be inspected as second image data by picking up an image of the substrate to be inspected, and a determiner that calculates values related to differences between gradation values of pixels of the of first image data acquired by the image data acquirer and gradation values of corresponding pixels of the of second image data acquired by the image data acquirer as pieces of difference information, and determines whether there is a defect in appearance on the substrate to be inspected based on whether each piece of calculated difference information is in a predetermined allowable range.\",\n \"In the inspector, the image data of the substrate with no defect in appearance is acquired as the first image data, and the image data of the substrate to be inspected is acquired as the second image data.\",\n \"As for a normal portion of the substrate to be inspected, a difference between a gradation value of a pixel of the first image data and a gradation value of a corresponding pixel of the second image data is small.\",\n \"On the one hand, as for a defective portion of the substrate to be inspected, a difference between a gradation value of a pixel of the first image data and a gradation value of a corresponding pixel of the second image data is large.\",\n \"Therefore, even in the case where the gradation value of the pixel corresponding to a defective portion is close to the gradation value of the pixel corresponding to a normal portion, the above-mentioned difference corresponding to the defective portion is larger than the above-mentioned difference corresponding to the normal portion.\",\n \"A value related to a difference between a gradation value of a pixel of the first image data and a gradation value of a corresponding pixel of the second image data is calculated as a piece of difference information.\",\n \"Thus, a piece of difference information for the pixel corresponding to the defective portion and a piece of difference information corresponding to the normal portion can be distinguished from each other.\",\n \"Therefore, an allowable range is determined in advance to include a piece of difference information corresponding to a normal portion and not to include a piece of difference information corresponding to a defective portion, whereby it is possible to determine whether there is a defect.\",\n \"As a result, a defect in appearance on the substrate can be detected with high accuracy.\",\n \"(2) The determiner may detect a defect in appearance on the substrate based on a pixel of which the piece of difference information is outside of the allowable range.\",\n \"In this case, in the case where there is a defect in appearance on the substrate to be inspected, a position and a shape of the defect can be identified.\",\n \"(3) The pieces of difference information may include values acquired by addition of a constant value to values of the differences.\",\n \"In this case, overall gradation values, of the image based on the pieces of difference information, corresponding to all of the pixels can be increased.\",\n \"Thus, a user can view the image based on the pieces of difference information without an uncomfortable feeling.\",\n \"(4) The determiner may determine that there is a defect in appearance on the substrate to be inspected in the case where the number of pieces of difference information being outside of the allowable range is not less than a predetermined number.\",\n \"Part of the pieces of difference information not corresponding to a defect may be outside of the allowable range due to noise, disturbance or the like.\",\n \"In the above-mentioned configuration, in the case where the number of the pieces of difference information outside of the allowable range is smaller a predetermined number, it is not determined that there is a defect.\",\n \"Therefore, determination error due to noise, disturbance or the like can be prevented.\",\n \"(5) The determiner may perform smoothing of the first image data acquired by the image data acquirer, may produce first correction image data by subtracting a gradation value of each pixel of first image data after smoothing from a gradation value of each pixel of first image data before smoothing, may perform smoothing of the second image data acquired by the image data acquirer, may produce second correction image data by subtracting a gradation value of each pixel of second image data after smoothing from a gradation value of each pixel of second image data before smoothing, and may calculate differences between gradation values of pixels of the produced first correction image data and gradation values of pixels of the produced second correction image data as the pieces of difference information for the pixels of the first image data and the corresponding pixels of the second image data.\",\n \"Normally, a gradation change resulting from a defect and normal surface structure of the substrate occurs more locally or dispersively than a gradation change resulting from a moire.\",\n \"Therefore, the first and second image data after smoothing includes a gradation change resulting from a moire, and does not include a gradation change resulting from a defect in appearance and a gradation change resulting from the surface structure.\",\n \"The first correction image data from which a moire is removed is produced by subtraction of a gradation value of each pixel of the first image data after smoothing from a gradation value of each pixel of the first image data before smoothing.\",\n \"Further, the second correction image data from which a moire is removed is produced by subtraction of a gradation value of each pixel of the second image data after smoothing from a gradation value of each pixel of the second image data before smoothing.\",\n \"The pieces of difference information are calculated based on the first and second correction image data.\",\n \"It is determined that there is a defect in appearance on the substrate to be inspected based on the calculated difference information.\",\n \"Therefore, a reduction in detection accuracy for a defect due to a moire can be prevented, and appearance inspection for the substrate can be performed with high accuracy.\",\n \"(6) The determiner may perform smoothing of the first and second image data by movement average filter processing.\",\n \"In this case, the smoothing of the first and second image data can be easily performed in a short period of time.\",\n \"(7) The determiner may perform smoothing of the first and second image data such that first and second image data after smoothing includes a gradation change resulting from a moire and does not include a gradation change resulting from a defect in appearance and normal surface structure.\",\n \"In this case, first and second correction image data that do not include a gradation change due to a moire and includes a gradation change resulting from a defect in appearance and normal surface structure can be appropriately produced.\",\n \"(8) The inspector may further include a substrate holding rotator that holds and rotates the substrate, wherein the image data acquirer may include an illuminator that irradiates a radial region extending in a radial direction of the substrate rotated by the substrate holding rotator with light, and a line sensor that receives light reflected by the radial region of the substrate.\",\n \"In this case, first and second image data can be acquired with a simple configuration.\",\n \"(9) An inspector according to another aspect of the present invention that performs appearance inspection for a substrate includes an image data acquirer that acquires image data of a substrate with no defect in appearance as first image data, and acquires image data of a substrate to be inspected as second image data by picking up an image of the substrate to be inspected, a range setter that sets an allowable range for determining whether there is a defect in appearance on the substrate, and a determiner that calculates values related to differences between gradation values of pixels of the first image data acquired by the image data acquirer and gradation values of pixels of the second image data acquired by the image data acquirer, the pixels of the first and second image data being considered to correspond to each other, and determines whether there is a defect in appearance on the substrate to be inspected based on whether each piece of calculated difference information is in the allowable range set by the range setter, wherein the range setter calculates, for each of a plurality of predetermined target pixels of the first image data, differences between gradation values of a target pixel and a plurality of pixels in a constant region including the target pixel, determines, for each of the plurality of predetermined target pixels of the first image data, a representative value in a range from a minimum value to a maximum value of a plurality of differences by a predetermined method based on the plurality of calculated differences, and respectively sets values related to a minimum value and a maximum value of the plurality of representative values respectively determined for the plurality of target pixels as a lower limit value and an upper limit value of the allowable range.\",\n \"In the inspector, the image data of the substrate with no defect in appearance is acquired as first image data, and the image data of the substrate to be inspected is acquired as second image data.\",\n \"As for a normal portion of the substrate to be inspected, a difference between a gradation value of a pixel of the first image data and a gradation value of a corresponding pixel of the second image data is small.\",\n \"On the one hand, as for a defective portion of the substrate to be inspected, a difference between a gradation value of a pixel of the first image data and a gradation value of a corresponding pixel of the second image data is large.\",\n \"Therefore, even in the case where a gradation value of the pixel corresponding to a defective portion is close to a gradation value of the pixel corresponding to a normal portion, the above-mentioned difference corresponding to the defective portion is larger than the above-mentioned difference corresponding to the normal portion.\",\n \"A value related to a difference between a gradation value of the first image data and a gradation value of a corresponding pixel of the second image data is calculated as a piece of difference information.\",\n \"Thus, the piece of difference information for the pixel corresponding to the defective portion, and the piece of difference information corresponding to the normal portion can be distinguished from each other.\",\n \"Therefore, an allowable range is determined in advance to include the piece of difference information corresponding to a normal portion and not to include the piece of difference information corresponding to a defective portion, whereby it is possible to determine whether there is a defect.\",\n \"However, a pixel of the second image data considered to correspond to one pixel of the first image data sometimes deviates from the truly corresponding pixel.\",\n \"In this case, when an allowable range is set on assumption that a correspondence relationship between the first and second image data is accurate, the piece of difference information corresponding to a normal portion sometimes falls outside of the allowable range.\",\n \"Therefore, it becomes necessary to largely set the allowable range in order to prevent determination error resulting from a deviation.\",\n \"On the one hand, when the allowable range is set excessively largely, detection accuracy for a defect is reduced.\",\n \"In the present invention, as for each of the plurality of target pixels of the first image data, differences between gradation values of the target pixel and gradation values of a plurality of pixels in a constant region including the target pixel are calculated.\",\n \"In this case, it is considered that a plurality of differences calculated for each target pixel are substantially equivalent to the differences between gradation values calculated by a determiner with a deviation being present in correspondence relationship between the first and second image data in the case where there is no defect for the substrate to be inspected.\",\n \"A representative value that is in a range from a minimum value to a maximum value of a plurality of differences is determined by a predetermined method based on the plurality of differences calculated for each target pixel.\",\n \"In this case, when there is a deviation in correspondence relationship between the first and second image data, a representative value for each target pixel represents a difference between gradation values to be calculated in the case where a portion corresponding to each target pixel is normal.\",\n \"Therefore, values for a minimum value and a maximum value of a plurality of representative values determined for the plurality of target pixels of the first image data are respectively set as a lower limit value and an upper limit value of the allowable range.\",\n \"Thus, as for a normal portion, a piece of difference information calculated with a deviation being present in correspondence relationship is less likely to fall outside of the allowable range.\",\n \"Therefore, a normal portion is less likely to be erroneously determined to be defective.\",\n \"Further, a lower limit value and an upper limit value of the allowable range are limited to values for a minimum value and a maximum value of the representative value.\",\n \"Thus, as for a defective portion, the piece of difference information calculated with a deviation being in correspondence relationship is less likely to be included in the allowable range.\",\n \"Therefore, a defective portion is less likely to be erroneously determined to be normal.\",\n \"As a result, in the case where there is a deviation between a pixel of the first image data and a corresponding pixel of the second image data, a defect in appearance on the substrate can be detected with high accuracy.\",\n \"(10) The predetermined method may be a method of determining, for each of the plurality of predetermined target pixels of the first image data, an average value of the differences between gradation values of the target pixels and the plurality of pixels in the constant region including the target pixels as the representative value.\",\n \"Thus, a desired allowable range can be appropriately set according to a determination condition for a defect and the like.\",\n \"(11) The predetermined method may be a method of determining, for each of the plurality of predetermined target pixels of the first image data, a maximum value of the differences between gradation values of the target pixels and the plurality of pixels in the constant region including the target pixels as the representative value.\",\n \"Thus, a desired allowable range can be appropriately set according to a determination condition for a defect and the like.\",\n \"(12) The pieces of difference information may include values acquired by addition of a constant value to differences between gradation values of pixels of the first image data and gradation values of pixels of the second image data, the pixels of the first and second image data being considered to correspond to each other, and values related to the minimum value and the maximum value of the plurality of representative values may include values acquired by respective addition of the constant value to the minimum value and the maximum value of the plurality of representative values.\",\n \"In this case, the overall gradation values, of the image based on the pieces of difference information, corresponding to all of the pixels can be increased.\",\n \"Thus, the user can view the image based on the pieces of difference information without an uncomfortable feeling.\",\n \"Further, the constant value added to the differences between the gradation values is added to a minimum value and a maximum value of the plurality of representative values, so that the allowable range is appropriately set.\",\n \"(13) The range setter may set a first value smaller than the minimum value of the plurality of representative values by a predetermined value as the lower limit value of the allowable range instead of the value related to the minimum value of the plurality of representative values, and may set a second value larger than the maximum value of the plurality of representative values by a predetermined value as the upper limit value of the allowable range instead of the value related to the maximum value of the plurality of representative values.\",\n \"Part of the pieces of difference information not corresponding to a defect may be smaller than the value for the minimum value of the plurality of representative values due to noise, disturbance or the like.\",\n \"Further, part of the pieces of difference information not corresponding to a defect may be larger than a value for a maximum value of a plurality of representative values.\",\n \"In the above-mentioned configuration, even in the case where the piece of difference information is smaller than the value for the minimum value of the plurality of representative values, it is not determined that there is a defect as long as the piece of difference information is not less than the first value.\",\n \"Further, even in the case where the piece of difference information is larger than the value for the maximum value of the plurality of representative values, it is not determined that there is a defect as long as the piece of difference information is not more than the second value.\",\n \"Therefore, determination error due to noise, disturbance or the like can be prevented.\",\n \"(14) The determiner may detect a defect in appearance on the substrate based on a pixel of which a piece of difference information is outside of the allowable range.\",\n \"In this case, in the case where there is a defect in appearance on the substrate to be inspected, a position and a shape of the defect can be identified.\",\n \"(15) The determiner may determine that there is a defect in appearance on the substrate to be inspected in the case where the number of pieces of difference information outside of the allowable range is not less than a predetermined number.\",\n \"Part of the pieces of difference information not corresponding to a defect may be outside of the allowable range due to noise, disturbance or the like.\",\n \"In the above-mentioned configuration, in the case where the number of the pieces of difference information outside of the allowable range is smaller than the predetermined number, it is not determined that there is a defect.\",\n \"Therefore, determination error due to noise, disturbance or the like can be prevented.\",\n \"(16) The determiner may perform smoothing of the first image data acquired by the image data acquirer, may produce first correction image data by subtracting a gradation value of each pixel of first image data after smoothing from a gradation value of each pixel of first image data before smoothing, may perform smoothing of the second image data acquired by the image data acquirer, may produce second correction image data by subtracting a gradation value of each pixel of second image data after smoothing from a gradation value of each pixel of second image data before smoothing, and may calculate differences between gradation values of pixels of the produced first correction data and gradation values of pixels of the produced second correction data, the pixels of the produced first and second correction data being considered to correspond to each other, as the pieces of difference information for the pixels of the first image data and corresponding pixels of the second image data, and the range setter may calculate, for each of a plurality of target pixels of the first correction image data produced by the determiner instead of the first image data, differences between a gradation value of the target pixel and gradation values of the plurality of pixels in the constant region including the target pixel, and may determine, for each of the plurality of target pixels of the first correction image data produced by the determiner instead of the first image data, the representative value in the range from the minimum value to the maximum value of the plurality of differences by the predetermined method based on the plurality of calculated differences.\",\n \"Normally, a gradation change resulting from a defect and normal surface structure of the substrate occurs more locally or dispersively than a gradation change resulting from a moire.\",\n \"Therefore, the first and second image data after smoothing include a gradation change resulting from a moire, and does not include a gradation change resulting from a defect in appearance and a gradation change resulting from the surface structure.\",\n \"The first correction image data from which a moire is removed is produced by subtraction of a gradation value of each pixel of the first image data after smoothing from a gradation value of each pixel of the first image data before smoothing.\",\n \"Further, the second correction image data from which a moire is removed is produced by subtraction of a gradation value of each pixel of the second image data after smoothing from a gradation value of each pixel of the second image data before smoothing.\",\n \"The pieces of difference information are calculated based on the first and second correction image data.\",\n \"Whether there is a defect in appearance on the substrate to be inspected is determined based on the pieces of calculated difference information.\",\n \"Therefore, a reduction in detection accuracy for a defect due to a moire is prevented, and appearance inspection for the substrate can be performed with high accuracy.\",\n \"Further, as for each of the plurality of target pixels of the first correction image data, a difference between a gradation value of the target pixel and a gradation value a plurality of pixels in a constant region including the target pixel is calculated, and the above-mentioned representative value is determined based on the plurality of calculated differences.\",\n \"Therefore, the allowable range corresponding to the second correction image data is appropriately set.\",\n \"(17) The determiner may perform smoothing of the first and second image data by movement average filter processing.\",\n \"In this case, smoothing of the first and second image data can be easily performed in a short period of time.\",\n \"(18) The determiner may perform smoothing of the first and second image data such that first and second image data after smoothing includes a gradation change resulting from a moire and not to include a gradation change resulting from a defect in appearance and normal surface structure.\",\n \"In this case, the first and second correction image data that do not include a gradation change due to a moire and includes a gradation change resulting from a defect in appearance and the normal surface structure can be appropriately produced.\",\n \"(19) The inspector may further include a substrate holding rotator that holds and rotates the substrate, wherein the image data acquirer may include an illuminator that irradiates a radial region extending in a radial direction of the substrate rotated by the substrate holding rotator with light, and a line sensor that receives light reflected by the radial region of the substrate.\",\n \"In this case, the first and second image data can be acquired with a simple configuration.\",\n \"(20) An inspector according to yet another aspect of the present invention that performs appearance inspection for a substrate includes an image data acquirer that acquires image data indicating a first image of a substrate with no defect in appearance as first image data, and acquires image data indicating a second image of a substrate to be inspected as second image data by picking up an image of the substrate to be inspected, a corrector that corrects correspondence relationships between pixels of the first image data and pixels of the second image data, and a determiner that calculates values related to differences between gradation values of pixels of the first image data acquired by the image data acquirer and gradation values of corresponding pixels of the second image data acquired by the image data acquirer as pieces of difference information based on the correspondence relationship corrected by the corrector, and determines whether there is a defect in appearance on the substrate to be inspected based on whether each piece of calculated difference information is in a predetermined allowable range, wherein the first image is constituted by a plurality of first unit images, the first image data includes a plurality of pieces of first unit image data respectively indicating the plurality of first unit images, the second image is constituted by a plurality of second unit images, the second image data includes a plurality of pieces of second unit image data respectively indicating the plurality of second unit images, and the corrector detects relative deviation amounts between first and second unit images by comparing the pieces of first unit image data of the plurality of first unit images and the pieces of the second unit image data of the plurality of second unit images, the plurality of first and second unit images being located at corresponding positions, calculates a deviation amount for every pixel of the first and second images based on a plurality of deviation amounts detected for the plurality of first and second unit images, and corrects the correspondence relationship between a pixel of the first image data and a pixel of the second image data based on the calculated deviation amount for every pixel to resolve the deviation.\",\n \"In the inspector, the image data of the substrate with no defect in appearance is acquired as the first image data, and the image data of the substrate to be inspected is acquired as the second image data.\",\n \"As for a normal portion of the substrate to be inspected, a difference between a gradation value of a pixel of the first image data and a gradation value of a corresponding pixel of the second image is small.\",\n \"On the one hand, as for a defective portion of the substrate to be inspected, a difference between a gradation value of a pixel of the first image data and a gradation value of a corresponding pixel of the second image data is large.\",\n \"Therefore, even in the case where a gradation value of the pixel corresponding to the defective portion is close to a gradation value of the pixel corresponding to the normal portion, the above-mentioned difference corresponding to a defective portion is larger than the above-mentioned difference corresponding to a normal portion.\",\n \"A value for a difference between a gradation value of a pixel of the first image data and a gradation value of a corresponding pixel of the second image data is calculated as a piece of difference information.\",\n \"In this case, the piece of difference information for the pixel corresponding to the defective portion and the piece of difference information for the normal portion can be distinguished from each other.\",\n \"Therefore, an allowable range is determined in advance to include the piece of difference information corresponding to a normal portion and not to include the piece of difference information corresponding to a defective portion, whereby it is possible to determine whether there is a defect.\",\n \"However, local distortion that is not a defect sometimes occurs in the substrate to be inspected.\",\n \"In this case, a position of the pixel of the second image corresponding to a distorted portion deviates from the position of the truly corresponding pixel of the first image.\",\n \"Therefore, when the above-mentioned pieces of difference information are calculated on assumption that the correspondence relationship between the first and second image data is accurate, presence and absence of a defect cannot be accurately determined.\",\n \"In the present invention, a relative deviation amount between the first and second unit images is detected by comparison between the pieces of first and second unit image data of the first and second unit images located at positions corresponding to each other.\",\n \"Thus, a relative deviation amount between respective positions is detected for a plurality of portions corresponding to each other between the first and second images.\",\n \"A deviation amount for every pixel between the first and second images is calculated based on the plurality of detected deviation amounts.\",\n \"The correspondence relationship between a pixel of the first image data and a pixel of the second image data is corrected based on the calculated deviation amount for every pixel, and a deviation for every pixel is resolved.\",\n \"Thus, even in the case where local distortion is present in the substrate to be inspected, the pixels corresponding to each other can be accurately distinguished by correction of the correspondence relationship between a pixel of the first image data and a corresponding pixel of the second image data.\",\n \"A value related to a difference between a gradation value of a pixel of the first image data and a gradation value of a corresponding pixel of the second image data is calculated as a piece of difference information based on the corrected correspondence relationship.\",\n \"In this case, for a normal portion, a gradation value of the pixel of the first image and a gradation value of the pixel located at a corresponding position of the second image substantially coincide with each other, so that a piece of difference information is small.\",\n \"On the one hand, for a defective portion, a difference resulting from a defect occurs between a gradation value of the pixel of the first image and a gradation value of the pixel located at a corresponding position of the second image, so that a piece of difference information is large.\",\n \"Therefore, a defect in appearance on the substrate can be detected with high accuracy.\",\n \"(21) The determiner may detect a defect in appearance on the substrate based on a pixel of which the piece of difference information is outside of the allowable range.\",\n \"In this case, in the case where there is a defect in appearance on the substrate to be inspected, a position and a shape of a defect can be identified.\",\n \"(22) The corrector may calculate, for first and second unit images located at positions corresponding to each other, a plurality of coincidence degrees indicating degrees of coincidence between pieces of one unit image data and pieces of another unit image data based on differences between gradation values of pixels located at corresponding positions, while moving the other unit image with respect to the one unit image, may detect a movement amount of the other unit image in the case where the calculated coincidence degree is maximized as a relative deviation amount between the first and second unit images.\",\n \"In this case, a relative deviation amount between the first and second unit images is appropriately detected based on a difference in gradation value of a pixel corresponding to a normal portion.\",\n \"(23) The corrector may calculate, for first and second unit images located at positions corresponding to each other, a plurality of coincidence degrees indicating degrees of coincidence between pieces of one unit image data and pieces of another unit image data based on differences between gradation values of pixels located at corresponding positions, while moving the other unit image with respect to the one unit image, may detect, in the case where magnitude of variations of the calculated coincidence degrees is larger than a predetermined threshold value, a movement amount of the other unit image in the case where the coincidence degree is in a predetermined range of the coincidence degree and the deviation amount is minimized as a relative deviation amount between the first and second unit images, and may interpolate, in the case where magnitude of variations of the calculated coincidence degrees is not more than the predetermined threshold value, a relative deviation amount between the first and second unit images based on a deviation amount detected for other first and second unit images adjacent to the first and second unit images.\",\n \"When variations in coincidence degree are excessively large, part of the coincidence degree may be erroneously calculated.\",\n \"Essentially, it is considered that the first and second unit images corresponding to each other are located at positions corresponding to each other or positions in the vicinity of the positions.\",\n \"Therefore, a remarkably low coincidence degree is likely to be erroneously calculated.\",\n \"In the above-mentioned configuration, in the case where the magnitude of variations in coincidence degree is larger than a threshold value, a movement amount of the other unit image in the case where the coincidence degree is in a predetermined range of the coincidence degree and a deviation amount is minimized is detected as a relative deviation amount between the first and second unit images.\",\n \"Therefore, the above-mentioned range is set not to include a remarkably low coincidence degree, so that detection of a relative deviation amount between the first and second unit images based on the erroneously calculated coincidence degree is prevented.\",\n \"On the one hand, in the case where the plurality of calculated coincidence degrees indicate substantially the constant value, it is difficult to identify a coincidence degree in the case where the pieces of first and second unit image data truly coincide with each other.\",\n \"Therefore, it is difficult to detect an accurate deviation amount.\",\n \"In the above-mentioned configuration, in the case where the magnitude of variations in coincidence degree is not more than a threshold value, a relative deviation amount between the first and second unit images is interpolated based on the detected deviation amount between the other first and second unit images adjacent to the first and second unit images.\",\n \"Thus, a deviation amount for every pixel can be appropriately calculated even for the substrate not having the surface structure.\",\n \"(24) Each of the plurality of first and second unit images may include a representative pixel located at a predetermined position in the unit image, and the corrector may determine a relative deviation amount detected for each of the plurality of first and second unit images as a relative deviation amount for each representative pixel of each of the plurality of first and second unit images, and may interpolate a deviation amount of pixels except for the plurality of representative pixels of the first and second pixels based on the determined deviation amount for every representative pixel.\",\n \"In this case, a deviation amount for every pixel between the first and second images can be easily calculated in a short period of time.\",\n \"(25) The inspector may further include an emphasis processer that performs emphasis processing on the first and second image data such that contrast between the first and second images is emphasized under a predetermined condition, wherein the corrector may detect the relative deviation amount between the first and second unit images by comparing the pieces of first and second unit image data on which the emphasis processing is performed by the emphasis processer.\",\n \"In this case, the surface structure of the substrate is emphasized in the pixel corresponding to a normal portion by emphasis of the contrast between the first unit image and the second unit image.\",\n \"Thus, the normal surface structure of the substrate can be accurately identified.\",\n \"As a result, detection error of the relative deviation amount between the first and second unit images is prevented.\",\n \"(26) The inspector may further include an optimization processer that optimizes a deviation amount for every pixel calculated by the corrector, wherein the optimization processer may calculate differences between the deviation amount calculated for each pixel and correction amounts of a plurality of pixels surrounding the pixel, may determine whether to treat the pixel as a target of interpolation based on a result of calculation, and may determine, for each of one or a plurality of pixels that are treated as the target of interpolation, a deviation amount of the pixel based on a deviation amount calculated for one or a plurality of pixels that is not treated as a target of interpolation among pixels surrounding the pixel, and the corrector may perform correction of the correspondence relationship based on a deviation amount for every pixel optimized by the optimization processer.\",\n \"In this case, erroneously calculated deviation amount is optimized.\",\n \"Thus, the correspondence relationship between a pixel of the first image and a pixel of the second image is appropriately corrected.\",\n \"Therefore, a defect in appearance on the substrate can be detected with high accuracy.\",\n \"(27) The pieces of difference information may include values acquired by addition of a constant value to values of differences between gradation values of pixels of the first image data and gradation values of corresponding pixels of the second image data.\",\n \"In this case, overall gradation values, of the image based on the pieces of difference information, corresponding to all of the pixels can be increased.\",\n \"Thus, the user can view the image based on the pieces of difference information without an uncomfortable feeling.\",\n \"(28) The determiner may determine that there is a defect in appearance on the substrate to be inspected in the case where the number of pieces of difference information outside of the allowable range is not less than a predetermined number.\",\n \"Part of the pieces of difference information not corresponding to a defect may be outside of the allowable range due to noise, disturbance or the like.\",\n \"In the above-mentioned configuration, in the case where the number of the pieces of difference information outside of the allowable range is smaller than the predetermined number, it is not determined that there is a defect.\",\n \"Therefore, determination error due to noise, disturbance or the like can be prevented.\",\n \"(29) The determiner may perform smoothing of the first image data, may produce first correction image data by subtracting a gradation value of each pixel of first image data after smoothing from a gradation value of each pixel of first image data before smoothing, may perform smoothing of the second image data, may produce second correction image data by subtracting a gradation value of each pixel of second image data after smoothing from a gradation value of each pixel of second image data before smoothing, and may calculate differences between gradation values of pixels of the first correction image data produced based on correspondence relationships corrected by the corrector and gradation values of corresponding pixels of the second correction image data produced based on the correspondence relationships corrected by the corrector as the pieces of difference information for pixels of the first image data and corresponding pixels of the second image data.\",\n \"Normally, a gradation change resulting from a defect and normal structure of the substrate occurs more locally or dispersively than a gradation change resulting from a moire.\",\n \"Therefore, the first and second image data after smoothing include a gradation change resulting from a moire, and does not include a gradation change resulting from a defect in appearance and a gradation change resulting from the surface structure.\",\n \"The first correction image data from which a moire is removed is produced by subtraction of a gradation value of each pixel of the first image data after smoothing from a gradation value of each pixel of the first image data before smoothing.\",\n \"Further, the second correction image data from which a moire is removed is produced by subtraction of a gradation value of each pixel of the second image data after smoothing from a gradation value of each pixel of the second image data before smoothing.\",\n \"The pieces of difference information are calculated based on the first and second correction image data.\",\n \"It is determined whether there is a defect in appearance on the substrate to be inspected based on the pieces of calculated difference information.\",\n \"Therefore, a reduction in detection accuracy due to a moire is prevented, and the appearance inspection for the substrate can be performed with high accuracy.\",\n \"(30) The determiner may perform smoothing of the first and second image data by movement average filter processing.\",\n \"In this case, smoothing of the first and second image data can be easily performed in a short period of time.\",\n \"(31) The determiner may perform smoothing of the first and second image data such that the first and second image data after smoothing includes a gradation change resulting from a moire and does not include a gradation change resulting from a defect in appearance and normal surface structure.\",\n \"In this case, the first and second correction image data that do not include a gradation change resulting from a moire and includes a gradation change resulting from a defect in appearance and normal surface structure can be appropriately produced.\",\n \"(32) The inspector may further include a substrate holding rotator that holds and rotates the substrate, wherein the image data acquirer may include an illuminator that irradiates a radial region extending in a radial direction of the substrate rotated by the substrate holding rotator with light, and a line sensor that receives light reflected by the radial region of the substrate.\",\n \"In this case, the first and second image data can be acquired with a simple configuration.\",\n \"(33) A substrate processor according to yet another aspect of the present invention arranged to be adjacent to an exposer that performs exposure processing on a substrate includes a coater that forms a photosensitive film on a substrate before exposure processing by the exposer, a developer that performs development processing on the photosensitive film on the substrate after the exposure processing by the exposer, and any of the above-mentioned inspector that performs appearance inspection for the substrate after the formation of the photosensitive film by the coater.\",\n \"In the substrate processor, a photosensitive film is formed on the substrate before exposure processing, and development processing is performed on the substrate after the exposure processing.\",\n \"The appearance inspection for the substrate after the formation of a photosensitive film is performed by the above-mentioned inspector.\",\n \"Thus, even in the case where the gradation value of the pixel corresponding to a defective portion is close to the gradation value of the pixel corresponding to a normal portion in the second image data, the defect is distinguished from a normal portion based on the pieces of difference information.\",\n \"Further, in the case where there is a deviation of pixels corresponding to each other between the first and second image data, a defect in appearance on the substrate can be detected with high accuracy.\",\n \"Further, even in the case where local distortion occurs for the substrate to be inspected, a defect in appearance on the substrate can be detected with high accuracy.\",\n \"Thus, the appearance inspection for a photosensitive film on the substrate can be performed with high accuracy.\",\n \"(34) The inspector performs the appearance inspection for the substrate after the formation of the photosensitive film by the coater and after the development processing by the developer.\",\n \"In this case, the appearance inspection for a photosensitive film that has been patterned by the development processing can be performed with high accuracy.\",\n \"Other features, elements, characteristics, and advantages of the present invention will become more apparent from the following description of preferred embodiments of the present invention with reference to the attached drawings.\",\n \"BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE SEVERAL VIEWS OF THE DRAWING FIG.\",\n \"1 is a schematic plan view showing the configuration of a substrate processing apparatus according to a first embodiment; FIG.\",\n \"2 is a schematic side view of the substrate processing apparatus mainly showing a coating processing section, a coating development processing section and a cleaning drying processing section; FIG.\",\n \"3 is a schematic side view of the substrate processing apparatus mainly showing a thermal processing section and the cleaning drying processing section of FIG.\",\n \"1; FIG.\",\n \"4 is a schematic side view mainly showing a transport section of FIG.\",\n \"1; FIG.\",\n \"5 is a schematic side view for explaining the configuration of an inspection unit; FIG.\",\n \"6 is a schematic perspective view for explaining the configuration of the inspection unit; FIGS.\",\n \"7A to 7F are diagrams for explaining production of surface image data; FIG.\",\n \"8 is a diagram showing a surface image of a non-defective sample substrate; FIG.\",\n \"9 is a diagram showing appearance frequency of a gradation value in surface image data of the non-defective sample substrate; FIG.\",\n \"10 is a flow chart of defect determination processing according to the first embodiment; FIG.\",\n \"11 is a flow chart of the defect determination processing according to the first embodiment; FIGS.\",\n \"12A to 12E are diagrams showing a plurality of surface images produced in the defect determination processing; FIG.\",\n \"13 is a flow chart showing a modified example of the defect determination processing according to the first embodiment; FIG.\",\n \"14 is a diagram schematically showing moires that occurs in the surface image; FIG.\",\n \"15 is a flow chart of moire removal processing; FIGS.\",\n \"16A and 16B are diagrams for explaining a change in surface image in the case where the moire removal processing is performed for an inspection substrate; FIGS.\",\n \"17A and 17B are diagrams for explaining a change in surface image in the case where the moire removal processing is performed for the inspection substrate; FIG.\",\n \"18 is a flow chart showing part of the defect determination processing according to a second embodiment; FIGS.\",\n \"19 and 20 are flow charts of the defect determination processing according to a third embodiment; FIGS.\",\n \"21A to 21C are diagrams for explaining difference image data produced with a deviation being present in a correspondence relationship between a pixel of the surface image data of the inspection substrate and a pixel of the surface image data of the sample substrate; FIGS.\",\n \"22A and 22B are diagrams showing variations of determination image data acquired for every inspection substrate; FIG.\",\n \"23 is a flow chart of allowable range setting processing; FIG.\",\n \"24 is a flow chart showing a modified example of the defect determination processing according to a third embodiment; FIG.\",\n \"25 is a flow chart showing part of the defect determination processing according to a fourth embodiment; FIG.\",\n \"26 is a flow chart of the defect determination processing according to a fifth embodiment; FIG.\",\n \"27 is a flow chart of the defect determination processing according to the fifth embodiment; FIGS.\",\n \"28A and 28B are diagrams for explaining an example in which a deviation has occurred in a correspondence relationship between a pixel of a surface image of the sample substrate and a pixel of a surface image of the inspection substrate; FIG.\",\n \"29 is a flow chart of correspondence relationship correction processing; FIGS.\",\n \"30A and 30B are diagrams for conceptually explaining the contents of each processing of the correspondence relationship correction processing of FIG.\",\n \"29; FIG.\",\n \"31 is a diagram for conceptually explaining contents of each processing of the correspondence relationship correction processing of FIG.\",\n \"29; FIG.\",\n \"32 is a diagram for conceptually explaining contents of each processing of the correspondence relationship correction processing of FIG.\",\n \"29; FIGS.\",\n \"33A to 33C are diagrams for conceptually explaining the contents of each processing of the correspondence relationship correction processing of FIG.\",\n \"29; FIG.\",\n \"34 is flow chart showing a modified example of the defect determination processing according to the fifth embodiment; FIGS.\",\n \"35A to 35C are diagrams showing an example in which a relative deviation amount between the first and second unit images is erroneously detected; FIG.\",\n \"36 is a flow chart showing part of the defect determination processing according to a sixth embodiment; FIG.\",\n \"37 is a flow chart of the correspondence relationship correction processing according to a seventh embodiment; FIG.\",\n \"38 is a flow chart of deviation amount optimization processing; FIG.\",\n \"39 is a flow chart of the deviation amount optimization processing; FIGS.\",\n \"40A to 40C are diagrams showing a state of deviation amounts of a plurality of pixels optimized by the deviation amount optimization processing; FIG.\",\n \"41 is a flow chart showing part of defect determination processing according to an eighth embodiment; and FIG.\",\n \"42 is a flow chart showing part of the defect determination processing according to a ninth embodiment.\",\n \"DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS An inspection device and a substrate processing apparatus according to one embodiment of the present invention will be described below with reference to the drawings.\",\n \"In the following description, a substrate refers to a semiconductor substrate, a substrate for a liquid crystal display device, a substrate for a plasma display, a glass substrate for a photomask, a substrate for an optical disc, a substrate for a magnetic disc, a substrate for a magneto-optical disc, a substrate for a photomask or the like.\",\n \"[1] First Embodiment (1) Overall Configuration of Substrate Processing Apparatus FIG.\",\n \"1 is a schematic plan view showing the configuration of the substrate processing apparatus 100 according to the first embodiment.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"1 and subsequently given diagrams are accompanied by arrows that indicate X, Y, and Z directions orthogonal to one another for clarity of a positional relationship.\",\n \"The X and Y directions are orthogonal to each other within a horizontal plane, and the Z direction corresponds to a vertical direction.\",\n \"As shown in FIG.\",\n \"1, the substrate processing apparatus 100 includes an indexer block 11, a first processing block 12, a second processing block 13, a cleaning drying processing block 14A and a carry-in carry-out (indexer) block 14B.\",\n \"An interface block 14 is constituted by the cleaning drying processing block 14A and the carry-in carry-out block 14B.\",\n \"An exposure device 15 is arranged to be adjacent to the carry-in carry-out block 14B.\",\n \"In the exposure device 15, exposure processing is performed on the substrate W using a liquid immersion method.\",\n \"The indexer block 11 includes a plurality of carrier platforms 111 and a transport section (a transport space) 112.In each carrier platform 111, a carrier 113 for storing the plurality of substrates W in multiple stages is placed.\",\n \"A controller 114 and a transport mechanism (a transport robot) 115 are provided in the transport section 112.The controller 114 includes a CPU (Central Processing Unit) and a memory, or a microcomputer, for example, and controls various constituent elements of the substrate processing apparatus 100.The transport mechanism 115 has a hand 116 for holding the substrate W. The transport mechanism 115 holds the substrate W by the hand 116 and transports the substrate W. A main panel PN is provided on a side surface of the transport section 112.The main panel PN is connected to the controller 114.A user can confirm the processing status of the substrate W in the substrate processing apparatus 100 and other pieces of information on the main panel PN.\",\n \"The first processing block 12 includes a coating processing section (a coating processing space) 121, a transport section (a transport processing space) 122 and a thermal processing section (a thermal processing space) 123.The coating processing section 121 and the thermal processing section 123 are provided to be opposite to each other with the transport section 122 sandwiched therebetween.\",\n \"Substrate platform PASS1, and substrate platforms PASS2 to PASS4 (see FIG.\",\n \"4), described below, on which the substrates W are placed are provided between the transport section 122 and the transport section 112.A transport mechanism (a transport robot) 127 and a transport mechanism (a transport robot) 128 (see FIG.\",\n \"4) that is described below, which transport the substrates W, are provided in the transport section 122.The second processing block 13 includes a coating development processing section (a coating development processing space) 131, a transport section (a transport space) 132 and a thermal processing section (a thermal processing space) 133.The coating development processing section 131 and the thermal processing section 133 are provided to be opposite to each other with the transport section 132 sandwiched therebetween.\",\n \"Substrate platform PASS5, and substrate platforms PASS6 to PASS8 (see FIG.\",\n \"4), described below, on which the substrates W are placed are provided between the transport section 132 and the transport section 122.A transport mechanism (a transport robot) 137 and a transport mechanism 138 (a transport robot) (see FIG.\",\n \"4) that is described below, which transport the substrates W, are provided in the transport section 132.The cleaning drying processing block 14A includes cleaning drying processing sections (cleaning drying processing spaces) 161, 162 and a transport section (a transport space) 163.The cleaning drying processing sections 161, 162 are provided to be opposite to each other with the transport section 163 sandwiched therebetween.\",\n \"Transport mechanisms (transport robots) 141, 142 are provided in the transport section 163.A placement buffer unit P-BF1 and a placement buffer unit P-BF2 (see FIG.\",\n \"4) that is described below are provided between the transport section 163 and the transport section 132.Further, a substrate platform PASS9 and placement cooling platforms P-CP (see FIG.\",\n \"4) that are described below are provided to be adjacent to the carry-in carry-out block 14B between the transport mechanisms 141, 142.In the placement cooling platform P-CP, the substrate W is cooled to a temperature suitable for the exposure processing.\",\n \"A transport mechanism (a transport robot) 146 is provided in the carry-in carry-out block 14B.\",\n \"The transport mechanism 146 carries in the substrate W to and carries out the substrate W from the exposure device 15.A substrate inlet 15a for carrying in the substrate W and a substrate outlet 15b for carrying out the substrate W are provided at the exposure device 15.FIG.\",\n \"2 is a schematic side view of the substrate processing apparatus 100 mainly showing the coating processing section 121, the coating development processing section 131 and the cleaning drying processing section 161 of FIG.\",\n \"1.As shown in FIG.\",\n \"2, in the coating processing section 121, coating processing chambers 21, 22, 23, 24 are provided in a stack.\",\n \"In the coating development processing section 131, development processing chambers 31, 33, and coating processing chambers 32, 34 are provided in a stack.\",\n \"In each of the coating processing chambers 21 to 24, 32, 34, a coating processing unit (a coater) 129 is provided.\",\n \"In each of the development processing chambers 31, 33, a development processing unit (a developer) 139 is provided.\",\n \"Each coating processing unit 129 includes spin chucks 25 that hold the substrates W and cups 27 provided to cover the surroundings of the spin chucks 25.In the present embodiment, two pairs of the spin chucks 25 and the cups 27 are provided in each coating processing unit 129.Each spin chuck 25 is driven to be rotated by a driving device that is not shown (an electric motor, for example).\",\n \"Further, as shown in FIG.\",\n \"1, each coating processing unit 129 includes a plurality of coating nozzles 28 that discharge a processing liquid and a nozzle transport mechanism (a nozzle transport robot) 29 that transports these coating nozzles 28.In each coating processing unit 129, any one of the plurality of coating nozzles 28 is moved to a position above the substrate W by the nozzle transport mechanism 29.With the spin chuck 25 being rotated by a driving device (not shown), the processing liquid is discharged from the coating nozzle 28.Thus, the processing liquid is applied to an upper surface of the substrate W. Further, a rinse liquid is discharged to a peripheral portion of the substrate W from an edge rinse nozzle (not shown).\",\n \"Thus, the processing liquid adhering to the peripheral portion of the substrate W is removed.\",\n \"In the present embodiment, in the coating processing unit 129 in each of the coating processing chambers 22, 24, a processing liquid for an anti-reflection film is supplied to the substrate W from the coating nozzle 28.In the coating processing unit 129 in each of the coating processing chambers 21, 23, a processing liquid for a resist film is supplied to the substrate W from the coating nozzle 28.In the coating processing unit 129 in each of the coating processing chambers 32, 34, a processing liquid for a resist cover film is supplied to the substrate W from the coating nozzle 28.As shown in FIG.\",\n \"2, each development processing unit 139 includes spin chucks 35 and cups 37 similarly to the coating processing unit 129.In the present embodiment, three pairs of the spin chucks 35 and the cups 37 are provided in the development processing unit 139.The spin chuck 35 is driven to be rotated by a driving device (not shown) (an electrical motor, for example).\",\n \"Further, as shown in FIG.\",\n \"1, the development processing unit 139 includes two development nozzles 38 that discharge a development liquid and a moving mechanism (a moving robot) 39 that moves the development nozzles 38 in the X direction.\",\n \"In the development processing unit 139, one development nozzle 38 supplies a development liquid to each substrate W while moving in the X direction.\",\n \"Subsequently, the other development nozzle 38 supplies a development liquid to each substrate W while moving.\",\n \"In this case, the development liquid is supplied to the substrate W, so that a resist cover film on the substrate W is removed, and the development processing for the substrate W is performed.\",\n \"A plurality (four in the present example) of cleaning drying processing units CD1 are provided in the cleaning drying processing section 161.In each cleaning drying processing unit CD1, cleaning and drying processing for the substrate W before the exposure processing are performed.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"3 is a schematic side view of the substrate processing apparatus 100 mainly showing the thermal processing sections 123, 133 and the cleaning drying processing section 162 of FIG.\",\n \"1.As shown in FIG.\",\n \"3, the thermal processing section 123 has an upper thermal processing section (an upper thermal processing space) 301 provided above, and a lower thermal processing section (a lower thermal processing space) 302 provided below.\",\n \"In each of the upper thermal processing section 301 and the lower thermal processing section 302, a plurality of thermal processing units PHP, a plurality of adhesion reinforcement processing units PAHP and a plurality of cooling units (a cooling plate) CP are provided.\",\n \"In each thermal processing unit PHP, heating processing and cooling processing for the substrate W are performed.\",\n \"Hereinafter, the heating processing and the cooling processing in the thermal processing unit PHP are simply referred to as thermal processing.\",\n \"In the adhesion reinforcement processing unit PAHP, adhesion reinforcement processing for improving adhesion between the substrate W and the anti-reflection film is performed.\",\n \"Specifically, in the adhesion reinforcement processing unit PAHP, an adhesion reinforcement agent such as HMDS (hexamethyldisilazane) is applied to the substrate W, and the heating processing is performed on the substrate W. In each cooling unit CP, the cooling processing for the substrate W is performed.\",\n \"The thermal processing section 133 has an upper thermal processing section (an upper thermal processing space) 303 provided above and a lower thermal processing section (a lower thermal processing space) 304 provided below.\",\n \"In each of the upper thermal processing section 303 and the lower thermal processing section 304, a cooling unit CP, an edge exposure unit EEW, an inspection unit IP, and a plurality of thermal processing units PHP are provided.\",\n \"In the edge exposure unit EEW, exposure processing (edge exposure processing) for a peripheral portion of the substrate W is performed.\",\n \"In the inspection unit IP, appearance inspection for the substrate W after the development processing is performed.\",\n \"An inspection device (an inspector) is constituted by the inspection unit IP and the controller 114 of FIG.\",\n \"1.Details of the inspection unit IP will be described below.\",\n \"In the upper thermal processing section 303 and the lower thermal processing section 304, each thermal processing unit PHP provided to be adjacent to the cleaning drying processing block 14A is configured to be capable of carrying in the substrate W from the cleaning drying processing block 14A.\",\n \"A plurality (four in the present example) of cleaning drying processing units CD2 are provided in the cleaning drying processing section 162.In each cleaning drying processing unit CD2, the cleaning and drying processing for the substrate W after the exposure processing are performed.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"4 is a schematic side view mainly showing the transport sections 122, 132, 163 of FIG.\",\n \"1.As shown in FIG.\",\n \"4, the transport section 122 has an upper transport chamber 125 and a lower transport chamber 126.The transport section 132 has an upper transport chamber 135 and a lower transport chamber 136.The transport mechanism 127 is provided in the upper transport chamber 125, and the transport mechanism 128 is provided in the lower transport chamber 126.Further, the transport mechanism 137 is provided in the upper transport chamber 135, and the transport mechanism 138 is provided in the lower transport chamber 136.Each of the transport mechanisms 127, 128, 137, 138 has hands H1, H2.Each of the transport mechanisms 127, 128, 137, 138 can hold the substrate W using the hands H1, H2, and transport the substrate W by freely moving the hands H1, H2 in the X and Z directions.\",\n \"The substrate platforms PASS1, PASS2 are provided between the transport section 112 and the upper transport chamber 125, and the substrate platforms PASS3, PASS4 are provided between the transport section 112 and the lower transport chamber 126.The substrate platforms PASS5, PASS6 are provided between the upper transport chamber 125 and the upper transport chamber 135, and the substrate platforms PASS7, PASS8 are provided between the lower transport chamber 126 and the lower transport chamber 136.The placement buffer unit P-BF1 is provided between the upper transport chamber 135 and the transport section 163, and the placement buffer unit P-BF2 is provided between the lower transport chamber 136 and the transport section 163.The substrate platform PASS9 and the plurality of placement cooling platforms P-CP are provided to be adjacent to the interface block 14 in the transport section 163.The transport mechanism 127 is configured to be capable of transporting the substrate W among the substrate platforms PASS1, PASS2, PASS5, PASS6, the coating processing chambers 21, 22 (FIG.\",\n \"2) and the upper thermal processing section 301 (FIG.\",\n \"3).\",\n \"The transport mechanism 128 is configured to be capable of transporting the substrate W among the substrate platforms PASS3, PASS4, PASS7, PASS8, the coating processing chambers 23, 24 (FIG.\",\n \"2) and the lower thermal processing section 302 (FIG.\",\n \"3).\",\n \"The transport mechanism 137 is configured to be capable of transporting the substrate W among the substrate platforms PASS5, PASS6, the placement buffer unit P-BF1, the development processing chamber 31 (FIG.\",\n \"2), the coating processing chamber 32 and the upper thermal processing section 303 (FIG.\",\n \"3).\",\n \"The transport mechanism 138 is configured to be capable of transporting the substrate W among the substrate platforms PASS7, PASS8, the placement buffer unit P-BF2, the development processing chamber 33 (FIG.\",\n \"2), the coating processing chamber 34 and the lower thermal processing section 304 (FIG.\",\n \"3).\",\n \"(2) Configuration of Inspection Units FIGS.\",\n \"5 and 6 are a schematic side view and a schematic perspective view for explaining the configuration of the inspection unit IP.\",\n \"As shown in FIG.\",\n \"5, the inspection unit IP includes a holding rotator 51, an illuminator 52, a reflection mirror 53 and a CCD line sensor 54.The holding rotator 51 includes a spin chuck 511, a rotation shaft 512, and a motor 513.The spin chuck 511 holds the substrate W in a horizontal attitude by sucking substantially the center of a lower surface of the substrate W under vacuum.\",\n \"The rotation shaft 512 and the spin chuck 511 are integrally rotated by the motor 513.Thus, the substrate W held by the spin chuck 511 is rotated about the shaft extending in a vertical direction (the Z direction).\",\n \"In the present example, a surface of the substrate W is directed upward.\",\n \"The surface of the substrate W is the surface of the substrate W on which a circuit pattern is formed.\",\n \"As shown in FIG.\",\n \"6, the illuminator 52 emits strip-shape inspection light.\",\n \"A line region (hereinafter referred to as a radial region) RR extending in a radial direction of the surface of the substrate W held by the spin chuck 511 is irradiated with the inspection light.\",\n \"The inspection light reflected by the radial region RR is further reflected by the reflection mirror 53, and is led to the CCD line sensor 54.The distribution of the light reception amount of the CCD line sensor 54 is equivalent to the distribution of the brightness of the reflected light in the radial region RR.\",\n \"Surface image data of the substrate W is produced based on the distribution of the light reception amount of the CCD line sensor 54.The surface image data shows an image of the surface of the substrate W (hereinafter referred to as a surface image).\",\n \"In the present example, the distribution of the light reception amount of the CCD line sensor 54 is supplied to the controller 114 of FIG.\",\n \"1, and the surface image data is produced by the controller 114.FIGS.\",\n \"7A to 7F are diagrams for explaining the production of surface image data.\",\n \"In FIGS.\",\n \"7A, 7B and 7C, illumination states of the inspection light on the substrate W are sequentially shown.\",\n \"In FIGS.\",\n \"7D, 7E and 7F, the surface images corresponding to the surface image data produced in the states of the FIGS.\",\n \"7A, 7B and 7C are shown.\",\n \"In FIGS.\",\n \"7A to 7C, a dotted pattern is applied to the regions on the substrate W irradiated with the inspection light.\",\n \"As shown in each of FIGS.\",\n \"7A to 7C, the substrate W is rotated while the radial region RR on the substrate W is intermittently irradiated with the inspection light.\",\n \"Thus, the substrate W is successively irradiated with the inspection light in a circumferential direction of the substrate W. When the substrate W is rotated once, the entire surface of the substrate W is irradiated with the inspection light.\",\n \"Based on the distribution of the light reception amount of the CCD line sensor 54 acquired in a period in which the substrate W is rotated once, the surface image data indicating a rectangular surface image SD1 is produced as shown in each of FIGS.\",\n \"7D to 7F.\",\n \"In each of FIGS.\",\n \"7D to 7F, the abscissa of the surface image SD1 corresponds to a position of each pixel of the CCD line sensor 54, and the ordinate of the surface image SD1 corresponds to a rotation angle of the substrate W. In this case, the distribution of the brightness of the reflected light on the surface of the substrate W in the radial direction of the substrate W is shown in a direction of the abscissa of the surface image SD1.Further, the distribution of the brightness of the reflected light on the surface of the substrate Win a circumferential direction of the substrate W is shown in a direction of the ordinate of the surface image SD1.At a time point where the substrate W is rotated once, the distribution of the brightness of the reflected light on the entire surface of the substrate W is acquired as the surface image data indicating one rectangular surface image SD1.The acquired surface image data of the surface image SD1 is corrected to show the surface image in the shape (circular) of the substrate W. The appearance inspection for the substrate W is performed based on the corrected surface image data.\",\n \"In the present embodiment, the appearance inspection for the resist film that has been patterned by the development processing (hereinafter referred to as a resist pattern) is performed.\",\n \"(3) Method of Appearance Inspection The brightness of a normal portion of the surface image of the substrate W can be found based on surface image data of a non-defective sample substrate, for example.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"8 is a diagram showing a surface image of a non-defective sample substrate.\",\n \"In a surface image SD2 of FIG.\",\n \"8, the surface structure of the substrate W including a net-like resist pattern RP is shown.\",\n \"The surface structure of the substrate W does not mean a defect, but means the normally formed structure such as a circuit pattern and a resist pattern.\",\n \"In the present example, the brightness of the surface image SD2 is indicated by a gradation value of each pixel.\",\n \"The higher the gradation value is, the brighter the pixel is.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"9 is a diagram showing the appearance frequency of the gradation value in the surface image data of the non-defective sample substrate.\",\n \"In FIG.\",\n \"9, the abscissa indicates the gradation value, and the ordinate indicates the appearance frequency of each gradation value.\",\n \"As shown in FIG.\",\n \"9, in the present example, a lower limit value of the gradation value in the surface image data is TH1, and an upper limit value of the gradation value in the surface image data is TH2.Two peaks are shown between the lower limit value TH1 and the upper limit value TH2.The peak with a smaller gradation value between the two peaks is mainly based on the gradation value of the resist pattern RP of FIG.\",\n \"8, and the peak with a larger gradation value is mainly based on the gradation value of the surface structure of the substrate W except for the resist pattern RP.\",\n \"Normally, the gradation value of a defect is different from the gradation value of a normal portion.\",\n \"Therefore, as indicated by outlined arrows a1 and dotted lines, it can be determined that there is a defect in appearance on the substrate W in which a gradation value that falls outside of a range between the above-mentioned lower limit value TH1 and upper limit value TH2 is detected.\",\n \"Further, it can be determined that there is no defect in appearance on the substrate W in which a gradation value that falls outside of the range between the lower limit value TH1 and the upper limit value TH2 is not detected.\",\n \"However, depending on a defect formed on the substrate W, as indicated by an outlined arrow a2 and one-dot and dash lines in FIG.\",\n \"9, the gradation value of the pixel corresponding to the defect may be located between the above-mentioned lower limit value TH1 and the upper limit value TH2.In this case, it is determined that there is no defect in appearance by the above-mentioned determination method.\",\n \"In the present embodiment, defect determination processing, described below, is performed by the controller 114 of FIG.\",\n \"1.FIGS.\",\n \"10 and 11 are flow charts of the defect determination processing according to the first embodiment.\",\n \"FIGS.\",\n \"12A to 12E are diagrams showing a plurality of surface images generated in the defect determination processing.\",\n \"In the following description, a substrate W to be inspected is referred to as an inspection substrate W. Inspection is performed in advance with high accuracy before start of the defect determination processing, and the substrate that is determined to be non-defective in the inspection is prepared as a sample substrate.\",\n \"As shown in FIG.\",\n \"10, the controller 114 first acquires the surface image data of the non-defective sample substrate (step S11), and corrects the acquired surface image data to produce a surface image in the shape of the substrate W (step S12).\",\n \"In the present embodiment, the surface image data is acquired by the above-mentioned inspection unit IP.\",\n \"The surface image data may be acquired by another device instead of the inspection unit IP.\",\n \"In FIG.\",\n \"12A, a surface image SD2 of the sample substrate produced by the processing of the step S12 is shown.\",\n \"In the surface image SD2 of FIG.\",\n \"12A, the surface structure of the sample substrate including the resist pattern RP is shown.\",\n \"Next, the controller 114 acquires the surface image data of the inspection substrate W similarly to the processing of the steps S11 and S12 (step S13), and corrects the acquired surface image data to produce the surface image in the shape of the substrate W (step S14).\",\n \"In FIG.\",\n \"12B, a surface image SD3 of the inspection substrate W produced by the processing of the step S14 is shown.\",\n \"In the surface image SD3 of FIG.\",\n \"12B, a defect DP in appearance is shown in addition to the surface structure of the inspection substrate W. In each of the FIG.\",\n \"12B and FIGS.\",\n \"12C, 12D and 12E, described below, an outer edge of the defect DP is indicated by a dotted line in order to facilitate understanding of the shape of the defect DP.\",\n \"Subsequently, as shown in FIG.\",\n \"11, the controller 114 calculates a difference between a gradation value of a pixel of the surface image data of the inspection substrate W and a gradation value of a corresponding pixel of the surface image data of the sample substrate (step S15).\",\n \"More specifically, the controller 114 subtracts a gradation value of each pixel of the surface image SD2 of the sample substrate from a gradation value of each pixel of the surface image SD3 of the inspection substrate W. In this case, a correspondence relationship between the pixel of the surface image SD2 and the pixel of the surface image SD3 can be found by pattern matching between the surface structure of the sample substrate included in the surface image SD2 and the surface structure of the inspection substrate W included in the surface image SD3, for example.\",\n \"Alternatively, the above-mentioned correspondence relationship can be found based on a positional relationship between a cutout (an orientation flat or notch) for positioning that is commonly formed in the sample substrate and the inspection substrate W, and each pixel, for example.\",\n \"In the surface image SD3 of the inspection substrate W, an image similar to the surface structure of the sample substrate included in the surface image SD2 is included together with the image of the defect DP.\",\n \"Therefore, as for the pixel corresponding to a normal portion of the inspection substrate W, a difference acquired by the processing of the step S15 is small.\",\n \"On the one hand, in the case where there is a defect in appearance on the inspection substrate W, as for the pixel corresponding to the defective portion, the above-mentioned difference is large.\",\n \"Thus, a difference in gradation value of the pixel corresponding to a defective portion and a difference in gradation value of the pixel corresponding to a normal portion can be distinguished from each other.\",\n \"In the following description, surface image data made of the differences acquired by the processing of the step S15 is referred to as difference image data.\",\n \"In FIG.\",\n \"12C, a surface image SD4 indicated by the difference image data is shown.\",\n \"In the surface image SD4 of FIG.\",\n \"12C, the brightness of the defect DP is sufficiently darker than the brightness of a normal portion of the inspection substrate W. Next, the controller 114 adds a constant value to a gradation value of each pixel of the difference image data (step S16).\",\n \"Hereinafter, the surface image data after the processing of the step S16 is referred to as determination image data.\",\n \"For example, a center value of a range of gradation values is added to a gradation value of each pixel.\",\n \"Specifically, in the case where gradation values are indicated by numerical values of not less than 0 and not more than 255, 128 is added to a gradation value of each pixel.\",\n \"In FIG.\",\n \"12D, a surface image SD5 indicated by the determination image data is shown.\",\n \"The surface image SD5 of FIG.\",\n \"12D has appropriate brightness.\",\n \"The controller 114 displays the produced surface image SD5 in the main panel PN of FIG.\",\n \"1, for example.\",\n \"In this case, the user can view the surface image SD5 of FIG.\",\n \"12D without an uncomfortable feeling.\",\n \"In the case where the user does not view the surface image SD5, the processing of the above-mentioned step S16 does not have to be performed.\",\n \"Thereafter, the controller 114 determines whether a gradation value of each pixel of the determination image data is in a predetermined allowable range (step S17).\",\n \"In the present embodiment, the allowable range is determined in advance as a parameter specific to the device to include gradation values of pixels corresponding to normal portions of the determination image data, and not to include gradation values of pixels corresponding to defective portions of the determination image data.\",\n \"In the case where a gradation value of each pixel of the determination image data is in the allowable range, the controller 114 determines that there is no defect in appearance on the inspection substrate W (step S18), and ends the defect determination processing.\",\n \"On the one hand, in the case where a gradation value of any pixel is outside of the allowable range, the controller 114 determines that there is a defect in appearance on the inspection substrate W (step S19).\",\n \"Further, the controller 114 detects the defect by extracting one or a plurality of pixels of which a gradation value is outside of the allowable range (step S20), and ends the defect determination processing.\",\n \"In the above-mentioned step S20, as shown in FIG.\",\n \"12E, the controller 114 may produce a surface image SD6 showing the extracted defect DP.\",\n \"Further, the controller 114 may display the produced surface image SD6 in the main panel PN of FIG.\",\n \"1.As described above, a position and a shape of the defect can be identified by the detection of a defect in appearance on the inspection substrate W. For the inspection substrate W that is determined to be defective in the defect determination processing, after the inspection substrate W is carried out from the substrate processing apparatus 100, processing different from the processing for the substrate W that is determined to be non-defective is performed.\",\n \"For example, detailed examination, regeneration processing, or the like is performed on the inspection substrate W that is determined to be defective.\",\n \"(4) Overall Operation of Substrate Processing Apparatus The operation of the substrate processing apparatus 100 will be described with reference to FIGS.\",\n \"1 to 4.The carrier 113 in which the unprocessed substrates W are stored is placed on the carrier platform 111 (FIG.\",\n \"1) in the indexer block 11.The transport mechanism 115 transports the unprocessed substrate W from the carrier 113 to the substrate platform PASS1, PASS3 (FIG.\",\n \"4).\",\n \"Further, the transport mechanism 115 transports the processed substrate W that is placed on the substrate platform PASS2, PASS4 (FIG.\",\n \"4) to the carrier 113.In the first processing block 12, the transport mechanism 127 (FIG.\",\n \"4) sequentially transports the substrate W placed on the substrate platform PASS1 (FIG.\",\n \"4) to the adhesion reinforcement processing unit PAHP (FIG.\",\n \"3), the cooling unit CP (FIG.\",\n \"3), the coating processing chamber 22 (FIG.\",\n \"2), the thermal processing unit PHP (FIG.\",\n \"3), the cooling unit CP (FIG.\",\n \"3), the coating processing chamber 21 (FIG.\",\n \"2), the thermal processing unit PHP (FIG.\",\n \"3) and the substrate platform PASS5 (FIG.\",\n \"4).\",\n \"In this case, after the adhesion reinforcement processing is performed on the substrate W in the adhesion reinforcement processing unit PAHP, the substrate W is cooled to a temperature suitable for formation of the anti-reflection film in the cooling unit CP.\",\n \"Next, an anti-reflection film is formed on the substrate W by the coating processing unit 129 (FIG.\",\n \"2) in the coating processing chamber 22.Subsequently, after the thermal processing for the substrate W is performed in the thermal processing unit PHP, the substrate W is cooled to a temperature suitable for the formation of a resist film in the cooling unit CP.\",\n \"Next, in the coating processing chamber 21, a resist film is formed on the substrate W by the coating processing unit 129 (FIG.\",\n \"2).\",\n \"Thereafter, the thermal processing for the substrate W is performed in the thermal processing unit PHP, and the substrate W is placed on the substrate platform PASS5.Further, the transport mechanism 127 transports the substrate W after the development processing that is placed on the substrate platform PASS6 (FIG.\",\n \"4) to the substrate platform PASS2 (FIG.\",\n \"4).\",\n \"The transport mechanism 128 (FIG.\",\n \"4) sequentially transports the substrate W placed on the substrate platform PASS3 (FIG.\",\n \"4) to the adhesion reinforcement processing unit PAHP (FIG.\",\n \"3), the cooling unit CP (FIG.\",\n \"3), the coating processing chamber 24 (FIG.\",\n \"2), the thermal processing unit PHP (FIG.\",\n \"3), the cooling unit CP (FIG.\",\n \"3), the coating processing chamber 23 (FIG.\",\n \"2), the thermal processing unit PHP (FIG.\",\n \"3), and the substrate platform PASS7 (FIG.\",\n \"4).\",\n \"Further, the transport mechanism 128 (FIG.\",\n \"4) transports the substrate W after the development processing that is placed on the substrate platform PASS8 (FIG.\",\n \"4) to the substrate platform PASS4 (FIG.\",\n \"4).\",\n \"The contents of processing for the substrate W in the coating processing chambers 23, 24 (FIG.\",\n \"2) and the lower thermal processing section 302 (FIG.\",\n \"3) are similar to the contents of processing for the substrate W in the above-mentioned coating processing chambers 21, 22 (FIG.\",\n \"2) and upper thermal processing section 301 (FIG.\",\n \"3).\",\n \"In the second processing block 13, the transport mechanism 137 (FIG.\",\n \"4) sequentially transports the substrate W after the resist film formation that is placed on the substrate platform PASS5 (FIG.\",\n \"4) to the coating processing chamber 32 (FIG.\",\n \"2), the thermal processing unit PHP (FIG.\",\n \"3), the edge exposure unit EEW (FIG.\",\n \"3), and the placement buffer unit P-BF1 (FIG.\",\n \"4).\",\n \"In this case, a resist cover film is formed on the substrate W by the coating processing unit 129 in the coating processing chamber 32.Subsequently, the edge exposure processing for the substrate W is performed in the edge exposure unit EEW after the thermal processing is performed on the substrate W in the thermal processing unit PHP, and the substrate W is placed on the placement buffer unit P-BF1.Further, the transport mechanism 137 (FIG.\",\n \"4) takes out the substrate W after the exposure processing and the thermal processing from the thermal processing unit PHP (FIG.\",\n \"3) adjacent to the cleaning drying processing block 14A, and sequentially transports the substrate W to the cooling unit CP (FIG.\",\n \"3), the development processing chamber 31 (FIG.\",\n \"2), the thermal processing unit PHP (FIG.\",\n \"3), the inspection unit IP (FIG.\",\n \"3), and the substrate platform PASS6 (FIG.\",\n \"4).\",\n \"In this case, after the substrate W is cooled to a temperature suitable for the development processing in the cooling unit CP, the development processing for the substrate W is performed by the development processing unit 139 in the development processing chambers 31.Subsequently, after the thermal processing for the substrate W is performed in the thermal processing unit PHP, the appearance inspection for the substrate W is performed in the inspection unit IP.\",\n \"The substrate W after the appearance inspection is placed on the substrate platform PASS6.The transport mechanism 138 (FIG.\",\n \"4) sequentially transports the substrate W after the resist film formation that is placed on the substrate platform PASS7 (FIG.\",\n \"4) to the coating processing chamber 34 (FIG.\",\n \"2), the thermal processing unit PHP (FIG.\",\n \"3), the edge exposure unit EEW (FIG.\",\n \"3), and the placement buffer unit P-BF2 (FIG.\",\n \"4).\",\n \"Further, the transport mechanism 138 (FIG.\",\n \"4) takes out the substrate W after the exposure processing and the thermal processing from the thermal processing unit PHP (FIG.\",\n \"3) adjacent to the cleaning drying processing block 14A, and sequentially transports the substrate W to the cooling unit CP (FIG.\",\n \"3), the development processing chamber 33 (FIG.\",\n \"2), the thermal processing unit PHP (FIG.\",\n \"3), the inspection unit IP (FIG.\",\n \"3), and the substrate platform PASS8 (FIG.\",\n \"4).\",\n \"The contents of processing for the substrate W in the coating processing chamber 34, the development processing chamber 33 and the lower thermal processing section 304 are similar to the contents of the processing for the substrate W in the above-mentioned coating processing chamber 32, the development processing chamber 31, and the upper thermal processing section 303.In the cleaning drying processing block 14A, the transport mechanism 141 (FIG.\",\n \"1) sequentially transports the substrate W placed on the placement buffer unit P-BF1, P-BF2 (FIG.\",\n \"4) to the cleaning drying processing unit CD1 in the cleaning drying processing section 161 (FIG.\",\n \"2), and the placement cooling platform P-CP (FIG.\",\n \"4).\",\n \"In this case, after the cleaning and drying processing for the substrate W are performed in the cleaning drying processing unit CD1, the substrate W is cooled to a temperature suitable for the exposure processing in the exposure device 15 (FIGS.\",\n \"1 to 3) in the placement cooling platform P-CP.\",\n \"The transport mechanism 142 (FIG.\",\n \"1) transports the substrate W after the exposure processing that is placed on the substrate platform PASS9 (FIG.\",\n \"4) to the cleaning drying processing unit CD2 in the cleaning drying processing section 162 (FIG.\",\n \"3), and transports the substrate W after the cleaning and drying processing from the cleaning drying processing unit CD2 to the thermal processing unit PHP in the upper thermal processing section 303 (FIG.\",\n \"3) or the thermal processing unit PHP in the lower thermal processing section 304 (FIG.\",\n \"3).\",\n \"In this thermal processing unit PHP, the exposure bake (PEB) processing is performed.\",\n \"In the interface block 14, the transport mechanism 146 (FIG.\",\n \"1) transports the substrate W before the exposure processing that is placed on the placement cooling platform P-CP (FIG.\",\n \"4) to the substrate inlet 15a of the exposure device 15 (FIG.\",\n \"1).\",\n \"Further, the transport mechanism 146 (FIG.\",\n \"1) takes out the substrate W after the exposure processing from the substrate outlet 15b of the exposure device 15 (FIG.\",\n \"1), and transports the substrate W to the substrate platform PASS9 (FIG.\",\n \"4).\",\n \"In the case where the exposure device 15 cannot receive the substrate W, the substrate W before the exposure processing is temporarily stored in the placement buffer unit P-BF1, P-BF2.Further, in the case where the development processing unit 139 in the second processing block 13 (FIG.\",\n \"2) cannot receive the substrate W after the exposure processing, the substrate W after the exposure processing is temporarily stored in the placement buffer unit P-BF1, P-BF2.\",\n \"(5) Effects In the defect determination processing according to the first embodiment, the surface image data of the sample substrate with no defect in appearance is acquired, and the surface image data of the inspection substrate W is acquired.\",\n \"For a normal portion of the inspection substrate W, a difference between a gradation value of a pixel of the surface image data of the inspection substrate W and a gradation value of a corresponding pixel of the surface image data of the sample substrate is small.\",\n \"On the one hand, for the pixel corresponding to a defective portion, the above-mentioned difference is large.\",\n \"Therefore, even in the case where a gradation value of the pixel corresponding to a defective portion is close to a gradation value of the pixel corresponding to a normal portion, the above-mentioned difference corresponding to a defective portion is larger than the above-mentioned difference corresponding to a normal portion.\",\n \"A difference between a gradation value of a pixel of the surface image data of the inspection substrate W and a gradation value of a corresponding pixel of the surface image data of the sample substrate is calculated, and the difference image data is produced.\",\n \"Thus, a difference for the pixel corresponding to a defective portion and a difference for the pixel corresponding to a normal portion can be distinguished from each other.\",\n \"Therefore, the allowable range is determined in advance to include differences corresponding to normal portions and not to include differences corresponding to defective portions, whereby it is possible to determine whether there is a defect.\",\n \"As a result, a defect in appearance on the substrate W can be detected with high accuracy.\",\n \"(6) Modified Example of Defect Determination Processing In the step S17 of the above-mentioned defect determination processing, it is determined that there is a defect in appearance on the inspection substrate W in the case where a gradation value of each pixel of the determination image data is outside of the allowable range.\",\n \"However, the present invention is not limited to this.\",\n \"In the determination image data, gradation values of part of the pixels not corresponding to a defect may be outside of the allowable range due to noise, disturbance or the like.\",\n \"In the defect determination processing, the following processing may be performed instead of the processing of the step S17 of FIG.\",\n \"11.FIG.\",\n \"13 is a flow chart showing the modified example of the defect determination processing according to the first embodiment.\",\n \"In the present example, the controller 114 performs the processing of the steps S11 to S16 of FIGS.\",\n \"10 and 11, and then, counts the number of pixels indicating the gradation values outside of the allowable range instead of the processing of the step S17 (step S41).\",\n \"Further, the controller 114 determines whether the counted number is not less than a predetermined number (step S42).\",\n \"Further, in step S42, the controller 114 determines that there is no defect in appearance on the inspection substrate W in the case where the counted number is smaller than the predetermined number (step S18).\",\n \"On the one hand, the controller 114 determines that there is a defect in appearance on the inspection substrate W in the case where the counted number is not less than the predetermined number (step S19).\",\n \"In this case, in the case where the number of pixels indicating the gradation values outside of the allowable range is smaller than the predetermined number, it is not determined that there is a defect.\",\n \"Therefore, determination error due to noise, disturbance or the like can be prevented.\",\n \"[2] Second Embodiment The substrate processing apparatus according to the second embodiment has the same configuration and operation as the substrate processing apparatus 100 according to the first embodiment except for the following point.\",\n \"In the substrate processing apparatus according to the present embodiment, the controller 114 (FIG.\",\n \"1) performs moire removal processing in the above-mentioned defect determination processing.\",\n \"The moire removal processing will be described below.\",\n \"(1) Moire In the defect determination processing, a moire (fringes) may occur in the surface images SD2, SD3 produced by the steps S12 and S14.FIG.\",\n \"14 is a diagram schematically showing moires that have occurred in the surface image SD2.In FIG.\",\n \"14, an example in which a plurality (two in the present example) of moires are present in the surface image SD2 of the sample substrate is shown.\",\n \"Each moire of FIG.\",\n \"14 has a form of a sector, and the brightness successively changes in a circumferential direction.\",\n \"A moire is likely to occur in the case where there is a periodical pattern in the surface image.\",\n \"For the substrate W that is processed in the substrate processing apparatus 100, a plurality of circuit patterns respectively corresponding to a plurality of devices are formed.\",\n \"These circuit patterns have the same configuration as one another.\",\n \"Therefore, the plurality of circuit patterns become a periodical pattern on the substrate W. For example, the resist pattern RP corresponds to a plurality of circuit patterns, and becomes a periodical pattern in the substrate W. Therefore, moires as shown in FIG.\",\n \"14 are likely to occur in the surface images SD2, SD3 of FIGS.\",\n \"12A and 12B including the resist pattern RP.\",\n \"Further, in the process of manufacturing the substrate W, photo lithography processing including the resist film formation processing, the exposure processing, and the development processing, described above, is performed a plurality of number of times on one substrate W. Therefore, except for the initial processing, at least part of the circuit pattern is formed on the substrate W. Even if another film such as a resist film is formed on the circuit pattern, inspection light is transmitted through these films in the inspection unit IP.\",\n \"Thus, a moire sometimes occurs in the surface image due to the circuit pattern that is formed in advance.\",\n \"Further, the circuit pattern of the substrate W has periodicity also in a circumferential direction of the substrate W. As described above, the surface image is produced by irradiation of a constant radial region RR (FIGS.\",\n \"7A to 7C) with the inspection light while the substrate W is rotated, and reception of the reflected light by the CCD line sensor 54.Therefore, a method of producing the surface image with such rotation of the substrate W may be a reason why a moire occurs in the surface image.\",\n \"When a moire occurs in the surface image SD3 of FIG.\",\n \"12B, it may not be possible to distinguish between a defect in appearance on the substrate W and a moire in the surface image SD3.Further, a moire that occurs in the surface image SD2 of FIG.\",\n \"12A and a moire that occurs in the surface image SD3 of FIG.\",\n \"12B may be different from each other.\",\n \"In this case, it becomes necessary to widely set the allowable range in advance such that a gradation value resulting from a moire not a defect is in the allowable range in the step S17 of the defect determination processing (FIG.\",\n \"11).\",\n \"(2) Moire Removal Processing In the present embodiment, during the defect determination processing, the moire removal processing for removing a moire from the surface image SD2 of the sample substrate is performed, and the moire removal processing for removing a moire from the surface image SD3 of the inspection substrate W is performed.\",\n \"In the present example, the controller 114 of FIG.\",\n \"1 performs the moire removal processing.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"15 is a flow chart of the moire removal processing.\",\n \"FIGS.\",\n \"16A to 17B are diagrams for explaining the change of the surface image SD3 in the case where the moire removal processing is performed for the inspection substrate W. In the example of FIGS.\",\n \"15 to 17B, moires are removed from the surface image SD3 of the inspection substrate W having a defect DP in appearance.\",\n \"In FIG.\",\n \"16A, the surface image SD3 before the moire removal processing is shown.\",\n \"In the surface image SD3 of FIG.\",\n \"16A, moires and a defect DP of the inspection substrate W are shown.\",\n \"In each of FIGS.\",\n \"16A, 17A and 17B, described below, an outer edge of the defect DP is indicated by a dotted line in order to facilitate understanding of the shape of the defect DP.\",\n \"Further, as shown in FIG.\",\n \"16A, the surface structure of the inspection substrate W including a net-like resist pattern RP is shown in this surface image SD3.As shown in FIG.\",\n \"15, the controller 114 first performs smoothing of the surface image data (step S1).\",\n \"The smoothing of the surface image data refers to reducing contrast variations of the surface image SD3.For example, the surface image data is smoothed by movement average filter processing.\",\n \"In the movement average filter processing, an average of gradation values is calculated for the specified number of peripheral pixels around a target pixel, and the average value is set as a gradation value of the target pixel.\",\n \"In the present example, all pixels of the surface image SD3 are target pixels, and a gradation value of each pixel is changed to an average value of the peripheral pixels.\",\n \"The number of the peripheral pixels in the movement average filter processing is 100 (in a lateral direction) and 100 (in a longitudinal direction), for example.\",\n \"The number of peripheral pixels in the movement average filter processing may be suitably set according to the presumed magnitude of a defect, the presumed magnitude of a moire, and the like.\",\n \"The surface image data can be easily smoothed in a short period of time by the movement average filter processing.\",\n \"The smoothing of the surface image data may be performed by another smoothing processing such as Gaussian filter processing or Median filter processing instead of the movement average filter processing.\",\n \"In FIG.\",\n \"16B, the surface image SD3 after smoothing in the step S1 of FIG.\",\n \"15 is shown.\",\n \"Variations in gradation value due to a defect and variations in gradation value due to the surface structure of the inspection substrate W occur more locally or more dispersively than variations in gradation value due to a moire.\",\n \"Therefore, variations in gradation value due to a defect and variations in gradation value due to the surface structure of the inspection substrate W are removed by the processing of the step S1.On the one hand, variations in gradation value due to a moire successively occur in a wide range, thereby not being removed by the processing of the step S1.Therefore, in the surface image SD3 of FIG.\",\n \"16B, only moires are shown, and the defect DP and the surface structure of the inspection substrate W are not shown.\",\n \"Then, as shown in FIG.\",\n \"15, the controller 114 subtracts a gradation value of each pixel of the surface image data after smoothing from a gradation value of each pixel of the surface image data before smoothing (step S2).\",\n \"Thus, moires are removed from the surface image SD3.Hereinafter, the surface image data after the processing of the step S2 are referred to as correction image data.\",\n \"In FIG.\",\n \"17A, the surface image SD3 corresponding to the correction image data is shown.\",\n \"In the surface image SD3 of FIG.\",\n \"17A, only the defect DP and the surface structure of the inspection substrate W are shown, and the moires are not shown.\",\n \"Further, the surface image SD3 is overall dark.\",\n \"Next, as shown in FIG.\",\n \"15, the controller 114 adds a constant value to a gradation value of each pixel of the correction image data (step S3).\",\n \"Hereinafter, the surface image data after the processing of the step S3 is referred to as addition image data.\",\n \"For example, a center value of a range of gradation values is added to a gradation value of each pixel similarly to the processing of the step S16 of FIG.\",\n \"11.In FIG.\",\n \"17B, the surface image SD3 corresponding to addition image data is shown.\",\n \"The surface image SD3 of FIG.\",\n \"17B has the appropriate brightness.\",\n \"Thus, the controller 114 ends the moire removal processing.\",\n \"After the moire removal processing is ended, the controller 114 displays the produced surface image SD3 in the main panel PN of FIG.\",\n \"1, for example.\",\n \"Thus, the user can view the surface image SD3 of FIG.\",\n \"17B without an uncomfortable feeling.\",\n \"In the case where the user does not view the surface image SD3, the processing of the above-mentioned step S3 does not have to be performed.\",\n \"While the moire removal processing in the case where moires are removed from the surface image SD3 of the inspection substrate W is described in the examples of FIGS.\",\n \"15 to 17B, processing similar to the above-mentioned example is performed also in the case where moires are removed from the surface image SD2 of the sample substrate.\",\n \"(3) Method of Appearance Inspection FIG.\",\n \"18 is a flow chart showing part of the defect determination processing according to the second embodiment.\",\n \"As shown in FIG.\",\n \"18, after performing the processing of the steps S11 to S14 similarly to the first embodiment, the controller 114 performs the moire removal processing for the surface image SD2 of the sample substrate (step S31).\",\n \"Subsequently, the controller 114 performs the moire removal processing for the surface image SD3 of the inspection substrate W (step S32).\",\n \"Thereafter, the controller 114 performs subsequent processing after the step S15 of FIG.\",\n \"11 based on the surface images SD2, SD3 on which the moire removal processing is performed.\",\n \"(4) Effects In the present embodiment, in the appearance inspection for the substrate W in the inspection unit IP, the moire removal processing is performed for the surface image SD2 of the sample substrate and the surface image SD3 of the inspection substrate W. In the moire removal processing, the acquired surface image data is smoothed, and a gradation value of each pixel of the surface image data after smoothing is subtracted from a gradation value of each pixel of the surface image data before smoothing.\",\n \"Thus, the correction image data from which a moire is removed is produced.\",\n \"The surface images SD2, SD3 from which moires are removed are acquired based on the correction image data.\",\n \"In this case, in the inspection substrate W including the defect DP, it is easy to distinguish the defect DP and the moire from each other.\",\n \"Further, in the step S16 of the defect determination processing, an occurrence of variations in gradation value resulting from the moire in the determination image data is prevented.\",\n \"Therefore, it is not necessary to consider the variations in gradation value resulting from the moire, so that an allowable range used in the step S17 is prevented from being wide.\",\n \"Thus, presence and absence of a defect in appearance can be accurately determined.\",\n \"[3] Third Embodiment The substrate processing apparatus according to the third embodiment has the same configuration and operation as the substrate processing apparatus 100 according to the first embodiment except for the following point.\",\n \"In the substrate processing apparatus according to the present embodiment, the defect determination processing performed by the controller 114 (FIG.\",\n \"1) is partially different from the defect determination processing performed in the first embodiment.\",\n \"(1) Method of Appearance Inspection FIGS.\",\n \"19 and 20 are flow charts of the defect determination processing according to the third embodiment.\",\n \"Also in the present embodiment, inspection is performed in advance with high accuracy before the start of the defect determination processing, and the substrate that is determined to be non-defective in the inspection is prepared as a sample substrate.\",\n \"As shown in FIG.\",\n \"19, the controller 114 first acquires the surface image data of the non-defective sample substrate (step S111), and corrects the acquired surface image data to produce a surface image in the shape of the substrate W (step S112).\",\n \"In the present embodiment, the surface image data is acquired by the above-mentioned inspection unit IP.\",\n \"The surface image data may be acquired by another device instead of the inspection unit IP.\",\n \"In this case, the surface image SD2 of FIG.\",\n \"12A is acquired, for example.\",\n \"Subsequently, the controller 114 performs allowable range setting processing based on the corrected surface image data of the sample substrate (step S113).\",\n \"In the allowable range setting processing, an allowable range used in processing of the step S118, described below, is set.\",\n \"The details of the allowable range setting processing will be described below.\",\n \"Then, the controller 114 acquires the surface image data of the inspection substrate W (step S114), and corrects the acquired surface image data to produce the surface image in a shape of the substrate W (step S115), similarly to the processing of the steps S111 and S112.In this case, the surface image SD3 of FIG.\",\n \"12B is acquired, for example.\",\n \"Then, as shown in FIG.\",\n \"20, the controller 114 calculates a difference between a gradation value of a pixel of the surface image data of the inspection substrate W and a gradation value of a pixel of the surface image data of the sample substrate, the pixels of the surface image data of the inspection substrate W and the sample substrate being considered to correspond to each other (step S116).\",\n \"More specifically, the controller 114 subtracts a gradation value of each pixel of the surface image SD2 from a gradation value of each pixel of the surface image SD3, the pixels of the surface images SD2, SD3 being considered to correspond to each other.\",\n \"In this case, the pixel of the surface image data SD2 and the pixel of the surface image data SD3, the pixels of the surface image data SD2, SD3 being considered to correspond to each other, are found by pattern matching between the surface structure of the sample substrate included in the surface image SD2 and the surface structure of the inspection substrate W included in the surface image SD3, for example.\",\n \"Alternatively, the pixel of the surface image SD2 and the pixel of the surface image SD3, the pixels of the surface images SD2, SD3 being considered to correspond to each other, are found based on a positional relationship between a cutout for positioning of each of the sample substrate and the inspection substrate W and each pixel of the CCD line sensor 54 of FIG.\",\n \"6, for example.\",\n \"A cutout is an orientation flat or a notch, for example.\",\n \"For the surface image SD3 of the inspection substrate W, an image of a defect DP and an image similar to the surface structure of the sample substrate included in the surface image SD2 is included.\",\n \"Therefore, as for a pixel corresponding to a normal portion of the inspection substrate W, a difference acquired by the processing of the step S116 is small.\",\n \"On the one hand, in the case where a defect in appearance is present for the inspection substrate W, as for a pixel corresponding to a defective portion, the above-mentioned difference is large.\",\n \"Thus, a difference in gradation value for the pixel corresponding to a defective portion, and a difference in gradation value for the pixel corresponding to a normal portion can be distinguished from each other.\",\n \"In the following description, the surface image data made of the differences acquired by the processing of the step S116 is referred to as difference image data.\",\n \"In this case, the surface image SD4 of FIG.\",\n \"12C is acquired based on the difference image data, for example.\",\n \"Next, the controller 114 adds a constant value to a gradation value of each pixel of the difference image data (step S117).\",\n \"Hereinafter, the surface image data after the processing of the step S117 is referred to as determination image data.\",\n \"For example, a center value of a range of gradation values is added to a gradation value of each pixel.\",\n \"Specifically, in the case where the gradation values are indicated by numerical values of not less than 0 and not more than 255, 128 is added to a gradation value of each pixel.\",\n \"In this case, the surface image SD5 of FIG.\",\n \"12D is acquired based on the determination image data, for example.\",\n \"The controller 114 displays the produced surface image SD5 in the main panel PN of FIG.\",\n \"1, for example.\",\n \"In this case, the user can view the surface image SD5 of FIG.\",\n \"12D without an uncomfortable feeling.\",\n \"In the case where the user does not view the surface image SD5, the above-mentioned processing of the step S117 does not have to be performed.\",\n \"Thereafter, the controller 114 determines whether a gradation value of each pixel of the determination image data is in the allowable range set in the allowable range setting processing of the step S113 (step S118).\",\n \"In the present embodiment, the allowable range is basically set to include gradation values of pixels of the determination image data corresponding to normal portions, and not to include gradation values of pixels of the determination image data corresponding to defective portions.\",\n \"In the case where a gradation value of each pixel of the determination image data is in the allowable range, the controller 114 determines that there is no defect in appearance on the inspection substrate W (step S119), and ends the defect determination processing.\",\n \"On the one hand, in the case where a gradation value of any pixel is outside of the allowable range, the controller 114 determines that there is a defect in appearance on the inspection substrate W (step S120).\",\n \"Further, the controller 114 detects the defect by extracting one or a plurality of pixels of which a gradation value is outside of the allowable range (step S121), and ends the defect determination processing.\",\n \"In the above-mentioned step S121, the controller 114 may produce the surface image SD6 indicating the extracted defect DP as shown in FIG.\",\n \"12E.\",\n \"Further, the controller 114 may display the produced surface image SD6 in the main panel PN of FIG.\",\n \"1.As described above, the position and the shape of the defect can be identified by detection of a defect in appearance on the inspection substrate W. For the inspection substrate W that is determined to be defective in the defect determination processing, after the inspection substrate W is carried out from the substrate processing apparatus 100, different processing from the processing for the substrate W that is determined to be non-defective is performed, for example.\",\n \"For the inspection substrate W that is determined to be defective, detailed inspection, regeneration processing or the like is performed.\",\n \"(2) Allowable Range Setting Processing As described above, in the processing of the step S116 of the defect determination processing, a difference between a gradation value of the pixel of the surface image data of the inspection substrate W and a gradation value of the pixel of the surface image data of the sample substrate, the pixels of the surface image data of the inspection substrate W and the sample substrate being considered to correspond to each other, is calculated.\",\n \"At this time, the pixel of the surface image data of the inspection substrate W considered to correspond to the pixel of the surface image data of the sample substrate sometimes deviates from the truly corresponding pixel.\",\n \"Such a deviation in a correspondence relationship between the pixels occurs due to an arrangement condition of the inspection substrate W at the time of production of the surface image data or the surface structure of the inspection substrate W, for example.\",\n \"FIGS.\",\n \"21A to 21C are diagrams for explaining difference image data produced with a deviation being present in a correspondence relationship between the pixel of the surface image data of the inspection substrate W and the pixel of the surface image data of the sample substrate.\",\n \"A partially enlarged diagram of the surface image SD2 of the sample substrate is shown in FIG.\",\n \"21A.\",\n \"A partially enlarged diagram of the surface image SD3 of the inspection substrate W considered to correspond to the surface image SD2 of FIG.\",\n \"21A is shown in FIG.\",\n \"21B.\",\n \"The surface image SD4 showing differences between the surface images SD2, SD3 of FIGS.\",\n \"21A and 21B is shown in FIG.\",\n \"21C.\",\n \"In FIGS.\",\n \"21A to 21C, pixels on the surface image are indicated by dotted lines.\",\n \"Further, in the surface image SD4 of FIG.\",\n \"21C, pixels having differences (a gradation value) of 0 are indicated in white, and pixels having differences (gradation value) of other than 0 are indicated by a dotted pattern.\",\n \"Assuming that correspondence relationship between each set of pixels of the surface image data of the inspection substrate W and the pixel of the surface image data of the sample substrate is accurate, it is considered that a difference between a gradation value of a pixel of the surface image data of the inspection substrate W and a gradation value of a corresponding pixel of the surface image data of the sample substrate is ideally 0 for a normal portion.\",\n \"However, in the example of FIGS.\",\n \"21A and 21B, each pixel of the surface image SD3 considered to correspond to each pixel of the surface image SD2 deviates by one pixel from the actual corresponding pixel in the longitudinal direction and the lateral direction.\",\n \"In this case, as shown in FIG.\",\n \"21C, a difference (a gradation value) is not 0 for part of the pixels in the surface image SD4.Therefore, in the case where similar defect determination processing is performed for a plurality of inspection substrates W, a difference may occur in the determination image data for normal portions acquired for every inspection substrate W. FIGS.\",\n \"22A and 22B are diagrams showing variations in determination image data acquired for every inspection substrate W. In FIG.\",\n \"22A, one example of the surface image SD5 of the determination image data produced with a deviation not being present in the correspondence relationship between the pixels is shown.\",\n \"In FIG.\",\n \"22B, one example of the surface image SD5 of the determination image data generated with a deviation being present in the correspondence relationship between the pixels is shown.\",\n \"As shown in FIG.\",\n \"22A, a resist pattern RP does not appear in the surface image SD5 produced with a deviation not being present in the correspondence relationship between the pixels.\",\n \"On the one hand, as shown in FIG.\",\n \"22B, part of the resist pattern RP appears in the surface image SD5 that is produced with a deviation being present in the correspondence relationship between the pixels.\",\n \"In this case, it becomes necessary to largely set the allowable range such that a gradation value of the determination image data corresponding to the normal surface structure is in the allowable range even with a deviation being present in the correspondence relationship between the pixels.\",\n \"Thus, determination error resulting from the deviation in correspondence relationship between the pixels can be prevented.\",\n \"On the one hand, when the allowable range is set excessively large, detection accuracy for a defect is reduced.\",\n \"In the present embodiment, allowable range setting processing, described below, is performed in order to appropriately set the allowable range while a deviation in correspondence relationship between the surface image data of the inspection substrate W and the surface image data of the sample substrate is considered.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"23 is a flow chart of the allowable range setting processing.\",\n \"In the present example, N pixels of the surface image SD2 (FIG.\",\n \"12A) of the sample substrate produced in the step S112 of FIG.\",\n \"19 are determined as target pixels in advance.\",\n \"N indicates the number not less than 2 and not more than the number of all pixels of the surface image data of the sample substrate.\",\n \"In the present embodiment, N is the number of all pixels of the surface image data.\",\n \"As shown in FIG.\",\n \"23, the controller 114 calculates differences between a gradation value of an i-th (i is a natural number) target pixel and gradation values of a plurality of pixels in a constant region including the target pixel of the surface image data of the sample substrate (step S101).\",\n \"An initial value of the variable i is 1.The constant region is set to include the constant number of pixels from the target pixel with the target pixel being the center, for example.\",\n \"It is considered that a plurality of differences calculated in the step S101 are substantially equivalent to the differences in gradation value calculated with a deviation being present in the correspondence relationship between the sample substrate and the inspection substrate W regarding the i-th target pixel in the case where the inspection substrate W is non-defective.\",\n \"The controller 114 determines an average value of the calculated differences in gradation value as a representative value corresponding to the i-th target pixel (step S102).\",\n \"In the case where there is a deviation in correspondence relationship between the pixels, and a portion of the inspection substrate W considered to correspond to the i-th target pixel is normal, the determined representative value represents a difference in gradation value to be calculated as the difference image data.\",\n \"In the case where each pixel of the surface image data of the sample substrate is indicated by a plane coordinate system made of an x axis and a y axis, a constant region is set to include 9 pixels located at coordinates (a−1, b−1), (a−1, b), (a−1, b+1), (a, b−1), (a, b), (a, b+1), (a+1, b−1), (a+1, b), and (a+1, b+1) around the coordinates (a, b) of the target pixel, for example.\",\n \"In this case, letting a gradation value of the target pixel of the coordinates (u,v) be expressed by P(u, v), representative value P′(a, b) determined by the processing of the steps S101 and S102 can be expressed by a following formula (1), for example.\",\n \"P′(a,b)=[{(a−1,b−1)+P(a−1,b)+P(a−1,b+1)+P(a,b−1)+P(a,b)+P(a,b+1)+P(a+1,b−1)+P(a+1,b)+P(a+1,b+1)}−P(a,b)×9]/9 (1) As for the pixel of the coordinates (a, b) in the inspection substrate W, the above-mentioned representative value P′(a, b) represents a gradation value of the difference image data that may be calculated with a deviation of 1 pixel being present in the correspondence relationship.\",\n \"After the representative value corresponding to the i-th target pixel is determined as describe above, the controller 114 determines whether a value of the variable i is N (step S103).\",\n \"In the case where the variable i is not N, the controller 114 adds 1 to the variable i (step S104), and proceeds to the processing of the step S101.Thus, the controller 114 determines a representative value corresponding to the next target pixel.\",\n \"On the one hand, in the case where the variable i is N, the controller 114 adds a constant value to all of the calculated representative values (step S105).\",\n \"Hereinafter, the representative value to which a constant value is added in the step S105 is referred to as an addition representative value.\",\n \"A value added to the representative value in the step S105 is equal to the value added to a gradation value of each pixel of the difference image data in the step S117 of FIG.\",\n \"20.In the case where the processing of the step S117 is not preformed, the processing of the present step S105 is not performed either.\",\n \"Thereafter, the controller 114 sets a minimum value and a maximum value of the calculated addition representative values as a lower limit value and an upper limit value of the allowable range, respectively (step S106).\",\n \"In the case where the processing of the above-mentioned steps S117 and S105 is not performed, a minimum value and a maximum value of the N representative values calculated in the processing of the steps S101 to S104 are set as a lower limit value and an upper limit value of the allowable range, respectively.\",\n \"Thereafter, the allowable range setting processing is ended.\",\n \"At the time of the end of the allowable range setting processing, the variable i is reset to the initial value 1.The controller 114 may allow the variable i to be 1 after the start of the allowable range setting processing and before the processing of the step S101 instead of setting of the variable i to 1 at the time of the end of the allowable range setting processing.\",\n \"The allowable range is set in this manner.\",\n \"Thus, as for a normal portion, the calculated gradation value of the determination image data is less likely to fall outside of the allowable range due to a deviation in correspondence relationship between the pixels.\",\n \"Therefore, a normal portion is less likely to be erroneously determined to be defective.\",\n \"Further, a lower limit value and an upper limit value of the allowable range are limited to a minimum value and a maximum value of the addition representative values.\",\n \"Thus, as for a defective portion, the calculated gradation value of the determination image data is less likely to be included in the allowable range due to a deviation in correspondence relationship between the pixels.\",\n \"Therefore, a defective portion is less likely to be erroneously determined to be normal.\",\n \"As a result, even in the case where there is a deviation in correspondence relationship between the surface image data of the inspection substrate W and the surface image data of the sample substrate, a defect in appearance on the inspection substrate W can be detected with high accuracy.\",\n \"In the above-mentioned step S102, any of a minimum value, a center value and a maximum value among the calculated differences in gradation value may be determined as a representative value corresponding to the i-th target pixel instead of an average value of the calculated differences in gradation value.\",\n \"In this manner, the representative value determined in the step S102 may be set to any value of the average value, the minimum value, the center value, the maximum value and the like as long as being in a range from the minimum value to the maximum value of the plurality of gradation values.\",\n \"In this case, a desired allowable range can be appropriately set according to a determination condition for a defect and the like.\",\n \"As for the pixel corresponding to a normal portion, a gradation value of the determination image data may be smaller than the minimum value of the addition representative values due to noise, disturbance or the like.\",\n \"Further, as for the pixel corresponding to a normal portion, a gradation value of the determination image data may be larger than the maximum value of the addition representative values.\",\n \"The controller 114 may perform the following processing in the processing of the step S106 instead of the respective setting of a minimum value and a maximum value of the addition representative values to a lower limit value and an upper limit value of the allowable range.\",\n \"For example, the controller 114 sets a first value smaller than the minimum value of the addition representative values by a predetermined value as the lower limit value of the allowable range, and sets a second value larger than the maximum value of the addition representative values by a predetermined value as the upper limit value of the allowable range.\",\n \"Thus, even in the case where a gradation value of the determination image data is smaller than the minimum value of the addition representative values for the pixel corresponding to a normal portion, determination error does not occur when the gradation value is not less than the first value.\",\n \"Further, even in the case where a gradation value of the determination image data is larger than the maximum value of the addition representative values for the pixel corresponding to a normal portion, determination error does not occur when the gradation value is not more than the second value.\",\n \"As a result, determination error resulting from noise, disturbance or the like can be prevented.\",\n \"(3) Effects In the defect determination processing according to the third embodiment, the surface image data of the sample substrate with no defect in appearance is acquired, and the surface image data of the inspection substrate W is acquired.\",\n \"As for a normal portion of the inspection substrate W, a difference between a gradation value of a pixel of the surface image data of the inspection substrate W and a gradation value of a corresponding pixel of the surface image data the sample substrate is small.\",\n \"On the one hand, as for the pixel corresponding to a defective portion, the above-mentioned difference is large.\",\n \"Therefore, even in the case where the gradation value of the pixel corresponding to a defective portion is close to the gradation value of the pixel corresponding to a normal portion, the above-mentioned difference corresponding to a defective portion is larger than the above-mentioned difference corresponding to a normal portion.\",\n \"A difference between a gradation value of a pixel of the surface image data of the inspection substrate W and a gradation value of a pixel of the surface image data of the sample substrate, the pixels of the surface image data of the inspection substrate W and the sample substrate being considered to correspond to each other, is calculated, and the difference image data is produced.\",\n \"Thus, a difference for the pixel considered to correspond to a defective portion and a difference for the pixel corresponding to a normal portion can be distinguished from each other.\",\n \"Therefore, the allowable range is determined in advance to include the differences corresponding to normal portions and not to include the differences corresponding to defective portions, whereby it is possible to determine whether there is a defect.\",\n \"The pixel of the inspection substrate W considered to correspond to one pixel of the sample substrate sometimes deviates from the truly corresponding pixel.\",\n \"In this case, when the allowable range is set, assuming that the correspondence relationship between the surface image data of the sample substrate and the surface image data of the inspection substrate W is accurate, the determination image data corresponding to normal portions may fall outside of the allowable range.\",\n \"Therefore, it becomes necessary to largely set the allowable range in order to prevent determination error resulting from a deviation.\",\n \"On the one hand, when the allowable range is set excessively largely, detection accuracy for a defect is reduced.\",\n \"In the present embodiment, as for each of the plurality of target pixels of the sample substrate, a difference between a gradation value of the target pixel and gradation values of the plurality of pixels in a constant region including the target pixel is calculated.\",\n \"In this case, it is considered that the plurality of differences calculated for each target pixel are substantially equivalent to the differences in gradation value calculated with a deviation being present in the correspondence relationship between the surface image data of the sample substrate and the surface image data of the inspection substrate W, in the case where there is no defect for the inspection substrate W. An average value of a plurality of differences is determined as a representative value based on the plurality of differences calculated for each target pixel.\",\n \"In this case, when there is a deviation in correspondence relationship between the pixels, the representative value for each target pixel represents a difference in gradation value to be calculated in the case where a portion corresponding to each target pixel is normal.\",\n \"Therefore, a minimum value and a maximum value of the plurality of addition representative values determined for the plurality of target pixels of the surface image data of the sample substrate are set as a lower limit value and an upper limit value of the allowable range, respectively.\",\n \"Thus, as for a normal portion, the determination image data calculated with a deviation being present in the correspondence relationship between pixels is less likely to fall outside of the allowable range.\",\n \"Therefore, a normal portion is less likely to be erroneously determined to be defective.\",\n \"Further, a lower limit value and an upper limit value of the allowable range are limited to a minimum value and a maximum value of the addition representative values.\",\n \"Thus, as for a defective portion, the determination image data calculated with a deviation being present in the correspondence relationship between the pixels is less likely to be included in the allowable range.\",\n \"Therefore, a defective portion is less likely to be erroneously determined to be normal.\",\n \"As a result, even in the case where there is a deviation between the pixel of the surface image data of the sample substrate and the corresponding pixel of the surface image data of the inspection substrate W, a defect in appearance on the inspection substrate W can be detected with high accuracy.\",\n \"(4) Modified Example of Defect Determination Processing In the step S118 of the above-mentioned defect determination processing, it is determined that there is a defect in appearance on the inspection substrate W in the case where a gradation value of each pixel of the determination image data is outside of the allowable range.\",\n \"However, the present invention is not limited to this.\",\n \"In the determination image data, gradation values of part of pixels not corresponding to a defect may be outside of the allowable range due to noise, disturbance or the like.\",\n \"In the defect determination processing, following processing may be performed instead of the processing of the step S118 of FIG.\",\n \"20.FIG.\",\n \"24 is a flow chart showing the modified example of the defect determination processing according to the third embodiment.\",\n \"In the present example, after performing the processing of the steps S111 to S117 of FIGS.\",\n \"19 and 20, the controller 114 counts the number of pixels indicating the gradation values outside of the allowable range instead of the processing of the step S118 (step S141).\",\n \"Further, the controller 114 determines whether the counted number is not less than a predetermined number (step S142).\",\n \"Further, in the step S142, the controller 114 determines that there is no defect in appearance on the inspection substrate W in the case where the counted number is smaller than the predetermined number (step S119).\",\n \"On the one hand, the controller 114 determines that there is a defect in appearance on the inspection substrate W in the case where the counted number is not less than the predetermined number (step S120), and detects a defect (step S121).\",\n \"In this case, in the case where the number of the pixels indicating gradation values outside of the allowable range is smaller than the predetermine number, it is not determined that there is a defect.\",\n \"Therefore, determination error due to noise, disturbance or the like can be prevented.\",\n \"[4] Fourth Embodiment The substrate processing apparatus according to the fourth embodiment has the same configuration and operation as the substrate processing apparatus according to the third embodiment expect for the following point.\",\n \"In the substrate processing apparatus according to the present embodiment, the controller 114 (FIG.\",\n \"1) performs the moire removal processing of FIG.\",\n \"15 according to the second embodiment in the defect determination processing.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"25 is a flow chart showing part of the defect determination processing according to the fourth embodiment.\",\n \"As shown in FIG.\",\n \"25, after performing the processing of the steps S111 to S115 of FIG.\",\n \"19 similarly to the third embodiment, the controller 114 performs the moire removal processing of the surface image SD2 of the sample substrate (step S131).\",\n \"Subsequently, the controller 114 performs the moire removal processing for the surface image SD3 of the inspection substrate W (step S132).\",\n \"Thereafter, the controller 114 performs the subsequent processing after the step S116 of FIG.\",\n \"20 based on the surface images SD2, SD3 on which the moire removal processing is performed.\",\n \"In the preset embodiment, the moire removal processing is performed for the surface image SD2 of the sample substrate and the surface image SD3 of the inspection substrate W. In the moire removal processing, the acquired surface image data is smoothed, and a gradation value of each pixel of the surface image data after smoothing is subtracted from a gradation value of each pixel of the surface image data before smoothing.\",\n \"Thus, the corrected image data from which a moire is removed is produced.\",\n \"The surface images SD2, SD3 from which moires are removed are acquired based on the corrected image data.\",\n \"In this case, in the inspection substrate W including a defect DP, it is easy to distinguish the defect DP and a moire from each other.\",\n \"Further, in the steps S116 and S117, an occurrence of variations in gradation value resulting from a moire in the difference image data and the determination image data is prevented.\",\n \"Thus, it is not necessary to widely set the allowable range to include variations in gradation value resulting from a moire.\",\n \"Therefore, a defect in appearance on the inspection substrate W can be detected with higher accuracy.\",\n \"[5] Fifth Embodiment The substrate processing apparatus according to the fifth embodiment has the same configuration and operation as the substrate processing substrate 100 according to the first embodiment except for the following point.\",\n \"In the substrate processing apparatus according to the present embodiment, the defect determination processing performed by the controller 114 (FIG.\",\n \"1) is partially different from the defect determination processing performed in the first embodiment.\",\n \"In the appearance inspection for the substrate W in the inspection unit IP, the substrate W is positioned on the spin chuck 511 (FIG.\",\n \"5) in a predetermined attitude.\",\n \"Further, irradiation timing with the inspection light, acquisition timing of the surface image data or the like is controlled based on a cutout (an orientation flat or notch) for positioning that is formed in advance at the substrate W. Thus, in the inspection unit IP, the surface image data of a plurality of substrates W is acquired under a common condition.\",\n \"(1) Method of Appearance Inspection FIGS.\",\n \"26 and 27 are flow charts of the defect determination processing according to the fifth embodiment.\",\n \"Also in the present embodiment, before the start of the defect determination processing, the inspection is performed in advance with high accuracy, and the substrate that is determined to be non-defective in the inspection is prepared as a sample substrate.\",\n \"Further, in the present embodiment, the sample substrate has no distortion.\",\n \"As shown in FIG.\",\n \"26, the controller 114 acquires the surface image data of the non-defective sample substrate (step S211), and corrects the acquired surface image data to produce a surface image in the shape of the substrate W (step S212).\",\n \"In the present embodiment, the surface image data is acquired by the above-mentioned inspection unit IP.\",\n \"The surface image data may be acquired by another device instead of the inspection unit IP.\",\n \"In this case, the surface image SD2 of FIG.\",\n \"12A is acquired, for example.\",\n \"Next, similarly to the processing of the steps S211 and S212, the controller 114 acquires the surface image data of the inspection substrate W (step S213), and corrects the acquired surface image data to produce the surface image in the shape of the substrate W (step S214).\",\n \"In this case, the surface image SD3 of FIG.\",\n \"12B is acquired, for example.\",\n \"The position of each pixel of the surface image data of the sample substrate and the inspection substrate W acquired under the common condition by the inspection unit IP can be indicated by a two-dimensional coordinate system specific to the device, for example.\",\n \"In the present embodiment, the two-dimensional coordinate system specific to the device is an xy coordinate system having an x axis and a y axis orthogonal to each other.\",\n \"In this case, it is considered that the pixels located at positions of the same coordinates of the surface images SD2, SD3 ideally correspond to each other.\",\n \"However, non-defective local distortion sometimes occurs in the inspection substrate W. Such distortion occurs due to thermal processing, for example.\",\n \"In this case, the position of the pixel of the surface image SD3 of the inspection substrate W corresponding to the distortion deviates from the position of the truly corresponding pixel of the surface image SD2 of the sample substrate.\",\n \"FIGS.\",\n \"28A and 28B are diagrams for explaining an example in which a deviation is present in the correspondence relationship between the pixel of the surface image SD2 of the sample substrate and the pixel of the surface image SD3 of the inspection substrate W. An enlarged diagram of a partial region of the surface image SD2 is shown in FIG.\",\n \"28A.\",\n \"An enlarged diagram of a partial region of the surface image SD3 at position of the same coordinates of the surface image SD2 of FIG.\",\n \"28A (the position of the same coordinates) is shown in FIG.\",\n \"28B.\",\n \"In FIGS.\",\n \"28A and 28B, the plurality of pixels on the surface images SD2, SD3 are shown by dotted lines.\",\n \"In the present example, as indicated by thick arrows in FIG.\",\n \"28B, each pixel of the surface image SD3 truly corresponding to each pixel of the surface image SD2 deviates by one pixel from the position at which the pixel is supposed to be located (the position of the same coordinates as each pixel of the surface image SD2) in the x direction and the y direction.\",\n \"In this manner, when the subsequent steps S216 to S221 are performed with a deviation being present in the correspondence relationship between the pixel of the surface image SD2 of the inspection substrate W and the pixel of the surface image SD3 of the sample substrate, presence or absence of a defect may not be accurately determined.\",\n \"The controller 114 performs correspondence relationship correction processing in order to resolve a deviation that occurs in correspondence relationship between each set of pixels of the surface images SD2, SD3 of the sample substrate and the inspection substrate W, as shown in FIG.\",\n \"26 (step S215).\",\n \"Details of the correspondence relationship correction processing will be described below.\",\n \"Then, the controller 114 calculates a difference between a gradation value of a pixel of the surface image data of the sample substrate and a gradation value a corresponding pixel of the surface image data of the inspection substrate W (step S216), as shown in FIG.\",\n \"27.More specifically, the controller 114 subtracts a gradation value of each pixel of the surface image SD2 of the sample substrate from a gradation value of a pixel of the surface image SD3 of the inspection substrate W corresponding to the pixel based on the correspondence relationship corrected by the correspondence relationship correction processing.\",\n \"In the surface image SD3 of the inspection substrate W, an image similar to the surface structure of the sample substrate included in the surface image SD2 is included in addition to the image of a defect DP.\",\n \"Therefore, as for the pixel corresponding to a normal portion of the inspection substrate W, a difference acquired by the processing of the step S216 is small.\",\n \"On the one hand, in the case where there is a defect in appearance on the inspection substrate W, as for the pixel corresponding to a defective portion, the above-mentioned difference is large.\",\n \"Thus, a difference in gradation value for the pixel corresponding to a defective portion and a difference in gradation value for the pixel corresponding to a normal portion can be distinguished from each other.\",\n \"In the following description, the surface image data made of differences acquired by the processing of the step S216 is referred to as difference image data.\",\n \"In this case, the surface image SD4 of FIG.\",\n \"12C is acquired based on the difference image data, for example.\",\n \"Next, the controller 114 adds a constant value to a gradation value of each pixel of the difference image data (step S217).\",\n \"Hereinafter, the surface image data after the processing of the step S217 is referred to as determination image data.\",\n \"For example, a center value of the range of the gradation values is added to a gradation value of each pixel.\",\n \"For example, in the case where the gradation values are indicated by numerical values of not less than 0 and not more than 255, 128 is added to a gradation value of each pixel.\",\n \"In this case, the surface image SD5 of FIG.\",\n \"12D is acquired based on the determination image data, for example.\",\n \"The controller 114 displays the produced surface image SD5 in the main panel PN of FIG.\",\n \"1, for example.\",\n \"In this case, the user can view the surface image SD5 of FIG.\",\n \"12D without an uncomfortable feeling.\",\n \"In the case where the user does not view the surface image SD5, the above-mentioned processing of the step S217 does not have to be performed.\",\n \"Thereafter, the controller 114 determines whether a gradation value of each pixel of the determination image data is in a predetermined allowable range (step S218).\",\n \"In the present embodiment, the allowable range is determined in advance as a parameter specific to the device to include a gradation value for the pixel corresponding to a normal portion, and not to include a gradation value for the pixel corresponding to a defective portion.\",\n \"In the case where a gradation value of each pixel of the determination image data is in the allowable range, the controller 114 determines that there is no defect in appearance on the inspection substrate W (step S219), and ends the defect determination processing.\",\n \"On the one hand, in the case where a gradation value of any pixel is outside of the allowable range, the controller 114 determines that there is a defect in appearance on the inspection substrate W (step S220).\",\n \"Further, the controller 114 detects the defect by extracting one or a plurality of pixels of which a gradation value is outside of the allowable range (step S221), and ends the defect determination processing.\",\n \"In the above-mentioned step S221, the controller 114 may produce a surface image SD6 showing the extracted defect DP as shown in FIG.\",\n \"12E.\",\n \"Further, the controller 114 may display the produced surface image SD6 in the main panel PN of FIG.\",\n \"1.As described above, a defect in appearance on the inspection substrate W is detected, so that a position and a shape of the defect can be identified.\",\n \"For the inspection substrate W determined to be defective in the defect determination processing, different processing from the processing for the substrate W determined to be non-defective is performed after the inspection substrate W is carried out from the substrate processing apparatus 100.\",\n \"(2) Correspondence Relationship Correction Processing FIG.\",\n \"29 is a flow chart of the correspondence relationship correction processing.\",\n \"FIGS.\",\n \"30A to 33C are diagrams for conceptually explaining the contents of each processing of the correspondence relationship correction processing of FIG.\",\n \"29.In the present example, the controller 114 of FIG.\",\n \"1 performs the correspondence relationship correction processing.\",\n \"The surface image of the substrate W acquired by the above-mentioned inspection unit IP includes a plurality of unit images.\",\n \"The unit images have a predetermined measurement.\",\n \"In the following description, each of the plurality of unit images included in the surface image SD2 of the sample substrate is referred to as a first unit image 1U, and a plurality of surface image data respectively indicating the plurality of first unit images 1U are referred to as pieces of first unit image data.\",\n \"Further, each of the plurality of unit images included in the surface image SD3 of the inspection substrate W is referred to as a second unit image 2U, and a plurality of surface image data respectively indicating the plurality of second unit images are referred to as pieces of second unit image data.\",\n \"As shown in FIG.\",\n \"29, as for the surface images SD2, SD3 produced in the steps S212, S214 of FIG.\",\n \"26, the controller 114 detects a relative deviation amount between the first and second unit images 1U, 2U located at positions corresponding to each other (step S301).\",\n \"The plurality of first unit images 1U included in the surface image SD2 of the sample substrate are indicated by thick one-dot and dash lines in FIG.\",\n \"30A, and the plurality of second unit images 2U included in the surface image SD3 of the inspection substrate W are indicated by thick one-dot and dash lines in FIG.\",\n \"30B.\",\n \"A specific example in which a relative deviation amount between the first and second unit images 1U, 2U indicated by outlined arrows in FIGS.\",\n \"30A and 30B is detected will be explained in the above-mentioned step S101.First, differences between gradation values of the pixels of the first second unit image 1U and gradation values of the pixels located at corresponding positions of the second unit image 2U are calculated.\",\n \"A coincidence degree that indicates the degree of coincidence between the pieces of first and second unit image data is calculated based on the plurality of calculated differences.\",\n \"More specifically, the total of absolute values of the plurality of calculated differences is calculated as the coincidence degree.\",\n \"In the case where a position of an arbitrary pixel is indicated by coordinates (x, y), the gradation value of the pixel of the first unit image 1U in the coordinates (x, y) is indicated by g1 (x, y), and the gradation value of the pixel of the second unit image 2U in the coordinates (x, y) is indicated by g2 (x, y), the coincidence degree AL can be expressed by a following formula (2).\",\n \"AL = ∑ x = a m ∑ y = b n abs { g 2 ( x , y ) - g 1 ( x .\",\n \"y ) } ( 2 ) In the above-mentioned formula (2), ‘a’ indicates a minimum value of the x coordinate of the first unit image 1U, and ‘m’ indicates a maximum value of the x coordinate of the first unit image 1U.\",\n \"Further, ‘b’ indicates a minimum value of the y coordinate of the first unit image 1U, and ‘n’ indicates a maximum value of the y coordinate of the first unit image 1U.\",\n \"In this case, the closer the value of the coincidence degree AL is to 0, the higher the degree of coincidence between the pieces of first and second unit image data is.\",\n \"On the one hand, the farther the value of the coincidence degree AL is from 0, the lower the degree of coincidence between the pieces of first and second unit image data is.\",\n \"Next, as indicated by outlined arrows in FIG.\",\n \"31, the first unit image 1U is moved in the x direction and the y direction by one pixel with respect to the second unit image 2U in a predetermined region AA.\",\n \"At this time, the coincidence degree AL is calculated using the above-mentioned formula (2) every time the first unit image 1U is moved by one pixel.\",\n \"The predetermined region AA is set to surround a region deviating in the respective x direction and y direction by 7 pixels from to the second unit image 2U, for example.\",\n \"Thereafter, a movement amount of the first unit image 1U in the x direction and the y direction in the case where the coincidence degree AL that is 0 or closest to 0 among the plurality of calculated coincidence degrees AL is acquired is detected as a relative deviation amount between the first and second unit images 1U, 2U.\",\n \"In this manner, a relative deviation amount between the first and second unit images 1U, 2U is appropriately detected for each of all of the first and second unit images 1U, 2U based on the difference in gradation value of the pixel corresponding to a normal portion.\",\n \"Next, as shown in FIG.\",\n \"29, the controller 114 calculates a relative deviation amount for every pixel between the surface images SD2, SD3 of the sample substrate and the inspection substrate W based on the plurality of detected deviation amounts (step S302).\",\n \"For example, the calculated deviation amount between the first and second unit images 1U, 2U located at positions corresponding to each other is determined as a deviation amount of the center pixel of the first unit image 1U with respect to the center pixel of the second unit image 2U.\",\n \"Further, a deviation amount of each pixel in a region surrounded by center pixels of the four first unit images 1U adjacent to one another is calculated by bilinear interpolation based on the deviation amount determined for the four center pixels.\",\n \"In FIG.\",\n \"32, one example of a method of calculating a deviation amount for every pixel by the bilinear interpolation is shown.\",\n \"As shown in FIG.\",\n \"32, let the coordinates of the center pixels 1UC of the four first unit images 1U be (X0, Y0), (X1, Y0), (X1, Y1), (X0, Y1), and let the respectively determined deviation amounts be P00, P10, P11, P01.Further, as for an arbitrary coordinates (x, y) in the region surrounded by the four center pixels 1UC, let the coordinates that are converted in order to perform the bilinear interpolation be (x′, y′).\",\n \"In this case, x′ and y′ can be expressed by the following formulas (3), (4).\",\n \"X′=(x−X0)/(X1−X0) (3) Y′=(y−Y0)/(Y1−Y0) (4) Further, coefficients K00, K10, K11, K01 for the deviation amounts P00, P10, P11, P01 can be expressed by following formulas (5), (6), (7), (8), respectively.\",\n \"K00=(1−x)×(1−y) (5) K10=(1−x′)×y′ (6) K11=x′×y′ (7) K01=x′×(1−y) (8) The deviation amount P in the coordinates (x, y) is expressed by a following formula (9).\",\n \"P=K00×P00+K10×P10+K11×P11+K01×P01 (9) After deviation amounts for all of the pixels on the surface image SD2 are calculated using the above-mentioned formulas (3) to (9), the controller 114 corrects the correspondence relationship between the pixel of the surface image data of the sample substrate and the pixel of the surface image data of the inspection substrate W based on the deviation amount calculated for every pixel, as shown in FIG.\",\n \"29 (step S303).\",\n \"For example, the controller 114 corrects a gradation value of each pixel of the surface image SD2 of the sample substrate based on the deviation amount calculated for each pixel such that a deviation in correspondence relationship for each pixel of the surface image SD3 of the inspection substrate W is resolved as correction of correspondence relationship.\",\n \"One example of the second unit image 2U is shown in FIG.\",\n \"33A.\",\n \"One example of the first unit image 1U is shown in FIG.\",\n \"33B.\",\n \"It is assumed that the second unit image 2U of FIG.\",\n \"33A and the first unit image 1U of FIG.\",\n \"33B are located at positions corresponding to each other.\",\n \"The coordinates of the pixel indicated by hatching in FIGS.\",\n \"33A and 33B are treated as (xa, ya).\",\n \"Further, it is assumed that the deviation amounts calculated for the pixel of the coordinates (xa, ya) are α and −β in the x direction and the y direction, respectively.\",\n \"In this case, as for the first unit image 1U, the controller 114 treats the gradation value of the pixel located at the coordinates (xa−α, ya+β) as the gradation value of the pixel of the coordinates (xa, ya).\",\n \"In this manner, similar processing based on each deviation amount is performed for each pixel of the first unit image 1U, whereby the first unit image 1U of which a deviation in correspondence relationship with the second unit image 2U is resolved can be acquired as shown in FIG.\",\n \"33C.\",\n \"At this time, the first unit image 1U of FIG.\",\n \"33C has distortion included in the second unit image 2U.\",\n \"In this manner, the surface image SD2 of the sample substrate is corrected based on the deviation amount of each pixel, so that the correspondence relationship between the pixel of the surface image SD2 of the sample substrate and the pixel of the surface image SD3 of the inspection substrate W is corrected.\",\n \"Thereafter, the controller 114 ends the correspondence relationship correction processing.\",\n \"In the step S216 of the defect determination processing, the controller 114 can calculate a difference between gradation values of the truly corresponding pixels by calculating a difference between a gradation value of a pixel of the corrected surface image SD2 and a gradation value of a pixel located at a corresponding position of the surface image SD3.In the above-mentioned step S301, when variations in correspondence degree are large, part of the correspondence degrees may be erroneously calculated.\",\n \"Essentially, it is considered that the first and second unit images 1U, 2U corresponding to each other are located at positions corresponding to each other or positions in the vicinity of them.\",\n \"Therefore, the coincidence degree having an extremely high value is likely to be erroneously calculated.\",\n \"On the one hand, in the case where the plurality of coincidence degrees calculated for the first and second unit images 1U, 2U located at positions corresponding to each other indicate substantially the constant value, it is difficult to identify the coincidence degree in the case where the pieces of first and second unit image data coincides with each other.\",\n \"The controller 114 may detect a relative deviation amount between the first and second unit images 1U, 2U located at positions corresponding to each other as described below.\",\n \"First, similarly to the above-mentioned example, the controller 114 calculates a plurality of coincidence degrees for the first and second unit images 1U, 2U located at positions corresponding to each other.\",\n \"Thereafter, the controller 114 subtracts a minimum value from a maximum value of the plurality of coincidence degrees.\",\n \"In this case, the calculated subtraction value is equivalent to the magnitude of the variations of the plurality of coincidence degrees calculated for the first and second unit images 1U, 2U.\",\n \"Thereafter, the controller 114 determines whether the subtraction value of the coincidence degree is not more than a predetermined threshold value.\",\n \"In the case where the subtraction value of the coincidence degree is larger than the predetermined threshold value, the controller 114 detects the movement amounts of the first unit image 1U in the x direction and the y direction in the case where the coincidence degree is in a predetermined range of the coincidence degree, and the deviation amount is minimized as a relative deviation amount between the first and second unit images 1U, 2U.\",\n \"In the case where letting a maximum value and a minimum value of the plurality of coincidence degrees be AL(max) and AL(min), and letting a coincidence allowable ratio be AP, a predetermined range ALA of the coincidence degree can be expressed by a following formula (10).\",\n \"AL(min)≤ALA<{AL(max)−AL(min)}×AP+AL(min) (10) The coincidence allowable ratio AP is set to about 10%, for example.\",\n \"In this manner, in the case where the subtraction value of the coincidence degree is larger than the predetermined threshold value, the movement amount of the first unit image 1U in the case where the coincidence degree with high reliability is acquired is appropriately detected as a deviation amount.\",\n \"Therefore, detection of a relative deviation amount between the first and second unit images 1U, 2U based on the erroneously calculated coincidence degree is prevented.\",\n \"On the one hand, in the case where the subtraction value of the coincidence degree is not more than the predetermined threshold value, the controller 114 treats the deviation amount between the first and second unit images 1U, 2U as a target of interpolation.\",\n \"Further, the controller 114 interpolates the deviation amount between the first and second unit images 1U, 2U with an average amount of the plurality of deviation amounts detected for a plurality of sets of the other first and second unit images 1U, 2U adjacent to the first and second unit images 1U, 2U.\",\n \"Thus, even for the inspection substrate W having the surface structure in which a difference between gradation values of images is unlikely to occur, or an unprocessed bare wafer, the deviation amount for every pixel can be appropriately calculated.\",\n \"The controller 114 may interpolate the deviation amount for the first and second unit images 1U, 2U with the deviation amount detected for the adjacent one set of the other first and second unit images 1U, 2U.\",\n \"Further, in the case where deviation amounts for all of other first and second unit images 1U, 2U adjacent to the first and second unit images 1U, 2U are targets of interpolation, the controller 114 may determine that the deviation amount is 0 (not deviating).\",\n \"In the above-mentioned step S302, a deviation amount of each pixel in a region surrounded by center pixels of four first unit images 1U adjacent to one another is calculated by the bilinear interpolation based on the deviation amounts determined for the four center pixels.\",\n \"The invention is not limited to the above-mentioned example.\",\n \"The deviation amount of each pixel in the region surrounded by four center pixels may be calculated by another interpolation method such as nearest neighbor interpolation based on a deviation amount of any of the four center pixels.\",\n \"(3) Effects In the defect determination processing according to the fifth embodiment, the surface image data of the sample substrate with no defect in appearance is acquired, and the surface image data of the inspection substrate W is acquired.\",\n \"As for a normal portion of the inspection substrate W, a difference between a gradation value of a pixel of the surface image data of the inspection substrate W and a gradation value of a corresponding pixel of the surface image data of the sample substrate is small.\",\n \"On the one hand, as for the pixel corresponding to a defective portion, the above-mentioned difference is large.\",\n \"Therefore, even in the case where a gradation value of the pixel corresponding to a defective portion is close to a gradation value of the pixel corresponding to a normal portion, the above-mentioned difference corresponding to a defective portion is larger than the above-mentioned difference corresponding to a normal portion.\",\n \"A difference in gradation value is calculated for the pixel of the surface image data of the inspection substrate W and the corresponding pixel of the surface image data of the sample substrate, and the difference image data is produced.\",\n \"In this case, a difference for the pixel corresponding to a defective portion and a difference for the pixel corresponding to a normal portion can be distinguished from each other.\",\n \"Therefore, the allowable range is determined in advance to include a difference corresponding to a normal portion and not to include a difference corresponding to a defective portion, whereby it is possible to determine whether there is a defect.\",\n \"However, local distortion, which is not a defect, sometimes occurs in the inspection substrate W. In this case, a position of the pixel of the inspection substrate W corresponding to a distorted portion deviates from a position of the truly corresponding pixel of the sample substrate.\",\n \"Therefore, when the above-mentioned difference image data is calculated on the assumption that the correspondence relationship between the surface image data of the sample substrate and the surface image data of the inspection substrate W is accurate, presence and absence of a defect cannot be accurately determined.\",\n \"In the present embodiment, the correspondence relationship correction processing is performed.\",\n \"In the correspondence relationship correction processing, a relative deviation amount between the first and second unit images 1U, 2U is detected by comparison between the pieces of first and second unit image data of the first and second unit images 1U, 2U located at positions corresponding to each other.\",\n \"Thus, relative deviation amounts of positions are respectively detected for the plurality of portions corresponding to each other between the surface images SD2, SD3 of the sample substrate and the inspection substrate W. The deviation amount for every pixel of the surface images SD2, SD3 is calculated based on the plurality of detected deviation amounts.\",\n \"The correspondence relationship between the pixels of the surface image data of the sample substrate and the pixel of the surface image data of the inspection substrate W is corrected based on the calculated deviation amount for every pixel, and a deviation for every pixel is resolved.\",\n \"Thus, even in the case where local distortion is present in the inspection substrate W, the pixels corresponding to each other can be accurately distinguished by correction of the correspondence relationship between the pixel of the surface image data of the sample substrate and the pixel of the surface image data of the inspection substrate W. A difference between a gradation value of a pixel of the surface image data of the sample substrate and a gradation value of a corresponding pixel of the surface image data of the inspection substrate W is calculated, and the difference image data is produced.\",\n \"In this case, for a normal portion, because gradation values of the pixels located at positions corresponding to each other of the surface images SD2, SD3 substantially coincide with each other, a difference in gradation value is small.\",\n \"On the one hand, for a defective portion, because a difference resulting from a defect occurs in the gradation values of the pixels located at positions corresponding to each other of the first and second images, a difference in gradation value is large.\",\n \"Therefore, a defect in appearance on the inspection substrate W can be detected with high accuracy.\",\n \"(4) Modified Example of Defect Determination Processing In the step S218 of the above-mentioned defect determination processing, it is determined that there is a defect in appearance on the inspection substrate W in the case where a gradation value of each pixel of the determination image data is outside of the allowable range.\",\n \"However, the present invention is not limited to this.\",\n \"In the determination image data, gradation values of part of the pixels not corresponding to a defect may be outside of the allowable range due to noise, disturbance or the like.\",\n \"In the defect determination processing, the following processing may be performed instead of the processing of the step S218 of FIG.\",\n \"27.FIG.\",\n \"34 is a flow chart showing the modified example of the defect determination processing according to the fifth embodiment.\",\n \"In the present example, after performing the processing of the steps S211 to S217 of FIGS.\",\n \"26 and 27 in the defect determination processing, the controller 114 counts the number of pixels indicating the gradation values outside of the allowable range instead of the processing of the step S218 (step S231).\",\n \"Further, the controller 114 determines whether the counted number is not less than a predetermined number (step S232).\",\n \"Further, in the step S231, the controller 114 determines that there is no defect in appearance on the inspection substrate W in the case where the counted number is smaller than the predetermined number (step S219).\",\n \"On the one hand, the controller 114 determines that there is a defect in appearance on the inspection substrate W in the case where the counted number is not less than the predetermined number (step S220), and detects a defect (step S221).\",\n \"In this case, in the case where the number of pixels indicating the gradation values outside of the allowable range is smaller than the predetermined number, it is not determined that there is a defect.\",\n \"Therefore, determination error due to noise, disturbance or the like can be prevented.\",\n \"[6] Sixth Embodiment The substrate processing apparatus according to the sixth embodiment has the same configuration and operation as the substrate processing apparatus according to the fifth embodiment except for the following point.\",\n \"(1) Detection Error of Deviation Amount In the fifth embodiment, a relative deviation amount between the first and second unit images 1U, 2U located at positions corresponding to each other is detected based on the above-mentioned coincidence degree in the step S301 of the correspondence relationship correction processing.\",\n \"However, depending on a type of the surface structure of the sample substrate and the inspection substrate W, a relative deviation amount between the first and second unit images 1U, 2U may be erroneously detected.\",\n \"FIGS.\",\n \"35A to 35C are diagrams showing an example in which a relative deviation amount between the first and second unit images 1U, 2U is erroneously detected.\",\n \"One example of the second unit image 2U is shown in FIG.\",\n \"35A.\",\n \"One example of the first unit image 1U is shown in FIG.\",\n \"35B.\",\n \"The second unit image 2U of FIG.\",\n \"35A and the first unit image 1U of FIG.\",\n \"35B are located at positions corresponding to each other.\",\n \"In the present example, four resist patterns RP1 extending in the x direction and arranged in the y direction are shown, and one resist pattern RP2 extending in the y direction is shown, in each of the first and second unit images 1U, 2U.\",\n \"In the four resist patterns RP1, the gradation value gently changes in the x direction.\",\n \"On the one hand, the gradation value of the resist pattern RP2 is constant.\",\n \"As indicated by a thick dotted line in FIG.\",\n \"35A, in each resist pattern RP1 shown in the second unit image 2U, the gradation value is locally reduced in the center portion in the x direction.\",\n \"On the one hand, as indicated by a thick dotted line in FIG.\",\n \"35B, in each resist pattern RP1 shown in the first unit image 1U, the gradation value is locally reduced at a position deviating from the center portion in the x direction by a constant distance.\",\n \"In the present example, the area of the four resist patterns RP is larger than that of the one resist pattern RP2.Therefore, the coincidence degree calculated, in the case where the positions of portions having locally reduced gradation values of the four resist patterns RP1 coincide with the positions of the four resist patterns RP1 between the first and second unit images 1U, 2U, is closer to 0 than the coincidence degree calculated in the case where positions of the one resist patterns RP2 coincide with each other between the first and second unit images 1U, 2U.\",\n \"In this case, as shown in FIGS.\",\n \"35A and 35B, even when no deviation has essentially occurred in the correspondence relationship between the first and second unit images 1U, 2U, an erroneous deviation amount is detected.\",\n \"As a result, as shown in FIG.\",\n \"35C, each pixel of the first unit image 1U after the correspondence relationship correction processing may deviate from the truly corresponding pixel.\",\n \"In the substrate processing apparatus according to the present embodiment, emphasis processing is performed in the defect determination processing.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"36 is a flow chart showing part of the defect determination processing according to the sixth embodiment.\",\n \"In the present example, after performing the processing of the step S211 to S214 similarly to the fifth embodiment, the controller 114 performs the emphasis processing of the contrast under a predetermined condition (step S241).\",\n \"As the emphasis processing, unsharp mask processing is used, for example.\",\n \"Specifically, as for each of the surface image data of the sample substrate and the surface image data of the inspection substrate W, an average of the gradation values is calculated for the prescribed number of the peripheral pixels centered at a target pixel, and the average value is treated as the gradation value for the target pixel.\",\n \"In the present example, all pixels of the surface images SD2, SD3 are treated as target pixels, and a gradation value of each pixel is changed to the average value of the peripheral pixels.\",\n \"In this manner, the surface image data is smoothed.\",\n \"Thereafter, a gradation value of each pixel of the surface image data after smoothing is subtracted from a gradation value of each pixel of the surface image data before smoothing.\",\n \"A gradation value of each pixel of the surface image data after the subtraction processing is multiplied by a predetermined coefficient.\",\n \"A gradation value of each pixel of the surface image data before smoothing is added to a gradation value of each pixel of the surface image data after the multiplication processing.\",\n \"Thus, the unsharp mask processing is ended.\",\n \"In this unsharp mask processing, the surface structure of the surface images SD2, SD3 of the sample substrate and the inspection substrate W and a contour of the image corresponding to a defect are emphasized.\",\n \"After the processing of the step S241, the controller 114 performs the correspondence relationship correction processing of the step S215 based on the surface image data after the emphasis processing for the sample substrate and the inspection substrate W. Thereafter, the controller 114 performs the subsequent processing after the step S216 of FIG.\",\n \"27.\",\n \"(2) Effects In the present embodiment, emphasis processing is performed on the surface image data of each of the sample substrate and the inspection substrate W before the correspondence relationship correction processing is performed.\",\n \"Thus, the normal surface structure of the sample substrate and inspection substrate can be accurately identified.\",\n \"As a result, detection error of the deviation amount can be prevented in the correspondence relationship correction processing of the subsequent step S215.\",\n \"[7] Seventh Embodiment The substrate processing apparatus according to the seventh embodiment has the same configuration and operation as the substrate processing apparatus according to the fifth embodiment except for the following point.\",\n \"(1) Detection Error of Deviation Amount In the fifth embodiment, in the step S302 of the correspondence relationship correction processing, a relative deviation amount for every pixel between the surface images SD2, SD3 of the sample substrate and the inspection substrate W is calculated in the step S302 of the correspondence relationship correction processing.\",\n \"However, part of the deviation amounts may be erroneously calculated due to noise, disturbance or the like.\",\n \"It is considered that the deviation amount erroneously calculated for one pixel is largely different from the deviation amounts calculated for pixels surrounding the pixel.\",\n \"In the substrate processing apparatus according to the present embodiment, deviation amount optimization processing is performed in the correspondence relationship correction processing.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"37 is a flow chart of the correspondence relationship correction processing according to the seventh embodiment.\",\n \"As shown in FIG.\",\n \"37, after performing the processing of the step S301, S302 similarly to the fifth embodiment, the controller 114 performs the deviation amount optimization processing (step S251).\",\n \"In the deviation amount optimization processing, the deviation amount of the pixel considered to have been erroneously calculated in the processing of the step S302 is interpolated based on the deviation amounts of pixels surrounding the pixel.\",\n \"Thereafter, the controller 114 performs the processing of the step S303.\",\n \"(2) Deviation Amount Optimization Processing The details of the deviation amount optimization processing will be described.\",\n \"FIGS.\",\n \"38 and 39 are flow charts of the deviation amount optimization processing.\",\n \"FIGS.\",\n \"40A to 40C are diagrams showing states of the deviation amounts of the plurality of pixels to be optimized by the deviation amount optimization processing.\",\n \"In the following description, N is the number of all pixels of the surface image SD2.Further, a variable i is a natural number of not more than N, and a variable k is an integer of not less than 0.As shown in FIG.\",\n \"38, the controller 114 first treats the variable i as 1, and the variable k as 0 (step S401).\",\n \"Next, the controller 114 counts the number of the pixels of which the deviation amounts satisfy a predetermined condition among a plurality of pixels surrounding the i-th pixel, and the number of the pixels of which the deviation amounts are treated as the targets of interpolation by processing of the below-mentioned step S404 (step S402).\",\n \"The plurality of pixels surrounding the i-th pixel in the step S402 are 8 pixels surrounding the i-th pixel, for example.\",\n \"Further, the predetermined condition is that at least one deviation amount of the deviation amounts in x direction and y direction is 2 or more, for example.\",\n \"Subsequently, the controller 114 determines whether the counted number is not less than a predetermined first number (step S403).\",\n \"The predetermined first number is 5, for example.\",\n \"In the case where the counted number is smaller than the first number, the controller 114 proceeds to the processing of the step S407.On the one hand, in the case where the counted number is not less than the first number, the controller 114 treats the deviation amount of the i-th pixel as the target of interpolation (step S404).\",\n \"Then, the controller 114 determines whether the target of interpolation set right before in the processing of the step S404 is newly set (step S405).\",\n \"In the case where the target of interpolation is not newly set, the controller 114 proceeds to the processing of the step S407.On the one hand, in the case where the target of interpolation is newly set, the controller 114 adds 1 to the variable k (step S406), and proceeds to the processing of the step S407.In the step S407, the controller 114 determines whether the value of the variable i is N. In the case where the variable i is not N, the controller 114 adds 1 to the variable i (step S408), and proceeds to the processing of the step S402.On the one hand, in the case where the variable i is N, the controller 114 determines whether the variable k is 0 (step S409).\",\n \"In the case where the variable k is not 0, the controller 114 proceeds to the processing of the step S401.On the one hand, in the case where the variable k is 0, the controller 114 proceeds to the processing of the below-mentioned step S410.The processing of the above-mentioned steps S401 to S409 is performed in order to detect the deviation amount that may be erroneously calculated for every pixel and set the detected deviation amount as the target of the interpolation.\",\n \"In FIG.\",\n \"40A, one example of the deviation amounts respectively calculated for the plurality of pixels in the step S302 of FIG.\",\n \"37 is shown.\",\n \"In FIG.\",\n \"40A, total 25 pixels in which 5 pixels are arranged in the x direction and 5 pixels are arranged in the y direction, respectively, are indicated by dotted lines.\",\n \"Further, the deviation amounts in the x direction and the y direction calculated for each pixel are shown.\",\n \"In the present example, the deviation amounts calculated for 9 pixels located at the center are respectively (5, 0), and the deviation amounts calculated for 16 pixels surrounding the 9 pixels are respectively (0, 0).\",\n \"When the optimization is performed for the plurality of deviation amounts of FIG.\",\n \"40A, the processing of the steps S402, S403 is first repeated for all of the pixels.\",\n \"In this case, the deviation amounts of the four pixels indicated by thick bold frames are newly treated as the targets of interpolation by the processing of the step S404.Thus, the variable k becomes 4 at a time point at which the processing of the steps S402, S403 is performed for all of the pixels.\",\n \"Therefore, the processing of the steps S402, S403 is repeated for all of the pixels again by the processing of the step S409.In this case, the deviation amounts of the four pixels indicated by the thick one-dot and dash frames are newly treated as the targets of interpolation by the processing of the step S404.Thus, the variable k is 4.Therefore, the processing of the steps S402, S403 is repeated again for all of the pixels by the processing of the step S409.In this case, the deviation amount of one pixel indicated by the thick dotted frame is newly treated as the target of interpolation by the processing of the step S404.Thus, the variable k is 1.Therefore, the processing of the steps S402, S403 is repeated again for all of the pixels by the processing of the step S409.In this case, a deviation amount newly treated as the target of interpolation is not present.\",\n \"Thus, the variable k is 0.As a result, as shown in FIG.\",\n \"40B, with the deviation amounts of part of the pixels being the targets of interpolation, the processing of the step S410 is started.\",\n \"As shown in FIG.\",\n \"39, the controller 114 treats the variable i as 1 in the step S410.Thereafter, the controller 114 determines whether the deviation amount of the i-th pixel is the target of interpolation (step S411).\",\n \"In the case where the deviation amount of the i-th pixel is not the target of interpolation, the controller 114 proceeds to the processing of the step S415, described below.\",\n \"On the one hand, in the case where the deviation amount of the i-th pixel is the target of interpolation, the controller 114 counts the number of pixels that are treated as the targets of interpolation among the plurality of pixels surrounding the i-th pixel (step S412).\",\n \"The plurality of pixels surrounding the i-th pixel in the step S412 are the four pixels adjacent to the i-th pixel in the x direction and the y direction, for example.\",\n \"Subsequently, the controller 114 determines whether the counted number is not less than a predetermined second number (step S413).\",\n \"The predetermined second number is 3, for example.\",\n \"In the case where the counted number is not less than the second number, the controller 114 proceeds to the processing of the step S415, described below.\",\n \"On the one hand, in the case where the counted number is smaller than the second number, the controller 114 treats an average value of the deviation amounts of the plurality of pixels that are not treated as the targets of interpolation as the deviation amount of the i-th pixel (step S414), and proceeds to the processing of the step S415.In the step S415, the controller 114 determines whether the value of the variable i is N. In the case where the variable i is not N, the controller 114 adds 1 to the variable i (step S416), and proceeds to the processing of the step S411.On the one hand, in the case where the variable i is N, the controller 114 determines whether the number of pixels of which the deviation amounts are treated as the targets of interpolation is 0 (step S417).\",\n \"In the case where the number of pixels of which the deviation amounts are treated as the targets of the interpolation is not 0, the controller 114 proceeds to the processing of the step S410.On the one hand, in the case where the number of pixels of which the deviation amounts are treated as the targets of interpolation is 0, the controller 114 ends the deviation amount optimization processing.\",\n \"The processing of the above-mentioned steps S410 to S417 is performed in order to sequentially interpolate the deviation amounts that are treated as the targets of interpolation by the processing of the steps S401 to S409.As shown in FIG.\",\n \"40B, with the deviation amounts of part of the pixels being the targets of interpolation among the plurality of pixels, the processing of the steps S411 to S414 is repeated for all of the pixels.\",\n \"In this case, the deviation amounts of the four pixels indicated by the thick solid frames in FIG.\",\n \"40C are interpolated by the processing of the step S414.At this time point, five targets of interpolation among the 9 targets of interpolation of FIG.\",\n \"40B are not interpolated.\",\n \"Therefore, the processing of the steps S411 to S414 is repeated again for all of the pixels by the processing of the step S417.In this case, the deviation amounts of the four pixels indicated by the one thick one-dot and dash frames in FIG.\",\n \"40C are interpolated by the processing of the step S414.At this time point, one target of interpolation among the 9 targets of interpolation of FIG.\",\n \"40B is not interpolated.\",\n \"Therefore, the processing of the steps S411 to S414 is repeated again for all of the pixels by the processing of the step S417.In this case, the deviation amount of one pixel indicated by the thick dotted frame in FIG.\",\n \"40C is interpolated by the processing of the step S414.Thus, all of the 9 targets of interpolation of FIG.\",\n \"40B are interpolated.\",\n \"In this manner, the deviation amounts of all of the targets of the interpolation are determined, so that the deviation amount optimization processing is ended.\",\n \"(3) Effects In the present embodiment, the deviation amount erroneously calculated in the processing of the step S302 is optimized by the deviation amount optimization processing in the correspondence relationship correction processing.\",\n \"Thus, the correspondence relationship between the pixel of the surface image SD2 of the sample substrate and the pixel of the surface image SD2 of the inspection substrate W is appropriately corrected.\",\n \"Therefore, a defect in appearance on the inspection substrate W can be detected with high accuracy.\",\n \"Also in the present embodiment, similarly to the seventh embodiment, the emphasis processing for the surface image data of the sample substrate and the inspection substrate W may be performed before the correspondence relationship correction processing of the step S215 in the defect determination processing.\",\n \"[8] Eighth Embodiment The substrate processing apparatus according to the eighth embodiment has the same configuration and operation as the substrate processing apparatus according to the fifth embodiment except for the following point.\",\n \"In the substrate processing apparatus according to the present embodiment, the controller 114 (FIG.\",\n \"1) performs the moire removal processing of FIG.\",\n \"15 according to the second embodiment in the defect determination processing.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"41 is a flow chart showing part of the defect determination processing according to the eighth embodiment.\",\n \"As shown in FIG.\",\n \"41, after performing the processing of the steps S211 to S215 of FIG.\",\n \"26 similarly to the fifth embodiment, the controller 114 performs the moire removal processing for the surface image SD2 of the sample substrate (step S261).\",\n \"Subsequently, the controller 114 performs the moire removal processing for the surface image SD3 of the inspection substrate W (step S262).\",\n \"Thereafter, the controller 114 performs the subsequent processing after the step S216 of FIG.\",\n \"27 based on the surface images SD2, SD3 on which the moire removal processing is performed.\",\n \"In the present embodiment, the moire removal processing is performed for the surface image SD2 of the sample substrate and the surface image SD3 of the inspection substrate W. In the moire removal processing, the acquired surface image data is smoothed, and a gradation value of each pixel of the surface image data after smoothing is subtracted from a gradation value of each pixel of the surface image data before smoothing.\",\n \"Thus, the correction image data from which a moire is removed is produced.\",\n \"The surface images SD2, SD3 from which moires are removed are acquired based on the correction image data.\",\n \"In this case, in the inspection substrate W including a defect DP, it is easy to distinguish between the defect DP and a moire.\",\n \"Further, in the steps S216, S217 of the defect determination processing, an occurrence of variations between gradation values of the difference image data and gradation values of the determination image data resulting from a moire is prevented.\",\n \"Thus, it is not necessary to widely set the allowable range to include variations in gradation value resulting from a moire.\",\n \"Therefore, a defect in appearance on the inspection substrate W can be detected with higher accuracy.\",\n \"Also in the present embodiment, similarly to the sixth embodiment, the emphasis processing for the surface image data of the sample substrate and the inspection substrate W may be performed before the correspondence relationship correction processing of the step S215 in the defect determination processing.\",\n \"Also in the present embodiment, similarly to the seventh embodiment, the deviation amount optimization processing may be performed between the processing of the steps S302, S303 in the correspondence relationship correction processing.\",\n \"[9] Ninth Embodiment The substrate processing apparatus according to the ninth embodiment has the same configuration and operation as the substrate processing apparatus according to the fifth embodiment except for the following point.\",\n \"As described above, in the defect determination processing according to the fifth embodiment, the correspondence relationship between the pixel of the surface image SD2 of the sample substrate and the pixel of the surface image SD3 of the inspection substrate W is corrected by the correspondence relationship correction processing.\",\n \"However, depending on the influence of noise, disturbance or the like, a deviation in correspondence relationship may not be completely resolved.\",\n \"In the case where a deviation in correspondence relationship is not completely resolved, it is necessary to largely set the allowable range used in the defect determination processing in order to prevent determination error resulting from a deviation in correspondence relationship between the pixels.\",\n \"On the one hand, when the allowable range is set excessively large, the detection accuracy for a defect is reduced.\",\n \"In the present embodiment, in order to appropriately set the allowable range while a deviation in correspondence relationship between the surface image data of the sample substrate and the surface image data of the inspection substrate W is considered, the allowable range setting processing of FIG.\",\n \"23 according to the third embodiment is performed.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"42 is a flow chart showing part of the defect determination processing according to the ninth embodiment.\",\n \"In the present example, after performing the processing of the step S211, S212 similarly to the fifth embodiment, the controller 114 performs the allowable range setting processing of FIG.\",\n \"23 according to the third embodiment (step S271).\",\n \"Thereafter, the controller 114 performs the subsequent processing after the step S213.In this case, in the processing of the step S218 of FIG.\",\n \"27, the allowable range set in the processing of the step S271 is used.\",\n \"As described above, the allowable range is set by the allowable range setting processing of FIG.\",\n \"23.Thus, even in the case where a deviation in correspondence relationship between the pixel of the surface image SD2 of the sample substrate and the pixel of the surface image SD3 of the inspection substrate W is not completely resolved, the gradation value of the determination image data calculated with the deviation being present in the correspondence relationship between the pixels is less likely to fall outside of the allowable range.\",\n \"Therefore, a normal portion is less likely to be erroneously determined as a defect.\",\n \"Also in the present embodiment, similarly to the sixth embodiment, the emphasis processing for the surface image data of the sample substrate and the inspection substrate W may be performed before the correspondence relationship correction processing of the step S215 in the defect determination processing (see FIG.\",\n \"36).\",\n \"Further, also in the present embodiment, similarly to the seventh embodiment, the deviation optimization processing may be performed between the processing of the step S302 and the processing of the step S303 in the correspondence relationship correction processing (see FIG.\",\n \"37).\",\n \"Further, also in the present embodiment, similarly to the eighth embodiment, the moire removal processing for the surface images SD2, SD3 of the sample substrate and the inspection substrate W may be performed before the processing of the step S216 after the processing of the step S214 or the step S215 in the defect determination processing (see FIG.\",\n \"41).\",\n \"[10] Other Embodiments (1) In the above-mentioned embodiment, the surface image data of the sample substrate is acquired, and the surface image SD2 of FIG.\",\n \"12A is produced, every time the defect determination processing is performed for one inspection substrate W. However, the invention is not limited to this.\",\n \"In the case where the defect determination processing is performed for the plurality of inspection substrates W having the common surface structure, the surface image data of the sample substrate may be acquired before the defect determination processing and the surface image SD2 may be stored in the controller 114 in advance.\",\n \"In this case, when the defect determination processing of each inspection substrate W is performed, the processing for acquiring the surface image data of the sample substrate, and the processing for correcting the acquired surface image data can be omitted.\",\n \"Therefore, efficiency of the defect determination processing is improved.\",\n \"Further, before the defect determination processing of the plurality of inspection substrates W, the allowable range setting processing in the third and ninth embodiments may be performed in addition to the processing for acquiring the surface image data of the sample substrate.\",\n \"Further, the allowable range set by the allowable range setting processing may be stored in the memory of the controller 114 in advance together with the surface image SD2.Thus, when the defect determination processing for each inspection substrate W is performed, the allowable range setting processing can be further omitted.\",\n \"Therefore, efficiency of the defect determination processing is further improved.\",\n \"(2) While the surface image data of the sample substrate is acquired by picking up of an image of the sample substrate in the above-mentioned embodiment, the present invention is not limited to this.\",\n \"The predetermined design data may be used as the surface image data of the sample substrate.\",\n \"In this case, it is not necessary to image the sample substrate.\",\n \"Therefore, in the defect determination processing, the processing for acquiring the surface image data of the sample substrate and the processing for correcting the acquired surface image data can be omitted.\",\n \"(3) In the above-mentioned embodiment, after the surface image data of the sample substrate is acquired in the defect determination processing, the acquired surface image data is corrected.\",\n \"Thus, the surface image SD2 in the shape of the substrate W is produced.\",\n \"Further, after the surface image data of the inspection substrate W is acquired, the acquired surface image data is corrected.\",\n \"Thus, the surface image SD3 in the shape of the substrate W is produced.\",\n \"The present invention is not limited to the above-mentioned example.\",\n \"The surface image data of the sample substrate and the surface image data of the inspection substrate W do not have to be corrected to be in the shape of the substrate W. Even in such a case, the defect determination processing similar to the above-mentioned example can be performed based on the surface image data indicating the rectangular surface image SD1 as shown in FIG.\",\n \"7F.\",\n \"(4) In the above-mentioned embodiment, in the inspection unit IP, the radial region RR of the substrate W is irradiated with the inspection light while the substrate W is rotated, and the reflected light is led to the CCD line sensor 54.Thus, the surface image data is produced.\",\n \"However, the surface image data may be produced by another method.\",\n \"For example, the surface image data may be produced by picking up of an image of the entire surface of the substrate W by an area sensor with the substrate W not being rotated.\",\n \"(5) While the defect determination processing is performed by the controller 114 in the above-mentioned embodiment, the present invention is not limited to this.\",\n \"For example, a controller for the appearance inspection may be provided to correspond to the inspection unit IP, and various processing in the appearance inspection may be performed by the controller.\",\n \"Alternatively, a plurality of local controllers may be provided to respectively correspond to the indexer block 11, the first and second processing blocks 12, 13 and the interface block 14, and various processing in the appearance inspection may be performed by one local controller among them (a local controller corresponding to the second processing block 13, for example).\",\n \"(6) While the appearance inspection for the substrate W after the development processing is performed in the inspection unit IP in the above-mentioned embodiment, the present invention is not limited to this.\",\n \"For example, the appearance inspection of the substrate W after the formation of the resist film and before the exposure processing may be performed by the inspection unit IP.\",\n \"Further, the appearance inspection of the substrate W before the formation of the resist film may be performed by the inspection unit IP.\",\n \"(7) While the inspection unit IP is provided in the second processing block 13 in the above-mentioned embodiment, the arrangement of the inspection units IP and the number of the inspection units IP may be suitably changed.\",\n \"For example, the inspection units IP may be provided in the first processing block 12, or the inspection unit IP may be provided in the interface block 14.\",\n \"(8) While the inspection units IP are provided in the substrate processing apparatus 100 adjacent to the exposure device 15 that performs the exposure processing for the substrate W by an immersion method in the above-mentioned embodiment, the present invention is not limited to this.\",\n \"The inspection unit IP may be provided in the substrate processing apparatus adjacent to an exposure device that performs the exposure processing for the substrate W without using liquid.\",\n \"(9) While the inspection units IP are provided in the substrate processing apparatus 100 that performs the processing for the substrate W before and after the exposure processing in the above-mentioned embodiment, the inspection unit IP may be provided in another substrate processing apparatus.\",\n \"For example, the inspection unit IP may be provided in a substrate processing apparatus that performs cleaning processing on the substrate W, or the inspection units IP may be provided in a substrate processing apparatus that performs etching processing for the substrate W. Alternatively, the inspection unit IP does not have to be provided in the substrate processing apparatus, and the inspection unit IP may be used alone.\",\n \"[11] Correspondences Between Constituent Elements in Claims and Parts in Preferred Embodiments In the following paragraphs, non-limiting examples of correspondences between various elements recited in the claims below and those described above with respect to various preferred embodiments of the present invention are explained.\",\n \"In the above-mentioned embodiment, the sample substrate is an example of a substrate with no defect in appearance, the inspection substrate W is an example of a substrate to be inspected, the inspection unit IP and the controller 114 are examples of an inspector, the controller 114 is an example of a corrector, a determiner, an emphasis processer and an optimization processer, and the illuminator 52, the CCD line sensor 54 and the controller 114 are examples of an image data acquirer.\",\n \"Further, the surface image SD2 of the sample substrate is an example of a first image, the surface image data of the sample substrate is an example of first image data, the surface image SD3 of the inspection substrate W is an example of a second image, the surface image data of the inspection substrate W is an example of second image data, and the difference image data and the determination image data are examples of pieces of difference information.\",\n \"Further, the plurality of first unit images 1U are examples of a plurality of first unit images, the plurality of second unit images 2U are examples of a plurality of second unit images, the center pixel 1UC of the first unit image 1U is an example of a representative pixel of a first unit image, the center pixel of the second unit image 2U is an example of a representative pixel of a second unit image, the correction image data of the sample substrate is an example of first correction image data, and the correction image data of the inspection substrate W is an example of second correction image data.\",\n \"Further, the gradation values of the plurality of pixels of the determination image data are examples of values acquired by addition of a constant value to differences between gradation values of pixels of the first image data and gradation values of pixel of the second image data, the pixels of the first and second image data being considered to correspond to each other, the minimum value and the maximum value of the addition representative value are examples of values acquired by respective addition of a constant value to a minimum value and a maximum value of a plurality of representative values.\",\n \"Further, the holding rotator 51 is an example of a substrate holding rotator, the illuminator 52 is an example of an illuminator, the CCD line sensor 54 is an example of a line sensor, the substrate processing apparatus 100 is an example of a substrate processor, the exposure device 15 is an example of an exposer, the coating processing unit 129 is an example of a coater, and the development processing unit 139 is an example of a developer.\",\n \"As each of constituent elements recited in the claims, various other elements having configurations or functions described in the claims can be also used.\",\n \"While preferred embodiments of the present invention have been described above, it is to be understood that variations and modifications will be apparent to those skilled in the art without departing the scope and spirit of the present invention.\",\n \"The scope of the present invention, therefore, is to be determined solely by the following claims.\",\n \"INDUSTRIAL APPLICABILITY The present invention can be effectively utilized for appearance inspection for various types of substrates.\"\n ]\n]"},"source":{"kind":"string","value":"Patent_15875409"}}},{"rowIdx":4494871,"cells":{"text":{"kind":"list like","value":[["GOLF CLUB HEADS AND METHODS TO MANUFACTURE GOLF CLUB HEADS","Embodiments of golf club heads and methods to manufacture golf club heads are generally described herein.","In one example, a method may include providing a body portion and a plurality of weight portions.","The plurality of weight portions may include a first set of weight portions and a second set of weight portions.","Each weight portion of the first set of weight portions may be associated with a first mass, and each weight portion of the second set of weight portions may be associated with a second mass that is less than the first mass.","Other examples and embodiments may be described and claimed."],["1-20.","(canceled) 21.A golf club head comprising: a body portion comprising a front portion, a rear portion, a toe portion, a heel portion, a top portion, and a bottom portion; a port region defined by a curved outer surface portion of the bottom portion, the port region comprising a plurality of weight ports, each weight port of the plurality of weight ports having an opening on the curved outer surface portion, the plurality of weight ports comprising: a first plurality of weight ports being closer to the front portion than the rear portion and extending between the toe portion and the heel portion a distance of at least 2.5 inches, the first plurality of weight ports arranged along a first arc that is convex relative to a tangent plane of the front portion; and a second plurality of weight ports being closer to the rear portion than the front portion, the second plurality of weight ports arranged along a second arc that is concave relative to the tangent plane of the front portion.","22.A golf club head as defined in claim 21, wherein the second plurality of weight ports extends between 2.5 and 3.7 inches between the toe portion and the heel portion.","23.A golf club head as defined in claim 21, wherein the second plurality of weight ports extends between 2.5 and 5 inches between the toe portion and the heel portion.","24.A golf club head as defined in claim 21, wherein the distance between the toe portion and the heel portion that the first plurality of weight ports extends is less than 3.7 inches.","25.A golf club head as defined in claim 21, wherein the distance between the toe portion and the heel portion that the first plurality of weight ports extends is less than 5 inches.","26.A golf club head as defined in claim 21, wherein a first weight port of the first plurality of weight ports is located nearest to the heel portion and a second weight port of the first plurality of weight ports is located nearest to the toe portion, wherein a first weight portion is disposed in the first weight port and a second weight portion is disposed in the second weight port, the first weight portion having a mass greater than the second weight portion.","27.A golf club head as defined in claim 21, wherein a first weight port of the first plurality of weight ports is located nearest to the heel portion and a second weight port of the first plurality of weight ports is located nearest to the toe portion, wherein a first weight portion is disposed in the first weight port and a second weight portion is disposed in the second weight port, the second weight portion having a mass greater than the first weight portion.","28.A golf club head as defined in claim 21, wherein a first weight port of the second plurality of weight ports is located nearest to the heel portion and a second weight port of the second plurality of weight ports is located nearest to the toe portion, wherein a first weight portion is disposed in the first weight port and a second weight portion is disposed in the second weight port, the first weight portion having a mass greater than the second weight portion.","29.A golf club head as defined in claim 21, wherein a first weight port of the second plurality of weight ports is located nearest to the heel portion and a second weight port of the second plurality of weight ports is located nearest to the toe portion, wherein a first weight portion is disposed in the first weight port and a second weight portion is disposed in the second weight port, the second weight portion having a mass greater than the first weight portion.","30.A golf club head comprising: a body portion comprising a front portion, a rear portion, a toe portion, a heel portion, a top portion, and a bottom portion; a port region defined by a curved outer surface portion of the bottom portion, the port region comprising a plurality of weight ports, each weight port of the plurality of weight ports having an opening on the curved outer surface portion, the plurality of weight ports comprising: a first plurality of weight ports being closer to the front portion than the rear portion and extending between the toe portion and the heel portion a distance of at least 2.5 inches, the first plurality of weight ports arranged along a first arc that is convex relative to a tangent plane of the front portion; and a second plurality of weight ports being closer to the rear portion than the front portion, the second plurality of weight ports arranged along a second arc that is concave relative to the tangent plane of the front portion; and a first plurality of weight portions disposed in the first plurality of weight ports, a second plurality of weight portions disposed in the second plurality of weight port, the first plurality of weight portions collectively defining a first mass, the second plurality of weight portions collectively defining a second mass, the first mass being greater than the second mass.","31.A golf club head as defined in claim 30, wherein the second plurality of weight ports extends between 2.5 and 3.7 inches between the toe portion and the heel portion.","32.A golf club head as defined in claim 30, wherein the second plurality of weight ports extends between 2.5 and 5 inches between the toe portion and the heel portion.","33.A golf club head as defined in claim 30, wherein the distance between the toe portion and the heel portion that the first plurality of weight ports extends is less than 3.7 inches.","34.A golf club head as defined in claim 30, wherein the distance between the toe portion and the heel portion that the first plurality of weight ports extends is less than 5 inches.","35.A golf club head comprising: a body portion comprising a front portion, a rear portion, a toe portion, a heel portion, a top portion, and a bottom portion; a port region defined by a curved outer surface portion of the bottom portion, the port region comprising a plurality of weight ports, each weight port of the plurality of weight ports having an opening on the curved outer surface portion, the plurality of weight ports comprising: a first plurality of weight ports being closer to the front portion than the rear portion and extending between the toe portion and the heel portion a distance of at least 2.5 inches, the first plurality of weight ports arranged along a first arc that is convex relative to a tangent plane of the front portion; and a second plurality of weight ports being closer to the rear portion than the front portion, the second plurality of weight ports arranged along a second arc that is concave relative to the tangent plane of the front portion; and a first plurality of weight portions disposed in the first plurality of weight ports, a second plurality of weight portions disposed in the second plurality of weight port, the first plurality of weight portions collectively defining a first mass, the second plurality of weight portions collectively defining a second mass, the second mass being greater than the first mass.","36.A golf club head as defined in claim 35, wherein the second plurality of weight ports extends between 2.5 and 3.7 inches between the toe portion and the heel portion.","37.A golf club head as defined in claim 35, wherein the second plurality of weight ports extends between 2.5 and 5 inches between the toe portion and the heel portion.","38.A golf club head as defined in claim 35, wherein the distance between the toe portion and the heel portion that the first plurality of weight ports extends is less than 3.7 inches.","39.A golf club head as defined in claim 35, wherein the distance between the toe portion and the heel portion that the first plurality of weight ports extends is less than 5 inches.","40.A golf club head as defined in claim 35, wherein at least one of the first plurality of weight portions has a mass of about 0.4 grams, and wherein at least one of the second plurality of weight portions has a mass of about 2.6 grams."],[" BACKGROUND In golf, various factors may affect the distance and direction that a golf ball may travel.","In particular, the center of gravity (CG) and/or the moment of inertia (MOI) of a golf club head may affect the launch angle, the spin rate, and the direction of the golf ball at impact.","Such factors may vary significantly based the type of golf swing."],[" BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG.","1 is top perspective view of an example golf club head according to an embodiment of the apparatus, methods, and articles of manufacture described herein.","FIG.","2 depicts a bottom perspective view of the example golf club head of FIG.","1 .","FIG.","3 depicts a top view of the example golf club head of FIG.","1 .","FIG.","4 depicts a bottom view of the example golf club head of FIG.","1 .","FIG.","5 depicts a front view of the example golf club head of FIG.","1 .","FIG.","6 depicts a rear view of the example golf club head of FIG.","1 .","FIG.","7 depicts a toe view of the example golf club head of FIG.","1 .","FIG.","8 depicts a heel view of the example golf club head of FIG.","1 .","FIG.","9 depicts a bottom view of an example body portion of the example golf club head of FIG.","1 .","FIG.","10 depicts a cross-sectional view of the example body portion of the example golf club head of FIG.","1 .","FIG.","11 depicts two weight ports of the example golf club head of FIG.","1 .","FIG.","12 depicts a top view of an example weight portion of the example golf club head of FIG.","1 .","FIG.","13 depicts a side view of the example weight portion of FIG.","10 .","FIG.","14 depicts example launch trajectory profiles of the example golf club head of FIG.","1 .","FIG.","15 depicts a first weight configuration of the example weight portions.","FIG.","16 depicts a second weight configuration of the example weight portions.","FIG.","17 depicts a third weight configuration of the example weight portions.","FIG.","18 depicts a fourth weight configuration of the example weight portions.","FIG.","19 depicts an example launch trajectory profile of the example golf club head of FIG.","18 .","FIG.","20 depicts one manner in which the example golf club heads described herein may be manufactured.","FIG.","21 depicts a bottom view of another example golf club head.","FIG.","22 depicts a bottom view of yet another example golf club head.","detailed-description description=\"Detailed Description\" end=\"lead\"?","For simplicity and clarity of illustration, the drawing figures illustrate the general manner of construction, and descriptions and details of well-known features and techniques may be omitted to avoid unnecessarily obscuring the present disclosure.","Additionally, elements in the drawing figures are not necessarily drawn to scale.","For example, the dimensions of some of the elements in the figures may be exaggerated relative to other elements to help improve understanding of embodiments of the present disclosure."],["CROSS REFERENCE This application is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser.","No.","15/446,842, filed Mar.","1, 2017, which is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser.","No.","15/377,120, filed Dec. 13, 2016, now U.S. Pat.","No.","9,802,087, which is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser.","No.14/939,849, filed Nov. 12, 2015, now U.S. Pat.","No.","9,555,295, which is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser.","No.","14/615,606, filed Feb. 6, 2015, now U.S. Pat.","No.","9,199,140, which claims the benefit of U.S.","Provisional Application No.","62/109,510, filed Jan. 29, 2015, U.S.","Provisional Application No.","62/105,123, filed Jan. 19, 2015, U.S.","Provisional Application No.","62/101,543, filed Jan. 9, 2015, U.S.","Provisional Application No.","62/048,693, filed Sep. 10, 2014, and U.S.","Provisional Application No.","62/042,155, filed Aug. 26, 2014.The disclosures of the referenced applications are incorporated herein by reference.","COPYRIGHT AUTHORIZATION The present disclosure may be subject to copyright protection.","The copyright owner has no objection to the facsimile reproduction by anyone of the present disclosure and its related documents, as they appear in the Patent and Trademark Office patent files or records, but otherwise reserves all applicable copyrights.","FIELD The present disclosure generally relates to sports equipment, and more particularly, to golf club heads and methods to manufacture golf club heads.","BACKGROUND In golf, various factors may affect the distance and direction that a golf ball may travel.","In particular, the center of gravity (CG) and/or the moment of inertia (MOI) of a golf club head may affect the launch angle, the spin rate, and the direction of the golf ball at impact.","Such factors may vary significantly based the type of golf swing.","BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG.","1 is top perspective view of an example golf club head according to an embodiment of the apparatus, methods, and articles of manufacture described herein.","FIG.","2 depicts a bottom perspective view of the example golf club head of FIG.","1.FIG.","3 depicts a top view of the example golf club head of FIG.","1.FIG.","4 depicts a bottom view of the example golf club head of FIG.","1.FIG.","5 depicts a front view of the example golf club head of FIG.","1.FIG.","6 depicts a rear view of the example golf club head of FIG.","1.FIG.","7 depicts a toe view of the example golf club head of FIG.","1.FIG.","8 depicts a heel view of the example golf club head of FIG.","1.FIG.","9 depicts a bottom view of an example body portion of the example golf club head of FIG.","1.FIG.","10 depicts a cross-sectional view of the example body portion of the example golf club head of FIG.","1.FIG.","11 depicts two weight ports of the example golf club head of FIG.","1.FIG.","12 depicts a top view of an example weight portion of the example golf club head of FIG.","1.FIG.","13 depicts a side view of the example weight portion of FIG.","10.FIG.","14 depicts example launch trajectory profiles of the example golf club head of FIG.","1.FIG.","15 depicts a first weight configuration of the example weight portions.","FIG.","16 depicts a second weight configuration of the example weight portions.","FIG.","17 depicts a third weight configuration of the example weight portions.","FIG.","18 depicts a fourth weight configuration of the example weight portions.","FIG.","19 depicts an example launch trajectory profile of the example golf club head of FIG.","18.FIG.","20 depicts one manner in which the example golf club heads described herein may be manufactured.","FIG.","21 depicts a bottom view of another example golf club head.","FIG.","22 depicts a bottom view of yet another example golf club head.","For simplicity and clarity of illustration, the drawing figures illustrate the general manner of construction, and descriptions and details of well-known features and techniques may be omitted to avoid unnecessarily obscuring the present disclosure.","Additionally, elements in the drawing figures are not necessarily drawn to scale.","For example, the dimensions of some of the elements in the figures may be exaggerated relative to other elements to help improve understanding of embodiments of the present disclosure.","DESCRIPTION In general, golf club heads and methods to manufacture golf club heads are described herein.","The apparatus, methods, and articles of manufacture described herein are not limited in this regard.","In the example of FIGS.","1-13, a golf club head 100 may include a body portion 110, and a plurality of weight portions 120, generally, shown as a first set of weight portions 210 (FIG.","2) and a second set of weight portions 220 (FIG.","2).","The body portion 110 may include a top portion 130, a bottom portion 140, a toe portion 150, a heel portion 160, a front portion 170, and a rear portion 180.The bottom portion 140 may include a skirt portion 190 defined as a side portion of the golf club head 100 between the top portion 130 and the bottom portion 140 excluding the front portion 170 and extending across a periphery of the golf club head 100 from the toe portion 150, around the rear portion 180, and to the heel portion 160.The bottom portion 140 may include a transition region 230 and a weight port region 240.For example, the weight port region 240 may be a D-shape region.","The weight port region 240 may include a plurality of weight ports 900 (FIG.","9) to receive the plurality of weight portions 120.The front portion 170 may include a face portion 175 to engage a golf ball (not shown).","The body portion 110 may also include a hosel portion 165 to receive a shaft (not shown).","Alternatively, the body portion 110 may include a bore instead of the hosel portion 165.For example, the body portion 110 may be made partially or entirely of an aluminum-based material, a magnesium-type material, a steel-based material, a titanium-based material, any combination thereof, or any other suitable material.","In another example the body portion 110 may be made partially or entirely of a non-metal material such as a ceramic material, a composite material, any combination thereof, or any other suitable material.","The golf club head 100 may have a club head volume greater than or equal to 300 cubic centimeters (cm3 or cc).","In one example, the golf club head 100 may be about 460 cc.","Alternatively, the golf club head 100 may have a club head volume less than or equal to 300 cc.","In particular, the golf club head 100 may have a club head volume between 100 cc and 200 cc.","The club head volume of the golf club head 100 may be determined by using the weighted water displacement method (i.e., Archimedes Principle).","For example, procedures defined by golf standard organizations and/or governing bodies such as the United States Golf Association (USGA) and/or the Royal and Ancient Golf Club of St. Andrews (R&A) may be used for measuring the club head volume of the golf club head 100.Although FIG.","1 may depict a particular type of club head (e.g., a driver-type club head), the apparatus, methods, and articles of manufacture described herein may be applicable to other types of club head (e.g., a fairway wood-type club head, a hybrid-type club head, an iron-type club head, a putter-type club head, etc.).","The apparatus, methods, and articles of manufacture described herein are not limited in this regard.","Each of the first set of weight portions 210, generally shown as 405, 410, 415, 420, 425, 430, and 435 (FIG.","4), may be associated with a first mass.","Each of the second set of weight portions 220, generally shown as 440, 445, 450, 455, 460, 465, 470, 475, and 480 (FIG.","4), may be associated with a second mass.","The first mass may be greater than the second mass or vice versa.","In one example, the first set of weight portions 210 may be made of a tungsten-based material whereas the second set of weight portions 220 may be made of an aluminum-based material.","As described in detail below, the first and second set of weight portions 210 and 220, respectively, may provide various weight configurations (e.g., FIGS.","15-18).","Referring to FIGS.","9-11, for example, the bottom portion 140 of the body portion 110 may include a plurality of weight ports 900.The plurality of weight ports 900, generally shown as 905, 910, 915, 920, 925, 930, 935, 940, 945, 950, 955, 960, 965, 970, 975, and 980, may be located along a periphery of the weight port region 240 of the bottom portion 140.The plurality of weight ports 900 may extend across the bottom portion 140.In particular, the plurality of weight ports 900 may extend between the toe and heel portions 150 and 160, respectively, across the bottom portion 140.The plurality of weight ports 900 may also extend between the front and rear portions 170 and 180, respectively, across the bottom portion 140.The plurality of weight ports 900 may be arranged across the bottom portion 140 along a path that defines a generally D-shaped loop.","In one example, the plurality of weight ports 900 may extend more than 50% of a maximum toe-to-heel distance 500 between of the toe and heel portions 150 and 160, respectively, across the bottom portion 140.The maximum toe-to-heel distance 500 of the golf club head 100 may be measured from transition regions between the top and bottom portions 130 and 140, respectively, at the toe and heel portions 150 and 160, respectively.","Alternatively, the maximum toe-to-heel distance 500 may be a horizontal distance between vertical projections of the outermost points of the toe and heel portions 150 and 160, respectively.","For example, the maximum toe-to-heel distance 500 may be measured when the golf club head 100 is at a lie angle 510 of about 60 degrees.","If the outermost point of the heel portion 160 is not readily defined, the outermost point of the heel portion 160 may be located at a height 520 of about 0.875 inches (22.23 millimeters) above a ground plane 530 (i.e., a horizontal plane on which the golf club head 100 is lying on).","In one example, the maximum toe-to-heel distance 500 may be no more than 5 inches (127 millimeters).","Accordingly, the plurality of weight ports 900 may extend at least 2.5 inches between the toe and heel portions 150 and 160, respectively.","A maximum toe-to-heel distance 995 of the plurality of weight ports 900 may extend between the weight ports 940 and 980.For example, the maximum toe-to-heel distance 995 of the plurality of weight ports 900 may be about 3.7 inches.","As the rules of golf may change from time to time (e.g., new regulations may be adopted or old rules may be eliminated or modified by golf standard organizations and/or governing bodies), the lie angle 510 and/or the height 520 for measuring the maximum toe-to-heel distance 500 may also change.","The apparatus, methods, and articles of manufacture described herein are not limited in this regard.","Each of the plurality of weight ports 900 may be associated with a port diameter (Dport) (e.g., two shown as 1105 and 1110 in FIG.","11).","For example, the port diameter of each weight port of the plurality of weight ports 900 may be about 0.3 inch (7.65 millimeters).","Alternatively, the port diameters of adjacent weight ports may be different.","In one example, the weight port 905 may be associated with a port diameter 1105, and the weight port 910 may be associated with a port diameter 1110.In particular, the port diameter 1105 of the weight port 905 may be larger than the port diameter 1110 of the weight port 910 or vice versa.","The apparatus, methods, and articles of manufacture described herein are not limited in this regard.","The bottom portion 140 may also include an outer surface 990.As illustrated in FIG.","10, for example, the plurality of weight ports 900 may be formed on the bottom portion 140 relative to an outer surface curve 1090 formed by the outer surface 990.In particular, each of the plurality of weight ports 900 may be associated with a port axis generally shown as 1005, 1010, and 1015.A center of a weight port may define the port axis of the weight port.","Each port axis may be perpendicular or substantially perpendicular to a plane that is tangent to the outer surface curve 1090 at the point of intersection of the port axis and the outer surface curve 1090.In one example, substantially perpendicular may refer to a deviation of ±5° from perpendicular.","In another example, substantially perpendicular may refer to a deviation of ±3° from perpendicular.","The deviation from perpendicular may depend on manufacturing tolerances.","In one example, the port axis 1010 may be perpendicular or substantially perpendicular (i.e., normal) to a tangent plane 1012 of the outer surface curve 1090.Multiple fixtures may be used to manufacture the plurality of weight ports 900 by positioning the golf club head 100 in various positions.","Alternatively, the weight ports may be manufactured by multiple-axis machining processes, which may be able to rotate the golf club head around multiple axes to mill away excess material (e.g., by water jet cutting and/or laser cutting) to form the plurality of weight ports 900.Further, multiple-axis machining processes may provide a suitable surface finish because the milling tool may be moved tangentially about a surface.","Accordingly, the apparatus, methods, and articles of manufacture described herein may use a multiple-axis machining process to form each of the plurality of weight ports 900 on the bottom portion 140.For example, a five-axis milling machine may form the plurality of weight ports 900 so that the port axis 1000 of each of the plurality weight ports 900 may be perpendicular or substantially perpendicular to the outer surface curve 1090.The tool of the five-axis milling machine may be moved tangentially about the outer surface curve 1090 of the outer surface 990.Turning to FIG.","11, for example, two adjacent weight ports may be separated by a port distance 1100, which may be the shortest distance between two adjacent weight ports on the outer surface 990.In particular, the port distance 1100 may be less than or equal to the port diameter of any of the two adjacent weight ports.","In one example, the port distance 1100 between the weight ports 905 and 910 may be less than or equal to either the port diameter 1105 or the port diameter 1110.The apparatus, methods, and articles of manufacture described herein are not limited in this regard.","The plurality of weight portions 120 may have similar or different physical properties (e.g., density, shape, mass, volume, size, color, etc.).","In one example, the first set of weight portions 210 may be a black color whereas the second set of weight portions 220 may be a gray color or a steel color.","Some or all of the plurality of weight portions 120 may be partially or entirely made of a metal material such as a steel-based material, a tungsten-based material, an aluminum-based material, any combination thereof or suitable types of materials.","Alternatively, some or all of the plurality of weight portions 120 may be partially or entirely made of a non-metal material (e.g., composite, plastic, etc.).","In the illustrated example as shown in FIGS.","12 and 13, each weight portion of the plurality of weight portions 120 may have a cylindrical shape (e.g., a circular cross section).","Although the above examples may describe weight portions having a particular shape, the apparatus, methods, and articles of manufacture described herein may include weight portions of other suitable shapes (e.g., a portion of or a whole sphere, cube, cone, cylinder, pyramid, cuboidal, prism, frustum, or other suitable geometric shape).","Each weight portion of the plurality of weight portions 120 may be associated with a diameter 1200 and a height 1300.In one example, each weight portion of the plurality of weight portions 120 may have a diameter of about 0.3 inch (7.62 millimeters) and a height of about 0.2 inch (5.08 millimeters).","Alternatively, the first and second sets of weight portions 210 and 220, respectively, may be different in width and/or height.","Instead of a rear-to-front direction as in other golf club heads, each weight portion of the plurality of weight portions 120 may engage one of the plurality of weight ports 400 in a bottom-to-top direction.","The plurality of weight portions 120 may include threads to secure in the weight ports.","For example, each weight portion of the plurality of weight portions 120 may be a screw.","The plurality of weight portions 120 may not be readily removable from the body portion 110 with or without a tool.","Alternatively, the plurality of weight portions 120 may be readily removable (e.g., with a tool) so that a relatively heavier or lighter weight portion may replace one or more of the plurality of weight portions 120.In another example, the plurality of weight portions 120 may be secured in the weight ports of the body portion 110 with epoxy or adhesive so that the plurality of weight portions 120 may not be readily removable.","In yet another example, the plurality of weight portions 120 may be secured in the weight ports of the body portion 110 with both epoxy and threads so that the plurality of weight portions 120 may not be readily removable.","The apparatus, methods, and articles of manufacture described herein are not limited in this regard.","In contrast to other golf club heads, the golf club head 100 may accommodate at least four different types of golf swings.","As illustrated in FIG.","14, for example, each weight configuration may be associated with one of the plurality of launch trajectory profiles 1400, generally shown as 1410, 1420, and 1430.Referring to FIG.","15, for example, a first weight configuration 1500 may be associated with a configuration of a first set of weight ports 1510.The first set of weight ports 1510 may be located at or proximate to the front portion 170 (e.g., weight ports 905, 910, 915, 920, 925, 930, and 935 shown in FIG.","9).","In the first weight configuration 1500, a first set of weight portions may be disposed toward the front portion 170 according to the configuration of the first set of weight ports 1510, whereas a second set of weight portions may be disposed toward the rear portion 180.In particular, the first set of weight portions may form a cluster according to the configuration of the first set of weight ports 1510 at or proximate to the front portion 170.The weight portions 405, 410, 415, 420, 425, 430, and 435 may define the first set of weight portions and may be disposed in weight ports 905, 910, 915, 920, 925, 930, and 935, respectively.","The weight portions 440, 445, 450, 455, 460, 465, 470, 475, and 480 may define the second set of weight portions and may be disposed in weight ports 940, 945, 950, 955, 960, 965, 970, 975, and 980, respectively.","The first weight configuration 1500 may be associated with the first launch trajectory profile 1410 (FIG.","14).","In particular, the first weight configuration 1500 may decrease spin rate of a golf ball.","By placing relatively heavier weight portions (i.e., the first set of weight portions) towards the front portion 170 of the golf club head 100 according to the configuration of the first set of weight ports 1510, the center of gravity (GC) of the golf club head 100 may move relatively forward and lower to produce a relatively lower launch and spin trajectory.","As a result, the first launch trajectory profile 1410 may be associated with a relatively greater roll distance (i.e., distance after impact with the ground).","While the above example may describe the weight portions being disposed in certain weight ports, any weight portion of the first set of weight portions 210 may be disposed in any weight port of the first set of weight ports 1510.Turning to FIG.","16, for example, a second weight configuration 1600 may be associated with a configuration of a second set of weight ports 1610.The second set of weight ports 1610 may be located at or proximate to the rear portion 180 (e.g., weight ports, 945, 950, 955, 960, 965, 970, and 975 shown in FIG.","9).","In a second weight configuration 1600 as illustrated in FIG.","16, for example, a first set of weight portions may be disposed toward the rear portion 180 whereas a second set of weight portions may be disposed toward the front portion 170.In particular, the first set of weight portions may form a cluster 1610 at or proximate to the rear portion 180 according to the configuration of the second set of weight ports 1610.The weight portions 405, 410, 415, 420, 425, 430, and 435 may define the first set of weight portions and may be disposed in weight ports 945, 950, 955, 960, 965, 970, and 975, respectively.","The weight portions 440, 445, 450, 455, 460, 465, 470, 475, and 480 may define the second set of weight portions and may be disposed in weight ports 905, 910, 915, 920, 925, 930, 935, 940, and 980, respectively.","The second weight configuration 1600 may be associated with the second launch trajectory profile 1420 (FIG.","14).","In particular, the second weight configuration 1600 may increase launch angle of a golf ball and maximize forgiveness.","By placing the relatively heavier weight portion (i.e., the first set of weight portions) towards the rear portion 180 of the golf club head 100 according to the configuration of the second set of weight ports 1610, the center of gravity (GC) of the golf club head 100 may move relatively back and up to produce a relatively higher launch and spin trajectory.","Further, the moment of inertia (MOI) of the golf club head 100 may increase in both the horizontal (front-to-back axis) and vertical axes (top-to-bottom axis), which in turn, provides relatively more forgiveness on off-center hits.","As a result, the second launch trajectory profile 1420 may be associated with a relatively greater carry distance (i.e., in-the-air distance).","Turning to FIG.","17, for example, a third weight configuration 1700 may be associated with a configuration of a third set of weight ports 1710.In the third weight configuration 1700, for example, a first set of weight portions may be disposed toward the heel portion 160 whereas a second set of weight portions may be disposed toward the toe portion 150.In particular, the first set of weight portions may form a cluster of weight portions at or proximate to the heel portion 160 according to the configuration of the third set of weight ports 1710.The weight portions 405, 410, 415, 420, 425, 430, and 435 may define the first set of weight portions and may be disposed in weight ports 925, 930, 935, 940, 945, 950, and 955, respectively.","The weight portions 440, 445, 450, 455, 460, 465, 470, 475, and 480 may define the second set of weight portions and may be disposed in weight ports 905, 910, 915, 920, 960, 965, 970, 975, and 980, respectively.","The third weight configuration 1700 may be associated with a third launch trajectory profile 1430 (FIG.","14).","In particular, the third weight configuration 1700 may allow an individual to turn over the golf club head 100 relatively easier (i.e., square up the face portion 175 to impact a golf ball).","By placing the relatively heavier weight portions (i.e., the first set of weight portions) towards the heel portion 160 of the golf club head 100, the center of gravity (GC) of the golf club head 100 may move relatively closer to the axis of the shaft.","Turning to FIG.","18, for example, a fourth weight configuration 1800 may be associated with a configuration of a fourth set of weight ports 1810.In a fourth weight configuration 1800, for example, a first set of weight portions may be disposed toward the toe portion 150 whereas a second set of weight portions may be disposed toward the heel portion 160.In particular, the first set of weight portions may form a cluster of weight portions at or proximate to the toe portion 150 according to the configuration of the fourth set of weight ports 1810.The weight portions 405, 410, 415, 420, 425, 430, and 435 may define the first set of weight portions and may be disposed in weight ports 905, 910, 915, 965, 970, 975, and 980, respectively.","The weight portions 440, 445, 450, 455, 460, 465, 470, 475, and 480 may define the second set of weight portions and may be disposed in weight ports 920, 925, 930, 935, 940, 945, 950, 955, and 960, respectively.","The fourth weight configuration 1800 may be associated with the third launch trajectory profile 1430 (FIG.","14).","In particular, the fourth weight configuration 1800 may prevent an individual from turning over the golf club head 100 (i.e., the face portion 175 may be more open to impact a golf ball).","By placing the relatively heavier weight portions (i.e., the first set of weight portions) towards the toe portion 150 of the golf club head 100, the center of gravity (GC) of the golf club head 100 may move relatively farther away from the axis of the shaft.","The fourth weight configuration 1800 may result in a fade golf shot (as shown in FIG.","19, for example, a trajectory or ball flight in which a golf ball travels to the left of a target 1910 and curving back to the right of the target for a right-handed individual).","The apparatus, methods, and articles of manufacture described herein are not limited in this regard.","FIG.","20 depicts one manner in which the golf club head 100 may be manufactured.","In the example of FIG.","20, the process 2000 may begin with providing a plurality of weight portions (block 2010).","The plurality of weight portions may include a first set of weight portions and a second set of weight portions.","Each weight portion of the first set of weight portions may be associated with a first mass whereas each weight portion of the second set of weight portions may be associated with a second mass.","The first mass may be greater than the second mass.","In one example, each weight portion of the first set of weight portions may be made of a tungsten-based material with a mass 2.6 grams whereas each weight portion of the second set of weight portions may be made of an aluminum-based material with a mass of 0.4 grams.","The first set of weight portions may have a gray color or a steel color whereas the second set of weight portions may have a black color.","The process 2000 may provide a body portion of a golf club head (block 2020).","The body portion may include a front portion, a rear portion, a toe portion, a heel portion, a top portion, a bottom portion having an outer surface associated with outer surface curve, and a skirt portion between the top and bottom portion.","The process 2000 may form a weight port region located at or proximate to the bottom and skirts portions (block 2030).","A transition region may surround the weight port region.","The process 2000 may form a plurality of weight ports along a periphery of the weight port region (block 2040).","Each weight port of the plurality of weight ports may be associated with a port diameter and configured to receive at least one weight portion of the plurality of weight portions.","Two adjacent weight ports may be separated by less than or equal to the port diameter.","Further, each weight port of the plurality of weight ports may be associated with a port axis.","The port axis may be perpendicular or substantially perpendicular relative to a tangent plane of the outer surface curve of the bottom portion of the golf club head.","The example process 2000 of FIG.","20 is merely provided and described in conjunction with FIGS.","1-19 as an example of one way to manufacture the golf club head 100.While a particular order of actions is illustrated in FIG.","20, these actions may be performed in other temporal sequences.","For example, two or more actions depicted in FIG.","20 may be performed sequentially, concurrently, or simultaneously.","Although FIG.","20 depicts a particular number of blocks, the process may not perform one or more blocks.","The apparatus, methods, and articles of manufacture described herein are not limited in this regard.","As shown in the above examples, the plurality of weight portions 120 and the plurality of weight ports 900 may be located on a periphery of the weight port region 240 along a path that defines a generally D- shaped loop formed with two arcs, generally shown as 490 and 495 in FIG.","4.For example, the weight portions 405, 410, 415, 420, 425, 430, and 435 (FIG.","4), and the weight ports 905, 910, 915, 920, 925, 930, and 935 (FIG.","9) may form the first arc 490.In particular, the first arc 490 may extend between the toe and heel portions 150 and 160, respectively, across the bottom portion 140.The weight portions 440, 445, 450, 455, 460, 465, 470, 475, and 480 (FIG.","4), the weight ports 940, 945, 950, 955, 960, 965, 970, 975, and 980 (FIG.","9) may form the second arc 495.The second arc 495 may generally follow the contour of the rear portion 180 of the body portion 110.Alternatively, the first and second arcs 490 and 495 may define loops with other shapes that extend across the bottom portion 140 (e.g., a generally O-shaped loop).","The apparatus, methods, and articles of manufacture described herein are not limited in this regard.","Although the above examples may depict the plurality of weight portions 120 and the plurality of weight ports 900 forming a particular geometric shape, the apparatus, methods, and articles of manufacture described herein may have weight portions and weight ports located along a periphery of a weight portion region to form other geometric shapes.","Turning to FIG.","21, for example, a golf club head 2100 may include a bottom portion 2110, and a plurality of weight portions 2120 disposed in a plurality of weight ports 2130.The plurality of weight ports 2130 may be located along a periphery of a weight port region 2140 of the bottom portion 2110 (i.e., the plurality of weight ports 2130 may extend between the toe and heel portions 2112 and 2114, respectively, across the bottom portion 2110).","In contrast to the plurality of weight portions 120 and the plurality of weight ports 900 (e.g., FIGS.","4 and 9), the plurality of weight ports 2130 may form two discrete arcs, generally shown as 2150 and 2155, extending across the bottom portion 2110.The plurality of weight ports 2130 may extend more than 50% of a maximum toe-to-heel distance 2190 of the golf club head 2100.The apparatus, methods, and articles of manufacture are not limited in this regard.","As illustrated in FIG.","22, for example, a golf club head 2200 may include a bottom portion 2210, and a plurality of weight portions 2220 disposed in a plurality of weight ports 2230.The plurality of weight ports 2230 located along a periphery of a weight port region 2240 may be arranged along a path that defines an arc, generally shown as 2250, extending across the bottom portion 2210 (i.e., the plurality of weight ports 2230 may extend between the toe and heel portions, 2212 and 2214 across the bottom portion 2210).","The plurality of weight ports 2230 may extend more than 50% of a maximum toe-to-heel distance 2290 of the golf club head 2200.The apparatus, methods, and articles of manufacture are not limited in this regard.","The apparatus, methods, and articles of manufacture described herein may be implemented in a variety of embodiments, and the foregoing description of some of these embodiments does not necessarily represent a complete description of all possible embodiments.","Instead, the description of the drawings, and the drawings themselves, disclose at least one embodiment, and may disclosure alternative embodiments.","As the rules of golf may change from time to time (e.g., new regulations may be adopted or old rules may be eliminated or modified by golf standard organizations and/or governing bodies such as the USGA, the R&A, etc.","), golf equipment related to the apparatus, methods, and articles of manufacture described herein may be conforming or non-conforming to the rules of golf at any particular time.","Accordingly, golf equipment related to the apparatus, methods, and articles of manufacture described herein may be advertised, offered for sale, and/or sold as conforming or non-conforming golf equipment.","The apparatus, methods, and articles of manufacture described herein are not limited in this regard.","Further, while the above examples may be described with respect to golf clubs, the apparatus, methods and articles of manufacture described herein may be applicable to other suitable types of sports equipment such as a fishing pole, a hockey stick, a ski pole, a tennis racket, etc.","Although certain example apparatus, methods, and articles of manufacture have been described herein, the scope of coverage of this disclosure is not limited thereto.","On the contrary, this disclosure covers all apparatus, methods, and articles of articles of manufacture fairly falling within the scope of the appended claims either literally or under the doctrine of equivalents."]],"string":"[\n [\n \"GOLF CLUB HEADS AND METHODS TO MANUFACTURE GOLF CLUB HEADS\",\n \"Embodiments of golf club heads and methods to manufacture golf club heads are generally described herein.\",\n \"In one example, a method may include providing a body portion and a plurality of weight portions.\",\n \"The plurality of weight portions may include a first set of weight portions and a second set of weight portions.\",\n \"Each weight portion of the first set of weight portions may be associated with a first mass, and each weight portion of the second set of weight portions may be associated with a second mass that is less than the first mass.\",\n \"Other examples and embodiments may be described and claimed.\"\n ],\n [\n \"1-20.\",\n \"(canceled) 21.A golf club head comprising: a body portion comprising a front portion, a rear portion, a toe portion, a heel portion, a top portion, and a bottom portion; a port region defined by a curved outer surface portion of the bottom portion, the port region comprising a plurality of weight ports, each weight port of the plurality of weight ports having an opening on the curved outer surface portion, the plurality of weight ports comprising: a first plurality of weight ports being closer to the front portion than the rear portion and extending between the toe portion and the heel portion a distance of at least 2.5 inches, the first plurality of weight ports arranged along a first arc that is convex relative to a tangent plane of the front portion; and a second plurality of weight ports being closer to the rear portion than the front portion, the second plurality of weight ports arranged along a second arc that is concave relative to the tangent plane of the front portion.\",\n \"22.A golf club head as defined in claim 21, wherein the second plurality of weight ports extends between 2.5 and 3.7 inches between the toe portion and the heel portion.\",\n \"23.A golf club head as defined in claim 21, wherein the second plurality of weight ports extends between 2.5 and 5 inches between the toe portion and the heel portion.\",\n \"24.A golf club head as defined in claim 21, wherein the distance between the toe portion and the heel portion that the first plurality of weight ports extends is less than 3.7 inches.\",\n \"25.A golf club head as defined in claim 21, wherein the distance between the toe portion and the heel portion that the first plurality of weight ports extends is less than 5 inches.\",\n \"26.A golf club head as defined in claim 21, wherein a first weight port of the first plurality of weight ports is located nearest to the heel portion and a second weight port of the first plurality of weight ports is located nearest to the toe portion, wherein a first weight portion is disposed in the first weight port and a second weight portion is disposed in the second weight port, the first weight portion having a mass greater than the second weight portion.\",\n \"27.A golf club head as defined in claim 21, wherein a first weight port of the first plurality of weight ports is located nearest to the heel portion and a second weight port of the first plurality of weight ports is located nearest to the toe portion, wherein a first weight portion is disposed in the first weight port and a second weight portion is disposed in the second weight port, the second weight portion having a mass greater than the first weight portion.\",\n \"28.A golf club head as defined in claim 21, wherein a first weight port of the second plurality of weight ports is located nearest to the heel portion and a second weight port of the second plurality of weight ports is located nearest to the toe portion, wherein a first weight portion is disposed in the first weight port and a second weight portion is disposed in the second weight port, the first weight portion having a mass greater than the second weight portion.\",\n \"29.A golf club head as defined in claim 21, wherein a first weight port of the second plurality of weight ports is located nearest to the heel portion and a second weight port of the second plurality of weight ports is located nearest to the toe portion, wherein a first weight portion is disposed in the first weight port and a second weight portion is disposed in the second weight port, the second weight portion having a mass greater than the first weight portion.\",\n \"30.A golf club head comprising: a body portion comprising a front portion, a rear portion, a toe portion, a heel portion, a top portion, and a bottom portion; a port region defined by a curved outer surface portion of the bottom portion, the port region comprising a plurality of weight ports, each weight port of the plurality of weight ports having an opening on the curved outer surface portion, the plurality of weight ports comprising: a first plurality of weight ports being closer to the front portion than the rear portion and extending between the toe portion and the heel portion a distance of at least 2.5 inches, the first plurality of weight ports arranged along a first arc that is convex relative to a tangent plane of the front portion; and a second plurality of weight ports being closer to the rear portion than the front portion, the second plurality of weight ports arranged along a second arc that is concave relative to the tangent plane of the front portion; and a first plurality of weight portions disposed in the first plurality of weight ports, a second plurality of weight portions disposed in the second plurality of weight port, the first plurality of weight portions collectively defining a first mass, the second plurality of weight portions collectively defining a second mass, the first mass being greater than the second mass.\",\n \"31.A golf club head as defined in claim 30, wherein the second plurality of weight ports extends between 2.5 and 3.7 inches between the toe portion and the heel portion.\",\n \"32.A golf club head as defined in claim 30, wherein the second plurality of weight ports extends between 2.5 and 5 inches between the toe portion and the heel portion.\",\n \"33.A golf club head as defined in claim 30, wherein the distance between the toe portion and the heel portion that the first plurality of weight ports extends is less than 3.7 inches.\",\n \"34.A golf club head as defined in claim 30, wherein the distance between the toe portion and the heel portion that the first plurality of weight ports extends is less than 5 inches.\",\n \"35.A golf club head comprising: a body portion comprising a front portion, a rear portion, a toe portion, a heel portion, a top portion, and a bottom portion; a port region defined by a curved outer surface portion of the bottom portion, the port region comprising a plurality of weight ports, each weight port of the plurality of weight ports having an opening on the curved outer surface portion, the plurality of weight ports comprising: a first plurality of weight ports being closer to the front portion than the rear portion and extending between the toe portion and the heel portion a distance of at least 2.5 inches, the first plurality of weight ports arranged along a first arc that is convex relative to a tangent plane of the front portion; and a second plurality of weight ports being closer to the rear portion than the front portion, the second plurality of weight ports arranged along a second arc that is concave relative to the tangent plane of the front portion; and a first plurality of weight portions disposed in the first plurality of weight ports, a second plurality of weight portions disposed in the second plurality of weight port, the first plurality of weight portions collectively defining a first mass, the second plurality of weight portions collectively defining a second mass, the second mass being greater than the first mass.\",\n \"36.A golf club head as defined in claim 35, wherein the second plurality of weight ports extends between 2.5 and 3.7 inches between the toe portion and the heel portion.\",\n \"37.A golf club head as defined in claim 35, wherein the second plurality of weight ports extends between 2.5 and 5 inches between the toe portion and the heel portion.\",\n \"38.A golf club head as defined in claim 35, wherein the distance between the toe portion and the heel portion that the first plurality of weight ports extends is less than 3.7 inches.\",\n \"39.A golf club head as defined in claim 35, wherein the distance between the toe portion and the heel portion that the first plurality of weight ports extends is less than 5 inches.\",\n \"40.A golf club head as defined in claim 35, wherein at least one of the first plurality of weight portions has a mass of about 0.4 grams, and wherein at least one of the second plurality of weight portions has a mass of about 2.6 grams.\"\n ],\n [\n \" BACKGROUND In golf, various factors may affect the distance and direction that a golf ball may travel.\",\n \"In particular, the center of gravity (CG) and/or the moment of inertia (MOI) of a golf club head may affect the launch angle, the spin rate, and the direction of the golf ball at impact.\",\n \"Such factors may vary significantly based the type of golf swing.\"\n ],\n [\n \" BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG.\",\n \"1 is top perspective view of an example golf club head according to an embodiment of the apparatus, methods, and articles of manufacture described herein.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"2 depicts a bottom perspective view of the example golf club head of FIG.\",\n \"1 .\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"3 depicts a top view of the example golf club head of FIG.\",\n \"1 .\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"4 depicts a bottom view of the example golf club head of FIG.\",\n \"1 .\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"5 depicts a front view of the example golf club head of FIG.\",\n \"1 .\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"6 depicts a rear view of the example golf club head of FIG.\",\n \"1 .\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"7 depicts a toe view of the example golf club head of FIG.\",\n \"1 .\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"8 depicts a heel view of the example golf club head of FIG.\",\n \"1 .\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"9 depicts a bottom view of an example body portion of the example golf club head of FIG.\",\n \"1 .\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"10 depicts a cross-sectional view of the example body portion of the example golf club head of FIG.\",\n \"1 .\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"11 depicts two weight ports of the example golf club head of FIG.\",\n \"1 .\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"12 depicts a top view of an example weight portion of the example golf club head of FIG.\",\n \"1 .\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"13 depicts a side view of the example weight portion of FIG.\",\n \"10 .\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"14 depicts example launch trajectory profiles of the example golf club head of FIG.\",\n \"1 .\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"15 depicts a first weight configuration of the example weight portions.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"16 depicts a second weight configuration of the example weight portions.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"17 depicts a third weight configuration of the example weight portions.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"18 depicts a fourth weight configuration of the example weight portions.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"19 depicts an example launch trajectory profile of the example golf club head of FIG.\",\n \"18 .\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"20 depicts one manner in which the example golf club heads described herein may be manufactured.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"21 depicts a bottom view of another example golf club head.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"22 depicts a bottom view of yet another example golf club head.\",\n \"detailed-description description=\\\"Detailed Description\\\" end=\\\"lead\\\"?\",\n \"For simplicity and clarity of illustration, the drawing figures illustrate the general manner of construction, and descriptions and details of well-known features and techniques may be omitted to avoid unnecessarily obscuring the present disclosure.\",\n \"Additionally, elements in the drawing figures are not necessarily drawn to scale.\",\n \"For example, the dimensions of some of the elements in the figures may be exaggerated relative to other elements to help improve understanding of embodiments of the present disclosure.\"\n ],\n [\n \"CROSS REFERENCE This application is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser.\",\n \"No.\",\n \"15/446,842, filed Mar.\",\n \"1, 2017, which is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser.\",\n \"No.\",\n \"15/377,120, filed Dec. 13, 2016, now U.S. Pat.\",\n \"No.\",\n \"9,802,087, which is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser.\",\n \"No.14/939,849, filed Nov. 12, 2015, now U.S. Pat.\",\n \"No.\",\n \"9,555,295, which is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser.\",\n \"No.\",\n \"14/615,606, filed Feb. 6, 2015, now U.S. Pat.\",\n \"No.\",\n \"9,199,140, which claims the benefit of U.S.\",\n \"Provisional Application No.\",\n \"62/109,510, filed Jan. 29, 2015, U.S.\",\n \"Provisional Application No.\",\n \"62/105,123, filed Jan. 19, 2015, U.S.\",\n \"Provisional Application No.\",\n \"62/101,543, filed Jan. 9, 2015, U.S.\",\n \"Provisional Application No.\",\n \"62/048,693, filed Sep. 10, 2014, and U.S.\",\n \"Provisional Application No.\",\n \"62/042,155, filed Aug. 26, 2014.The disclosures of the referenced applications are incorporated herein by reference.\",\n \"COPYRIGHT AUTHORIZATION The present disclosure may be subject to copyright protection.\",\n \"The copyright owner has no objection to the facsimile reproduction by anyone of the present disclosure and its related documents, as they appear in the Patent and Trademark Office patent files or records, but otherwise reserves all applicable copyrights.\",\n \"FIELD The present disclosure generally relates to sports equipment, and more particularly, to golf club heads and methods to manufacture golf club heads.\",\n \"BACKGROUND In golf, various factors may affect the distance and direction that a golf ball may travel.\",\n \"In particular, the center of gravity (CG) and/or the moment of inertia (MOI) of a golf club head may affect the launch angle, the spin rate, and the direction of the golf ball at impact.\",\n \"Such factors may vary significantly based the type of golf swing.\",\n \"BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG.\",\n \"1 is top perspective view of an example golf club head according to an embodiment of the apparatus, methods, and articles of manufacture described herein.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"2 depicts a bottom perspective view of the example golf club head of FIG.\",\n \"1.FIG.\",\n \"3 depicts a top view of the example golf club head of FIG.\",\n \"1.FIG.\",\n \"4 depicts a bottom view of the example golf club head of FIG.\",\n \"1.FIG.\",\n \"5 depicts a front view of the example golf club head of FIG.\",\n \"1.FIG.\",\n \"6 depicts a rear view of the example golf club head of FIG.\",\n \"1.FIG.\",\n \"7 depicts a toe view of the example golf club head of FIG.\",\n \"1.FIG.\",\n \"8 depicts a heel view of the example golf club head of FIG.\",\n \"1.FIG.\",\n \"9 depicts a bottom view of an example body portion of the example golf club head of FIG.\",\n \"1.FIG.\",\n \"10 depicts a cross-sectional view of the example body portion of the example golf club head of FIG.\",\n \"1.FIG.\",\n \"11 depicts two weight ports of the example golf club head of FIG.\",\n \"1.FIG.\",\n \"12 depicts a top view of an example weight portion of the example golf club head of FIG.\",\n \"1.FIG.\",\n \"13 depicts a side view of the example weight portion of FIG.\",\n \"10.FIG.\",\n \"14 depicts example launch trajectory profiles of the example golf club head of FIG.\",\n \"1.FIG.\",\n \"15 depicts a first weight configuration of the example weight portions.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"16 depicts a second weight configuration of the example weight portions.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"17 depicts a third weight configuration of the example weight portions.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"18 depicts a fourth weight configuration of the example weight portions.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"19 depicts an example launch trajectory profile of the example golf club head of FIG.\",\n \"18.FIG.\",\n \"20 depicts one manner in which the example golf club heads described herein may be manufactured.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"21 depicts a bottom view of another example golf club head.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"22 depicts a bottom view of yet another example golf club head.\",\n \"For simplicity and clarity of illustration, the drawing figures illustrate the general manner of construction, and descriptions and details of well-known features and techniques may be omitted to avoid unnecessarily obscuring the present disclosure.\",\n \"Additionally, elements in the drawing figures are not necessarily drawn to scale.\",\n \"For example, the dimensions of some of the elements in the figures may be exaggerated relative to other elements to help improve understanding of embodiments of the present disclosure.\",\n \"DESCRIPTION In general, golf club heads and methods to manufacture golf club heads are described herein.\",\n \"The apparatus, methods, and articles of manufacture described herein are not limited in this regard.\",\n \"In the example of FIGS.\",\n \"1-13, a golf club head 100 may include a body portion 110, and a plurality of weight portions 120, generally, shown as a first set of weight portions 210 (FIG.\",\n \"2) and a second set of weight portions 220 (FIG.\",\n \"2).\",\n \"The body portion 110 may include a top portion 130, a bottom portion 140, a toe portion 150, a heel portion 160, a front portion 170, and a rear portion 180.The bottom portion 140 may include a skirt portion 190 defined as a side portion of the golf club head 100 between the top portion 130 and the bottom portion 140 excluding the front portion 170 and extending across a periphery of the golf club head 100 from the toe portion 150, around the rear portion 180, and to the heel portion 160.The bottom portion 140 may include a transition region 230 and a weight port region 240.For example, the weight port region 240 may be a D-shape region.\",\n \"The weight port region 240 may include a plurality of weight ports 900 (FIG.\",\n \"9) to receive the plurality of weight portions 120.The front portion 170 may include a face portion 175 to engage a golf ball (not shown).\",\n \"The body portion 110 may also include a hosel portion 165 to receive a shaft (not shown).\",\n \"Alternatively, the body portion 110 may include a bore instead of the hosel portion 165.For example, the body portion 110 may be made partially or entirely of an aluminum-based material, a magnesium-type material, a steel-based material, a titanium-based material, any combination thereof, or any other suitable material.\",\n \"In another example the body portion 110 may be made partially or entirely of a non-metal material such as a ceramic material, a composite material, any combination thereof, or any other suitable material.\",\n \"The golf club head 100 may have a club head volume greater than or equal to 300 cubic centimeters (cm3 or cc).\",\n \"In one example, the golf club head 100 may be about 460 cc.\",\n \"Alternatively, the golf club head 100 may have a club head volume less than or equal to 300 cc.\",\n \"In particular, the golf club head 100 may have a club head volume between 100 cc and 200 cc.\",\n \"The club head volume of the golf club head 100 may be determined by using the weighted water displacement method (i.e., Archimedes Principle).\",\n \"For example, procedures defined by golf standard organizations and/or governing bodies such as the United States Golf Association (USGA) and/or the Royal and Ancient Golf Club of St. Andrews (R&A) may be used for measuring the club head volume of the golf club head 100.Although FIG.\",\n \"1 may depict a particular type of club head (e.g., a driver-type club head), the apparatus, methods, and articles of manufacture described herein may be applicable to other types of club head (e.g., a fairway wood-type club head, a hybrid-type club head, an iron-type club head, a putter-type club head, etc.).\",\n \"The apparatus, methods, and articles of manufacture described herein are not limited in this regard.\",\n \"Each of the first set of weight portions 210, generally shown as 405, 410, 415, 420, 425, 430, and 435 (FIG.\",\n \"4), may be associated with a first mass.\",\n \"Each of the second set of weight portions 220, generally shown as 440, 445, 450, 455, 460, 465, 470, 475, and 480 (FIG.\",\n \"4), may be associated with a second mass.\",\n \"The first mass may be greater than the second mass or vice versa.\",\n \"In one example, the first set of weight portions 210 may be made of a tungsten-based material whereas the second set of weight portions 220 may be made of an aluminum-based material.\",\n \"As described in detail below, the first and second set of weight portions 210 and 220, respectively, may provide various weight configurations (e.g., FIGS.\",\n \"15-18).\",\n \"Referring to FIGS.\",\n \"9-11, for example, the bottom portion 140 of the body portion 110 may include a plurality of weight ports 900.The plurality of weight ports 900, generally shown as 905, 910, 915, 920, 925, 930, 935, 940, 945, 950, 955, 960, 965, 970, 975, and 980, may be located along a periphery of the weight port region 240 of the bottom portion 140.The plurality of weight ports 900 may extend across the bottom portion 140.In particular, the plurality of weight ports 900 may extend between the toe and heel portions 150 and 160, respectively, across the bottom portion 140.The plurality of weight ports 900 may also extend between the front and rear portions 170 and 180, respectively, across the bottom portion 140.The plurality of weight ports 900 may be arranged across the bottom portion 140 along a path that defines a generally D-shaped loop.\",\n \"In one example, the plurality of weight ports 900 may extend more than 50% of a maximum toe-to-heel distance 500 between of the toe and heel portions 150 and 160, respectively, across the bottom portion 140.The maximum toe-to-heel distance 500 of the golf club head 100 may be measured from transition regions between the top and bottom portions 130 and 140, respectively, at the toe and heel portions 150 and 160, respectively.\",\n \"Alternatively, the maximum toe-to-heel distance 500 may be a horizontal distance between vertical projections of the outermost points of the toe and heel portions 150 and 160, respectively.\",\n \"For example, the maximum toe-to-heel distance 500 may be measured when the golf club head 100 is at a lie angle 510 of about 60 degrees.\",\n \"If the outermost point of the heel portion 160 is not readily defined, the outermost point of the heel portion 160 may be located at a height 520 of about 0.875 inches (22.23 millimeters) above a ground plane 530 (i.e., a horizontal plane on which the golf club head 100 is lying on).\",\n \"In one example, the maximum toe-to-heel distance 500 may be no more than 5 inches (127 millimeters).\",\n \"Accordingly, the plurality of weight ports 900 may extend at least 2.5 inches between the toe and heel portions 150 and 160, respectively.\",\n \"A maximum toe-to-heel distance 995 of the plurality of weight ports 900 may extend between the weight ports 940 and 980.For example, the maximum toe-to-heel distance 995 of the plurality of weight ports 900 may be about 3.7 inches.\",\n \"As the rules of golf may change from time to time (e.g., new regulations may be adopted or old rules may be eliminated or modified by golf standard organizations and/or governing bodies), the lie angle 510 and/or the height 520 for measuring the maximum toe-to-heel distance 500 may also change.\",\n \"The apparatus, methods, and articles of manufacture described herein are not limited in this regard.\",\n \"Each of the plurality of weight ports 900 may be associated with a port diameter (Dport) (e.g., two shown as 1105 and 1110 in FIG.\",\n \"11).\",\n \"For example, the port diameter of each weight port of the plurality of weight ports 900 may be about 0.3 inch (7.65 millimeters).\",\n \"Alternatively, the port diameters of adjacent weight ports may be different.\",\n \"In one example, the weight port 905 may be associated with a port diameter 1105, and the weight port 910 may be associated with a port diameter 1110.In particular, the port diameter 1105 of the weight port 905 may be larger than the port diameter 1110 of the weight port 910 or vice versa.\",\n \"The apparatus, methods, and articles of manufacture described herein are not limited in this regard.\",\n \"The bottom portion 140 may also include an outer surface 990.As illustrated in FIG.\",\n \"10, for example, the plurality of weight ports 900 may be formed on the bottom portion 140 relative to an outer surface curve 1090 formed by the outer surface 990.In particular, each of the plurality of weight ports 900 may be associated with a port axis generally shown as 1005, 1010, and 1015.A center of a weight port may define the port axis of the weight port.\",\n \"Each port axis may be perpendicular or substantially perpendicular to a plane that is tangent to the outer surface curve 1090 at the point of intersection of the port axis and the outer surface curve 1090.In one example, substantially perpendicular may refer to a deviation of ±5° from perpendicular.\",\n \"In another example, substantially perpendicular may refer to a deviation of ±3° from perpendicular.\",\n \"The deviation from perpendicular may depend on manufacturing tolerances.\",\n \"In one example, the port axis 1010 may be perpendicular or substantially perpendicular (i.e., normal) to a tangent plane 1012 of the outer surface curve 1090.Multiple fixtures may be used to manufacture the plurality of weight ports 900 by positioning the golf club head 100 in various positions.\",\n \"Alternatively, the weight ports may be manufactured by multiple-axis machining processes, which may be able to rotate the golf club head around multiple axes to mill away excess material (e.g., by water jet cutting and/or laser cutting) to form the plurality of weight ports 900.Further, multiple-axis machining processes may provide a suitable surface finish because the milling tool may be moved tangentially about a surface.\",\n \"Accordingly, the apparatus, methods, and articles of manufacture described herein may use a multiple-axis machining process to form each of the plurality of weight ports 900 on the bottom portion 140.For example, a five-axis milling machine may form the plurality of weight ports 900 so that the port axis 1000 of each of the plurality weight ports 900 may be perpendicular or substantially perpendicular to the outer surface curve 1090.The tool of the five-axis milling machine may be moved tangentially about the outer surface curve 1090 of the outer surface 990.Turning to FIG.\",\n \"11, for example, two adjacent weight ports may be separated by a port distance 1100, which may be the shortest distance between two adjacent weight ports on the outer surface 990.In particular, the port distance 1100 may be less than or equal to the port diameter of any of the two adjacent weight ports.\",\n \"In one example, the port distance 1100 between the weight ports 905 and 910 may be less than or equal to either the port diameter 1105 or the port diameter 1110.The apparatus, methods, and articles of manufacture described herein are not limited in this regard.\",\n \"The plurality of weight portions 120 may have similar or different physical properties (e.g., density, shape, mass, volume, size, color, etc.).\",\n \"In one example, the first set of weight portions 210 may be a black color whereas the second set of weight portions 220 may be a gray color or a steel color.\",\n \"Some or all of the plurality of weight portions 120 may be partially or entirely made of a metal material such as a steel-based material, a tungsten-based material, an aluminum-based material, any combination thereof or suitable types of materials.\",\n \"Alternatively, some or all of the plurality of weight portions 120 may be partially or entirely made of a non-metal material (e.g., composite, plastic, etc.).\",\n \"In the illustrated example as shown in FIGS.\",\n \"12 and 13, each weight portion of the plurality of weight portions 120 may have a cylindrical shape (e.g., a circular cross section).\",\n \"Although the above examples may describe weight portions having a particular shape, the apparatus, methods, and articles of manufacture described herein may include weight portions of other suitable shapes (e.g., a portion of or a whole sphere, cube, cone, cylinder, pyramid, cuboidal, prism, frustum, or other suitable geometric shape).\",\n \"Each weight portion of the plurality of weight portions 120 may be associated with a diameter 1200 and a height 1300.In one example, each weight portion of the plurality of weight portions 120 may have a diameter of about 0.3 inch (7.62 millimeters) and a height of about 0.2 inch (5.08 millimeters).\",\n \"Alternatively, the first and second sets of weight portions 210 and 220, respectively, may be different in width and/or height.\",\n \"Instead of a rear-to-front direction as in other golf club heads, each weight portion of the plurality of weight portions 120 may engage one of the plurality of weight ports 400 in a bottom-to-top direction.\",\n \"The plurality of weight portions 120 may include threads to secure in the weight ports.\",\n \"For example, each weight portion of the plurality of weight portions 120 may be a screw.\",\n \"The plurality of weight portions 120 may not be readily removable from the body portion 110 with or without a tool.\",\n \"Alternatively, the plurality of weight portions 120 may be readily removable (e.g., with a tool) so that a relatively heavier or lighter weight portion may replace one or more of the plurality of weight portions 120.In another example, the plurality of weight portions 120 may be secured in the weight ports of the body portion 110 with epoxy or adhesive so that the plurality of weight portions 120 may not be readily removable.\",\n \"In yet another example, the plurality of weight portions 120 may be secured in the weight ports of the body portion 110 with both epoxy and threads so that the plurality of weight portions 120 may not be readily removable.\",\n \"The apparatus, methods, and articles of manufacture described herein are not limited in this regard.\",\n \"In contrast to other golf club heads, the golf club head 100 may accommodate at least four different types of golf swings.\",\n \"As illustrated in FIG.\",\n \"14, for example, each weight configuration may be associated with one of the plurality of launch trajectory profiles 1400, generally shown as 1410, 1420, and 1430.Referring to FIG.\",\n \"15, for example, a first weight configuration 1500 may be associated with a configuration of a first set of weight ports 1510.The first set of weight ports 1510 may be located at or proximate to the front portion 170 (e.g., weight ports 905, 910, 915, 920, 925, 930, and 935 shown in FIG.\",\n \"9).\",\n \"In the first weight configuration 1500, a first set of weight portions may be disposed toward the front portion 170 according to the configuration of the first set of weight ports 1510, whereas a second set of weight portions may be disposed toward the rear portion 180.In particular, the first set of weight portions may form a cluster according to the configuration of the first set of weight ports 1510 at or proximate to the front portion 170.The weight portions 405, 410, 415, 420, 425, 430, and 435 may define the first set of weight portions and may be disposed in weight ports 905, 910, 915, 920, 925, 930, and 935, respectively.\",\n \"The weight portions 440, 445, 450, 455, 460, 465, 470, 475, and 480 may define the second set of weight portions and may be disposed in weight ports 940, 945, 950, 955, 960, 965, 970, 975, and 980, respectively.\",\n \"The first weight configuration 1500 may be associated with the first launch trajectory profile 1410 (FIG.\",\n \"14).\",\n \"In particular, the first weight configuration 1500 may decrease spin rate of a golf ball.\",\n \"By placing relatively heavier weight portions (i.e., the first set of weight portions) towards the front portion 170 of the golf club head 100 according to the configuration of the first set of weight ports 1510, the center of gravity (GC) of the golf club head 100 may move relatively forward and lower to produce a relatively lower launch and spin trajectory.\",\n \"As a result, the first launch trajectory profile 1410 may be associated with a relatively greater roll distance (i.e., distance after impact with the ground).\",\n \"While the above example may describe the weight portions being disposed in certain weight ports, any weight portion of the first set of weight portions 210 may be disposed in any weight port of the first set of weight ports 1510.Turning to FIG.\",\n \"16, for example, a second weight configuration 1600 may be associated with a configuration of a second set of weight ports 1610.The second set of weight ports 1610 may be located at or proximate to the rear portion 180 (e.g., weight ports, 945, 950, 955, 960, 965, 970, and 975 shown in FIG.\",\n \"9).\",\n \"In a second weight configuration 1600 as illustrated in FIG.\",\n \"16, for example, a first set of weight portions may be disposed toward the rear portion 180 whereas a second set of weight portions may be disposed toward the front portion 170.In particular, the first set of weight portions may form a cluster 1610 at or proximate to the rear portion 180 according to the configuration of the second set of weight ports 1610.The weight portions 405, 410, 415, 420, 425, 430, and 435 may define the first set of weight portions and may be disposed in weight ports 945, 950, 955, 960, 965, 970, and 975, respectively.\",\n \"The weight portions 440, 445, 450, 455, 460, 465, 470, 475, and 480 may define the second set of weight portions and may be disposed in weight ports 905, 910, 915, 920, 925, 930, 935, 940, and 980, respectively.\",\n \"The second weight configuration 1600 may be associated with the second launch trajectory profile 1420 (FIG.\",\n \"14).\",\n \"In particular, the second weight configuration 1600 may increase launch angle of a golf ball and maximize forgiveness.\",\n \"By placing the relatively heavier weight portion (i.e., the first set of weight portions) towards the rear portion 180 of the golf club head 100 according to the configuration of the second set of weight ports 1610, the center of gravity (GC) of the golf club head 100 may move relatively back and up to produce a relatively higher launch and spin trajectory.\",\n \"Further, the moment of inertia (MOI) of the golf club head 100 may increase in both the horizontal (front-to-back axis) and vertical axes (top-to-bottom axis), which in turn, provides relatively more forgiveness on off-center hits.\",\n \"As a result, the second launch trajectory profile 1420 may be associated with a relatively greater carry distance (i.e., in-the-air distance).\",\n \"Turning to FIG.\",\n \"17, for example, a third weight configuration 1700 may be associated with a configuration of a third set of weight ports 1710.In the third weight configuration 1700, for example, a first set of weight portions may be disposed toward the heel portion 160 whereas a second set of weight portions may be disposed toward the toe portion 150.In particular, the first set of weight portions may form a cluster of weight portions at or proximate to the heel portion 160 according to the configuration of the third set of weight ports 1710.The weight portions 405, 410, 415, 420, 425, 430, and 435 may define the first set of weight portions and may be disposed in weight ports 925, 930, 935, 940, 945, 950, and 955, respectively.\",\n \"The weight portions 440, 445, 450, 455, 460, 465, 470, 475, and 480 may define the second set of weight portions and may be disposed in weight ports 905, 910, 915, 920, 960, 965, 970, 975, and 980, respectively.\",\n \"The third weight configuration 1700 may be associated with a third launch trajectory profile 1430 (FIG.\",\n \"14).\",\n \"In particular, the third weight configuration 1700 may allow an individual to turn over the golf club head 100 relatively easier (i.e., square up the face portion 175 to impact a golf ball).\",\n \"By placing the relatively heavier weight portions (i.e., the first set of weight portions) towards the heel portion 160 of the golf club head 100, the center of gravity (GC) of the golf club head 100 may move relatively closer to the axis of the shaft.\",\n \"Turning to FIG.\",\n \"18, for example, a fourth weight configuration 1800 may be associated with a configuration of a fourth set of weight ports 1810.In a fourth weight configuration 1800, for example, a first set of weight portions may be disposed toward the toe portion 150 whereas a second set of weight portions may be disposed toward the heel portion 160.In particular, the first set of weight portions may form a cluster of weight portions at or proximate to the toe portion 150 according to the configuration of the fourth set of weight ports 1810.The weight portions 405, 410, 415, 420, 425, 430, and 435 may define the first set of weight portions and may be disposed in weight ports 905, 910, 915, 965, 970, 975, and 980, respectively.\",\n \"The weight portions 440, 445, 450, 455, 460, 465, 470, 475, and 480 may define the second set of weight portions and may be disposed in weight ports 920, 925, 930, 935, 940, 945, 950, 955, and 960, respectively.\",\n \"The fourth weight configuration 1800 may be associated with the third launch trajectory profile 1430 (FIG.\",\n \"14).\",\n \"In particular, the fourth weight configuration 1800 may prevent an individual from turning over the golf club head 100 (i.e., the face portion 175 may be more open to impact a golf ball).\",\n \"By placing the relatively heavier weight portions (i.e., the first set of weight portions) towards the toe portion 150 of the golf club head 100, the center of gravity (GC) of the golf club head 100 may move relatively farther away from the axis of the shaft.\",\n \"The fourth weight configuration 1800 may result in a fade golf shot (as shown in FIG.\",\n \"19, for example, a trajectory or ball flight in which a golf ball travels to the left of a target 1910 and curving back to the right of the target for a right-handed individual).\",\n \"The apparatus, methods, and articles of manufacture described herein are not limited in this regard.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"20 depicts one manner in which the golf club head 100 may be manufactured.\",\n \"In the example of FIG.\",\n \"20, the process 2000 may begin with providing a plurality of weight portions (block 2010).\",\n \"The plurality of weight portions may include a first set of weight portions and a second set of weight portions.\",\n \"Each weight portion of the first set of weight portions may be associated with a first mass whereas each weight portion of the second set of weight portions may be associated with a second mass.\",\n \"The first mass may be greater than the second mass.\",\n \"In one example, each weight portion of the first set of weight portions may be made of a tungsten-based material with a mass 2.6 grams whereas each weight portion of the second set of weight portions may be made of an aluminum-based material with a mass of 0.4 grams.\",\n \"The first set of weight portions may have a gray color or a steel color whereas the second set of weight portions may have a black color.\",\n \"The process 2000 may provide a body portion of a golf club head (block 2020).\",\n \"The body portion may include a front portion, a rear portion, a toe portion, a heel portion, a top portion, a bottom portion having an outer surface associated with outer surface curve, and a skirt portion between the top and bottom portion.\",\n \"The process 2000 may form a weight port region located at or proximate to the bottom and skirts portions (block 2030).\",\n \"A transition region may surround the weight port region.\",\n \"The process 2000 may form a plurality of weight ports along a periphery of the weight port region (block 2040).\",\n \"Each weight port of the plurality of weight ports may be associated with a port diameter and configured to receive at least one weight portion of the plurality of weight portions.\",\n \"Two adjacent weight ports may be separated by less than or equal to the port diameter.\",\n \"Further, each weight port of the plurality of weight ports may be associated with a port axis.\",\n \"The port axis may be perpendicular or substantially perpendicular relative to a tangent plane of the outer surface curve of the bottom portion of the golf club head.\",\n \"The example process 2000 of FIG.\",\n \"20 is merely provided and described in conjunction with FIGS.\",\n \"1-19 as an example of one way to manufacture the golf club head 100.While a particular order of actions is illustrated in FIG.\",\n \"20, these actions may be performed in other temporal sequences.\",\n \"For example, two or more actions depicted in FIG.\",\n \"20 may be performed sequentially, concurrently, or simultaneously.\",\n \"Although FIG.\",\n \"20 depicts a particular number of blocks, the process may not perform one or more blocks.\",\n \"The apparatus, methods, and articles of manufacture described herein are not limited in this regard.\",\n \"As shown in the above examples, the plurality of weight portions 120 and the plurality of weight ports 900 may be located on a periphery of the weight port region 240 along a path that defines a generally D- shaped loop formed with two arcs, generally shown as 490 and 495 in FIG.\",\n \"4.For example, the weight portions 405, 410, 415, 420, 425, 430, and 435 (FIG.\",\n \"4), and the weight ports 905, 910, 915, 920, 925, 930, and 935 (FIG.\",\n \"9) may form the first arc 490.In particular, the first arc 490 may extend between the toe and heel portions 150 and 160, respectively, across the bottom portion 140.The weight portions 440, 445, 450, 455, 460, 465, 470, 475, and 480 (FIG.\",\n \"4), the weight ports 940, 945, 950, 955, 960, 965, 970, 975, and 980 (FIG.\",\n \"9) may form the second arc 495.The second arc 495 may generally follow the contour of the rear portion 180 of the body portion 110.Alternatively, the first and second arcs 490 and 495 may define loops with other shapes that extend across the bottom portion 140 (e.g., a generally O-shaped loop).\",\n \"The apparatus, methods, and articles of manufacture described herein are not limited in this regard.\",\n \"Although the above examples may depict the plurality of weight portions 120 and the plurality of weight ports 900 forming a particular geometric shape, the apparatus, methods, and articles of manufacture described herein may have weight portions and weight ports located along a periphery of a weight portion region to form other geometric shapes.\",\n \"Turning to FIG.\",\n \"21, for example, a golf club head 2100 may include a bottom portion 2110, and a plurality of weight portions 2120 disposed in a plurality of weight ports 2130.The plurality of weight ports 2130 may be located along a periphery of a weight port region 2140 of the bottom portion 2110 (i.e., the plurality of weight ports 2130 may extend between the toe and heel portions 2112 and 2114, respectively, across the bottom portion 2110).\",\n \"In contrast to the plurality of weight portions 120 and the plurality of weight ports 900 (e.g., FIGS.\",\n \"4 and 9), the plurality of weight ports 2130 may form two discrete arcs, generally shown as 2150 and 2155, extending across the bottom portion 2110.The plurality of weight ports 2130 may extend more than 50% of a maximum toe-to-heel distance 2190 of the golf club head 2100.The apparatus, methods, and articles of manufacture are not limited in this regard.\",\n \"As illustrated in FIG.\",\n \"22, for example, a golf club head 2200 may include a bottom portion 2210, and a plurality of weight portions 2220 disposed in a plurality of weight ports 2230.The plurality of weight ports 2230 located along a periphery of a weight port region 2240 may be arranged along a path that defines an arc, generally shown as 2250, extending across the bottom portion 2210 (i.e., the plurality of weight ports 2230 may extend between the toe and heel portions, 2212 and 2214 across the bottom portion 2210).\",\n \"The plurality of weight ports 2230 may extend more than 50% of a maximum toe-to-heel distance 2290 of the golf club head 2200.The apparatus, methods, and articles of manufacture are not limited in this regard.\",\n \"The apparatus, methods, and articles of manufacture described herein may be implemented in a variety of embodiments, and the foregoing description of some of these embodiments does not necessarily represent a complete description of all possible embodiments.\",\n \"Instead, the description of the drawings, and the drawings themselves, disclose at least one embodiment, and may disclosure alternative embodiments.\",\n \"As the rules of golf may change from time to time (e.g., new regulations may be adopted or old rules may be eliminated or modified by golf standard organizations and/or governing bodies such as the USGA, the R&A, etc.\",\n \"), golf equipment related to the apparatus, methods, and articles of manufacture described herein may be conforming or non-conforming to the rules of golf at any particular time.\",\n \"Accordingly, golf equipment related to the apparatus, methods, and articles of manufacture described herein may be advertised, offered for sale, and/or sold as conforming or non-conforming golf equipment.\",\n \"The apparatus, methods, and articles of manufacture described herein are not limited in this regard.\",\n \"Further, while the above examples may be described with respect to golf clubs, the apparatus, methods and articles of manufacture described herein may be applicable to other suitable types of sports equipment such as a fishing pole, a hockey stick, a ski pole, a tennis racket, etc.\",\n \"Although certain example apparatus, methods, and articles of manufacture have been described herein, the scope of coverage of this disclosure is not limited thereto.\",\n \"On the contrary, this disclosure covers all apparatus, methods, and articles of articles of manufacture fairly falling within the scope of the appended claims either literally or under the doctrine of equivalents.\"\n ]\n]"},"source":{"kind":"string","value":"Patent_15875416"}}},{"rowIdx":4494872,"cells":{"text":{"kind":"list like","value":[["CIRCULAR STAPLING DEVICE INCLUDING BUTTRESS MATERIAL","An anvil assembly includes a circular anvil head that supports a crush ring, an anvil cap that supports an o-ring, and a circular anvil buttress member.","The cap connects to the head and is movable relative to the head between approximated and unapproximated positions.","The crush ring is spaced from the cap when the cap is in the approximated position and movable into engagement with the cap to move the cap to the unapproximated position.","The buttress member includes a body portion and an extension portion.","The body portion is supported on the head and the extension portion is secureable between the o-ring and the head when the cap is in the approximated position.","The extension portion is releasable from between the o-ring and the head when the cap is disposed in the unapproximated position so that the body portion separates from the head."],["1.","(canceled) 2.A circular stapling end effector for mounting on a distal end of an elongate body and including a cartridge assembly and an anvil assembly, the anvil assembly including: a circular anvil head that supports a crush ring; an anvil cap movable relative to the anvil head between an approximated position and an unapproximated position, the crush ring being spaced from the anvil cap when the anvil cap is disposed in the approximated position and movable into engagement with the anvil cap to move the anvil cap to the unapproximated position, the anvil cap supporting an o-ring; and a circular anvil buttress member having an extension portion that is secured between the o-ring and the anvil head when the anvil cap is disposed in the approximated position, the extension portion being releasable from between the o-ring and the anvil head when the anvil cap is disposed in the unapproximated position.","3.The circular stapling end effector of claim 2, wherein the anvil cap defines a groove in a bottom surface of the anvil cap, the o-ring being secured within the groove.","4.The circular stapling end effector of claim 2, wherein the o-ring is formed of an elastomeric material.","5.The circular stapling end effector of claim 2, wherein the elastomeric material includes nitrile.","6.The circular stapling device of 2, wherein the o-ring is disposed in a compressed condition when the anvil cap is disposed in the approximated position, and wherein the o-ring is disposed in an uncompressed condition when the anvil cap is disposed in the unapproximated position.","7.The circular stapling end effector of claim 2, wherein the extension portion of the circular anvil buttress member includes at least one tab, the o-ring being compressed against the at least one tab when the anvil cap is disposed in the approximated position.","8.The circular stapling end effector of claim 2, wherein the anvil cap includes a snap feature and the anvil head defines a first recess and a second recess, the snap feature being selectively positionable within one of the first recess and the second recess, the snap feature being positionable within the first recess when the anvil cap is disposed in the approximated position and being positionable within the second recess when the anvil cap is disposed in the unapproximated position.","9.The circular stapling end effector of claim 8, wherein the first recess and the second recess are separated by a ramped partition, the snap feature camming over the ramped feature as the anvil cap moves from the approximated position to the unapproximated position.","10.A circular stapling device having the circular stapling end effector of claim 2, the elongate body, and a manually operated handle assembly.","11.A circular stapling device having the circular stapling end effector of claim 2, the elongate body, and a handle assembly powered by a motor."],[" BACKGROUND Fasteners have been used to replace suturing when joining various body structures such as, for example, the bowel or bronchus.","Surgical stapling devices employed to apply these fasteners are generally designed to simultaneously cut and seal tissue to reduce the time and risks involved with anastomosis procedures.","Circular surgical stapling devices are employed by surgeons to sequentially or simultaneously apply one or more surgical fasteners, e.g., staples or two-part fasteners, to body tissue for the purpose of joining segments of body tissue together and/or for the creation of anastomoses.","Circular surgical stapling devices generally include an annular fastener cartridge assembly that supports a plurality of annular rows of fasteners, an annular anvil assembly operatively associated with the fastener cartridge assembly which provides a surface against which the fasteners are formed upon a firing of the circular stapling device, and an annular blade for cutting tissue.","For most procedures, the use of bare fasteners, with the fasteners in direct contact with the patient's tissue, is generally acceptable.","The integrity of the tissue will normally serve to prevent the fasteners from tearing out of the tissue and compromising the sealing before healing has occurred.","However, in some surgical operations buttress materials are employed by surgeons in combination with circular stapling devices to bridge, repair and/or reinforce tissue defects within a patient.","In particular, buttress materials reduce the trauma suffered by the patient, reduce the instances of leakage, reduce the instances of bleeding, and create a relatively strong bond between adjacent body tissues.","Accordingly, there is a need for reliably and removably attaching buttress material onto a circular stapling device so that the buttress material does not interfere with the operation of the device, remains on the device until after the fasteners are fired, and is convenient and easy to install and use."],[" SUMMARY According to one aspect, a circular stapling device includes a handle assembly, an elongate body that extends from the handle assembly, and an end effector mounted on a distal end of the elongate body and including a cartridge assembly and an anvil assembly.","The anvil assembly includes a circular anvil head that supports a crush ring, an anvil cap that supports an o-ring, and a circular anvil buttress member.","In embodiments, the o-ring is formed of an elastomeric material including nitrile.","The anvil cap connects to the anvil head and is movable relative to the anvil head between an approximated position and an unapproximated position.","The crush ring is spaced from the anvil cap when the anvil cap is disposed in the approximated position and movable into engagement with the anvil cap to move the anvil cap to the unapproximated position.","The anvil cap defines a groove in a bottom surface of the anvil cap and the o-ring is secured within the groove.","The o-ring is disposed in a compressed condition when the anvil cap is disposed in the approximated position and an uncompressed condition when the anvil cap is disposed in the unapproximated position.","The anvil cap includes a snap feature and the anvil head defines a first recess and a second recess.","The snap feature is selectively positionable within one of the first recess and the second recess.","The snap feature is positionable within the first recess when the anvil cap is disposed in the approximated position and is positionable within the second recess when the anvil cap is disposed in the unapproximated position.","The first recess and the second recess are separated by a ramped partition.","The snap feature cams over the ramped feature as the anvil cap moves from the approximated position to the unapproximated position.","The snap feature flexes outwardly from the first recess as the snap feature cams over the ramped partition and flexes inwardly into the second recess after camming over the ramped partition.","The snap feature maintains the anvil cap secured to the anvil head when the snap feature is disposed in the second recess.","The circular anvil buttress member includes a body portion and an extension portion that extends from the body portion.","The body portion is supported on a tissue engaging surface of the anvil head.","The extension portion is secureable between the o-ring and the anvil head when the anvil cap is disposed in the approximated position.","The extension portion is releasable from between the o-ring and the anvil head when the anvil cap is disposed in the unapproximated position so that the body portion separates from the tissue engaging surface of the anvil head.","The extension portion includes one or more tabs.","The o-ring is compressed against the one or more tabs when the anvil cap is disposed in the approximated position to maintain the body portion supported on the tissue engaging surface of the anvil head.","In another aspect, then anvil assembly includes a circular anvil head that supports a crush ring, and anvil cap that connects to the anvil head and supports an o-ring, and a circular anvil buttress member.","The anvil cap is movable relative to the anvil head between an approximated position and an unapproximated position.","The crush ring is spaced from the anvil cap when the anvil cap is disposed in the approximated position and movable into engagement with the anvil cap to move the anvil cap to the unapproximated position.","The anvil cap defines a groove in a bottom surface of the anvil cap.","The o-ring is secured within the groove.","The o-ring is disposed in a compressed condition when the anvil cap is disposed in the approximated position and in an uncompressed condition when the anvil cap is disposed in the unapproximated position.","In embodiments, the o-ring is formed of an elastomeric material including nitrile.","The anvil cap includes a snap feature and the anvil head defines a first recess and a second recess.","The snap feature is selectively positionable within one of the first recess and the second recess.","The snap feature is positionable within the first recess when the anvil cap is disposed in the approximated position and is positionable within the second recess when the anvil cap is disposed in the unapproximated position.","The first recess and the second recess are separated by a ramped partition.","The snap feature cams over the ramped feature as the anvil cap moves from the approximated position to the unapproximated position.","The snap feature flexes outwardly from the first recess as the snap feature cams over the ramped partition and flexes inwardly into the second recess after camming over the ramped partition.","The snap feature maintains the anvil cap secured to the anvil head when the snap feature is disposed in the second recess.","The circular anvil buttress member includes a body portion and an extension portion that extends from the body portion.","The body portion is supported on a tissue engaging surface of the anvil head.","The extension portion is secureable between the o-ring and the anvil head when the anvil cap is disposed in the approximated position.","The extension portion is releasable from between the o-ring and the anvil head when the anvil cap is disposed in the unapproximated position so that the body portion separates from the tissue engaging surface of the anvil head.","The extension portion includes one or more tabs.","The o-ring is compressed against the one or more tabs when the anvil cap is disposed in the approximated position to maintain the body portion supported on the tissue engaging surface of the anvil head.","According to yet another aspect, the present disclosure is directed to a method for releasing an anvil buttress member from an anvil assembly of a circular stapling device.","The method includes the step of providing a circular stapling device including an elongate member having an end effector mounted on a distal end of the elongate body.","The end effector includes an anvil assembly that includes an anvil head and an anvil cap that supports an o-ring.","The anvil assembly includes an extension portion of an anvil buttress member secured between the o-ring and the anvil head so that a body portion of the anvil buttress member is supported on a tissue engaging surface of the anvil head.","The method involves moving the o-ring relative to anvil head to release the anvil buttress member from the anvil assembly.","Another step includes moving a crush ring supported on the anvil head into engagement with the anvil cap to move the o-ring relative to the anvil head.","Yet another step involves spacing the o-ring and the anvil head relative to one another in response to engagement of the crush ring with the anvil head to provide a gap between the o-ring and the anvil head sufficient to enable the extension portion of the anvil buttress member to be released from between the o-ring and the anvil head.","Other aspects, features, and advantages will be apparent from the description, drawings, and claims."],["CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser.","No.","14/924,202, filed Oct. 27, 2015, which is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser.","No.","13/758,100, filed Feb. 4, 2013, (now U.S. Pat.","No.","9,192,383), the entire disclosure of which is hereby incorporated by reference herein.","TECHNICAL FIELD The present disclosure relates to surgical stapling devices and, more particularly, to structures and methods for removably attaching buttress material to circular surgical stapling devices for use in anastomosis procedures.","BACKGROUND Fasteners have been used to replace suturing when joining various body structures such as, for example, the bowel or bronchus.","Surgical stapling devices employed to apply these fasteners are generally designed to simultaneously cut and seal tissue to reduce the time and risks involved with anastomosis procedures.","Circular surgical stapling devices are employed by surgeons to sequentially or simultaneously apply one or more surgical fasteners, e.g., staples or two-part fasteners, to body tissue for the purpose of joining segments of body tissue together and/or for the creation of anastomoses.","Circular surgical stapling devices generally include an annular fastener cartridge assembly that supports a plurality of annular rows of fasteners, an annular anvil assembly operatively associated with the fastener cartridge assembly which provides a surface against which the fasteners are formed upon a firing of the circular stapling device, and an annular blade for cutting tissue.","For most procedures, the use of bare fasteners, with the fasteners in direct contact with the patient's tissue, is generally acceptable.","The integrity of the tissue will normally serve to prevent the fasteners from tearing out of the tissue and compromising the sealing before healing has occurred.","However, in some surgical operations buttress materials are employed by surgeons in combination with circular stapling devices to bridge, repair and/or reinforce tissue defects within a patient.","In particular, buttress materials reduce the trauma suffered by the patient, reduce the instances of leakage, reduce the instances of bleeding, and create a relatively strong bond between adjacent body tissues.","Accordingly, there is a need for reliably and removably attaching buttress material onto a circular stapling device so that the buttress material does not interfere with the operation of the device, remains on the device until after the fasteners are fired, and is convenient and easy to install and use.","SUMMARY According to one aspect, a circular stapling device includes a handle assembly, an elongate body that extends from the handle assembly, and an end effector mounted on a distal end of the elongate body and including a cartridge assembly and an anvil assembly.","The anvil assembly includes a circular anvil head that supports a crush ring, an anvil cap that supports an o-ring, and a circular anvil buttress member.","In embodiments, the o-ring is formed of an elastomeric material including nitrile.","The anvil cap connects to the anvil head and is movable relative to the anvil head between an approximated position and an unapproximated position.","The crush ring is spaced from the anvil cap when the anvil cap is disposed in the approximated position and movable into engagement with the anvil cap to move the anvil cap to the unapproximated position.","The anvil cap defines a groove in a bottom surface of the anvil cap and the o-ring is secured within the groove.","The o-ring is disposed in a compressed condition when the anvil cap is disposed in the approximated position and an uncompressed condition when the anvil cap is disposed in the unapproximated position.","The anvil cap includes a snap feature and the anvil head defines a first recess and a second recess.","The snap feature is selectively positionable within one of the first recess and the second recess.","The snap feature is positionable within the first recess when the anvil cap is disposed in the approximated position and is positionable within the second recess when the anvil cap is disposed in the unapproximated position.","The first recess and the second recess are separated by a ramped partition.","The snap feature cams over the ramped feature as the anvil cap moves from the approximated position to the unapproximated position.","The snap feature flexes outwardly from the first recess as the snap feature cams over the ramped partition and flexes inwardly into the second recess after camming over the ramped partition.","The snap feature maintains the anvil cap secured to the anvil head when the snap feature is disposed in the second recess.","The circular anvil buttress member includes a body portion and an extension portion that extends from the body portion.","The body portion is supported on a tissue engaging surface of the anvil head.","The extension portion is secureable between the o-ring and the anvil head when the anvil cap is disposed in the approximated position.","The extension portion is releasable from between the o-ring and the anvil head when the anvil cap is disposed in the unapproximated position so that the body portion separates from the tissue engaging surface of the anvil head.","The extension portion includes one or more tabs.","The o-ring is compressed against the one or more tabs when the anvil cap is disposed in the approximated position to maintain the body portion supported on the tissue engaging surface of the anvil head.","In another aspect, then anvil assembly includes a circular anvil head that supports a crush ring, and anvil cap that connects to the anvil head and supports an o-ring, and a circular anvil buttress member.","The anvil cap is movable relative to the anvil head between an approximated position and an unapproximated position.","The crush ring is spaced from the anvil cap when the anvil cap is disposed in the approximated position and movable into engagement with the anvil cap to move the anvil cap to the unapproximated position.","The anvil cap defines a groove in a bottom surface of the anvil cap.","The o-ring is secured within the groove.","The o-ring is disposed in a compressed condition when the anvil cap is disposed in the approximated position and in an uncompressed condition when the anvil cap is disposed in the unapproximated position.","In embodiments, the o-ring is formed of an elastomeric material including nitrile.","The anvil cap includes a snap feature and the anvil head defines a first recess and a second recess.","The snap feature is selectively positionable within one of the first recess and the second recess.","The snap feature is positionable within the first recess when the anvil cap is disposed in the approximated position and is positionable within the second recess when the anvil cap is disposed in the unapproximated position.","The first recess and the second recess are separated by a ramped partition.","The snap feature cams over the ramped feature as the anvil cap moves from the approximated position to the unapproximated position.","The snap feature flexes outwardly from the first recess as the snap feature cams over the ramped partition and flexes inwardly into the second recess after camming over the ramped partition.","The snap feature maintains the anvil cap secured to the anvil head when the snap feature is disposed in the second recess.","The circular anvil buttress member includes a body portion and an extension portion that extends from the body portion.","The body portion is supported on a tissue engaging surface of the anvil head.","The extension portion is secureable between the o-ring and the anvil head when the anvil cap is disposed in the approximated position.","The extension portion is releasable from between the o-ring and the anvil head when the anvil cap is disposed in the unapproximated position so that the body portion separates from the tissue engaging surface of the anvil head.","The extension portion includes one or more tabs.","The o-ring is compressed against the one or more tabs when the anvil cap is disposed in the approximated position to maintain the body portion supported on the tissue engaging surface of the anvil head.","According to yet another aspect, the present disclosure is directed to a method for releasing an anvil buttress member from an anvil assembly of a circular stapling device.","The method includes the step of providing a circular stapling device including an elongate member having an end effector mounted on a distal end of the elongate body.","The end effector includes an anvil assembly that includes an anvil head and an anvil cap that supports an o-ring.","The anvil assembly includes an extension portion of an anvil buttress member secured between the o-ring and the anvil head so that a body portion of the anvil buttress member is supported on a tissue engaging surface of the anvil head.","The method involves moving the o-ring relative to anvil head to release the anvil buttress member from the anvil assembly.","Another step includes moving a crush ring supported on the anvil head into engagement with the anvil cap to move the o-ring relative to the anvil head.","Yet another step involves spacing the o-ring and the anvil head relative to one another in response to engagement of the crush ring with the anvil head to provide a gap between the o-ring and the anvil head sufficient to enable the extension portion of the anvil buttress member to be released from between the o-ring and the anvil head.","Other aspects, features, and advantages will be apparent from the description, drawings, and claims.","BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF DRAWINGS The accompanying drawings, which are incorporated in and constitute a part of this specification, illustrate embodiments of the disclosure and, together with a general description of the disclosure given above and the detailed description given below, serve to explain the principles of the disclosure, wherein: FIG.","1 is a perspective view of a circular surgical stapling device according to the present disclosure; FIG.","2 is an enlarged top perspective view of an embodiment of an anvil assembly and a shaft member of the presently disclosed circular surgical stapling device; FIG.","3 is a bottom perspective view of the anvil assembly and a portion of the shaft member; FIG.","4 is a perspective view, with parts separated, of the anvil assembly and the shaft member; FIGS.","5-6 are progressive cross-sectional views of the anvil assembly and a distal portion of the shaft member, each view showing the anvil assembly in a different configuration; and FIG.","7 is a perspective view, with parts separated, of another embodiment of an anvil assembly.","DETAILED DESCRIPTION As used herein, the term “clinician” refers to a doctor, a nurse, or any other care provider and may include support personnel.","Particular embodiments of the present disclosure will be described herein with reference to the accompanying drawings.","As shown in the drawings and as described throughout the following description, and as is traditional when referring to relative positioning on an object, the term “proximal” refers to the end of the device that is closer to the clinician and the term “distal” refers to the end of the device that is farther from the clinician.","In the following description, well-known functions or constructions are not described in detail to avoid obscuring the present disclosure in unnecessary detail.","Referring initially to FIG.","1, a circular surgical stapling device for use with a buttress material is disclosed herein and is generally designated as 10.In embodiments, the surgical stapling device 10 is adapted for reuse and, in certain embodiments, the surgical stapling device 10 is adapted for a single use and can be disposable.","The circular stapling device 10 includes a handle assembly 20, a tubular elongate body 30, and an end effector 40.The end effector 40 can be provided as a removable and replaceable assembly.","The handle assembly 20 includes a rotatable advancing member 22 and a pivotable trigger member 24 that are operatively coupled to any number of drivers supported by the surgical stapling device 10 to effectuate a firing of the surgical stapling device 10.The elongate body 30 extends distally from a distal end portion of the handle assembly 20 to a proximal end portion of the end effector 40 so that the elongate body 30 is disposed between the handle assembly 20 and the end effector 40.In some embodiments, the elongate body 30 has a linear shape along the length of the elongate body 30, and in certain embodiments, the elongate body 30 has a curved shape along the length of the elongate body 30.The end effector 40 includes a fastener cartridge assembly 100, an anvil assembly 200, and a shaft 300.The shaft 300 includes a proximal end portion that is secured to the fastener cartridge assembly 100 and a distal end portion that is secured to the anvil assembly 200.In embodiments, the fastener cartridge assembly 100 and/or the anvil assembly 200 may be replaced and the circular stapling device 10 may be reused.","In embodiments, the end effector 40 supports a knife assembly with a substantially cylindrical knife 400 (FIG.","6) adapted to cut tissue.","Reference may be made to U.S. Pat.","No.","5,915,616 to Viola et al.","and commonly owned U.S. Patent Application Publication No.","2011/0174099, the entire contents of which are incorporated herein by reference, for a detailed discussion of the construction and operation of exemplary circular stapling devices.","Turning now to FIGS.","2-6, the anvil assembly 200 includes a circular anvil head 210, an o-ring 215, an anvil cap 220, a circular anvil buttress member 230, a crush ring member 240, an anvil plate 250, and a ring assembly 260.With continued reference to FIG.","4, the circular anvil head 210 includes a head body 212 that supports the crush ring member 240, the ring assembly 260, and the anvil plate 250.The head body 212 has a connector 214 that extends proximally from the head body 212 and is dimensioned to operatively couple to a distal end portion 302 of the shaft 300.The connector 214 defines a pair of opposed channels 214a.","One or more engaging passages 216 are defined by the head body 212 and extend through the head body 212.As shown in FIGS.","5-6, a distal surface of the head body 212 includes one or more ramped partitions 218 that separate a first recess 218a and a second recess 218b defined on opposite sides of the ramped partition 218.Referring again to FIG.","4, the anvil cap 220 includes a cap body 222 that is supported on the distal surface of the anvil head 210 so that the o-ring 215 is positionable between the cap body 222 and the anvil head 210.In particular, the cap body 222 defines an annular groove 222a within which the o-ring 215 is dimensioned to be received.","The cap body 222 includes one or more engaging features 224 and one or more snap features 226 that extend proximally from the cap body 222.Referring also to FIGS.","5-6, the snap feature 226 includes a tooth 226a that extends radially inwardly.","The first and second recesses 218a, 218b of the anvil head 210 are each dimensioned to receive the tooth 226a to facilitate securement of the anvil cap 220 to the anvil head 210.The cap body 222 defines an opening 228 dimensioned to enable the snap feature 226 to flex radially outwardly to permit the anvil cap 220 to move relative to the anvil head 210 between approximated and unapproximated positions.","The anvil plate 250 secures to the proximal surface of the anvil head 210 and has an annular body 252 that defines an opening 254 therethrough.","The annular body 252 has a tissue engaging surface 256 that defines a plurality of fastener forming pockets 256a.","The plurality of fastener forming pockets 256a is arranged in an annular array about the tissue engaging surface 256 of the annular body 252.The circular anvil buttress member 230 is selectively supported on the anvil plate 250 and has an annular body portion 232 and one or more extension portions 234 that extends radially from the body portion 232.The body portion 232 is dimensioned to overly the tissue engaging surface 256 of the anvil plate 250 and defines a central opening 236 therethrough.","The extension portion 234 includes a plurality of spaced apart tabs 234a that extend radially outwardly about the body portion 232.The plurality of spaced apart tabs 234a are selectively positionable between the proximal surface of the anvil cap 220 and the distal surface of the anvil head 210 to selectively secure the annular body portion 232 against the tissue engaging surface 256 of the anvil plate 250 when the anvil cap 220 is disposed in the approximated position.","As described in greater detail below, the extension portion 234 is releasable from the between the anvil cap 220 and the anvil head 210 when the anvil cap 220 is moved to the unapproximated position so that the body portion 232 separates from the tissue engaging surface 256 of the anvil plate 250.The crush ring member 240 is supported on the anvil head 210 and includes a generally annular body 242 having a plurality of tab members 244 that secure to a proximal surface of the anvil head 210 and extend from the body 242 at radially spaced locations along an outer surface of the body 242.The crush ring member 240 is dimensioned to be spaced from the one or more engaging features 224 of the cap body 222 when the anvil cap 220 is disposed in the approximated position and movable into engagement with the one or more engaging features 224 to move the anvil cap 220 to the unapproximated position.","The annular body 242 defines an aperture 246 therethrough that is dimensioned to receive the connector 214 of the head body 212 when the crush ring member 240 is secured to the anvil head 210.As illustrated in FIG.","4, the ring assembly 260 is supported between the anvil head 210 and the anvil plate 250.The ring assembly 260 includes a first annular member 270, a second annular member 280, and a third annular member 290.The first annular member 270 includes a body 272 having a proximal surface 272a and a distal surface 272b with a central opening 274 defined by an inner surface 272c that extends between the proximal surface 272a and the distal surface 272b of the body 272.The body 272 includes a plurality of annularly spaced apart projections 276 that extend distally from the distal surface 272b of the body 272.Each projection 276 includes a pair of opposed support arms 276a that extend from the projection 276.The opposed support arms 276a are disposed substantially transverse to the projection 276.The second annular member 280 includes a body 282 having a proximal surface 282a and a distal surface 282b with a central opening 284 defined by an inner surface 282c that extends between the proximal surface 282a and the distal surface 282b of the body 282.The body 282 includes a pair of opposed nubs 286 that extend from the inner surface 282c and are dimensioned to slide within the channels 214a defined in the connector 214 of the anvil head 210.The body 282 includes a plurality of ledges 288 extend from an outer surface 282d of the body 282 and radially about the outer surface 282d of the body 282.Adjacent ledges 288 define a passage 285 therebetween that is dimensioned to receive the projections 276 of the first annular member 270 such that the opposed support arms 276a of the projections 276 are supported against the adjacent ledges 288 on the distal surface 282b of the second annular member 280 when the first and second annular members 270, 280 are secured together.","The portion of the outer surface 282d of the body 282 positioned proximally of the ledges 288 is dimensioned to be seated within the central opening 274 defined by the first annular member 270 when the first and second annular members 270, 280 are secured together.","As shown in FIGS.","5 and 6, at least portions of the proximal surfaces of the first and second annular members 270, 280 are substantially aligned when the first and second annular members 270, 280 are secured together.","The third annular member 290 includes a body 292 having a proximal surface 292a and a distal surface 292b with a central opening 294 defined by an inner surface 292c that extends between the proximal surface 292a and the distal surface 292b of the body 292.As shown in FIGS.","5 and 6, when the annular members of the ring assembly 260 are secured together, the inner surface 292c of the third annular member 290 radially surrounds an outer surface of the ledges 288 of the second annular member 280 and retains the projections 276 of the first annular member 270 within the passages 285 of the second annular member 280.In this regard, the distal surface 272b of the first annular member 270 engages the proximal surface 292a of the third annular member 290 and at least portions of the distal surface 292b of the third annular member 290 and the distal surface 282b of the second annular member 280 are disposed in substantial alignment and in contact with a proximal surface of the crush ring 240.During operation of the surgical stapling device 10, the anvil assembly 200 and the cartridge assembly 100 are approximated by the actuation of advancing member 22 until the anvil assembly 200 and the cartridge assembly 100 are suitably clamped against tissue of a patient.","The trigger member 24 is then actuated to fire the surgical stapling device 10.Upon a firing of the surgical stapling device 10, the legs of the fasteners supported within the cartridge assembly 100 are advanced through the clamped tissue and any buttress material clamped against tissue including the anvil buttress member 230 and any buttress material that may supported on the cartridge assembly.","As the fasteners are distally advanced, the legs of the fasteners are formed by the fastener forming pockets 256a defined in the anvil plate 250 to secure the buttress material including the anvil buttress member 230 to the tissue.","Referring again to FIGS.","5-6, the knife 400 is simultaneously or therafter advanced into the anvil assembly 200 to sever the clamped tissue and to advance into engagement with the proximal surface 272a of the first annular member 270 of the ring assembly 260.Upon engagement with the first annular member 270, the knife 400 distally drives the entire ring assembly 260 toward the anvil cap 220.Notably, as the ring assembly 260 is moved distally, the pair of opposed nubs 286 of the second annular member 280 slide through the channels 214a of anvil head 210 such that the ring assembly 260 drives the crush ring member 240 distally into engagement with the one or more engaging features 224 of the anvil cap 220.The distal movement of the crush ring member 240 into engagement with the one or more engaging features 224 of the anvil cap 220 separates the proximal surface of the cap body 222 of the anvil cap 220 from the distal surface of the head body 212 of the anvil head 210 so that the o-ring 215 separates from the extension portions 234 of the anvil buttress member 230.In particular, the teeth 226a of the snap features 226 cam against the ramped partitions 218 so that each snap feature 226 flexes radially outwardly into the opening 228 of the cap body 222 from the first recess 218a of the head body 212 to enable the anvil cap 220 to separate from the anvil head 210 as the anvil cap 220 moves from the approximated position to the unapproximated position.","After camming over the ramped partitions 218, the teeth 226a of the snap features 226 snap or flexes radially inwardly into the second recess 218b of the head body 212 to maintain the anvil cap 220 secured to the anvil head 210.The separation of the cap body 222 and the head body 212 creates a space or gap “G” between the proximal surface of the cap body 222 and a distal surface of the head body 212 to free the extension portion 234 of the anvil buttress member 230 from between the anvil head 210 and the o-ring 215 so that the anvil buttress member 230 is secured to the tissue independent of the surgical stapling device 10.As illustrated in FIG.","7, an embodiment of an anvil assembly is generally referred to as anvil assembly 500 and is substantially similar to anvil assembly 200 and thus, anvil assembly 500 is described herein only to the extent necessary to describe the differences in construction and operation of the anvil assembly 500.Anvil assembly 500 includes a circular anvil head 210, an o-ring 215, an anvil cap 220, a circular anvil buttress member 230, a crush ring member 240, and an anvil plate 250.Notably, anvil assembly 500 does not include ring assembly 260 and thus, when the circular knife 400 is advanced into the anvil assembly 500 during operation, the blade of the circular knife 400 directly engages the proximal surface of crush ring member 240 to drive the crush ring member 240 distally into engagement with the anvil cap 220.In particular, as noted above, the distal movement of the crush ring member 240 into engagement with the one or more engaging features 224 of the anvil cap 220 separates the proximal surface of the cap body 222 of the anvil cap 220 from the distal surface of the head body 212 of the anvil head 210 so that the o-ring 215 separates from the extension portions 234 of the anvil buttress member 230 to free the anvil buttress member 230.Although a manually operated handle assembly is shown in FIG.","1, in any of the embodiments disclosed herein, the handle assembly can be powered by a motor and an external or internal power source.","One or more drive shafts extending through the elongate body can drive the various functions (i.e., approximation, stapling and cutting) of the instrument.","In any of the embodiments disclosed herein, one or more of the crush ring 240 and parts of the ring assembly 260 could be eliminated.","Furthermore, the circular knife may directly move the anvil cap 220 above to release the buttress member.","Persons skilled in the art will understand that the structures and methods specifically described herein and illustrated in the accompanying figures are non-limiting exemplary embodiments, and that the description, disclosure, and figures should be construed merely as exemplary of particular embodiments.","It is to be understood, therefore, that the present disclosure is not limited to the precise embodiments described, and that various other changes and modifications may be effected by one skilled in the art without departing from the scope or spirit of the disclosure.","Additionally, it is envisioned that the elements and features illustrated or described in connection with one exemplary embodiment may be combined with the elements and features of another without departing from the scope of the present disclosure, and that such modifications and variations are also intended to be included within the scope of the present disclosure.","Indeed, any combination of any of the presently disclosed elements and features is within the scope of the present disclosure.","Accordingly, the subject matter of the present disclosure is not to be limited by what has been particularly shown and described."]],"string":"[\n [\n \"CIRCULAR STAPLING DEVICE INCLUDING BUTTRESS MATERIAL\",\n \"An anvil assembly includes a circular anvil head that supports a crush ring, an anvil cap that supports an o-ring, and a circular anvil buttress member.\",\n \"The cap connects to the head and is movable relative to the head between approximated and unapproximated positions.\",\n \"The crush ring is spaced from the cap when the cap is in the approximated position and movable into engagement with the cap to move the cap to the unapproximated position.\",\n \"The buttress member includes a body portion and an extension portion.\",\n \"The body portion is supported on the head and the extension portion is secureable between the o-ring and the head when the cap is in the approximated position.\",\n \"The extension portion is releasable from between the o-ring and the head when the cap is disposed in the unapproximated position so that the body portion separates from the head.\"\n ],\n [\n \"1.\",\n \"(canceled) 2.A circular stapling end effector for mounting on a distal end of an elongate body and including a cartridge assembly and an anvil assembly, the anvil assembly including: a circular anvil head that supports a crush ring; an anvil cap movable relative to the anvil head between an approximated position and an unapproximated position, the crush ring being spaced from the anvil cap when the anvil cap is disposed in the approximated position and movable into engagement with the anvil cap to move the anvil cap to the unapproximated position, the anvil cap supporting an o-ring; and a circular anvil buttress member having an extension portion that is secured between the o-ring and the anvil head when the anvil cap is disposed in the approximated position, the extension portion being releasable from between the o-ring and the anvil head when the anvil cap is disposed in the unapproximated position.\",\n \"3.The circular stapling end effector of claim 2, wherein the anvil cap defines a groove in a bottom surface of the anvil cap, the o-ring being secured within the groove.\",\n \"4.The circular stapling end effector of claim 2, wherein the o-ring is formed of an elastomeric material.\",\n \"5.The circular stapling end effector of claim 2, wherein the elastomeric material includes nitrile.\",\n \"6.The circular stapling device of 2, wherein the o-ring is disposed in a compressed condition when the anvil cap is disposed in the approximated position, and wherein the o-ring is disposed in an uncompressed condition when the anvil cap is disposed in the unapproximated position.\",\n \"7.The circular stapling end effector of claim 2, wherein the extension portion of the circular anvil buttress member includes at least one tab, the o-ring being compressed against the at least one tab when the anvil cap is disposed in the approximated position.\",\n \"8.The circular stapling end effector of claim 2, wherein the anvil cap includes a snap feature and the anvil head defines a first recess and a second recess, the snap feature being selectively positionable within one of the first recess and the second recess, the snap feature being positionable within the first recess when the anvil cap is disposed in the approximated position and being positionable within the second recess when the anvil cap is disposed in the unapproximated position.\",\n \"9.The circular stapling end effector of claim 8, wherein the first recess and the second recess are separated by a ramped partition, the snap feature camming over the ramped feature as the anvil cap moves from the approximated position to the unapproximated position.\",\n \"10.A circular stapling device having the circular stapling end effector of claim 2, the elongate body, and a manually operated handle assembly.\",\n \"11.A circular stapling device having the circular stapling end effector of claim 2, the elongate body, and a handle assembly powered by a motor.\"\n ],\n [\n \" BACKGROUND Fasteners have been used to replace suturing when joining various body structures such as, for example, the bowel or bronchus.\",\n \"Surgical stapling devices employed to apply these fasteners are generally designed to simultaneously cut and seal tissue to reduce the time and risks involved with anastomosis procedures.\",\n \"Circular surgical stapling devices are employed by surgeons to sequentially or simultaneously apply one or more surgical fasteners, e.g., staples or two-part fasteners, to body tissue for the purpose of joining segments of body tissue together and/or for the creation of anastomoses.\",\n \"Circular surgical stapling devices generally include an annular fastener cartridge assembly that supports a plurality of annular rows of fasteners, an annular anvil assembly operatively associated with the fastener cartridge assembly which provides a surface against which the fasteners are formed upon a firing of the circular stapling device, and an annular blade for cutting tissue.\",\n \"For most procedures, the use of bare fasteners, with the fasteners in direct contact with the patient's tissue, is generally acceptable.\",\n \"The integrity of the tissue will normally serve to prevent the fasteners from tearing out of the tissue and compromising the sealing before healing has occurred.\",\n \"However, in some surgical operations buttress materials are employed by surgeons in combination with circular stapling devices to bridge, repair and/or reinforce tissue defects within a patient.\",\n \"In particular, buttress materials reduce the trauma suffered by the patient, reduce the instances of leakage, reduce the instances of bleeding, and create a relatively strong bond between adjacent body tissues.\",\n \"Accordingly, there is a need for reliably and removably attaching buttress material onto a circular stapling device so that the buttress material does not interfere with the operation of the device, remains on the device until after the fasteners are fired, and is convenient and easy to install and use.\"\n ],\n [\n \" SUMMARY According to one aspect, a circular stapling device includes a handle assembly, an elongate body that extends from the handle assembly, and an end effector mounted on a distal end of the elongate body and including a cartridge assembly and an anvil assembly.\",\n \"The anvil assembly includes a circular anvil head that supports a crush ring, an anvil cap that supports an o-ring, and a circular anvil buttress member.\",\n \"In embodiments, the o-ring is formed of an elastomeric material including nitrile.\",\n \"The anvil cap connects to the anvil head and is movable relative to the anvil head between an approximated position and an unapproximated position.\",\n \"The crush ring is spaced from the anvil cap when the anvil cap is disposed in the approximated position and movable into engagement with the anvil cap to move the anvil cap to the unapproximated position.\",\n \"The anvil cap defines a groove in a bottom surface of the anvil cap and the o-ring is secured within the groove.\",\n \"The o-ring is disposed in a compressed condition when the anvil cap is disposed in the approximated position and an uncompressed condition when the anvil cap is disposed in the unapproximated position.\",\n \"The anvil cap includes a snap feature and the anvil head defines a first recess and a second recess.\",\n \"The snap feature is selectively positionable within one of the first recess and the second recess.\",\n \"The snap feature is positionable within the first recess when the anvil cap is disposed in the approximated position and is positionable within the second recess when the anvil cap is disposed in the unapproximated position.\",\n \"The first recess and the second recess are separated by a ramped partition.\",\n \"The snap feature cams over the ramped feature as the anvil cap moves from the approximated position to the unapproximated position.\",\n \"The snap feature flexes outwardly from the first recess as the snap feature cams over the ramped partition and flexes inwardly into the second recess after camming over the ramped partition.\",\n \"The snap feature maintains the anvil cap secured to the anvil head when the snap feature is disposed in the second recess.\",\n \"The circular anvil buttress member includes a body portion and an extension portion that extends from the body portion.\",\n \"The body portion is supported on a tissue engaging surface of the anvil head.\",\n \"The extension portion is secureable between the o-ring and the anvil head when the anvil cap is disposed in the approximated position.\",\n \"The extension portion is releasable from between the o-ring and the anvil head when the anvil cap is disposed in the unapproximated position so that the body portion separates from the tissue engaging surface of the anvil head.\",\n \"The extension portion includes one or more tabs.\",\n \"The o-ring is compressed against the one or more tabs when the anvil cap is disposed in the approximated position to maintain the body portion supported on the tissue engaging surface of the anvil head.\",\n \"In another aspect, then anvil assembly includes a circular anvil head that supports a crush ring, and anvil cap that connects to the anvil head and supports an o-ring, and a circular anvil buttress member.\",\n \"The anvil cap is movable relative to the anvil head between an approximated position and an unapproximated position.\",\n \"The crush ring is spaced from the anvil cap when the anvil cap is disposed in the approximated position and movable into engagement with the anvil cap to move the anvil cap to the unapproximated position.\",\n \"The anvil cap defines a groove in a bottom surface of the anvil cap.\",\n \"The o-ring is secured within the groove.\",\n \"The o-ring is disposed in a compressed condition when the anvil cap is disposed in the approximated position and in an uncompressed condition when the anvil cap is disposed in the unapproximated position.\",\n \"In embodiments, the o-ring is formed of an elastomeric material including nitrile.\",\n \"The anvil cap includes a snap feature and the anvil head defines a first recess and a second recess.\",\n \"The snap feature is selectively positionable within one of the first recess and the second recess.\",\n \"The snap feature is positionable within the first recess when the anvil cap is disposed in the approximated position and is positionable within the second recess when the anvil cap is disposed in the unapproximated position.\",\n \"The first recess and the second recess are separated by a ramped partition.\",\n \"The snap feature cams over the ramped feature as the anvil cap moves from the approximated position to the unapproximated position.\",\n \"The snap feature flexes outwardly from the first recess as the snap feature cams over the ramped partition and flexes inwardly into the second recess after camming over the ramped partition.\",\n \"The snap feature maintains the anvil cap secured to the anvil head when the snap feature is disposed in the second recess.\",\n \"The circular anvil buttress member includes a body portion and an extension portion that extends from the body portion.\",\n \"The body portion is supported on a tissue engaging surface of the anvil head.\",\n \"The extension portion is secureable between the o-ring and the anvil head when the anvil cap is disposed in the approximated position.\",\n \"The extension portion is releasable from between the o-ring and the anvil head when the anvil cap is disposed in the unapproximated position so that the body portion separates from the tissue engaging surface of the anvil head.\",\n \"The extension portion includes one or more tabs.\",\n \"The o-ring is compressed against the one or more tabs when the anvil cap is disposed in the approximated position to maintain the body portion supported on the tissue engaging surface of the anvil head.\",\n \"According to yet another aspect, the present disclosure is directed to a method for releasing an anvil buttress member from an anvil assembly of a circular stapling device.\",\n \"The method includes the step of providing a circular stapling device including an elongate member having an end effector mounted on a distal end of the elongate body.\",\n \"The end effector includes an anvil assembly that includes an anvil head and an anvil cap that supports an o-ring.\",\n \"The anvil assembly includes an extension portion of an anvil buttress member secured between the o-ring and the anvil head so that a body portion of the anvil buttress member is supported on a tissue engaging surface of the anvil head.\",\n \"The method involves moving the o-ring relative to anvil head to release the anvil buttress member from the anvil assembly.\",\n \"Another step includes moving a crush ring supported on the anvil head into engagement with the anvil cap to move the o-ring relative to the anvil head.\",\n \"Yet another step involves spacing the o-ring and the anvil head relative to one another in response to engagement of the crush ring with the anvil head to provide a gap between the o-ring and the anvil head sufficient to enable the extension portion of the anvil buttress member to be released from between the o-ring and the anvil head.\",\n \"Other aspects, features, and advantages will be apparent from the description, drawings, and claims.\"\n ],\n [\n \"CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser.\",\n \"No.\",\n \"14/924,202, filed Oct. 27, 2015, which is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser.\",\n \"No.\",\n \"13/758,100, filed Feb. 4, 2013, (now U.S. Pat.\",\n \"No.\",\n \"9,192,383), the entire disclosure of which is hereby incorporated by reference herein.\",\n \"TECHNICAL FIELD The present disclosure relates to surgical stapling devices and, more particularly, to structures and methods for removably attaching buttress material to circular surgical stapling devices for use in anastomosis procedures.\",\n \"BACKGROUND Fasteners have been used to replace suturing when joining various body structures such as, for example, the bowel or bronchus.\",\n \"Surgical stapling devices employed to apply these fasteners are generally designed to simultaneously cut and seal tissue to reduce the time and risks involved with anastomosis procedures.\",\n \"Circular surgical stapling devices are employed by surgeons to sequentially or simultaneously apply one or more surgical fasteners, e.g., staples or two-part fasteners, to body tissue for the purpose of joining segments of body tissue together and/or for the creation of anastomoses.\",\n \"Circular surgical stapling devices generally include an annular fastener cartridge assembly that supports a plurality of annular rows of fasteners, an annular anvil assembly operatively associated with the fastener cartridge assembly which provides a surface against which the fasteners are formed upon a firing of the circular stapling device, and an annular blade for cutting tissue.\",\n \"For most procedures, the use of bare fasteners, with the fasteners in direct contact with the patient's tissue, is generally acceptable.\",\n \"The integrity of the tissue will normally serve to prevent the fasteners from tearing out of the tissue and compromising the sealing before healing has occurred.\",\n \"However, in some surgical operations buttress materials are employed by surgeons in combination with circular stapling devices to bridge, repair and/or reinforce tissue defects within a patient.\",\n \"In particular, buttress materials reduce the trauma suffered by the patient, reduce the instances of leakage, reduce the instances of bleeding, and create a relatively strong bond between adjacent body tissues.\",\n \"Accordingly, there is a need for reliably and removably attaching buttress material onto a circular stapling device so that the buttress material does not interfere with the operation of the device, remains on the device until after the fasteners are fired, and is convenient and easy to install and use.\",\n \"SUMMARY According to one aspect, a circular stapling device includes a handle assembly, an elongate body that extends from the handle assembly, and an end effector mounted on a distal end of the elongate body and including a cartridge assembly and an anvil assembly.\",\n \"The anvil assembly includes a circular anvil head that supports a crush ring, an anvil cap that supports an o-ring, and a circular anvil buttress member.\",\n \"In embodiments, the o-ring is formed of an elastomeric material including nitrile.\",\n \"The anvil cap connects to the anvil head and is movable relative to the anvil head between an approximated position and an unapproximated position.\",\n \"The crush ring is spaced from the anvil cap when the anvil cap is disposed in the approximated position and movable into engagement with the anvil cap to move the anvil cap to the unapproximated position.\",\n \"The anvil cap defines a groove in a bottom surface of the anvil cap and the o-ring is secured within the groove.\",\n \"The o-ring is disposed in a compressed condition when the anvil cap is disposed in the approximated position and an uncompressed condition when the anvil cap is disposed in the unapproximated position.\",\n \"The anvil cap includes a snap feature and the anvil head defines a first recess and a second recess.\",\n \"The snap feature is selectively positionable within one of the first recess and the second recess.\",\n \"The snap feature is positionable within the first recess when the anvil cap is disposed in the approximated position and is positionable within the second recess when the anvil cap is disposed in the unapproximated position.\",\n \"The first recess and the second recess are separated by a ramped partition.\",\n \"The snap feature cams over the ramped feature as the anvil cap moves from the approximated position to the unapproximated position.\",\n \"The snap feature flexes outwardly from the first recess as the snap feature cams over the ramped partition and flexes inwardly into the second recess after camming over the ramped partition.\",\n \"The snap feature maintains the anvil cap secured to the anvil head when the snap feature is disposed in the second recess.\",\n \"The circular anvil buttress member includes a body portion and an extension portion that extends from the body portion.\",\n \"The body portion is supported on a tissue engaging surface of the anvil head.\",\n \"The extension portion is secureable between the o-ring and the anvil head when the anvil cap is disposed in the approximated position.\",\n \"The extension portion is releasable from between the o-ring and the anvil head when the anvil cap is disposed in the unapproximated position so that the body portion separates from the tissue engaging surface of the anvil head.\",\n \"The extension portion includes one or more tabs.\",\n \"The o-ring is compressed against the one or more tabs when the anvil cap is disposed in the approximated position to maintain the body portion supported on the tissue engaging surface of the anvil head.\",\n \"In another aspect, then anvil assembly includes a circular anvil head that supports a crush ring, and anvil cap that connects to the anvil head and supports an o-ring, and a circular anvil buttress member.\",\n \"The anvil cap is movable relative to the anvil head between an approximated position and an unapproximated position.\",\n \"The crush ring is spaced from the anvil cap when the anvil cap is disposed in the approximated position and movable into engagement with the anvil cap to move the anvil cap to the unapproximated position.\",\n \"The anvil cap defines a groove in a bottom surface of the anvil cap.\",\n \"The o-ring is secured within the groove.\",\n \"The o-ring is disposed in a compressed condition when the anvil cap is disposed in the approximated position and in an uncompressed condition when the anvil cap is disposed in the unapproximated position.\",\n \"In embodiments, the o-ring is formed of an elastomeric material including nitrile.\",\n \"The anvil cap includes a snap feature and the anvil head defines a first recess and a second recess.\",\n \"The snap feature is selectively positionable within one of the first recess and the second recess.\",\n \"The snap feature is positionable within the first recess when the anvil cap is disposed in the approximated position and is positionable within the second recess when the anvil cap is disposed in the unapproximated position.\",\n \"The first recess and the second recess are separated by a ramped partition.\",\n \"The snap feature cams over the ramped feature as the anvil cap moves from the approximated position to the unapproximated position.\",\n \"The snap feature flexes outwardly from the first recess as the snap feature cams over the ramped partition and flexes inwardly into the second recess after camming over the ramped partition.\",\n \"The snap feature maintains the anvil cap secured to the anvil head when the snap feature is disposed in the second recess.\",\n \"The circular anvil buttress member includes a body portion and an extension portion that extends from the body portion.\",\n \"The body portion is supported on a tissue engaging surface of the anvil head.\",\n \"The extension portion is secureable between the o-ring and the anvil head when the anvil cap is disposed in the approximated position.\",\n \"The extension portion is releasable from between the o-ring and the anvil head when the anvil cap is disposed in the unapproximated position so that the body portion separates from the tissue engaging surface of the anvil head.\",\n \"The extension portion includes one or more tabs.\",\n \"The o-ring is compressed against the one or more tabs when the anvil cap is disposed in the approximated position to maintain the body portion supported on the tissue engaging surface of the anvil head.\",\n \"According to yet another aspect, the present disclosure is directed to a method for releasing an anvil buttress member from an anvil assembly of a circular stapling device.\",\n \"The method includes the step of providing a circular stapling device including an elongate member having an end effector mounted on a distal end of the elongate body.\",\n \"The end effector includes an anvil assembly that includes an anvil head and an anvil cap that supports an o-ring.\",\n \"The anvil assembly includes an extension portion of an anvil buttress member secured between the o-ring and the anvil head so that a body portion of the anvil buttress member is supported on a tissue engaging surface of the anvil head.\",\n \"The method involves moving the o-ring relative to anvil head to release the anvil buttress member from the anvil assembly.\",\n \"Another step includes moving a crush ring supported on the anvil head into engagement with the anvil cap to move the o-ring relative to the anvil head.\",\n \"Yet another step involves spacing the o-ring and the anvil head relative to one another in response to engagement of the crush ring with the anvil head to provide a gap between the o-ring and the anvil head sufficient to enable the extension portion of the anvil buttress member to be released from between the o-ring and the anvil head.\",\n \"Other aspects, features, and advantages will be apparent from the description, drawings, and claims.\",\n \"BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF DRAWINGS The accompanying drawings, which are incorporated in and constitute a part of this specification, illustrate embodiments of the disclosure and, together with a general description of the disclosure given above and the detailed description given below, serve to explain the principles of the disclosure, wherein: FIG.\",\n \"1 is a perspective view of a circular surgical stapling device according to the present disclosure; FIG.\",\n \"2 is an enlarged top perspective view of an embodiment of an anvil assembly and a shaft member of the presently disclosed circular surgical stapling device; FIG.\",\n \"3 is a bottom perspective view of the anvil assembly and a portion of the shaft member; FIG.\",\n \"4 is a perspective view, with parts separated, of the anvil assembly and the shaft member; FIGS.\",\n \"5-6 are progressive cross-sectional views of the anvil assembly and a distal portion of the shaft member, each view showing the anvil assembly in a different configuration; and FIG.\",\n \"7 is a perspective view, with parts separated, of another embodiment of an anvil assembly.\",\n \"DETAILED DESCRIPTION As used herein, the term “clinician” refers to a doctor, a nurse, or any other care provider and may include support personnel.\",\n \"Particular embodiments of the present disclosure will be described herein with reference to the accompanying drawings.\",\n \"As shown in the drawings and as described throughout the following description, and as is traditional when referring to relative positioning on an object, the term “proximal” refers to the end of the device that is closer to the clinician and the term “distal” refers to the end of the device that is farther from the clinician.\",\n \"In the following description, well-known functions or constructions are not described in detail to avoid obscuring the present disclosure in unnecessary detail.\",\n \"Referring initially to FIG.\",\n \"1, a circular surgical stapling device for use with a buttress material is disclosed herein and is generally designated as 10.In embodiments, the surgical stapling device 10 is adapted for reuse and, in certain embodiments, the surgical stapling device 10 is adapted for a single use and can be disposable.\",\n \"The circular stapling device 10 includes a handle assembly 20, a tubular elongate body 30, and an end effector 40.The end effector 40 can be provided as a removable and replaceable assembly.\",\n \"The handle assembly 20 includes a rotatable advancing member 22 and a pivotable trigger member 24 that are operatively coupled to any number of drivers supported by the surgical stapling device 10 to effectuate a firing of the surgical stapling device 10.The elongate body 30 extends distally from a distal end portion of the handle assembly 20 to a proximal end portion of the end effector 40 so that the elongate body 30 is disposed between the handle assembly 20 and the end effector 40.In some embodiments, the elongate body 30 has a linear shape along the length of the elongate body 30, and in certain embodiments, the elongate body 30 has a curved shape along the length of the elongate body 30.The end effector 40 includes a fastener cartridge assembly 100, an anvil assembly 200, and a shaft 300.The shaft 300 includes a proximal end portion that is secured to the fastener cartridge assembly 100 and a distal end portion that is secured to the anvil assembly 200.In embodiments, the fastener cartridge assembly 100 and/or the anvil assembly 200 may be replaced and the circular stapling device 10 may be reused.\",\n \"In embodiments, the end effector 40 supports a knife assembly with a substantially cylindrical knife 400 (FIG.\",\n \"6) adapted to cut tissue.\",\n \"Reference may be made to U.S. Pat.\",\n \"No.\",\n \"5,915,616 to Viola et al.\",\n \"and commonly owned U.S. Patent Application Publication No.\",\n \"2011/0174099, the entire contents of which are incorporated herein by reference, for a detailed discussion of the construction and operation of exemplary circular stapling devices.\",\n \"Turning now to FIGS.\",\n \"2-6, the anvil assembly 200 includes a circular anvil head 210, an o-ring 215, an anvil cap 220, a circular anvil buttress member 230, a crush ring member 240, an anvil plate 250, and a ring assembly 260.With continued reference to FIG.\",\n \"4, the circular anvil head 210 includes a head body 212 that supports the crush ring member 240, the ring assembly 260, and the anvil plate 250.The head body 212 has a connector 214 that extends proximally from the head body 212 and is dimensioned to operatively couple to a distal end portion 302 of the shaft 300.The connector 214 defines a pair of opposed channels 214a.\",\n \"One or more engaging passages 216 are defined by the head body 212 and extend through the head body 212.As shown in FIGS.\",\n \"5-6, a distal surface of the head body 212 includes one or more ramped partitions 218 that separate a first recess 218a and a second recess 218b defined on opposite sides of the ramped partition 218.Referring again to FIG.\",\n \"4, the anvil cap 220 includes a cap body 222 that is supported on the distal surface of the anvil head 210 so that the o-ring 215 is positionable between the cap body 222 and the anvil head 210.In particular, the cap body 222 defines an annular groove 222a within which the o-ring 215 is dimensioned to be received.\",\n \"The cap body 222 includes one or more engaging features 224 and one or more snap features 226 that extend proximally from the cap body 222.Referring also to FIGS.\",\n \"5-6, the snap feature 226 includes a tooth 226a that extends radially inwardly.\",\n \"The first and second recesses 218a, 218b of the anvil head 210 are each dimensioned to receive the tooth 226a to facilitate securement of the anvil cap 220 to the anvil head 210.The cap body 222 defines an opening 228 dimensioned to enable the snap feature 226 to flex radially outwardly to permit the anvil cap 220 to move relative to the anvil head 210 between approximated and unapproximated positions.\",\n \"The anvil plate 250 secures to the proximal surface of the anvil head 210 and has an annular body 252 that defines an opening 254 therethrough.\",\n \"The annular body 252 has a tissue engaging surface 256 that defines a plurality of fastener forming pockets 256a.\",\n \"The plurality of fastener forming pockets 256a is arranged in an annular array about the tissue engaging surface 256 of the annular body 252.The circular anvil buttress member 230 is selectively supported on the anvil plate 250 and has an annular body portion 232 and one or more extension portions 234 that extends radially from the body portion 232.The body portion 232 is dimensioned to overly the tissue engaging surface 256 of the anvil plate 250 and defines a central opening 236 therethrough.\",\n \"The extension portion 234 includes a plurality of spaced apart tabs 234a that extend radially outwardly about the body portion 232.The plurality of spaced apart tabs 234a are selectively positionable between the proximal surface of the anvil cap 220 and the distal surface of the anvil head 210 to selectively secure the annular body portion 232 against the tissue engaging surface 256 of the anvil plate 250 when the anvil cap 220 is disposed in the approximated position.\",\n \"As described in greater detail below, the extension portion 234 is releasable from the between the anvil cap 220 and the anvil head 210 when the anvil cap 220 is moved to the unapproximated position so that the body portion 232 separates from the tissue engaging surface 256 of the anvil plate 250.The crush ring member 240 is supported on the anvil head 210 and includes a generally annular body 242 having a plurality of tab members 244 that secure to a proximal surface of the anvil head 210 and extend from the body 242 at radially spaced locations along an outer surface of the body 242.The crush ring member 240 is dimensioned to be spaced from the one or more engaging features 224 of the cap body 222 when the anvil cap 220 is disposed in the approximated position and movable into engagement with the one or more engaging features 224 to move the anvil cap 220 to the unapproximated position.\",\n \"The annular body 242 defines an aperture 246 therethrough that is dimensioned to receive the connector 214 of the head body 212 when the crush ring member 240 is secured to the anvil head 210.As illustrated in FIG.\",\n \"4, the ring assembly 260 is supported between the anvil head 210 and the anvil plate 250.The ring assembly 260 includes a first annular member 270, a second annular member 280, and a third annular member 290.The first annular member 270 includes a body 272 having a proximal surface 272a and a distal surface 272b with a central opening 274 defined by an inner surface 272c that extends between the proximal surface 272a and the distal surface 272b of the body 272.The body 272 includes a plurality of annularly spaced apart projections 276 that extend distally from the distal surface 272b of the body 272.Each projection 276 includes a pair of opposed support arms 276a that extend from the projection 276.The opposed support arms 276a are disposed substantially transverse to the projection 276.The second annular member 280 includes a body 282 having a proximal surface 282a and a distal surface 282b with a central opening 284 defined by an inner surface 282c that extends between the proximal surface 282a and the distal surface 282b of the body 282.The body 282 includes a pair of opposed nubs 286 that extend from the inner surface 282c and are dimensioned to slide within the channels 214a defined in the connector 214 of the anvil head 210.The body 282 includes a plurality of ledges 288 extend from an outer surface 282d of the body 282 and radially about the outer surface 282d of the body 282.Adjacent ledges 288 define a passage 285 therebetween that is dimensioned to receive the projections 276 of the first annular member 270 such that the opposed support arms 276a of the projections 276 are supported against the adjacent ledges 288 on the distal surface 282b of the second annular member 280 when the first and second annular members 270, 280 are secured together.\",\n \"The portion of the outer surface 282d of the body 282 positioned proximally of the ledges 288 is dimensioned to be seated within the central opening 274 defined by the first annular member 270 when the first and second annular members 270, 280 are secured together.\",\n \"As shown in FIGS.\",\n \"5 and 6, at least portions of the proximal surfaces of the first and second annular members 270, 280 are substantially aligned when the first and second annular members 270, 280 are secured together.\",\n \"The third annular member 290 includes a body 292 having a proximal surface 292a and a distal surface 292b with a central opening 294 defined by an inner surface 292c that extends between the proximal surface 292a and the distal surface 292b of the body 292.As shown in FIGS.\",\n \"5 and 6, when the annular members of the ring assembly 260 are secured together, the inner surface 292c of the third annular member 290 radially surrounds an outer surface of the ledges 288 of the second annular member 280 and retains the projections 276 of the first annular member 270 within the passages 285 of the second annular member 280.In this regard, the distal surface 272b of the first annular member 270 engages the proximal surface 292a of the third annular member 290 and at least portions of the distal surface 292b of the third annular member 290 and the distal surface 282b of the second annular member 280 are disposed in substantial alignment and in contact with a proximal surface of the crush ring 240.During operation of the surgical stapling device 10, the anvil assembly 200 and the cartridge assembly 100 are approximated by the actuation of advancing member 22 until the anvil assembly 200 and the cartridge assembly 100 are suitably clamped against tissue of a patient.\",\n \"The trigger member 24 is then actuated to fire the surgical stapling device 10.Upon a firing of the surgical stapling device 10, the legs of the fasteners supported within the cartridge assembly 100 are advanced through the clamped tissue and any buttress material clamped against tissue including the anvil buttress member 230 and any buttress material that may supported on the cartridge assembly.\",\n \"As the fasteners are distally advanced, the legs of the fasteners are formed by the fastener forming pockets 256a defined in the anvil plate 250 to secure the buttress material including the anvil buttress member 230 to the tissue.\",\n \"Referring again to FIGS.\",\n \"5-6, the knife 400 is simultaneously or therafter advanced into the anvil assembly 200 to sever the clamped tissue and to advance into engagement with the proximal surface 272a of the first annular member 270 of the ring assembly 260.Upon engagement with the first annular member 270, the knife 400 distally drives the entire ring assembly 260 toward the anvil cap 220.Notably, as the ring assembly 260 is moved distally, the pair of opposed nubs 286 of the second annular member 280 slide through the channels 214a of anvil head 210 such that the ring assembly 260 drives the crush ring member 240 distally into engagement with the one or more engaging features 224 of the anvil cap 220.The distal movement of the crush ring member 240 into engagement with the one or more engaging features 224 of the anvil cap 220 separates the proximal surface of the cap body 222 of the anvil cap 220 from the distal surface of the head body 212 of the anvil head 210 so that the o-ring 215 separates from the extension portions 234 of the anvil buttress member 230.In particular, the teeth 226a of the snap features 226 cam against the ramped partitions 218 so that each snap feature 226 flexes radially outwardly into the opening 228 of the cap body 222 from the first recess 218a of the head body 212 to enable the anvil cap 220 to separate from the anvil head 210 as the anvil cap 220 moves from the approximated position to the unapproximated position.\",\n \"After camming over the ramped partitions 218, the teeth 226a of the snap features 226 snap or flexes radially inwardly into the second recess 218b of the head body 212 to maintain the anvil cap 220 secured to the anvil head 210.The separation of the cap body 222 and the head body 212 creates a space or gap “G” between the proximal surface of the cap body 222 and a distal surface of the head body 212 to free the extension portion 234 of the anvil buttress member 230 from between the anvil head 210 and the o-ring 215 so that the anvil buttress member 230 is secured to the tissue independent of the surgical stapling device 10.As illustrated in FIG.\",\n \"7, an embodiment of an anvil assembly is generally referred to as anvil assembly 500 and is substantially similar to anvil assembly 200 and thus, anvil assembly 500 is described herein only to the extent necessary to describe the differences in construction and operation of the anvil assembly 500.Anvil assembly 500 includes a circular anvil head 210, an o-ring 215, an anvil cap 220, a circular anvil buttress member 230, a crush ring member 240, and an anvil plate 250.Notably, anvil assembly 500 does not include ring assembly 260 and thus, when the circular knife 400 is advanced into the anvil assembly 500 during operation, the blade of the circular knife 400 directly engages the proximal surface of crush ring member 240 to drive the crush ring member 240 distally into engagement with the anvil cap 220.In particular, as noted above, the distal movement of the crush ring member 240 into engagement with the one or more engaging features 224 of the anvil cap 220 separates the proximal surface of the cap body 222 of the anvil cap 220 from the distal surface of the head body 212 of the anvil head 210 so that the o-ring 215 separates from the extension portions 234 of the anvil buttress member 230 to free the anvil buttress member 230.Although a manually operated handle assembly is shown in FIG.\",\n \"1, in any of the embodiments disclosed herein, the handle assembly can be powered by a motor and an external or internal power source.\",\n \"One or more drive shafts extending through the elongate body can drive the various functions (i.e., approximation, stapling and cutting) of the instrument.\",\n \"In any of the embodiments disclosed herein, one or more of the crush ring 240 and parts of the ring assembly 260 could be eliminated.\",\n \"Furthermore, the circular knife may directly move the anvil cap 220 above to release the buttress member.\",\n \"Persons skilled in the art will understand that the structures and methods specifically described herein and illustrated in the accompanying figures are non-limiting exemplary embodiments, and that the description, disclosure, and figures should be construed merely as exemplary of particular embodiments.\",\n \"It is to be understood, therefore, that the present disclosure is not limited to the precise embodiments described, and that various other changes and modifications may be effected by one skilled in the art without departing from the scope or spirit of the disclosure.\",\n \"Additionally, it is envisioned that the elements and features illustrated or described in connection with one exemplary embodiment may be combined with the elements and features of another without departing from the scope of the present disclosure, and that such modifications and variations are also intended to be included within the scope of the present disclosure.\",\n \"Indeed, any combination of any of the presently disclosed elements and features is within the scope of the present disclosure.\",\n \"Accordingly, the subject matter of the present disclosure is not to be limited by what has been particularly shown and described.\"\n ]\n]"},"source":{"kind":"string","value":"Patent_15875419"}}},{"rowIdx":4494873,"cells":{"text":{"kind":"list like","value":[["Source/Drain Structure and Manufacturing the Same","A fin-like field-effect transistor (FinFET) device is disclosed.","The device includes a semiconductor substrate having a source/drain region, a plurality of isolation regions over the semiconductor substrate and a source/drain feature in the source/drain region.","The source/drain feature includes a multiple plug-type portions over the substrate and each of plug-type portion is isolated each other by a respective isolation region.","The source/drain feature also includes a single upper portion over the isolation regions.","Here the single upper portion is merged from the multiple plug-type portions.","The single upper portion has a flat top surface facing away from a top surface of the isolation region."],["1.A device comprising: a semiconductor substrate having a source/drain region; a plurality of isolation regions over the semiconductor substrate; and a source/drain feature in the source/drain region, the source/drain feature including: multiple lower portions that are isolated from each other by a lateral separation; and a single upper portion over the isolation regions, wherein the single upper portion is merged from the multiple lower portions, wherein the single upper portion has a top surface facing away from a top surface of the isolation regions, wherein the top surface of the single upper portion includes a first flat surface connected to a first multi-facet surface and a second flat surface connected to the first multi-facet surface.","2.The device of claim 1, wherein the first multi-facet surface includes a first facet and a second facet.","3.The device of claim 2, wherein the first facet has a (111) crystal plane orientation and the first facet has the (111) crystal plane orientation.","4.The device of claim 1, wherein the top surface further includes a second multi-facet surface, the second multi-facet surface connected to the second flat surface.","5.The device of claim 1, wherein the multiple lower portions and the single upper portion are formed of the same semiconductor material.","6.The device of claim 1, further comprising a semiconductor material layer disposed over the single upper portion, the single upper portion being formed of a different material than the semiconductor material layer.","7.The device of claim 6, wherein the semiconductor material layer physically contacts the single upper portion.","8.A device comprising: a semiconductor substrate having a source/drain region; a plurality of isolation regions over the semiconductor substrate; and a source/drain feature in the source/drain region, the source/drain feature including: multiple lower portions that are isolated from each other by a lateral separation; and a single upper portion over the isolation regions, wherein the single upper portion is merged from the multiple lower portions, wherein the single upper portion has a top surface facing away from a top surface of the isolation regions, wherein the top surface of the single upper portion includes a first multi-facet surface, a second multi-facet surface and a flat surface in between the first and second multi-facet surfaces.","9.The device of claim 8, wherein the single upper portion includes silicon.","10.The device of claim 8, wherein the single upper portion includes germanium.","11.The device of claim 8, further comprising: a fin structure disposed over the semiconductor substrate; and a gate structure disposed over a first portion of the fin structure; and wherein the source/drain feature is disposed over a second portion of the fin structure.","12.The device of claim 11, wherein the first portion of the fin structure extends to a first height over the semiconductor substrate and the second portion of the fin structure extends to a second height over the semiconductor substrate.","13.The device of claim 11, wherein the source/drain feature physically contacts the second portion of the fin structure.","14.The device of claim 8, wherein the flat surface is connected to the first multi-facet surface.","15.A device comprising: a fin structure disposed over a substrate; a source/drain feature disposed over the fin structure, the source/drain feature including: multiple lower portions that are isolated from each other by a lateral separation; and a single upper portion merged from the multiple lower portions, wherein the single upper portion has a top surface facing away from a top surface of the fin structure, wherein the top surface of the single upper portion includes a first flat surface connected to a first multi-facet surface and a second flat surface connected to the first multi-facet surface.","16.The device of claim 15, wherein the fin structure includes a plurality of fins disposed over the substrate.","17.The device of claim 15, wherein the top surface of the single upper portion further includes a second multi-facet surface.","18.The device of claim 15, wherein the multiple lower portions and the single upper portion are formed of the same material.","19.The device of claim 15, wherein the source/drain feature further includes a semiconductor material layer disposed directly on the single upper portion.","20.The device of claim 19, wherein the semiconductor material layer is formed of a different material than the single upper portion."],[" BACKGROUND The semiconductor integrated circuit (IC) industry has experienced rapid growth.","In the course of IC evolution, functional density (i.e., the number of interconnected devices per chip area) has generally increased while geometry size (i.e., the smallest component (or line) that can be created using a fabrication process) has decreased.","This scaling down process generally provides benefits by increasing production efficiency and lowering associated costs.","Such scaling down has also increased the complexity of processing and manufacturing ICs and, for these advances to be realized, similar developments in IC processing and manufacturing are needed.","For example, a three dimensional transistor, such as a fin-like field-effect transistor (FinFET), has been introduced to replace a planar transistor.","Although existing FinFET devices and methods of fabricating FinFET devices have been generally adequate for their intended purposes, they have not been entirely satisfactory in all respects.","For example, a more flexible integration for forming an strain booster for a channel region is desired."],[" BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS Aspects of the present disclosure are best understood from the following detailed description when read in association with the accompanying figures.","It is noted that, in accordance with the standard practice in the industry, various features in drawings are not drawn to scale.","In fact, the dimensions of illustrated features may be arbitrarily increased or decreased for clarity of discussion.","FIG.","1 is a diagrammatic perspective view of an example FinFET device in accordance with some embodiments.","FIG.","2A is a diagrammatic perspective view of an example FinFET device in accordance with some embodiments.","FIG.","2B is a cross-sectional view of an example FinFET device in accordance with some embodiments.","FIG.","3A is a diagrammatic perspective view of an example FinFET device in accordance with some embodiments.","FIG.","3B is a cross-sectional view of an example semiconductor device along the line B-B in FIG.","3A .","FIG.","4A is a diagrammatic perspective view of an example FinFET device in accordance with some embodiments.","FIGS.","4B and 4C are cross-sectional views of an example FinFET device along the line B-B in FIG.","4A .","FIG.","5 is a flow chart of an example method for fabricating a FinFET device in accordance with some embodiments.","FIGS.","6 to 9 are cross-sectional views of an example FinFET device in accordance with some embodiments.","detailed-description description=\"Detailed Description\" end=\"lead\"?"],["PRIORITY DATA The present application is a continuation application of U.S. application Ser.","No.","15/207,934, filed Jul.","12, 2016, which is a divisional application of U.S. application Ser.","No.","14/552,904, filed Nov. 25, 2014, which is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety.","BACKGROUND The semiconductor integrated circuit (IC) industry has experienced rapid growth.","In the course of IC evolution, functional density (i.e., the number of interconnected devices per chip area) has generally increased while geometry size (i.e., the smallest component (or line) that can be created using a fabrication process) has decreased.","This scaling down process generally provides benefits by increasing production efficiency and lowering associated costs.","Such scaling down has also increased the complexity of processing and manufacturing ICs and, for these advances to be realized, similar developments in IC processing and manufacturing are needed.","For example, a three dimensional transistor, such as a fin-like field-effect transistor (FinFET), has been introduced to replace a planar transistor.","Although existing FinFET devices and methods of fabricating FinFET devices have been generally adequate for their intended purposes, they have not been entirely satisfactory in all respects.","For example, a more flexible integration for forming an strain booster for a channel region is desired.","BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS Aspects of the present disclosure are best understood from the following detailed description when read in association with the accompanying figures.","It is noted that, in accordance with the standard practice in the industry, various features in drawings are not drawn to scale.","In fact, the dimensions of illustrated features may be arbitrarily increased or decreased for clarity of discussion.","FIG.","1 is a diagrammatic perspective view of an example FinFET device in accordance with some embodiments.","FIG.","2A is a diagrammatic perspective view of an example FinFET device in accordance with some embodiments.","FIG.","2B is a cross-sectional view of an example FinFET device in accordance with some embodiments.","FIG.","3A is a diagrammatic perspective view of an example FinFET device in accordance with some embodiments.","FIG.","3B is a cross-sectional view of an example semiconductor device along the line B-B in FIG.","3A.","FIG.","4A is a diagrammatic perspective view of an example FinFET device in accordance with some embodiments.","FIGS.","4B and 4C are cross-sectional views of an example FinFET device along the line B-B in FIG.","4A.","FIG.","5 is a flow chart of an example method for fabricating a FinFET device in accordance with some embodiments.","FIGS.","6 to 9 are cross-sectional views of an example FinFET device in accordance with some embodiments.","DETAILED DESCRIPTION The following disclosure provides many different embodiments, or examples, for implementing different features of the invention.","Specific examples of components and arrangements are described below to simplify the present disclosure.","These are, of course, merely examples and are not intended to be limiting.","For example, the formation of a first feature over or on a second feature in the description that follows may include embodiments in which the first and second features are formed in direct contact, and may also include embodiments in which additional features may be formed between the first and second features, such that the first and second features may not be in direct contact.","In addition, the present disclosure may repeat reference numerals and/or letters in the various examples.","This repetition is for the purpose of simplicity and clarity and does not in itself dictate a relationship between the various embodiments and/or configurations discussed.","Further, spatially relative terms, such as “beneath,” “below,” “lower,” “above,” “upper” and the like, may be used herein for ease of description to describe one element or feature's relationship to another element(s) or feature(s) as illustrated in the figures.","The spatially relative terms are intended to encompass different orientations of the device in use or operation in addition to the orientation depicted in the figures.","The apparatus may be otherwise oriented (rotated 90 degrees or at other orientations) and the spatially relative descriptors used herein may likewise be interpreted accordingly.","The present disclosure is directed to, but not otherwise limited to, a FinFET device.","The FinFET device, for example, may be a complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor (CMOS) device comprising a P-type metal-oxide-semiconductor (PMOS) FinFET device and an N-type metal-oxide-semiconductor (NMOS) FinFET device.","The following disclosure will continue with a FinFET example to illustrate various embodiments of the present invention.","It is understood, however, that the application should not be limited to a particular type of device, except as specifically claimed.","FIG.","1 illustrates a plurality of fin features 220 and isolation regions 230 formed over a substrate 210.The substrate 210 may be a bulk silicon substrate.","Alternatively, the substrate 210 may comprise an elementary semiconductor, such as silicon or germanium in a crystalline structure; a compound semiconductor, such as silicon germanium, silicon carbide, gallium arsenic, gallium phosphide, indium phosphide, indium arsenide, and/or indium antimonide; or combinations thereof.","Possible substrates 210 also include a silicon-on-insulator (SOI) substrate.","SOI substrates are fabricated using separation by implantation of oxygen (SIMOX), wafer bonding, and/or other suitable methods.","Some exemplary substrates 210 also include an insulator layer.","The insulator layer comprises any suitable material, including silicon oxide, sapphire, and/or combinations thereof.","An exemplary insulator layer may be a buried oxide layer (BOX).","The insulator is formed by any suitable process, such as implantation (e.g., SIMOX), oxidation, deposition, and/or other suitable process.","In some exemplary FinFET precursors 200, the insulator layer is a component (e.g., layer) of a silicon-on-insulator substrate.","The substrate 210 may also include various doped regions.","The doped regions may be doped with p-type dopants, such as boron or BF2; n-type dopants, such as phosphorus or arsenic; or combinations thereof.","The doped regions may be formed directly on the substrate 210, in a P-well structure, in an N-well structure, in a dual-well structure, or using a raised structure.","The substrate 210 may further include various active regions, such as regions configured for an N-type metal-oxide-semiconductor (MOS) transistor device and regions configured for a P-type MOS transistor device.","The fin features 220 are formed by any suitable process including various deposition, photolithography, and/or etching processes.","In one embodiment, the fin features 220 are formed by patterning and etching a portion of the substrate 210.Various isolation regions 230 are formed on the substrate 210 to isolate active regions.","For example, the isolation regions 230 separate fin features 220.The isolation region 230 may be formed using traditional isolation technology, such as shallow trench isolation (STI), to define and electrically isolate the various regions.","The isolation region 230 includes silicon oxide, silicon nitride, silicon oxynitride, an air gap, other suitable materials, or combinations thereof.","The isolation region 230 is formed by any suitable process.","In the present embodiment, an upper portion of the fin feature 220 is exposed above the isolation region 230.In some embodiments, the substrate 210 has source/drain regions (S/D) 232 and a gate region 234.In some embodiments, a S/D 232 is a source region, and another S/D region 232 is a drain region.","The S/D 232 are separated by the gate region 234.FIGS.","2A and 2B illustrate first gate stacks 310 are formed over the substrate 210, including wrapping over the exposed upper portion of the fin feature 220 in the gate region 234.The first gate stack 310 may include a gate dielectric layer 312 and a gate electrode 314.In the present embodiment, the first gate stacks 310 include dummy gate stacks and they will be replaced by a final gate stack at a subsequent stage.","Particularly, the dummy gate stack 310 is to be replaced later by a high-k dielectric/metal gate (HK/MG) after high thermal temperature processes, such as thermal annealing for source/drain activation during the sources/drains formation.","In one embodiment, the first dummy gate stack 310 includes the dummy dielectric layer 312 and polycrystalline silicon (polysilicon) 314.A gate hard mask (HM) 316 is formed over the gate electrode 314.The gate HM 316 may include silicon nitride, silicon oxynitride, silicon oxide, other suitable material, or a combination thereof.","FIGS.","2A and 2B also illustrate spacers 320 are formed along sidewalls of the first gate stacks 310.The spacer 320 may include a dielectric material (such as silicon oxide, silicon nitride or silicon carbide) but is different from the material of the dummy gate stack 310 to achieve etching selectivity during a subsequent etch process.","FIGS.","3A-3B illustrate S/D recesses 410 formed on either side of the gate stack 310.The S/D recesses 410 are formed by removing portions of the fin features 220 at either side of the first gate stack 310.In the present embodiment, the S/D recesses 410 are formed in S/D regions 232, such that the first gate stack 310 interposes the S/D recesses 410 and a portion of the fin feature 220 in the gate region 234 is laterally exposed in the S/D recess 410.The S/D recesses 410 have a depth d. In one embodiment, the depth d is larger than 1 nm.","FIG.","4A illustrates a S/D feature 420 is formed by growing a S/D material in the S/D recesses 410 and continually growing the S/D material over the isolation regions and merging into a single feature.","For the sake of clarity to better illustrate the concepts of the present disclosure, a lower portion of the S/D feature 420 grown within the S/D recess 410 is referred to as a plug-type portion 422 and an upper portion of the S/D feature 420, overgrown from individual plug-type portion 422 and merged more than one plug-type portion 422 into a single feature is referred to as a merged portion 424.Each of the plug-type portion 422 is separated by and embedded in the respective isolation region 230 while the merged portion 424 is over several isolation regions 230 and physical contacts to multiple fin feature 220 in the gate region 234.The S/D features 420 may include germanium (Ge), silicon (Si), gallium arsenide (GaAs), aluminum gallium arsenide (AlGaAs), silicon germanium (SiGe), gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP), gallium antimony (GaSb), indium antimony (InSb), indium gallium arsenide (InGaAs), indium arsenide (InAs), or other suitable materials.","The S/D feature 420 may be doped during its formation or by an implantation process.","In one embodiment, the S/D feature 420 includes an epitaxially grown SiGe layer that is doped with boron.","In another embodiment, the S/D feature 420 includes an epitaxially grown Si epi layer that is doped with phosphorous.","In yet another embodiment, the S/D feature 420 includes an epitaxially grown Si epi layer that is doped with carbon.","FIG.","4B illustrates, in the present embodiment, the merged portion 424 is formed with a quite flat top surface (facing away a top surface of the isolation region 230) to increase volume of the merged portion 424.In one embodiment, a ratio of the lowest height h2 to the highest height h1 of the merged portion 424 is larger than 90%.","With a large volume of the merged portion 424, the S/D feature 420 may enhance strain effect on gate channel regions which will be formed later and a S/D resistance may be reduced as well.","In one embodiment, the S/D feature 420 includes SiGe.","A top surface of the merged portion 424 of the SiGe S/D feature 420 includes a flat surface 424A and a plurality of multi-facet surface 424B in a repetitive manner.","The flat surface 424A is parallel to a top surface of the isolation region 230.The multi-facet surface 424B is quite small and aligned to the S/D recess 410.In one example, the multi-facet surface 424B is a diamond shape and has two facets, 424BA and 424BB.","Each facet has a (111) crystallographic orientation.","The facets 424BA and 424BB have a fixed angle θ with the flat surface 424A.","The facet 424BA starts from the flat surface 424A and meets an end of the facet 424BB; which also starts from the flat surface 424A.","In this case, the lowest height h1 of the merged portion 424 is a distance between the top surface of the isolation region 230 and the highest height h2 is a distance between the top surface of the isolation region 230 and a point where the facet 424BA meets the facet 424BB.","In one embodiment, the S/D feature 420 is formed by a multiple semiconductor layers grown over the S/D feature 420.For example, a second semiconductor layer 421 is formed over the S/D feature 420, as shown in FIG.","4C.","The second semiconductor layer 421 has a different semiconductor material than the S/D feature 420.As an example, the S/D feature 420 includes epitaxial SiGe while the second semiconductor material layer 421 includes III-V semiconductor material.","In one embodiment, the second semiconductor material layer 421 has the same top surface profile as the S/D feature 420.FIG.","5 is a flowchart of a method 1000 to form a FET constructed according to various aspects of the present disclosure in some embodiments.","The method 1000 is described with reference to FIG.","5 and other figures.","However, the FinFET device 200 (in FIGS.","4A-4C in the present embodiment) is provided as an example and is not intended to limit the scope of the method.","Referring to FIGS.","5 and 1, the method 1000 begins at step 1002 by forming fin features 220 over the substrate 210.In one embodiment, a patterned photoresist layer is formed over the substrate 210 by a lithography process and the substrate 210 is etched through openings of the patterned photoresist layer to form the fin features 220.An exemplary photolithography process may include forming a photoresist layer, exposing the resist by a lithography exposure process, performing a post-exposure bake process, and developing the photoresist layer to form the patterned photoresist layer.","The etching process may include a wet etch or a dry etch.","The respective etch process may be tuned with various etching parameters, such as etchant used, etching temperature, etching solution concentration, etching pressure, source power, RF bias voltage, RF bias power, etchant flow rate, and/or other suitable parameters.","For example, a wet etching solution may include NH4OH, KOH (potassium hydroxide), HF (hydrofluoric acid), TMAH, other suitable wet etching solutions, or combinations thereof.","Dry etching processes include a biased plasma etching process that uses a chlorine-based chemistry.","Other dry etchant gasses include CF4, NF3, SF6, and He.","Dry etching may also be performed anisotropically using such mechanism as DRIE (deep reactive-ion etching).","Referring again to FIGS.","5 and 1, the method 1000 proceeds to step 1004 by forming isolation regions 230 over the substrate 210.In one embodiment, isolation regions 230 are formed by depositing a dielectric layer over the substrate 210, including filling in spaces between fin features 220, and being followed by an etching back.","The dielectric layer is etched back by a proper etching process, such as a selective wet etch, or a selective dry etch, or a combination thereof.","In present embodiment, the recessing processes are controlled to expose the upper portion of the fin feature 220.Referring to FIGS.","5 and 2A-2B, the method 1000 proceeds to step 1006 by forming the first gate stack 310 in the gate region 234, including wrapping over the exposed upper portion of the fin feature 220.The first gate stack 310 may be formed by a suitable procedure including deposition, lithography patterning and etching.","In various examples, the deposition includes CVD, physical vapor deposition (PVD), ALD, thermal oxidation, other suitable techniques, or a combination thereof.","The etching process includes dry etching, wet etching, and/or other etching methods (e.g., reactive ion etching).","In other embodiments, the patterning of the gate stack material layers may alternatively use the gate HM 316 as an etching mask.","The gate HM 316 is deposited on the gate electrode 314.A patterned resist layer is formed on the gate HM 316 by a lithography process.","Then, the gate HM 316 is etched through openings of the patterned resist layer, thereby forming the patterned gate HM 316.The patterned resist layer may be removed thereafter using a suitable process, such as wet stripping or plasma ashing.","Referring again to FIGS.","5 and 2A-2B, the method 1000 proceeds to step 1008 by forming spacers 320 along sidewalls of the first gate stack 310.In one embodiment, a formation of the spacer 320 includes depositing a spacer material layer on the substrate 210 and the first gate stack 310, and thereafter performing an anisotropic etch to the spacer material layer, thereby forming the spacer 320.The deposition of the spacer material layer includes a suitable technique, such as CVD, PVD and/or ALD.","The anisotropic etch may include a plasma etch in one example.","Referring to FIGS.","5 and 3A-3B, the method 1000 proceeds to step 1010 by recessing the fin feature 220 in the S/D region 232 to form the S/D recesses 410.The recessing process may include dry etching process, wet etching process, and/or combination thereof.","The recessing process may also include a selective wet etch or a selective dry etch.","A wet etching solution includes a TMAH, a HF/HNO3/CH3COOH solution, or other suitable solution.","In the present embodiment, the S/D recesses 410 are formed by a selective etch process.","The etch process selectively etches the fin feature 220 in the S/D region 232 but substantially does not etch the gate HM 316 and the spacer 320.Referring to FIGS.","5 and 4A-CB, the method 1000 proceeds to step 1012 by forming source/drain features 420 to within the S/D recesses 410 (the plug-type portion) and continually extending to merge into the single structure (the merged portion).","The S/D features 420 may be formed by epitaxial growing processes, such as CVD deposition techniques (e.g., vapor-phase epitaxy (VPE) and/or ultra-high vacuum CVD (UHV-CVD)), molecular beam epitaxy, and/or other suitable processes.","In present embodiment, a formation of the S/D feature 420 starts at epitaxially growing a semiconductor material over the substrate 210 and within the S/D recess 410, continually overgrowing beyond top surfaces of the isolation regions 230 and merging into a single feature.","The epitaxial growing process may include a cyclic deposition and etching (CDE) process, selective epitaxy growth (SEG) process, or/and other suitable processes.","In some embodiments, the CDE process is a two-cycle operation with a precursor having chlorine for deposition/etching effects so that the semiconductor material is selectively deposited over the substrate 210 within the S/D recesses 410.In the first cycle (deposition cycle), the various chemicals are used as precursor to epitaxially grow the semiconductor material.","In the second cycle (etching cycle), chlorine-containing gas (such as HCl, Cl2 or both) is used for etching.","The CDE process repeats the two cycles until the S/D recesses 410 are filled and then overgrowing beyond the top surfaces of the isolation region 230.In the SEG process, the deposition gas (chemicals for deposition) and etching gas (chlorine-containing gas, such as Cl2 or HCl) are simultaneously flown to the processing chamber.","Instead of two cycles, the operation is a continuous deposition/etching process that epitaxially grows the semiconductor material selectively over the substrate 210 within the S/D recesses 410.Thus, the disclosed deposition of the semiconductor material to the substrate 210 is insensitive to the metal residuals, eliminating the metal assisted silicon etching issue and the associated defects.","Usually when a semiconductor feature epitaxially grows from multiple individual recesses and overgrows to merge into a single feature, it results in having a substantial non-flat surface, as shown in FIG.","6.A ratio of a lowest height h to a highest height H is less than 70%.","In the present embodiment, the growth process conditions are carefully controlled such that the merged portion 424 is formed with a quit flat top surface, as shown in FIG.","4B.","As an example, the SiGe S/D feature 420 is formed by a CDE process, performed in an AMAT Centura epitaxial deposition equipment, having process temperature ranging from about 500° C. to about 700° C., processing chamber pressure ranging from about 30 torr to about 50 torr, a gas ratio of GeH4 to DCS ranging from about 5 to about 10 and HCl flow less than 100 sccm.","In some embodiments, the FinFET device 200 includes an N-type FET (NFET) region and a P-type FET (PFET) region.","The S/D features 420 may be different in compositions in the NFET region than in the PFET region.","For example, the S/D features 420 in the NFET region are SiC doped with phosphorous and the S/D features 420 in the PFET region are SiGe doped with boron.","As one example, the procedure to form S/D features 420 for both NFET region and PFET region includes: forming a first mask (soft mask or hard mask) to cover the NFET region; performing a first CDE (or SEG) process to form S/D features 420 of SiGe-B in the PFET region; removing the first mask; forming a second mask to cover the PFET region; performing a second CDE (or SEG) process to form S/D features 420 of SiC-P in the NFET region; and removing the second mask.","In one embodiment, an in-situ doping process may be performed during the epitaxially growth processes.","In another embodiment, an implantation process (i.e., a junction implant process) is performed to dope the S/D feature 420.One or more annealing processes may be performed to activate dopants.","The annealing processes comprise rapid thermal annealing (RTA) and/or laser annealing processes.","Additional steps can be provided before, during, and after the method 1000, and some of the steps described can be replaced or eliminated for other embodiments of the method.","The FinFET devices 200 and 1000 may undergo further CMOS or MOS technology processing to form various features and regions.","For example, an interlayer dielectric (ILD) layer 510 is formed over the substrate 210, including fully filling spaces between first gate stacks 310, as shown in FIG.","7.The ILD layer 510 may include silicon oxide, silicon oxynitride, silicon nitride, silicon carbide, silicon carbide nitride, low k dielectric material or other suitable dielectric materials.","The ILD layer 510 is formed by a suitable technique, such as CVD, ALD and spin-on (SOG).","A chemical mechanical polishing (CMP) process may be performed thereafter to remove excessive ILD layer 510 and planarize the top surface of the ILD layer 510 with the first gate stacks 310.In one embodiment, top surfaces of the first gate stack 310 are exposed after the CMP process.","After depositing the ILD layer 510, the first gate stack 310 is removed to from a gate trench 610 and the upper portion of the fin feature 220 is exposed in the gate trench 610, as shown in FIG.","8.In one embodiment, the first gate stack 310 is removed by a selective etch process, including a selective wet etch or a selective dry etch.","After the first gate stack 310 is removed to from the gate trench 610, a high-K/metal gate (HK/MG) 710 is formed over the substrate 210, including wrapping over the exposed upper portion of the fin feature 220 in the gate trench 610, as shown in FIG.","9.The HK/MG 710 may include gate dielectric layer 712 and MG electrode 714 disposed over the gate dielectric 712.In one embodiment, the gate dielectric layer 712 wraps over the upper portion of the fin feature 220 in a gate region, where a gate channel will be formed during operating the FinFET device 200.As has been mentioned previously, the merged portion 424 connects to multiple individual fin features 220 in the gate region 234, thus the S/D feature 420 induces stress to each individual gate channel region.","Thus with a large volume of the merged portion 424, the S/D feature 420 may enhance strain effect on the channel region.","The gate dielectric layer 712 includes an interfacial layer (IL) and a HK dielectric layer.","The IL is deposited by a suitable method, such as atomic layer deposition (ALD), CVD, thermal oxidation or ozone oxidation.","The IL includes oxide, HfSiO and oxynitride.","A HK dielectric layer is deposited on the IL by a suitable technique, such as ALD, CVD, metal-organic CVD (MOCVD), physical vapor deposition (PVD), other suitable technique, or a combination thereof.","The HK dielectric layer may include LaO, AlO, ZrO, TiO, Ta2O5, Y2O3, SrTiO3 (STO), BaTiO3 (BTO), BaZrO, HfZrO, HfLaO, HfSiO, LaSiO, AlSiO, HfTaO, HfTiO, (Ba,Sr)TiO3 (BST), Al2O3, Si3N4, oxynitrides (SiON), or other suitable materials.","The MG electrode 714 may include a single layer or alternatively a multi-layer structure, such as various combinations of a metal layer with a work function to enhance the device performance (work function metal layer), liner layer, wetting layer, adhesion layer and a conductive layer of metal, metal alloy or metal silicide).","The MG electrode 714 may include Ti, Ag, Al, TiAlN, TaC, TaCN, TaSiN, Mn, Zr, TiN, TaN, Ru, Mo, Al, WN, Cu, W, any suitable materials or a combination thereof.","The MG electrode 914 may be formed by ALD, PVD, CVD, or other suitable process.","The MG electrode 914 may be formed separately for the N-FET and P-FFET with different metal layers.","A CMP process may be performed to remove excessive MG electrode 714.For another example, the FinFET devices 200 may include various contacts/vias/lines and multilayers interconnect features (e.g., metal layers and interlayer dielectrics) over the substrate 210.As an example, a multilayer interconnection includes vertical interconnects, such as conventional vias or contacts, and horizontal interconnects, such as metal lines.","The various interconnection features may implement various conductive materials including copper, tungsten, and/or silicide.","In one example, a damascene and/or dual damascene process is used to form a copper related multilayer interconnection structure.","Based on the above, the present disclosure offers a S/D structure and a method of forming the S/D feature, which has a merged portion with a quite flat surface.","The S/D structure demonstrates enhancing channel strain boosting and reducing S/D resistivity.","The method of forming the S/D feature is very easy to be adapted by existing process flow of forming a merged S/D feature from multiple individual S/D recesses.","The present disclosure provides many different FinFET devices that provide one or more improvements over existing approaches.","In one embodiment, a FinFET device includes a semiconductor substrate having a source/drain region, a plurality of isolation regions over the semiconductor substrate and a source/drain feature in the source/drain region.","The source/drain feature includes a multiple plug-type portions over the substrate and each of plug-type portion is isolated each other by a respective isolation region.","The source/drain feature also includes a single upper portion over the isolation regions.","Here the single upper portion is merged from the multiple plug-type portions.","The single upper portion has a flat top surface facing away from a top surface of the isolation region.","In another embodiment, a FinFET device includes a substrate having a source/drain (S/D) region, a plurality of isolation regions over the substrate and a silicon germanium (SiGe) S/D feature in the source/drain region.","The SiGe S/D feature includes a multiple plug-type portions over the substrate and each of plug-type portions embedded in an isolation region.","The SiGe S/D feature also includes a single upper portion over the isolation region.","The single upper portion is merged from the multiple plug-type portions, wherein the single upper portion has a top surface, facing away from a top surface of the isolation region, having a flat surface connects with a multi-facet surface in a repetitive manner.","In yet another embodiment, a method of fabricating a FinFET device includes forming a plurality of fin features over a substrate, forming isolation regions between fin features, recessing fin features in a source/drain region to form source/drain recesses, growing a semiconductor layer in each of the source/drain recess and overgrowing the semiconductor layer from each of the source/drain recess to merge to a single structure with a flat top surface and a flat bottom surface.","The foregoing outlines features of several embodiments so that those skilled in the art may better understand the aspects of the present disclosure.","Those skilled in the art should appreciate that they may readily use the present disclosure as a basis for designing or modifying other processes and structures for carrying out the same purposes and/or achieving the same advantages of the embodiments introduced herein.","Those skilled in the art should also realize that such equivalent constructions do not depart from the spirit and scope of the present disclosure, and that they may make various changes, substitutions, and alterations herein without departing from the spirit and scope of the present disclosure."]],"string":"[\n [\n \"Source/Drain Structure and Manufacturing the Same\",\n \"A fin-like field-effect transistor (FinFET) device is disclosed.\",\n \"The device includes a semiconductor substrate having a source/drain region, a plurality of isolation regions over the semiconductor substrate and a source/drain feature in the source/drain region.\",\n \"The source/drain feature includes a multiple plug-type portions over the substrate and each of plug-type portion is isolated each other by a respective isolation region.\",\n \"The source/drain feature also includes a single upper portion over the isolation regions.\",\n \"Here the single upper portion is merged from the multiple plug-type portions.\",\n \"The single upper portion has a flat top surface facing away from a top surface of the isolation region.\"\n ],\n [\n \"1.A device comprising: a semiconductor substrate having a source/drain region; a plurality of isolation regions over the semiconductor substrate; and a source/drain feature in the source/drain region, the source/drain feature including: multiple lower portions that are isolated from each other by a lateral separation; and a single upper portion over the isolation regions, wherein the single upper portion is merged from the multiple lower portions, wherein the single upper portion has a top surface facing away from a top surface of the isolation regions, wherein the top surface of the single upper portion includes a first flat surface connected to a first multi-facet surface and a second flat surface connected to the first multi-facet surface.\",\n \"2.The device of claim 1, wherein the first multi-facet surface includes a first facet and a second facet.\",\n \"3.The device of claim 2, wherein the first facet has a (111) crystal plane orientation and the first facet has the (111) crystal plane orientation.\",\n \"4.The device of claim 1, wherein the top surface further includes a second multi-facet surface, the second multi-facet surface connected to the second flat surface.\",\n \"5.The device of claim 1, wherein the multiple lower portions and the single upper portion are formed of the same semiconductor material.\",\n \"6.The device of claim 1, further comprising a semiconductor material layer disposed over the single upper portion, the single upper portion being formed of a different material than the semiconductor material layer.\",\n \"7.The device of claim 6, wherein the semiconductor material layer physically contacts the single upper portion.\",\n \"8.A device comprising: a semiconductor substrate having a source/drain region; a plurality of isolation regions over the semiconductor substrate; and a source/drain feature in the source/drain region, the source/drain feature including: multiple lower portions that are isolated from each other by a lateral separation; and a single upper portion over the isolation regions, wherein the single upper portion is merged from the multiple lower portions, wherein the single upper portion has a top surface facing away from a top surface of the isolation regions, wherein the top surface of the single upper portion includes a first multi-facet surface, a second multi-facet surface and a flat surface in between the first and second multi-facet surfaces.\",\n \"9.The device of claim 8, wherein the single upper portion includes silicon.\",\n \"10.The device of claim 8, wherein the single upper portion includes germanium.\",\n \"11.The device of claim 8, further comprising: a fin structure disposed over the semiconductor substrate; and a gate structure disposed over a first portion of the fin structure; and wherein the source/drain feature is disposed over a second portion of the fin structure.\",\n \"12.The device of claim 11, wherein the first portion of the fin structure extends to a first height over the semiconductor substrate and the second portion of the fin structure extends to a second height over the semiconductor substrate.\",\n \"13.The device of claim 11, wherein the source/drain feature physically contacts the second portion of the fin structure.\",\n \"14.The device of claim 8, wherein the flat surface is connected to the first multi-facet surface.\",\n \"15.A device comprising: a fin structure disposed over a substrate; a source/drain feature disposed over the fin structure, the source/drain feature including: multiple lower portions that are isolated from each other by a lateral separation; and a single upper portion merged from the multiple lower portions, wherein the single upper portion has a top surface facing away from a top surface of the fin structure, wherein the top surface of the single upper portion includes a first flat surface connected to a first multi-facet surface and a second flat surface connected to the first multi-facet surface.\",\n \"16.The device of claim 15, wherein the fin structure includes a plurality of fins disposed over the substrate.\",\n \"17.The device of claim 15, wherein the top surface of the single upper portion further includes a second multi-facet surface.\",\n \"18.The device of claim 15, wherein the multiple lower portions and the single upper portion are formed of the same material.\",\n \"19.The device of claim 15, wherein the source/drain feature further includes a semiconductor material layer disposed directly on the single upper portion.\",\n \"20.The device of claim 19, wherein the semiconductor material layer is formed of a different material than the single upper portion.\"\n ],\n [\n \" BACKGROUND The semiconductor integrated circuit (IC) industry has experienced rapid growth.\",\n \"In the course of IC evolution, functional density (i.e., the number of interconnected devices per chip area) has generally increased while geometry size (i.e., the smallest component (or line) that can be created using a fabrication process) has decreased.\",\n \"This scaling down process generally provides benefits by increasing production efficiency and lowering associated costs.\",\n \"Such scaling down has also increased the complexity of processing and manufacturing ICs and, for these advances to be realized, similar developments in IC processing and manufacturing are needed.\",\n \"For example, a three dimensional transistor, such as a fin-like field-effect transistor (FinFET), has been introduced to replace a planar transistor.\",\n \"Although existing FinFET devices and methods of fabricating FinFET devices have been generally adequate for their intended purposes, they have not been entirely satisfactory in all respects.\",\n \"For example, a more flexible integration for forming an strain booster for a channel region is desired.\"\n ],\n [\n \" BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS Aspects of the present disclosure are best understood from the following detailed description when read in association with the accompanying figures.\",\n \"It is noted that, in accordance with the standard practice in the industry, various features in drawings are not drawn to scale.\",\n \"In fact, the dimensions of illustrated features may be arbitrarily increased or decreased for clarity of discussion.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"1 is a diagrammatic perspective view of an example FinFET device in accordance with some embodiments.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"2A is a diagrammatic perspective view of an example FinFET device in accordance with some embodiments.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"2B is a cross-sectional view of an example FinFET device in accordance with some embodiments.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"3A is a diagrammatic perspective view of an example FinFET device in accordance with some embodiments.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"3B is a cross-sectional view of an example semiconductor device along the line B-B in FIG.\",\n \"3A .\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"4A is a diagrammatic perspective view of an example FinFET device in accordance with some embodiments.\",\n \"FIGS.\",\n \"4B and 4C are cross-sectional views of an example FinFET device along the line B-B in FIG.\",\n \"4A .\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"5 is a flow chart of an example method for fabricating a FinFET device in accordance with some embodiments.\",\n \"FIGS.\",\n \"6 to 9 are cross-sectional views of an example FinFET device in accordance with some embodiments.\",\n \"detailed-description description=\\\"Detailed Description\\\" end=\\\"lead\\\"?\"\n ],\n [\n \"PRIORITY DATA The present application is a continuation application of U.S. application Ser.\",\n \"No.\",\n \"15/207,934, filed Jul.\",\n \"12, 2016, which is a divisional application of U.S. application Ser.\",\n \"No.\",\n \"14/552,904, filed Nov. 25, 2014, which is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety.\",\n \"BACKGROUND The semiconductor integrated circuit (IC) industry has experienced rapid growth.\",\n \"In the course of IC evolution, functional density (i.e., the number of interconnected devices per chip area) has generally increased while geometry size (i.e., the smallest component (or line) that can be created using a fabrication process) has decreased.\",\n \"This scaling down process generally provides benefits by increasing production efficiency and lowering associated costs.\",\n \"Such scaling down has also increased the complexity of processing and manufacturing ICs and, for these advances to be realized, similar developments in IC processing and manufacturing are needed.\",\n \"For example, a three dimensional transistor, such as a fin-like field-effect transistor (FinFET), has been introduced to replace a planar transistor.\",\n \"Although existing FinFET devices and methods of fabricating FinFET devices have been generally adequate for their intended purposes, they have not been entirely satisfactory in all respects.\",\n \"For example, a more flexible integration for forming an strain booster for a channel region is desired.\",\n \"BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS Aspects of the present disclosure are best understood from the following detailed description when read in association with the accompanying figures.\",\n \"It is noted that, in accordance with the standard practice in the industry, various features in drawings are not drawn to scale.\",\n \"In fact, the dimensions of illustrated features may be arbitrarily increased or decreased for clarity of discussion.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"1 is a diagrammatic perspective view of an example FinFET device in accordance with some embodiments.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"2A is a diagrammatic perspective view of an example FinFET device in accordance with some embodiments.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"2B is a cross-sectional view of an example FinFET device in accordance with some embodiments.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"3A is a diagrammatic perspective view of an example FinFET device in accordance with some embodiments.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"3B is a cross-sectional view of an example semiconductor device along the line B-B in FIG.\",\n \"3A.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"4A is a diagrammatic perspective view of an example FinFET device in accordance with some embodiments.\",\n \"FIGS.\",\n \"4B and 4C are cross-sectional views of an example FinFET device along the line B-B in FIG.\",\n \"4A.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"5 is a flow chart of an example method for fabricating a FinFET device in accordance with some embodiments.\",\n \"FIGS.\",\n \"6 to 9 are cross-sectional views of an example FinFET device in accordance with some embodiments.\",\n \"DETAILED DESCRIPTION The following disclosure provides many different embodiments, or examples, for implementing different features of the invention.\",\n \"Specific examples of components and arrangements are described below to simplify the present disclosure.\",\n \"These are, of course, merely examples and are not intended to be limiting.\",\n \"For example, the formation of a first feature over or on a second feature in the description that follows may include embodiments in which the first and second features are formed in direct contact, and may also include embodiments in which additional features may be formed between the first and second features, such that the first and second features may not be in direct contact.\",\n \"In addition, the present disclosure may repeat reference numerals and/or letters in the various examples.\",\n \"This repetition is for the purpose of simplicity and clarity and does not in itself dictate a relationship between the various embodiments and/or configurations discussed.\",\n \"Further, spatially relative terms, such as “beneath,” “below,” “lower,” “above,” “upper” and the like, may be used herein for ease of description to describe one element or feature's relationship to another element(s) or feature(s) as illustrated in the figures.\",\n \"The spatially relative terms are intended to encompass different orientations of the device in use or operation in addition to the orientation depicted in the figures.\",\n \"The apparatus may be otherwise oriented (rotated 90 degrees or at other orientations) and the spatially relative descriptors used herein may likewise be interpreted accordingly.\",\n \"The present disclosure is directed to, but not otherwise limited to, a FinFET device.\",\n \"The FinFET device, for example, may be a complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor (CMOS) device comprising a P-type metal-oxide-semiconductor (PMOS) FinFET device and an N-type metal-oxide-semiconductor (NMOS) FinFET device.\",\n \"The following disclosure will continue with a FinFET example to illustrate various embodiments of the present invention.\",\n \"It is understood, however, that the application should not be limited to a particular type of device, except as specifically claimed.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"1 illustrates a plurality of fin features 220 and isolation regions 230 formed over a substrate 210.The substrate 210 may be a bulk silicon substrate.\",\n \"Alternatively, the substrate 210 may comprise an elementary semiconductor, such as silicon or germanium in a crystalline structure; a compound semiconductor, such as silicon germanium, silicon carbide, gallium arsenic, gallium phosphide, indium phosphide, indium arsenide, and/or indium antimonide; or combinations thereof.\",\n \"Possible substrates 210 also include a silicon-on-insulator (SOI) substrate.\",\n \"SOI substrates are fabricated using separation by implantation of oxygen (SIMOX), wafer bonding, and/or other suitable methods.\",\n \"Some exemplary substrates 210 also include an insulator layer.\",\n \"The insulator layer comprises any suitable material, including silicon oxide, sapphire, and/or combinations thereof.\",\n \"An exemplary insulator layer may be a buried oxide layer (BOX).\",\n \"The insulator is formed by any suitable process, such as implantation (e.g., SIMOX), oxidation, deposition, and/or other suitable process.\",\n \"In some exemplary FinFET precursors 200, the insulator layer is a component (e.g., layer) of a silicon-on-insulator substrate.\",\n \"The substrate 210 may also include various doped regions.\",\n \"The doped regions may be doped with p-type dopants, such as boron or BF2; n-type dopants, such as phosphorus or arsenic; or combinations thereof.\",\n \"The doped regions may be formed directly on the substrate 210, in a P-well structure, in an N-well structure, in a dual-well structure, or using a raised structure.\",\n \"The substrate 210 may further include various active regions, such as regions configured for an N-type metal-oxide-semiconductor (MOS) transistor device and regions configured for a P-type MOS transistor device.\",\n \"The fin features 220 are formed by any suitable process including various deposition, photolithography, and/or etching processes.\",\n \"In one embodiment, the fin features 220 are formed by patterning and etching a portion of the substrate 210.Various isolation regions 230 are formed on the substrate 210 to isolate active regions.\",\n \"For example, the isolation regions 230 separate fin features 220.The isolation region 230 may be formed using traditional isolation technology, such as shallow trench isolation (STI), to define and electrically isolate the various regions.\",\n \"The isolation region 230 includes silicon oxide, silicon nitride, silicon oxynitride, an air gap, other suitable materials, or combinations thereof.\",\n \"The isolation region 230 is formed by any suitable process.\",\n \"In the present embodiment, an upper portion of the fin feature 220 is exposed above the isolation region 230.In some embodiments, the substrate 210 has source/drain regions (S/D) 232 and a gate region 234.In some embodiments, a S/D 232 is a source region, and another S/D region 232 is a drain region.\",\n \"The S/D 232 are separated by the gate region 234.FIGS.\",\n \"2A and 2B illustrate first gate stacks 310 are formed over the substrate 210, including wrapping over the exposed upper portion of the fin feature 220 in the gate region 234.The first gate stack 310 may include a gate dielectric layer 312 and a gate electrode 314.In the present embodiment, the first gate stacks 310 include dummy gate stacks and they will be replaced by a final gate stack at a subsequent stage.\",\n \"Particularly, the dummy gate stack 310 is to be replaced later by a high-k dielectric/metal gate (HK/MG) after high thermal temperature processes, such as thermal annealing for source/drain activation during the sources/drains formation.\",\n \"In one embodiment, the first dummy gate stack 310 includes the dummy dielectric layer 312 and polycrystalline silicon (polysilicon) 314.A gate hard mask (HM) 316 is formed over the gate electrode 314.The gate HM 316 may include silicon nitride, silicon oxynitride, silicon oxide, other suitable material, or a combination thereof.\",\n \"FIGS.\",\n \"2A and 2B also illustrate spacers 320 are formed along sidewalls of the first gate stacks 310.The spacer 320 may include a dielectric material (such as silicon oxide, silicon nitride or silicon carbide) but is different from the material of the dummy gate stack 310 to achieve etching selectivity during a subsequent etch process.\",\n \"FIGS.\",\n \"3A-3B illustrate S/D recesses 410 formed on either side of the gate stack 310.The S/D recesses 410 are formed by removing portions of the fin features 220 at either side of the first gate stack 310.In the present embodiment, the S/D recesses 410 are formed in S/D regions 232, such that the first gate stack 310 interposes the S/D recesses 410 and a portion of the fin feature 220 in the gate region 234 is laterally exposed in the S/D recess 410.The S/D recesses 410 have a depth d. In one embodiment, the depth d is larger than 1 nm.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"4A illustrates a S/D feature 420 is formed by growing a S/D material in the S/D recesses 410 and continually growing the S/D material over the isolation regions and merging into a single feature.\",\n \"For the sake of clarity to better illustrate the concepts of the present disclosure, a lower portion of the S/D feature 420 grown within the S/D recess 410 is referred to as a plug-type portion 422 and an upper portion of the S/D feature 420, overgrown from individual plug-type portion 422 and merged more than one plug-type portion 422 into a single feature is referred to as a merged portion 424.Each of the plug-type portion 422 is separated by and embedded in the respective isolation region 230 while the merged portion 424 is over several isolation regions 230 and physical contacts to multiple fin feature 220 in the gate region 234.The S/D features 420 may include germanium (Ge), silicon (Si), gallium arsenide (GaAs), aluminum gallium arsenide (AlGaAs), silicon germanium (SiGe), gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP), gallium antimony (GaSb), indium antimony (InSb), indium gallium arsenide (InGaAs), indium arsenide (InAs), or other suitable materials.\",\n \"The S/D feature 420 may be doped during its formation or by an implantation process.\",\n \"In one embodiment, the S/D feature 420 includes an epitaxially grown SiGe layer that is doped with boron.\",\n \"In another embodiment, the S/D feature 420 includes an epitaxially grown Si epi layer that is doped with phosphorous.\",\n \"In yet another embodiment, the S/D feature 420 includes an epitaxially grown Si epi layer that is doped with carbon.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"4B illustrates, in the present embodiment, the merged portion 424 is formed with a quite flat top surface (facing away a top surface of the isolation region 230) to increase volume of the merged portion 424.In one embodiment, a ratio of the lowest height h2 to the highest height h1 of the merged portion 424 is larger than 90%.\",\n \"With a large volume of the merged portion 424, the S/D feature 420 may enhance strain effect on gate channel regions which will be formed later and a S/D resistance may be reduced as well.\",\n \"In one embodiment, the S/D feature 420 includes SiGe.\",\n \"A top surface of the merged portion 424 of the SiGe S/D feature 420 includes a flat surface 424A and a plurality of multi-facet surface 424B in a repetitive manner.\",\n \"The flat surface 424A is parallel to a top surface of the isolation region 230.The multi-facet surface 424B is quite small and aligned to the S/D recess 410.In one example, the multi-facet surface 424B is a diamond shape and has two facets, 424BA and 424BB.\",\n \"Each facet has a (111) crystallographic orientation.\",\n \"The facets 424BA and 424BB have a fixed angle θ with the flat surface 424A.\",\n \"The facet 424BA starts from the flat surface 424A and meets an end of the facet 424BB; which also starts from the flat surface 424A.\",\n \"In this case, the lowest height h1 of the merged portion 424 is a distance between the top surface of the isolation region 230 and the highest height h2 is a distance between the top surface of the isolation region 230 and a point where the facet 424BA meets the facet 424BB.\",\n \"In one embodiment, the S/D feature 420 is formed by a multiple semiconductor layers grown over the S/D feature 420.For example, a second semiconductor layer 421 is formed over the S/D feature 420, as shown in FIG.\",\n \"4C.\",\n \"The second semiconductor layer 421 has a different semiconductor material than the S/D feature 420.As an example, the S/D feature 420 includes epitaxial SiGe while the second semiconductor material layer 421 includes III-V semiconductor material.\",\n \"In one embodiment, the second semiconductor material layer 421 has the same top surface profile as the S/D feature 420.FIG.\",\n \"5 is a flowchart of a method 1000 to form a FET constructed according to various aspects of the present disclosure in some embodiments.\",\n \"The method 1000 is described with reference to FIG.\",\n \"5 and other figures.\",\n \"However, the FinFET device 200 (in FIGS.\",\n \"4A-4C in the present embodiment) is provided as an example and is not intended to limit the scope of the method.\",\n \"Referring to FIGS.\",\n \"5 and 1, the method 1000 begins at step 1002 by forming fin features 220 over the substrate 210.In one embodiment, a patterned photoresist layer is formed over the substrate 210 by a lithography process and the substrate 210 is etched through openings of the patterned photoresist layer to form the fin features 220.An exemplary photolithography process may include forming a photoresist layer, exposing the resist by a lithography exposure process, performing a post-exposure bake process, and developing the photoresist layer to form the patterned photoresist layer.\",\n \"The etching process may include a wet etch or a dry etch.\",\n \"The respective etch process may be tuned with various etching parameters, such as etchant used, etching temperature, etching solution concentration, etching pressure, source power, RF bias voltage, RF bias power, etchant flow rate, and/or other suitable parameters.\",\n \"For example, a wet etching solution may include NH4OH, KOH (potassium hydroxide), HF (hydrofluoric acid), TMAH, other suitable wet etching solutions, or combinations thereof.\",\n \"Dry etching processes include a biased plasma etching process that uses a chlorine-based chemistry.\",\n \"Other dry etchant gasses include CF4, NF3, SF6, and He.\",\n \"Dry etching may also be performed anisotropically using such mechanism as DRIE (deep reactive-ion etching).\",\n \"Referring again to FIGS.\",\n \"5 and 1, the method 1000 proceeds to step 1004 by forming isolation regions 230 over the substrate 210.In one embodiment, isolation regions 230 are formed by depositing a dielectric layer over the substrate 210, including filling in spaces between fin features 220, and being followed by an etching back.\",\n \"The dielectric layer is etched back by a proper etching process, such as a selective wet etch, or a selective dry etch, or a combination thereof.\",\n \"In present embodiment, the recessing processes are controlled to expose the upper portion of the fin feature 220.Referring to FIGS.\",\n \"5 and 2A-2B, the method 1000 proceeds to step 1006 by forming the first gate stack 310 in the gate region 234, including wrapping over the exposed upper portion of the fin feature 220.The first gate stack 310 may be formed by a suitable procedure including deposition, lithography patterning and etching.\",\n \"In various examples, the deposition includes CVD, physical vapor deposition (PVD), ALD, thermal oxidation, other suitable techniques, or a combination thereof.\",\n \"The etching process includes dry etching, wet etching, and/or other etching methods (e.g., reactive ion etching).\",\n \"In other embodiments, the patterning of the gate stack material layers may alternatively use the gate HM 316 as an etching mask.\",\n \"The gate HM 316 is deposited on the gate electrode 314.A patterned resist layer is formed on the gate HM 316 by a lithography process.\",\n \"Then, the gate HM 316 is etched through openings of the patterned resist layer, thereby forming the patterned gate HM 316.The patterned resist layer may be removed thereafter using a suitable process, such as wet stripping or plasma ashing.\",\n \"Referring again to FIGS.\",\n \"5 and 2A-2B, the method 1000 proceeds to step 1008 by forming spacers 320 along sidewalls of the first gate stack 310.In one embodiment, a formation of the spacer 320 includes depositing a spacer material layer on the substrate 210 and the first gate stack 310, and thereafter performing an anisotropic etch to the spacer material layer, thereby forming the spacer 320.The deposition of the spacer material layer includes a suitable technique, such as CVD, PVD and/or ALD.\",\n \"The anisotropic etch may include a plasma etch in one example.\",\n \"Referring to FIGS.\",\n \"5 and 3A-3B, the method 1000 proceeds to step 1010 by recessing the fin feature 220 in the S/D region 232 to form the S/D recesses 410.The recessing process may include dry etching process, wet etching process, and/or combination thereof.\",\n \"The recessing process may also include a selective wet etch or a selective dry etch.\",\n \"A wet etching solution includes a TMAH, a HF/HNO3/CH3COOH solution, or other suitable solution.\",\n \"In the present embodiment, the S/D recesses 410 are formed by a selective etch process.\",\n \"The etch process selectively etches the fin feature 220 in the S/D region 232 but substantially does not etch the gate HM 316 and the spacer 320.Referring to FIGS.\",\n \"5 and 4A-CB, the method 1000 proceeds to step 1012 by forming source/drain features 420 to within the S/D recesses 410 (the plug-type portion) and continually extending to merge into the single structure (the merged portion).\",\n \"The S/D features 420 may be formed by epitaxial growing processes, such as CVD deposition techniques (e.g., vapor-phase epitaxy (VPE) and/or ultra-high vacuum CVD (UHV-CVD)), molecular beam epitaxy, and/or other suitable processes.\",\n \"In present embodiment, a formation of the S/D feature 420 starts at epitaxially growing a semiconductor material over the substrate 210 and within the S/D recess 410, continually overgrowing beyond top surfaces of the isolation regions 230 and merging into a single feature.\",\n \"The epitaxial growing process may include a cyclic deposition and etching (CDE) process, selective epitaxy growth (SEG) process, or/and other suitable processes.\",\n \"In some embodiments, the CDE process is a two-cycle operation with a precursor having chlorine for deposition/etching effects so that the semiconductor material is selectively deposited over the substrate 210 within the S/D recesses 410.In the first cycle (deposition cycle), the various chemicals are used as precursor to epitaxially grow the semiconductor material.\",\n \"In the second cycle (etching cycle), chlorine-containing gas (such as HCl, Cl2 or both) is used for etching.\",\n \"The CDE process repeats the two cycles until the S/D recesses 410 are filled and then overgrowing beyond the top surfaces of the isolation region 230.In the SEG process, the deposition gas (chemicals for deposition) and etching gas (chlorine-containing gas, such as Cl2 or HCl) are simultaneously flown to the processing chamber.\",\n \"Instead of two cycles, the operation is a continuous deposition/etching process that epitaxially grows the semiconductor material selectively over the substrate 210 within the S/D recesses 410.Thus, the disclosed deposition of the semiconductor material to the substrate 210 is insensitive to the metal residuals, eliminating the metal assisted silicon etching issue and the associated defects.\",\n \"Usually when a semiconductor feature epitaxially grows from multiple individual recesses and overgrows to merge into a single feature, it results in having a substantial non-flat surface, as shown in FIG.\",\n \"6.A ratio of a lowest height h to a highest height H is less than 70%.\",\n \"In the present embodiment, the growth process conditions are carefully controlled such that the merged portion 424 is formed with a quit flat top surface, as shown in FIG.\",\n \"4B.\",\n \"As an example, the SiGe S/D feature 420 is formed by a CDE process, performed in an AMAT Centura epitaxial deposition equipment, having process temperature ranging from about 500° C. to about 700° C., processing chamber pressure ranging from about 30 torr to about 50 torr, a gas ratio of GeH4 to DCS ranging from about 5 to about 10 and HCl flow less than 100 sccm.\",\n \"In some embodiments, the FinFET device 200 includes an N-type FET (NFET) region and a P-type FET (PFET) region.\",\n \"The S/D features 420 may be different in compositions in the NFET region than in the PFET region.\",\n \"For example, the S/D features 420 in the NFET region are SiC doped with phosphorous and the S/D features 420 in the PFET region are SiGe doped with boron.\",\n \"As one example, the procedure to form S/D features 420 for both NFET region and PFET region includes: forming a first mask (soft mask or hard mask) to cover the NFET region; performing a first CDE (or SEG) process to form S/D features 420 of SiGe-B in the PFET region; removing the first mask; forming a second mask to cover the PFET region; performing a second CDE (or SEG) process to form S/D features 420 of SiC-P in the NFET region; and removing the second mask.\",\n \"In one embodiment, an in-situ doping process may be performed during the epitaxially growth processes.\",\n \"In another embodiment, an implantation process (i.e., a junction implant process) is performed to dope the S/D feature 420.One or more annealing processes may be performed to activate dopants.\",\n \"The annealing processes comprise rapid thermal annealing (RTA) and/or laser annealing processes.\",\n \"Additional steps can be provided before, during, and after the method 1000, and some of the steps described can be replaced or eliminated for other embodiments of the method.\",\n \"The FinFET devices 200 and 1000 may undergo further CMOS or MOS technology processing to form various features and regions.\",\n \"For example, an interlayer dielectric (ILD) layer 510 is formed over the substrate 210, including fully filling spaces between first gate stacks 310, as shown in FIG.\",\n \"7.The ILD layer 510 may include silicon oxide, silicon oxynitride, silicon nitride, silicon carbide, silicon carbide nitride, low k dielectric material or other suitable dielectric materials.\",\n \"The ILD layer 510 is formed by a suitable technique, such as CVD, ALD and spin-on (SOG).\",\n \"A chemical mechanical polishing (CMP) process may be performed thereafter to remove excessive ILD layer 510 and planarize the top surface of the ILD layer 510 with the first gate stacks 310.In one embodiment, top surfaces of the first gate stack 310 are exposed after the CMP process.\",\n \"After depositing the ILD layer 510, the first gate stack 310 is removed to from a gate trench 610 and the upper portion of the fin feature 220 is exposed in the gate trench 610, as shown in FIG.\",\n \"8.In one embodiment, the first gate stack 310 is removed by a selective etch process, including a selective wet etch or a selective dry etch.\",\n \"After the first gate stack 310 is removed to from the gate trench 610, a high-K/metal gate (HK/MG) 710 is formed over the substrate 210, including wrapping over the exposed upper portion of the fin feature 220 in the gate trench 610, as shown in FIG.\",\n \"9.The HK/MG 710 may include gate dielectric layer 712 and MG electrode 714 disposed over the gate dielectric 712.In one embodiment, the gate dielectric layer 712 wraps over the upper portion of the fin feature 220 in a gate region, where a gate channel will be formed during operating the FinFET device 200.As has been mentioned previously, the merged portion 424 connects to multiple individual fin features 220 in the gate region 234, thus the S/D feature 420 induces stress to each individual gate channel region.\",\n \"Thus with a large volume of the merged portion 424, the S/D feature 420 may enhance strain effect on the channel region.\",\n \"The gate dielectric layer 712 includes an interfacial layer (IL) and a HK dielectric layer.\",\n \"The IL is deposited by a suitable method, such as atomic layer deposition (ALD), CVD, thermal oxidation or ozone oxidation.\",\n \"The IL includes oxide, HfSiO and oxynitride.\",\n \"A HK dielectric layer is deposited on the IL by a suitable technique, such as ALD, CVD, metal-organic CVD (MOCVD), physical vapor deposition (PVD), other suitable technique, or a combination thereof.\",\n \"The HK dielectric layer may include LaO, AlO, ZrO, TiO, Ta2O5, Y2O3, SrTiO3 (STO), BaTiO3 (BTO), BaZrO, HfZrO, HfLaO, HfSiO, LaSiO, AlSiO, HfTaO, HfTiO, (Ba,Sr)TiO3 (BST), Al2O3, Si3N4, oxynitrides (SiON), or other suitable materials.\",\n \"The MG electrode 714 may include a single layer or alternatively a multi-layer structure, such as various combinations of a metal layer with a work function to enhance the device performance (work function metal layer), liner layer, wetting layer, adhesion layer and a conductive layer of metal, metal alloy or metal silicide).\",\n \"The MG electrode 714 may include Ti, Ag, Al, TiAlN, TaC, TaCN, TaSiN, Mn, Zr, TiN, TaN, Ru, Mo, Al, WN, Cu, W, any suitable materials or a combination thereof.\",\n \"The MG electrode 914 may be formed by ALD, PVD, CVD, or other suitable process.\",\n \"The MG electrode 914 may be formed separately for the N-FET and P-FFET with different metal layers.\",\n \"A CMP process may be performed to remove excessive MG electrode 714.For another example, the FinFET devices 200 may include various contacts/vias/lines and multilayers interconnect features (e.g., metal layers and interlayer dielectrics) over the substrate 210.As an example, a multilayer interconnection includes vertical interconnects, such as conventional vias or contacts, and horizontal interconnects, such as metal lines.\",\n \"The various interconnection features may implement various conductive materials including copper, tungsten, and/or silicide.\",\n \"In one example, a damascene and/or dual damascene process is used to form a copper related multilayer interconnection structure.\",\n \"Based on the above, the present disclosure offers a S/D structure and a method of forming the S/D feature, which has a merged portion with a quite flat surface.\",\n \"The S/D structure demonstrates enhancing channel strain boosting and reducing S/D resistivity.\",\n \"The method of forming the S/D feature is very easy to be adapted by existing process flow of forming a merged S/D feature from multiple individual S/D recesses.\",\n \"The present disclosure provides many different FinFET devices that provide one or more improvements over existing approaches.\",\n \"In one embodiment, a FinFET device includes a semiconductor substrate having a source/drain region, a plurality of isolation regions over the semiconductor substrate and a source/drain feature in the source/drain region.\",\n \"The source/drain feature includes a multiple plug-type portions over the substrate and each of plug-type portion is isolated each other by a respective isolation region.\",\n \"The source/drain feature also includes a single upper portion over the isolation regions.\",\n \"Here the single upper portion is merged from the multiple plug-type portions.\",\n \"The single upper portion has a flat top surface facing away from a top surface of the isolation region.\",\n \"In another embodiment, a FinFET device includes a substrate having a source/drain (S/D) region, a plurality of isolation regions over the substrate and a silicon germanium (SiGe) S/D feature in the source/drain region.\",\n \"The SiGe S/D feature includes a multiple plug-type portions over the substrate and each of plug-type portions embedded in an isolation region.\",\n \"The SiGe S/D feature also includes a single upper portion over the isolation region.\",\n \"The single upper portion is merged from the multiple plug-type portions, wherein the single upper portion has a top surface, facing away from a top surface of the isolation region, having a flat surface connects with a multi-facet surface in a repetitive manner.\",\n \"In yet another embodiment, a method of fabricating a FinFET device includes forming a plurality of fin features over a substrate, forming isolation regions between fin features, recessing fin features in a source/drain region to form source/drain recesses, growing a semiconductor layer in each of the source/drain recess and overgrowing the semiconductor layer from each of the source/drain recess to merge to a single structure with a flat top surface and a flat bottom surface.\",\n \"The foregoing outlines features of several embodiments so that those skilled in the art may better understand the aspects of the present disclosure.\",\n \"Those skilled in the art should appreciate that they may readily use the present disclosure as a basis for designing or modifying other processes and structures for carrying out the same purposes and/or achieving the same advantages of the embodiments introduced herein.\",\n \"Those skilled in the art should also realize that such equivalent constructions do not depart from the spirit and scope of the present disclosure, and that they may make various changes, substitutions, and alterations herein without departing from the spirit and scope of the present disclosure.\"\n ]\n]"},"source":{"kind":"string","value":"Patent_15875422"}}},{"rowIdx":4494874,"cells":{"text":{"kind":"list like","value":[["PRODUCTION METHODS FOR AQUEOUS EMULSION, FINE POWDER AND STRETCHED POROUS BODY OF MODIFIED POLYTETRAFLUOROETHYLENE","To provide a production method for an aqueous emulsion of modified polytetrafluoroethylene which is environmentally friendly and which is suitable for producing a stretched porous body having excellent breaking strength.","A production method for an aqueous emulsion of modified polytetrafluoroethylene, which is a method to obtain an aqueous emulsion of modified polytetrafluoroethylene particles having an average primary particle diameter of from 0.10 to 0.30 μm, by subjecting tetrafluoroethylene and a perfluoroalkyl ethylene to emulsion polymerization in an aqueous medium, using a polymerization initiator, in the presence of a fluorinated anionic surfactant having a LogPOW of from 2.4 to 3.4, wherein the amount of the perfluoroalkyl ethylene to be used, is from 120 to 3,000 ppm to the final production amount of the modified polytetrafluoroethylene; at the initiation of the emulsion polymerization, the entire amount of the perfluoroalkyl ethylene is permitted to be present, and, as the polymerization initiator, either one or both of a combination of a bromate and a bisulfite or sulfite, and a combination of a permanganate and oxalic acid, are used."],["1.A production method for an aqueous emulsion of modified polytetrafluoroethylene, which is a method to obtain an aqueous emulsion of non-melt-moldable modified polytetrafluoroethylene particles having an average primary particle diameter of from 0.10 to 0.30 μm, by subjecting tetrafluoroethylene and a perfluoroalkyl ethylene represented by the following formula (1) to emulsion polymerization in an aqueous medium, using a polymerization initiator, in the presence of a fluorinated anionic surfactant having a LogPOW of from 2.4 to 3.4, and which is characterized in that the amount of the perfluoroalkyl ethylene to be used, is from 120 to 3,000 ppm (by mass) to the final production amount of the modified polytetrafluoroethylene, at the initiation of the emulsion polymerization, the entire amount of the perfluoroalkyl ethylene is permitted to be present, and as the polymerization initiator, either one or both of a combination of a bromate and a bisulfite or sulfite, and a combination of a permanganate and oxalic acid, are used: CH2═CH—Rf (1) (Rf is a C1-6 perfluoroalkyl group).","2.The production method for an aqueous emulsion of modified polytetrafluoroethylene according to claim 1, wherein the fluorinated anionic surfactant is a fluorinated surfactant having 6 or 7 carbon atoms, 0 or 1 hydrogen atom, 0 or from 1 to 4 etheric oxygen atoms, a group represented by —COOA (A is H, NH4 or an alkali metal atom) and the rest of atoms being fluorine atoms.","3.The production method for an aqueous emulsion of modified polytetrafluoroethylene according to claim 1, wherein the perfluoroalkyl ethylene is CH2═CH(CF2)2F, CH2═CH(CF2)4F or CH2═CH(CF2)6F.","4.The production method for an aqueous emulsion of modified polytetrafluoroethylene according to claim 1, wherein the fluorinated anionic surfactant is used in an amount of from 0.2 to 2 mass % to the final production amount of the modified polytetrafluoroethylene.","5.A production method for a fine powder of modified polytetrafluoroethylene, which comprises producing an aqueous emulsion of modified polytetrafluoroethylene particles by the method as defined in claim 1, coagulating the obtained aqueous emulsion, and drying the obtained wet state fine powder of modified polytetrafluoroethylene, to obtain a powder having a standard specific gravity of from 2.130 to 2.145.6.The production method for a fine powder of modified polytetrafluoroethylene according to claim 5, wherein the drying of the wet state fine powder of modified polytetrafluoroethylene is carried out in an atmosphere containing ammonia.","7.The production method for a fine powder of modified polytetrafluoroethylene according to claim 5, wherein the standard specific gravity is from 2.135 to 2.142.8.The production method for a fine powder of modified polytetrafluoroethylene according to claim 5, wherein the extrusion pressure in the following extrusion test of the fine powder of modified polytetrafluoroethylene is from 19 to 25 MPa: Extrusion test: 100 g of the fine powder of modified polytetrafluoroethylene left to stand for at least 2 hours at room temperature is put into a glass bottle having an internal capacity of 500 mL, and 21.7 g of a lubricating oil (Isopar H (registered trademark), manufactured by Exxon) is added and mixed for 3 minutes to obtain a mixture; and the obtained mixture is left to stand for 2 hours in a thermostat bath at 25° C. and then, subjected to paste extrusion through an orifice having a diameter of 2.5 cm, a land length of 1.1 cm and an introduction angle 30°, at 25° C. under conditions of a reduction ratio (ratio of the cross-sectional area of the inlet to the cross-sectional area of the outlet of a die) of 100 and an extrusion speed of 51 cm/min., to obtain an extruded bead, whereby the pressure required for the extrusion is measured, and the measured value is adopted as the extrusion pressure (unit: MPa).","9.A production method for a stretched porous body of modified polytetrafluoroethylene, which comprises producing a fine powder of modified polytetrafluoroethylene by the method as defined in claim 5, subjecting the obtained fine powder of modified polytetrafluoroethylene to paste extrusion to obtain an extruded bead, and stretching the extruded bead.","10.The production method for a stretched porous body of modified polytetrafluoroethylene according to claim 9, wherein the breaking strength of the stretched porous body of modified polytetrafluoroethylene is from 36 to 60N."],[" BACKGROUND ART Polytetrafluoroethylene (hereinafter referred to as PTFE) has been produced as a homopolymer of tetrafluoroethylene (hereinafter referred to as TFE), or optionally as a modified polytetrafluoroethylene (hereinafter referred to as a modified PTFE) i.e.","a copolymer of tetrafluoroethylene with a small amount of a comonomer, and it has been applied to various uses.","For the production of PTFE, a method of subjecting TFE to emulsion polymerization in an aqueous medium in the presence of a fluorinated surfactant, or a method of subjecting TFE to suspension polymerization, is, for example, employed.","In the emulsion polymerization method, an aqueous emulsion in which PTFE particles are emulsified and dispersed, is obtained.","By coagulating the PTFE particles in the aqueous emulsion, followed by drying, a PTFE fine powder is obtained.","PTFE has a high melt viscosity and thus cannot be molded by a melt molding method such as an extrusion molding which is commonly applied to thermoplastic resins.","Therefore, as a molding method of PTFE, a paste extrusion molding method is employed, which is a method of mixing a lubricant to a fine powder of PTFE, followed by extrusion molding.","Important products obtainable from a PTFE fine powder include clothes, tents, industrial precision filters, separation films, etc.","For these products, a stretched porous body obtainable by the paste extrusion molding method is used, and in order to improve the product properties, it is desired to develop a stretched porous body excellent in breaking strength.","Heretofore, as a fluorinated surfactant to be used in the emulsion polymerization of TFE, ammonium perfluorooctanoate (CF 3 (CF 2 ) 6 COONH 4 , hereinafter referred to also as APFO) having 8 carbon atoms, has been used.","However, APFO does not exist in nature and is a material hardly decomposable, and further, it has been found highly bioaccumulative.","In this background, a study has been made for a surfactant having a low bioaccumulation property.","Patent Documents 1 and 2 disclose examples wherein a modified PTFE was produced by emulsion polymerization, and by using this, a stretched porous body of modified PTFE having high breaking strength was produced, but as a fluorinated surfactant, APFO was used, such being not environmentally friendly technology.","Specifically, Patent Document 1 discloses a method of conducting emulsion polymerization by using a relatively large amount of perfluorobutyl ethylene as a comonomer, and using potassium permanganate as a polymerization initiator.","Patent Document 2 discloses a method of conducting emulsion polymerization by using, as a comonomer, a perfluoroalkyl ethylene having a number of carbon atoms of from 6 to 10 in the perfluoroalkyl group, and using potassium permanganate as a polymerization initiator.","Patent Documents 3 and 4 relate to a technique in the case of using a fluorinated surfactant to replace APFO in consideration of the environmental effect.","Patent Document 3 discloses that it is possible to produce a highly heat resistant stretched porous body by conducting emulsion polymerization by using, as a fluorinated surfactant, a fluorinated carboxylic acid having an etheric oxygen atom in the main chain, and using a comonomer highly reactive with TFE, in a very small amount (from 0.001 to 0.01 mass %) relative to the production amount of the final modified PTFE.","In its Comparative Example 2, an example is disclosed wherein bis-succinic acid peroxide and ammonium sulfite were used as polymerization initiators, and perfluorobutyl ethylene was used in an amount of 0.013 mass % (130 ppm), and it is shown that if the amount of perfluorobutyl ethylene is large, the heat resistance will be low.","Patent Document 4 discloses that it is possible to obtain a modified PTFE aqueous emulsion excellent in dispersion stability, by conducting emulsion polymerization by using perfluorohexanoic acid as a fluorinated surfactant, and using a comonomer having high reactivity with TFE, in a very small amount (e.g.","60 ppm) relative to the production amount of the final modified PTFE."],["TECHNICAL FIELD The present invention relates to a production method for an aqueous emulsion of modified polytetrafluoroethylene, a production method for a fine powder of modified polytetrafluoroethylene, and a production method for a stretched porous body of modified polytetrafluoroethylene.","BACKGROUND ART Polytetrafluoroethylene (hereinafter referred to as PTFE) has been produced as a homopolymer of tetrafluoroethylene (hereinafter referred to as TFE), or optionally as a modified polytetrafluoroethylene (hereinafter referred to as a modified PTFE) i.e.","a copolymer of tetrafluoroethylene with a small amount of a comonomer, and it has been applied to various uses.","For the production of PTFE, a method of subjecting TFE to emulsion polymerization in an aqueous medium in the presence of a fluorinated surfactant, or a method of subjecting TFE to suspension polymerization, is, for example, employed.","In the emulsion polymerization method, an aqueous emulsion in which PTFE particles are emulsified and dispersed, is obtained.","By coagulating the PTFE particles in the aqueous emulsion, followed by drying, a PTFE fine powder is obtained.","PTFE has a high melt viscosity and thus cannot be molded by a melt molding method such as an extrusion molding which is commonly applied to thermoplastic resins.","Therefore, as a molding method of PTFE, a paste extrusion molding method is employed, which is a method of mixing a lubricant to a fine powder of PTFE, followed by extrusion molding.","Important products obtainable from a PTFE fine powder include clothes, tents, industrial precision filters, separation films, etc.","For these products, a stretched porous body obtainable by the paste extrusion molding method is used, and in order to improve the product properties, it is desired to develop a stretched porous body excellent in breaking strength.","Heretofore, as a fluorinated surfactant to be used in the emulsion polymerization of TFE, ammonium perfluorooctanoate (CF3(CF2)6COONH4, hereinafter referred to also as APFO) having 8 carbon atoms, has been used.","However, APFO does not exist in nature and is a material hardly decomposable, and further, it has been found highly bioaccumulative.","In this background, a study has been made for a surfactant having a low bioaccumulation property.","Patent Documents 1 and 2 disclose examples wherein a modified PTFE was produced by emulsion polymerization, and by using this, a stretched porous body of modified PTFE having high breaking strength was produced, but as a fluorinated surfactant, APFO was used, such being not environmentally friendly technology.","Specifically, Patent Document 1 discloses a method of conducting emulsion polymerization by using a relatively large amount of perfluorobutyl ethylene as a comonomer, and using potassium permanganate as a polymerization initiator.","Patent Document 2 discloses a method of conducting emulsion polymerization by using, as a comonomer, a perfluoroalkyl ethylene having a number of carbon atoms of from 6 to 10 in the perfluoroalkyl group, and using potassium permanganate as a polymerization initiator.","Patent Documents 3 and 4 relate to a technique in the case of using a fluorinated surfactant to replace APFO in consideration of the environmental effect.","Patent Document 3 discloses that it is possible to produce a highly heat resistant stretched porous body by conducting emulsion polymerization by using, as a fluorinated surfactant, a fluorinated carboxylic acid having an etheric oxygen atom in the main chain, and using a comonomer highly reactive with TFE, in a very small amount (from 0.001 to 0.01 mass %) relative to the production amount of the final modified PTFE.","In its Comparative Example 2, an example is disclosed wherein bis-succinic acid peroxide and ammonium sulfite were used as polymerization initiators, and perfluorobutyl ethylene was used in an amount of 0.013 mass % (130 ppm), and it is shown that if the amount of perfluorobutyl ethylene is large, the heat resistance will be low.","Patent Document 4 discloses that it is possible to obtain a modified PTFE aqueous emulsion excellent in dispersion stability, by conducting emulsion polymerization by using perfluorohexanoic acid as a fluorinated surfactant, and using a comonomer having high reactivity with TFE, in a very small amount (e.g.","60 ppm) relative to the production amount of the final modified PTFE.","PRIOR ART DOCUMENTS Patent Documents Patent Document 1: JP-A-2005-506405 Patent Document 2: JP-A-2009-500491 Patent Document 3: WO 2011/055824 Patent Document 4: WO 2013/027850 DISCLOSURE OF INVENTION Technical Problem Heretofore, there has been no proposal for a technique to obtain a stretched porous body excellent in breaking strength by using a fluorinated surfactant to replace APFO in consideration of the environmental effect.","The present invention is, while paying attention to the environmental effect, to provide a production method for an aqueous emulsion of modified PTFE suitable for producing a stretched porous body excellent in breaking strength, a production method for a fine powder of modified PTFE, and a production method of a stretched porous body of modified PTFE.","Solution to Problem The present invention provides the following production methods for an aqueous emulsion, fine powder and stretched porous body of modified polytetrafluoroethylene.","[1] A production method for an aqueous emulsion of modified PTFE, which is a method to obtain an aqueous emulsion of non-melt-moldable modified PTFE particles having an average primary particle diameter of from 0.10 to 0.30 μm, by subjecting TFE and a perfluoroalkyl ethylene represented by the following formula (1) to emulsion polymerization in an aqueous medium, using a polymerization initiator, in the presence of a fluorinated anionic surfactant having a LogPOW of from 2.4 to 3.4, and which is characterized in that the amount of the perfluoroalkyl ethylene to be used, is from 120 to 3,000 ppm (by mass) to the final production amount of the modified polytetrafluoroethylene, at the initiation of the emulsion polymerization, the entire amount of the perfluoroalkyl ethylene is permitted to be present, and as the polymerization initiator, either one or both of a combination of a bromate and a bisulfite or sulfite, and a combination of a permanganate and oxalic acid, are used: CH2═CH—Rf (1) (Rf is a C1-6 perfluoroalkyl group).","[2] The production method for an aqueous emulsion of modified PTFE according to [1], wherein the fluorinated anionic surfactant is a fluorinated surfactant having 6 or 7 carbon atoms, 0 or 1 hydrogen atom, 0 or from 1 to 4 etheric oxygen atoms, a group represented by —COOA (A is H, NH4 or an alkali metal atom) and the rest of atoms being fluorine atoms.","[3] The production method for an aqueous emulsion of modified PTFE according to [1] or [2], wherein the perfluoroalkyl ethylene is CH2═CH(CF2)2F, CH2═CH(CF2)4F or CH2═CH(CF2)6F.","[4] The production method for an aqueous emulsion of modified PTFE according to any one of [1] to [3], wherein the fluorinated anionic surfactant is used in an amount of from 0.2 to 2 mass % to the final production amount of the modified PTFE.","[5] A production method for a fine powder of modified PTFE, which comprises producing an aqueous emulsion of modified PTFE particles by the method as defined in any one of [1] to [4], coagulating the obtained aqueous emulsion, and drying the obtained wet state fine powder of modified PTFE, to obtain a powder having a standard specific gravity of from 2.130 to 2.145.","[6] The production method for a fine powder of modified PTFE according to [5], wherein the drying of the wet state fine powder of modified PTFE is carried out in an atmosphere containing ammonia.","[7] The production method for a fine powder of modified PTFE according to [5] or [6], wherein the standard specific gravity is from 2.135 to 2.142.","[8] The production method for a fine powder of modified PTFE according to any one of [5] to [7], wherein the extrusion pressure in the following extrusion test of the fine powder of modified PTFE is from 19 to 25 MPa: Extrusion test: 100 g of the fine powder of modified PTFE left to stand for at least 2 hours at room temperature is put into a glass bottle having an internal capacity of 500 mL, and 21.7 g of a lubricating oil (Isopar H (registered trademark), manufactured by Exxon) is added and mixed for 3 minutes to obtain a mixture; and the obtained mixture is left to stand for 2 hours in a thermostat bath at 25° C. and then, subjected to paste extrusion through an orifice having a diameter of 2.5 cm, a land length of 1.1 cm and an introduction angle 30°, at 25° C. under conditions of a reduction ratio (ratio of the cross-sectional area of the inlet to the cross-sectional area of the outlet of a die) of 100 and an extrusion speed of 51 cm/min., to obtain an extruded bead, whereby the pressure required for the extrusion is measured, and the measured value is adopted as the extrusion pressure (unit: MPa).","[9] A production method for a stretched porous body of modified PTFE, which comprises producing a fine powder of modified PTFE by the method as defined in any one of [5] to [8], subjecting the obtained fine powder of modified PTFE to paste extrusion to obtain an extruded bead, and stretching the extruded bead.","[10] The production method for a stretched porous body of modified PTFE according to [9], wherein the breaking strength of the stretched porous body of modified PTFE is from 36 to 60N.","Advantageous Effects of Invention According to the production methods of the present invention, in consideration of the environmental effect, it is possible to produce an aqueous emulsion of modified PTFE, a fine powder of modified PTFE and a stretched porous body of modified PTFE, by using a fluorinated anionic surfactant having a lower bioaccumulation property as compared to APFO, and it is possible to obtain a stretched porous body of modified PTFE excellent in breaking strength.","DESCRIPTION OF EMBODIMENTS In the present invention, the following terms have the following meanings.","An “average primary particle diameter” means a median diameter based on volume measured by the laser scattering method particle size distribution analyzer.","A “standard specific gravity (hereinafter referred to also as SSG)” is an index for the molecular weight, and the larger this value, the smaller the molecular weight.","Measurement conditions will be described later.","An “extrusion pressure” means a pressure required for paste extrusion in an extrusion test wherein one having a fine powder of modified PTFE prepared into a paste form under a predetermined condition, is extrusion-molded under a predetermined condition.","Measurement conditions will be described later.","A “stability retention time” is a value measured by the stability test as described later, and it is, roughly, a time required for the emulsified state of an aqueous emulsion to be broken when a shearing force is exerted by using a container and stirring blade under predetermined conditions.","The longer the stability retention time, the better the stability of the aqueous emulsion.","A “modified PTFE” is a copolymer of tetrafluoroethylene and a very small amount of a comonomer, and means a non-melt-moldable copolymer.","The content of units derived from the comonomer in a modified PTFE is generally less than 0.5 mass %, preferably less than 0.25 mass %, more preferably less than 0.18 mass %.","In the present invention, the content of units derived from PFAE as a comonomer is in the specific range as described later.","The “non-melt-moldable” is meant to be unable to be melt-molded, i.e.","to show no melt flowability.","Specifically, it means that the melt flow rate measured at a measuring temperature of 372° C. under a load of 49N in accordance with ASTM D3307, is less than 0.5 g/10 min.","The “final production amount of the modified PTFE” can be estimated to be substantially equal to the amount of TFE consumed in the polymerization reaction step.","The production method for an aqueous emulsion of modified PTFE of the present invention, has a step of subjecting tetrafluoroethylene and a perfluoroalkyl ethylene to emulsion polymerization in an aqueous medium, using a polymerization initiator, in the presence of a fluorinated anionic surfactant, to obtain an aqueous emulsion of modified PTFE particles."," In the present invention, a perfluoroalkyl ethylene (hereinafter referred to also as PFAE) represented by CH2═CH—Rf, is used as a comonomer.","Rf is a C1-6 perfluoroalkyl group.","In the case of a compound wherein the number of carbon atoms in Rf is 7 or more, its decomposition product is considered to be likely to include a compound similar to APFO which is an environmentally concerned substance, and therefore, it is environmentally preferred that the number of carbon atoms in Rf is at most 6.Further, the present inventors have confirmed by a method such as a scanning electron microscopic measurement, that by using PFAE as a comonomer, the average primary particle diameter of modified PTFE formed by the emulsion polymerization will be smaller and more uniformly aligned, than a case where no comonomer is used.","The number of carbon atoms in Rf is more preferably from 2 to 6.In particular, CH2═CH—(CF2)2F, CH2═CH—(CF2)4F (perfluorobutyl ethylene, hereinafter referred to also as PFBE), or CH2═CH—(CF2)6F (perfluorohexyl ethylene, hereinafter referred to also as PFHE), is preferred.","Two or more types of PFAE may be used in combination.","The amount of PFAE is from 120 to 3,000 ppm (from 0.012 to 0.300 mass %), preferably from 120 to 2,500 ppm, more preferably from 150 to 2,500 ppm, most preferably from 200 to 2,500 ppm, relative to the final production amount of the modified PTFE.","Within the above range, a sufficient improvement effect in breaking strength of the stretched porous body can be easily attained.","Within this range, all PFAE used will be copolymerized with TFE, whereby the content of units derived from PFAE in the modified PTFE will be equal to the amount used."," In the present invention, a fluorinated anionic surfactant having a LogPOW of from 2.4 to 3.4 is used.","The LogPOW is a distribution coefficient in 1-octanol and water as stipulated in OECD Test Guideline 107, 117 and Japanese Industrial Standard Z7260-107 (2000).","At the time when a mixed liquid of octanol/water (1:1) each containing a surfactant to be measured, is phase-separated, POW represents a ratio of the surfactant concentration in octanol/the surfactant concentration in water.","A surfactant having a large distribution coefficient value has a high bioaccumulation property, and a surfactant having a small distribution coefficient value has a low bioaccumulation property.","When the LogPOW is 3.4 or less, the bioaccumulation property is judged to be low.","By the measurement conducted by the present inventors, the LogPOW of APFO was 3.67.Further, when the LogPOW is at least 2.4, the stability of the aqueous emulsion of modified PTFE can be maintained well during polymerization.","The LogPOW is preferably from 2.4 to 3.3, more preferably from 2.5 to 3.3, most preferably from 2.5 to 3.2.As a fluorinated anionic surfactant having a LogPOW of from 2.4 to 3.4, preferred is a fluorinated surfactant having 6 or 7 carbon atoms, 0 or 1 hydrogen atom, 0 or from 1 to 4 etheric oxygen atoms, a group represented by —COOA (A is H, NH4 or an alkali metal atom) and the rest of atoms being fluorine atoms.","As specific examples of the fluorinated anionic surfactant having a LogPOW of from 2.4 to 3.4, one or more members selected from the group consisting of CF3OCF(CF3)CF2OCF(CF3)COOA, CF3CF2OCF2CF2OCF2COOA, CF3OCF2CF2CF2OCHFCF2COOA, C3F7OCF(CF3)COOA, H(CF2CF2)3COOA, CF3CF2(CF2CF2)2COOA, CF3(CF2CF2)2COOA, and a compound represented by the following formula (2) are preferred.","A is H, NH4 or an alkali metal atom (preferably Na or K).","Among these fluorinated anionic surfactants, particularly from the viewpoint of excellent stability of the aqueous emulsion of modified PTFE during polymerization, and a low bioaccumulation property, CF3CF2OCF2CF2OCF2COOA, CF3OCF2CF2CF2OCHFCF2COOA or a compound of formula (2) is preferred, CF3CF2OCF2CF2OCF2COOA is more preferred.","Particularly, the fluorinated anionic surfactant wherein A is NH4 is most preferred.","The amount of the fluorinated anionic surfactant to be present, is preferably from 0.2 to 2 mass %, more preferably from 0.4 to 2 mass %, further preferably from 0.5 to 2 mass %, most preferably from 0.6 to 2 mass %, based on the final production amount of the modified PTFE.","When the amount of the fluorinated anionic surfactant to be present, is at most the upper limit value in the above range, the modified PTFE particles to be formed are less likely to become a rod-shape, and it will be easy to obtain good stability of the aqueous emulsion.","When it is at least the lower limit value in the above range, it will be easy to obtain good emulsion stability during polymerization, and it will be easy to prevent agglomeration of modified PTFE particles or formation of coagulum."," As the polymerization initiator in the present invention, either one or both of a combination of a bromate and a bisulfite or sulfite, and a combination of a permanganate and oxalic acid, may be used as a water-soluble redox initiator.","The water-soluble redox initiator is preferably used, as described below, by letting either the reducing agent or the oxidizing agent be present preliminarily in the polymerization reaction system, and then adding the other one continuously or intermittently to initiate the polymerization.","For example, in the case of using a potassium permanganate/oxalic acid, it is preferred to charge oxalic acid to the polymerization vessel, and add the potassium permanganate thereto continuously or intermittently.","In the case of using a bromate and a sulfite, it is preferred to charge the bromate preliminarily to the polymerization vessel, and then add the sulfite continuously or intermittently thereto.","The reducing agent or oxidizing agent permitted to be present preliminarily in the polymerization reaction system, is preferably from 0.01 to 0.50 mmol/L, more preferably from 0.03 to 0.35 mmol/L, to the volume (L) of the aqueous medium to be charged to the polymerization vessel.","Within this range, it is easy to control the emulsion polymerization.","Further, the amount of the reducing agent or oxidizing agent added to be present preliminarily in the polymerization reaction system, is preferably from 0.5 to 10 times in the theoretical amount in the oxidation-reduction reaction, to the other oxidizing agent or reducing agent to be subsequently added.","For example, in the case of preliminarily supplying oxalic acid and subsequently adding potassium permanganate, it is preferred that the amount of oxalic acid is from 0.04 to 0.20 mmol/L, and the amount of potassium permanganate is from 1/20 to 1/4 mol times thereof.","In a case of preliminarily supplying potassium bromate and subsequently adding ammonium sulfite, it is preferred that the amount of potassium bromate is from 0.03 to 0.20 mmol/L, and the amount of ammonium sulfite is from 3/10 to 1/1 mol times thereof."," For the emulsion polymerization of TFE, it is preferred to use a stabilizing aid.","The stabilizing aid is preferably one which has sufficient hydrophobicity and which is readily separable and removable from the aqueous emulsion of modified PTFE after the emulsion polymerization.","As the stabilizing aid, paraffin wax, fluorinated oil, fluorinated solvent, silicone oil or the like is preferred.","As the stabilizing aid, one type may be used alone, or two or more types may be used in combination.","Particularly, paraffin wax is preferred.","Paraffin wax may be liquid, semi-solid or solid at room temperature, but is preferably a saturated hydrocarbon having at least 16 carbon atoms.","The melting point of paraffin wax is usually preferably from 40 to 65° C., more preferably from 50 to 65° C. The amount of the stabilizing aid to be used, is preferably from 0.1 to 12 mass %, more preferably from 0.1 to 8 mass %, relative to the aqueous medium to be used.","When the amount is at least the lower limit value in the above range, it is easy to obtain good stability of the aqueous emulsion of modified PTFE during polymerization.","If the stability of the aqueous emulsion of modified PTFE during polymerization is impaired, coagulum are likely to be formed in a large amount.","When the amount is at most the above upper limit value, it will be easy to separate and remove the stabilizing aid after polymerization."," The aqueous medium may, for example, be water, a mixture of water and a water-soluble organic solvent, etc.","The water-soluble organic solvent may, for example, be tert-butanol, propylene glycol, dipropylene glycol, dipropylene glycol monomethyl ether, tripropylene glycol, etc.","In a case where the aqueous medium contains a water-soluble organic solvent, the content of the water-soluble organic solvent is preferably from 1 to 40 parts by mass, more preferably from 3 to 30 parts by mass, to 100 parts by mass of water."," The production method for an aqueous emulsion of modified PTFE of the present invention, has a step of subjecting TFE and PFAE to emulsion polymerization in an aqueous medium, using a polymerization initiator, in the presence of a fluorinated anionic surfactant, to obtain an aqueous emulsion of modified PTFE.","Since the copolymerization reactivity of PFAE and TFE is high, it is preferred to let the entire amount of PFAE be present in the polymerization reaction system at the initiation of the emulsion polymerization.","Specifically, it is preferred to charge the entire amount of PFAE to the polymerization reactor prior to supplying TFE.","Preferred is a method wherein in a polymerization reaction vessel, an aqueous medium, a fluorinated anionic surfactant, a stabilizing aid, PFAE and either one of the reducing agent or oxidizing agent of a water-soluble redox initiator, are charged, and then, the other of the reducing agent or oxidizing agent, and TFE, are supplied to initiate a polymerization reaction.","TFE is preferably supplied continuously or intermittently to the polymerization reaction vessel.","During continuation of the polymerization reaction, it is preferred to conduct an operation to control formation of radicals from the water-soluble redox initiator in the polymerization reaction system.","For example, in the case of adding an oxidizing agent or reducing agent during the polymerization reaction, an operation to stop the addition is carried out.","Or, by controlling the supply amount of the reducing agent or oxidizing agent to be subsequently added, so that all of the oxidizing agent or reducing agent preliminarily added prior to initiation of the polymerization reaction will be completely consumed, it is possible to suppress formation of radicals in the course of the polymerization reaction.","Such an operation to suppress formation radicals is preferably carried out at a later stage of polymerization.","The later stage of polymerization is a stage when the total amount of TFE added after initiation of the polymerization reaction becomes preferably at least 30 mass %, more preferably least 40 mass %, further preferably at least 50 mass %, most preferably at least 60 mass %, to the final production amount of the modified PTFE.","It is considered that if formation of new radicals is suppressed during the polymerization, living polymerization by only radicals at polymer terminals of the modified PTFE will proceed thereafter, whereby it is possible to obtain a modified PTFE having a higher molecular weight.","The polymerization temperature is preferably from 10 to 95° C., more preferably from 15 to 90° C. The polymerization pressure is preferably from 0.5 to 4.0 MPa, more preferably from 0.6 to 3.5 MPa.","The polymerization time is preferably from 90 to 520 minutes, more preferably from 90 to 450 minutes.","As described above, an aqueous emulsion containing polymer particles (modified PTFE particles) formed by subjecting TFE to a polymerization reaction in the presence of PFAE is obtainable.","In a case where a stabilizing aid is used, it is separated and removed by a conventional method to obtain an aqueous emulsion of modified PTFE."," Particles present in the aqueous emulsion of modified PTFE are substantially modified PTFE particles.","Modified PTFE particles in the present invention are non-melt-moldable.","PTFE is non-melt-moldable, and a modified PTFE wherein the amount of the comonomer used is in the above-mentioned range, is non-melt-moldable.","The average primary particle diameter of modified PTFE particles in the aqueous emulsion of modified PTFE is from 0.10 to 0.30 μm, preferably from 0.10 to 0.25 μm, more preferably from 0.14 to 0.22 μm, most preferably from 0.15 to 0.21 μm.","When the average primary particle diameter is at least the lower limit value in the above range, coagulation becomes possible, whereby it will be easy to obtain a fine powder of modified PTFE, and when it is at most the upper limit value, it will be easy to obtain a uniformly stretched porous body.","By producing the modified PTFE by emulsion polymerization, it is possible to obtain modified PTFE particles having an average primary particle diameter within the above range.","The solid content concentration in the aqueous emulsion of modified PTFE is preferably from 10 to 45 mass %, more preferably from 15 to 45 mass %, further preferably from 20 to 40 mass %.","When the solid content concentration is at least the lower limit value in the above range, the productivity will be excellent, and it will be easy to coagulate primary particles of the modified PTFE from the aqueous emulsion.","When it is at most the upper limit value in the above range, it will be easy to obtain good stability of the aqueous emulsion.","The stability retention time of the aqueous emulsion of modified PTFE is preferably at least 200 seconds, more preferably at least 300 seconds, further preferably at least 400 seconds, particularly preferably at least 500 seconds.","The upper limit is preferably at most 2,500 seconds, more preferably at most 2,000 seconds, most preferably at most 1,700 seconds.","When the stability retention time is in the above range, such is within a range where the productivity of the fine powder of modified PTFE is acceptable.","The aqueous emulsion of modified PTFE is preferably used in the production of a fine powder of modified PTFE via the later-described coagulating step.","It is also preferred to produce an aqueous dispersion of modified PTFE by suitably blending a fluorinated nonionic surfactant, a non-fluorinated surfactant, a preservative, a viscosity modifier, etc.","to the aqueous emulsion of modified PTFE itself or after concentrating it by a known concentrating method.","The obtained aqueous dispersion of modified PTFE is applicable to various applications, such as electronic materials such as printed circuit boards, roofing membrane structures, surface coating agents for cookwares; spinning material for producing fluoropolymer fibers such as PTFE fibers; dust prevention agents; active substance binder for batteries; plastic additives, etc."," The production method for a fine powder of modified PTFE of the present invention has a step of coagulating the aqueous emulsion of modified PTFE as obtained above to obtain a fine powder of modified PTFE in a wet state and drying the wet state fine powder of modified PTFE to obtain a powder having a standard specific gravity of from 2.130 to 2.145.As the coagulation method, a known method may be employed.","For example, it is possible to employ a method wherein the aqueous emulsion of modified PTFE is diluted with water so that the solid content concentration in the emulsion will be from 8 to 25 mass %, and then adjusted to a temperature of from 5 to 30° C., followed by vigorous stirring by stirring blades to coagulate primary particles of modified PTFE.","At the time of coagulating modified PTFE particles, as the case requires, the pH of the aqueous emulsion of modified PTFE may be adjusted, or a coagulation aid such as an electrolyte or a water-soluble organic solvent may be added to the aqueous emulsion of modified PTFE.","The pH adjusting agent may, for example, be sodium carbonate, sodium bicarbonate, etc.","Further, it is also preferred to conduct coagulation in the presence of at least one member selected from the group consisting of ammonia, ammonium salts and urea.","The electrolyte may be an inorganic salt such as potassium nitrate, sodium nitrate, sodium carbonate, sodium bicarbonate, etc.","The organic solvent may, for example, be an alcohol, acetone, etc.","After primary particles of modified PTFE are coagulated, while being moderately stirred, the fine powder of modified PTFE having the primary particles coagulated, will be separated.","Thereafter, it is preferred to adjust the particle diameter of the fine powder of modified PTFE via a process of agglomeration or particle size regulation.","Here, the agglomeration is a process wherein modified PTFE particles will grow to a level of a few 100 μm, and the particle size regulation is a process for regulating the particle properties or particle size distribution by continuing the stirring.","By such a process, a wet state fine powder of modified PTFE (hereinafter referred to also as a wet powder) is obtained.","Next, the wet powder is dried.","By the drying condition, it is possible to control the extrusion pressure in the extrusion test.","For example, the extrusion pressure may be varied by the drying temperature, the size of the drying oven, the amount of the wet powder to be dried at once, etc.","It is preferred to set the drying conditions so that the extrusion pressure will be within the preferred range as described later.","The drying temperature of the wet powder is preferably from 110 to 250° C., more preferably from 120 to 230° C. If the drying temperature is lower than 110° C., not only it takes time for drying, but drying may sometimes become insufficient.","If the drying temperature exceeds 250° C., there may be a case where the paste extrusion pressure becomes significantly higher.","Drying of the wet powder is preferably carried out under an atmosphere containing ammonia.","The atmosphere containing ammonia is meant for an atmosphere wherein ammonia gas is capable of being in contact with the fine powder of modified PTFE.","For example, it is meant for an atmosphere wherein ammonia gas is present, or an atmosphere wherein the wet powder contains a compound to generate ammonia or ammonia gas, and ammonia gas will be generated e.g.","by heating.","The compound to generate ammonia may, for example, be an ammonium salt, urea, etc., and such a compound will generate ammonia gas when decomposed by heating.","As the compound to generate ammonia, in particular, ammonium carbonate is preferred.","When the wet powder is dried in an atmosphere containing ammonia, it will be easy to obtain a fine powder of modified PTFE which is excellent in breaking strength."," The standard specific gravity (SSG) of the fine powder of modified PTFE is from 2.130 to 2.145.SSG is preferably from 2.135 to 2.142, more preferably from 2.135 to 2.138.SSG is useful as an index for a relative molecular weight, and the lower the value is, the higher the molecular weight is.","Further, when the amount of a comonomer introduced is large, the non-crystalline structure will be further increased, the density tends to be low, and the value of SSG tends to be small.","Of the fine powder of modified PTFE, the extrusion pressure in the extrusion test is preferably from 19 to 25 MPa, more preferably from 19 to 22 MPa, further preferably from 19 to 21 MPa.","When it is at least the lower limit value in the above range, the breaking strength of the stretched porous body readily tends to be sufficiently high, and when it is at most the upper limit value, it will be easy to conduct the stretching operation.","Further, the fluorinated anionic surfactant contained in an aqueous medium after separation of the fine powder of modified PTFE, is preferably recovered by using a method for adsorbing it by an ion exchange resin, a method for concentrating such as evaporating water, or adsorption on activated carbon.","Further, the fluorinated anionic surfactant adsorbed on the wet powder, will be evaporated during drying, and therefore, it is preferred to recover the fluorinated anionic surfactant by introducing the air discharged during the drying into an alkaline aqueous solution."," The production method for a stretched porous body of modified PTFE of the present invention has a step of subjecting the fine powder of modified PTFE as obtained above to paste extrusion to obtain an extruded bead, which is then formed into a sheet or tape via e.g.","calendering, followed by stretching to obtain a stretched porous body of modified PTFE.","As the paste extrusion molding method, a known method may be employed.","For example, a method of mixing the fine powder of modified PTFE and a lubricant to impart fluidity, followed by paste extrusion molding into a desired shape, may be mentioned.","The mixing ratio of the lubricant is usually preferably from 15 to 30 parts by mass, more preferably from 20 to 25 parts by mass, of the lubricant, per 100 parts by mass of the fine powder of modified PTFE.","As the lubricant, naphtha or a petroleum-based hydrocarbon having a dry point of at least 100, is preferred.","Further, it is also possible to add additives such as pigments for coloring, various fillers for imparting strength and conductivity, etc.","The shape of the paste extrusion molded product of the fine powder of modified PTFE may be various including tubular, sheet, film, fibrous, etc.","As its applications, tubes, wire coatings, sealing materials, porous membranes, filters, etc.","may be mentioned.","By stretching the paste extrusion molded product of the fine powder of modified PTFE, it is possible to produce a stretched porous body of modified PTFE.","As the stretching conditions, a suitable speed, e.g.","a speed of from 5%/sec to 1,000%/sec, and a suitable stretching ratio, e.g.","a stretching ratio of at least 500%, are employed.","The porosity of the stretched porous body is not particularly limited, but usually the porosity is preferably in a range of from 50 to 99%, particularly preferably from 70 to 98%.","According to the present invention, it is possible to obtain a stretched porous body of modified PTFE excellent in breaking strength.","The breaking strength of the stretched porous body of modified PTFE is preferably at least 36N, more preferably at least 36.5N, particularly preferably at least 37N.","The upper limit is preferably at most 60N, more preferably at most 55N, particularly preferably at most 51N.","As the breaking strength is higher, it is possible to take various means at the time of stretching processing.","The reason as to why it is possible to obtain a stretched porous body of modified PTFE excellent in breaking strength in the present invention, is not clear, but is considered to be as follows.","At the time of subjecting TFE and its comonomer to emulsion polymerization in the presence of a low bioaccumulative fluorinated anionic surfactant, by using a specific amount of PFAE having a high reactivity with TFE, as its comonomer, and letting such PFAE be present in the polymerization reaction system at initiation of the emulsion polymerization, the size of modified PTFE polymer particles to be produced by emulsion polymerization is likely to be uniform.","Besides, by using a specific water-soluble redox initiator as the polymerization initiator, it is possible to control the radical generation from the polymerization initiator in the course of the polymerization reaction.","As a result, after controlling the radical generation, living polymerization solely by radicals at modified PTFE polymer terminals will proceed, whereby the resulting modified PTFE tends to have a higher molecular weight.","Accordingly, it is considered possible to form modified PTFE having a high molecular weight and a narrow molecular weight distribution.","Particularly in the present invention, by using a specific water-soluble redox initiator, it is easy to control the radical generation from the initiator, whereby it is considered possible to obtain the above effects more satisfactorily.","Further, it is considered that by introducing PFAE at initiation of the polymerization, the crystal structure of the resulting modified PTFE will not be too high, and the shape of modified PTFE particles is likely to take a stable spherical structure.","Therefore, generation of atypical particles such as rod-shaped particles or coarse particles is considered to be suppressed.","That is, modified PTFE particles having a high molecular weight and being excellent in uniformity of the size and shape will be formed, whereby it is considered possible to obtain a stretched porous body having a high breaking strength.","EXAMPLES Hereinafter, the present invention will be described more specifically with reference to Examples and Comparative Examples, but the present invention should not be construed as being limited by these Examples."," [Average Primary Particle Diameter] With respect to an aqueous emulsion obtained by emulsion polymerization, the average primary particle diameter of modified PTFE particles was measured by means of a laser scattering particle size distribution analyzer (manufactured by HORIBA, Ltd., trade name “LA-920”) by a method for measuring the average particle diameter.","[Stability Test for Aqueous Emulsion (Measurement of Stability Retention Time)] On the inner wall of a cylindrical container made of SUS304 and having an internal diameter of 12 cm, two plates of baffle (baffle plates) having a thickness of 2.9 mm, a width of 2.5 cm and a length of 15 cm were welded so as to be symmetrical with respect to the central axis of the cylindrical container.","The distance from the bottom surface of the cylindrical container to the baffle bottom was set to be 2.5 cm.","Further, in the cylindrical container, a stirrer having two paddle blades attached to a shaft having an inner diameter of 8.0 mm, was provided.","The sizes of the paddle blades were such that the thickness was 1.2 mm, the width was 1.3 cm, and the length was 9.7 cm, and the inclination angle of the paddle blades was 30° to the plane perpendicular to the axial direction of the shaft, and the distance from the bottom surface of the cylindrical container to the lower end of the paddle blades was set to be 5 mm.","An aqueous emulsion having its solid content concentration adjusted to 20 mass % was charged in an amount of 800 g in the cylindrical container, and the temperature was adjusted to be at 23±1° C. Then, the stirring blades were rotated under a condition of 500 rpm for stirring, whereby the time from the initiation of stirring until the aqueous emulsion was destroyed and modified PTFE particles in the aqueous emulsion were coagulated, was measured and adopted as the stability retention time (unit: seconds).","The coagulation time point was judged by a change in the stirring sound and by visual confirmation of formation of the wet powder.","[Solid Content Concentration (Mass %)] On an aluminum dish having its mass preliminarily measured, from 7 to 8 g of an aqueous emulsion of modified PTFE was weighed, and water was evaporated by heating at 120° C. for 2 hours.","Then, the mass of the aluminum dish including the solid content remaining on the aluminum dish, was measured.","By dividing the mass of the solid content by the mass of the aqueous emulsion used, the solid content concentration was calculated.","[Standard Specific Gravity (SSG) of Fine Powder of Modified PTFE] SSG was measured in accordance with ASTM D4895-10.12.0 g of a sample was weighed and held under 34.5 MPa for 2 minutes in a cylindrical mold having an inner diameter of 28.6 mm, to obtain a molded sample.","This was put in an oven of 290° C., heated at 120° C./hr and held at 380° C. for 30 minutes, then cooled at 60° C./hr and held at 294° C. for 24 minutes.","After keeping it for 12 hours in a desiccator of 23° C., the specific gravity value of the molded product to water at 23° C. was measured and adopted as SSG.","[Extrusion Pressure] 100 g of a fine powder of modified PTFE left to stand at room temperature for at least 2 hours, was put into a glass bottle having an internal capacity of 500 mL, and 21.7 g of a lubricating oil (Isopar H (registered trademark), manufactured by Exxon) was added, followed by mixing for 3 minutes to obtain a mixture.","The obtained mixture was left to stand for 2 hours in a 25° C. thermostatic oven, and then, subjected to paste extrusion through an orifice having a diameter of 2.5 cm, a land length of 1.1 cm and an introduction angle of 30°, at 25° C., under conditions of a reduction ratio (ratio of the cross-sectional area of the inlet to the cross-sectional area of the outlet of the die) of 100, and an extrusion speed of 51 cm/min., to obtain an extruded bead (the string-like material).","The pressure required for extrusion at that time was measured and adopted as the extrusion pressure (unit: MPa).","[Breaking Strength] An extruded bead was obtained in the same manner as in the method for measuring the extrusion pressure, and this was dried at 230° C. for 30 minutes, to remove the lubricant.","Then, the extruded bead was cut into a suitable length, and both ends were fixed so that the clamp interval would be 5.1 cm, followed by heating to 300° C. in a circulating air oven.","Subsequently, it was stretched under conditions of a stretching rate of 100%/sec.","and a stretching ratio of 2,400%, to obtain a stretched porous body of modified PTFE (hereinafter referred to as a stretched bead).","With respect to a total of three samples i.e.","a sample obtainable from each end of the stretched bead (if there is any neck-down in the region of the clamp, excluding such a neck-portion) and a sample obtainable from the center of the stretched bead, the tensile breaking load forces were, respectively, measured by means of a tensile tester (manufactured by A & D Inc.), whereupon the minimum value was adopted as the breaking strength.","In the measurement by the tensile tester, a sample was fixed as sandwiched by movable jaws with a gauge length of 5.0 cm, and at room temperature (24° C.), the movable jaws were driven at a speed of 300 mm/min., to impart a tensile stress.","Examples and Comparative Examples Ex.","1, 4 to 10 and 12 are Examples of the present invention, and Ex.","2, 3 and 11 are Comparative Examples.","Further, the polymerization initiators used in the following Ex.","are the following (A), (B) or (C).","(A) a combination of a bromate and a sulfite.","(B) a combination of a permanganate and oxalic acid.","(C) a combination of disuccinic acid peroxide and a sulfite.","Ex.","1 PFBE as PFAE, and the polymerization initiator (A) were used.","By estimating the total amount of 21 kg of TFE to be added after initiating the polymerization reaction until completion of the polymerization reaction while maintaining a predetermined polymerization pressure, to be the final production amount of the modified PTFE, the amount of PFBE to be added, was set to be 6.3 g being 300 ppm thereto.","Further, the amount of the fluorinated anionic surfactant to be added, was set to be 312 g being about 1.49 mass % to the final production amount of the modified PTFE.","Into a 100 L stainless steel autoclave equipped with baffle plates and a stirrer, 72 g of C2F5OC2F4OCF2COONH4 (ammonium perfluoro-3,6-dioxaoctanoate, LogPOW=3.1, hereinafter referred to as APFDO) as a fluorinated anionic surfactant, 928 g of paraffin wax as a stabilizing aid, 11.6 g of succinic acid, 0.4 g (0.04 mmol/L) of potassium bromate, 8 mL of 1N nitric acid, and 55 L of deionized water were charged.","The autoclave was purged with nitrogen, then brought under a reduced pressure, charged with 6.3 g of PFBE, then pressurized to about 0.1 MPa with TFE, and heated to 65° C. with stirring.","Then, it was pressurized to 1.52 MPa with TFE, and an ammonium sulfite aqueous solution at a concentration of 0.07 mass % was continuously added at 5 mL/min, to initiate a polymerization reaction.","The polymerization was allowed to proceed while adding TFE in order to keep the internal pressure of the autoclave to be 1.52 MPa.","At the time when the amount of TFE added after initiation of the polymerization reached 6.3 kg, the addition of the ammonium sulfite aqueous solution was stopped, and 240 g of APFDO was additionally added.","The total amount of the ammonium sulfite added, was 0.21 g (0.03 mmol/L).","Further, the temperature was raised to 90° C. At the time when the amount of TFE added after initiation of the polymerization reached 21 kg, the polymerization reaction was terminated, and TFE in the autoclave was discharged to the atmosphere.","The polymerization time was 182 minutes.","The obtained aqueous emulsion of modified PTFE was cooled, and the supernatant paraffin wax was removed.","The solid content concentration in the obtained aqueous emulsion of modified PTFE was 26.5 mass %.","The yield of modified PTFE was 20.6 kg.","Further, coagulum in the autoclave was at a level of a trace.","The average primary particle diameter of modified PTFE particles in the obtained aqueous emulsion of modified PTFE, and the stability retention time of the aqueous emulsion of modified PTFE, were measured.","The results are shown in Table 1.This aqueous emulsion of modified PTFE was diluted to a concentration of 10 mass % with deionized water, and then adjusted to be 14° C., and ammonium carbonate was added, followed by stirring for coagulation to obtain a wet powder.","Then, the wet powder was dried at 180° C. to obtain a fine powder of modified PTFE.","In accordance with the above-mentioned methods, SSG, the extrusion pressure and the breaking strength were measured.","The results are shown in Table 1.Ex.","2 An aqueous dispersion of PTFE was produced in the same manner as in Ex.","1 except that without addition of PFAE, the concentration of the ammonium sulfite aqueous solution was changed to 0.05 mass %, and the total amount of the ammonium sulfite added, was 0.14 g (0.02 mmol/L).","The internal pressure of the autoclave during the polymerization reaction was maintained to be 1.37 MPa.","The polymerization time was 194 minutes.","The properties of the fine powder of modified PTFE and the stretched porous body of modified PTFE were measured in the same manner as in Ex.","1.The results are shown in Table 1.Ex.","3 The polymerization initiator (B) was used.","In the same autoclave as in Ex.","1, 50 g of APFDO, 928 g of paraffin wax, 20.0 g of succinic acid, 0.3 g (0.06 mmol/L) of oxalic acid and 59 L of deionized water were charged.","The autoclave was purged with nitrogen and brought to reduced pressure, and 2.1 g of PFBE was charged.","It was pressurized to about 0.1 MPa with TFE and heated to 65° C. with stirring.","Then, it was pressurized to 1.62 MPa with TFE, and an aqueous potassium permanganate solution at a concentration of 0.04 mass % was continuously added at about 3 mL/min, to initiate a polymerization reaction.","The polymerization was allowed to proceed while adding TFE in order to keep the internal pressure of the autoclave to be 1.62 MPa.","At the time when the amount of TFE added after initiation of the polymerization reached 7.2 kg, the addition of the aqueous potassium permanganate solution was stopped, and 200 g of APFDO was additionally added.","The total amount of potassium permanganate added was 0.06 g (0.006 mmol/L).","Further, the temperature was raised to 90° C. At the time when the amount of TFE added after initiation of the polymerization initiation reached 20.5 kg, the polymerization reaction was terminated, and TFE in the autoclave was discharged to the atmosphere.","The polymerization time was 186 minutes.","Thereafter, in the same manner as in Ex.","1, an aqueous emulsion of modified PTFE, a fine powder of modified PTFE and a stretched porous body of modified PTFE were produced, and the same measurements were conducted.","The results are shown in Table 1.The solid content concentration of the obtained aqueous emulsion of modified PTFE was 25.2 mass %.","The yield of modified PTFE was 20.5 kg.","Further, coagulum in the autoclave was at a level of a trace.","Ex.","4 In the same manner as in Ex.","3 except that 2.7 g of PFBE was used, a fine powder of modified PTFE and a stretched porous body of modified PTFE were prepared, and the same measurements were conducted.","The results are shown in Table 1.The solid content concentration in the obtained aqueous emulsion of modified PTFE was 25.5 mass %.","The yield of modified PTFE was 20.8 kg.","Further, coagulum in the autoclave was at a level of a trace.","Ex.","5 In the same manner as in Ex.","3 except that 3.2 g of PFBE was used, a fine powder of modified PTFE and a stretched porous body of modified PTFE were prepared, and the same measurements were conducted.","The results are shown in Table 1.The solid content concentration in the obtained aqueous emulsion of modified PTFE was 24.9 mass %.","The yield of modified PTFE was 20.2 kg.","Further, coagulum in the autoclave was at a level of a trace.","Ex.","6 Polymerization was conducted in the same manner as in Ex.","1 except that 12.6 g of PFBE was used, the concentration of the ammonium sulfite aqueous solution was changed to 0.09 mass %, and the total amount of the ammonium sulfite added was 0.26 g (0.04 mmol/L).","The internal pressure of the autoclave during the polymerization reaction was maintained to be 1.81 MPa.","The polymerization time was 164 minutes.","The properties of the fine powder of modified PTFE and the stretched porous body of modified PTFE were measured in the same manner as Ex.","1.The results are shown in Table 1.Ex.","7 Polymerization was conducted in the same manner as in Ex.","1 except that 21 g of PFBE was used, the amount of potassium bromate added was changed to 0.6 g (0.07 mmol/L), the concentration of the ammonium sulfite aqueous solution was changed to 0.14 mass %, and the total amount of the ammonium sulfite added was 0.44 g (0.06 mmol/L).","The internal pressure of the autoclave during the polymerization reaction was maintained to be 1.81 MPa.","The polymerization time was 163 minutes.","The properties of the fine powder of modified PTFE and the stretched porous body of modified PTFE were measured in the same manner as Ex.","1.The results are shown in Table 1.Ex.","8 and 9 Ex.","8 and 9 are Examples wherein in Ex.","1, PFAE was changed to PFHE.","Further, in the same manner as in Ex.","1 except that the production conditions were changed as described below, an aqueous emulsion of modified PTFE, a fine powder of modified PTFE and a stretched porous body of modified PTFE were produced, and the same measurements were conducted.","The results are shown in Table 1.In Ex.","8, 18.9 g of PFHE was charged, the amount of potassium bromate added was 0.6 g (0.07 mmol/L), the concentration of the ammonium sulfite aqueous solution was 0.14 mass %, and the total amount of the ammonium sulfite added was 0.34 g (0.05 mmol/L).","The internal pressure of the autoclave during the polymerization reaction was maintained to be 1.81 MPa.","The polymerization time was 353 minutes.","In Ex.","9, 42.0 g of PFHE was charged, the amount of potassium bromate added was 1.2 g (0.13 mmol/L), the concentration of the ammonium sulfite aqueous solution was 0.28 mass %, and the total amount of the ammonium sulfite added was 0.54 g (0.07 mmol/L).","The internal pressure of the autoclave during the polymerization reaction was maintained to be 1.81 MPa, and at the time when the amount of TFE added reached 17.2 kg, the reaction was terminated.","The polymerization time was 290 minutes.","In Ex.","9, the amount (42.0 g) of PFHE added relative to the final production amount (17.2 kg) of the modified PTFE, was about 2,442 ppm.","Ex.","10 The polymerization initiator (B) was used.","The final production amount of modified PTFE was set to be 23 kg, the amount of PFBE to be added was set to be 9.2 g, i.e.","400 ppm to the modified PTFE, and the total amount of a fluorinated anionic surfactant was set to be 250 g, i.e.","about 1.09 mass % to the modified PTFE.","In the same autoclave as in Ex.","3, 50 g of APFDO, 928 g of paraffin wax, 11.55 g of succinic acid, 0.3 g (0.06 mmol/L) of oxalic acid and 59 L of deionized water were charged.","The autoclave was flushed with nitrogen and then brought to reduced pressure, and 9.2 g of PFBE was charged.","It was pressurized to about 0.1 MPa with TFE and heated to 65° C. with stirring.","Then, it was pressurized to 1.62 MPa with TFE, and an aqueous potassium permanganate solution at a concentration 0.04 mass % was continuously added at about 3 mL/min, to initiate a polymerization reaction.","The polymerization was allowed to proceed while adding TFE in order to keep the internal pressure of the autoclave to be 1.62 MPa.","At the time when the amount of TFE added after initiation of the polymerization reached 9.2 kg, the addition of the aqueous potassium permanganate solution was stopped, and 200 g of APFDO was additionally added.","The total amount of potassium permanganate added was 0.1 g (0.01 mmol/L).","Further, the temperature was raised to 90° C. At the time when the amount of TFE added after initiation of the polymerization reached 23 kg, the polymerization reaction was terminated, and TFE in the autoclave was discharged to the atmosphere.","The polymerization time was 210 minutes.","Subsequently, in the same manner as in Ex.","1, an aqueous emulsion of modified PTFE, a fine powder of modified PTFE and a stretched porous body of modified PTFE were produced, and the same measurements were conducted.","The results are shown in Table 1.The solid content concentration in the obtained aqueous emulsion of modified PTFE was about 27.0 mass %.","The yield of modified PTFE was 22.5 kg.","Further, coagulum in the autoclave was at a level of a trace.","Ex.","11 The polymerization initiator (C) was used.","The final production amount of modified PTFE was set to be 27 kg, the amount of PFBE to be added was set to be 3.5 g, i.e.","130 ppm to the modified PTFE, and the total amount of fluorinated anionic surfactant was set to be 185 g, i.e.","about 0.69 mass % to the modified PTFE.","In the same autoclave as in Ex.","1, 72 g of APFDO, 928 g of paraffin wax and 59 L of deionized water were charged.","The autoclave was flushed with nitrogen, then brought to reduced pressure, charged with 5.4 g of PFBE, then pressurized to about 0.1 MPa with TFE and heated to 70° C. with stirring.","Then, it was pressurized to 1.67 MPa with TFE, and 5.0 g of disuccinic acid peroxide (concentration: 80 mass %, rest being water) was dissolved in 1 liter of warm water at about 70° C. and injected, to initiate a polymerization reaction.","The polymerization was allowed to proceed while adding TFE in order to keep the internal pressure of the autoclave to be 1.67 MPa.","During the polymerization, a solution having APFDO dissolved in warm water was added so that the total of APFDO would be 113 g. Further, by the time when the amount of TFE added after initiation of the polymerization reached 18.5 kg, a solution having ammonium sulfite dissolved in water was added so that the total of ammonium sulfite would be 3.85 g. The temperature was lowered to 65° C. at a middle stage and raised to 90° C. at a later stage of polymerization.","At the time when the amount of TFE added after initiation of the polymerization reached 27 kg, the polymerization reaction was terminated, and TFE in the autoclave was discharged to the atmosphere.","The polymerization time was 213 minutes.","The obtained aqueous emulsion of modified PTFE was cooled, and the supernatant paraffin wax was removed.","The solid content concentration in the obtained aqueous emulsion of modified PTFE was 28.6 mass %.","The yield of modified PTFE was 26.3 kg.","Further, coagulum in the autoclave was at a level of a trace.","The average primary particle diameter of modified PTFE particles in the obtained aqueous emulsion of modified PTFE, and the stability retention time of the aqueous emulsion of modified PTFE were measured.","The results are shown in Table 1.This aqueous emulsion of modified PTFE was diluted to a concentration of 10 mass % with pure water, then adjusted to 20° C. and stirred for coagulation to obtain a wet powder.","Then, the wet powder was dried at 200° C. to obtain a fine powder of modified PTFE.","Ex.","12 Using the aqueous emulsion of modified PTFE obtained in Ex.","4, without adding ammonium carbonate, stirring for coagulation was conducted in the same manner as in Ex.","1 to obtain a wet powder.","An ammonium carbonate aqueous solution (20 mass % concentration) in an amount of 10 mass % to the fine powder of modified PTFE (dried amount) was preliminarily charged in a drying tray, and then a predetermined amount of the wet powder was put therein and dried at 190° C. to produce a fine powder of PTFE.","In the manner as described above, SSG, the extrusion pressure and the breaking strength were measured, and the results are shown in Table 1.TABLE 1 Ex.","1 Ex.","2 Ex.","3 Ex.","4 Ex.","5 Ex.","6 Ex.","7 Ex.","8 Ex.","9 Ex.","10 Ex.","11 Ex.","12 Polymerization initiator (A) (A) (B) (B) (B) (A) (A) (A) (A) (B) (C) (B) Amount [ppm] of PFBE 300 — 100 130 150 600 1000 — — 400 130 130 perfluoroalkyl ethylene PFHE — — — — — — — 900 2442 — — — added Average primary particle 0.19 0.28 0.21 0.20 0.20 0.17 0.15 0.18 0.17 0.17 0.22 0.20 diameter [μm] Stability retention time [seconds] 715 149 304 343 355 1118 1679 636 968 550 291 343 of aqueous emulsion Standard specific gravity (SSG) 2.138 2.148 2.139 2.138 2.138 2.138 2.138 2.138 2.138 2.136 2.139 2.138 Extrusion pressure [MPa] in 20.7 20.2 19.4 19.6 20.6 20.6 20.7 21.0 21.0 19.5 19.9 20.4 extrusion test Breaking strength [N] 44.3 35.1 35.5 36.6 37.4 46.2 47.0 50.8 46.6 41.6 30.6 41.0 As shown in Table 1, in Ex.","1 and 4 to 10 which are Examples of the present invention, it was possible to obtain a stretched porous body of modified PTFE excellent in breaking strength.","In Ex.","12, by the same aqueous emulsion of modified PTFE as in Ex.","4, the breaking strength was further improved by drying under ammonia atmosphere.","Whereas, Ex.","2 wherein no PFAE was used, Ex.","3 wherein the amount of PFAE used was small and Ex.","11 wherein the polymerization initiator (C) was used, are Comparative Examples, wherein the breaking strength of the obtained stretched porous body of PTFE was poor.","Further, in each of Ex.","1 to 12, the stretched bead produced in the measurement of the breaking strength, was uniform without formation of rupture or voids.","INDUSTRIAL APPLICABILITY From the aqueous emulsion or fine powder of modified polytetrafluoroethylene, obtainable in the present invention, it is possible to obtain a stretched porous body which is excellent particularly in breaking strength, and the stretched porous body is useful as a material for products in a wide range of fields including clothes, tents, precision filters, separation membranes, etc.","This application is a continuation of PCT Application No.","PCT/JP2016/073776, filed on Aug. 12, 2016, which is based upon and claims the benefit of priority from Japanese Patent Application No.","2015-162239 filed on Aug. 19, 2015.The contents of those applications are incorporated herein by reference in their entireties."]],"string":"[\n [\n \"PRODUCTION METHODS FOR AQUEOUS EMULSION, FINE POWDER AND STRETCHED POROUS BODY OF MODIFIED POLYTETRAFLUOROETHYLENE\",\n \"To provide a production method for an aqueous emulsion of modified polytetrafluoroethylene which is environmentally friendly and which is suitable for producing a stretched porous body having excellent breaking strength.\",\n \"A production method for an aqueous emulsion of modified polytetrafluoroethylene, which is a method to obtain an aqueous emulsion of modified polytetrafluoroethylene particles having an average primary particle diameter of from 0.10 to 0.30 μm, by subjecting tetrafluoroethylene and a perfluoroalkyl ethylene to emulsion polymerization in an aqueous medium, using a polymerization initiator, in the presence of a fluorinated anionic surfactant having a LogPOW of from 2.4 to 3.4, wherein the amount of the perfluoroalkyl ethylene to be used, is from 120 to 3,000 ppm to the final production amount of the modified polytetrafluoroethylene; at the initiation of the emulsion polymerization, the entire amount of the perfluoroalkyl ethylene is permitted to be present, and, as the polymerization initiator, either one or both of a combination of a bromate and a bisulfite or sulfite, and a combination of a permanganate and oxalic acid, are used.\"\n ],\n [\n \"1.A production method for an aqueous emulsion of modified polytetrafluoroethylene, which is a method to obtain an aqueous emulsion of non-melt-moldable modified polytetrafluoroethylene particles having an average primary particle diameter of from 0.10 to 0.30 μm, by subjecting tetrafluoroethylene and a perfluoroalkyl ethylene represented by the following formula (1) to emulsion polymerization in an aqueous medium, using a polymerization initiator, in the presence of a fluorinated anionic surfactant having a LogPOW of from 2.4 to 3.4, and which is characterized in that the amount of the perfluoroalkyl ethylene to be used, is from 120 to 3,000 ppm (by mass) to the final production amount of the modified polytetrafluoroethylene, at the initiation of the emulsion polymerization, the entire amount of the perfluoroalkyl ethylene is permitted to be present, and as the polymerization initiator, either one or both of a combination of a bromate and a bisulfite or sulfite, and a combination of a permanganate and oxalic acid, are used: CH2═CH—Rf (1) (Rf is a C1-6 perfluoroalkyl group).\",\n \"2.The production method for an aqueous emulsion of modified polytetrafluoroethylene according to claim 1, wherein the fluorinated anionic surfactant is a fluorinated surfactant having 6 or 7 carbon atoms, 0 or 1 hydrogen atom, 0 or from 1 to 4 etheric oxygen atoms, a group represented by —COOA (A is H, NH4 or an alkali metal atom) and the rest of atoms being fluorine atoms.\",\n \"3.The production method for an aqueous emulsion of modified polytetrafluoroethylene according to claim 1, wherein the perfluoroalkyl ethylene is CH2═CH(CF2)2F, CH2═CH(CF2)4F or CH2═CH(CF2)6F.\",\n \"4.The production method for an aqueous emulsion of modified polytetrafluoroethylene according to claim 1, wherein the fluorinated anionic surfactant is used in an amount of from 0.2 to 2 mass % to the final production amount of the modified polytetrafluoroethylene.\",\n \"5.A production method for a fine powder of modified polytetrafluoroethylene, which comprises producing an aqueous emulsion of modified polytetrafluoroethylene particles by the method as defined in claim 1, coagulating the obtained aqueous emulsion, and drying the obtained wet state fine powder of modified polytetrafluoroethylene, to obtain a powder having a standard specific gravity of from 2.130 to 2.145.6.The production method for a fine powder of modified polytetrafluoroethylene according to claim 5, wherein the drying of the wet state fine powder of modified polytetrafluoroethylene is carried out in an atmosphere containing ammonia.\",\n \"7.The production method for a fine powder of modified polytetrafluoroethylene according to claim 5, wherein the standard specific gravity is from 2.135 to 2.142.8.The production method for a fine powder of modified polytetrafluoroethylene according to claim 5, wherein the extrusion pressure in the following extrusion test of the fine powder of modified polytetrafluoroethylene is from 19 to 25 MPa: Extrusion test: 100 g of the fine powder of modified polytetrafluoroethylene left to stand for at least 2 hours at room temperature is put into a glass bottle having an internal capacity of 500 mL, and 21.7 g of a lubricating oil (Isopar H (registered trademark), manufactured by Exxon) is added and mixed for 3 minutes to obtain a mixture; and the obtained mixture is left to stand for 2 hours in a thermostat bath at 25° C. and then, subjected to paste extrusion through an orifice having a diameter of 2.5 cm, a land length of 1.1 cm and an introduction angle 30°, at 25° C. under conditions of a reduction ratio (ratio of the cross-sectional area of the inlet to the cross-sectional area of the outlet of a die) of 100 and an extrusion speed of 51 cm/min., to obtain an extruded bead, whereby the pressure required for the extrusion is measured, and the measured value is adopted as the extrusion pressure (unit: MPa).\",\n \"9.A production method for a stretched porous body of modified polytetrafluoroethylene, which comprises producing a fine powder of modified polytetrafluoroethylene by the method as defined in claim 5, subjecting the obtained fine powder of modified polytetrafluoroethylene to paste extrusion to obtain an extruded bead, and stretching the extruded bead.\",\n \"10.The production method for a stretched porous body of modified polytetrafluoroethylene according to claim 9, wherein the breaking strength of the stretched porous body of modified polytetrafluoroethylene is from 36 to 60N.\"\n ],\n [\n \" BACKGROUND ART Polytetrafluoroethylene (hereinafter referred to as PTFE) has been produced as a homopolymer of tetrafluoroethylene (hereinafter referred to as TFE), or optionally as a modified polytetrafluoroethylene (hereinafter referred to as a modified PTFE) i.e.\",\n \"a copolymer of tetrafluoroethylene with a small amount of a comonomer, and it has been applied to various uses.\",\n \"For the production of PTFE, a method of subjecting TFE to emulsion polymerization in an aqueous medium in the presence of a fluorinated surfactant, or a method of subjecting TFE to suspension polymerization, is, for example, employed.\",\n \"In the emulsion polymerization method, an aqueous emulsion in which PTFE particles are emulsified and dispersed, is obtained.\",\n \"By coagulating the PTFE particles in the aqueous emulsion, followed by drying, a PTFE fine powder is obtained.\",\n \"PTFE has a high melt viscosity and thus cannot be molded by a melt molding method such as an extrusion molding which is commonly applied to thermoplastic resins.\",\n \"Therefore, as a molding method of PTFE, a paste extrusion molding method is employed, which is a method of mixing a lubricant to a fine powder of PTFE, followed by extrusion molding.\",\n \"Important products obtainable from a PTFE fine powder include clothes, tents, industrial precision filters, separation films, etc.\",\n \"For these products, a stretched porous body obtainable by the paste extrusion molding method is used, and in order to improve the product properties, it is desired to develop a stretched porous body excellent in breaking strength.\",\n \"Heretofore, as a fluorinated surfactant to be used in the emulsion polymerization of TFE, ammonium perfluorooctanoate (CF 3 (CF 2 ) 6 COONH 4 , hereinafter referred to also as APFO) having 8 carbon atoms, has been used.\",\n \"However, APFO does not exist in nature and is a material hardly decomposable, and further, it has been found highly bioaccumulative.\",\n \"In this background, a study has been made for a surfactant having a low bioaccumulation property.\",\n \"Patent Documents 1 and 2 disclose examples wherein a modified PTFE was produced by emulsion polymerization, and by using this, a stretched porous body of modified PTFE having high breaking strength was produced, but as a fluorinated surfactant, APFO was used, such being not environmentally friendly technology.\",\n \"Specifically, Patent Document 1 discloses a method of conducting emulsion polymerization by using a relatively large amount of perfluorobutyl ethylene as a comonomer, and using potassium permanganate as a polymerization initiator.\",\n \"Patent Document 2 discloses a method of conducting emulsion polymerization by using, as a comonomer, a perfluoroalkyl ethylene having a number of carbon atoms of from 6 to 10 in the perfluoroalkyl group, and using potassium permanganate as a polymerization initiator.\",\n \"Patent Documents 3 and 4 relate to a technique in the case of using a fluorinated surfactant to replace APFO in consideration of the environmental effect.\",\n \"Patent Document 3 discloses that it is possible to produce a highly heat resistant stretched porous body by conducting emulsion polymerization by using, as a fluorinated surfactant, a fluorinated carboxylic acid having an etheric oxygen atom in the main chain, and using a comonomer highly reactive with TFE, in a very small amount (from 0.001 to 0.01 mass %) relative to the production amount of the final modified PTFE.\",\n \"In its Comparative Example 2, an example is disclosed wherein bis-succinic acid peroxide and ammonium sulfite were used as polymerization initiators, and perfluorobutyl ethylene was used in an amount of 0.013 mass % (130 ppm), and it is shown that if the amount of perfluorobutyl ethylene is large, the heat resistance will be low.\",\n \"Patent Document 4 discloses that it is possible to obtain a modified PTFE aqueous emulsion excellent in dispersion stability, by conducting emulsion polymerization by using perfluorohexanoic acid as a fluorinated surfactant, and using a comonomer having high reactivity with TFE, in a very small amount (e.g.\",\n \"60 ppm) relative to the production amount of the final modified PTFE.\"\n ],\n [\n \"TECHNICAL FIELD The present invention relates to a production method for an aqueous emulsion of modified polytetrafluoroethylene, a production method for a fine powder of modified polytetrafluoroethylene, and a production method for a stretched porous body of modified polytetrafluoroethylene.\",\n \"BACKGROUND ART Polytetrafluoroethylene (hereinafter referred to as PTFE) has been produced as a homopolymer of tetrafluoroethylene (hereinafter referred to as TFE), or optionally as a modified polytetrafluoroethylene (hereinafter referred to as a modified PTFE) i.e.\",\n \"a copolymer of tetrafluoroethylene with a small amount of a comonomer, and it has been applied to various uses.\",\n \"For the production of PTFE, a method of subjecting TFE to emulsion polymerization in an aqueous medium in the presence of a fluorinated surfactant, or a method of subjecting TFE to suspension polymerization, is, for example, employed.\",\n \"In the emulsion polymerization method, an aqueous emulsion in which PTFE particles are emulsified and dispersed, is obtained.\",\n \"By coagulating the PTFE particles in the aqueous emulsion, followed by drying, a PTFE fine powder is obtained.\",\n \"PTFE has a high melt viscosity and thus cannot be molded by a melt molding method such as an extrusion molding which is commonly applied to thermoplastic resins.\",\n \"Therefore, as a molding method of PTFE, a paste extrusion molding method is employed, which is a method of mixing a lubricant to a fine powder of PTFE, followed by extrusion molding.\",\n \"Important products obtainable from a PTFE fine powder include clothes, tents, industrial precision filters, separation films, etc.\",\n \"For these products, a stretched porous body obtainable by the paste extrusion molding method is used, and in order to improve the product properties, it is desired to develop a stretched porous body excellent in breaking strength.\",\n \"Heretofore, as a fluorinated surfactant to be used in the emulsion polymerization of TFE, ammonium perfluorooctanoate (CF3(CF2)6COONH4, hereinafter referred to also as APFO) having 8 carbon atoms, has been used.\",\n \"However, APFO does not exist in nature and is a material hardly decomposable, and further, it has been found highly bioaccumulative.\",\n \"In this background, a study has been made for a surfactant having a low bioaccumulation property.\",\n \"Patent Documents 1 and 2 disclose examples wherein a modified PTFE was produced by emulsion polymerization, and by using this, a stretched porous body of modified PTFE having high breaking strength was produced, but as a fluorinated surfactant, APFO was used, such being not environmentally friendly technology.\",\n \"Specifically, Patent Document 1 discloses a method of conducting emulsion polymerization by using a relatively large amount of perfluorobutyl ethylene as a comonomer, and using potassium permanganate as a polymerization initiator.\",\n \"Patent Document 2 discloses a method of conducting emulsion polymerization by using, as a comonomer, a perfluoroalkyl ethylene having a number of carbon atoms of from 6 to 10 in the perfluoroalkyl group, and using potassium permanganate as a polymerization initiator.\",\n \"Patent Documents 3 and 4 relate to a technique in the case of using a fluorinated surfactant to replace APFO in consideration of the environmental effect.\",\n \"Patent Document 3 discloses that it is possible to produce a highly heat resistant stretched porous body by conducting emulsion polymerization by using, as a fluorinated surfactant, a fluorinated carboxylic acid having an etheric oxygen atom in the main chain, and using a comonomer highly reactive with TFE, in a very small amount (from 0.001 to 0.01 mass %) relative to the production amount of the final modified PTFE.\",\n \"In its Comparative Example 2, an example is disclosed wherein bis-succinic acid peroxide and ammonium sulfite were used as polymerization initiators, and perfluorobutyl ethylene was used in an amount of 0.013 mass % (130 ppm), and it is shown that if the amount of perfluorobutyl ethylene is large, the heat resistance will be low.\",\n \"Patent Document 4 discloses that it is possible to obtain a modified PTFE aqueous emulsion excellent in dispersion stability, by conducting emulsion polymerization by using perfluorohexanoic acid as a fluorinated surfactant, and using a comonomer having high reactivity with TFE, in a very small amount (e.g.\",\n \"60 ppm) relative to the production amount of the final modified PTFE.\",\n \"PRIOR ART DOCUMENTS Patent Documents Patent Document 1: JP-A-2005-506405 Patent Document 2: JP-A-2009-500491 Patent Document 3: WO 2011/055824 Patent Document 4: WO 2013/027850 DISCLOSURE OF INVENTION Technical Problem Heretofore, there has been no proposal for a technique to obtain a stretched porous body excellent in breaking strength by using a fluorinated surfactant to replace APFO in consideration of the environmental effect.\",\n \"The present invention is, while paying attention to the environmental effect, to provide a production method for an aqueous emulsion of modified PTFE suitable for producing a stretched porous body excellent in breaking strength, a production method for a fine powder of modified PTFE, and a production method of a stretched porous body of modified PTFE.\",\n \"Solution to Problem The present invention provides the following production methods for an aqueous emulsion, fine powder and stretched porous body of modified polytetrafluoroethylene.\",\n \"[1] A production method for an aqueous emulsion of modified PTFE, which is a method to obtain an aqueous emulsion of non-melt-moldable modified PTFE particles having an average primary particle diameter of from 0.10 to 0.30 μm, by subjecting TFE and a perfluoroalkyl ethylene represented by the following formula (1) to emulsion polymerization in an aqueous medium, using a polymerization initiator, in the presence of a fluorinated anionic surfactant having a LogPOW of from 2.4 to 3.4, and which is characterized in that the amount of the perfluoroalkyl ethylene to be used, is from 120 to 3,000 ppm (by mass) to the final production amount of the modified polytetrafluoroethylene, at the initiation of the emulsion polymerization, the entire amount of the perfluoroalkyl ethylene is permitted to be present, and as the polymerization initiator, either one or both of a combination of a bromate and a bisulfite or sulfite, and a combination of a permanganate and oxalic acid, are used: CH2═CH—Rf (1) (Rf is a C1-6 perfluoroalkyl group).\",\n \"[2] The production method for an aqueous emulsion of modified PTFE according to [1], wherein the fluorinated anionic surfactant is a fluorinated surfactant having 6 or 7 carbon atoms, 0 or 1 hydrogen atom, 0 or from 1 to 4 etheric oxygen atoms, a group represented by —COOA (A is H, NH4 or an alkali metal atom) and the rest of atoms being fluorine atoms.\",\n \"[3] The production method for an aqueous emulsion of modified PTFE according to [1] or [2], wherein the perfluoroalkyl ethylene is CH2═CH(CF2)2F, CH2═CH(CF2)4F or CH2═CH(CF2)6F.\",\n \"[4] The production method for an aqueous emulsion of modified PTFE according to any one of [1] to [3], wherein the fluorinated anionic surfactant is used in an amount of from 0.2 to 2 mass % to the final production amount of the modified PTFE.\",\n \"[5] A production method for a fine powder of modified PTFE, which comprises producing an aqueous emulsion of modified PTFE particles by the method as defined in any one of [1] to [4], coagulating the obtained aqueous emulsion, and drying the obtained wet state fine powder of modified PTFE, to obtain a powder having a standard specific gravity of from 2.130 to 2.145.\",\n \"[6] The production method for a fine powder of modified PTFE according to [5], wherein the drying of the wet state fine powder of modified PTFE is carried out in an atmosphere containing ammonia.\",\n \"[7] The production method for a fine powder of modified PTFE according to [5] or [6], wherein the standard specific gravity is from 2.135 to 2.142.\",\n \"[8] The production method for a fine powder of modified PTFE according to any one of [5] to [7], wherein the extrusion pressure in the following extrusion test of the fine powder of modified PTFE is from 19 to 25 MPa: Extrusion test: 100 g of the fine powder of modified PTFE left to stand for at least 2 hours at room temperature is put into a glass bottle having an internal capacity of 500 mL, and 21.7 g of a lubricating oil (Isopar H (registered trademark), manufactured by Exxon) is added and mixed for 3 minutes to obtain a mixture; and the obtained mixture is left to stand for 2 hours in a thermostat bath at 25° C. and then, subjected to paste extrusion through an orifice having a diameter of 2.5 cm, a land length of 1.1 cm and an introduction angle 30°, at 25° C. under conditions of a reduction ratio (ratio of the cross-sectional area of the inlet to the cross-sectional area of the outlet of a die) of 100 and an extrusion speed of 51 cm/min., to obtain an extruded bead, whereby the pressure required for the extrusion is measured, and the measured value is adopted as the extrusion pressure (unit: MPa).\",\n \"[9] A production method for a stretched porous body of modified PTFE, which comprises producing a fine powder of modified PTFE by the method as defined in any one of [5] to [8], subjecting the obtained fine powder of modified PTFE to paste extrusion to obtain an extruded bead, and stretching the extruded bead.\",\n \"[10] The production method for a stretched porous body of modified PTFE according to [9], wherein the breaking strength of the stretched porous body of modified PTFE is from 36 to 60N.\",\n \"Advantageous Effects of Invention According to the production methods of the present invention, in consideration of the environmental effect, it is possible to produce an aqueous emulsion of modified PTFE, a fine powder of modified PTFE and a stretched porous body of modified PTFE, by using a fluorinated anionic surfactant having a lower bioaccumulation property as compared to APFO, and it is possible to obtain a stretched porous body of modified PTFE excellent in breaking strength.\",\n \"DESCRIPTION OF EMBODIMENTS In the present invention, the following terms have the following meanings.\",\n \"An “average primary particle diameter” means a median diameter based on volume measured by the laser scattering method particle size distribution analyzer.\",\n \"A “standard specific gravity (hereinafter referred to also as SSG)” is an index for the molecular weight, and the larger this value, the smaller the molecular weight.\",\n \"Measurement conditions will be described later.\",\n \"An “extrusion pressure” means a pressure required for paste extrusion in an extrusion test wherein one having a fine powder of modified PTFE prepared into a paste form under a predetermined condition, is extrusion-molded under a predetermined condition.\",\n \"Measurement conditions will be described later.\",\n \"A “stability retention time” is a value measured by the stability test as described later, and it is, roughly, a time required for the emulsified state of an aqueous emulsion to be broken when a shearing force is exerted by using a container and stirring blade under predetermined conditions.\",\n \"The longer the stability retention time, the better the stability of the aqueous emulsion.\",\n \"A “modified PTFE” is a copolymer of tetrafluoroethylene and a very small amount of a comonomer, and means a non-melt-moldable copolymer.\",\n \"The content of units derived from the comonomer in a modified PTFE is generally less than 0.5 mass %, preferably less than 0.25 mass %, more preferably less than 0.18 mass %.\",\n \"In the present invention, the content of units derived from PFAE as a comonomer is in the specific range as described later.\",\n \"The “non-melt-moldable” is meant to be unable to be melt-molded, i.e.\",\n \"to show no melt flowability.\",\n \"Specifically, it means that the melt flow rate measured at a measuring temperature of 372° C. under a load of 49N in accordance with ASTM D3307, is less than 0.5 g/10 min.\",\n \"The “final production amount of the modified PTFE” can be estimated to be substantially equal to the amount of TFE consumed in the polymerization reaction step.\",\n \"The production method for an aqueous emulsion of modified PTFE of the present invention, has a step of subjecting tetrafluoroethylene and a perfluoroalkyl ethylene to emulsion polymerization in an aqueous medium, using a polymerization initiator, in the presence of a fluorinated anionic surfactant, to obtain an aqueous emulsion of modified PTFE particles.\",\n \" In the present invention, a perfluoroalkyl ethylene (hereinafter referred to also as PFAE) represented by CH2═CH—Rf, is used as a comonomer.\",\n \"Rf is a C1-6 perfluoroalkyl group.\",\n \"In the case of a compound wherein the number of carbon atoms in Rf is 7 or more, its decomposition product is considered to be likely to include a compound similar to APFO which is an environmentally concerned substance, and therefore, it is environmentally preferred that the number of carbon atoms in Rf is at most 6.Further, the present inventors have confirmed by a method such as a scanning electron microscopic measurement, that by using PFAE as a comonomer, the average primary particle diameter of modified PTFE formed by the emulsion polymerization will be smaller and more uniformly aligned, than a case where no comonomer is used.\",\n \"The number of carbon atoms in Rf is more preferably from 2 to 6.In particular, CH2═CH—(CF2)2F, CH2═CH—(CF2)4F (perfluorobutyl ethylene, hereinafter referred to also as PFBE), or CH2═CH—(CF2)6F (perfluorohexyl ethylene, hereinafter referred to also as PFHE), is preferred.\",\n \"Two or more types of PFAE may be used in combination.\",\n \"The amount of PFAE is from 120 to 3,000 ppm (from 0.012 to 0.300 mass %), preferably from 120 to 2,500 ppm, more preferably from 150 to 2,500 ppm, most preferably from 200 to 2,500 ppm, relative to the final production amount of the modified PTFE.\",\n \"Within the above range, a sufficient improvement effect in breaking strength of the stretched porous body can be easily attained.\",\n \"Within this range, all PFAE used will be copolymerized with TFE, whereby the content of units derived from PFAE in the modified PTFE will be equal to the amount used.\",\n \" In the present invention, a fluorinated anionic surfactant having a LogPOW of from 2.4 to 3.4 is used.\",\n \"The LogPOW is a distribution coefficient in 1-octanol and water as stipulated in OECD Test Guideline 107, 117 and Japanese Industrial Standard Z7260-107 (2000).\",\n \"At the time when a mixed liquid of octanol/water (1:1) each containing a surfactant to be measured, is phase-separated, POW represents a ratio of the surfactant concentration in octanol/the surfactant concentration in water.\",\n \"A surfactant having a large distribution coefficient value has a high bioaccumulation property, and a surfactant having a small distribution coefficient value has a low bioaccumulation property.\",\n \"When the LogPOW is 3.4 or less, the bioaccumulation property is judged to be low.\",\n \"By the measurement conducted by the present inventors, the LogPOW of APFO was 3.67.Further, when the LogPOW is at least 2.4, the stability of the aqueous emulsion of modified PTFE can be maintained well during polymerization.\",\n \"The LogPOW is preferably from 2.4 to 3.3, more preferably from 2.5 to 3.3, most preferably from 2.5 to 3.2.As a fluorinated anionic surfactant having a LogPOW of from 2.4 to 3.4, preferred is a fluorinated surfactant having 6 or 7 carbon atoms, 0 or 1 hydrogen atom, 0 or from 1 to 4 etheric oxygen atoms, a group represented by —COOA (A is H, NH4 or an alkali metal atom) and the rest of atoms being fluorine atoms.\",\n \"As specific examples of the fluorinated anionic surfactant having a LogPOW of from 2.4 to 3.4, one or more members selected from the group consisting of CF3OCF(CF3)CF2OCF(CF3)COOA, CF3CF2OCF2CF2OCF2COOA, CF3OCF2CF2CF2OCHFCF2COOA, C3F7OCF(CF3)COOA, H(CF2CF2)3COOA, CF3CF2(CF2CF2)2COOA, CF3(CF2CF2)2COOA, and a compound represented by the following formula (2) are preferred.\",\n \"A is H, NH4 or an alkali metal atom (preferably Na or K).\",\n \"Among these fluorinated anionic surfactants, particularly from the viewpoint of excellent stability of the aqueous emulsion of modified PTFE during polymerization, and a low bioaccumulation property, CF3CF2OCF2CF2OCF2COOA, CF3OCF2CF2CF2OCHFCF2COOA or a compound of formula (2) is preferred, CF3CF2OCF2CF2OCF2COOA is more preferred.\",\n \"Particularly, the fluorinated anionic surfactant wherein A is NH4 is most preferred.\",\n \"The amount of the fluorinated anionic surfactant to be present, is preferably from 0.2 to 2 mass %, more preferably from 0.4 to 2 mass %, further preferably from 0.5 to 2 mass %, most preferably from 0.6 to 2 mass %, based on the final production amount of the modified PTFE.\",\n \"When the amount of the fluorinated anionic surfactant to be present, is at most the upper limit value in the above range, the modified PTFE particles to be formed are less likely to become a rod-shape, and it will be easy to obtain good stability of the aqueous emulsion.\",\n \"When it is at least the lower limit value in the above range, it will be easy to obtain good emulsion stability during polymerization, and it will be easy to prevent agglomeration of modified PTFE particles or formation of coagulum.\",\n \" As the polymerization initiator in the present invention, either one or both of a combination of a bromate and a bisulfite or sulfite, and a combination of a permanganate and oxalic acid, may be used as a water-soluble redox initiator.\",\n \"The water-soluble redox initiator is preferably used, as described below, by letting either the reducing agent or the oxidizing agent be present preliminarily in the polymerization reaction system, and then adding the other one continuously or intermittently to initiate the polymerization.\",\n \"For example, in the case of using a potassium permanganate/oxalic acid, it is preferred to charge oxalic acid to the polymerization vessel, and add the potassium permanganate thereto continuously or intermittently.\",\n \"In the case of using a bromate and a sulfite, it is preferred to charge the bromate preliminarily to the polymerization vessel, and then add the sulfite continuously or intermittently thereto.\",\n \"The reducing agent or oxidizing agent permitted to be present preliminarily in the polymerization reaction system, is preferably from 0.01 to 0.50 mmol/L, more preferably from 0.03 to 0.35 mmol/L, to the volume (L) of the aqueous medium to be charged to the polymerization vessel.\",\n \"Within this range, it is easy to control the emulsion polymerization.\",\n \"Further, the amount of the reducing agent or oxidizing agent added to be present preliminarily in the polymerization reaction system, is preferably from 0.5 to 10 times in the theoretical amount in the oxidation-reduction reaction, to the other oxidizing agent or reducing agent to be subsequently added.\",\n \"For example, in the case of preliminarily supplying oxalic acid and subsequently adding potassium permanganate, it is preferred that the amount of oxalic acid is from 0.04 to 0.20 mmol/L, and the amount of potassium permanganate is from 1/20 to 1/4 mol times thereof.\",\n \"In a case of preliminarily supplying potassium bromate and subsequently adding ammonium sulfite, it is preferred that the amount of potassium bromate is from 0.03 to 0.20 mmol/L, and the amount of ammonium sulfite is from 3/10 to 1/1 mol times thereof.\",\n \" For the emulsion polymerization of TFE, it is preferred to use a stabilizing aid.\",\n \"The stabilizing aid is preferably one which has sufficient hydrophobicity and which is readily separable and removable from the aqueous emulsion of modified PTFE after the emulsion polymerization.\",\n \"As the stabilizing aid, paraffin wax, fluorinated oil, fluorinated solvent, silicone oil or the like is preferred.\",\n \"As the stabilizing aid, one type may be used alone, or two or more types may be used in combination.\",\n \"Particularly, paraffin wax is preferred.\",\n \"Paraffin wax may be liquid, semi-solid or solid at room temperature, but is preferably a saturated hydrocarbon having at least 16 carbon atoms.\",\n \"The melting point of paraffin wax is usually preferably from 40 to 65° C., more preferably from 50 to 65° C. The amount of the stabilizing aid to be used, is preferably from 0.1 to 12 mass %, more preferably from 0.1 to 8 mass %, relative to the aqueous medium to be used.\",\n \"When the amount is at least the lower limit value in the above range, it is easy to obtain good stability of the aqueous emulsion of modified PTFE during polymerization.\",\n \"If the stability of the aqueous emulsion of modified PTFE during polymerization is impaired, coagulum are likely to be formed in a large amount.\",\n \"When the amount is at most the above upper limit value, it will be easy to separate and remove the stabilizing aid after polymerization.\",\n \" The aqueous medium may, for example, be water, a mixture of water and a water-soluble organic solvent, etc.\",\n \"The water-soluble organic solvent may, for example, be tert-butanol, propylene glycol, dipropylene glycol, dipropylene glycol monomethyl ether, tripropylene glycol, etc.\",\n \"In a case where the aqueous medium contains a water-soluble organic solvent, the content of the water-soluble organic solvent is preferably from 1 to 40 parts by mass, more preferably from 3 to 30 parts by mass, to 100 parts by mass of water.\",\n \" The production method for an aqueous emulsion of modified PTFE of the present invention, has a step of subjecting TFE and PFAE to emulsion polymerization in an aqueous medium, using a polymerization initiator, in the presence of a fluorinated anionic surfactant, to obtain an aqueous emulsion of modified PTFE.\",\n \"Since the copolymerization reactivity of PFAE and TFE is high, it is preferred to let the entire amount of PFAE be present in the polymerization reaction system at the initiation of the emulsion polymerization.\",\n \"Specifically, it is preferred to charge the entire amount of PFAE to the polymerization reactor prior to supplying TFE.\",\n \"Preferred is a method wherein in a polymerization reaction vessel, an aqueous medium, a fluorinated anionic surfactant, a stabilizing aid, PFAE and either one of the reducing agent or oxidizing agent of a water-soluble redox initiator, are charged, and then, the other of the reducing agent or oxidizing agent, and TFE, are supplied to initiate a polymerization reaction.\",\n \"TFE is preferably supplied continuously or intermittently to the polymerization reaction vessel.\",\n \"During continuation of the polymerization reaction, it is preferred to conduct an operation to control formation of radicals from the water-soluble redox initiator in the polymerization reaction system.\",\n \"For example, in the case of adding an oxidizing agent or reducing agent during the polymerization reaction, an operation to stop the addition is carried out.\",\n \"Or, by controlling the supply amount of the reducing agent or oxidizing agent to be subsequently added, so that all of the oxidizing agent or reducing agent preliminarily added prior to initiation of the polymerization reaction will be completely consumed, it is possible to suppress formation of radicals in the course of the polymerization reaction.\",\n \"Such an operation to suppress formation radicals is preferably carried out at a later stage of polymerization.\",\n \"The later stage of polymerization is a stage when the total amount of TFE added after initiation of the polymerization reaction becomes preferably at least 30 mass %, more preferably least 40 mass %, further preferably at least 50 mass %, most preferably at least 60 mass %, to the final production amount of the modified PTFE.\",\n \"It is considered that if formation of new radicals is suppressed during the polymerization, living polymerization by only radicals at polymer terminals of the modified PTFE will proceed thereafter, whereby it is possible to obtain a modified PTFE having a higher molecular weight.\",\n \"The polymerization temperature is preferably from 10 to 95° C., more preferably from 15 to 90° C. The polymerization pressure is preferably from 0.5 to 4.0 MPa, more preferably from 0.6 to 3.5 MPa.\",\n \"The polymerization time is preferably from 90 to 520 minutes, more preferably from 90 to 450 minutes.\",\n \"As described above, an aqueous emulsion containing polymer particles (modified PTFE particles) formed by subjecting TFE to a polymerization reaction in the presence of PFAE is obtainable.\",\n \"In a case where a stabilizing aid is used, it is separated and removed by a conventional method to obtain an aqueous emulsion of modified PTFE.\",\n \" Particles present in the aqueous emulsion of modified PTFE are substantially modified PTFE particles.\",\n \"Modified PTFE particles in the present invention are non-melt-moldable.\",\n \"PTFE is non-melt-moldable, and a modified PTFE wherein the amount of the comonomer used is in the above-mentioned range, is non-melt-moldable.\",\n \"The average primary particle diameter of modified PTFE particles in the aqueous emulsion of modified PTFE is from 0.10 to 0.30 μm, preferably from 0.10 to 0.25 μm, more preferably from 0.14 to 0.22 μm, most preferably from 0.15 to 0.21 μm.\",\n \"When the average primary particle diameter is at least the lower limit value in the above range, coagulation becomes possible, whereby it will be easy to obtain a fine powder of modified PTFE, and when it is at most the upper limit value, it will be easy to obtain a uniformly stretched porous body.\",\n \"By producing the modified PTFE by emulsion polymerization, it is possible to obtain modified PTFE particles having an average primary particle diameter within the above range.\",\n \"The solid content concentration in the aqueous emulsion of modified PTFE is preferably from 10 to 45 mass %, more preferably from 15 to 45 mass %, further preferably from 20 to 40 mass %.\",\n \"When the solid content concentration is at least the lower limit value in the above range, the productivity will be excellent, and it will be easy to coagulate primary particles of the modified PTFE from the aqueous emulsion.\",\n \"When it is at most the upper limit value in the above range, it will be easy to obtain good stability of the aqueous emulsion.\",\n \"The stability retention time of the aqueous emulsion of modified PTFE is preferably at least 200 seconds, more preferably at least 300 seconds, further preferably at least 400 seconds, particularly preferably at least 500 seconds.\",\n \"The upper limit is preferably at most 2,500 seconds, more preferably at most 2,000 seconds, most preferably at most 1,700 seconds.\",\n \"When the stability retention time is in the above range, such is within a range where the productivity of the fine powder of modified PTFE is acceptable.\",\n \"The aqueous emulsion of modified PTFE is preferably used in the production of a fine powder of modified PTFE via the later-described coagulating step.\",\n \"It is also preferred to produce an aqueous dispersion of modified PTFE by suitably blending a fluorinated nonionic surfactant, a non-fluorinated surfactant, a preservative, a viscosity modifier, etc.\",\n \"to the aqueous emulsion of modified PTFE itself or after concentrating it by a known concentrating method.\",\n \"The obtained aqueous dispersion of modified PTFE is applicable to various applications, such as electronic materials such as printed circuit boards, roofing membrane structures, surface coating agents for cookwares; spinning material for producing fluoropolymer fibers such as PTFE fibers; dust prevention agents; active substance binder for batteries; plastic additives, etc.\",\n \" The production method for a fine powder of modified PTFE of the present invention has a step of coagulating the aqueous emulsion of modified PTFE as obtained above to obtain a fine powder of modified PTFE in a wet state and drying the wet state fine powder of modified PTFE to obtain a powder having a standard specific gravity of from 2.130 to 2.145.As the coagulation method, a known method may be employed.\",\n \"For example, it is possible to employ a method wherein the aqueous emulsion of modified PTFE is diluted with water so that the solid content concentration in the emulsion will be from 8 to 25 mass %, and then adjusted to a temperature of from 5 to 30° C., followed by vigorous stirring by stirring blades to coagulate primary particles of modified PTFE.\",\n \"At the time of coagulating modified PTFE particles, as the case requires, the pH of the aqueous emulsion of modified PTFE may be adjusted, or a coagulation aid such as an electrolyte or a water-soluble organic solvent may be added to the aqueous emulsion of modified PTFE.\",\n \"The pH adjusting agent may, for example, be sodium carbonate, sodium bicarbonate, etc.\",\n \"Further, it is also preferred to conduct coagulation in the presence of at least one member selected from the group consisting of ammonia, ammonium salts and urea.\",\n \"The electrolyte may be an inorganic salt such as potassium nitrate, sodium nitrate, sodium carbonate, sodium bicarbonate, etc.\",\n \"The organic solvent may, for example, be an alcohol, acetone, etc.\",\n \"After primary particles of modified PTFE are coagulated, while being moderately stirred, the fine powder of modified PTFE having the primary particles coagulated, will be separated.\",\n \"Thereafter, it is preferred to adjust the particle diameter of the fine powder of modified PTFE via a process of agglomeration or particle size regulation.\",\n \"Here, the agglomeration is a process wherein modified PTFE particles will grow to a level of a few 100 μm, and the particle size regulation is a process for regulating the particle properties or particle size distribution by continuing the stirring.\",\n \"By such a process, a wet state fine powder of modified PTFE (hereinafter referred to also as a wet powder) is obtained.\",\n \"Next, the wet powder is dried.\",\n \"By the drying condition, it is possible to control the extrusion pressure in the extrusion test.\",\n \"For example, the extrusion pressure may be varied by the drying temperature, the size of the drying oven, the amount of the wet powder to be dried at once, etc.\",\n \"It is preferred to set the drying conditions so that the extrusion pressure will be within the preferred range as described later.\",\n \"The drying temperature of the wet powder is preferably from 110 to 250° C., more preferably from 120 to 230° C. If the drying temperature is lower than 110° C., not only it takes time for drying, but drying may sometimes become insufficient.\",\n \"If the drying temperature exceeds 250° C., there may be a case where the paste extrusion pressure becomes significantly higher.\",\n \"Drying of the wet powder is preferably carried out under an atmosphere containing ammonia.\",\n \"The atmosphere containing ammonia is meant for an atmosphere wherein ammonia gas is capable of being in contact with the fine powder of modified PTFE.\",\n \"For example, it is meant for an atmosphere wherein ammonia gas is present, or an atmosphere wherein the wet powder contains a compound to generate ammonia or ammonia gas, and ammonia gas will be generated e.g.\",\n \"by heating.\",\n \"The compound to generate ammonia may, for example, be an ammonium salt, urea, etc., and such a compound will generate ammonia gas when decomposed by heating.\",\n \"As the compound to generate ammonia, in particular, ammonium carbonate is preferred.\",\n \"When the wet powder is dried in an atmosphere containing ammonia, it will be easy to obtain a fine powder of modified PTFE which is excellent in breaking strength.\",\n \" The standard specific gravity (SSG) of the fine powder of modified PTFE is from 2.130 to 2.145.SSG is preferably from 2.135 to 2.142, more preferably from 2.135 to 2.138.SSG is useful as an index for a relative molecular weight, and the lower the value is, the higher the molecular weight is.\",\n \"Further, when the amount of a comonomer introduced is large, the non-crystalline structure will be further increased, the density tends to be low, and the value of SSG tends to be small.\",\n \"Of the fine powder of modified PTFE, the extrusion pressure in the extrusion test is preferably from 19 to 25 MPa, more preferably from 19 to 22 MPa, further preferably from 19 to 21 MPa.\",\n \"When it is at least the lower limit value in the above range, the breaking strength of the stretched porous body readily tends to be sufficiently high, and when it is at most the upper limit value, it will be easy to conduct the stretching operation.\",\n \"Further, the fluorinated anionic surfactant contained in an aqueous medium after separation of the fine powder of modified PTFE, is preferably recovered by using a method for adsorbing it by an ion exchange resin, a method for concentrating such as evaporating water, or adsorption on activated carbon.\",\n \"Further, the fluorinated anionic surfactant adsorbed on the wet powder, will be evaporated during drying, and therefore, it is preferred to recover the fluorinated anionic surfactant by introducing the air discharged during the drying into an alkaline aqueous solution.\",\n \" The production method for a stretched porous body of modified PTFE of the present invention has a step of subjecting the fine powder of modified PTFE as obtained above to paste extrusion to obtain an extruded bead, which is then formed into a sheet or tape via e.g.\",\n \"calendering, followed by stretching to obtain a stretched porous body of modified PTFE.\",\n \"As the paste extrusion molding method, a known method may be employed.\",\n \"For example, a method of mixing the fine powder of modified PTFE and a lubricant to impart fluidity, followed by paste extrusion molding into a desired shape, may be mentioned.\",\n \"The mixing ratio of the lubricant is usually preferably from 15 to 30 parts by mass, more preferably from 20 to 25 parts by mass, of the lubricant, per 100 parts by mass of the fine powder of modified PTFE.\",\n \"As the lubricant, naphtha or a petroleum-based hydrocarbon having a dry point of at least 100, is preferred.\",\n \"Further, it is also possible to add additives such as pigments for coloring, various fillers for imparting strength and conductivity, etc.\",\n \"The shape of the paste extrusion molded product of the fine powder of modified PTFE may be various including tubular, sheet, film, fibrous, etc.\",\n \"As its applications, tubes, wire coatings, sealing materials, porous membranes, filters, etc.\",\n \"may be mentioned.\",\n \"By stretching the paste extrusion molded product of the fine powder of modified PTFE, it is possible to produce a stretched porous body of modified PTFE.\",\n \"As the stretching conditions, a suitable speed, e.g.\",\n \"a speed of from 5%/sec to 1,000%/sec, and a suitable stretching ratio, e.g.\",\n \"a stretching ratio of at least 500%, are employed.\",\n \"The porosity of the stretched porous body is not particularly limited, but usually the porosity is preferably in a range of from 50 to 99%, particularly preferably from 70 to 98%.\",\n \"According to the present invention, it is possible to obtain a stretched porous body of modified PTFE excellent in breaking strength.\",\n \"The breaking strength of the stretched porous body of modified PTFE is preferably at least 36N, more preferably at least 36.5N, particularly preferably at least 37N.\",\n \"The upper limit is preferably at most 60N, more preferably at most 55N, particularly preferably at most 51N.\",\n \"As the breaking strength is higher, it is possible to take various means at the time of stretching processing.\",\n \"The reason as to why it is possible to obtain a stretched porous body of modified PTFE excellent in breaking strength in the present invention, is not clear, but is considered to be as follows.\",\n \"At the time of subjecting TFE and its comonomer to emulsion polymerization in the presence of a low bioaccumulative fluorinated anionic surfactant, by using a specific amount of PFAE having a high reactivity with TFE, as its comonomer, and letting such PFAE be present in the polymerization reaction system at initiation of the emulsion polymerization, the size of modified PTFE polymer particles to be produced by emulsion polymerization is likely to be uniform.\",\n \"Besides, by using a specific water-soluble redox initiator as the polymerization initiator, it is possible to control the radical generation from the polymerization initiator in the course of the polymerization reaction.\",\n \"As a result, after controlling the radical generation, living polymerization solely by radicals at modified PTFE polymer terminals will proceed, whereby the resulting modified PTFE tends to have a higher molecular weight.\",\n \"Accordingly, it is considered possible to form modified PTFE having a high molecular weight and a narrow molecular weight distribution.\",\n \"Particularly in the present invention, by using a specific water-soluble redox initiator, it is easy to control the radical generation from the initiator, whereby it is considered possible to obtain the above effects more satisfactorily.\",\n \"Further, it is considered that by introducing PFAE at initiation of the polymerization, the crystal structure of the resulting modified PTFE will not be too high, and the shape of modified PTFE particles is likely to take a stable spherical structure.\",\n \"Therefore, generation of atypical particles such as rod-shaped particles or coarse particles is considered to be suppressed.\",\n \"That is, modified PTFE particles having a high molecular weight and being excellent in uniformity of the size and shape will be formed, whereby it is considered possible to obtain a stretched porous body having a high breaking strength.\",\n \"EXAMPLES Hereinafter, the present invention will be described more specifically with reference to Examples and Comparative Examples, but the present invention should not be construed as being limited by these Examples.\",\n \" [Average Primary Particle Diameter] With respect to an aqueous emulsion obtained by emulsion polymerization, the average primary particle diameter of modified PTFE particles was measured by means of a laser scattering particle size distribution analyzer (manufactured by HORIBA, Ltd., trade name “LA-920”) by a method for measuring the average particle diameter.\",\n \"[Stability Test for Aqueous Emulsion (Measurement of Stability Retention Time)] On the inner wall of a cylindrical container made of SUS304 and having an internal diameter of 12 cm, two plates of baffle (baffle plates) having a thickness of 2.9 mm, a width of 2.5 cm and a length of 15 cm were welded so as to be symmetrical with respect to the central axis of the cylindrical container.\",\n \"The distance from the bottom surface of the cylindrical container to the baffle bottom was set to be 2.5 cm.\",\n \"Further, in the cylindrical container, a stirrer having two paddle blades attached to a shaft having an inner diameter of 8.0 mm, was provided.\",\n \"The sizes of the paddle blades were such that the thickness was 1.2 mm, the width was 1.3 cm, and the length was 9.7 cm, and the inclination angle of the paddle blades was 30° to the plane perpendicular to the axial direction of the shaft, and the distance from the bottom surface of the cylindrical container to the lower end of the paddle blades was set to be 5 mm.\",\n \"An aqueous emulsion having its solid content concentration adjusted to 20 mass % was charged in an amount of 800 g in the cylindrical container, and the temperature was adjusted to be at 23±1° C. Then, the stirring blades were rotated under a condition of 500 rpm for stirring, whereby the time from the initiation of stirring until the aqueous emulsion was destroyed and modified PTFE particles in the aqueous emulsion were coagulated, was measured and adopted as the stability retention time (unit: seconds).\",\n \"The coagulation time point was judged by a change in the stirring sound and by visual confirmation of formation of the wet powder.\",\n \"[Solid Content Concentration (Mass %)] On an aluminum dish having its mass preliminarily measured, from 7 to 8 g of an aqueous emulsion of modified PTFE was weighed, and water was evaporated by heating at 120° C. for 2 hours.\",\n \"Then, the mass of the aluminum dish including the solid content remaining on the aluminum dish, was measured.\",\n \"By dividing the mass of the solid content by the mass of the aqueous emulsion used, the solid content concentration was calculated.\",\n \"[Standard Specific Gravity (SSG) of Fine Powder of Modified PTFE] SSG was measured in accordance with ASTM D4895-10.12.0 g of a sample was weighed and held under 34.5 MPa for 2 minutes in a cylindrical mold having an inner diameter of 28.6 mm, to obtain a molded sample.\",\n \"This was put in an oven of 290° C., heated at 120° C./hr and held at 380° C. for 30 minutes, then cooled at 60° C./hr and held at 294° C. for 24 minutes.\",\n \"After keeping it for 12 hours in a desiccator of 23° C., the specific gravity value of the molded product to water at 23° C. was measured and adopted as SSG.\",\n \"[Extrusion Pressure] 100 g of a fine powder of modified PTFE left to stand at room temperature for at least 2 hours, was put into a glass bottle having an internal capacity of 500 mL, and 21.7 g of a lubricating oil (Isopar H (registered trademark), manufactured by Exxon) was added, followed by mixing for 3 minutes to obtain a mixture.\",\n \"The obtained mixture was left to stand for 2 hours in a 25° C. thermostatic oven, and then, subjected to paste extrusion through an orifice having a diameter of 2.5 cm, a land length of 1.1 cm and an introduction angle of 30°, at 25° C., under conditions of a reduction ratio (ratio of the cross-sectional area of the inlet to the cross-sectional area of the outlet of the die) of 100, and an extrusion speed of 51 cm/min., to obtain an extruded bead (the string-like material).\",\n \"The pressure required for extrusion at that time was measured and adopted as the extrusion pressure (unit: MPa).\",\n \"[Breaking Strength] An extruded bead was obtained in the same manner as in the method for measuring the extrusion pressure, and this was dried at 230° C. for 30 minutes, to remove the lubricant.\",\n \"Then, the extruded bead was cut into a suitable length, and both ends were fixed so that the clamp interval would be 5.1 cm, followed by heating to 300° C. in a circulating air oven.\",\n \"Subsequently, it was stretched under conditions of a stretching rate of 100%/sec.\",\n \"and a stretching ratio of 2,400%, to obtain a stretched porous body of modified PTFE (hereinafter referred to as a stretched bead).\",\n \"With respect to a total of three samples i.e.\",\n \"a sample obtainable from each end of the stretched bead (if there is any neck-down in the region of the clamp, excluding such a neck-portion) and a sample obtainable from the center of the stretched bead, the tensile breaking load forces were, respectively, measured by means of a tensile tester (manufactured by A & D Inc.), whereupon the minimum value was adopted as the breaking strength.\",\n \"In the measurement by the tensile tester, a sample was fixed as sandwiched by movable jaws with a gauge length of 5.0 cm, and at room temperature (24° C.), the movable jaws were driven at a speed of 300 mm/min., to impart a tensile stress.\",\n \"Examples and Comparative Examples Ex.\",\n \"1, 4 to 10 and 12 are Examples of the present invention, and Ex.\",\n \"2, 3 and 11 are Comparative Examples.\",\n \"Further, the polymerization initiators used in the following Ex.\",\n \"are the following (A), (B) or (C).\",\n \"(A) a combination of a bromate and a sulfite.\",\n \"(B) a combination of a permanganate and oxalic acid.\",\n \"(C) a combination of disuccinic acid peroxide and a sulfite.\",\n \"Ex.\",\n \"1 PFBE as PFAE, and the polymerization initiator (A) were used.\",\n \"By estimating the total amount of 21 kg of TFE to be added after initiating the polymerization reaction until completion of the polymerization reaction while maintaining a predetermined polymerization pressure, to be the final production amount of the modified PTFE, the amount of PFBE to be added, was set to be 6.3 g being 300 ppm thereto.\",\n \"Further, the amount of the fluorinated anionic surfactant to be added, was set to be 312 g being about 1.49 mass % to the final production amount of the modified PTFE.\",\n \"Into a 100 L stainless steel autoclave equipped with baffle plates and a stirrer, 72 g of C2F5OC2F4OCF2COONH4 (ammonium perfluoro-3,6-dioxaoctanoate, LogPOW=3.1, hereinafter referred to as APFDO) as a fluorinated anionic surfactant, 928 g of paraffin wax as a stabilizing aid, 11.6 g of succinic acid, 0.4 g (0.04 mmol/L) of potassium bromate, 8 mL of 1N nitric acid, and 55 L of deionized water were charged.\",\n \"The autoclave was purged with nitrogen, then brought under a reduced pressure, charged with 6.3 g of PFBE, then pressurized to about 0.1 MPa with TFE, and heated to 65° C. with stirring.\",\n \"Then, it was pressurized to 1.52 MPa with TFE, and an ammonium sulfite aqueous solution at a concentration of 0.07 mass % was continuously added at 5 mL/min, to initiate a polymerization reaction.\",\n \"The polymerization was allowed to proceed while adding TFE in order to keep the internal pressure of the autoclave to be 1.52 MPa.\",\n \"At the time when the amount of TFE added after initiation of the polymerization reached 6.3 kg, the addition of the ammonium sulfite aqueous solution was stopped, and 240 g of APFDO was additionally added.\",\n \"The total amount of the ammonium sulfite added, was 0.21 g (0.03 mmol/L).\",\n \"Further, the temperature was raised to 90° C. At the time when the amount of TFE added after initiation of the polymerization reached 21 kg, the polymerization reaction was terminated, and TFE in the autoclave was discharged to the atmosphere.\",\n \"The polymerization time was 182 minutes.\",\n \"The obtained aqueous emulsion of modified PTFE was cooled, and the supernatant paraffin wax was removed.\",\n \"The solid content concentration in the obtained aqueous emulsion of modified PTFE was 26.5 mass %.\",\n \"The yield of modified PTFE was 20.6 kg.\",\n \"Further, coagulum in the autoclave was at a level of a trace.\",\n \"The average primary particle diameter of modified PTFE particles in the obtained aqueous emulsion of modified PTFE, and the stability retention time of the aqueous emulsion of modified PTFE, were measured.\",\n \"The results are shown in Table 1.This aqueous emulsion of modified PTFE was diluted to a concentration of 10 mass % with deionized water, and then adjusted to be 14° C., and ammonium carbonate was added, followed by stirring for coagulation to obtain a wet powder.\",\n \"Then, the wet powder was dried at 180° C. to obtain a fine powder of modified PTFE.\",\n \"In accordance with the above-mentioned methods, SSG, the extrusion pressure and the breaking strength were measured.\",\n \"The results are shown in Table 1.Ex.\",\n \"2 An aqueous dispersion of PTFE was produced in the same manner as in Ex.\",\n \"1 except that without addition of PFAE, the concentration of the ammonium sulfite aqueous solution was changed to 0.05 mass %, and the total amount of the ammonium sulfite added, was 0.14 g (0.02 mmol/L).\",\n \"The internal pressure of the autoclave during the polymerization reaction was maintained to be 1.37 MPa.\",\n \"The polymerization time was 194 minutes.\",\n \"The properties of the fine powder of modified PTFE and the stretched porous body of modified PTFE were measured in the same manner as in Ex.\",\n \"1.The results are shown in Table 1.Ex.\",\n \"3 The polymerization initiator (B) was used.\",\n \"In the same autoclave as in Ex.\",\n \"1, 50 g of APFDO, 928 g of paraffin wax, 20.0 g of succinic acid, 0.3 g (0.06 mmol/L) of oxalic acid and 59 L of deionized water were charged.\",\n \"The autoclave was purged with nitrogen and brought to reduced pressure, and 2.1 g of PFBE was charged.\",\n \"It was pressurized to about 0.1 MPa with TFE and heated to 65° C. with stirring.\",\n \"Then, it was pressurized to 1.62 MPa with TFE, and an aqueous potassium permanganate solution at a concentration of 0.04 mass % was continuously added at about 3 mL/min, to initiate a polymerization reaction.\",\n \"The polymerization was allowed to proceed while adding TFE in order to keep the internal pressure of the autoclave to be 1.62 MPa.\",\n \"At the time when the amount of TFE added after initiation of the polymerization reached 7.2 kg, the addition of the aqueous potassium permanganate solution was stopped, and 200 g of APFDO was additionally added.\",\n \"The total amount of potassium permanganate added was 0.06 g (0.006 mmol/L).\",\n \"Further, the temperature was raised to 90° C. At the time when the amount of TFE added after initiation of the polymerization initiation reached 20.5 kg, the polymerization reaction was terminated, and TFE in the autoclave was discharged to the atmosphere.\",\n \"The polymerization time was 186 minutes.\",\n \"Thereafter, in the same manner as in Ex.\",\n \"1, an aqueous emulsion of modified PTFE, a fine powder of modified PTFE and a stretched porous body of modified PTFE were produced, and the same measurements were conducted.\",\n \"The results are shown in Table 1.The solid content concentration of the obtained aqueous emulsion of modified PTFE was 25.2 mass %.\",\n \"The yield of modified PTFE was 20.5 kg.\",\n \"Further, coagulum in the autoclave was at a level of a trace.\",\n \"Ex.\",\n \"4 In the same manner as in Ex.\",\n \"3 except that 2.7 g of PFBE was used, a fine powder of modified PTFE and a stretched porous body of modified PTFE were prepared, and the same measurements were conducted.\",\n \"The results are shown in Table 1.The solid content concentration in the obtained aqueous emulsion of modified PTFE was 25.5 mass %.\",\n \"The yield of modified PTFE was 20.8 kg.\",\n \"Further, coagulum in the autoclave was at a level of a trace.\",\n \"Ex.\",\n \"5 In the same manner as in Ex.\",\n \"3 except that 3.2 g of PFBE was used, a fine powder of modified PTFE and a stretched porous body of modified PTFE were prepared, and the same measurements were conducted.\",\n \"The results are shown in Table 1.The solid content concentration in the obtained aqueous emulsion of modified PTFE was 24.9 mass %.\",\n \"The yield of modified PTFE was 20.2 kg.\",\n \"Further, coagulum in the autoclave was at a level of a trace.\",\n \"Ex.\",\n \"6 Polymerization was conducted in the same manner as in Ex.\",\n \"1 except that 12.6 g of PFBE was used, the concentration of the ammonium sulfite aqueous solution was changed to 0.09 mass %, and the total amount of the ammonium sulfite added was 0.26 g (0.04 mmol/L).\",\n \"The internal pressure of the autoclave during the polymerization reaction was maintained to be 1.81 MPa.\",\n \"The polymerization time was 164 minutes.\",\n \"The properties of the fine powder of modified PTFE and the stretched porous body of modified PTFE were measured in the same manner as Ex.\",\n \"1.The results are shown in Table 1.Ex.\",\n \"7 Polymerization was conducted in the same manner as in Ex.\",\n \"1 except that 21 g of PFBE was used, the amount of potassium bromate added was changed to 0.6 g (0.07 mmol/L), the concentration of the ammonium sulfite aqueous solution was changed to 0.14 mass %, and the total amount of the ammonium sulfite added was 0.44 g (0.06 mmol/L).\",\n \"The internal pressure of the autoclave during the polymerization reaction was maintained to be 1.81 MPa.\",\n \"The polymerization time was 163 minutes.\",\n \"The properties of the fine powder of modified PTFE and the stretched porous body of modified PTFE were measured in the same manner as Ex.\",\n \"1.The results are shown in Table 1.Ex.\",\n \"8 and 9 Ex.\",\n \"8 and 9 are Examples wherein in Ex.\",\n \"1, PFAE was changed to PFHE.\",\n \"Further, in the same manner as in Ex.\",\n \"1 except that the production conditions were changed as described below, an aqueous emulsion of modified PTFE, a fine powder of modified PTFE and a stretched porous body of modified PTFE were produced, and the same measurements were conducted.\",\n \"The results are shown in Table 1.In Ex.\",\n \"8, 18.9 g of PFHE was charged, the amount of potassium bromate added was 0.6 g (0.07 mmol/L), the concentration of the ammonium sulfite aqueous solution was 0.14 mass %, and the total amount of the ammonium sulfite added was 0.34 g (0.05 mmol/L).\",\n \"The internal pressure of the autoclave during the polymerization reaction was maintained to be 1.81 MPa.\",\n \"The polymerization time was 353 minutes.\",\n \"In Ex.\",\n \"9, 42.0 g of PFHE was charged, the amount of potassium bromate added was 1.2 g (0.13 mmol/L), the concentration of the ammonium sulfite aqueous solution was 0.28 mass %, and the total amount of the ammonium sulfite added was 0.54 g (0.07 mmol/L).\",\n \"The internal pressure of the autoclave during the polymerization reaction was maintained to be 1.81 MPa, and at the time when the amount of TFE added reached 17.2 kg, the reaction was terminated.\",\n \"The polymerization time was 290 minutes.\",\n \"In Ex.\",\n \"9, the amount (42.0 g) of PFHE added relative to the final production amount (17.2 kg) of the modified PTFE, was about 2,442 ppm.\",\n \"Ex.\",\n \"10 The polymerization initiator (B) was used.\",\n \"The final production amount of modified PTFE was set to be 23 kg, the amount of PFBE to be added was set to be 9.2 g, i.e.\",\n \"400 ppm to the modified PTFE, and the total amount of a fluorinated anionic surfactant was set to be 250 g, i.e.\",\n \"about 1.09 mass % to the modified PTFE.\",\n \"In the same autoclave as in Ex.\",\n \"3, 50 g of APFDO, 928 g of paraffin wax, 11.55 g of succinic acid, 0.3 g (0.06 mmol/L) of oxalic acid and 59 L of deionized water were charged.\",\n \"The autoclave was flushed with nitrogen and then brought to reduced pressure, and 9.2 g of PFBE was charged.\",\n \"It was pressurized to about 0.1 MPa with TFE and heated to 65° C. with stirring.\",\n \"Then, it was pressurized to 1.62 MPa with TFE, and an aqueous potassium permanganate solution at a concentration 0.04 mass % was continuously added at about 3 mL/min, to initiate a polymerization reaction.\",\n \"The polymerization was allowed to proceed while adding TFE in order to keep the internal pressure of the autoclave to be 1.62 MPa.\",\n \"At the time when the amount of TFE added after initiation of the polymerization reached 9.2 kg, the addition of the aqueous potassium permanganate solution was stopped, and 200 g of APFDO was additionally added.\",\n \"The total amount of potassium permanganate added was 0.1 g (0.01 mmol/L).\",\n \"Further, the temperature was raised to 90° C. At the time when the amount of TFE added after initiation of the polymerization reached 23 kg, the polymerization reaction was terminated, and TFE in the autoclave was discharged to the atmosphere.\",\n \"The polymerization time was 210 minutes.\",\n \"Subsequently, in the same manner as in Ex.\",\n \"1, an aqueous emulsion of modified PTFE, a fine powder of modified PTFE and a stretched porous body of modified PTFE were produced, and the same measurements were conducted.\",\n \"The results are shown in Table 1.The solid content concentration in the obtained aqueous emulsion of modified PTFE was about 27.0 mass %.\",\n \"The yield of modified PTFE was 22.5 kg.\",\n \"Further, coagulum in the autoclave was at a level of a trace.\",\n \"Ex.\",\n \"11 The polymerization initiator (C) was used.\",\n \"The final production amount of modified PTFE was set to be 27 kg, the amount of PFBE to be added was set to be 3.5 g, i.e.\",\n \"130 ppm to the modified PTFE, and the total amount of fluorinated anionic surfactant was set to be 185 g, i.e.\",\n \"about 0.69 mass % to the modified PTFE.\",\n \"In the same autoclave as in Ex.\",\n \"1, 72 g of APFDO, 928 g of paraffin wax and 59 L of deionized water were charged.\",\n \"The autoclave was flushed with nitrogen, then brought to reduced pressure, charged with 5.4 g of PFBE, then pressurized to about 0.1 MPa with TFE and heated to 70° C. with stirring.\",\n \"Then, it was pressurized to 1.67 MPa with TFE, and 5.0 g of disuccinic acid peroxide (concentration: 80 mass %, rest being water) was dissolved in 1 liter of warm water at about 70° C. and injected, to initiate a polymerization reaction.\",\n \"The polymerization was allowed to proceed while adding TFE in order to keep the internal pressure of the autoclave to be 1.67 MPa.\",\n \"During the polymerization, a solution having APFDO dissolved in warm water was added so that the total of APFDO would be 113 g. Further, by the time when the amount of TFE added after initiation of the polymerization reached 18.5 kg, a solution having ammonium sulfite dissolved in water was added so that the total of ammonium sulfite would be 3.85 g. The temperature was lowered to 65° C. at a middle stage and raised to 90° C. at a later stage of polymerization.\",\n \"At the time when the amount of TFE added after initiation of the polymerization reached 27 kg, the polymerization reaction was terminated, and TFE in the autoclave was discharged to the atmosphere.\",\n \"The polymerization time was 213 minutes.\",\n \"The obtained aqueous emulsion of modified PTFE was cooled, and the supernatant paraffin wax was removed.\",\n \"The solid content concentration in the obtained aqueous emulsion of modified PTFE was 28.6 mass %.\",\n \"The yield of modified PTFE was 26.3 kg.\",\n \"Further, coagulum in the autoclave was at a level of a trace.\",\n \"The average primary particle diameter of modified PTFE particles in the obtained aqueous emulsion of modified PTFE, and the stability retention time of the aqueous emulsion of modified PTFE were measured.\",\n \"The results are shown in Table 1.This aqueous emulsion of modified PTFE was diluted to a concentration of 10 mass % with pure water, then adjusted to 20° C. and stirred for coagulation to obtain a wet powder.\",\n \"Then, the wet powder was dried at 200° C. to obtain a fine powder of modified PTFE.\",\n \"Ex.\",\n \"12 Using the aqueous emulsion of modified PTFE obtained in Ex.\",\n \"4, without adding ammonium carbonate, stirring for coagulation was conducted in the same manner as in Ex.\",\n \"1 to obtain a wet powder.\",\n \"An ammonium carbonate aqueous solution (20 mass % concentration) in an amount of 10 mass % to the fine powder of modified PTFE (dried amount) was preliminarily charged in a drying tray, and then a predetermined amount of the wet powder was put therein and dried at 190° C. to produce a fine powder of PTFE.\",\n \"In the manner as described above, SSG, the extrusion pressure and the breaking strength were measured, and the results are shown in Table 1.TABLE 1 Ex.\",\n \"1 Ex.\",\n \"2 Ex.\",\n \"3 Ex.\",\n \"4 Ex.\",\n \"5 Ex.\",\n \"6 Ex.\",\n \"7 Ex.\",\n \"8 Ex.\",\n \"9 Ex.\",\n \"10 Ex.\",\n \"11 Ex.\",\n \"12 Polymerization initiator (A) (A) (B) (B) (B) (A) (A) (A) (A) (B) (C) (B) Amount [ppm] of PFBE 300 — 100 130 150 600 1000 — — 400 130 130 perfluoroalkyl ethylene PFHE — — — — — — — 900 2442 — — — added Average primary particle 0.19 0.28 0.21 0.20 0.20 0.17 0.15 0.18 0.17 0.17 0.22 0.20 diameter [μm] Stability retention time [seconds] 715 149 304 343 355 1118 1679 636 968 550 291 343 of aqueous emulsion Standard specific gravity (SSG) 2.138 2.148 2.139 2.138 2.138 2.138 2.138 2.138 2.138 2.136 2.139 2.138 Extrusion pressure [MPa] in 20.7 20.2 19.4 19.6 20.6 20.6 20.7 21.0 21.0 19.5 19.9 20.4 extrusion test Breaking strength [N] 44.3 35.1 35.5 36.6 37.4 46.2 47.0 50.8 46.6 41.6 30.6 41.0 As shown in Table 1, in Ex.\",\n \"1 and 4 to 10 which are Examples of the present invention, it was possible to obtain a stretched porous body of modified PTFE excellent in breaking strength.\",\n \"In Ex.\",\n \"12, by the same aqueous emulsion of modified PTFE as in Ex.\",\n \"4, the breaking strength was further improved by drying under ammonia atmosphere.\",\n \"Whereas, Ex.\",\n \"2 wherein no PFAE was used, Ex.\",\n \"3 wherein the amount of PFAE used was small and Ex.\",\n \"11 wherein the polymerization initiator (C) was used, are Comparative Examples, wherein the breaking strength of the obtained stretched porous body of PTFE was poor.\",\n \"Further, in each of Ex.\",\n \"1 to 12, the stretched bead produced in the measurement of the breaking strength, was uniform without formation of rupture or voids.\",\n \"INDUSTRIAL APPLICABILITY From the aqueous emulsion or fine powder of modified polytetrafluoroethylene, obtainable in the present invention, it is possible to obtain a stretched porous body which is excellent particularly in breaking strength, and the stretched porous body is useful as a material for products in a wide range of fields including clothes, tents, precision filters, separation membranes, etc.\",\n \"This application is a continuation of PCT Application No.\",\n \"PCT/JP2016/073776, filed on Aug. 12, 2016, which is based upon and claims the benefit of priority from Japanese Patent Application No.\",\n \"2015-162239 filed on Aug. 19, 2015.The contents of those applications are incorporated herein by reference in their entireties.\"\n ]\n]"},"source":{"kind":"string","value":"Patent_15875427"}}},{"rowIdx":4494875,"cells":{"text":{"kind":"list like","value":[["METHOD AND APPARATUS FOR TRAINING A USER OF A SOFTWARE APPLICATION","A method that incorporates teachings of the subject disclosure may include, for example, detecting a game stimulus signal generated by a first gaming accessory device, determining a first game action result based on the game stimulus signal, analyzing the first game action result to provide a first coaching message to achieve a desired result, and presenting the coaching message.","Additional embodiments are disclosed."],["1.A method, comprising: executing, by a computing device comprising a processing system including a processor, a video game generated by a video game software application; presenting, by the computing device, an image representing a game situation of the video game generated by the video game software application; determining, by the computing device, a gaming venue state of the game situation of the video game by performing image processing on the image representing the game situation of the video game.","detecting, by the computing device, a first game stimulus signal from a first gaming accessory device controlled by a first game user and a second game stimulus signal from a second gaming accessory device controlled by a second game user; substituting, by the computing device, a first substitute game stimulation signal for the first game stimulus signal according to the gaming venue state of the game situation of the video game; generating, by the computing device, a first game action result according to the first substitute stimulation signal; generating, by the computing device, a second game action result according to the second game stimulus signal; comparing, by the computing device, the first game action result and the second game action result to determine a strategy difference between the first game user and the second game user; generating, by the computing device, a first coaching message based on the strategy difference that is determined; and presenting, by the computing device, the first coaching message.","2.The method of claim 1, wherein the image comprises a target, and wherein the game situation has associated therewith a first desired result corresponding to hitting the target.","3.The method of claim 2, wherein the comparing further comprises: determining, by the computing device, whether the first game action result failed to achieve the first desired result; and analyzing, by the computing device, the first game action result responsive to determining that the first game action result failed to achieve the first desired result.","4.The method of claim 2, wherein the comparing further comprises: determining, by the computing device, whether the second game action result failed to achieve the first desired result; and analyzing, by the computing device, the second game action result responsive to determining that the second game action result failed to achieve the first desired result.","5.The method of claim 1, further comprising retrieving first data relating to the first game action result and second data relating to a second game action result.","6.The method of claim 1, wherein the second game user comprises a simulated processing unit, wherein the game situation comprises an encounter between the first game user and the simulated processing unit, and wherein the second game action result is further generated based on an action by the simulated processing unit.","7.The method of claim 1, wherein the first coaching message is presented to the first game user if the first game action result failed to achieve a first desired result.","8.The method of claim 1, wherein the first coaching message is presented to the first game user and further comprising presenting, by the computing device, a second coaching message to the second game user.","9.The method of claim 8, wherein the first coaching message is presented during the video game on a first display device and the second coaching message is presented during the video game on a second display device.","10.The method of claim 1, wherein the computing device comprises a server communicatively coupled to the processing system, wherein the server is remotely located from the processing system, wherein the processing system is communicatively coupled to the first gaming accessory device and provides the first gaming stimulus signal to the server, and wherein a first portion of the video game software application is executed by the server, and a second portion of the video game software application is executed by the processing system.","11.The method of claim 1, further comprising retrieving, by the computing device, first data relating to the first game action result, wherein the first data comprises a time of occurrence of the first game stimulus signal, a frequency of use of the first game stimulus signal, a location in the gaming venue state affected by the substitute game stimulation signal, a trajectory of an object initiated by the first substitute game stimulation signal, or any combination thereof.","12.The method of claim 1, further comprising: recording at least a first portion of a first session of the video game where the first substitute game stimulation did not cause a first desired result; and generating a second portion of a second session of the video game according to a third game stimulus signal which, if generated by the first gaming accessory device, would cause the first desired result, wherein the presenting of the first coaching message further comprises presenting, by the computing device, one of the first portion of the first session of the video game, the second portion of the second session of the video game, or both.","13.The method of claim 12, further comprising presenting, by the computing device, selectable functions to enable pausing, forwarding, rewinding, skipping, or scene selection of one of the first portion of the first session of the video game, the second portion of the second session of the video game or both, or any combination thereof.","14.A machine-readable storage device comprising instructions, which when executed by a processing system including a processor, cause the processing system to perform operations comprising: executing a video game generated by a video game software application; detecting a first game stimulus signal from a first gaming accessory device controlled by a first game user and a second game stimulus signal from a second gaming accessory device controlled by a second game user; substituting a first substitute game stimulation signal for the first game stimulus signal according to a gaming venue state of a game situation of a video game; generating a first game action result according to the first substitute stimulation signal; generating a second game action result according to the second game stimulus signal; comparing the first game action result and the second game action result to determine a strategy difference between the first game user and the second game user; generating a first coaching message based on the strategy difference that is determined; and presenting the first coaching message.","15.The machine-readable storage device of claim 14, further comprising presenting an image representing the game situation of the video game generated by the video game software application.","16.The machine-readable storage device of claim 15, further comprising determining the gaming venue state of the game situation of the video game by performing image processing on the image representing the game situation of the video game.","17.The machine-readable storage device of claim 15, wherein the image comprises a target, wherein the game situation has associated therewith a first desired result corresponding to hitting the target, and wherein the comparing further comprises: determining whether the first game action result failed to achieve the first desired result; and analyzing the first game action result responsive to determining that the first game action result failed to achieve the first desired result.","18.The machine-readable storage device of claim 14, wherein the first coaching message is presented to the first game user if the first game action result failed to achieve a first desired result.","19.A computing device, comprising: a memory to store computer instructions; and a processing system including a processor coupled to the memory, wherein when executing the computer instructions, the processing system performs operations, comprising: executing a video game generated by a video game software application; detecting a first game stimulus signal from a first gaming accessory device controlled by a first game user and a second game stimulus signal from a second gaming accessory device controlled by a second game user; substituting a first substitute game stimulation signal for the first game stimulus signal according to a gaming venue state of a game situation of a video game; generating a first game action result according to the first substitute stimulation signal; generating a second game action result according to the second game stimulus signal; determining a strategy difference between the first game user and the second game user according to the first game action result and the second game action result; and presenting a first coaching message based on the strategy difference that is determined.","20.The computing device of claim 19, wherein the first coaching message is presented to the first game user if the first game action result failed to achieve a first desired result."],[" BACKGROUND It is common today for gamers to utilize more than one gaming accessory.","This is especially true of gamers who play on-line games or competitive games in a team or individual configuration.","Gamers can have at their disposal accessories such as a keyboard, a general purpose gaming pad, a mouse, a gaming console controller, a headset with a built-in microphone to communicate with other players, a joystick, a computer console, or other common gaming accessories.","A gamer can frequently use a combination of these accessories during a game.","Efficient management and utilization of these accessories can frequently impact a gamer's ability to compete."],[" BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS Reference will now be made to the accompanying drawings, which are not necessarily drawn to scale, and wherein: FIG.","1 depicts an illustrative embodiment of a Graphical User Interface (GUI) generated by an Accessory Management Software (AMS) application according to the subject disclosure; FIGS.","2A and 2B depict illustrative embodiments for communicatively coupling a gaming controller to a computing device via a network; FIG.","3 schematically illustrates gaming accessories that can be used by a gamer interacting with a gaming engine; FIG.","4 depicts an illustrative embodiment of a communication device; FIGS.","5, 6 and 7A-7E are flowcharts depicting methods describing illustrative embodiments of the subject disclosure; FIGS.","7F-7H schematically illustrate gaming environments for training a game player; FIG.","8 depicts an illustrative embodiment of a system operating at least in part according to the methods of FIGS.","5, 6, and 7A-7E ; FIG.","9 depicts an illustrative embodiment of a communication flow diagram utilized by the system of FIG.","12 ; FIG.","10 depicts an illustrative embodiment for highlighting functions of an accessory; FIGS.","11-14 depict illustrative embodiments for presenting performances of gamers; and FIG.","15 depicts an illustrative diagrammatic representation of a machine in the form of a computer system within which a set of instructions, when executed, may cause the machine to perform any one or more of the methodologies disclosed herein.","detailed-description description=\"Detailed Description\" end=\"lead\"?"],["CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION(S) This application is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser.","No.","13/788,835, filed Mar.","7, 2013.The contents of each of the foregoing are hereby incorporated by reference into this application as if set forth herein in full.","FIELD OF THE DISCLOSURE The subject disclosure relates generally to a method and apparatus for training game players.","BACKGROUND It is common today for gamers to utilize more than one gaming accessory.","This is especially true of gamers who play on-line games or competitive games in a team or individual configuration.","Gamers can have at their disposal accessories such as a keyboard, a general purpose gaming pad, a mouse, a gaming console controller, a headset with a built-in microphone to communicate with other players, a joystick, a computer console, or other common gaming accessories.","A gamer can frequently use a combination of these accessories during a game.","Efficient management and utilization of these accessories can frequently impact a gamer's ability to compete.","BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS Reference will now be made to the accompanying drawings, which are not necessarily drawn to scale, and wherein: FIG.","1 depicts an illustrative embodiment of a Graphical User Interface (GUI) generated by an Accessory Management Software (AMS) application according to the subject disclosure; FIGS.","2A and 2B depict illustrative embodiments for communicatively coupling a gaming controller to a computing device via a network; FIG.","3 schematically illustrates gaming accessories that can be used by a gamer interacting with a gaming engine; FIG.","4 depicts an illustrative embodiment of a communication device; FIGS.","5, 6 and 7A-7E are flowcharts depicting methods describing illustrative embodiments of the subject disclosure; FIGS.","7F-7H schematically illustrate gaming environments for training a game player; FIG.","8 depicts an illustrative embodiment of a system operating at least in part according to the methods of FIGS.","5, 6, and 7A-7E; FIG.","9 depicts an illustrative embodiment of a communication flow diagram utilized by the system of FIG.","12; FIG.","10 depicts an illustrative embodiment for highlighting functions of an accessory; FIGS.","11-14 depict illustrative embodiments for presenting performances of gamers; and FIG.","15 depicts an illustrative diagrammatic representation of a machine in the form of a computer system within which a set of instructions, when executed, may cause the machine to perform any one or more of the methodologies disclosed herein.","DETAILED DESCRIPTION The subject disclosure describes, among other things, illustrative embodiments for training game players.","Other embodiments are contemplated by the subject disclosure.","One embodiment of the subject disclosure can entail a method for presenting, by a computing device executing a video game software application, one or more images representing one or more gaming venue states of a video game generated by the video game software application, detecting, by the computing device, a first game stimulus signal from a first gaming accessory device, generating, by the computing device, a first game action result based on a determination whether the first game stimulus signal causes a first desired result, retrieving, by the computing device, first data relating to the first game action result, analyzing, by the computing device, the first data to provide a first coaching message in accordance with the first desired result, and presenting, by the computing device, the first coaching message.","One embodiment of the subject disclosure can entail a computing device including memory to store computer instructions, and a controller coupled to the memory.","Responsive to executing the computer instructions, the controller performs operations including executing a video game software application, presenting one or more images representing one or more gaming venue states generated from the video game software application, detecting a first game stimulus signal from a first gaming accessory device, generating a first game action result according to the first game stimulus signal, analyzing the first game action result responsive to determining that the game action result did not achieve a desired result, generating a first coaching message to assist a first gamer in achieving the desired result, and presenting the first coaching message.","One embodiment of the subject disclosure can entail a computer-readable storage device including instructions.","Responsive to executing the instructions by a processor, the processor can perform operations including detecting a game stimulus signal generated by a first gaming accessory device, determining a first game action result based on the game stimulus signal, analyzing the first game action result to provide a first coaching message to achieve a desired result, and presenting the coaching message.","FIG.","1 depicts an illustrative embodiment 100 of a Graphical User Interface (GUI) 101 generated by an Accessory Management Software (AMS) application according to the subject disclosure.","The gamer can interact with one or more of the gaming accessories via the GUI.","The AMS application can be executed by a computing device such as a desktop computer, a laptop computer, a server, a mainframe computer, a gaming console, a gaming accessory, or combinations or combinations of portions thereof.","The AMS application can also be executed by portable computing devices (with computing resources) such as a cellular phone, a smartphone, a personal digital assistant, a tablet, or a media player (such as an iPOD™).","It is contemplated that the AMS application can be executed by any device with suitable computing resources.","FIG.","2A schematically depicts a gaming controller 115 which can be used by a gamer, according to an embodiment of the subject disclosure.","In this embodiment, gaming controller 115 and gaming console 206 have an integrated wireless interface for wireless communications therebetween (e.g., WiFi, Bluetooth, ZigBee, or a proprietary protocol).","The gaming console 206 can also be coupled to network 270 via communication link 245, such as a WiFi link, to the internet.","The gaming console 206 can be, for example, an Xbox™, a PS3™, a Wii™, or another suitable gaming console device.","Video information is displayed to the gamer on display device 231, which in this illustration is coupled to gaming console 206 by a wired connection 235, but can be replaced, if desirable, by a wireless interface (e.g., wireless HDMI.","Display device 231 may be a television as illustrated or a touch screen comprising both an input device and an output device.","Alternatively, the gaming controller 115 can be tethered to a computing device such as the gaming console by a cable (e.g., USB cable) to provide a means of communication less susceptible to electromagnetic interference or other sources of wireless interference.","FIG.","2B depicts an alternative embodiment to FIG.","1A in which a desktop computer 262 is used in place of the gaming console 206.In one embodiment, the desktop computer 262 can be configured to execute a gaming client (i.e., a software application) acting in cooperation with an on-line gaming server 272 accessible by the desktop computer 262 via the network 270 (e.g., World of Warcraft™).","In another embodiment, the desktop computer 262 can be configured to execute a localized gaming software application without accessing the on-line gaming server 272.The gaming accessory used with the desktop computer 262 can be a keyboard 108, mouse 110, or another suitable gaming accessory device.","In the present context, an accessory can represent any type of device which can be communicatively coupled to the computing device (or an integral part of the computing device) and which can control aspects of an operating system (OS) and/or a software application operating in the computing device.","An accessory can represent for example a keyboard, a touch screen display, a gaming pad, a gaming controller, a mouse, a joystick, a microphone, or a headset with a microphone—just to mention a few.","It is understood that the devices shown in FIGS.","1, 2A and 2B are mere illustrations of possible gaming configurations.","The subject disclosure is applicable to other gaming configurations and is thereby not limited by those described in FIGS.","1, 2A and 2B.","FIG.","3 illustrates gaming accessory devices with which a gamer 301 can interact.","Touch-sensitive devices 310 can include a gaming controller 115, mouse 110, keyboard 108, touchscreen display 231, and joystick 116.Audio devices 320 can include headphones 114, microphone 321, and speakerphone 323.Imaging devices 330 can include webcam 331.These accessory devices can provide tactile, audio, and/or visual stimuli to a gamer, receive responses from the gamer to thereby generate stimuli which can be interpreted by a gaming software application, or both.","The accessories can be coupled to the computing device by a tethered interface (e.g., USB cable), a wireless interface (e.g., Bluetooth or Wireless Fidelity—WiFi), or combinations thereof.","The term “gaming system,” as used herein, refers to the combination of computing hardware and software that delivers a gaming experience.","The software applications that present and manage the gaming experience are collectively referred to herein as a “gaming engine.” The gaming engine generally includes the AMS for managing and augmenting usage of the various accessories, and an Application Program Interface (API) for receiving feedback from a computing device which is a subset of the gaming system that executes a gaming software application.","The computing device can be a gaming console, a server, a local computer, a portable communication device, combinations thereof, or other devices with suitable processing resources.","FIG.","4 depicts an illustrative embodiment of a computing device 400.Computing device 400 can serve in whole or in part as an illustrative embodiment of the devices depicted in FIGS.","1-3.The computing device 400 can comprise a wireline and/or wireless transceiver 402 (herein transceiver 402), a user interface (UI) 404, a power supply 414, a proximity sensor 416, a motion sensor 418, an orientation sensor 420, and a controller 406 for managing operations thereof.","The transceiver 402 can support short-range or long-range wireless access technologies such as Bluetooth, WiFi, Digital Enhanced Cordless Telecommunications (DECT), or cellular communication technologies, just to mention a few.","Cellular technologies can include, for example, CDMA-1X, UMTS/HSDPA, GSM/GPRS, TDMA/EDGE, EV/DO, WiMAX, software defined radio (SDR), Long Term Evolution (LTE), as well as proprietary or other next generation wireless communication technologies as they arise.","The transceiver 402 can also be adapted to support circuit-switched wireline access technologies (such as PSTN), packet-switched wireline access technologies (such as TCP/IP, VoIP, etc.","), and combinations thereof.","The UI 404 can include a depressible or touch-sensitive keypad 408 coupled to a navigation mechanism such as a roller ball, a joystick, a mouse, or a navigation disk for manipulating operations of the computing device 400.The keypad 408 can be an integral part of a housing assembly of the computing device 400 or an independent device operably coupled thereto by a tethered wireline interface (such as a USB cable) or a wireless interface supporting for example Bluetooth.","The keypad 408 can represent a numeric keypad, and/or a QWERTY keypad with alphanumeric keys.","The UI 404 can further include a display 410 such as monochrome or color LCD (Liquid Crystal Display), OLED (Organic Light Emitting Diode) or other suitable display technology for conveying images to an end user of the computing device 400.In an embodiment where the display 410 is touch-sensitive, a portion or all of the keypad 408 can be presented by way of the display 410 with navigation features (e.g., an iPad™, iPhone™, or Android™ phone or tablet).","As a touch screen display, the computing device 400 can be adapted to present a user interface with graphical user interface (GUI) elements that can be selected by a user with a touch of a finger.","The touch screen display 410 can be equipped with capacitive, resistive or other forms of sensing technology to detect how much surface area of a user's finger has been placed on a portion of the touch screen display.","This sensing information can be used to control the manipulation of the GUI elements.","The UI 404 can also include an audio system 412 that utilizes common audio technology for conveying low volume audio (such as audio heard only in the proximity of a human ear) and high volume audio (such as speakerphone for hands free operation, stereo or surround sound system).","The audio system 412 can further include a microphone for receiving audible signals of an end user.","The audio system 412 can also be used for voice recognition applications.","The UI 404 can further include an image sensor 413 such as a charged coupled device (CCD) camera for capturing still or moving images and performing image recognition therefrom.","The power supply 414 can utilize common power management technologies such as replaceable or rechargeable batteries, supply regulation technologies, and charging system technologies for supplying energy to the components of the computing device 400 to facilitate long-range or short-range portable applications.","Alternatively, the charging system can utilize external power sources such as DC power supplied over a physical interface such as a USB port or by way of a power cord attached to a transformer that converts AC to DC power.","The proximity sensor 416 can utilize proximity sensing technology such as an electromagnetic sensor, a capacitive sensor, an inductive sensor, an image sensor or combinations thereof.","The motion sensor 418 can utilize motion sensing technology such as an accelerometer, a gyroscope, or other suitable motion sensing technology to detect movement of the computing device 400 in three-dimensional space.","The orientation sensor 420 can utilize orientation sensing technology such as a magnetometer to detect the orientation of the computing device 400 (North, South, West, East, combined orientations thereof in degrees, minutes, or other suitable orientation metrics).","The controller 406 can utilize computing technologies such as a microprocessor, a digital signal processor (DSP), and/or a video processor with associated storage memory such as Flash, ROM, RAM, SRAM, DRAM or other storage technologies.","Other components not shown in FIG.","4 are contemplated by the subject disclosure.","For instance, the computing device 400 can include a reset button (not shown).","The reset button can be used to reset the controller 406 of the computing device 400.In yet another embodiment, the computing device 400 can also include a factory default setting button positioned below a small hole in a housing assembly of the computing device 400 to force the computing device 400 to re-establish factory settings.","In this embodiment, a user can use a protruding object such as a pen or paper clip tip to reach into the hole and depress the default setting button.","The computing device 400 as described herein can operate with more or fewer components described in FIG.","4 to accommodate the implementation of the devices described by the subject disclosure.","These variant embodiments are contemplated by the subject disclosure.","FIGS.","5, 6 and 7A-E depict methods 500-700 describing illustrative embodiments of the AMS application.","Method 500 can begin with step 502 in which the AMS application is invoked in a computing device.","The computing device can be a remote server (not shown), the gaming console 206 of FIG.","2A, or any other computing device with suitable computing resources.","The invocation step can result from a user selection of the AMS application from a menu or iconic symbol presented on a desktop of the computing device by an operating system (OS) managing operations thereof.","In step 504, the AMS application can detect by way of drivers in the OS a plurality of operationally distinct accessories communicatively coupled to the computing device.","The accessories can be coupled to the computing device by a tethered interface (e.g., USB cable), a wireless interface (e.g., Bluetooth or Wireless Fidelity—WiFi), or combinations thereof.","In the present context, an accessory can represent any type of device which can be communicatively coupled to the computing device (or an integral part of the computing device) and which can control aspects of the OS and/or a software application operating in the computing device.","An accessory can represent for example a keyboard, a touch screen display, a gaming pad, a gaming controller, a mouse, a joystick, a microphone, or a headset with a microphone—just to mention a few.","In step 506, the AMS application presents a GUI 101 such as depicted in FIG.","1 with operationally distinct accessories such as a keyboard 108, and a gaming controller 115.The GUI 101 presents the accessories 108-116 in a scrollable section 117.One or more accessories can be selected by a user with a mouse pointer.","In this illustration, the keyboard 108 and the gaming controller 115 were selected for customization.","Upon selecting the keyboard 108 and the gaming controller 115 from the scrollable window of section 117, the AMS application presents the keyboard 108 and the gaming controller 115 in split windows 118, 120, respectively, to assist the user during the customization process.","In step 508, the AMS application can be programmed to detect a user-selection of a particular software application such as a game.","This step can be the result of the user entering in a Quick Search field 160 the name of a gaming application (e.g., World of Warcraft™ or WoW).","Upon identifying a gaming application, the AMS application can retrieve in step 510 from a remote or local database gaming application actions which can be presented in a scrollable section 139 of the GUI represented as “Actions” 130.The actions can be tactical actions 132, communication actions 134, menu actions 136, and movement actions 138 which can be used to invoke and manage features of the gaming application.","The actions presented descriptively in section 130 of the GUI can represent a sequence of accessory input functions which a user can stimulate by button depressions, navigation or speech.","For example, depressing the left button on the mouse 110 can represent the tactical action “Reload”, while the simultaneous keyboard depressions “Ctrl A” can represent the tactical action “Melee Attack”.","For ease of use, the “Actions” 130 section of the GUI is presented descriptively rather than by a description of the input function(s) of a particular accessory.","Any one of the Actions 130 can be associated with one or more input functions of the accessories being customized in windows 118 and 120 by way of a drag and drop action or other customization options.","For instance, a user can select a “Melee Attack” by placing a mouse pointer 133 over an iconic symbol associated with this action.","Upon doing so, the symbol can be highlighted to indicate to the user that the icon is selectable.","At this point, the user can select the icon by holding the left mouse button and drag the symbol to any of the input functions (e.g., buttons) of the keyboard 108 or selectable options of the gaming controller 115 to make an association with an input function of one of these accessories.","Actions of one accessory can also be associated with another accessory that is of a different category.","For example, key depressions “Ctrl A” of the key board 108 can be associated with one of the buttons of the gaming controller 115 (e.g., the left button 119).","In one embodiment, a Melee Attack action can be associated by dragging this action to either the left button 119 or right button 121 of the gaming controller 115.Thus, when the selected button is depressed, the stimulus signal that is generated by the selected button of the gaming controller 115 can be substituted by the AMS application with the Melee Attack action.","In another embodiment, the Melee Action can be associated with a combination of key button presses (e.g., simultaneous depression of the left and right buttons 119, 121, or a sequence of button depressions: two rapid left button depressions followed by a right button depression).","In yet another embodiment, the Melee Action can be associated with movement of the gaming controller 115 such as, for example, rapid movement or shaking of the gaming controller 115.In a further embodiment, the AMS application can be adapted to make associations with two dimensional or three dimensional movements of the gaming controller 115 according to a gaming venue state.","For example, suppose the player's avatar enters a fighter jet.","In this gaming venue state, moving the left navigation knob forward can be associated by the AMS application with controlling the throttle of the jet engines.","Rapidly moving the gaming controller 115 downward can represent release of munitions such as a bomb.","In a gaming venue state where the gamer's avatar has entered a building, lifting of the gaming controller 115 above a first displacement threshold can be associated with a rapid movement of the avatar up one floor.","A second displacement threshold can be associated with a rapid movement of the avatar down one floor—the opposite of the first displacement threshold.","Alternatively, the second displacement threshold could be associated with a different action such as jumping between buildings when the avatar is on the roof of a building.","The AMS application can associate standard stimuli generated by manipulating a gaming accessory with substitute stimuli that control gaming actions of a video game.","The AMS application can be adapted to perform these associations based on a gaming venue state such as the ones described above.","Accordingly, the associations made between stimuli supplied by an accessory such as the gaming controller 115 can be venue state dependent.","The gaming venue state can be a description of a gaming state (e.g., entering a tank which requires the use of gaming controls for a tank), captured images of the gaming venue state (e.g., one or more still images of a tank, or a video of an avatar entering a tank), and/or application programming instructions (API) messages which can be received from the gaming application to enable the AMS application to identify the occurrence of a particular gaming venue state.","At step 512 the AMS application can also respond to a user selection of a profile.","A profile can be a device profile or master profile invoked by selecting GUI button 156 or 158, each of which can identify the association of gaming actions with input functions of one or more accessories.","If a profile selection is detected in step 512, the AMS application can retrieve in step 514 macro(s) and/or prior associations defined by the profile.","The actions and/or macros defined in the profile can also be presented in step 516 by the AMS application in the actions column 130 of the GUI 101 to modify existing profile associations or create new associations.","In step 518, the AMS application can also respond to a user selection to create a macro.","A macro in the present context can mean any actionable command which can be recorded by the AMS application.","An actionable command can represent a sequence of stimuli generated by manipulating input functions of an accessory, a combination of actions in the Action section 130, an identification of a software application to be initiated by an operating system (OS), or any other recordable stimulus to initiate, control or manipulate software applications.","For instance, a macro can represent a user entering the identity of a software application (e.g., instant messaging tool) to be initiated by an OS upon the AMS application detecting through speech recognition a speech command.","A macro can also represent recordable speech delivered by a microphone singly or in combination with a headset for detection by another software application through speech recognition or for delivery of the recorded speech to other parties.","In yet another embodiment a macro can represent recordable navigation of an accessory such as a joystick of the gaming controller 115, recordable selections of buttons of the gaming controller 115, and so on.","Macros can also be combinations of the above illustrations with selected actions from the Actions 130 menu.","Macros can be created from the GUI 101 by selecting a “Record Macro” button 148.The macro can be given a name and category in user-defined fields 140 and 142.Upon selecting the Record Macro button 148, a macro can be generated by selection of input functions on an accessory (e.g., Ctrl A, speech, navigation knob movements of the gaming controller 115, etc.)","and/or by manual entry in field 144 (e.g., typing the name and location of a software application to be initiated by an OS, such as an instant messaging application, keyboard entries such as Ctrl A, etc.).","Once the macro is created, it can be tested by selecting button 150 which can repeat the sequence specified in field 144.The clone button 152 can be selected to replicate the macro sequence if desired.","Fields 152 can also present timing characteristics of the stimulation sequence in the macro with the ability to modify and thereby customize the timing of one or more stimulations in the stimulation sequence.","Once the macro has been fully defined, selection of button 154 records the macro in step 520.The recording step can be combined with a step for adding the macro to the associable items Actions column 130, thereby providing the user the means to associate the macro with input functions of the accessories (e.g., one or more keys of the keyboard 108, buttons of the gaming controller 115, etc.).","In step 522, the AMS application can respond to drag and drop associations of actions and input functions of the keyboard 108 or the gaming controller 115.Associations can also be made based on the two or three dimensional movements of the gaming controller 115.If user input indicates that a user is performing an association, the AMS application can proceed to step 524 where it can determine if a profile has been identified in step 512 to record the association(s) detected.","If a profile has been identified, the associations are recorded/stored in the profile in step 526.If a profile has not been identified in step 512, the AMS application can create a profile in step 528 for recording the detected associations.","In the same step, the user can name the newly created profile as desired.","The newly created profile can also be associated with one or more gaming software applications in step 530 for future reference.","The AMS application can also record in a profile in step 526 associations based on gaming venue states.","In this embodiment the same stimuli generated by the gaming controller 115 can result in different substitutions based on the gaming venue state detected by the AMS application.","The AMS application can be adapted to utilize image processing technology to detect a gaming venue state according to pre-stored images or video clips stored in the profile.","For example, the AMS application can use image processing technology to identify an avatar of a gamer and track what the avatar does as directed by the gamer.","For example, if the avatar enters a tank, the image processing technology of the AMS application can detect a gaming venue state associated with the use of a tank, and thereby identify associations between accessory stimuli and substitute stimuli according to the detected gaming venue state.","Alternatively, the AMS application can determine a gaming venue state from information provided by a gaming application via an API as previously described.","Referring back to step 526, once the associations have been recorded in a profile, the AMS application can determine in step 532 which of the accessories shown illustratively in FIGS.","1-3 are programmable and available for programming If the AMS application detects that the accessories (e.g., keyboard 108, gaming controller 115) are communicatively coupled to a computing device from which the AMS application is operating (e.g., gaming console 306) and programmable, the AMS application can proceed to step 534 of FIG.","5 where it submits the profile and its contents for storage in one of the accessories (e.g., the gaming controller 115 in FIGS.","2A and 3).","Once the accessory, gaming controller, or combinations thereof are programmed with the profile, such devices can perform stimuli substitutions according to the associations recorded by the AMS application in the profile.","Alternatively, the AMS application can store the profile in computing devices 206, 262, or 272 of FIGS.","2A-2B and perform substitutions of stimuli supplied by the gaming controller 115 according to associations recorded in the profile by the AMS application.","The GUI 101 of FIG.","1 presented by the AMS application can have other functions.","For example, the GUI 101 can provide options for layout of the accessory selected (button 122), how the keyboard is illuminated when associations between input functions and actions are made (button 134), and configuration options for the accessory (button 126).","The AMS application can adapt the GUI 101 to present more than one functional GUI page.","For instance, by selecting button 102, the AMS application can adapt the GUI 101 to present a means to create macros and associate actions to accessory input functions as depicted in FIG.","1.Selecting button 104 can cause the AMS application to adapt the GUI 101 to present statistics from stimulation information and/or gaming action results captured by the AMS application.","Selecting button 106 can also cause the AMS application to adapt the GUI 101 to present promotional offers and software updates.","The steps of method 500 in whole or in part can be repeated until a desirable pattern is achieved of associations between stimulus signals generated by accessories and substitute stimuli.","It would be apparent to an artisan with ordinary skill in the art that there can be numerous other approaches to accomplish the embodiments described by method 500 or variants thereof.","These undisclosed approaches are contemplated by the subject disclosure.","FIG.","6 depicts a method 600 for illustrating the operations of the AMS application for either of the configurations shown in FIGS.","2A-2B.","In the configurations of FIGS.","2A and 2B, the AMS application can be operating in whole or in part from the gaming controller 115, the gaming console 206, the remote server 272, or a computing device such as the desktop computer 262.For illustration purposes, it is assumed the AMS application operates from the gaming console 206.Method 600 can begin with the AMS application establishing communications in steps 602 and 604 between the gaming console 206 and a gaming accessory such as the gaming controller 115, and a headset 114 such as shown in FIG.","1.These steps can represent for example a user starting the AMS application from the gaming console 206 and/or the user inserting at a USB port of the gaming console 206 a connector of a USB cable tethered to the gaming controller 115, which invokes the AMS application.","In step 606, the gaming controller 115 and/or headset 114 can in turn provide the AMS application one or more accessory ID's, or the user can provide by way of a keyboard or the gaming controller 115 user identification.","With the accessory ID's, or user input the AMS application can identify in step 608 a user account associated with the gaming controller 115 and/or headset 114.In step 610, the AMS application can retrieve one or more profiles associated with the user account.","In step 612, the user can be presented by way of a display coupled to the gaming console 206 profiles available to the user to choose from.","If the user makes a selection, the AMS application proceeds to step 614 where it retrieves from the selected profiles the association(s) stored therein.","If a selection is not made, the AMS application can proceed to step 616 where it can determine whether a software gaming application (e.g., video game) is operating from the gaming console 206 or whether the gaming console 206 is communicating with the software gaming application by way of a remote system communicatively coupled to the gaming console 206 (e.g., on-line gaming server(s) presenting, for example, World of Warcraft™).","If a gaming software application is detected, the AMS application proceeds to step 617 where it retrieves a profile that matches the gaming application detected and the association(s) contained in the profile.","As noted earlier, association(s) can represent accessory stimulations, navigation, speech, the invocation of other software applications, macros or other forms of suitable associations that result in substitute stimulations.","The accessory stimulations can be stimulations that are generated by the gaming controller 115, as well as stimulations from other accessories (e.g., headset 114), or combinations thereof.","Once a profile and its contents have been retrieved in either of steps 614 or step 617, the AMS application can proceed to step 719 of FIG.","7A where it monitors for a change in a gaming venue state based on the presentations made by the gaming application, or API messages supplied by the gaming application.","At the start of a game, for example, the gaming venue state can be determined immediately depending on the gaming options chosen by the gamer.","The AMS application can determine the gaming venue state by tracking the gaming options chosen by a gamer, receiving an API instruction from the gaming application, or by performing image processing on the video presentation generated by the gaming application.","For example, the AMS application can detect that the gamer has directed an avatar to enter a tank.","The AMS application can retrieve in step 719 associations for the gaming controller 115 for controlling the tank.","The AMS application can process movements of the gaming controller 115 forwards, backwards, or sideways in two or three dimensions to control the tanks movement.","Similarly, rotating the gaming controller 115 or tilting the gaming controller 115 forward can cause an accelerometer, gyro or magnetometer of the gaming controller 115 to provide navigational data to the AMS application which can be substituted with an action to cause the tank to turn and/or move forward.","The profile retrieved by the AMS application can indicate that the greater the forward tilt of the gaming controller 115, the greater the speed of the tank should be moving forward.","Similarly, a rear tilt can generate navigation data that is substituted with a reverse motion and/or deceleration of the forward motion to stop or slow down the tank.","A three dimensional lift of the mouse can cause the tank to steer according to the three dimensional navigation data provided by the gaming controller 115.For example, navigation data associated with a combination of a forward tilt and right bank of the gaming controller 115 can be substituted by the AMS application to cause an increase in forward speed of the tank with a turn to the right determined by the AMS application according to a degree of banking of the gaming controller 115 to the right.","In the above embodiment, the three dimensional navigation data allows a gamer to control any directional vector of the tank including speed, direction, acceleration and deceleration.","In another illustration, the AMS application can detect a new gaming venue state as a result of the gamer directing the avatar to leave the tank and travel on foot.","Once again the AMS application retrieves in step 719 associations related to the gaming venue state.","In this embodiment, selection of buttons of the gaming controller 115 can be associated by the AMS application with weaponry selection, firing, reloading and so on.","The movement of the gaming controller 115 in two or three dimensions can control the direction of the avatar and/or selection or use of weaponry.","Once the gaming venue state is detected in step 719, the AMS application retrieves the associations related to the venue state, and can perform substitutions of stimuli generated by the gaming controller 115, and/or speech commands received by microphone of the headset 114.The AMS application can monitor in step 720 stimulations generated by the accessories coupled to the gaming console 206.The stimulations can be generated by the gamer by manipulating the gaming controller 115, and/or by generating speech commands detected by the headset 114.If a stimulation is detected at step 720, the AMS application can determine in step 722 whether to forward the detected stimulation(s) to an Operating System (OS) of the gaming console 206 without substitutions.","This determination can be made by comparing the detected stimulation(s) to association in the profile.","If the detected stimulation(s) match the associations, then the AMS application proceeds to step 740 where it retrieves substitute stimulation(s) in the profile.","In step 742, the AMS application can substitute the detected stimulation(s) with the substitute stimulations in the profile.","In one embodiment, the AMS application can track in step 744 the substitute stimulations by updating these stimulations with a unique identifier such as a globally unique identifier (GUID).","In this embodiment, the AMS application can also add a time stamp to each substitute stimulation to track when the substitution was performed.","In another embodiment, the AMS application can track each substitute stimulation according to its order of submission to the gaming application.","For instance, sequence numbers can be generated for the substitute stimulations to track the order in which they were submitted to the gaming application.","In this embodiment, the substitute stimulations do not need to be updated with sequence numbers or identifiers so long as the order of gaming action results submitted by the gaming application to the AMS application remain in the same order as the substitute stimulations were originally submitted.","For example, if a first stimulation sent to the gaming application by the AMS application is a command to shoot, and a second stimulation sent to the gaming application is a command to shoot again, then so long as the gaming application provides a first a game action result for the first shot, followed by a game action result for the second shot, then the substitute stimulations will not require updating with sequence numbers since the game action results are reported in the order that the stimulations were sent.","If on the other hand, the game action results can be submitted out of order, then updating the stimulations with sequence numbers or another suitable identifier would be required to enable the AMS application to properly track and correlate stimulations and corresponding gaming action results.","Once the stimulations received in step 720 have been substituted with other stimulations in step 742, and the AMS application has chosen a proper tracking methodology for correlating gaming action results with stimulations, the AMS application can proceed to step 748 and submit the substitute stimulations to the OS of the gaming console 206.If in step 722 the detected stimulation(s) do not match an association in the profile, then the AMS application proceeds to one of steps 744 or 746 in order to track the stimulations of the accessory.","Once the AMS application has performed the necessary steps to track the stimulation as originally generated by the accessory, the AMS application proceeds to step 748 where it submits stimulations (with or without substitutions) to the OS of the gaming console 206 with or without tracking information as previously described.","In step 734, the OS determines whether to invoke in step 736 a software application identified in the stimulation(s) (e.g., gamer says “turn on team chat”, which invokes a chat application), whether to forward the received stimulations to the gaming software application in step 738, or combinations thereof.","Contemporaneous to the embodiments described above, the AMS application can monitor in step 750 for game action results supplied by the gaming application via a defined API.","The game action results can be messages sent by the gaming application by way of the API of the gaming application to inform the AMS application what has happened as a result of the stimulations sent in step 738.For instance, suppose the stimulation sent to the gaming application in step 738 is a command to shoot a pistol.","The gaming application can determine that the shot fired resulted in a miss of a target.","The gaming application can respond with a message which is submitted by way of the API to the AMS application that indicates the shot fired resulted in a miss.","If IDs such as GUIDs were sent with each stimulation, the gaming application can submit game action results with their corresponding GUID to enable the AMS application to correlate the gaming action results with stimulations having the same GUID.","For example, if the command to shoot included the ID “1234”, then the game action result indicating a miss will include the ID “1234”, which the AMS application can use in step 752 to identify the stimulation having the same ID.","If on other hand, the order of game action results can be maintained consistent with the order of the stimulations, then the AMS application can correlate in step 754 stimulations with game action results by the order in which stimulation were submitted and the order in which game action results were received.","In step 756, the AMS application can catalogue stimulations and game action results.","In another embodiment, the AMS application can be adapted to catalogue the stimulations in step 758.In this embodiment, step 760 can be performed as an alternative to steps 750 through 756.In another embodiment, step 760 can be performed in combination with steps 750 through 756 in order to generate a catalogue of stimulations, and a catalogue for gaming action results correlated to the stimulations.","In accordance with embodiments of the subject disclosure, the gaming engine can provide training for game players, based on the stimulation(s) input by the player and the game action results (game feedback) returned from the gaming application via the API.","Training for gamers may occur in various game environments, for example as schematically illustrated in FIGS.","7F-7H respectively.","Some representative training procedures are illustrated in FIGS.","7C-7E respectively.","FIG.","7F shows an arrangement in which a gaming engine delivers a game experience to gamer 301 via a local computing device 705.In the embodiment shown in FIG.","7F, the local computing device 705 includes AMS 715 and API 725 and accordingly performs gaming engine functions.","In this illustration, gamer 301 submits inputs (stimulations) 703 to the gaming engine using the gaming controller 115.It will be appreciated that gaming controller 115 is but one of a variety of gaming accessories, managed by AMS 715, that can be used by the gamer 301.The video game action is displayed on display device 231.Display device 231 can also present the game action results of inputs 703 that are returned from the game application via the API 725, and can also present messages for correcting and/or coaching the gamer, either in real time during the game or afterwards in a replay session.","The gaming engine maintains a record of both the gamer's inputs and the game action results.","It will be appreciated that all or part of the gaming engine functions may be performed at a remote server 272, interacting with the gamer's computing device 705 and accessories via network 270, or the gaming engine functions can be localized to the gamer's computing device 705 when on-line gaming is not being used.","FIG.","7C shows a procedure for coaching a gamer presented with a game situation in which a shooting target is displayed (step 760C).","The gaming engine detects (step 762C) whether the gamer took the shot.","If the gamer did not, the gaming engine then detects (step 764C) whether the gamer made a faulty input (for example, accidentally hitting the letter “A” on the keyboard when “S” is the command to shoot).","In the case of faulty input, the gaming engine can display a corrective message (step 766C) on display device 231.Alternatively, the gaming engine can play a prerecorded audio message or present the corrective message in some other fashion.","If the gamer made no input (that is, missed the shooting opportunity, an undesirable result), the gaming engine can analyze (step 768C) the particular situation (for example, how clear a view the gamer had, how much time was available to take the shot, how much ammunition the gamer had available), and then proceed to provide a coaching message (step 776C) appropriate to that situation.","If the gamer took a shot but missed (step 770C), the gaming engine retrieves data regarding the shot (step 772C) from a gaming action result provided by the gaming application via the API, and performs further analysis (step 774C).","For example, if the gamer took several shots that all missed the target in one direction, the gaming engine could infer a systematic aiming problem.","However, if the gamer took several shots in a short time period that missed the target in random directions, the gaming engine could infer that the gamer had aimed too hastily.","The gaming engine can then provide a coaching message (which can be displayed on device 231) for the gamer.","A corrective message (step 766C) for achieving a desired result and a coaching message (step 776C) can be presented in real time (while the game is in progress) or after the game has concluded.","In another embodiment, the gaming engine can analyze a gamer's strategy by comparing that gamer's actions with those of an opponent.","FIG.","7G shows an arrangement in which a gaming engine delivers a game experience to gamer 301 and to an opponent 701.In one embodiment, the game can be centralized, where both players 301, and 701 locally submit inputs to the same gaming engine via communication paths 703.The gaming engine may execute on computing device 705A, which is local to both gamers (in this illustration, gamers 301, 701).","In another embodiment, the game can be centralized remotely, where both players 301, 701 submit inputs to a remote server via computing devices 705A and 705B coupled to network 270 respectively.","In this configuration, a first portion of the video game is executed on server 272, while software client portions of the video game are executed on computing devices 705A and 705B, respectively.","Alternatively, the game can be distributed, wherein each player interacts with a different gaming engine operating in computing devices 705A and 705B, respectively, or the gaming engines can be managed by the remote server 272, or combinations thereof.","As shown in FIG.","7G, the opponent 701 can use a different gaming accessory to submit inputs 703.In this embodiment, gamer 301 employs a strategy for anticipating and responding to the opponent's actions.","FIG.","7D shows a procedure for analyzing a gamer's strategy based on the gamer's and the opponent's actions, and for coaching the gamer.","The gaming engine detects a game situation (step 762D) in which the gamer 301 and opponent 701 encounter each other—that is, actions of either one can influence the actions of the other.","In step 766D, the gaming engine detects the actions of the gamer and the opponent according to API feedback 760D relating to the gamer and API feedback 764D relating to the opponent.","The gaming engine then compares the gamer actions with the opponent actions (step 768D), and then can deduce a missed strategy on the part of the gamer (step 770D).","The gaming engine can then provide a coaching message regarding the gamer's strategy (step 772D).","Steps 762D-772D can be repeated for each game situation involving the gamer's strategy with respect to the opponent.","In a further embodiment, the gaming engine can also provide results of the opponent's actions and analyze the opponent's actions to detect missed strategies on the part of the opponent (step 770D) and provide a coaching message regarding the opponent's strategy (step 774D).","The coaching message accordingly can provide advice to both the gamer and the opponent.","The coaching message can be presented in real time (while the game is in progress) or after the game has concluded on display devices viewable by the gamer and the opponent respectively.","In another embodiment, the gaming engine can record all or portions of a gaming session and provide coaching by replaying the game and permitting a gamer to experience results of alternative inputs (that is, alternative actions).","For example, the gaming engine can enable a gamer to replay, pause, forward, rewind, and/or select between scenes in a recorded gaming session.","FIG.","7H shows an arrangement where a live opponent is replaced by a simulated opponent in the form of a simulated processing unit or SPU 735.SPU 735 can react to various alternate actions by gamer 301.By reviewing the SPU's reactions, the gamer can see the effects of alternate strategies.","FIG.","7E shows a procedure for coaching a gamer by permitting the gamer to experience the results of different alternative strategies.","In step 760E, the game (or a portion of the game with a sequence of situations) is recorded and replayed at a reduced speed.","The gamer accordingly can review his actions in the various game situations.","Inputs by other players participating in the recorded game can also be included in the replay.","The gaming engine thus guides the gamer through the game, with the gamer having the opportunity to test alternate strategies and actions in the various game situations.","In each situation, the gamer can input an alternate stimulus (step 762E) and then view the alternate results (step 766E).","The alternate stimulus can be input in accordance with an alternate strategy 764E designed by the gamer or suggested by the gaming engine.","Furthermore, the SPU can react to the various alternative inputs in each situation.","The responses of the SPU to the alternative inputs are generated (step 768E) and displayed along with a coaching message (step 770E) relating to the effectiveness of the strategy being tested.","The gamer can test alternate strategies in succeeding game situations (step 772E).","It will be appreciated that a wide variety of coaching messages may be provided in the above-described procedures (such as in step 776C in FIG.","7C, steps 772D and 774D in FIG.","7D, and step 770E in FIG.","7E).","A coaching message may be understood as any message to a gamer that the gamer can use to improve his/her performance and/or enjoyment of the game.","As a non-limiting example, a coaching message can be a graphical display instead of or in addition to a text message delivered to the gamer.","A coaching message can also be based on synthesized audible speech.","The audible speech can be supplied to the gamer's headset or played on speakers of the gaming system.","In one embodiment, a graphical display of a coaching message can comprise a comparison of actual vs. ideal play in a game situation.","In an embodiment, when a game is replayed as in the procedure of FIG.","7E, two sequences of game situations may be displayed in windows side-by-side: 1) the game action as it actually occurred, and 2) the game action as it could have occurred had the gamer used a better strategy or executed with greater skill (“ideal strategy,” “best play,” or “best practices”).","The gamer can use various trick-play functions (e.g.","fast-forward, rewind, stop action, variable play speed, etc.)","on each window, either simultaneously or independently, to study the differences between the actual play and best play.","The coaching message can be provided in real-time during a gaming session as text messages and/or audible speech; for example: “Slow down your shooting, you're low on ammo”; “Your aim is off, switch to a sniper rifle or add a scope to your weapon to better your aim”; And so on.","Audible and/or text coaching messages can also be provided during post-game analysis; for example: “Your rapid fire in the replay portion of the game that you are viewing in the left window led to a rapid loss of ammo which provided the enemy an advantage”; “The right window shows a simulated replay illustrating what the result might have been if you slowed your firing rate by 50%”; “In this new scene, you used a shot gun, when a machine gun would have been more effective”; And so on.","In another embodiment, the two windows (actual-play and best-play) can be displayed with an overlay on each window or just one of the two windows.","The overlay can show a trajectory of a projectile shot by a weapon of an avatar controlled by the gamer and the projectile's final destination.","To highlight the trajectory, the overlay can, for example, display a dotted line that extends from the egress point of a weapon to the projectile's its final destination.","The overlay can be shown on both windows to illustrate to a gamer how far off a projectile was from hitting a target.","The trick play functions (e.g., slow play) can be used to draw the overlay slowly; that is, slow draw the dotted line extending from the egress point of the weapon to its destination to create a better visual effect for the gamer.","Other embodiments are contemplated for coaching messages.","For example, in a team setting, the coaching message can be directed to more than one gamer.","For example, a coaching message can be sent to two gamers indicating that their game performance would improve if they moved to a vehicle with one gamer driving and the other gamer manning a weapon in the vehicle.","The coaching message in this illustration can also indicate which gamer would perform better as the driver and which gamer would perform better as the shooter based on a past performance history of each gamer.","The coaching messages can be conveyed as audible speech directed to each gamer's headset and/or as text messages sent to each gamer's display device.","FIGS.","8-9 illustrate embodiments of a system with a corresponding communication flow diagram for correlating stimulations and gaming action results.","In this illustration a user clicks the left button 119 of the gaming controller 115.The gaming controller 115 can include firmware (or circuitry), which creates an event as depicted by event 2 in FIG.","8.The button depression and the event creation are depicted in FIG.","9 as steps 902 and 904.In step 904, the firmware of the gaming controller 115 can, for example, generate an event type “left button #3”, and a unique GUID with a time stamp which is submitted to the AMS application.","Referring back to FIG.","8, the AMS application catalogues event 3, and if a substitute stimulation has been predefined, remaps the event according to the substitution.","The remapped event is then transmitted to the gaming application at event 4.Event 3 of FIG.","8 is depicted as step 906 in FIG.","9.In this illustration, the AMS application substitutes the left button #3 depression stimulus with a “keyboard ‘F’” depression which can be interpreted by the gaming application as a fire command The AMS application in this illustration continues to use the same GUID, but substitutes the time stamp for another time stamp to identify when the substitution took place.","Referring back to event 4, the gaming application processes the event and sends back at event 5 a game action result to the AMS application which is processed by the AMS application at event 6.The AMS application then submits the results to the accessory at event 7.Events 4 and 5 are depicted as step 908 in FIG.","9.In this step, the gaming application processes “F” as an action to fire the gamer's gun, and then determines from the action the result from logistical gaming results generated by the gaming application.","In the present illustration, the action of firing resulted in a hit.","The gaming application submits to the AMS application the result type “Hit” with a new time stamp, while utilizing the same GUID for tracking purposes.","At step 910, the AMS application correlates the stimulation “left button #3 (and/or the substitute stimulation keyboard “F”) to the game result “Hit” and catalogues them in memory.","The AMS application then submits to the accessory (e.g., gaming controller 115) in step 910 the game action results “Hit” with the same GUID, and a new time stamp indicating when the result was received.","Upon receiving the message from the AMS application, the accessory in step 912 processes the “Hit” by asserting a red LED on the accessory (e.g., left button 119 illuminates in red or other LED of the gaming controller 115 illuminates in red) to indicate a hit.","Other notification notices can be used such as another color for the LED to indicate misses, a specific sound for a hit, or kill, a vibration or other suitable technique for notifying the gamer of the game action result.","The AMS application can catalogue results as shown in FIGS.","11-14.The presentation of the catalogued results can be based on a live session, or a replay session when reviewing segments of a video game much like a replay session of a sporting event (e.g., football game) is analyzed by sports analysts.","To assist the audience in viewing a competition between gamers, the AMS application can be adapted to present a virtual peripheral representative of the accessory of each gamer as shown in FIGS.","11-14.The AMS application can be adapted to use coloring and highlight schemes to indicate when a function (e.g., a button or navigation knob) of the peripheral is being used as shown in FIG.","10.For example, the color code “dark red” can represent a button or knob that is frequently in use, while a color code of “dark blue” can represent a button or knob that is infrequently used.","To indicate when a button or knob is in use, the button or knob can be highlighted with a white outline while the unused buttons can remain un-highlighted.","In the case of knobs, which can be moved Omni directionally, the AMS application can show movements of a highlighted knob as the gamer is utilizing the knob based on the stimulations received by the AMS application.","For example, if a gamer moves a knob in a northwest direction, the knob is highlighted with a white outline, and the knob is shown moving in the direction chosen by the gamer.","As buttons are being depressed and released rapidly, the AMS application will present rapid transitioning between the enabling and disabling of highlights to indicate the speed that the gamer is depressing and releasing the buttons.","As the frequency of depressions of buttons or use of knobs increases, the AMS application will change the color code of the buttons or knobs as described above to signify frequency of use of the buttons and knobs.","In an embodiment where the AMS application receives gaming results from a gaming application via an API as described above, the communication flow diagram shown in FIG.","9 can be modified with a more comprehensive protocol that includes a weapon type being monitored, misses, non-kill hits (i.e., a hit that does not result in a kill), kill hits, and loss of life rate.","The AMS application can present performance factors of each gamer, and the type of weapons being tracked (e.g., sniper rifle, machine gun, hand gun) as shown in FIGS.","11-12.To identify which weapon is being used at any point in time during a gaming session, the AMS application can highlight the weapon in a distinguishable color such as blue while keeping all other weapon rows in gray.","The AMS application can calculate an average hit rate from the misses, non-kill hits, and kill hits.","The AMS application can compare gaming action results between the gamers to identifying leading performance factors as shown in the “Comp Rating” column of each player.","In a tournament setting, the performance factors shown in FIGS.","11 and 12 can be shown in side-by-side monitors, or together in a JumboTron™ display such as those used in sporting events or the like.","As the gamer is competing, the input functions of the gaming controller 115 can be highlighted and moved (in the case of knobs) to show the audience how the gaming controller 115 is being used by the gamer.","The health of the gamer's avatar can be shown below the gaming controller 115.To further enhance the experience for the audience, the gamer's image can be shown as a video clip during the competition.","The AMS application can also be adapted to present a portion of the video game associated with each gamer as shown in FIGS.","11-12.In an embodiment where the gaming application does not provide gaming action results (e.g., the video gaming application does not provide an API), the AMS application can be adapted to present a gamer's performance based on the stimulus signals generated, and where applicable, the substitute stimulus signals submitted to the gaming application as shown in FIGS.","13-14.In this illustration, the virtual peripherals are shown with the color scheme and highlights discussed earlier.","The performance of the gamers can be presented according to the type of weapons used, the key depressions invoking substitutions, the macros invoked, and the rate of transmission of stimuli to the gaming application.","For example, for gamer #1, the simultaneous depression of the up and down arrows invoked the macro team chat, while using the sniper rifle.","The gamer shot the rifle 14 times with 4 shots in rapid succession.","Upon depressing the left “1” button of a front section of the gaming controller 115 of gamer #1, the AMS application invoked substitute stimuli transmitted to the gaming application which switches the use of the sniper rifle to the machine gun.","A subsequent depression of the same button can cause a substitute stimuli generated by the AMS application to return to the sniper rifle.","A depression of the right “1” button by gamer #1 resulted in substitute stimuli generated by the AMS application to call for air support.","Gamer #2 shows that s/he has not invoked a substitute stimuli for the machine gun.","This may be because the gamer has not pre-programmed the AMS application to associate stimuli generated by the gaming controller 115 with substitute stimuli, or because the gamer has chosen not to invoke substitute stimuli with a particular key depression (or sequence of key depressions).","Although not shown, monitoring stimuli generation and substitutes can be used to rate players' performances.","For example, a gamer that has a tendency to perform rapid fire on a machine gun without saving ammunition may be viewed as a poor game tactic.","Comparing such statistics between gamers can be used to show performance lead factors between the gamers.","From the foregoing descriptions, it would be evident to an artisan with ordinary skill in the art that the aforementioned embodiments can be modified, reduced, or enhanced without departing from the scope and spirit of the claims described below.","For instance, the AMS application can record stimulus signals and/or gaming results for a game session and store this data for an extended period of time for each of a plurality of gamers.","In addition, the AMS application can store multiple recorded game sessions for each gamer and can be adapted to compare a history of game sessions to assess how each gamer's performance has evolved.","Each gamer's improvement or degradation detected by the AMS application over a number of gaming sessions can be reported to the gamer and/or other gamers as progression line charts, histograms, pie charts or other suitable presentation methods.","The results can also be reported in a gaming tournament, on-line games, or other suitable setting in a manner similar to the illustrations of FIGS.","11-14.The AMS application can compare a gamer's performance in a particular game to a gaming session recorded from a prior tournament for the same game or another game.","Performance in the present context can mean a comparison of only stimulus signals (e.g., accessory-generated stimulus signals and/or substitute stimulus signals).","This embodiment may be user-selectable (i.e., user selects stimulus analysis only) by way of a GUI presented by the AMS application, or the AMS application may apply this embodiment automatically in instances where the AMS application does not receive gaming action results from the gaming application due to a lack of an API or other suitable interface to receive gaming action results from the gaming application.","Performance can also mean a comparison of only gaming action results and not stimulus signals, which can also be a user-selectable feature presented by a GUI generated by the AMS application.","Performance can further represent a combination of gaming action results and stimulus signals with similar data of other recorded gaming sessions.","In sum, a gamer's performance can be determined from stimulus signals (with or without substitute stimulus signals), and/or gaming action results in whole or on part monitored by the AMS application.","For any one of the foregoing embodiments, the AMS application can detect improvements or degradations in performance between a present tournament game and the previously recorded tournament game and report the results to the gamer and/or an audience of on-line gamers or a public audience at a tournament via the monitors of FIGS.","11-14.The foregoing embodiments can be applied in a private setting (i.e., only visible to the gamer) and/or a social network of gamers who share and present results via the AMS application or a social network such as FaceBook™ or other suitable social network platform.","In yet another embodiment, the AMS application can be adapted to compare a gamer's performance to another gamer's recorded performance.","In a tournament setting, for example, the gamers' performance can be compared to each other based on the present gaming session or prior recorded sessions of the other gamer.","In one embodiment, the AMS application can be adapted to present a GUI where it presents a list of gamers and recorded sessions from each gamer.","The GUI can enable a user to select a particular gamer and a particular recorded gaming session of the selected gamer for comparison to a recorded (or live) gaming session of the user making the selection or another gamer of interest to the user (e.g., comparing the performance of two professional gamers).","It should be noted that gaming sessions recorded by the AMS application can be locally stored on a gamer's computing device (e.g., desktop computer or gaming console) or on a remote server managed by a service provider of the AMS application or by a service provider that provides “Cloud” storing services.","Comparison results can similarly be stored on a gamer's local computing device or a remote server.","In yet another embodiment, the AMS application can be adapted to alert users when a particular gamer has achieved certain performance criteria established by another gamer.","For instance, the AMS application can present a GUI to a gamer to identify performance criteria of interest (e.g., number of kill hits, average hit rate for a particular weapon, a particular ranking of a gamer for a particular gaming application, etc.).","The identified performance criteria can be monitored by the AMS application for the selected gamer and when one or more criteria have been achieved by the monitored gamer, the AMS application can alert the interested user by suitable communication means such as email, short messaging system (SMS) text message, or a GUI of the AMS application when the interested user is engaging the AMS application.","In another embodiment, the AMS application can compare the performance of the gamers to a community rating localized to users of the gaming console 206, or all or a portion of on-line users which can span a large community of users of the gaming application.","For example, although an average hit rate of 5% for a sniper rifle may seem low for gamer #1 in FIG.","11, when these statistics are compared to other members of a community (e.g., other professional players), the AMS application can determine from prior performance records of members of the community (retrieved from a local or remote database) that the user's performance is in fact above average.","Similar community comparisons can be performed for the weapon type “machine gun” and “hand gun”.","The AMS application can also monitor and track statistics of other gaming applications which may have different weapon types.","Similar statistics can be generated and compared to the performance of members of a community to which the gamer is associated.","In one embodiment, the statistical results shown in FIGS.","11-14 can be used to identify behavioral and/or skill patterns of a gamer.","For instance, suppose a gamer appears to perform well as a sniper in one gaming application and bow and arrow marksman in a different gaming application.","The AMS application can be adapted to detect these correlations to indicate a skill set of the gamer that may be consistent between different games.","For example, a sniper and bowman have a similar trait that requires marksmanship, calm nerves, and knowing when to strike.","This trait can be identified by the AMS application and can be used to identify other games in which the gamer may perform well.","This trait can also be advertised to other gamers to promote teams.","The above-described methods can be adapted to operate in whole or in part in a gaming accessory, in an operating system of a computer, in a gaming console, in a gaming application that generates the video game, or any other suitable software application and/or device.","The method of FIG.","7A can be adapted to ignore or filter game action results, which may not be relevant to the gamer or analysts.","For instance, the AMS application can be adapted to ignore (or filter) game action results relating to navigation of the avatar (e.g., turn around, jump, etc.).","The AMS application can also be adapted to ignore (or filter) game action results relating to preparatory actions such as reloading a gun, switching between weapons, and so on.","In another embodiment, the AMS application can be adapted to selectively monitor only particular game result actions such as misses, non-kill hits, kills, and life of the avatar.","The AMS application can also be adapted to monitor gaming action results with or without temporal data associated with the stimuli and game action results.","In one embodiment, the AMS application can be adapted to track stimuli (or substitutions thereof) by submission order, and order of gaming action results supplied by the gaming application, and perform cataloguing thereof by the respective order of stimuli and gaming action results.","The items can be catalogued by the AMS application with or without temporal data.","In one embodiment, the AMS application can be adapted to collect gaming action results for “all” or a substantial portion of stimuli (or substitutions thereof) transmitted to the gaming application.","In this embodiment, the AMS application can be adapted to enable a gamer to replay portions of the game to allow the gamer to visualize (in slow motion, still shots, or regular play speed) the actions taken by the gamer (i.e., accessory stimuli and/or substitute stimuli) to help the gamer identify areas of the game where his/her performance can be improved.","In one embodiment, the AMS application can be implemented as a distributed system (e.g., one or more servers executing one or more virtual machines) enabling multiples users to control aspects of the AMS application.","For example, in a tournament setting, gaming analysts having access to the AMS application can request a replay of portions of the game to demonstrate exceptional plays versus missed plays at a JumboTron™ display.","The gamers can access the AMS application to establish new substitute stimuli, perform calibrations on macros, or invoke or create additional gaming profiles.","Portions of the AMS application can also be implemented by equipment of unaffiliated parties or service providers of gaming services.","In one embodiment, the AMS application can be adapted to substitute an accessory stimulus (or stimuli) for a macro comprising a combination of substitute stimuli, and track the macro when gaming action results are received from the gaming application rather than track each individual substitute stimulus of the macro.","The AMS application can be adapted to monitor macros by tracking an order of stimuli (or substitutes) associated with the macro that are transmitted to the gaming application and by tracking an order of gaming action results received from the gaming application, which are associated with the macro.","Alternatively, or in combination the AMS application can add a unique identifier to the substitute stimuli to identify the stimuli as being associated with the macro.","The AMS application can be adapted to catalogue the gaming action results associated with the macro in a manner that allows the gamer to identify a group of gaming action results as being associated with the macro.","The AMS application can also be adapted to collect sufficient data to assess each individual gaming action result of the macro (e.g., temporal data, hits, misses, etc.).","The presentation of catalogued macro data can be hierarchical.","For example, the AMS application can present a particular macro by way of a high level GUI that indicates the macro caused a kill.","The AMS application can be adapted to enable the gamer to select a different GUI that enables the user to visualize a gaming action result for each stimulus of the macro to determine how effective the macro was in performing the kill, and whether further adjustments of the macro might improve the gamer's performance.","In one embodiment, the AMS application can be adapted to present more or less competitive information than is shown in FIGS.","11-14.In one embodiment, for example, the AMS application can be adapted to present competitive information without the virtual peripherals.","In one example, the AMS application can be adapted to present scrollable pages of competitive information with or without the virtual peripherals.","In another illustration, the AMS application can be adapted to present competitive information without a viewing of the game or the gamer.","Other variants of presenting competitive information or other data shown in FIGS.","11-14 are contemplated by the subject disclosure.","The foregoing embodiments are a subset of possible embodiments contemplated by the subject disclosure.","Other suitable modifications can be applied to the subject disclosure.","FIG.","15 depicts an exemplary diagrammatic representation of a machine in the form of a computer system 1500 within which a set of instructions, when executed, may cause the machine to perform any one or more of the methods discussed above.","One or more instances of the machine can operate as any of devices depicted in FIGS.","1-3.In some embodiments, the machine may be connected (e.g., using a network) to other machines.","In a networked deployment, the machine may operate in the capacity of a server or a client user machine in server-client user network environment, or as a peer machine in a peer-to-peer (or distributed) network environment.","The machine may comprise a server computer, a client user computer, a personal computer (PC), a tablet PC, a smart phone, a laptop computer, a desktop computer, a control system, a network router, switch or bridge, or any machine capable of executing a set of instructions (sequential or otherwise) that specify actions to be taken by that machine.","It will be understood that a communication device of the subject disclosure includes broadly any electronic device that provides voice, video or data communication.","Further, while a single machine is illustrated, the term “machine” shall also be taken to include any collection of machines that individually or jointly execute a set (or multiple sets) of instructions to perform any one or more of the methods discussed herein.","The computer system 1500 may include a processor 1502 (e.g., a central processing unit (CPU), a graphics processing unit (GPU, or both), a main memory 1504 and a static memory 1506, which communicate with each other via a bus 1508.The computer system 1500 may further include a video display unit 1510 (e.g., a liquid crystal display (LCD), a flat panel, or a solid state display.","The computer system 1500 may include an input device 1512 (e.g., a keyboard), a cursor control device 1514 (e.g., a mouse), a disk drive unit 1516, a signal generation device 1518 (e.g., a speaker or remote control) and a network interface device 1520.The disk drive unit 1516 may include a tangible computer-readable storage medium 1522 on which is stored one or more sets of instructions (e.g., software 1524) embodying any one or more of the methods or functions described herein, including those methods illustrated above.","The instructions 1524 may also reside, completely or at least partially, within the main memory 1504, the static memory 1506, and/or within the processor 1502 during execution thereof by the computer system 1500.The main memory 1504 and the processor 1502 also may constitute tangible computer-readable storage media.","Dedicated hardware implementations including, but not limited to, application specific integrated circuits, programmable logic arrays and other hardware devices can likewise be constructed to implement the methods described herein.","Applications that may include the apparatus and systems of various embodiments broadly include a variety of electronic and computer systems.","Some embodiments implement functions in two or more specific interconnected hardware modules or devices with related control and data signals communicated between and through the modules, or as portions of an application-specific integrated circuit.","Thus, the example system is applicable to software, firmware, and hardware implementations.","In accordance with various embodiments of the subject disclosure, the methods described herein are intended for operation as software programs running on a computer processor.","Furthermore, software implementations can include, but not limited to, distributed processing or component/object distributed processing, parallel processing, or virtual machine processing can also be constructed to implement the methods described herein.","While the tangible computer-readable storage medium 622 is shown in an example embodiment to be a single medium, the term “tangible computer-readable storage medium” should be taken to include a single medium or multiple media (e.g., a centralized or distributed database, and/or associated caches and servers) that store the one or more sets of instructions.","The term “tangible computer-readable storage medium” shall also be taken to include any non-transitory medium that is capable of storing or encoding a set of instructions for execution by the machine and that cause the machine to perform any one or more of the methods of the subject disclosure.","The term “tangible computer-readable storage medium” shall accordingly be taken to include, but not be limited to: solid-state memories such as a memory card or other package that houses one or more read-only (non-volatile) memories, random access memories, or other re-writable (volatile) memories, a magneto-optical or optical medium such as a disk or tape, or other tangible media which can be used to store information.","Accordingly, the disclosure is considered to include any one or more of a tangible computer-readable storage medium, as listed herein and including art-recognized equivalents and successor media, in which the software implementations herein are stored.","Although the present specification describes components and functions implemented in the embodiments with reference to particular standards and protocols, the disclosure is not limited to such standards and protocols.","Each of the standards for Internet and other packet switched network transmission (e.g., TCP/IP, UDP/IP, HTML, HTTP) represent examples of the state of the art.","Such standards are from time-to-time superseded by faster or more efficient equivalents having essentially the same functions.","Wireless standards for device detection (e.g., RFID), short-range communications (e.g., Bluetooth, WiFi, Zigbee), and long-range communications (e.g., WiMAX, GSM, CDMA, LTE) are contemplated for use by computer system 1500.The illustrations of embodiments described herein are intended to provide a general understanding of the structure of various embodiments, and they are not intended to serve as a complete description of all the elements and features of apparatus and systems that might make use of the structures described herein.","Many other embodiments will be apparent to those of skill in the art upon reviewing the above description.","Other embodiments may be utilized and derived therefrom, such that structural and logical substitutions and changes may be made without departing from the scope of this disclosure.","Figures are also merely representational and may not be drawn to scale.","Certain proportions thereof may be exaggerated, while others may be minimized Accordingly, the specification and drawings are to be regarded in an illustrative rather than a restrictive sense.","Although specific embodiments have been illustrated and described herein, it should be appreciated that any arrangement calculated to achieve the same purpose may be substituted for the specific embodiments shown.","This disclosure is intended to cover any and all adaptations or variations of various embodiments.","Combinations of the above embodiments, and other embodiments not specifically described herein, are contemplated by the subject disclosure.","The Abstract of the Disclosure is provided with the understanding that it will not be used to interpret or limit the scope or meaning of the claims.","In addition, in the foregoing Detailed Description, it can be seen that various features are grouped together in a single embodiment for the purpose of streamlining the disclosure.","This method of disclosure is not to be interpreted as reflecting an intention that the claimed embodiments require more features than are expressly recited in each claim.","Rather, as the following claims reflect, inventive subject matter lies in less than all features of a single disclosed embodiment.","Thus the following claims are hereby incorporated into the Detailed Description, with each claim standing on its own as a separately claimed subject matter."]],"string":"[\n [\n \"METHOD AND APPARATUS FOR TRAINING A USER OF A SOFTWARE APPLICATION\",\n \"A method that incorporates teachings of the subject disclosure may include, for example, detecting a game stimulus signal generated by a first gaming accessory device, determining a first game action result based on the game stimulus signal, analyzing the first game action result to provide a first coaching message to achieve a desired result, and presenting the coaching message.\",\n \"Additional embodiments are disclosed.\"\n ],\n [\n \"1.A method, comprising: executing, by a computing device comprising a processing system including a processor, a video game generated by a video game software application; presenting, by the computing device, an image representing a game situation of the video game generated by the video game software application; determining, by the computing device, a gaming venue state of the game situation of the video game by performing image processing on the image representing the game situation of the video game.\",\n \"detecting, by the computing device, a first game stimulus signal from a first gaming accessory device controlled by a first game user and a second game stimulus signal from a second gaming accessory device controlled by a second game user; substituting, by the computing device, a first substitute game stimulation signal for the first game stimulus signal according to the gaming venue state of the game situation of the video game; generating, by the computing device, a first game action result according to the first substitute stimulation signal; generating, by the computing device, a second game action result according to the second game stimulus signal; comparing, by the computing device, the first game action result and the second game action result to determine a strategy difference between the first game user and the second game user; generating, by the computing device, a first coaching message based on the strategy difference that is determined; and presenting, by the computing device, the first coaching message.\",\n \"2.The method of claim 1, wherein the image comprises a target, and wherein the game situation has associated therewith a first desired result corresponding to hitting the target.\",\n \"3.The method of claim 2, wherein the comparing further comprises: determining, by the computing device, whether the first game action result failed to achieve the first desired result; and analyzing, by the computing device, the first game action result responsive to determining that the first game action result failed to achieve the first desired result.\",\n \"4.The method of claim 2, wherein the comparing further comprises: determining, by the computing device, whether the second game action result failed to achieve the first desired result; and analyzing, by the computing device, the second game action result responsive to determining that the second game action result failed to achieve the first desired result.\",\n \"5.The method of claim 1, further comprising retrieving first data relating to the first game action result and second data relating to a second game action result.\",\n \"6.The method of claim 1, wherein the second game user comprises a simulated processing unit, wherein the game situation comprises an encounter between the first game user and the simulated processing unit, and wherein the second game action result is further generated based on an action by the simulated processing unit.\",\n \"7.The method of claim 1, wherein the first coaching message is presented to the first game user if the first game action result failed to achieve a first desired result.\",\n \"8.The method of claim 1, wherein the first coaching message is presented to the first game user and further comprising presenting, by the computing device, a second coaching message to the second game user.\",\n \"9.The method of claim 8, wherein the first coaching message is presented during the video game on a first display device and the second coaching message is presented during the video game on a second display device.\",\n \"10.The method of claim 1, wherein the computing device comprises a server communicatively coupled to the processing system, wherein the server is remotely located from the processing system, wherein the processing system is communicatively coupled to the first gaming accessory device and provides the first gaming stimulus signal to the server, and wherein a first portion of the video game software application is executed by the server, and a second portion of the video game software application is executed by the processing system.\",\n \"11.The method of claim 1, further comprising retrieving, by the computing device, first data relating to the first game action result, wherein the first data comprises a time of occurrence of the first game stimulus signal, a frequency of use of the first game stimulus signal, a location in the gaming venue state affected by the substitute game stimulation signal, a trajectory of an object initiated by the first substitute game stimulation signal, or any combination thereof.\",\n \"12.The method of claim 1, further comprising: recording at least a first portion of a first session of the video game where the first substitute game stimulation did not cause a first desired result; and generating a second portion of a second session of the video game according to a third game stimulus signal which, if generated by the first gaming accessory device, would cause the first desired result, wherein the presenting of the first coaching message further comprises presenting, by the computing device, one of the first portion of the first session of the video game, the second portion of the second session of the video game, or both.\",\n \"13.The method of claim 12, further comprising presenting, by the computing device, selectable functions to enable pausing, forwarding, rewinding, skipping, or scene selection of one of the first portion of the first session of the video game, the second portion of the second session of the video game or both, or any combination thereof.\",\n \"14.A machine-readable storage device comprising instructions, which when executed by a processing system including a processor, cause the processing system to perform operations comprising: executing a video game generated by a video game software application; detecting a first game stimulus signal from a first gaming accessory device controlled by a first game user and a second game stimulus signal from a second gaming accessory device controlled by a second game user; substituting a first substitute game stimulation signal for the first game stimulus signal according to a gaming venue state of a game situation of a video game; generating a first game action result according to the first substitute stimulation signal; generating a second game action result according to the second game stimulus signal; comparing the first game action result and the second game action result to determine a strategy difference between the first game user and the second game user; generating a first coaching message based on the strategy difference that is determined; and presenting the first coaching message.\",\n \"15.The machine-readable storage device of claim 14, further comprising presenting an image representing the game situation of the video game generated by the video game software application.\",\n \"16.The machine-readable storage device of claim 15, further comprising determining the gaming venue state of the game situation of the video game by performing image processing on the image representing the game situation of the video game.\",\n \"17.The machine-readable storage device of claim 15, wherein the image comprises a target, wherein the game situation has associated therewith a first desired result corresponding to hitting the target, and wherein the comparing further comprises: determining whether the first game action result failed to achieve the first desired result; and analyzing the first game action result responsive to determining that the first game action result failed to achieve the first desired result.\",\n \"18.The machine-readable storage device of claim 14, wherein the first coaching message is presented to the first game user if the first game action result failed to achieve a first desired result.\",\n \"19.A computing device, comprising: a memory to store computer instructions; and a processing system including a processor coupled to the memory, wherein when executing the computer instructions, the processing system performs operations, comprising: executing a video game generated by a video game software application; detecting a first game stimulus signal from a first gaming accessory device controlled by a first game user and a second game stimulus signal from a second gaming accessory device controlled by a second game user; substituting a first substitute game stimulation signal for the first game stimulus signal according to a gaming venue state of a game situation of a video game; generating a first game action result according to the first substitute stimulation signal; generating a second game action result according to the second game stimulus signal; determining a strategy difference between the first game user and the second game user according to the first game action result and the second game action result; and presenting a first coaching message based on the strategy difference that is determined.\",\n \"20.The computing device of claim 19, wherein the first coaching message is presented to the first game user if the first game action result failed to achieve a first desired result.\"\n ],\n [\n \" BACKGROUND It is common today for gamers to utilize more than one gaming accessory.\",\n \"This is especially true of gamers who play on-line games or competitive games in a team or individual configuration.\",\n \"Gamers can have at their disposal accessories such as a keyboard, a general purpose gaming pad, a mouse, a gaming console controller, a headset with a built-in microphone to communicate with other players, a joystick, a computer console, or other common gaming accessories.\",\n \"A gamer can frequently use a combination of these accessories during a game.\",\n \"Efficient management and utilization of these accessories can frequently impact a gamer's ability to compete.\"\n ],\n [\n \" BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS Reference will now be made to the accompanying drawings, which are not necessarily drawn to scale, and wherein: FIG.\",\n \"1 depicts an illustrative embodiment of a Graphical User Interface (GUI) generated by an Accessory Management Software (AMS) application according to the subject disclosure; FIGS.\",\n \"2A and 2B depict illustrative embodiments for communicatively coupling a gaming controller to a computing device via a network; FIG.\",\n \"3 schematically illustrates gaming accessories that can be used by a gamer interacting with a gaming engine; FIG.\",\n \"4 depicts an illustrative embodiment of a communication device; FIGS.\",\n \"5, 6 and 7A-7E are flowcharts depicting methods describing illustrative embodiments of the subject disclosure; FIGS.\",\n \"7F-7H schematically illustrate gaming environments for training a game player; FIG.\",\n \"8 depicts an illustrative embodiment of a system operating at least in part according to the methods of FIGS.\",\n \"5, 6, and 7A-7E ; FIG.\",\n \"9 depicts an illustrative embodiment of a communication flow diagram utilized by the system of FIG.\",\n \"12 ; FIG.\",\n \"10 depicts an illustrative embodiment for highlighting functions of an accessory; FIGS.\",\n \"11-14 depict illustrative embodiments for presenting performances of gamers; and FIG.\",\n \"15 depicts an illustrative diagrammatic representation of a machine in the form of a computer system within which a set of instructions, when executed, may cause the machine to perform any one or more of the methodologies disclosed herein.\",\n \"detailed-description description=\\\"Detailed Description\\\" end=\\\"lead\\\"?\"\n ],\n [\n \"CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION(S) This application is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser.\",\n \"No.\",\n \"13/788,835, filed Mar.\",\n \"7, 2013.The contents of each of the foregoing are hereby incorporated by reference into this application as if set forth herein in full.\",\n \"FIELD OF THE DISCLOSURE The subject disclosure relates generally to a method and apparatus for training game players.\",\n \"BACKGROUND It is common today for gamers to utilize more than one gaming accessory.\",\n \"This is especially true of gamers who play on-line games or competitive games in a team or individual configuration.\",\n \"Gamers can have at their disposal accessories such as a keyboard, a general purpose gaming pad, a mouse, a gaming console controller, a headset with a built-in microphone to communicate with other players, a joystick, a computer console, or other common gaming accessories.\",\n \"A gamer can frequently use a combination of these accessories during a game.\",\n \"Efficient management and utilization of these accessories can frequently impact a gamer's ability to compete.\",\n \"BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS Reference will now be made to the accompanying drawings, which are not necessarily drawn to scale, and wherein: FIG.\",\n \"1 depicts an illustrative embodiment of a Graphical User Interface (GUI) generated by an Accessory Management Software (AMS) application according to the subject disclosure; FIGS.\",\n \"2A and 2B depict illustrative embodiments for communicatively coupling a gaming controller to a computing device via a network; FIG.\",\n \"3 schematically illustrates gaming accessories that can be used by a gamer interacting with a gaming engine; FIG.\",\n \"4 depicts an illustrative embodiment of a communication device; FIGS.\",\n \"5, 6 and 7A-7E are flowcharts depicting methods describing illustrative embodiments of the subject disclosure; FIGS.\",\n \"7F-7H schematically illustrate gaming environments for training a game player; FIG.\",\n \"8 depicts an illustrative embodiment of a system operating at least in part according to the methods of FIGS.\",\n \"5, 6, and 7A-7E; FIG.\",\n \"9 depicts an illustrative embodiment of a communication flow diagram utilized by the system of FIG.\",\n \"12; FIG.\",\n \"10 depicts an illustrative embodiment for highlighting functions of an accessory; FIGS.\",\n \"11-14 depict illustrative embodiments for presenting performances of gamers; and FIG.\",\n \"15 depicts an illustrative diagrammatic representation of a machine in the form of a computer system within which a set of instructions, when executed, may cause the machine to perform any one or more of the methodologies disclosed herein.\",\n \"DETAILED DESCRIPTION The subject disclosure describes, among other things, illustrative embodiments for training game players.\",\n \"Other embodiments are contemplated by the subject disclosure.\",\n \"One embodiment of the subject disclosure can entail a method for presenting, by a computing device executing a video game software application, one or more images representing one or more gaming venue states of a video game generated by the video game software application, detecting, by the computing device, a first game stimulus signal from a first gaming accessory device, generating, by the computing device, a first game action result based on a determination whether the first game stimulus signal causes a first desired result, retrieving, by the computing device, first data relating to the first game action result, analyzing, by the computing device, the first data to provide a first coaching message in accordance with the first desired result, and presenting, by the computing device, the first coaching message.\",\n \"One embodiment of the subject disclosure can entail a computing device including memory to store computer instructions, and a controller coupled to the memory.\",\n \"Responsive to executing the computer instructions, the controller performs operations including executing a video game software application, presenting one or more images representing one or more gaming venue states generated from the video game software application, detecting a first game stimulus signal from a first gaming accessory device, generating a first game action result according to the first game stimulus signal, analyzing the first game action result responsive to determining that the game action result did not achieve a desired result, generating a first coaching message to assist a first gamer in achieving the desired result, and presenting the first coaching message.\",\n \"One embodiment of the subject disclosure can entail a computer-readable storage device including instructions.\",\n \"Responsive to executing the instructions by a processor, the processor can perform operations including detecting a game stimulus signal generated by a first gaming accessory device, determining a first game action result based on the game stimulus signal, analyzing the first game action result to provide a first coaching message to achieve a desired result, and presenting the coaching message.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"1 depicts an illustrative embodiment 100 of a Graphical User Interface (GUI) 101 generated by an Accessory Management Software (AMS) application according to the subject disclosure.\",\n \"The gamer can interact with one or more of the gaming accessories via the GUI.\",\n \"The AMS application can be executed by a computing device such as a desktop computer, a laptop computer, a server, a mainframe computer, a gaming console, a gaming accessory, or combinations or combinations of portions thereof.\",\n \"The AMS application can also be executed by portable computing devices (with computing resources) such as a cellular phone, a smartphone, a personal digital assistant, a tablet, or a media player (such as an iPOD™).\",\n \"It is contemplated that the AMS application can be executed by any device with suitable computing resources.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"2A schematically depicts a gaming controller 115 which can be used by a gamer, according to an embodiment of the subject disclosure.\",\n \"In this embodiment, gaming controller 115 and gaming console 206 have an integrated wireless interface for wireless communications therebetween (e.g., WiFi, Bluetooth, ZigBee, or a proprietary protocol).\",\n \"The gaming console 206 can also be coupled to network 270 via communication link 245, such as a WiFi link, to the internet.\",\n \"The gaming console 206 can be, for example, an Xbox™, a PS3™, a Wii™, or another suitable gaming console device.\",\n \"Video information is displayed to the gamer on display device 231, which in this illustration is coupled to gaming console 206 by a wired connection 235, but can be replaced, if desirable, by a wireless interface (e.g., wireless HDMI.\",\n \"Display device 231 may be a television as illustrated or a touch screen comprising both an input device and an output device.\",\n \"Alternatively, the gaming controller 115 can be tethered to a computing device such as the gaming console by a cable (e.g., USB cable) to provide a means of communication less susceptible to electromagnetic interference or other sources of wireless interference.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"2B depicts an alternative embodiment to FIG.\",\n \"1A in which a desktop computer 262 is used in place of the gaming console 206.In one embodiment, the desktop computer 262 can be configured to execute a gaming client (i.e., a software application) acting in cooperation with an on-line gaming server 272 accessible by the desktop computer 262 via the network 270 (e.g., World of Warcraft™).\",\n \"In another embodiment, the desktop computer 262 can be configured to execute a localized gaming software application without accessing the on-line gaming server 272.The gaming accessory used with the desktop computer 262 can be a keyboard 108, mouse 110, or another suitable gaming accessory device.\",\n \"In the present context, an accessory can represent any type of device which can be communicatively coupled to the computing device (or an integral part of the computing device) and which can control aspects of an operating system (OS) and/or a software application operating in the computing device.\",\n \"An accessory can represent for example a keyboard, a touch screen display, a gaming pad, a gaming controller, a mouse, a joystick, a microphone, or a headset with a microphone—just to mention a few.\",\n \"It is understood that the devices shown in FIGS.\",\n \"1, 2A and 2B are mere illustrations of possible gaming configurations.\",\n \"The subject disclosure is applicable to other gaming configurations and is thereby not limited by those described in FIGS.\",\n \"1, 2A and 2B.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"3 illustrates gaming accessory devices with which a gamer 301 can interact.\",\n \"Touch-sensitive devices 310 can include a gaming controller 115, mouse 110, keyboard 108, touchscreen display 231, and joystick 116.Audio devices 320 can include headphones 114, microphone 321, and speakerphone 323.Imaging devices 330 can include webcam 331.These accessory devices can provide tactile, audio, and/or visual stimuli to a gamer, receive responses from the gamer to thereby generate stimuli which can be interpreted by a gaming software application, or both.\",\n \"The accessories can be coupled to the computing device by a tethered interface (e.g., USB cable), a wireless interface (e.g., Bluetooth or Wireless Fidelity—WiFi), or combinations thereof.\",\n \"The term “gaming system,” as used herein, refers to the combination of computing hardware and software that delivers a gaming experience.\",\n \"The software applications that present and manage the gaming experience are collectively referred to herein as a “gaming engine.” The gaming engine generally includes the AMS for managing and augmenting usage of the various accessories, and an Application Program Interface (API) for receiving feedback from a computing device which is a subset of the gaming system that executes a gaming software application.\",\n \"The computing device can be a gaming console, a server, a local computer, a portable communication device, combinations thereof, or other devices with suitable processing resources.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"4 depicts an illustrative embodiment of a computing device 400.Computing device 400 can serve in whole or in part as an illustrative embodiment of the devices depicted in FIGS.\",\n \"1-3.The computing device 400 can comprise a wireline and/or wireless transceiver 402 (herein transceiver 402), a user interface (UI) 404, a power supply 414, a proximity sensor 416, a motion sensor 418, an orientation sensor 420, and a controller 406 for managing operations thereof.\",\n \"The transceiver 402 can support short-range or long-range wireless access technologies such as Bluetooth, WiFi, Digital Enhanced Cordless Telecommunications (DECT), or cellular communication technologies, just to mention a few.\",\n \"Cellular technologies can include, for example, CDMA-1X, UMTS/HSDPA, GSM/GPRS, TDMA/EDGE, EV/DO, WiMAX, software defined radio (SDR), Long Term Evolution (LTE), as well as proprietary or other next generation wireless communication technologies as they arise.\",\n \"The transceiver 402 can also be adapted to support circuit-switched wireline access technologies (such as PSTN), packet-switched wireline access technologies (such as TCP/IP, VoIP, etc.\",\n \"), and combinations thereof.\",\n \"The UI 404 can include a depressible or touch-sensitive keypad 408 coupled to a navigation mechanism such as a roller ball, a joystick, a mouse, or a navigation disk for manipulating operations of the computing device 400.The keypad 408 can be an integral part of a housing assembly of the computing device 400 or an independent device operably coupled thereto by a tethered wireline interface (such as a USB cable) or a wireless interface supporting for example Bluetooth.\",\n \"The keypad 408 can represent a numeric keypad, and/or a QWERTY keypad with alphanumeric keys.\",\n \"The UI 404 can further include a display 410 such as monochrome or color LCD (Liquid Crystal Display), OLED (Organic Light Emitting Diode) or other suitable display technology for conveying images to an end user of the computing device 400.In an embodiment where the display 410 is touch-sensitive, a portion or all of the keypad 408 can be presented by way of the display 410 with navigation features (e.g., an iPad™, iPhone™, or Android™ phone or tablet).\",\n \"As a touch screen display, the computing device 400 can be adapted to present a user interface with graphical user interface (GUI) elements that can be selected by a user with a touch of a finger.\",\n \"The touch screen display 410 can be equipped with capacitive, resistive or other forms of sensing technology to detect how much surface area of a user's finger has been placed on a portion of the touch screen display.\",\n \"This sensing information can be used to control the manipulation of the GUI elements.\",\n \"The UI 404 can also include an audio system 412 that utilizes common audio technology for conveying low volume audio (such as audio heard only in the proximity of a human ear) and high volume audio (such as speakerphone for hands free operation, stereo or surround sound system).\",\n \"The audio system 412 can further include a microphone for receiving audible signals of an end user.\",\n \"The audio system 412 can also be used for voice recognition applications.\",\n \"The UI 404 can further include an image sensor 413 such as a charged coupled device (CCD) camera for capturing still or moving images and performing image recognition therefrom.\",\n \"The power supply 414 can utilize common power management technologies such as replaceable or rechargeable batteries, supply regulation technologies, and charging system technologies for supplying energy to the components of the computing device 400 to facilitate long-range or short-range portable applications.\",\n \"Alternatively, the charging system can utilize external power sources such as DC power supplied over a physical interface such as a USB port or by way of a power cord attached to a transformer that converts AC to DC power.\",\n \"The proximity sensor 416 can utilize proximity sensing technology such as an electromagnetic sensor, a capacitive sensor, an inductive sensor, an image sensor or combinations thereof.\",\n \"The motion sensor 418 can utilize motion sensing technology such as an accelerometer, a gyroscope, or other suitable motion sensing technology to detect movement of the computing device 400 in three-dimensional space.\",\n \"The orientation sensor 420 can utilize orientation sensing technology such as a magnetometer to detect the orientation of the computing device 400 (North, South, West, East, combined orientations thereof in degrees, minutes, or other suitable orientation metrics).\",\n \"The controller 406 can utilize computing technologies such as a microprocessor, a digital signal processor (DSP), and/or a video processor with associated storage memory such as Flash, ROM, RAM, SRAM, DRAM or other storage technologies.\",\n \"Other components not shown in FIG.\",\n \"4 are contemplated by the subject disclosure.\",\n \"For instance, the computing device 400 can include a reset button (not shown).\",\n \"The reset button can be used to reset the controller 406 of the computing device 400.In yet another embodiment, the computing device 400 can also include a factory default setting button positioned below a small hole in a housing assembly of the computing device 400 to force the computing device 400 to re-establish factory settings.\",\n \"In this embodiment, a user can use a protruding object such as a pen or paper clip tip to reach into the hole and depress the default setting button.\",\n \"The computing device 400 as described herein can operate with more or fewer components described in FIG.\",\n \"4 to accommodate the implementation of the devices described by the subject disclosure.\",\n \"These variant embodiments are contemplated by the subject disclosure.\",\n \"FIGS.\",\n \"5, 6 and 7A-E depict methods 500-700 describing illustrative embodiments of the AMS application.\",\n \"Method 500 can begin with step 502 in which the AMS application is invoked in a computing device.\",\n \"The computing device can be a remote server (not shown), the gaming console 206 of FIG.\",\n \"2A, or any other computing device with suitable computing resources.\",\n \"The invocation step can result from a user selection of the AMS application from a menu or iconic symbol presented on a desktop of the computing device by an operating system (OS) managing operations thereof.\",\n \"In step 504, the AMS application can detect by way of drivers in the OS a plurality of operationally distinct accessories communicatively coupled to the computing device.\",\n \"The accessories can be coupled to the computing device by a tethered interface (e.g., USB cable), a wireless interface (e.g., Bluetooth or Wireless Fidelity—WiFi), or combinations thereof.\",\n \"In the present context, an accessory can represent any type of device which can be communicatively coupled to the computing device (or an integral part of the computing device) and which can control aspects of the OS and/or a software application operating in the computing device.\",\n \"An accessory can represent for example a keyboard, a touch screen display, a gaming pad, a gaming controller, a mouse, a joystick, a microphone, or a headset with a microphone—just to mention a few.\",\n \"In step 506, the AMS application presents a GUI 101 such as depicted in FIG.\",\n \"1 with operationally distinct accessories such as a keyboard 108, and a gaming controller 115.The GUI 101 presents the accessories 108-116 in a scrollable section 117.One or more accessories can be selected by a user with a mouse pointer.\",\n \"In this illustration, the keyboard 108 and the gaming controller 115 were selected for customization.\",\n \"Upon selecting the keyboard 108 and the gaming controller 115 from the scrollable window of section 117, the AMS application presents the keyboard 108 and the gaming controller 115 in split windows 118, 120, respectively, to assist the user during the customization process.\",\n \"In step 508, the AMS application can be programmed to detect a user-selection of a particular software application such as a game.\",\n \"This step can be the result of the user entering in a Quick Search field 160 the name of a gaming application (e.g., World of Warcraft™ or WoW).\",\n \"Upon identifying a gaming application, the AMS application can retrieve in step 510 from a remote or local database gaming application actions which can be presented in a scrollable section 139 of the GUI represented as “Actions” 130.The actions can be tactical actions 132, communication actions 134, menu actions 136, and movement actions 138 which can be used to invoke and manage features of the gaming application.\",\n \"The actions presented descriptively in section 130 of the GUI can represent a sequence of accessory input functions which a user can stimulate by button depressions, navigation or speech.\",\n \"For example, depressing the left button on the mouse 110 can represent the tactical action “Reload”, while the simultaneous keyboard depressions “Ctrl A” can represent the tactical action “Melee Attack”.\",\n \"For ease of use, the “Actions” 130 section of the GUI is presented descriptively rather than by a description of the input function(s) of a particular accessory.\",\n \"Any one of the Actions 130 can be associated with one or more input functions of the accessories being customized in windows 118 and 120 by way of a drag and drop action or other customization options.\",\n \"For instance, a user can select a “Melee Attack” by placing a mouse pointer 133 over an iconic symbol associated with this action.\",\n \"Upon doing so, the symbol can be highlighted to indicate to the user that the icon is selectable.\",\n \"At this point, the user can select the icon by holding the left mouse button and drag the symbol to any of the input functions (e.g., buttons) of the keyboard 108 or selectable options of the gaming controller 115 to make an association with an input function of one of these accessories.\",\n \"Actions of one accessory can also be associated with another accessory that is of a different category.\",\n \"For example, key depressions “Ctrl A” of the key board 108 can be associated with one of the buttons of the gaming controller 115 (e.g., the left button 119).\",\n \"In one embodiment, a Melee Attack action can be associated by dragging this action to either the left button 119 or right button 121 of the gaming controller 115.Thus, when the selected button is depressed, the stimulus signal that is generated by the selected button of the gaming controller 115 can be substituted by the AMS application with the Melee Attack action.\",\n \"In another embodiment, the Melee Action can be associated with a combination of key button presses (e.g., simultaneous depression of the left and right buttons 119, 121, or a sequence of button depressions: two rapid left button depressions followed by a right button depression).\",\n \"In yet another embodiment, the Melee Action can be associated with movement of the gaming controller 115 such as, for example, rapid movement or shaking of the gaming controller 115.In a further embodiment, the AMS application can be adapted to make associations with two dimensional or three dimensional movements of the gaming controller 115 according to a gaming venue state.\",\n \"For example, suppose the player's avatar enters a fighter jet.\",\n \"In this gaming venue state, moving the left navigation knob forward can be associated by the AMS application with controlling the throttle of the jet engines.\",\n \"Rapidly moving the gaming controller 115 downward can represent release of munitions such as a bomb.\",\n \"In a gaming venue state where the gamer's avatar has entered a building, lifting of the gaming controller 115 above a first displacement threshold can be associated with a rapid movement of the avatar up one floor.\",\n \"A second displacement threshold can be associated with a rapid movement of the avatar down one floor—the opposite of the first displacement threshold.\",\n \"Alternatively, the second displacement threshold could be associated with a different action such as jumping between buildings when the avatar is on the roof of a building.\",\n \"The AMS application can associate standard stimuli generated by manipulating a gaming accessory with substitute stimuli that control gaming actions of a video game.\",\n \"The AMS application can be adapted to perform these associations based on a gaming venue state such as the ones described above.\",\n \"Accordingly, the associations made between stimuli supplied by an accessory such as the gaming controller 115 can be venue state dependent.\",\n \"The gaming venue state can be a description of a gaming state (e.g., entering a tank which requires the use of gaming controls for a tank), captured images of the gaming venue state (e.g., one or more still images of a tank, or a video of an avatar entering a tank), and/or application programming instructions (API) messages which can be received from the gaming application to enable the AMS application to identify the occurrence of a particular gaming venue state.\",\n \"At step 512 the AMS application can also respond to a user selection of a profile.\",\n \"A profile can be a device profile or master profile invoked by selecting GUI button 156 or 158, each of which can identify the association of gaming actions with input functions of one or more accessories.\",\n \"If a profile selection is detected in step 512, the AMS application can retrieve in step 514 macro(s) and/or prior associations defined by the profile.\",\n \"The actions and/or macros defined in the profile can also be presented in step 516 by the AMS application in the actions column 130 of the GUI 101 to modify existing profile associations or create new associations.\",\n \"In step 518, the AMS application can also respond to a user selection to create a macro.\",\n \"A macro in the present context can mean any actionable command which can be recorded by the AMS application.\",\n \"An actionable command can represent a sequence of stimuli generated by manipulating input functions of an accessory, a combination of actions in the Action section 130, an identification of a software application to be initiated by an operating system (OS), or any other recordable stimulus to initiate, control or manipulate software applications.\",\n \"For instance, a macro can represent a user entering the identity of a software application (e.g., instant messaging tool) to be initiated by an OS upon the AMS application detecting through speech recognition a speech command.\",\n \"A macro can also represent recordable speech delivered by a microphone singly or in combination with a headset for detection by another software application through speech recognition or for delivery of the recorded speech to other parties.\",\n \"In yet another embodiment a macro can represent recordable navigation of an accessory such as a joystick of the gaming controller 115, recordable selections of buttons of the gaming controller 115, and so on.\",\n \"Macros can also be combinations of the above illustrations with selected actions from the Actions 130 menu.\",\n \"Macros can be created from the GUI 101 by selecting a “Record Macro” button 148.The macro can be given a name and category in user-defined fields 140 and 142.Upon selecting the Record Macro button 148, a macro can be generated by selection of input functions on an accessory (e.g., Ctrl A, speech, navigation knob movements of the gaming controller 115, etc.)\",\n \"and/or by manual entry in field 144 (e.g., typing the name and location of a software application to be initiated by an OS, such as an instant messaging application, keyboard entries such as Ctrl A, etc.).\",\n \"Once the macro is created, it can be tested by selecting button 150 which can repeat the sequence specified in field 144.The clone button 152 can be selected to replicate the macro sequence if desired.\",\n \"Fields 152 can also present timing characteristics of the stimulation sequence in the macro with the ability to modify and thereby customize the timing of one or more stimulations in the stimulation sequence.\",\n \"Once the macro has been fully defined, selection of button 154 records the macro in step 520.The recording step can be combined with a step for adding the macro to the associable items Actions column 130, thereby providing the user the means to associate the macro with input functions of the accessories (e.g., one or more keys of the keyboard 108, buttons of the gaming controller 115, etc.).\",\n \"In step 522, the AMS application can respond to drag and drop associations of actions and input functions of the keyboard 108 or the gaming controller 115.Associations can also be made based on the two or three dimensional movements of the gaming controller 115.If user input indicates that a user is performing an association, the AMS application can proceed to step 524 where it can determine if a profile has been identified in step 512 to record the association(s) detected.\",\n \"If a profile has been identified, the associations are recorded/stored in the profile in step 526.If a profile has not been identified in step 512, the AMS application can create a profile in step 528 for recording the detected associations.\",\n \"In the same step, the user can name the newly created profile as desired.\",\n \"The newly created profile can also be associated with one or more gaming software applications in step 530 for future reference.\",\n \"The AMS application can also record in a profile in step 526 associations based on gaming venue states.\",\n \"In this embodiment the same stimuli generated by the gaming controller 115 can result in different substitutions based on the gaming venue state detected by the AMS application.\",\n \"The AMS application can be adapted to utilize image processing technology to detect a gaming venue state according to pre-stored images or video clips stored in the profile.\",\n \"For example, the AMS application can use image processing technology to identify an avatar of a gamer and track what the avatar does as directed by the gamer.\",\n \"For example, if the avatar enters a tank, the image processing technology of the AMS application can detect a gaming venue state associated with the use of a tank, and thereby identify associations between accessory stimuli and substitute stimuli according to the detected gaming venue state.\",\n \"Alternatively, the AMS application can determine a gaming venue state from information provided by a gaming application via an API as previously described.\",\n \"Referring back to step 526, once the associations have been recorded in a profile, the AMS application can determine in step 532 which of the accessories shown illustratively in FIGS.\",\n \"1-3 are programmable and available for programming If the AMS application detects that the accessories (e.g., keyboard 108, gaming controller 115) are communicatively coupled to a computing device from which the AMS application is operating (e.g., gaming console 306) and programmable, the AMS application can proceed to step 534 of FIG.\",\n \"5 where it submits the profile and its contents for storage in one of the accessories (e.g., the gaming controller 115 in FIGS.\",\n \"2A and 3).\",\n \"Once the accessory, gaming controller, or combinations thereof are programmed with the profile, such devices can perform stimuli substitutions according to the associations recorded by the AMS application in the profile.\",\n \"Alternatively, the AMS application can store the profile in computing devices 206, 262, or 272 of FIGS.\",\n \"2A-2B and perform substitutions of stimuli supplied by the gaming controller 115 according to associations recorded in the profile by the AMS application.\",\n \"The GUI 101 of FIG.\",\n \"1 presented by the AMS application can have other functions.\",\n \"For example, the GUI 101 can provide options for layout of the accessory selected (button 122), how the keyboard is illuminated when associations between input functions and actions are made (button 134), and configuration options for the accessory (button 126).\",\n \"The AMS application can adapt the GUI 101 to present more than one functional GUI page.\",\n \"For instance, by selecting button 102, the AMS application can adapt the GUI 101 to present a means to create macros and associate actions to accessory input functions as depicted in FIG.\",\n \"1.Selecting button 104 can cause the AMS application to adapt the GUI 101 to present statistics from stimulation information and/or gaming action results captured by the AMS application.\",\n \"Selecting button 106 can also cause the AMS application to adapt the GUI 101 to present promotional offers and software updates.\",\n \"The steps of method 500 in whole or in part can be repeated until a desirable pattern is achieved of associations between stimulus signals generated by accessories and substitute stimuli.\",\n \"It would be apparent to an artisan with ordinary skill in the art that there can be numerous other approaches to accomplish the embodiments described by method 500 or variants thereof.\",\n \"These undisclosed approaches are contemplated by the subject disclosure.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"6 depicts a method 600 for illustrating the operations of the AMS application for either of the configurations shown in FIGS.\",\n \"2A-2B.\",\n \"In the configurations of FIGS.\",\n \"2A and 2B, the AMS application can be operating in whole or in part from the gaming controller 115, the gaming console 206, the remote server 272, or a computing device such as the desktop computer 262.For illustration purposes, it is assumed the AMS application operates from the gaming console 206.Method 600 can begin with the AMS application establishing communications in steps 602 and 604 between the gaming console 206 and a gaming accessory such as the gaming controller 115, and a headset 114 such as shown in FIG.\",\n \"1.These steps can represent for example a user starting the AMS application from the gaming console 206 and/or the user inserting at a USB port of the gaming console 206 a connector of a USB cable tethered to the gaming controller 115, which invokes the AMS application.\",\n \"In step 606, the gaming controller 115 and/or headset 114 can in turn provide the AMS application one or more accessory ID's, or the user can provide by way of a keyboard or the gaming controller 115 user identification.\",\n \"With the accessory ID's, or user input the AMS application can identify in step 608 a user account associated with the gaming controller 115 and/or headset 114.In step 610, the AMS application can retrieve one or more profiles associated with the user account.\",\n \"In step 612, the user can be presented by way of a display coupled to the gaming console 206 profiles available to the user to choose from.\",\n \"If the user makes a selection, the AMS application proceeds to step 614 where it retrieves from the selected profiles the association(s) stored therein.\",\n \"If a selection is not made, the AMS application can proceed to step 616 where it can determine whether a software gaming application (e.g., video game) is operating from the gaming console 206 or whether the gaming console 206 is communicating with the software gaming application by way of a remote system communicatively coupled to the gaming console 206 (e.g., on-line gaming server(s) presenting, for example, World of Warcraft™).\",\n \"If a gaming software application is detected, the AMS application proceeds to step 617 where it retrieves a profile that matches the gaming application detected and the association(s) contained in the profile.\",\n \"As noted earlier, association(s) can represent accessory stimulations, navigation, speech, the invocation of other software applications, macros or other forms of suitable associations that result in substitute stimulations.\",\n \"The accessory stimulations can be stimulations that are generated by the gaming controller 115, as well as stimulations from other accessories (e.g., headset 114), or combinations thereof.\",\n \"Once a profile and its contents have been retrieved in either of steps 614 or step 617, the AMS application can proceed to step 719 of FIG.\",\n \"7A where it monitors for a change in a gaming venue state based on the presentations made by the gaming application, or API messages supplied by the gaming application.\",\n \"At the start of a game, for example, the gaming venue state can be determined immediately depending on the gaming options chosen by the gamer.\",\n \"The AMS application can determine the gaming venue state by tracking the gaming options chosen by a gamer, receiving an API instruction from the gaming application, or by performing image processing on the video presentation generated by the gaming application.\",\n \"For example, the AMS application can detect that the gamer has directed an avatar to enter a tank.\",\n \"The AMS application can retrieve in step 719 associations for the gaming controller 115 for controlling the tank.\",\n \"The AMS application can process movements of the gaming controller 115 forwards, backwards, or sideways in two or three dimensions to control the tanks movement.\",\n \"Similarly, rotating the gaming controller 115 or tilting the gaming controller 115 forward can cause an accelerometer, gyro or magnetometer of the gaming controller 115 to provide navigational data to the AMS application which can be substituted with an action to cause the tank to turn and/or move forward.\",\n \"The profile retrieved by the AMS application can indicate that the greater the forward tilt of the gaming controller 115, the greater the speed of the tank should be moving forward.\",\n \"Similarly, a rear tilt can generate navigation data that is substituted with a reverse motion and/or deceleration of the forward motion to stop or slow down the tank.\",\n \"A three dimensional lift of the mouse can cause the tank to steer according to the three dimensional navigation data provided by the gaming controller 115.For example, navigation data associated with a combination of a forward tilt and right bank of the gaming controller 115 can be substituted by the AMS application to cause an increase in forward speed of the tank with a turn to the right determined by the AMS application according to a degree of banking of the gaming controller 115 to the right.\",\n \"In the above embodiment, the three dimensional navigation data allows a gamer to control any directional vector of the tank including speed, direction, acceleration and deceleration.\",\n \"In another illustration, the AMS application can detect a new gaming venue state as a result of the gamer directing the avatar to leave the tank and travel on foot.\",\n \"Once again the AMS application retrieves in step 719 associations related to the gaming venue state.\",\n \"In this embodiment, selection of buttons of the gaming controller 115 can be associated by the AMS application with weaponry selection, firing, reloading and so on.\",\n \"The movement of the gaming controller 115 in two or three dimensions can control the direction of the avatar and/or selection or use of weaponry.\",\n \"Once the gaming venue state is detected in step 719, the AMS application retrieves the associations related to the venue state, and can perform substitutions of stimuli generated by the gaming controller 115, and/or speech commands received by microphone of the headset 114.The AMS application can monitor in step 720 stimulations generated by the accessories coupled to the gaming console 206.The stimulations can be generated by the gamer by manipulating the gaming controller 115, and/or by generating speech commands detected by the headset 114.If a stimulation is detected at step 720, the AMS application can determine in step 722 whether to forward the detected stimulation(s) to an Operating System (OS) of the gaming console 206 without substitutions.\",\n \"This determination can be made by comparing the detected stimulation(s) to association in the profile.\",\n \"If the detected stimulation(s) match the associations, then the AMS application proceeds to step 740 where it retrieves substitute stimulation(s) in the profile.\",\n \"In step 742, the AMS application can substitute the detected stimulation(s) with the substitute stimulations in the profile.\",\n \"In one embodiment, the AMS application can track in step 744 the substitute stimulations by updating these stimulations with a unique identifier such as a globally unique identifier (GUID).\",\n \"In this embodiment, the AMS application can also add a time stamp to each substitute stimulation to track when the substitution was performed.\",\n \"In another embodiment, the AMS application can track each substitute stimulation according to its order of submission to the gaming application.\",\n \"For instance, sequence numbers can be generated for the substitute stimulations to track the order in which they were submitted to the gaming application.\",\n \"In this embodiment, the substitute stimulations do not need to be updated with sequence numbers or identifiers so long as the order of gaming action results submitted by the gaming application to the AMS application remain in the same order as the substitute stimulations were originally submitted.\",\n \"For example, if a first stimulation sent to the gaming application by the AMS application is a command to shoot, and a second stimulation sent to the gaming application is a command to shoot again, then so long as the gaming application provides a first a game action result for the first shot, followed by a game action result for the second shot, then the substitute stimulations will not require updating with sequence numbers since the game action results are reported in the order that the stimulations were sent.\",\n \"If on the other hand, the game action results can be submitted out of order, then updating the stimulations with sequence numbers or another suitable identifier would be required to enable the AMS application to properly track and correlate stimulations and corresponding gaming action results.\",\n \"Once the stimulations received in step 720 have been substituted with other stimulations in step 742, and the AMS application has chosen a proper tracking methodology for correlating gaming action results with stimulations, the AMS application can proceed to step 748 and submit the substitute stimulations to the OS of the gaming console 206.If in step 722 the detected stimulation(s) do not match an association in the profile, then the AMS application proceeds to one of steps 744 or 746 in order to track the stimulations of the accessory.\",\n \"Once the AMS application has performed the necessary steps to track the stimulation as originally generated by the accessory, the AMS application proceeds to step 748 where it submits stimulations (with or without substitutions) to the OS of the gaming console 206 with or without tracking information as previously described.\",\n \"In step 734, the OS determines whether to invoke in step 736 a software application identified in the stimulation(s) (e.g., gamer says “turn on team chat”, which invokes a chat application), whether to forward the received stimulations to the gaming software application in step 738, or combinations thereof.\",\n \"Contemporaneous to the embodiments described above, the AMS application can monitor in step 750 for game action results supplied by the gaming application via a defined API.\",\n \"The game action results can be messages sent by the gaming application by way of the API of the gaming application to inform the AMS application what has happened as a result of the stimulations sent in step 738.For instance, suppose the stimulation sent to the gaming application in step 738 is a command to shoot a pistol.\",\n \"The gaming application can determine that the shot fired resulted in a miss of a target.\",\n \"The gaming application can respond with a message which is submitted by way of the API to the AMS application that indicates the shot fired resulted in a miss.\",\n \"If IDs such as GUIDs were sent with each stimulation, the gaming application can submit game action results with their corresponding GUID to enable the AMS application to correlate the gaming action results with stimulations having the same GUID.\",\n \"For example, if the command to shoot included the ID “1234”, then the game action result indicating a miss will include the ID “1234”, which the AMS application can use in step 752 to identify the stimulation having the same ID.\",\n \"If on other hand, the order of game action results can be maintained consistent with the order of the stimulations, then the AMS application can correlate in step 754 stimulations with game action results by the order in which stimulation were submitted and the order in which game action results were received.\",\n \"In step 756, the AMS application can catalogue stimulations and game action results.\",\n \"In another embodiment, the AMS application can be adapted to catalogue the stimulations in step 758.In this embodiment, step 760 can be performed as an alternative to steps 750 through 756.In another embodiment, step 760 can be performed in combination with steps 750 through 756 in order to generate a catalogue of stimulations, and a catalogue for gaming action results correlated to the stimulations.\",\n \"In accordance with embodiments of the subject disclosure, the gaming engine can provide training for game players, based on the stimulation(s) input by the player and the game action results (game feedback) returned from the gaming application via the API.\",\n \"Training for gamers may occur in various game environments, for example as schematically illustrated in FIGS.\",\n \"7F-7H respectively.\",\n \"Some representative training procedures are illustrated in FIGS.\",\n \"7C-7E respectively.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"7F shows an arrangement in which a gaming engine delivers a game experience to gamer 301 via a local computing device 705.In the embodiment shown in FIG.\",\n \"7F, the local computing device 705 includes AMS 715 and API 725 and accordingly performs gaming engine functions.\",\n \"In this illustration, gamer 301 submits inputs (stimulations) 703 to the gaming engine using the gaming controller 115.It will be appreciated that gaming controller 115 is but one of a variety of gaming accessories, managed by AMS 715, that can be used by the gamer 301.The video game action is displayed on display device 231.Display device 231 can also present the game action results of inputs 703 that are returned from the game application via the API 725, and can also present messages for correcting and/or coaching the gamer, either in real time during the game or afterwards in a replay session.\",\n \"The gaming engine maintains a record of both the gamer's inputs and the game action results.\",\n \"It will be appreciated that all or part of the gaming engine functions may be performed at a remote server 272, interacting with the gamer's computing device 705 and accessories via network 270, or the gaming engine functions can be localized to the gamer's computing device 705 when on-line gaming is not being used.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"7C shows a procedure for coaching a gamer presented with a game situation in which a shooting target is displayed (step 760C).\",\n \"The gaming engine detects (step 762C) whether the gamer took the shot.\",\n \"If the gamer did not, the gaming engine then detects (step 764C) whether the gamer made a faulty input (for example, accidentally hitting the letter “A” on the keyboard when “S” is the command to shoot).\",\n \"In the case of faulty input, the gaming engine can display a corrective message (step 766C) on display device 231.Alternatively, the gaming engine can play a prerecorded audio message or present the corrective message in some other fashion.\",\n \"If the gamer made no input (that is, missed the shooting opportunity, an undesirable result), the gaming engine can analyze (step 768C) the particular situation (for example, how clear a view the gamer had, how much time was available to take the shot, how much ammunition the gamer had available), and then proceed to provide a coaching message (step 776C) appropriate to that situation.\",\n \"If the gamer took a shot but missed (step 770C), the gaming engine retrieves data regarding the shot (step 772C) from a gaming action result provided by the gaming application via the API, and performs further analysis (step 774C).\",\n \"For example, if the gamer took several shots that all missed the target in one direction, the gaming engine could infer a systematic aiming problem.\",\n \"However, if the gamer took several shots in a short time period that missed the target in random directions, the gaming engine could infer that the gamer had aimed too hastily.\",\n \"The gaming engine can then provide a coaching message (which can be displayed on device 231) for the gamer.\",\n \"A corrective message (step 766C) for achieving a desired result and a coaching message (step 776C) can be presented in real time (while the game is in progress) or after the game has concluded.\",\n \"In another embodiment, the gaming engine can analyze a gamer's strategy by comparing that gamer's actions with those of an opponent.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"7G shows an arrangement in which a gaming engine delivers a game experience to gamer 301 and to an opponent 701.In one embodiment, the game can be centralized, where both players 301, and 701 locally submit inputs to the same gaming engine via communication paths 703.The gaming engine may execute on computing device 705A, which is local to both gamers (in this illustration, gamers 301, 701).\",\n \"In another embodiment, the game can be centralized remotely, where both players 301, 701 submit inputs to a remote server via computing devices 705A and 705B coupled to network 270 respectively.\",\n \"In this configuration, a first portion of the video game is executed on server 272, while software client portions of the video game are executed on computing devices 705A and 705B, respectively.\",\n \"Alternatively, the game can be distributed, wherein each player interacts with a different gaming engine operating in computing devices 705A and 705B, respectively, or the gaming engines can be managed by the remote server 272, or combinations thereof.\",\n \"As shown in FIG.\",\n \"7G, the opponent 701 can use a different gaming accessory to submit inputs 703.In this embodiment, gamer 301 employs a strategy for anticipating and responding to the opponent's actions.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"7D shows a procedure for analyzing a gamer's strategy based on the gamer's and the opponent's actions, and for coaching the gamer.\",\n \"The gaming engine detects a game situation (step 762D) in which the gamer 301 and opponent 701 encounter each other—that is, actions of either one can influence the actions of the other.\",\n \"In step 766D, the gaming engine detects the actions of the gamer and the opponent according to API feedback 760D relating to the gamer and API feedback 764D relating to the opponent.\",\n \"The gaming engine then compares the gamer actions with the opponent actions (step 768D), and then can deduce a missed strategy on the part of the gamer (step 770D).\",\n \"The gaming engine can then provide a coaching message regarding the gamer's strategy (step 772D).\",\n \"Steps 762D-772D can be repeated for each game situation involving the gamer's strategy with respect to the opponent.\",\n \"In a further embodiment, the gaming engine can also provide results of the opponent's actions and analyze the opponent's actions to detect missed strategies on the part of the opponent (step 770D) and provide a coaching message regarding the opponent's strategy (step 774D).\",\n \"The coaching message accordingly can provide advice to both the gamer and the opponent.\",\n \"The coaching message can be presented in real time (while the game is in progress) or after the game has concluded on display devices viewable by the gamer and the opponent respectively.\",\n \"In another embodiment, the gaming engine can record all or portions of a gaming session and provide coaching by replaying the game and permitting a gamer to experience results of alternative inputs (that is, alternative actions).\",\n \"For example, the gaming engine can enable a gamer to replay, pause, forward, rewind, and/or select between scenes in a recorded gaming session.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"7H shows an arrangement where a live opponent is replaced by a simulated opponent in the form of a simulated processing unit or SPU 735.SPU 735 can react to various alternate actions by gamer 301.By reviewing the SPU's reactions, the gamer can see the effects of alternate strategies.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"7E shows a procedure for coaching a gamer by permitting the gamer to experience the results of different alternative strategies.\",\n \"In step 760E, the game (or a portion of the game with a sequence of situations) is recorded and replayed at a reduced speed.\",\n \"The gamer accordingly can review his actions in the various game situations.\",\n \"Inputs by other players participating in the recorded game can also be included in the replay.\",\n \"The gaming engine thus guides the gamer through the game, with the gamer having the opportunity to test alternate strategies and actions in the various game situations.\",\n \"In each situation, the gamer can input an alternate stimulus (step 762E) and then view the alternate results (step 766E).\",\n \"The alternate stimulus can be input in accordance with an alternate strategy 764E designed by the gamer or suggested by the gaming engine.\",\n \"Furthermore, the SPU can react to the various alternative inputs in each situation.\",\n \"The responses of the SPU to the alternative inputs are generated (step 768E) and displayed along with a coaching message (step 770E) relating to the effectiveness of the strategy being tested.\",\n \"The gamer can test alternate strategies in succeeding game situations (step 772E).\",\n \"It will be appreciated that a wide variety of coaching messages may be provided in the above-described procedures (such as in step 776C in FIG.\",\n \"7C, steps 772D and 774D in FIG.\",\n \"7D, and step 770E in FIG.\",\n \"7E).\",\n \"A coaching message may be understood as any message to a gamer that the gamer can use to improve his/her performance and/or enjoyment of the game.\",\n \"As a non-limiting example, a coaching message can be a graphical display instead of or in addition to a text message delivered to the gamer.\",\n \"A coaching message can also be based on synthesized audible speech.\",\n \"The audible speech can be supplied to the gamer's headset or played on speakers of the gaming system.\",\n \"In one embodiment, a graphical display of a coaching message can comprise a comparison of actual vs. ideal play in a game situation.\",\n \"In an embodiment, when a game is replayed as in the procedure of FIG.\",\n \"7E, two sequences of game situations may be displayed in windows side-by-side: 1) the game action as it actually occurred, and 2) the game action as it could have occurred had the gamer used a better strategy or executed with greater skill (“ideal strategy,” “best play,” or “best practices”).\",\n \"The gamer can use various trick-play functions (e.g.\",\n \"fast-forward, rewind, stop action, variable play speed, etc.)\",\n \"on each window, either simultaneously or independently, to study the differences between the actual play and best play.\",\n \"The coaching message can be provided in real-time during a gaming session as text messages and/or audible speech; for example: “Slow down your shooting, you're low on ammo”; “Your aim is off, switch to a sniper rifle or add a scope to your weapon to better your aim”; And so on.\",\n \"Audible and/or text coaching messages can also be provided during post-game analysis; for example: “Your rapid fire in the replay portion of the game that you are viewing in the left window led to a rapid loss of ammo which provided the enemy an advantage”; “The right window shows a simulated replay illustrating what the result might have been if you slowed your firing rate by 50%”; “In this new scene, you used a shot gun, when a machine gun would have been more effective”; And so on.\",\n \"In another embodiment, the two windows (actual-play and best-play) can be displayed with an overlay on each window or just one of the two windows.\",\n \"The overlay can show a trajectory of a projectile shot by a weapon of an avatar controlled by the gamer and the projectile's final destination.\",\n \"To highlight the trajectory, the overlay can, for example, display a dotted line that extends from the egress point of a weapon to the projectile's its final destination.\",\n \"The overlay can be shown on both windows to illustrate to a gamer how far off a projectile was from hitting a target.\",\n \"The trick play functions (e.g., slow play) can be used to draw the overlay slowly; that is, slow draw the dotted line extending from the egress point of the weapon to its destination to create a better visual effect for the gamer.\",\n \"Other embodiments are contemplated for coaching messages.\",\n \"For example, in a team setting, the coaching message can be directed to more than one gamer.\",\n \"For example, a coaching message can be sent to two gamers indicating that their game performance would improve if they moved to a vehicle with one gamer driving and the other gamer manning a weapon in the vehicle.\",\n \"The coaching message in this illustration can also indicate which gamer would perform better as the driver and which gamer would perform better as the shooter based on a past performance history of each gamer.\",\n \"The coaching messages can be conveyed as audible speech directed to each gamer's headset and/or as text messages sent to each gamer's display device.\",\n \"FIGS.\",\n \"8-9 illustrate embodiments of a system with a corresponding communication flow diagram for correlating stimulations and gaming action results.\",\n \"In this illustration a user clicks the left button 119 of the gaming controller 115.The gaming controller 115 can include firmware (or circuitry), which creates an event as depicted by event 2 in FIG.\",\n \"8.The button depression and the event creation are depicted in FIG.\",\n \"9 as steps 902 and 904.In step 904, the firmware of the gaming controller 115 can, for example, generate an event type “left button #3”, and a unique GUID with a time stamp which is submitted to the AMS application.\",\n \"Referring back to FIG.\",\n \"8, the AMS application catalogues event 3, and if a substitute stimulation has been predefined, remaps the event according to the substitution.\",\n \"The remapped event is then transmitted to the gaming application at event 4.Event 3 of FIG.\",\n \"8 is depicted as step 906 in FIG.\",\n \"9.In this illustration, the AMS application substitutes the left button #3 depression stimulus with a “keyboard ‘F’” depression which can be interpreted by the gaming application as a fire command The AMS application in this illustration continues to use the same GUID, but substitutes the time stamp for another time stamp to identify when the substitution took place.\",\n \"Referring back to event 4, the gaming application processes the event and sends back at event 5 a game action result to the AMS application which is processed by the AMS application at event 6.The AMS application then submits the results to the accessory at event 7.Events 4 and 5 are depicted as step 908 in FIG.\",\n \"9.In this step, the gaming application processes “F” as an action to fire the gamer's gun, and then determines from the action the result from logistical gaming results generated by the gaming application.\",\n \"In the present illustration, the action of firing resulted in a hit.\",\n \"The gaming application submits to the AMS application the result type “Hit” with a new time stamp, while utilizing the same GUID for tracking purposes.\",\n \"At step 910, the AMS application correlates the stimulation “left button #3 (and/or the substitute stimulation keyboard “F”) to the game result “Hit” and catalogues them in memory.\",\n \"The AMS application then submits to the accessory (e.g., gaming controller 115) in step 910 the game action results “Hit” with the same GUID, and a new time stamp indicating when the result was received.\",\n \"Upon receiving the message from the AMS application, the accessory in step 912 processes the “Hit” by asserting a red LED on the accessory (e.g., left button 119 illuminates in red or other LED of the gaming controller 115 illuminates in red) to indicate a hit.\",\n \"Other notification notices can be used such as another color for the LED to indicate misses, a specific sound for a hit, or kill, a vibration or other suitable technique for notifying the gamer of the game action result.\",\n \"The AMS application can catalogue results as shown in FIGS.\",\n \"11-14.The presentation of the catalogued results can be based on a live session, or a replay session when reviewing segments of a video game much like a replay session of a sporting event (e.g., football game) is analyzed by sports analysts.\",\n \"To assist the audience in viewing a competition between gamers, the AMS application can be adapted to present a virtual peripheral representative of the accessory of each gamer as shown in FIGS.\",\n \"11-14.The AMS application can be adapted to use coloring and highlight schemes to indicate when a function (e.g., a button or navigation knob) of the peripheral is being used as shown in FIG.\",\n \"10.For example, the color code “dark red” can represent a button or knob that is frequently in use, while a color code of “dark blue” can represent a button or knob that is infrequently used.\",\n \"To indicate when a button or knob is in use, the button or knob can be highlighted with a white outline while the unused buttons can remain un-highlighted.\",\n \"In the case of knobs, which can be moved Omni directionally, the AMS application can show movements of a highlighted knob as the gamer is utilizing the knob based on the stimulations received by the AMS application.\",\n \"For example, if a gamer moves a knob in a northwest direction, the knob is highlighted with a white outline, and the knob is shown moving in the direction chosen by the gamer.\",\n \"As buttons are being depressed and released rapidly, the AMS application will present rapid transitioning between the enabling and disabling of highlights to indicate the speed that the gamer is depressing and releasing the buttons.\",\n \"As the frequency of depressions of buttons or use of knobs increases, the AMS application will change the color code of the buttons or knobs as described above to signify frequency of use of the buttons and knobs.\",\n \"In an embodiment where the AMS application receives gaming results from a gaming application via an API as described above, the communication flow diagram shown in FIG.\",\n \"9 can be modified with a more comprehensive protocol that includes a weapon type being monitored, misses, non-kill hits (i.e., a hit that does not result in a kill), kill hits, and loss of life rate.\",\n \"The AMS application can present performance factors of each gamer, and the type of weapons being tracked (e.g., sniper rifle, machine gun, hand gun) as shown in FIGS.\",\n \"11-12.To identify which weapon is being used at any point in time during a gaming session, the AMS application can highlight the weapon in a distinguishable color such as blue while keeping all other weapon rows in gray.\",\n \"The AMS application can calculate an average hit rate from the misses, non-kill hits, and kill hits.\",\n \"The AMS application can compare gaming action results between the gamers to identifying leading performance factors as shown in the “Comp Rating” column of each player.\",\n \"In a tournament setting, the performance factors shown in FIGS.\",\n \"11 and 12 can be shown in side-by-side monitors, or together in a JumboTron™ display such as those used in sporting events or the like.\",\n \"As the gamer is competing, the input functions of the gaming controller 115 can be highlighted and moved (in the case of knobs) to show the audience how the gaming controller 115 is being used by the gamer.\",\n \"The health of the gamer's avatar can be shown below the gaming controller 115.To further enhance the experience for the audience, the gamer's image can be shown as a video clip during the competition.\",\n \"The AMS application can also be adapted to present a portion of the video game associated with each gamer as shown in FIGS.\",\n \"11-12.In an embodiment where the gaming application does not provide gaming action results (e.g., the video gaming application does not provide an API), the AMS application can be adapted to present a gamer's performance based on the stimulus signals generated, and where applicable, the substitute stimulus signals submitted to the gaming application as shown in FIGS.\",\n \"13-14.In this illustration, the virtual peripherals are shown with the color scheme and highlights discussed earlier.\",\n \"The performance of the gamers can be presented according to the type of weapons used, the key depressions invoking substitutions, the macros invoked, and the rate of transmission of stimuli to the gaming application.\",\n \"For example, for gamer #1, the simultaneous depression of the up and down arrows invoked the macro team chat, while using the sniper rifle.\",\n \"The gamer shot the rifle 14 times with 4 shots in rapid succession.\",\n \"Upon depressing the left “1” button of a front section of the gaming controller 115 of gamer #1, the AMS application invoked substitute stimuli transmitted to the gaming application which switches the use of the sniper rifle to the machine gun.\",\n \"A subsequent depression of the same button can cause a substitute stimuli generated by the AMS application to return to the sniper rifle.\",\n \"A depression of the right “1” button by gamer #1 resulted in substitute stimuli generated by the AMS application to call for air support.\",\n \"Gamer #2 shows that s/he has not invoked a substitute stimuli for the machine gun.\",\n \"This may be because the gamer has not pre-programmed the AMS application to associate stimuli generated by the gaming controller 115 with substitute stimuli, or because the gamer has chosen not to invoke substitute stimuli with a particular key depression (or sequence of key depressions).\",\n \"Although not shown, monitoring stimuli generation and substitutes can be used to rate players' performances.\",\n \"For example, a gamer that has a tendency to perform rapid fire on a machine gun without saving ammunition may be viewed as a poor game tactic.\",\n \"Comparing such statistics between gamers can be used to show performance lead factors between the gamers.\",\n \"From the foregoing descriptions, it would be evident to an artisan with ordinary skill in the art that the aforementioned embodiments can be modified, reduced, or enhanced without departing from the scope and spirit of the claims described below.\",\n \"For instance, the AMS application can record stimulus signals and/or gaming results for a game session and store this data for an extended period of time for each of a plurality of gamers.\",\n \"In addition, the AMS application can store multiple recorded game sessions for each gamer and can be adapted to compare a history of game sessions to assess how each gamer's performance has evolved.\",\n \"Each gamer's improvement or degradation detected by the AMS application over a number of gaming sessions can be reported to the gamer and/or other gamers as progression line charts, histograms, pie charts or other suitable presentation methods.\",\n \"The results can also be reported in a gaming tournament, on-line games, or other suitable setting in a manner similar to the illustrations of FIGS.\",\n \"11-14.The AMS application can compare a gamer's performance in a particular game to a gaming session recorded from a prior tournament for the same game or another game.\",\n \"Performance in the present context can mean a comparison of only stimulus signals (e.g., accessory-generated stimulus signals and/or substitute stimulus signals).\",\n \"This embodiment may be user-selectable (i.e., user selects stimulus analysis only) by way of a GUI presented by the AMS application, or the AMS application may apply this embodiment automatically in instances where the AMS application does not receive gaming action results from the gaming application due to a lack of an API or other suitable interface to receive gaming action results from the gaming application.\",\n \"Performance can also mean a comparison of only gaming action results and not stimulus signals, which can also be a user-selectable feature presented by a GUI generated by the AMS application.\",\n \"Performance can further represent a combination of gaming action results and stimulus signals with similar data of other recorded gaming sessions.\",\n \"In sum, a gamer's performance can be determined from stimulus signals (with or without substitute stimulus signals), and/or gaming action results in whole or on part monitored by the AMS application.\",\n \"For any one of the foregoing embodiments, the AMS application can detect improvements or degradations in performance between a present tournament game and the previously recorded tournament game and report the results to the gamer and/or an audience of on-line gamers or a public audience at a tournament via the monitors of FIGS.\",\n \"11-14.The foregoing embodiments can be applied in a private setting (i.e., only visible to the gamer) and/or a social network of gamers who share and present results via the AMS application or a social network such as FaceBook™ or other suitable social network platform.\",\n \"In yet another embodiment, the AMS application can be adapted to compare a gamer's performance to another gamer's recorded performance.\",\n \"In a tournament setting, for example, the gamers' performance can be compared to each other based on the present gaming session or prior recorded sessions of the other gamer.\",\n \"In one embodiment, the AMS application can be adapted to present a GUI where it presents a list of gamers and recorded sessions from each gamer.\",\n \"The GUI can enable a user to select a particular gamer and a particular recorded gaming session of the selected gamer for comparison to a recorded (or live) gaming session of the user making the selection or another gamer of interest to the user (e.g., comparing the performance of two professional gamers).\",\n \"It should be noted that gaming sessions recorded by the AMS application can be locally stored on a gamer's computing device (e.g., desktop computer or gaming console) or on a remote server managed by a service provider of the AMS application or by a service provider that provides “Cloud” storing services.\",\n \"Comparison results can similarly be stored on a gamer's local computing device or a remote server.\",\n \"In yet another embodiment, the AMS application can be adapted to alert users when a particular gamer has achieved certain performance criteria established by another gamer.\",\n \"For instance, the AMS application can present a GUI to a gamer to identify performance criteria of interest (e.g., number of kill hits, average hit rate for a particular weapon, a particular ranking of a gamer for a particular gaming application, etc.).\",\n \"The identified performance criteria can be monitored by the AMS application for the selected gamer and when one or more criteria have been achieved by the monitored gamer, the AMS application can alert the interested user by suitable communication means such as email, short messaging system (SMS) text message, or a GUI of the AMS application when the interested user is engaging the AMS application.\",\n \"In another embodiment, the AMS application can compare the performance of the gamers to a community rating localized to users of the gaming console 206, or all or a portion of on-line users which can span a large community of users of the gaming application.\",\n \"For example, although an average hit rate of 5% for a sniper rifle may seem low for gamer #1 in FIG.\",\n \"11, when these statistics are compared to other members of a community (e.g., other professional players), the AMS application can determine from prior performance records of members of the community (retrieved from a local or remote database) that the user's performance is in fact above average.\",\n \"Similar community comparisons can be performed for the weapon type “machine gun” and “hand gun”.\",\n \"The AMS application can also monitor and track statistics of other gaming applications which may have different weapon types.\",\n \"Similar statistics can be generated and compared to the performance of members of a community to which the gamer is associated.\",\n \"In one embodiment, the statistical results shown in FIGS.\",\n \"11-14 can be used to identify behavioral and/or skill patterns of a gamer.\",\n \"For instance, suppose a gamer appears to perform well as a sniper in one gaming application and bow and arrow marksman in a different gaming application.\",\n \"The AMS application can be adapted to detect these correlations to indicate a skill set of the gamer that may be consistent between different games.\",\n \"For example, a sniper and bowman have a similar trait that requires marksmanship, calm nerves, and knowing when to strike.\",\n \"This trait can be identified by the AMS application and can be used to identify other games in which the gamer may perform well.\",\n \"This trait can also be advertised to other gamers to promote teams.\",\n \"The above-described methods can be adapted to operate in whole or in part in a gaming accessory, in an operating system of a computer, in a gaming console, in a gaming application that generates the video game, or any other suitable software application and/or device.\",\n \"The method of FIG.\",\n \"7A can be adapted to ignore or filter game action results, which may not be relevant to the gamer or analysts.\",\n \"For instance, the AMS application can be adapted to ignore (or filter) game action results relating to navigation of the avatar (e.g., turn around, jump, etc.).\",\n \"The AMS application can also be adapted to ignore (or filter) game action results relating to preparatory actions such as reloading a gun, switching between weapons, and so on.\",\n \"In another embodiment, the AMS application can be adapted to selectively monitor only particular game result actions such as misses, non-kill hits, kills, and life of the avatar.\",\n \"The AMS application can also be adapted to monitor gaming action results with or without temporal data associated with the stimuli and game action results.\",\n \"In one embodiment, the AMS application can be adapted to track stimuli (or substitutions thereof) by submission order, and order of gaming action results supplied by the gaming application, and perform cataloguing thereof by the respective order of stimuli and gaming action results.\",\n \"The items can be catalogued by the AMS application with or without temporal data.\",\n \"In one embodiment, the AMS application can be adapted to collect gaming action results for “all” or a substantial portion of stimuli (or substitutions thereof) transmitted to the gaming application.\",\n \"In this embodiment, the AMS application can be adapted to enable a gamer to replay portions of the game to allow the gamer to visualize (in slow motion, still shots, or regular play speed) the actions taken by the gamer (i.e., accessory stimuli and/or substitute stimuli) to help the gamer identify areas of the game where his/her performance can be improved.\",\n \"In one embodiment, the AMS application can be implemented as a distributed system (e.g., one or more servers executing one or more virtual machines) enabling multiples users to control aspects of the AMS application.\",\n \"For example, in a tournament setting, gaming analysts having access to the AMS application can request a replay of portions of the game to demonstrate exceptional plays versus missed plays at a JumboTron™ display.\",\n \"The gamers can access the AMS application to establish new substitute stimuli, perform calibrations on macros, or invoke or create additional gaming profiles.\",\n \"Portions of the AMS application can also be implemented by equipment of unaffiliated parties or service providers of gaming services.\",\n \"In one embodiment, the AMS application can be adapted to substitute an accessory stimulus (or stimuli) for a macro comprising a combination of substitute stimuli, and track the macro when gaming action results are received from the gaming application rather than track each individual substitute stimulus of the macro.\",\n \"The AMS application can be adapted to monitor macros by tracking an order of stimuli (or substitutes) associated with the macro that are transmitted to the gaming application and by tracking an order of gaming action results received from the gaming application, which are associated with the macro.\",\n \"Alternatively, or in combination the AMS application can add a unique identifier to the substitute stimuli to identify the stimuli as being associated with the macro.\",\n \"The AMS application can be adapted to catalogue the gaming action results associated with the macro in a manner that allows the gamer to identify a group of gaming action results as being associated with the macro.\",\n \"The AMS application can also be adapted to collect sufficient data to assess each individual gaming action result of the macro (e.g., temporal data, hits, misses, etc.).\",\n \"The presentation of catalogued macro data can be hierarchical.\",\n \"For example, the AMS application can present a particular macro by way of a high level GUI that indicates the macro caused a kill.\",\n \"The AMS application can be adapted to enable the gamer to select a different GUI that enables the user to visualize a gaming action result for each stimulus of the macro to determine how effective the macro was in performing the kill, and whether further adjustments of the macro might improve the gamer's performance.\",\n \"In one embodiment, the AMS application can be adapted to present more or less competitive information than is shown in FIGS.\",\n \"11-14.In one embodiment, for example, the AMS application can be adapted to present competitive information without the virtual peripherals.\",\n \"In one example, the AMS application can be adapted to present scrollable pages of competitive information with or without the virtual peripherals.\",\n \"In another illustration, the AMS application can be adapted to present competitive information without a viewing of the game or the gamer.\",\n \"Other variants of presenting competitive information or other data shown in FIGS.\",\n \"11-14 are contemplated by the subject disclosure.\",\n \"The foregoing embodiments are a subset of possible embodiments contemplated by the subject disclosure.\",\n \"Other suitable modifications can be applied to the subject disclosure.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"15 depicts an exemplary diagrammatic representation of a machine in the form of a computer system 1500 within which a set of instructions, when executed, may cause the machine to perform any one or more of the methods discussed above.\",\n \"One or more instances of the machine can operate as any of devices depicted in FIGS.\",\n \"1-3.In some embodiments, the machine may be connected (e.g., using a network) to other machines.\",\n \"In a networked deployment, the machine may operate in the capacity of a server or a client user machine in server-client user network environment, or as a peer machine in a peer-to-peer (or distributed) network environment.\",\n \"The machine may comprise a server computer, a client user computer, a personal computer (PC), a tablet PC, a smart phone, a laptop computer, a desktop computer, a control system, a network router, switch or bridge, or any machine capable of executing a set of instructions (sequential or otherwise) that specify actions to be taken by that machine.\",\n \"It will be understood that a communication device of the subject disclosure includes broadly any electronic device that provides voice, video or data communication.\",\n \"Further, while a single machine is illustrated, the term “machine” shall also be taken to include any collection of machines that individually or jointly execute a set (or multiple sets) of instructions to perform any one or more of the methods discussed herein.\",\n \"The computer system 1500 may include a processor 1502 (e.g., a central processing unit (CPU), a graphics processing unit (GPU, or both), a main memory 1504 and a static memory 1506, which communicate with each other via a bus 1508.The computer system 1500 may further include a video display unit 1510 (e.g., a liquid crystal display (LCD), a flat panel, or a solid state display.\",\n \"The computer system 1500 may include an input device 1512 (e.g., a keyboard), a cursor control device 1514 (e.g., a mouse), a disk drive unit 1516, a signal generation device 1518 (e.g., a speaker or remote control) and a network interface device 1520.The disk drive unit 1516 may include a tangible computer-readable storage medium 1522 on which is stored one or more sets of instructions (e.g., software 1524) embodying any one or more of the methods or functions described herein, including those methods illustrated above.\",\n \"The instructions 1524 may also reside, completely or at least partially, within the main memory 1504, the static memory 1506, and/or within the processor 1502 during execution thereof by the computer system 1500.The main memory 1504 and the processor 1502 also may constitute tangible computer-readable storage media.\",\n \"Dedicated hardware implementations including, but not limited to, application specific integrated circuits, programmable logic arrays and other hardware devices can likewise be constructed to implement the methods described herein.\",\n \"Applications that may include the apparatus and systems of various embodiments broadly include a variety of electronic and computer systems.\",\n \"Some embodiments implement functions in two or more specific interconnected hardware modules or devices with related control and data signals communicated between and through the modules, or as portions of an application-specific integrated circuit.\",\n \"Thus, the example system is applicable to software, firmware, and hardware implementations.\",\n \"In accordance with various embodiments of the subject disclosure, the methods described herein are intended for operation as software programs running on a computer processor.\",\n \"Furthermore, software implementations can include, but not limited to, distributed processing or component/object distributed processing, parallel processing, or virtual machine processing can also be constructed to implement the methods described herein.\",\n \"While the tangible computer-readable storage medium 622 is shown in an example embodiment to be a single medium, the term “tangible computer-readable storage medium” should be taken to include a single medium or multiple media (e.g., a centralized or distributed database, and/or associated caches and servers) that store the one or more sets of instructions.\",\n \"The term “tangible computer-readable storage medium” shall also be taken to include any non-transitory medium that is capable of storing or encoding a set of instructions for execution by the machine and that cause the machine to perform any one or more of the methods of the subject disclosure.\",\n \"The term “tangible computer-readable storage medium” shall accordingly be taken to include, but not be limited to: solid-state memories such as a memory card or other package that houses one or more read-only (non-volatile) memories, random access memories, or other re-writable (volatile) memories, a magneto-optical or optical medium such as a disk or tape, or other tangible media which can be used to store information.\",\n \"Accordingly, the disclosure is considered to include any one or more of a tangible computer-readable storage medium, as listed herein and including art-recognized equivalents and successor media, in which the software implementations herein are stored.\",\n \"Although the present specification describes components and functions implemented in the embodiments with reference to particular standards and protocols, the disclosure is not limited to such standards and protocols.\",\n \"Each of the standards for Internet and other packet switched network transmission (e.g., TCP/IP, UDP/IP, HTML, HTTP) represent examples of the state of the art.\",\n \"Such standards are from time-to-time superseded by faster or more efficient equivalents having essentially the same functions.\",\n \"Wireless standards for device detection (e.g., RFID), short-range communications (e.g., Bluetooth, WiFi, Zigbee), and long-range communications (e.g., WiMAX, GSM, CDMA, LTE) are contemplated for use by computer system 1500.The illustrations of embodiments described herein are intended to provide a general understanding of the structure of various embodiments, and they are not intended to serve as a complete description of all the elements and features of apparatus and systems that might make use of the structures described herein.\",\n \"Many other embodiments will be apparent to those of skill in the art upon reviewing the above description.\",\n \"Other embodiments may be utilized and derived therefrom, such that structural and logical substitutions and changes may be made without departing from the scope of this disclosure.\",\n \"Figures are also merely representational and may not be drawn to scale.\",\n \"Certain proportions thereof may be exaggerated, while others may be minimized Accordingly, the specification and drawings are to be regarded in an illustrative rather than a restrictive sense.\",\n \"Although specific embodiments have been illustrated and described herein, it should be appreciated that any arrangement calculated to achieve the same purpose may be substituted for the specific embodiments shown.\",\n \"This disclosure is intended to cover any and all adaptations or variations of various embodiments.\",\n \"Combinations of the above embodiments, and other embodiments not specifically described herein, are contemplated by the subject disclosure.\",\n \"The Abstract of the Disclosure is provided with the understanding that it will not be used to interpret or limit the scope or meaning of the claims.\",\n \"In addition, in the foregoing Detailed Description, it can be seen that various features are grouped together in a single embodiment for the purpose of streamlining the disclosure.\",\n \"This method of disclosure is not to be interpreted as reflecting an intention that the claimed embodiments require more features than are expressly recited in each claim.\",\n \"Rather, as the following claims reflect, inventive subject matter lies in less than all features of a single disclosed embodiment.\",\n \"Thus the following claims are hereby incorporated into the Detailed Description, with each claim standing on its own as a separately claimed subject matter.\"\n ]\n]"},"source":{"kind":"string","value":"Patent_15875444"}}},{"rowIdx":4494876,"cells":{"text":{"kind":"list like","value":[["PERSONALLY ATTENDED SERVICE NOTIFICATION BASED ON TEMPORAL AND SPATIAL PROXIMITY","A computer system may notify a user about personally attended services satisfying temporal-spatial criteria.","The computer system may use a user location and/or information on already scheduled events to determine whether a personally attended service satisfies the temporal-spatial criteria.","Travel time may be determined and included when determining whether the personally attended service conflicts with an already scheduled event.","The temporal-spatial criteria may also include availability of the personally attended service.","A user profile and/or third party information may be used to determine if a user is available and/or would be receptive to a personally attended service.","The user profile may be generated from third party information, such as contained in an online social network, and/or learned.","The user may be able to reserve the personally attended service through the computer system."],["1.A computer implemented method, comprising: identifying a scheduled status of a user for a personally attended service; determining a user location of the user; determining a set of methods of transportation proximate to the user location; identifying a set of buffer times comprising: an arrival buffer time for the user to travel to a location at which the personally attended service is available, the arrival buffer time based at least in part on use of one method of transportation of the set of methods of transportation; determining a temporal-spatial criterion associated with the personally attended service based at least in part on the set of buffer times, the user location and the set of methods of transportation; presenting, to the user, the personally attended service with the temporal-spatial criterion of the personally attended service and at least one of the set of methods of transportation; receiving a selection of the user for a selected personally attended service from the at least one of the set of methods of transportation; and presenting the user a recommended leave time.","2.The computer implemented method of claim 1, further comprising selecting the set of methods of transportation based at least in part on proximity to the user location.","3.The computer implemented method of claim 1, further comprising selecting the set of methods of transportation based at least in part on a user configuration.","4.The computer implemented method of claim 1, wherein the arrival buffer time is a percentage of an estimated travel time.","5.The computer implemented method of claim 1, wherein the arrival buffer time is a fixed amount based on a type of service provided by the personally attended service.","6.The computer implemented method of claim 1, further comprising requesting pre-service requirements from a third party associated with the personally attended service.","7.A computer program product comprising a computer-readable storage medium that stores instructions for execution by a processor to perform operations, the operations, when executed by the processor, to perform a method, the method comprising: identifying a scheduled event of a user; determining a user location of the user; determining a set of methods of transportation proximate to the user location; identifying a set of buffer times comprising: an arrival buffer time for the user to travel to a location at which the scheduled event is available, the arrival buffer time based at least in part on use of one of the set of methods of transportation; determining temporal-spatial criteria associated with the scheduled event based at least in part on the set of buffer times, the user location and the set of methods of transportation; forming a set of estimated leave times for the scheduled event, an estimated leave time for each method of transportation of the set of methods of transportation to the scheduled event based at least in part on the temporal-spatial criteria; presenting, to the user, the scheduled event with the set of estimated leave times; receiving a selection of the user for a selected personally attended service from the at least one of the set of methods of transportation; and presenting the user with a selected leave time and a corresponding method of transportation based at least in part on the selection of the user.","8.The computer program product of claim 7, further comprising presenting the user with the selected leave time before an earliest leave time from the set of estimated leave times.","9.The computer program product of claim 7, further comprising: identifying a second scheduled event of the user; estimating a second user location of the user based at least in part on the scheduled event; determining a second set of methods of transportation proximate to the second user location; identifying a second set of buffer times comprising: a second arrival buffer time for the user to travel to a second location at which the second scheduled event is available, the arrival buffer time based at least in part on use of a second method of transportation from the set of methods of transportation; determine at least one of the second set of methods of transportation and associated buffer times are incompatible with a first arrival at the scheduled event and a second arrival at the second scheduled event; and presenting the user with a conflict based at least in part on the at least one method of transportation from the set of methods of transportation or the second set of methods of transportation that is incompatible with the first arrival and the second arrival.","10.The computer program product of claim 7, wherein one or more of the set of buffer times are based at least in part on current traffic data.","11.The computer program product of claim 7, wherein the set of methods of transportation are a subset of a larger set of methods of transportation based at least in part on a threshold within a configuration.","12.The computer program product of claim 11, wherein the configuration is a user-defined configuration and the threshold is defined within the user-defined configuration.","13.The computer program product of claim 7, wherein the set of methods of transportation are a subset of a larger set of methods of transportation based at least in part on a user-defined configuration of preferred methods of transportation.","14.An apparatus for determining an estimated time to leave, comprising: an interface to a calendar system configured to request scheduled events; a processor configured to: receive a scheduled event of a user from the calendar system using the interface; determine a user location of the user; determine a set of methods of transportation proximate to the user location; identify a set of buffer times comprising an arrival buffer time for the user to travel to a location at which the scheduled event is available, the arrival buffer time based at least in part on use of one of the set of methods of transportation; determine temporal-spatial criteria associated with the scheduled event based at least in part on the set of buffer times, the user location and the set of methods of transportation; form a set of estimated leave times for the scheduled event, an estimated leave time for each method of transportation of the set of methods of transportation to the scheduled event based at least in part on the temporal-spatial criteria; and present, to the user, the scheduled event with the set of estimated leave times.","15.The apparatus of claim 14, wherein the processor is further configured to: receive a selection of the user for a selected estimated leave time corresponding to at least one of the set of methods of transportation; and present the user with a selected leave time and a corresponding method of transportation based at least in part on the selection of the user.","16.The apparatus of claim 14, wherein the processor is further configured to request, using the interface, a next scheduled event from the calendar system.","17.The apparatus of claim 14, wherein the calendar system and the apparatus are separate computing systems.","18.The apparatus of claim 14, wherein the calendar system and the apparatus share a processor.","19.The apparatus claim 14, wherein one or more of the set of buffer times are based at least in part on a map routing algorithm.","20.The apparatus claim 14, wherein the processor is further configured to presenting the user with the selected leave time before an earliest leave time from the set of estimated leave times.","21.The apparatus claim 14, wherein one or more of the set of buffer times are based at least in part on a current traffic report."],[" TECHNICAL FIELD This disclosure relates to systems and methods for notifying a user of temporally and spatially proximate personally attended services."],[" BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG.","1 is a schematic diagram of a system for notifying users of temporally and spatially proximate personally attended services.","FIG.","2 is an exemplary screen display that may be presented to one of the users by the corresponding personal computer system.","FIG.","3 is a pictorial representation of a method for determining whether a plurality of possible personally attended services satisfy temporal-spatial criteria.","FIG.","4 is a flow diagram of a method for notifying a user of personally attended services satisfying temporal-spatial criteria.","FIG.","5 is a flow diagram of a method for determining user availability to receive a personally attended service from third party information.","detailed-description description=\"Detailed Description\" end=\"lead\"?"],["RELATED APPLICATIONS This application is a continuation of and claims priority to U.S. patent application Ser.","No.","15/358,725, filed Nov. 22, 2016, and entitled “Personally Attended Service Notification Based on Temporal and Spatial Proximity,” which is a continuation of and claims priority to U.S. patent application Ser.","No.","14/953,770, filed Nov. 30, 2015, and entitled “Personally Attended Service Notification Based on Temporal and Spatial Proximity,” which has issued as U.S. Pat.","No.","9,510,144, on Nov. 29, 2016, which is a continuation of and claims priority to U.S. patent application Ser.","No.","14/184,410, filed Feb. 19, 2014, and entitled “Personally Attended Service Notification Based on Temporal and Spatial Proximity,” which has issued as U.S. Pat.","No.","9,204,250, on Dec. 1, 2015, and which in turn claims priority to U.S.","Provisional Patent Application Ser.","No.","61/767,080 filed Feb. 20, 2013, and entitled “Personally Attended Service Notification Based on Temporal and Spatial Proximity,” which are hereby incorporated by reference in their entirety.","TECHNICAL FIELD This disclosure relates to systems and methods for notifying a user of temporally and spatially proximate personally attended services.","BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG.","1 is a schematic diagram of a system for notifying users of temporally and spatially proximate personally attended services.","FIG.","2 is an exemplary screen display that may be presented to one of the users by the corresponding personal computer system.","FIG.","3 is a pictorial representation of a method for determining whether a plurality of possible personally attended services satisfy temporal-spatial criteria.","FIG.","4 is a flow diagram of a method for notifying a user of personally attended services satisfying temporal-spatial criteria.","FIG.","5 is a flow diagram of a method for determining user availability to receive a personally attended service from third party information.","DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS A city may offer numerous personally attended services, such as entertainment services (e.g., shows, tours, amusement parks, historical sites, etc.","), hospitality services (e.g., restaurants, bars, night life, etc.","), transportation services (e.g., taxis, public transportation, etc.","), beauty services (e.g., haircuts, spa treatments, etc.)","and the like, that may be attended by a person and/or their designee.","The person may have difficulty identifying personally attended services that are available, nearby, and/or compatible with the person's schedule.","The person may be unaware of the services and/or considerable time and/or effort may be required to determine availability and/or timing of the personally attended services.","A computer system may aid a user in identifying temporally proximate and/or spatially proximate personally attended services using temporal-spatial criteria.","The temporal-spatial criteria may include temporal criteria, spatial criteria, and/or a combined temporal and spatial criteria.","The computer system may determine a user location that can be used to identify spatially proximate personally attended services.","The user location may be computed from satellite navigation signals (e.g., Global Positioning System (GPS) signals), cellular tower locations, wireless network access points, internet protocol (IP) addresses, etc.","; received from the user, a navigation system, and/or another computer system; and/or the like.","Computer systems able to determine a location may include a smart phone, a tablet (e.g., an iPad®, a Kindle®, or the like), a laptop computer, a smart TV, a desktop computer, and/or the like.","For each personally attended service, the computer system may determine and/or receive a service location.","Spatial proximity may be determined by identifying personally attended services within a predetermined distance of the user location.","The predetermined distance may be an absolute distance; the boundary of a city or municipality; a predetermined metropolitan area of a city or municipality, which may be proprietary or nonproprietary; a combination of absolute distance, political divisions, and/or predetermined metropolitan area; and/or the like.","Alternatively, or in addition, the spatial distances may be converted into travel times, and spatial proximity may be analyzed simultaneously with temporal proximity as discussed below.","The computer system may determine a best method of transportation and/or allow the user to indicate the desired method of transportation when determining travel time.","For example, the computer system may recommend a method of transportation but allow the user to select a different method.","A travel time may be determined based on the method of transportation.","The computer system may add in buffer time to ensure arrival before the personally attended service and/or to allow for time spent waiting for transportation and/or transferring between modes of transportation (e.g., waiting for a taxi or a train).","The buffer time may be a fixed amount, a percentage of the total travel time, based on the modes of transportation used in computing the travel time, user entered, a combination of the aforementioned, and/or the like.","If actual travel time is varying from predicted travel time and/or the predicted travel time indicates the user will be late (e.g., traffic data and/or a map routing algorithm indicates a predicted time of arrival later than the start time of a personally attended service), the computer system may attempt to move reservations and/or take actions to mitigate the effect of the late arrival.","Temporal proximity may be determined by identifying personally attended services that do not conflict with an already scheduled event.","The already scheduled event may be before and/or after the personally attended service.","Travel time to and/or from the personally attended service may be included when determining whether a conflict exists.","Additional buffer time may be added for some personally attended services to ensure any pre-service requirements may be satisfied by the user (e.g., picking up tickets, filling out waivers, etc.).","The additional buffer time may be predetermined, and/or the computer system may receive an indication of the additional buffer time from a computer system associated with the personally attended service.","The travel time, including any additional buffer time, may be included when comparing the end time of an already scheduled event before the personally attended service with the start time of a personally attended service and/or the start time of an already scheduled event after the personally attended service with the end time of the personally attended service.","Alternatively, or in addition, determining temporal proximity may include determining if a start time for a personally attended service is too far in the future and/or if the travel time exceeds a predetermined threshold.","Travel time may also or instead be analyzed when determining spatial proximity.","A user may be able to create a profile and set rules and/or preferences used to determine spatial and/or temporal proximity.","For example, the user may specify an absolute distance, time until start, and/or travel time that should not be exceeded.","The user may set exclusion areas and/or boundaries limiting the locations of personally attended services offered to the user.","The user may set buffer times, preferred methods of transportation (e.g., an always preferred method and/or preferred methods for different situations and/or distances), and/or rules for computing travel time from a given method of transportation (e.g., a walking speed).","The spatial and/or temporal proximity rules, preferences, and/or thresholds may be universal and/or default for all personally attended services, and/or the user may specify rules, preferences, and/or thresholds based on the category of service, the type of service, and/or the particular services.","For example, the user may have default rules for hospitality services, an overriding set of default rules for restaurants, and a specific rule for the user's favorite restaurant (e.g., start times for hospitality services should be no more than 30 minutes in the future, but restaurants can have wait times of up to 45 minutes, and the user's favorite restaurant can have a wait time of up to 1 hour).","The temporal-spatial criteria may also or instead include criteria based on the user profile that can be used to determine which personally attended services should be offered to a user.","Different users may enjoy different activities, such as a first user that enjoys going to the highest rated restaurants, a second user that likes seeing all the newest shows and/or movies, and a third user that enjoys exploring nightlife hot spots.","The user may specify categories, types, and/or particular services should or should not be offered to the user.","The user may be able to set desired ranges for prices and/or ratings for categories, types, and/or particular services (e.g., a particular service may be excepted from a price and/or ratings rule otherwise applicable).","Services may be ranked according to the user profile, user-determined criteria, and/or third party rankings.","If the user profile/criteria, third party rankings, and/or data about the service are unavailable, the computer system may provide an unranked list.","In some embodiments, the user profile may be derived from secondary information (e.g., work and home addresses, income, etc.)","and/or a third party (e.g., a social network profile and/or user activity within the social network, such as preference indications in the social network and/or interaction with a profile or page associated with a personally attended service).","The user profile may be learned.","The user profile may be created and/or modified based on past user behavior, such as personally attended services accepted and/or rejected by the user, ratings of previously attended services (e.g., ratings through third parties and/or ratings requested by the computer system when the personally attended service ends), and/or the like.","The user may be able to specify a wish list, such as a show/movie the user would like to see and/or a restaurant the user wants to eat at.","The computer system may monitor start times, waits, availability, special discounts, the user's schedule, and/or the like to recommend optimal times to attend the service.","The computer system may determine whether the user is available to attend a personally attended service before identifying and/or offering one or more personally attended services.","In an embodiment and/or configuration, the computer system may detect that a previous personally attended service has ended and/or is about to end and, in response, identify one or more personally attended services the user may attend next (e.g., identifying a restaurant after a show or tour ends if the time is within a predetermined and/or user defined range).","The computer system may interrupt personally attended services and/or alert the user to a personally attended service despite no availability based on, for example, user preferences (e.g., the user must leave to catch the last train and/or a personally attended service very desirable to the user has become available).","In some embodiments, the computer system may determine whether the user's calendar and/or schedule has an opening at any time during which the one or more personally attended services may be attended.","The computer system may notify the user immediately upon determining that a new personally attended service is available and/or that the user requires a personally attended service.","Alternatively, or in addition, a digest may be sent to the user of any new personally attended services and/or any personally attended services newly determined to be required.","Determining user availability may include the computer system receiving information, such as from third parties, a server, applications, and/or the like, that can be used to determine whether a condition exists that would be receptive to a condition-related personally attended service.","For example, the computer system may obtain and/or receive weather information when determining a method of transportation.","In some embodiments, the computer system may determine when a first personally attended service will end, and, for example, may automatically schedule a condition-related personally attended service with a corresponding start time, such as requesting that a taxi arrive when dinner or a show ends if it is raining.","In another example, the computer system may receive updates on new shows and/or movies that have recently opened.","The computer system may determine whether the new show or movie is of interest to the user based on the user profile (e.g., whether the genre is of interest to the user).","If the computer system determines the show or movie may be of interest, it may prompt the user to confirm interest, add the show or movie to the user's wish list, and/or attempt to schedule the show or movie.","The computer system may track or store information that can be used to determine whether a condition-related personally attended service should be offered.","For example, the computer system may track the time since the user last attended a favorite restaurant and/or the time since the user's last haircut, and the computer system may prompt the user and/or attempt to schedule the event if sufficient time has passed for the user to require and/or prefer the service again.","The computer system may determine if the personally attended services have availability for the user to attend them (e.g., remaining tickets and/or openings).","The user profile may specify the amount of availability required.","For example, a user may wish to attend events with a significant other and may require two tickets to be available, and/or the user may prefer to attend personally attended services that are not crowded and may require more availability than the number of tickets the user intends to purchase.","The temporal-spatial criteria may include criteria based on availability.","The computer system may present identified personally attended services to the user that satisfy the temporal-spatial criteria, which may include availability.","The computer system may provide a list, one or more audio indications, and/or one or more visual indications of personally attended services satisfying the temporal-spatial criteria.","Various audio and/or visual indications may be used in different embodiments.","The computer system may also provide details about the personally attended services to the user and/or directions to the personally attended service.","As time passes while the user is deciding which personally attended service to attend, one or more personally attended services may no longer satisfy the temporal-spatial criteria and/or new personally attended services may begin to satisfy the temporal-spatial criteria.","The presented personally attended services may be dynamically updated as time progresses.","Visual indications, such as specific colors and/or flashing, may indicate that a personally attended service is newly added, about to expire, and/or expired.","The computer system may stop presenting a personally attended service to the user when it is no longer valid (e.g., the personally attended service no longer has any availability and/or the user cannot arrive before the start time).","The user may be able to select an indicated personally attended service of interest and make a reservation with the personally attended service through the computer system.","A service computer system associated with the personally attended service may update the inventory in real time based on the reservation received from the computer system.","Accordingly, the service computer system may be able to provide real-time inventory management, and a real-time inventory may be provided to the computer system to inform the user of availability.","Additionally, discounts on the personally attended service may be indicated to the user.","For example, the personally attended service may have an abundance of availability that needs to be sold.","The service computer system may notify the computer system, which in turn may notify the user of a discount.","Personally attended services may be discounted after their start time (e.g., tickets to a football game may be discounted after kickoff).","The user profile may specify whether the user is interested in receiving offers for discounted personally attended services and may include a maximum price or minimum discount percentage for any offers and/or whether the user is willing to attend personally attended services after their start time.","The user may be able to specify different rules and/or criteria for offering discounts based on the type of service.","Some embodiments may include features helpful to tourists and/or visitors to a city and/or destination.","The computer system may recommend popular and/or famous personally attended services.","The computer system may present a plurality of personally attended services, and the user may rank and/or indicate “must see” personally attended services.","The computer system may arrange a schedule.","For example, the computer system may attempt to maximize a weighting function that weights the personally attended services based on rank in addition to, or instead of, the temporal-spatial criteria.","The computer system may include information about local transportation.","The computer system may provide specific information and/or recommendations about transportation, such as where to pick up public transportation, which stop to use, and/or when public transportation stops running.","The computer system may use the user location to alert the user when their stop is next, so the user can alert the driver and/or prepare to exit without having to worry about missing their stop.","The computer system may be aware of walking routes that are popular and/or that pass by famous, historical, and/or popular attractions.","The user may be able to indicate and/or update the user profile with methods of transportation available or preferred (e.g., the user does not have a car, the user prefers not to ride the bus, the user does not like to walk over an indicated distance and/or at all, etc.).","The user may be able to indicate that the transportation preferences are temporary, permanent, and/or should be used only with a particular location.","The user may be prompted to use the transportation preferences for the particular location when it is determined that the user location is near the particular location, and/or the transportation preferences may be loaded automatically.","The computer system may include a processor.","Embodiments may include various steps, which may be embodied in machine-executable instructions to be executed by the computer system.","The computer system comprises one or more general-purpose or special-purpose computers (or other electronic devices).","Alternatively, the computer system may comprise hardware components that include specific logic for performing the steps or comprise a combination of hardware, software, and/or firmware.","Without limitation, a computer system may comprise a workstation, laptop computer, disconnectable mobile computer, server, mainframe, cluster, so-called “network computer” or “thin client,” tablet, smartphone, personal digital assistant or other hand-held computing device, “smart” consumer electronics device or appliance, or a combination thereof.","A server may include a physical server, a server cluster, a distributed server, a virtual server, a cloud server, a computer providing resources to one or more clients, a combination of one or more of the aforementioned, and/or the like.","Some or all of the functions, steps, and/or operations discussed herein may be performed by one or more clients and/or one or more servers.","Those of skill in the art will realize possible divisions of operations between the one or more servers and the one or more clients.","Each computer system includes at least a processor and a memory; computer systems may also include various input devices and/or output devices.","The processor may include one or more general-purpose central processing units (CPUs), graphic processing units (GPUs), or Digital Signal Processors (DSPs), such as Intel®, AMD®, ARM®, Nvidia®, ATI®, TI®, or other “off-the-shelf” microprocessors.","The processor may include a special-purpose processing device, such as an ASIC, PAL, PLA, PLD, Field Programmable Gate Array (FPGA), or other customized or programmable device.","The memory may include static RAM, dynamic RAM, flash memory, ROM, CD-ROM, disk, tape, magnetic, optical, or other computer storage medium.","The input device(s) may include a keyboard, mouse, touch screen, light or other pen, tablet, microphone, sensor, or other hardware with accompanying firmware and/or software.","The output device(s) may include a monitor or other display, printer, speech or text synthesizer, switch, signal line, or other hardware with accompanying firmware and/or software.","The computers may be capable of using a floppy drive, tape drive, optical drive, magneto-optical drive, memory card reader, or other means to read a storage medium.","A suitable storage medium includes a magnetic, optical, or other computer-readable storage device having a specific physical configuration.","Suitable storage devices include floppy disks, hard disks, tape, CD-ROMs, DVDs, PROMs, random access memory, flash memory, and other computer system storage devices.","The physical configuration represents data and instructions which cause the computer system to operate in a specific and predefined manner as described herein.","Embodiments may also be provided as a computer program product, including a non-transitory machine-readable storage medium having stored thereon instructions that may be used to program a computer system (or other electronic device) to perform processes described herein.","The non-transitory machine-readable storage medium may include, but is not limited to, hard drives, floppy diskettes, optical disks, CD-ROMs, DVD-ROMs, ROMs, RAMs, EPROMs, EEPROMs, magnetic or optical cards, tapes, solid-state memory devices, or other types of media/machine-readable media suitable for storing electronic instructions.","Suitable networks for configuration and/or use as described herein include one or more local area networks, wide area networks, metropolitan area networks, and/or “Internet” or IP networks, such as the World Wide Web, a private Internet, a secure Internet, a value-added network, a virtual private network, an extranet, an intranet, or even standalone machines which communicate with other machines by physical transport of media (a so-called “sneakernet”).","In particular, a suitable network may be formed from parts or entireties of two or more other networks, including networks using disparate hardware and network communication technologies.","One suitable network includes a server and several clients; other suitable networks may contain other combinations of servers, clients, and/or peer-to-peer nodes, and a given computer may function both as a client and as a server.","Each network includes at least two computer systems, such as the server and/or clients.","The network may include communications or networking software, such as the software available from Novell, Microsoft, Artisoft, and other vendors, and may operate using TCP/IP, SPX, IPX, and other protocols over twisted pair, coaxial, or optical fiber cables, telephone lines, satellites, microwave relays, modulated AC power lines, physical media transfer, and/or other data transmission “wires” known to those of skill in the art.","The network may encompass smaller networks and/or be connectable to other networks through a gateway or similar mechanism.","Suitable software to assist in implementing the invention is readily provided by those of skill in the pertinent art(s) using the teachings presented here and programming languages and tools, such as Java, Pascal, C++, C, PHP, JavaScript, Python, C#, Perl, SQL, Ruby, Shell, Visual Basic, Assembly, Action Script, Objective C, Lisp, Scala, Tcl Haskell, Scheme, database languages, APIs, SDKs, assembly, firmware, microcode, and/or other languages and tools.","Suitable signal formats may be embodied in analog or digital form, with or without error detection and/or correction bits, packet headers, network addresses in a specific format, and/or other supporting data readily provided by those of skill in the pertinent art(s).","Several aspects of the embodiments described will be illustrated as software modules or components.","As used herein, a software module or component may include any type of computer instruction or computer-executable code located within a memory device.","A software module may, for instance, comprise one or more physical or logical blocks of computer instructions, which may be organized as a routine, a program, a script, an object, a component, a data structure, etc., that perform one or more tasks or implements particular abstract data types.","In certain embodiments, a particular software module may comprise disparate instructions stored in different locations of a memory device, different memory devices, or different computers, which together implement the described functionality of the module.","Indeed, a module may comprise a single instruction or many instructions, and may be distributed over several different code segments, among different programs, and across several memory devices.","Some embodiments may be practiced in a distributed computing environment where tasks are performed by a remote processing device linked through a communications network.","In a distributed computing environment, software modules may be located in local and/or remote memory storage devices.","In addition, data being tied or rendered together in a database record may be resident in the same memory device, or across several memory devices, and may be linked together in fields of a record in a database across a network.","Much of the infrastructure that may be used according to the present invention is already available, such as general-purpose computers, computer programming tools and techniques, computer networks and networking technologies, and digital storage media.","FIG.","1 is a schematic diagram of a system 100 for notifying users 141, 142, 143, 144 of temporally and spatially proximate personally attended services.","Each user 141, 142, 143, 144 may be operating a personal computer system 131, 132, 133, 134.The personal computer systems 131, 132, 133, 134 may include a smart phone 131, a smart television 132, a tablet computer 133, and a laptop 134.The personal computer system 131, 132, 133, 134 may be connected to a network 120, such as the Internet.","For example, the smart phone 131 may be connected to a wireless network 122 coupled with the network 120.The personal computer systems 131, 132, 133, 134 may be coupled to a data server 110.The data server 110 may store information about a plurality of personally attended services in a storage device 112.The storage device 112 may also, or instead, store a plurality of user profiles for the users 141, 142, 143, 144.When one of the personal computer systems 131, 132, 133, 134 determines that the corresponding user 141, 142, 143, 144 is available, it may transmit a user location, a user schedule, and/or the temporal-spatial criteria to the data server 110.The data server 110 may access the storage device 112 to identify personally attended services that satisfy the temporal-spatial criteria.","In some embodiments, the temporal-spatial criteria and/or user schedule may be stored on the storage device 112, and/or the data server 110 may determine the user location based on information from the personal computer systems 131, 132, 133, 134, such as an IP address.","Alternatively, or in addition, the personal computer systems 131, 132, 133, 134 may store information about the plurality of personally attended services, and/or retrieve information about personally attended services directly from one or more service computer systems (not shown) associated with the personally attended services.","Some embodiments may not have the data server 110 and/or storage device 112.The personal computer systems 131, 132, 133, 134 may be configured to make reservations for the users 141, 142, 143, 144 through the data server 110 and/or directly with the service computer systems.","FIG.","2 is an exemplary screen display 200 that may be presented to one of the users 141, 142, 143, 144 by the corresponding personal computer system 131, 132, 133, 134.The exemplary screen display 200 may include a map 210, which may include one or more controls 211, 212 to adjust the position and/or zoom of the map.","The map 210 may include an indication of a user location 230 and/or an indication of location accuracy 232 for the user location 232.The map 210 may also include indications of a plurality of personally attended services 222, 224, 226, 228 near the user location 230 and/or satisfying preferences in a user profile and/or temporal-spatial criteria.","The indications of the plurality of personally attended services 222, 224, 226, 228 may allow basic information about the personally attended services to be determined, such as the name and/or location.","FIG.","3 is a pictorial representation 300 of a method for determining whether each of a plurality of possible personally attended services 322, 324, 328 satisfies temporal-spatial criteria.","The pictorial representation 300 includes a schedule 310 with a plurality of hour demarcations 312 and a plurality of half-hour demarcations 314 and a current time indication 330, which indicates a time of 2:40 PM.","The user may be attending a current event 320 that is about to end.","The user may also have an already scheduled event 326 that is scheduled to begin at 6:00 PM.","The computer system may determine that the user is available to receive indications of personally attended services that can be attended before the already scheduled event 326.The computer system may initially determine the possible personally attended services 322, 324, 328 satisfy spatial criteria.","The computer system may determine whether the possible personally attended services 322, 324, 328 satisfy temporal criteria.","The computer system may add a travel time 321a, 323a, 327a to the possible personally attended services 322, 324, 328 and/or a travel time 321b, 323b, 327b from the possible personally attended services 322, 324, 328.The computer system may determine whether the possible personally attended services 322, 324, 328 including travel time 321a,b, 323a,b, 327a,b conflict with the current event 320 and/or the already scheduled event 326.For example, a tour at the Natural History Museum 328 may not conflict with the current event 320, but the travel time 327a to the tour at the Natural History Museum 328 may be too long.","Thus, the tour at the Natural History Museum 328 may not satisfy the temporal proximity.","The computer system may determine whether the possible personally attended services 322, 324, 328 have availability.","For example, Jane Doe Live in Concert 322 may be sold out for this particular time.","Therefore, Jane Doe Live in Concert may not satisfy the temporal-spatial criteria.","Because only the City Sight Seeing Tour 324 may satisfy the temporal-spatial criteria, it may be presented to the user.","The user may be offered the option to reserve a spot on the City Sight Seeing Tour 324 and/or to receive directions to and/or transportation information for the City Sight Seeing Tour 324.FIG.","4 is a flow diagram of a method 400 for notifying a user of personally attended services satisfying temporal-spatial criteria.","The method 400 may begin by determining 402 if a current service will end soon.","A computer system may be in an idle state where it continuously and/or at regular intervals checks to see if the user is available to receive personally attended services.","In the illustrated embodiment, the user may be deemed to be available if the current service will end within a predetermined time period.","If it is determined that the current service will not end soon, the computer system may repeat step 402.Otherwise, the computer system may proceed to step 404.If the user is available to receive a personally attended service, the computer system may find 404 local personally attended services within a predetermined distance of a user location.","The computer system may determine the user location and submit the user location and the predetermined distance to a server comprising a database of personally attended services.","The server may return a data structure, such as a list, of the local services within a predetermined distance.","Alternatively, the server may determine the user location and/or may store the predetermined distance, and/or the computer system may comprise a database of personally attended services.","The computer system and/or server may use a service location for each personally attended service to determine if the personally attended service is within a predetermined distance.","In some embodiments, the local personally attended services may also be selected to be less than a predetermined time in the future.","The computer system and/or the server may filter 406 out personally attended services that do not have availability (e.g., personally attended services that are sold out and/or have no additional capacity).","The computer system and/or the server may retrieve availability from a third party, such as one or more service computer systems associated with personally attended services, and/or the computer system and/or the server may track availability.","The personally attended services without availability may be removed and/or deleted from the list of local personally attended services to be presented to the user.","The computer system may determine 408 the distance and/or travel time from the user location to each local personally attended service on the list and may determine 410 the distance and/or travel time from each local personally attended service to an already scheduled service.","The computer system may calculate 412 for each local personally attended service whether the user has time to attend the personally attended service.","The computer system may calculate for each personally attended service whether the user can travel to the personally attended service before its start time.","The computer system may also or instead calculate whether the user can travel to the already scheduled service before its start time once the personally attended service ends.","The computer system may filter 414 out services for which the user does not have time (e.g., personally attended services at which the user will not be able to arrive before the start time and/or personally attended services that will prevent the user from arriving at the already scheduled service by the start time).","The computer system may remove and/or delete services for which the user does not have time from the list of local personally attended services to be presented to the user.","The computer system may present 416 personally attended services satisfying temporal-spatial criteria to the user.","The computer system may present local personally attended services on the list after personally attended services without availability and/or for which the user does not have time have been removed from the list.","Various formats may be used to present the personally attended services to the user including on a map, on a calendar, as a list, and/or the like.","The user may be able select one or more personally attended services to find out more information and/or to reserve the personally attended service.","The computer system may receive 418 a user selection indicating that a personally attended service should be reserved.","In response, the computer system may reserve 420 the service by submitting a request to the server and/or a third party, and/or the computer system may provide directions to the personally attended service to the user.","In some embodiment, the computer system may receive an acknowledgement and/or confirmation, which may be displayed and/or indicated to the user.","The directions provided by the computer system may include a map and/or instructions on the method of transportation to use.","FIG.","5 is a flow diagram of a method 500 for determining user availability to receive a condition-related personally attended service based on third party information.","A computer system may receive 502 status information from a server and/or a third party, and/or the computer system may receive the status information from a program or application, such as a calendar application.","The computer system may have requested the status information (e.g., by making periodic requests) and/or may receive the status information without first submitting a request (e.g., the status information may be pushed to the computer system).","The status information may be compared 504 with user preferences.","The user preferences may indicate one or more situations when a service should be offered to the user.","For example, the user may have indicated that the user is interested in certain services when a discount is available, that the user is interested in having a taxi requested during inclement weather, and/or the like.","From the status information and user preferences, the computer system may determine 506 if a condition exists whereby one or more condition-related personally attended service should be offered to the user.","If a condition-related personally attended service should not be offered to the user, the method 500 may end 508.Otherwise, the method 500 may continue to step 510.At step 510, the computer system may determine 510 whether one of the condition-related personally attended services is an immediate service.","An immediate service may be a personally attended service that is likely to be used by the user immediately or not at all and/or that is unlikely to conflict with other personally attended services.","For example, transport services, such as a taxi service, may be immediate services.","If the condition-related personally attended service is an immediate service, the computer system may offer 514 the service to the user.","Otherwise, the method 500 may continue to step 512.For non-immediate services, the computer system may determine 512 whether the user currently has time for any of the condition-related personally attended services.","If the user does have time, the computer system may offer 514 the condition-related personally attended services for which the user does have time to the user.","The user may be able to reserve an offered personally attended service, get directions to an offered personally attended service, schedule an offered personally attended service for a later time, decline an offered personally attended service, and/or the like.","If there are any condition-related personally attended services for which the user does not currently have time, the computer system may offer 516 to schedule those condition-related personally attended services for a later time.","The condition-related personally attended services may be scheduled internally, a reservation may be made, the condition-related personally attended services may be declined, and/or the like.","It will be understood by those having skill in the art that many changes may be made to the details of the above-described embodiments without departing from the underlying principles of the disclosure.","The scope of the present disclosure should, therefore, be determined only by the following claims."]],"string":"[\n [\n \"PERSONALLY ATTENDED SERVICE NOTIFICATION BASED ON TEMPORAL AND SPATIAL PROXIMITY\",\n \"A computer system may notify a user about personally attended services satisfying temporal-spatial criteria.\",\n \"The computer system may use a user location and/or information on already scheduled events to determine whether a personally attended service satisfies the temporal-spatial criteria.\",\n \"Travel time may be determined and included when determining whether the personally attended service conflicts with an already scheduled event.\",\n \"The temporal-spatial criteria may also include availability of the personally attended service.\",\n \"A user profile and/or third party information may be used to determine if a user is available and/or would be receptive to a personally attended service.\",\n \"The user profile may be generated from third party information, such as contained in an online social network, and/or learned.\",\n \"The user may be able to reserve the personally attended service through the computer system.\"\n ],\n [\n \"1.A computer implemented method, comprising: identifying a scheduled status of a user for a personally attended service; determining a user location of the user; determining a set of methods of transportation proximate to the user location; identifying a set of buffer times comprising: an arrival buffer time for the user to travel to a location at which the personally attended service is available, the arrival buffer time based at least in part on use of one method of transportation of the set of methods of transportation; determining a temporal-spatial criterion associated with the personally attended service based at least in part on the set of buffer times, the user location and the set of methods of transportation; presenting, to the user, the personally attended service with the temporal-spatial criterion of the personally attended service and at least one of the set of methods of transportation; receiving a selection of the user for a selected personally attended service from the at least one of the set of methods of transportation; and presenting the user a recommended leave time.\",\n \"2.The computer implemented method of claim 1, further comprising selecting the set of methods of transportation based at least in part on proximity to the user location.\",\n \"3.The computer implemented method of claim 1, further comprising selecting the set of methods of transportation based at least in part on a user configuration.\",\n \"4.The computer implemented method of claim 1, wherein the arrival buffer time is a percentage of an estimated travel time.\",\n \"5.The computer implemented method of claim 1, wherein the arrival buffer time is a fixed amount based on a type of service provided by the personally attended service.\",\n \"6.The computer implemented method of claim 1, further comprising requesting pre-service requirements from a third party associated with the personally attended service.\",\n \"7.A computer program product comprising a computer-readable storage medium that stores instructions for execution by a processor to perform operations, the operations, when executed by the processor, to perform a method, the method comprising: identifying a scheduled event of a user; determining a user location of the user; determining a set of methods of transportation proximate to the user location; identifying a set of buffer times comprising: an arrival buffer time for the user to travel to a location at which the scheduled event is available, the arrival buffer time based at least in part on use of one of the set of methods of transportation; determining temporal-spatial criteria associated with the scheduled event based at least in part on the set of buffer times, the user location and the set of methods of transportation; forming a set of estimated leave times for the scheduled event, an estimated leave time for each method of transportation of the set of methods of transportation to the scheduled event based at least in part on the temporal-spatial criteria; presenting, to the user, the scheduled event with the set of estimated leave times; receiving a selection of the user for a selected personally attended service from the at least one of the set of methods of transportation; and presenting the user with a selected leave time and a corresponding method of transportation based at least in part on the selection of the user.\",\n \"8.The computer program product of claim 7, further comprising presenting the user with the selected leave time before an earliest leave time from the set of estimated leave times.\",\n \"9.The computer program product of claim 7, further comprising: identifying a second scheduled event of the user; estimating a second user location of the user based at least in part on the scheduled event; determining a second set of methods of transportation proximate to the second user location; identifying a second set of buffer times comprising: a second arrival buffer time for the user to travel to a second location at which the second scheduled event is available, the arrival buffer time based at least in part on use of a second method of transportation from the set of methods of transportation; determine at least one of the second set of methods of transportation and associated buffer times are incompatible with a first arrival at the scheduled event and a second arrival at the second scheduled event; and presenting the user with a conflict based at least in part on the at least one method of transportation from the set of methods of transportation or the second set of methods of transportation that is incompatible with the first arrival and the second arrival.\",\n \"10.The computer program product of claim 7, wherein one or more of the set of buffer times are based at least in part on current traffic data.\",\n \"11.The computer program product of claim 7, wherein the set of methods of transportation are a subset of a larger set of methods of transportation based at least in part on a threshold within a configuration.\",\n \"12.The computer program product of claim 11, wherein the configuration is a user-defined configuration and the threshold is defined within the user-defined configuration.\",\n \"13.The computer program product of claim 7, wherein the set of methods of transportation are a subset of a larger set of methods of transportation based at least in part on a user-defined configuration of preferred methods of transportation.\",\n \"14.An apparatus for determining an estimated time to leave, comprising: an interface to a calendar system configured to request scheduled events; a processor configured to: receive a scheduled event of a user from the calendar system using the interface; determine a user location of the user; determine a set of methods of transportation proximate to the user location; identify a set of buffer times comprising an arrival buffer time for the user to travel to a location at which the scheduled event is available, the arrival buffer time based at least in part on use of one of the set of methods of transportation; determine temporal-spatial criteria associated with the scheduled event based at least in part on the set of buffer times, the user location and the set of methods of transportation; form a set of estimated leave times for the scheduled event, an estimated leave time for each method of transportation of the set of methods of transportation to the scheduled event based at least in part on the temporal-spatial criteria; and present, to the user, the scheduled event with the set of estimated leave times.\",\n \"15.The apparatus of claim 14, wherein the processor is further configured to: receive a selection of the user for a selected estimated leave time corresponding to at least one of the set of methods of transportation; and present the user with a selected leave time and a corresponding method of transportation based at least in part on the selection of the user.\",\n \"16.The apparatus of claim 14, wherein the processor is further configured to request, using the interface, a next scheduled event from the calendar system.\",\n \"17.The apparatus of claim 14, wherein the calendar system and the apparatus are separate computing systems.\",\n \"18.The apparatus of claim 14, wherein the calendar system and the apparatus share a processor.\",\n \"19.The apparatus claim 14, wherein one or more of the set of buffer times are based at least in part on a map routing algorithm.\",\n \"20.The apparatus claim 14, wherein the processor is further configured to presenting the user with the selected leave time before an earliest leave time from the set of estimated leave times.\",\n \"21.The apparatus claim 14, wherein one or more of the set of buffer times are based at least in part on a current traffic report.\"\n ],\n [\n \" TECHNICAL FIELD This disclosure relates to systems and methods for notifying a user of temporally and spatially proximate personally attended services.\"\n ],\n [\n \" BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG.\",\n \"1 is a schematic diagram of a system for notifying users of temporally and spatially proximate personally attended services.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"2 is an exemplary screen display that may be presented to one of the users by the corresponding personal computer system.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"3 is a pictorial representation of a method for determining whether a plurality of possible personally attended services satisfy temporal-spatial criteria.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"4 is a flow diagram of a method for notifying a user of personally attended services satisfying temporal-spatial criteria.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"5 is a flow diagram of a method for determining user availability to receive a personally attended service from third party information.\",\n \"detailed-description description=\\\"Detailed Description\\\" end=\\\"lead\\\"?\"\n ],\n [\n \"RELATED APPLICATIONS This application is a continuation of and claims priority to U.S. patent application Ser.\",\n \"No.\",\n \"15/358,725, filed Nov. 22, 2016, and entitled “Personally Attended Service Notification Based on Temporal and Spatial Proximity,” which is a continuation of and claims priority to U.S. patent application Ser.\",\n \"No.\",\n \"14/953,770, filed Nov. 30, 2015, and entitled “Personally Attended Service Notification Based on Temporal and Spatial Proximity,” which has issued as U.S. Pat.\",\n \"No.\",\n \"9,510,144, on Nov. 29, 2016, which is a continuation of and claims priority to U.S. patent application Ser.\",\n \"No.\",\n \"14/184,410, filed Feb. 19, 2014, and entitled “Personally Attended Service Notification Based on Temporal and Spatial Proximity,” which has issued as U.S. Pat.\",\n \"No.\",\n \"9,204,250, on Dec. 1, 2015, and which in turn claims priority to U.S.\",\n \"Provisional Patent Application Ser.\",\n \"No.\",\n \"61/767,080 filed Feb. 20, 2013, and entitled “Personally Attended Service Notification Based on Temporal and Spatial Proximity,” which are hereby incorporated by reference in their entirety.\",\n \"TECHNICAL FIELD This disclosure relates to systems and methods for notifying a user of temporally and spatially proximate personally attended services.\",\n \"BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG.\",\n \"1 is a schematic diagram of a system for notifying users of temporally and spatially proximate personally attended services.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"2 is an exemplary screen display that may be presented to one of the users by the corresponding personal computer system.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"3 is a pictorial representation of a method for determining whether a plurality of possible personally attended services satisfy temporal-spatial criteria.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"4 is a flow diagram of a method for notifying a user of personally attended services satisfying temporal-spatial criteria.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"5 is a flow diagram of a method for determining user availability to receive a personally attended service from third party information.\",\n \"DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS A city may offer numerous personally attended services, such as entertainment services (e.g., shows, tours, amusement parks, historical sites, etc.\",\n \"), hospitality services (e.g., restaurants, bars, night life, etc.\",\n \"), transportation services (e.g., taxis, public transportation, etc.\",\n \"), beauty services (e.g., haircuts, spa treatments, etc.)\",\n \"and the like, that may be attended by a person and/or their designee.\",\n \"The person may have difficulty identifying personally attended services that are available, nearby, and/or compatible with the person's schedule.\",\n \"The person may be unaware of the services and/or considerable time and/or effort may be required to determine availability and/or timing of the personally attended services.\",\n \"A computer system may aid a user in identifying temporally proximate and/or spatially proximate personally attended services using temporal-spatial criteria.\",\n \"The temporal-spatial criteria may include temporal criteria, spatial criteria, and/or a combined temporal and spatial criteria.\",\n \"The computer system may determine a user location that can be used to identify spatially proximate personally attended services.\",\n \"The user location may be computed from satellite navigation signals (e.g., Global Positioning System (GPS) signals), cellular tower locations, wireless network access points, internet protocol (IP) addresses, etc.\",\n \"; received from the user, a navigation system, and/or another computer system; and/or the like.\",\n \"Computer systems able to determine a location may include a smart phone, a tablet (e.g., an iPad®, a Kindle®, or the like), a laptop computer, a smart TV, a desktop computer, and/or the like.\",\n \"For each personally attended service, the computer system may determine and/or receive a service location.\",\n \"Spatial proximity may be determined by identifying personally attended services within a predetermined distance of the user location.\",\n \"The predetermined distance may be an absolute distance; the boundary of a city or municipality; a predetermined metropolitan area of a city or municipality, which may be proprietary or nonproprietary; a combination of absolute distance, political divisions, and/or predetermined metropolitan area; and/or the like.\",\n \"Alternatively, or in addition, the spatial distances may be converted into travel times, and spatial proximity may be analyzed simultaneously with temporal proximity as discussed below.\",\n \"The computer system may determine a best method of transportation and/or allow the user to indicate the desired method of transportation when determining travel time.\",\n \"For example, the computer system may recommend a method of transportation but allow the user to select a different method.\",\n \"A travel time may be determined based on the method of transportation.\",\n \"The computer system may add in buffer time to ensure arrival before the personally attended service and/or to allow for time spent waiting for transportation and/or transferring between modes of transportation (e.g., waiting for a taxi or a train).\",\n \"The buffer time may be a fixed amount, a percentage of the total travel time, based on the modes of transportation used in computing the travel time, user entered, a combination of the aforementioned, and/or the like.\",\n \"If actual travel time is varying from predicted travel time and/or the predicted travel time indicates the user will be late (e.g., traffic data and/or a map routing algorithm indicates a predicted time of arrival later than the start time of a personally attended service), the computer system may attempt to move reservations and/or take actions to mitigate the effect of the late arrival.\",\n \"Temporal proximity may be determined by identifying personally attended services that do not conflict with an already scheduled event.\",\n \"The already scheduled event may be before and/or after the personally attended service.\",\n \"Travel time to and/or from the personally attended service may be included when determining whether a conflict exists.\",\n \"Additional buffer time may be added for some personally attended services to ensure any pre-service requirements may be satisfied by the user (e.g., picking up tickets, filling out waivers, etc.).\",\n \"The additional buffer time may be predetermined, and/or the computer system may receive an indication of the additional buffer time from a computer system associated with the personally attended service.\",\n \"The travel time, including any additional buffer time, may be included when comparing the end time of an already scheduled event before the personally attended service with the start time of a personally attended service and/or the start time of an already scheduled event after the personally attended service with the end time of the personally attended service.\",\n \"Alternatively, or in addition, determining temporal proximity may include determining if a start time for a personally attended service is too far in the future and/or if the travel time exceeds a predetermined threshold.\",\n \"Travel time may also or instead be analyzed when determining spatial proximity.\",\n \"A user may be able to create a profile and set rules and/or preferences used to determine spatial and/or temporal proximity.\",\n \"For example, the user may specify an absolute distance, time until start, and/or travel time that should not be exceeded.\",\n \"The user may set exclusion areas and/or boundaries limiting the locations of personally attended services offered to the user.\",\n \"The user may set buffer times, preferred methods of transportation (e.g., an always preferred method and/or preferred methods for different situations and/or distances), and/or rules for computing travel time from a given method of transportation (e.g., a walking speed).\",\n \"The spatial and/or temporal proximity rules, preferences, and/or thresholds may be universal and/or default for all personally attended services, and/or the user may specify rules, preferences, and/or thresholds based on the category of service, the type of service, and/or the particular services.\",\n \"For example, the user may have default rules for hospitality services, an overriding set of default rules for restaurants, and a specific rule for the user's favorite restaurant (e.g., start times for hospitality services should be no more than 30 minutes in the future, but restaurants can have wait times of up to 45 minutes, and the user's favorite restaurant can have a wait time of up to 1 hour).\",\n \"The temporal-spatial criteria may also or instead include criteria based on the user profile that can be used to determine which personally attended services should be offered to a user.\",\n \"Different users may enjoy different activities, such as a first user that enjoys going to the highest rated restaurants, a second user that likes seeing all the newest shows and/or movies, and a third user that enjoys exploring nightlife hot spots.\",\n \"The user may specify categories, types, and/or particular services should or should not be offered to the user.\",\n \"The user may be able to set desired ranges for prices and/or ratings for categories, types, and/or particular services (e.g., a particular service may be excepted from a price and/or ratings rule otherwise applicable).\",\n \"Services may be ranked according to the user profile, user-determined criteria, and/or third party rankings.\",\n \"If the user profile/criteria, third party rankings, and/or data about the service are unavailable, the computer system may provide an unranked list.\",\n \"In some embodiments, the user profile may be derived from secondary information (e.g., work and home addresses, income, etc.)\",\n \"and/or a third party (e.g., a social network profile and/or user activity within the social network, such as preference indications in the social network and/or interaction with a profile or page associated with a personally attended service).\",\n \"The user profile may be learned.\",\n \"The user profile may be created and/or modified based on past user behavior, such as personally attended services accepted and/or rejected by the user, ratings of previously attended services (e.g., ratings through third parties and/or ratings requested by the computer system when the personally attended service ends), and/or the like.\",\n \"The user may be able to specify a wish list, such as a show/movie the user would like to see and/or a restaurant the user wants to eat at.\",\n \"The computer system may monitor start times, waits, availability, special discounts, the user's schedule, and/or the like to recommend optimal times to attend the service.\",\n \"The computer system may determine whether the user is available to attend a personally attended service before identifying and/or offering one or more personally attended services.\",\n \"In an embodiment and/or configuration, the computer system may detect that a previous personally attended service has ended and/or is about to end and, in response, identify one or more personally attended services the user may attend next (e.g., identifying a restaurant after a show or tour ends if the time is within a predetermined and/or user defined range).\",\n \"The computer system may interrupt personally attended services and/or alert the user to a personally attended service despite no availability based on, for example, user preferences (e.g., the user must leave to catch the last train and/or a personally attended service very desirable to the user has become available).\",\n \"In some embodiments, the computer system may determine whether the user's calendar and/or schedule has an opening at any time during which the one or more personally attended services may be attended.\",\n \"The computer system may notify the user immediately upon determining that a new personally attended service is available and/or that the user requires a personally attended service.\",\n \"Alternatively, or in addition, a digest may be sent to the user of any new personally attended services and/or any personally attended services newly determined to be required.\",\n \"Determining user availability may include the computer system receiving information, such as from third parties, a server, applications, and/or the like, that can be used to determine whether a condition exists that would be receptive to a condition-related personally attended service.\",\n \"For example, the computer system may obtain and/or receive weather information when determining a method of transportation.\",\n \"In some embodiments, the computer system may determine when a first personally attended service will end, and, for example, may automatically schedule a condition-related personally attended service with a corresponding start time, such as requesting that a taxi arrive when dinner or a show ends if it is raining.\",\n \"In another example, the computer system may receive updates on new shows and/or movies that have recently opened.\",\n \"The computer system may determine whether the new show or movie is of interest to the user based on the user profile (e.g., whether the genre is of interest to the user).\",\n \"If the computer system determines the show or movie may be of interest, it may prompt the user to confirm interest, add the show or movie to the user's wish list, and/or attempt to schedule the show or movie.\",\n \"The computer system may track or store information that can be used to determine whether a condition-related personally attended service should be offered.\",\n \"For example, the computer system may track the time since the user last attended a favorite restaurant and/or the time since the user's last haircut, and the computer system may prompt the user and/or attempt to schedule the event if sufficient time has passed for the user to require and/or prefer the service again.\",\n \"The computer system may determine if the personally attended services have availability for the user to attend them (e.g., remaining tickets and/or openings).\",\n \"The user profile may specify the amount of availability required.\",\n \"For example, a user may wish to attend events with a significant other and may require two tickets to be available, and/or the user may prefer to attend personally attended services that are not crowded and may require more availability than the number of tickets the user intends to purchase.\",\n \"The temporal-spatial criteria may include criteria based on availability.\",\n \"The computer system may present identified personally attended services to the user that satisfy the temporal-spatial criteria, which may include availability.\",\n \"The computer system may provide a list, one or more audio indications, and/or one or more visual indications of personally attended services satisfying the temporal-spatial criteria.\",\n \"Various audio and/or visual indications may be used in different embodiments.\",\n \"The computer system may also provide details about the personally attended services to the user and/or directions to the personally attended service.\",\n \"As time passes while the user is deciding which personally attended service to attend, one or more personally attended services may no longer satisfy the temporal-spatial criteria and/or new personally attended services may begin to satisfy the temporal-spatial criteria.\",\n \"The presented personally attended services may be dynamically updated as time progresses.\",\n \"Visual indications, such as specific colors and/or flashing, may indicate that a personally attended service is newly added, about to expire, and/or expired.\",\n \"The computer system may stop presenting a personally attended service to the user when it is no longer valid (e.g., the personally attended service no longer has any availability and/or the user cannot arrive before the start time).\",\n \"The user may be able to select an indicated personally attended service of interest and make a reservation with the personally attended service through the computer system.\",\n \"A service computer system associated with the personally attended service may update the inventory in real time based on the reservation received from the computer system.\",\n \"Accordingly, the service computer system may be able to provide real-time inventory management, and a real-time inventory may be provided to the computer system to inform the user of availability.\",\n \"Additionally, discounts on the personally attended service may be indicated to the user.\",\n \"For example, the personally attended service may have an abundance of availability that needs to be sold.\",\n \"The service computer system may notify the computer system, which in turn may notify the user of a discount.\",\n \"Personally attended services may be discounted after their start time (e.g., tickets to a football game may be discounted after kickoff).\",\n \"The user profile may specify whether the user is interested in receiving offers for discounted personally attended services and may include a maximum price or minimum discount percentage for any offers and/or whether the user is willing to attend personally attended services after their start time.\",\n \"The user may be able to specify different rules and/or criteria for offering discounts based on the type of service.\",\n \"Some embodiments may include features helpful to tourists and/or visitors to a city and/or destination.\",\n \"The computer system may recommend popular and/or famous personally attended services.\",\n \"The computer system may present a plurality of personally attended services, and the user may rank and/or indicate “must see” personally attended services.\",\n \"The computer system may arrange a schedule.\",\n \"For example, the computer system may attempt to maximize a weighting function that weights the personally attended services based on rank in addition to, or instead of, the temporal-spatial criteria.\",\n \"The computer system may include information about local transportation.\",\n \"The computer system may provide specific information and/or recommendations about transportation, such as where to pick up public transportation, which stop to use, and/or when public transportation stops running.\",\n \"The computer system may use the user location to alert the user when their stop is next, so the user can alert the driver and/or prepare to exit without having to worry about missing their stop.\",\n \"The computer system may be aware of walking routes that are popular and/or that pass by famous, historical, and/or popular attractions.\",\n \"The user may be able to indicate and/or update the user profile with methods of transportation available or preferred (e.g., the user does not have a car, the user prefers not to ride the bus, the user does not like to walk over an indicated distance and/or at all, etc.).\",\n \"The user may be able to indicate that the transportation preferences are temporary, permanent, and/or should be used only with a particular location.\",\n \"The user may be prompted to use the transportation preferences for the particular location when it is determined that the user location is near the particular location, and/or the transportation preferences may be loaded automatically.\",\n \"The computer system may include a processor.\",\n \"Embodiments may include various steps, which may be embodied in machine-executable instructions to be executed by the computer system.\",\n \"The computer system comprises one or more general-purpose or special-purpose computers (or other electronic devices).\",\n \"Alternatively, the computer system may comprise hardware components that include specific logic for performing the steps or comprise a combination of hardware, software, and/or firmware.\",\n \"Without limitation, a computer system may comprise a workstation, laptop computer, disconnectable mobile computer, server, mainframe, cluster, so-called “network computer” or “thin client,” tablet, smartphone, personal digital assistant or other hand-held computing device, “smart” consumer electronics device or appliance, or a combination thereof.\",\n \"A server may include a physical server, a server cluster, a distributed server, a virtual server, a cloud server, a computer providing resources to one or more clients, a combination of one or more of the aforementioned, and/or the like.\",\n \"Some or all of the functions, steps, and/or operations discussed herein may be performed by one or more clients and/or one or more servers.\",\n \"Those of skill in the art will realize possible divisions of operations between the one or more servers and the one or more clients.\",\n \"Each computer system includes at least a processor and a memory; computer systems may also include various input devices and/or output devices.\",\n \"The processor may include one or more general-purpose central processing units (CPUs), graphic processing units (GPUs), or Digital Signal Processors (DSPs), such as Intel®, AMD®, ARM®, Nvidia®, ATI®, TI®, or other “off-the-shelf” microprocessors.\",\n \"The processor may include a special-purpose processing device, such as an ASIC, PAL, PLA, PLD, Field Programmable Gate Array (FPGA), or other customized or programmable device.\",\n \"The memory may include static RAM, dynamic RAM, flash memory, ROM, CD-ROM, disk, tape, magnetic, optical, or other computer storage medium.\",\n \"The input device(s) may include a keyboard, mouse, touch screen, light or other pen, tablet, microphone, sensor, or other hardware with accompanying firmware and/or software.\",\n \"The output device(s) may include a monitor or other display, printer, speech or text synthesizer, switch, signal line, or other hardware with accompanying firmware and/or software.\",\n \"The computers may be capable of using a floppy drive, tape drive, optical drive, magneto-optical drive, memory card reader, or other means to read a storage medium.\",\n \"A suitable storage medium includes a magnetic, optical, or other computer-readable storage device having a specific physical configuration.\",\n \"Suitable storage devices include floppy disks, hard disks, tape, CD-ROMs, DVDs, PROMs, random access memory, flash memory, and other computer system storage devices.\",\n \"The physical configuration represents data and instructions which cause the computer system to operate in a specific and predefined manner as described herein.\",\n \"Embodiments may also be provided as a computer program product, including a non-transitory machine-readable storage medium having stored thereon instructions that may be used to program a computer system (or other electronic device) to perform processes described herein.\",\n \"The non-transitory machine-readable storage medium may include, but is not limited to, hard drives, floppy diskettes, optical disks, CD-ROMs, DVD-ROMs, ROMs, RAMs, EPROMs, EEPROMs, magnetic or optical cards, tapes, solid-state memory devices, or other types of media/machine-readable media suitable for storing electronic instructions.\",\n \"Suitable networks for configuration and/or use as described herein include one or more local area networks, wide area networks, metropolitan area networks, and/or “Internet” or IP networks, such as the World Wide Web, a private Internet, a secure Internet, a value-added network, a virtual private network, an extranet, an intranet, or even standalone machines which communicate with other machines by physical transport of media (a so-called “sneakernet”).\",\n \"In particular, a suitable network may be formed from parts or entireties of two or more other networks, including networks using disparate hardware and network communication technologies.\",\n \"One suitable network includes a server and several clients; other suitable networks may contain other combinations of servers, clients, and/or peer-to-peer nodes, and a given computer may function both as a client and as a server.\",\n \"Each network includes at least two computer systems, such as the server and/or clients.\",\n \"The network may include communications or networking software, such as the software available from Novell, Microsoft, Artisoft, and other vendors, and may operate using TCP/IP, SPX, IPX, and other protocols over twisted pair, coaxial, or optical fiber cables, telephone lines, satellites, microwave relays, modulated AC power lines, physical media transfer, and/or other data transmission “wires” known to those of skill in the art.\",\n \"The network may encompass smaller networks and/or be connectable to other networks through a gateway or similar mechanism.\",\n \"Suitable software to assist in implementing the invention is readily provided by those of skill in the pertinent art(s) using the teachings presented here and programming languages and tools, such as Java, Pascal, C++, C, PHP, JavaScript, Python, C#, Perl, SQL, Ruby, Shell, Visual Basic, Assembly, Action Script, Objective C, Lisp, Scala, Tcl Haskell, Scheme, database languages, APIs, SDKs, assembly, firmware, microcode, and/or other languages and tools.\",\n \"Suitable signal formats may be embodied in analog or digital form, with or without error detection and/or correction bits, packet headers, network addresses in a specific format, and/or other supporting data readily provided by those of skill in the pertinent art(s).\",\n \"Several aspects of the embodiments described will be illustrated as software modules or components.\",\n \"As used herein, a software module or component may include any type of computer instruction or computer-executable code located within a memory device.\",\n \"A software module may, for instance, comprise one or more physical or logical blocks of computer instructions, which may be organized as a routine, a program, a script, an object, a component, a data structure, etc., that perform one or more tasks or implements particular abstract data types.\",\n \"In certain embodiments, a particular software module may comprise disparate instructions stored in different locations of a memory device, different memory devices, or different computers, which together implement the described functionality of the module.\",\n \"Indeed, a module may comprise a single instruction or many instructions, and may be distributed over several different code segments, among different programs, and across several memory devices.\",\n \"Some embodiments may be practiced in a distributed computing environment where tasks are performed by a remote processing device linked through a communications network.\",\n \"In a distributed computing environment, software modules may be located in local and/or remote memory storage devices.\",\n \"In addition, data being tied or rendered together in a database record may be resident in the same memory device, or across several memory devices, and may be linked together in fields of a record in a database across a network.\",\n \"Much of the infrastructure that may be used according to the present invention is already available, such as general-purpose computers, computer programming tools and techniques, computer networks and networking technologies, and digital storage media.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"1 is a schematic diagram of a system 100 for notifying users 141, 142, 143, 144 of temporally and spatially proximate personally attended services.\",\n \"Each user 141, 142, 143, 144 may be operating a personal computer system 131, 132, 133, 134.The personal computer systems 131, 132, 133, 134 may include a smart phone 131, a smart television 132, a tablet computer 133, and a laptop 134.The personal computer system 131, 132, 133, 134 may be connected to a network 120, such as the Internet.\",\n \"For example, the smart phone 131 may be connected to a wireless network 122 coupled with the network 120.The personal computer systems 131, 132, 133, 134 may be coupled to a data server 110.The data server 110 may store information about a plurality of personally attended services in a storage device 112.The storage device 112 may also, or instead, store a plurality of user profiles for the users 141, 142, 143, 144.When one of the personal computer systems 131, 132, 133, 134 determines that the corresponding user 141, 142, 143, 144 is available, it may transmit a user location, a user schedule, and/or the temporal-spatial criteria to the data server 110.The data server 110 may access the storage device 112 to identify personally attended services that satisfy the temporal-spatial criteria.\",\n \"In some embodiments, the temporal-spatial criteria and/or user schedule may be stored on the storage device 112, and/or the data server 110 may determine the user location based on information from the personal computer systems 131, 132, 133, 134, such as an IP address.\",\n \"Alternatively, or in addition, the personal computer systems 131, 132, 133, 134 may store information about the plurality of personally attended services, and/or retrieve information about personally attended services directly from one or more service computer systems (not shown) associated with the personally attended services.\",\n \"Some embodiments may not have the data server 110 and/or storage device 112.The personal computer systems 131, 132, 133, 134 may be configured to make reservations for the users 141, 142, 143, 144 through the data server 110 and/or directly with the service computer systems.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"2 is an exemplary screen display 200 that may be presented to one of the users 141, 142, 143, 144 by the corresponding personal computer system 131, 132, 133, 134.The exemplary screen display 200 may include a map 210, which may include one or more controls 211, 212 to adjust the position and/or zoom of the map.\",\n \"The map 210 may include an indication of a user location 230 and/or an indication of location accuracy 232 for the user location 232.The map 210 may also include indications of a plurality of personally attended services 222, 224, 226, 228 near the user location 230 and/or satisfying preferences in a user profile and/or temporal-spatial criteria.\",\n \"The indications of the plurality of personally attended services 222, 224, 226, 228 may allow basic information about the personally attended services to be determined, such as the name and/or location.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"3 is a pictorial representation 300 of a method for determining whether each of a plurality of possible personally attended services 322, 324, 328 satisfies temporal-spatial criteria.\",\n \"The pictorial representation 300 includes a schedule 310 with a plurality of hour demarcations 312 and a plurality of half-hour demarcations 314 and a current time indication 330, which indicates a time of 2:40 PM.\",\n \"The user may be attending a current event 320 that is about to end.\",\n \"The user may also have an already scheduled event 326 that is scheduled to begin at 6:00 PM.\",\n \"The computer system may determine that the user is available to receive indications of personally attended services that can be attended before the already scheduled event 326.The computer system may initially determine the possible personally attended services 322, 324, 328 satisfy spatial criteria.\",\n \"The computer system may determine whether the possible personally attended services 322, 324, 328 satisfy temporal criteria.\",\n \"The computer system may add a travel time 321a, 323a, 327a to the possible personally attended services 322, 324, 328 and/or a travel time 321b, 323b, 327b from the possible personally attended services 322, 324, 328.The computer system may determine whether the possible personally attended services 322, 324, 328 including travel time 321a,b, 323a,b, 327a,b conflict with the current event 320 and/or the already scheduled event 326.For example, a tour at the Natural History Museum 328 may not conflict with the current event 320, but the travel time 327a to the tour at the Natural History Museum 328 may be too long.\",\n \"Thus, the tour at the Natural History Museum 328 may not satisfy the temporal proximity.\",\n \"The computer system may determine whether the possible personally attended services 322, 324, 328 have availability.\",\n \"For example, Jane Doe Live in Concert 322 may be sold out for this particular time.\",\n \"Therefore, Jane Doe Live in Concert may not satisfy the temporal-spatial criteria.\",\n \"Because only the City Sight Seeing Tour 324 may satisfy the temporal-spatial criteria, it may be presented to the user.\",\n \"The user may be offered the option to reserve a spot on the City Sight Seeing Tour 324 and/or to receive directions to and/or transportation information for the City Sight Seeing Tour 324.FIG.\",\n \"4 is a flow diagram of a method 400 for notifying a user of personally attended services satisfying temporal-spatial criteria.\",\n \"The method 400 may begin by determining 402 if a current service will end soon.\",\n \"A computer system may be in an idle state where it continuously and/or at regular intervals checks to see if the user is available to receive personally attended services.\",\n \"In the illustrated embodiment, the user may be deemed to be available if the current service will end within a predetermined time period.\",\n \"If it is determined that the current service will not end soon, the computer system may repeat step 402.Otherwise, the computer system may proceed to step 404.If the user is available to receive a personally attended service, the computer system may find 404 local personally attended services within a predetermined distance of a user location.\",\n \"The computer system may determine the user location and submit the user location and the predetermined distance to a server comprising a database of personally attended services.\",\n \"The server may return a data structure, such as a list, of the local services within a predetermined distance.\",\n \"Alternatively, the server may determine the user location and/or may store the predetermined distance, and/or the computer system may comprise a database of personally attended services.\",\n \"The computer system and/or server may use a service location for each personally attended service to determine if the personally attended service is within a predetermined distance.\",\n \"In some embodiments, the local personally attended services may also be selected to be less than a predetermined time in the future.\",\n \"The computer system and/or the server may filter 406 out personally attended services that do not have availability (e.g., personally attended services that are sold out and/or have no additional capacity).\",\n \"The computer system and/or the server may retrieve availability from a third party, such as one or more service computer systems associated with personally attended services, and/or the computer system and/or the server may track availability.\",\n \"The personally attended services without availability may be removed and/or deleted from the list of local personally attended services to be presented to the user.\",\n \"The computer system may determine 408 the distance and/or travel time from the user location to each local personally attended service on the list and may determine 410 the distance and/or travel time from each local personally attended service to an already scheduled service.\",\n \"The computer system may calculate 412 for each local personally attended service whether the user has time to attend the personally attended service.\",\n \"The computer system may calculate for each personally attended service whether the user can travel to the personally attended service before its start time.\",\n \"The computer system may also or instead calculate whether the user can travel to the already scheduled service before its start time once the personally attended service ends.\",\n \"The computer system may filter 414 out services for which the user does not have time (e.g., personally attended services at which the user will not be able to arrive before the start time and/or personally attended services that will prevent the user from arriving at the already scheduled service by the start time).\",\n \"The computer system may remove and/or delete services for which the user does not have time from the list of local personally attended services to be presented to the user.\",\n \"The computer system may present 416 personally attended services satisfying temporal-spatial criteria to the user.\",\n \"The computer system may present local personally attended services on the list after personally attended services without availability and/or for which the user does not have time have been removed from the list.\",\n \"Various formats may be used to present the personally attended services to the user including on a map, on a calendar, as a list, and/or the like.\",\n \"The user may be able select one or more personally attended services to find out more information and/or to reserve the personally attended service.\",\n \"The computer system may receive 418 a user selection indicating that a personally attended service should be reserved.\",\n \"In response, the computer system may reserve 420 the service by submitting a request to the server and/or a third party, and/or the computer system may provide directions to the personally attended service to the user.\",\n \"In some embodiment, the computer system may receive an acknowledgement and/or confirmation, which may be displayed and/or indicated to the user.\",\n \"The directions provided by the computer system may include a map and/or instructions on the method of transportation to use.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"5 is a flow diagram of a method 500 for determining user availability to receive a condition-related personally attended service based on third party information.\",\n \"A computer system may receive 502 status information from a server and/or a third party, and/or the computer system may receive the status information from a program or application, such as a calendar application.\",\n \"The computer system may have requested the status information (e.g., by making periodic requests) and/or may receive the status information without first submitting a request (e.g., the status information may be pushed to the computer system).\",\n \"The status information may be compared 504 with user preferences.\",\n \"The user preferences may indicate one or more situations when a service should be offered to the user.\",\n \"For example, the user may have indicated that the user is interested in certain services when a discount is available, that the user is interested in having a taxi requested during inclement weather, and/or the like.\",\n \"From the status information and user preferences, the computer system may determine 506 if a condition exists whereby one or more condition-related personally attended service should be offered to the user.\",\n \"If a condition-related personally attended service should not be offered to the user, the method 500 may end 508.Otherwise, the method 500 may continue to step 510.At step 510, the computer system may determine 510 whether one of the condition-related personally attended services is an immediate service.\",\n \"An immediate service may be a personally attended service that is likely to be used by the user immediately or not at all and/or that is unlikely to conflict with other personally attended services.\",\n \"For example, transport services, such as a taxi service, may be immediate services.\",\n \"If the condition-related personally attended service is an immediate service, the computer system may offer 514 the service to the user.\",\n \"Otherwise, the method 500 may continue to step 512.For non-immediate services, the computer system may determine 512 whether the user currently has time for any of the condition-related personally attended services.\",\n \"If the user does have time, the computer system may offer 514 the condition-related personally attended services for which the user does have time to the user.\",\n \"The user may be able to reserve an offered personally attended service, get directions to an offered personally attended service, schedule an offered personally attended service for a later time, decline an offered personally attended service, and/or the like.\",\n \"If there are any condition-related personally attended services for which the user does not currently have time, the computer system may offer 516 to schedule those condition-related personally attended services for a later time.\",\n \"The condition-related personally attended services may be scheduled internally, a reservation may be made, the condition-related personally attended services may be declined, and/or the like.\",\n \"It will be understood by those having skill in the art that many changes may be made to the details of the above-described embodiments without departing from the underlying principles of the disclosure.\",\n \"The scope of the present disclosure should, therefore, be determined only by the following claims.\"\n ]\n]"},"source":{"kind":"string","value":"Patent_15875448"}}},{"rowIdx":4494877,"cells":{"text":{"kind":"list like","value":[["DYNAMIC DECOMPRESSION CONTROL FOR HIGH PRESSURE SEALS","The present disclosure is directed to a method and system for dynamically controlling seal decompression.","The method includes monitoring a set of parameters associated with an operation of a seal, wherein the set of parameters includes a maximum pressure subjected to the seal and an exposure time at the maximum pressure, calculating a target pressure ramp down rate based on at least one of the maximum pressure and the exposure time, and decreasing a pressure about the seal at a decompression rate that is based on the target pressure ramp down rate.","The system includes a controller having a memory device, a graphical user interface, at least one pressure transmitter configured to monitor the pressure about the seal, and a processor, wherein the processor is configured to detect a maximum exposure pressure and exposure time at maximum pressure about the seal and control a pressure ramp down about the seal based on the maximum exposure pressure and the exposure time detected in order to prevent explosive decompression of the seal."],["1.A system for dynamically controlling decompression for an electrochemical cell comprising: an electrochemical cell; and a controller, wherein the controller is configured to detect maximum exposure pressure and exposure time at maximum pressure for a seal of the electrochemical cell and control a pressure ramp down of the electrochemical cell based on the maximum exposure pressure and the exposure time detected in order to prevent explosive decompression of the seal.","2.The system of claim 1, wherein the control of the pressure ramp down is further based on the materials of construction of the seal.","3.The system of claim 2, wherein at least a portion of the materials of construction of the seal includes EPDM, Viton, nylon, valox, polycarbonate, silicone, polyethylene, polypropylene, polyurethane, polyethylene terephthalate, and/or polyethylene naphthalate.","4.The system of claim 1, wherein the control of pressure ramp down is further based on at least one of a gas source supplying the electrochemical stack, hydrogen partial pressure in the gas source, temperature of the gas source, humidity in the gas source, the seal thickness, the seal geometry, and/or the seal age.","5.The system of claim 1, wherein the electrochemical cell is configured to operate at an operating pressure ranging from about 0 psi to about 15,000 psi.","6.The system of claim 3, wherein the environment about the seal contains hydrogen.","7.A system for dynamically controlling seal decompression of a seal located in a pressurized environment, the system comprising: a controller comprising: a memory device, a graphical user interface, at least one pressure transmitter configured to monitor the pressure about the seal, and a processor; wherein the processor is configured to detect a maximum exposure pressure and exposure time at maximum pressure about the seal and control a pressure ramp down about the seal based on the maximum exposure pressure and the exposure time detected in order to prevent explosive decompression of the seal.","8.The system of claim 7, wherein the control of the pressure ramp down is further based on the material of construction of the seal.","9.The system of claim 8, wherein at least a portion of the material of construction of the seal is formed of EPDM, Viton, nylon, valox, polycarbonate, silicone, polyethylene, polypropylene, polyurethane, polyethylene terephthalate, and/or polyethylene naphthalate.","10.The system of claim 7, wherein the control of the pressure ramp down is further based on at least one of a gas source supplying the pressurized environment, hydrogen partial pressure in the gas source, temperature of the gas source, humidity in the gas source, the seal thickness, the seal geometry, and/or the seal age.","11.The system of claim 7, wherein the pressurized environment about the seal contains hydrogen."],["This application is a continuation application of U.S. patent application Ser.","No.","14/334,772, filed on Jul.","18, 2014, which claims priority to U.S.","Provisional Patent Application No.","61/857,281, filed on Jul.","23, 2013, the entire contents of which are incorporated herein by reference.","The present disclosure is directed towards seals operating at high pressure in a hydrogen environment, and more specifically, to dynamically controlling decompression of high pressure seals.","Seals are devices designed to join components or mechanisms to together by preventing leakage, containing pressure, or excluding contamination.","Seals come in a variety of configurations.","For example, a seal can take the form of a flange gasket, o-ring, hose coupling, etc.","Seals also come in a variety of materials, for example, synthetic rubbers such as butyl, polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), polyisoprene, silicone or thermoplastics such as elastomer, polyurethane, or polyamide.","Seal failure can occur for a variety of reasons depending on the seal, application, environment, and fluid in contact with the seal.","For example, one particular mechanism for seal failure when handling a small molecule gas (e.g.","hydrogen) is the failure of seal materials due to explosive decompression.","Explosive decompression can be caused by a sudden decrease in pressure, which results in the sudden expansion of gas trapped within the seal structure as the surrounding pressure decreases.","Due to the relatively slow rates of diffusion for hydrogen in solid materials (e.g., polymeric and elastomeric), when the surrounding pressure changes at a rate faster than the trapped gas can escape, gas pockets can form inside the material, which can tear apart the material from the inside out.","A particular application where explosive decompression presents a challenge is in high pressure electrochemical cells utilizing hydrogen.","Electrochemical cells usually classified as fuel cells or electrolysis cells, are devices used for generating current from chemical reactions, or inducing a chemical reaction using a flow of current.","For example, a fuel cell converts the chemical energy of a fuel (e.g., hydrogen, natural gas, methanol, gasoline, etc.)","and an oxidant (air or oxygen) into electricity and waste products of heat and water.","The basic technology of a hydrogen fuel cell can be applied to electrochemical hydrogen manipulation, such as, electrochemical hydrogen compression, purification, or expansion.","An electrochemical hydrogen compressor (EHC), for example, can be used to selectively transfer hydrogen from one side of a cell to another.","EHCs operating in this manner are sometimes referred to as a hydrogen pumps.","When the hydrogen accumulated is restricted to a confined space, the electrochemical cell compresses the hydrogen.","In some case a hydrogen compressor can compress hydrogen to pressures up to or exceeding 15,000 psi.","The maximum pressure or flow rate an individual cell is capable of producing can be based on the cell design.","Electrochemical hydrogen manipulation has emerged as a viable alternative to the mechanical systems traditionally used for hydrogen management.","Successful commercialization of hydrogen as an energy carrier and the long-term sustainability of a “hydrogen economy” depends largely on the efficiency, safety, and cost-effectiveness of fuel cells, electrolysis cells, and other hydrogen manipulation/management systems (i.e., EHCs).","Gaseous hydrogen is a convenient and common form for energy storage, usually by pressurized containment.","Advantageously, storing hydrogen at high pressure yields high energy density.","Therefore, there is a need to address the issue of explosive decompression, particularly with regard to high pressure electrochemical cells.","One proposed solution to this issue of explosive decompression for high pressure electrochemical cell applications is decompressing the electrochemical stack or cell at a fixed rate slower than the rate at which the hydrogen can leak from the material.","However, this limits the potential response time of the system in situations where the rate is too conservative.","In consideration of the aforementioned circumstances, the present disclosure is directed to a dynamic decompression control method and system for high pressure seals.","One embodiment of the present disclosure is directed to a method of dynamically controlling seal decompression.","The method comprises monitoring a set of parameters associated with an operation of a seal, wherein the set of parameters includes a maximum pressure subjected to the seal and an exposure time at the maximum pressure, calculating a target pressure ramp down rate based on at least one of the maximum pressure and the exposure time, and decreasing a pressure about the seal at a decompression rate that is based on the target pressure ramp down rate.","In another embodiment, the calculation of the target pressure ramp down rate is further based on the seal material of construction.","In another embodiment, the set of parameters further comprises gas source, hydrogen partial pressure in the gas source, temperature, humidity and seal age.","In another embodiment, at least a portion of the seal is formed of EPDM, Viton, nylon, valox, polycarbonate, silicone, polyethylene, polypropylene, polyurethane, polyethylene terephthalate, and polyethylene naphthalate.","In another embodiment, the environment about the seal contains hydrogen.","Another embodiment of the present disclosure is directed to a method of dynamically controlling decompression for an electrochemical stack.","The method comprises detecting a maximum exposure pressure and an exposure time at maximum pressure for the electrochemical stack and controlling the pressure ramp down of the electrochemical stack based on the maximum exposure pressure and the exposure time detected in order to prevent explosive decompression of the electrochemical stack.","In another embodiment, controlling decompression of the electrochemical stack is further based on the electrochemical stack materials of construction.","In another embodiment, the electrochemical stack includes seals formed of EPDM, Viton, nylon, valox, polycarbonate, silicone, polyethylene, polypropylene, polyurethane, polyethylene terephthalate, and polyethylene naphthalate.","In another embodiment, the electrochemical stack gas source is hydrogen.","Another embodiment of the present disclosure is directed to a system for dynamically controlling decompression for an electrochemical stack.","The system comprising an electrochemical stack and a controller, wherein the controller is configured to detect maximum exposure pressure and exposure time at maximum pressure for the electrochemical stack and control a pressure ramp down of the electrochemical stack based on the maximum exposure pressure and the exposure time detected in order to prevent explosive decompression of the electrochemical stack.","In another embodiment, the control of the pressure ramp down is further based on the electrochemical stack materials of construction.","In another embodiment, the electrochemical stack is configured to operate at operating pressure ranging from about 0 psi to about 15,000 psi.","Another embodiment of the present disclosure is directed to a system for dynamically controlling seal decompression.","The system comprising a controller comprising a memory device, a graphical user interface, at least one pressure transmitter configured to monitor the pressure about the seal, and a processor, wherein the processor is configured to detect a maximum exposure pressure and exposure time at maximum pressure about the seal and control a pressure ramp down about the seal based on the maximum exposure pressure and the exposure time detected in order to prevent explosive decompression of the seal.","In another embodiment, the control of the pressure ramp down is further based on the seal material of construction.","In another embodiment, the environment about the seal contains hydrogen.","Another embodiment of the present disclosure is directed to a method of dynamically controlling seal decompression by executing an integrating function to accumulate a total exposure time at time-varying pressure levels for the seal, wherein a target ramp down rate can be calculated based on a pressure-weighted function.","It is to be understood that both the foregoing general description and the following detailed description are exemplary and explanatory only and are not restrictive of the disclosure, as claimed.","The accompanying drawings, which are incorporated in and constitute a part of this specification, illustrate embodiments of the present disclosure and together with the description, serve to explain the principles of the disclosure.","FIG.","1 is a schematic view of part of an electrochemical stack system, according to an exemplary embodiment.","FIG.","2 is a schematic view of part of a controller, according to an exemplary embodiment.","FIG.","3 is a chart of pressure vs. time showing various decompression scenarios, according to an exemplary embodiment.","FIG.","4 is a chart of pressure vs. time showing various decompression scenarios, according to an exemplary embodiment.","FIG.","5 is a chart of pressure vs. time showing various decompression scenarios, according to an exemplary embodiment.","FIG.","6 is a chart of pressure vs. time showing various decompression scenarios, according to various embodiments.","FIG.","7 is a flow chart showing a decompression control method, according to an exemplary embodiment.","Reference will now be made in detail to the present exemplary embodiments of the present disclosure, examples of which are illustrated in the accompanying drawings.","Wherever possible, the same reference numbers will be used throughout the drawings to refer to the same or like parts.","Although described in relation to electrochemical cells and stacks employing hydrogen, it is understood that the methods and systems of the present disclosure can be employed with various types of pressurized sealed systems.","FIG.","1 shows a portion of an electrochemical stack system 100, according to an exemplary embodiment.","The electrochemical stack system 100 can comprise an electrochemical stack 110 and a controller 120 in communication with electrochemical stack 110.As shown in FIG.","1, electrochemical stack 110 can be comprised of multiple electrochemical cells 111 stacked adjacent to one another to form electrochemical stack 110.Controller 120 can be configured to be separate from stack 110 as shown in FIG.","1 or according to various other embodiments controller 120 can be configured to be integrated within stack 110.In other embodiments, controller 120 can be configured to communicate and control a plurality of electrochemical stacks.","In operation, according to an exemplary embodiment, hydrogen gas can be supplied to electrochemical stack 110 and distributed to each electrochemical cell 111.An electric potential can be applied and the hydrogen within each electrochemical cell 111 can be oxidized causing the hydrogen to split into electrons and protons.","The protons are electrochemically transported through a proton exchange membrane (not shown) within each electrochemical cell 111 while the electrons are rerouted around.","At the opposite side the proton exchange membrane transported protons and rerouted electrons are reduced to form hydrogen.","As more and more hydrogen is formed at the opposite side the hydrogen can be compressed and pressurized within a confined space.","Within each electrochemical cell 111 and within electrochemical stack 110, a plurality of high pressure zones and a plurality of seals can define the plurality of pressure zones.","The components (e.g., plates, seals, etc.)","acting as the boundary to each pressure zone can be exposed to the hydrogen gas at varying pressure.","For example, the pressure within electrochemical stack 110 can range from about 0 psi to about 15,000 psi.","In operation, at least a portion of the hydrogen gas exerting force due to pressure on the seals can diffuse into the seal material (e.g., polymers and elastomers).","The quantity of hydrogen that diffuses into the seal material can be based on the hydrogen pressure being exerted on the seals and the period of exposure.","There can be a period of time at which a seal can be saturated for a given pressure and diffusion of hydrogen into the seal material will stop.","This saturation time, which can be dependent on the hydrogen pressure, can be referred to as tmax.","According to the various embodiments, the materials of construction can be considered in determining the saturation time tmax.","In addition, the seal geometry (e.g., thickness) can affect the saturation time tmax.","The saturation time tmax can be a combined function of the geometry and diffusivity of the material of construction.","Electrochemical stack 110 can operate at different pressures for different durations depending on various factors, for example, application, load requirements, etc.","The pressure within electrochemical stack 110 may decrease for various reasons, for example, a change in operating parameters or as part of a shutdown.","For an emergency shutdown, the pressure can vary from operating pressure to ambient for safety and servicing reasons.","Under normal operating conditions the outlet of electrochemical stack 110 can be exposed to various pressure levels in storage vessels.","Ramping down the pressure within electrochemical stack 110 at a rate faster than the hydrogen gas can diffuse out of the seal material can cause gas pockets to form internal to the seal structure.","Consequently, as the external hydrogen pressure decreases the volume of the gas pockets increases producing high internal stress, which can cause the seal to deform and be torn apart (i.e., explosive decompression).","To reduce the potential for explosive decompression, the rate of decompression (i.e., the pressure ramp down rate) within electrochemical cell 110 can be controlled to limit the formation of gas pockets internal to the seal material and maintain low internal stress.","Controlling the pressure ramp down rate can include reducing the pressure of the hydrogen gas within electrochemical stack 110 at a rate slow enough to allow the hydrogen that diffused into the seal material to diffuse back out of the seal as a result of the pressure differential without forming gas pockets and high internal stress within the seal.","As briefly discussed above, the pressure ramp down rate can be controlled to a fixed rate of decompression based on a given scenario.","For example, the fixed rate of decompression can be calculated based on the worst case scenario, which would be the maximum operating pressure of the electrochemical stack and an exposure time of tmax.","Calculating the fixed rate of decompression based on the worst case scenario can ensure that the decompression will be sufficiently slow regardless of the operating pressure or the time of exposure.","However, controlling based on the worst case scenario can result in inefficiency due an overly conservative ramp down time when the electrochemical cell is operating at less than maximum operating pressure or maximum exposure time.","Alternatively, calculating the fixed rate of decompression based on average operating pressure and exposure time can still create situations where explosive decompression may occur.","Therefore, because response time of an electrochemical stack can be an important factor in operation, performance, and efficiency of the stack it can be advantageous to dynamically control the decompression of the electrochemical stack in real time.","For example, a ramp down time for an electrochemical stack operating at a pressure of about 15,000 psi to 0 psi might be about 30 minutes controlling based on a fixed ramp down rate at worst case scenario.","By dynamically controlling pressure, time can be reduced to less than about 5 minutes in a situation where the exposure time at about 15,000 psi is relatively short.","Electrochemical stack system 100, according to the present embodiment can be configured to dynamically control decompression of electrochemical stack 110 by calculating the pressure ramp down rate based on the time-history of the electrochemical stack prior to initiating a decompression transition.","Controller 120 can be configured to monitor the time-history parameters and use the parameters to calculate a target pressure ramp down rate in real time upon the initiation of a decompression transition.","The parameters monitored can include the maximum pressure, the time spent at that pressure and the material(s) of construction for the seal(s).","Controller 120 can be configured to use one or more parameters to calculate a ramp down rate based on the time-dependent sum of exposed pressure multiplied by exposure time, with a weighting factor included.","FIG.","2 shows a schematic diagram of controller 120, according to an exemplary embodiment.","Controller 120 as shown in FIGS.","1 and 2 can be configured to interface with any pressurized device having seals that undergo decompression.","As shown in FIG.","2, controller 120 can comprise at least one pressure transmitter 130 or other comparable device configured to read the internal pressure of a pressurized device 200.In addition, controller 120 can be in communication with pressurized device 200 and configured to perform the decompression of pressurized device 200 at the target pressure ramp down rate by controlling the inlet and outlet flow for pressurized device 200.The flow can be controlled by the use of valves or other fluid handling components (not shown).","Pressure transmitter 130 can be comprised of one or more pressure transmitters configured to monitor the pressure within at least one pressurized zone within pressurized device 200.For example, pressure transmitter 130 can be configured to monitor the overall pressure of stack 110 or can be configured to monitor the pressure within each individual electrochemical cell 111.In addition to pressure transmitter 130, controller 120 can be comprised of a processor 121, memory device 122, and a graphical user interface (GUI) 123.Controller 120 can be configured to monitor and record the parameters at a set interval, for example, every 1 min, 30 seconds, 15 seconds, 5 seconds, 1 second, 0.5 seconds, or 0.1 seconds.","In addition, controller 120 can be configured to continuously calculate the target ramp down rate based on the most recent parameters.","According to an exemplary embodiment, the target ramp down rate can be designed to balance the potential for explosive decompression and excessive ramp down time.","GUI 123 can be configured to allow the user to input parameters, for example, the seal material, operating pressure range, PID loop parameters, gas source, seal model, seal geometry, safety factor, etc.","In an alternate embodiment, controller 120 rather than calculating the pressure ramp down rate based on the parameters monitored can utilize a lookup table or database.","The lookup table or database can have pre-calculated values for the pressure ramp down rate based on the full range of possible operating pressures, time spent at pressure, and seals materials of construction.","EXAMPLE 1 FIG.","3 shows a chart of pressure vs. time illustrating various decompression scenarios for electrochemical stack 110.The scenarios can be separated into two different pressure levels, PA and PB.","Pressure level PB is shown as a dotted line and pressure level PA is shown as a solid line.","FIG.","3 illustrates how the ramp down rate r can vary based on maximum operating pressure and exposure time at maximum operating pressure.","For the scenarios shown in FIG.","3, the seals materials of construction are assumed to be the same for all the scenarios.","As shown in FIG.","3, the pressure within electrochemical stack 110 can ramp up at different rates as illustrated by the different slopes of PA and PB.","The pressure for both PA and PB ramps up until the pressure levels off.","As shown in FIG.","3, the pressure for PB is greater than PA.","Following the pressure leveling off, three different ramp down scenarios are illustrated with regard to PA.","The first ramp down scenario occurs when ramp down begins after a duration of t1 at a ramp down rate of r1, the second ramp down scenario occurs when ramp down begins after a duration of t2 at a ramp down rate of r2, and the third ramp down scenario occurs when ramp down begins after a duration of t3 at a ramp down rate of r3.The ramp down rate is equal to the slope of the ramp down line (ΔP/Δt).","As shown in FIG.","3, exposure time t3 is greater than exposure time t2 and exposure time t2 is greater than exposure time t1.Accordingly, because for each scenario the maximum pressure is the same, the ramp down rate can vary based on exposure time.","Therefore, because t1 is the shortest exposure duration the least amount of hydrogen should have been diffused into the seal material, in which case ramp down rate r1 can be greater than ramp down rate r2 and ramp down rate r2 can be greater than ramp down rate r3 Similarly, as shown in FIG.","3, for pressure level PB, exposure time t5 is greater than exposure time t4.Accordingly, ramp down rate r4 can be greater than ramp down rate r5.In addition, because PB is greater than PA, if t5 is equal to t3 then r3 can be greater than or equal to r5.Generally, the rate of decompression can be inversely proportional to the time spent at maximum pressure and inversely proportional to the maximum exposed pressure level.","It is contemplated that the proportionality for the exposed pressure level can be non-linear.","EXAMPLE 2 FIG.","4 shows a chart of pressure vs. time illustrating three decompression scenarios for electrochemical stack 110.FIG.","4 is similar to FIG.","3, except that FIG.","4 only shows pressure level PA and in FIG.","4 t2 and t3 exceed the saturation time tmax.","Therefore, r2 and r3 are equal assuming the same materials of construction because the saturation time is used as the exposure time for both and the maximum pressure is the same.","EXAMPLE 3 In contrast, FIG.","5 shows a chart of pressure vs. time illustrating two decompression scenarios where the material of construction for electrochemical stack 110 is different.","In both scenarios the exposure time at maximum pressure is equal to t1 and t1 is greater than the saturation time tmax.","In addition, the maximum pressure is equal for both scenarios.","Therefore, the difference between the two scenarios can be the material of construction of the boundary components.","Scenario 1 can be represented by the solid ramp down line which has a slope r1.Scenario 2 can be represented by the dotted ramp down line which has a slope of r2 Based on FIG.","5, the material of electrochemical stack 110 for scenario 1 has a greater rate of hydrogen diffusion from the seal than the seal of electrochemical stack 110 for scenario 2.Because of the higher rate of hydrogen diffusion for scenario 1 the ramp down rate r1 can be greater than r2 and as a result response time can be less, as illustrated in FIG.","5.EXAMPLE 4 In another embodiment, as shown in FIG.","6, the ramp down can be executed in a plurality of steps rather than a steady gradual decline as shown in FIGS.","3-5.As shown in FIG.","6, the pressure drops down and then substantially stabilizes before dropping down again.","The overall rate of decompression for the plurality of step downs can be substantially equal to the overall rate of decompression for the steady ramp down.","In another embodiment, the ramp down rate can be non-linear (e.g., exponential, logarithmic, polynomial).","For example, the ramp down rate can be slower at higher pressure and as the pressure decreases the ramp down rate can increase exponentially.","In various embodiments, additional parameters can be monitored and factored into the calculation of the ramp down rate.","For example, the gas source, the partial pressure of hydrogen in the gas source, the temperature, the humidity, and the seal age.","In various other embodiments, it is contemplated that the ramp down rate can be recalculated and the ramp down rate can be adjusted upon initiation of the decompression as well as throughout a decompression.","FIG.","7 is a flow chart illustrating the various steps of a method of dynamically controlling the decompression for high pressure seals, according to an exemplary embodiment.","The method comprises monitoring a set of parameters associated with an operation of a seal.","The set of parameters can include the maximum pressure subjected to the seal and the exposure time at the maximum pressure.","Once a decompression transition is triggered calculation of the target pressure ramp down rate based on at least one of the maximum pressure and the exposure time can be executed.","Then decompression (i.e., decreasing of the pressure) can commence at a decompression rate that is determined based on the target ramp down rate.","According to various embodiments, the decompression rate may be equal to the target ramp down rate or the decompression rate may vary from the target ramp down rate by, for example, about +/−1%, 5%, 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, or greater than 50%.","According to various embodiments, during the decompression the parameters can be continuously monitored and the target ramp down rate can be updated to provide feedback loop control.","In another embodiment, controller 120 can be configured to perform an integrating function.","This function can accumulate the total exposure time at time-varying pressure levels.","The ramp down rate can be calculated based on a pressure weighted function.","For example, the ramp down rate can be the integral of P*d(t).","In yet another embodiment, controller 120 ramp down control can be configured to operate above a certain pressure threshold.","For example, controller 120 can start calculating the ramp down rate when pressure within the electrochemical cell rises above about 100 psi, 500 psi, 1,000 psi, 5,000 psi, 10,000 psi, or 15,000 psi.","According to the various embodiments, controlling the ramp down rate can substantially limit or prevent “explosive decompression” to seals in high pressure devices.","One particular embodiment is controlling the ramp down rate for electrochemical stacks, which seals can be susceptible to damage from explosive decompression.","The seals for an electrochemical stack can be formed from any elastomeric or polymeric material, including, but not limited to, EPDM, Viton, nylon, valox, polycarbonate, silicone, polyethylene, polypropylene, polyurethane, polyethylene terephthalate, and polyethylene naphthalate.","Other embodiments of the present disclosure will be apparent to those skilled in the art from consideration of the specification and practice of the present disclosure herein.","It is intended that the specification and examples be considered as exemplary only, with a true scope and spirit of the present disclosure being indicated by the following claims."]],"string":"[\n [\n \"DYNAMIC DECOMPRESSION CONTROL FOR HIGH PRESSURE SEALS\",\n \"The present disclosure is directed to a method and system for dynamically controlling seal decompression.\",\n \"The method includes monitoring a set of parameters associated with an operation of a seal, wherein the set of parameters includes a maximum pressure subjected to the seal and an exposure time at the maximum pressure, calculating a target pressure ramp down rate based on at least one of the maximum pressure and the exposure time, and decreasing a pressure about the seal at a decompression rate that is based on the target pressure ramp down rate.\",\n \"The system includes a controller having a memory device, a graphical user interface, at least one pressure transmitter configured to monitor the pressure about the seal, and a processor, wherein the processor is configured to detect a maximum exposure pressure and exposure time at maximum pressure about the seal and control a pressure ramp down about the seal based on the maximum exposure pressure and the exposure time detected in order to prevent explosive decompression of the seal.\"\n ],\n [\n \"1.A system for dynamically controlling decompression for an electrochemical cell comprising: an electrochemical cell; and a controller, wherein the controller is configured to detect maximum exposure pressure and exposure time at maximum pressure for a seal of the electrochemical cell and control a pressure ramp down of the electrochemical cell based on the maximum exposure pressure and the exposure time detected in order to prevent explosive decompression of the seal.\",\n \"2.The system of claim 1, wherein the control of the pressure ramp down is further based on the materials of construction of the seal.\",\n \"3.The system of claim 2, wherein at least a portion of the materials of construction of the seal includes EPDM, Viton, nylon, valox, polycarbonate, silicone, polyethylene, polypropylene, polyurethane, polyethylene terephthalate, and/or polyethylene naphthalate.\",\n \"4.The system of claim 1, wherein the control of pressure ramp down is further based on at least one of a gas source supplying the electrochemical stack, hydrogen partial pressure in the gas source, temperature of the gas source, humidity in the gas source, the seal thickness, the seal geometry, and/or the seal age.\",\n \"5.The system of claim 1, wherein the electrochemical cell is configured to operate at an operating pressure ranging from about 0 psi to about 15,000 psi.\",\n \"6.The system of claim 3, wherein the environment about the seal contains hydrogen.\",\n \"7.A system for dynamically controlling seal decompression of a seal located in a pressurized environment, the system comprising: a controller comprising: a memory device, a graphical user interface, at least one pressure transmitter configured to monitor the pressure about the seal, and a processor; wherein the processor is configured to detect a maximum exposure pressure and exposure time at maximum pressure about the seal and control a pressure ramp down about the seal based on the maximum exposure pressure and the exposure time detected in order to prevent explosive decompression of the seal.\",\n \"8.The system of claim 7, wherein the control of the pressure ramp down is further based on the material of construction of the seal.\",\n \"9.The system of claim 8, wherein at least a portion of the material of construction of the seal is formed of EPDM, Viton, nylon, valox, polycarbonate, silicone, polyethylene, polypropylene, polyurethane, polyethylene terephthalate, and/or polyethylene naphthalate.\",\n \"10.The system of claim 7, wherein the control of the pressure ramp down is further based on at least one of a gas source supplying the pressurized environment, hydrogen partial pressure in the gas source, temperature of the gas source, humidity in the gas source, the seal thickness, the seal geometry, and/or the seal age.\",\n \"11.The system of claim 7, wherein the pressurized environment about the seal contains hydrogen.\"\n ],\n [\n \"This application is a continuation application of U.S. patent application Ser.\",\n \"No.\",\n \"14/334,772, filed on Jul.\",\n \"18, 2014, which claims priority to U.S.\",\n \"Provisional Patent Application No.\",\n \"61/857,281, filed on Jul.\",\n \"23, 2013, the entire contents of which are incorporated herein by reference.\",\n \"The present disclosure is directed towards seals operating at high pressure in a hydrogen environment, and more specifically, to dynamically controlling decompression of high pressure seals.\",\n \"Seals are devices designed to join components or mechanisms to together by preventing leakage, containing pressure, or excluding contamination.\",\n \"Seals come in a variety of configurations.\",\n \"For example, a seal can take the form of a flange gasket, o-ring, hose coupling, etc.\",\n \"Seals also come in a variety of materials, for example, synthetic rubbers such as butyl, polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), polyisoprene, silicone or thermoplastics such as elastomer, polyurethane, or polyamide.\",\n \"Seal failure can occur for a variety of reasons depending on the seal, application, environment, and fluid in contact with the seal.\",\n \"For example, one particular mechanism for seal failure when handling a small molecule gas (e.g.\",\n \"hydrogen) is the failure of seal materials due to explosive decompression.\",\n \"Explosive decompression can be caused by a sudden decrease in pressure, which results in the sudden expansion of gas trapped within the seal structure as the surrounding pressure decreases.\",\n \"Due to the relatively slow rates of diffusion for hydrogen in solid materials (e.g., polymeric and elastomeric), when the surrounding pressure changes at a rate faster than the trapped gas can escape, gas pockets can form inside the material, which can tear apart the material from the inside out.\",\n \"A particular application where explosive decompression presents a challenge is in high pressure electrochemical cells utilizing hydrogen.\",\n \"Electrochemical cells usually classified as fuel cells or electrolysis cells, are devices used for generating current from chemical reactions, or inducing a chemical reaction using a flow of current.\",\n \"For example, a fuel cell converts the chemical energy of a fuel (e.g., hydrogen, natural gas, methanol, gasoline, etc.)\",\n \"and an oxidant (air or oxygen) into electricity and waste products of heat and water.\",\n \"The basic technology of a hydrogen fuel cell can be applied to electrochemical hydrogen manipulation, such as, electrochemical hydrogen compression, purification, or expansion.\",\n \"An electrochemical hydrogen compressor (EHC), for example, can be used to selectively transfer hydrogen from one side of a cell to another.\",\n \"EHCs operating in this manner are sometimes referred to as a hydrogen pumps.\",\n \"When the hydrogen accumulated is restricted to a confined space, the electrochemical cell compresses the hydrogen.\",\n \"In some case a hydrogen compressor can compress hydrogen to pressures up to or exceeding 15,000 psi.\",\n \"The maximum pressure or flow rate an individual cell is capable of producing can be based on the cell design.\",\n \"Electrochemical hydrogen manipulation has emerged as a viable alternative to the mechanical systems traditionally used for hydrogen management.\",\n \"Successful commercialization of hydrogen as an energy carrier and the long-term sustainability of a “hydrogen economy” depends largely on the efficiency, safety, and cost-effectiveness of fuel cells, electrolysis cells, and other hydrogen manipulation/management systems (i.e., EHCs).\",\n \"Gaseous hydrogen is a convenient and common form for energy storage, usually by pressurized containment.\",\n \"Advantageously, storing hydrogen at high pressure yields high energy density.\",\n \"Therefore, there is a need to address the issue of explosive decompression, particularly with regard to high pressure electrochemical cells.\",\n \"One proposed solution to this issue of explosive decompression for high pressure electrochemical cell applications is decompressing the electrochemical stack or cell at a fixed rate slower than the rate at which the hydrogen can leak from the material.\",\n \"However, this limits the potential response time of the system in situations where the rate is too conservative.\",\n \"In consideration of the aforementioned circumstances, the present disclosure is directed to a dynamic decompression control method and system for high pressure seals.\",\n \"One embodiment of the present disclosure is directed to a method of dynamically controlling seal decompression.\",\n \"The method comprises monitoring a set of parameters associated with an operation of a seal, wherein the set of parameters includes a maximum pressure subjected to the seal and an exposure time at the maximum pressure, calculating a target pressure ramp down rate based on at least one of the maximum pressure and the exposure time, and decreasing a pressure about the seal at a decompression rate that is based on the target pressure ramp down rate.\",\n \"In another embodiment, the calculation of the target pressure ramp down rate is further based on the seal material of construction.\",\n \"In another embodiment, the set of parameters further comprises gas source, hydrogen partial pressure in the gas source, temperature, humidity and seal age.\",\n \"In another embodiment, at least a portion of the seal is formed of EPDM, Viton, nylon, valox, polycarbonate, silicone, polyethylene, polypropylene, polyurethane, polyethylene terephthalate, and polyethylene naphthalate.\",\n \"In another embodiment, the environment about the seal contains hydrogen.\",\n \"Another embodiment of the present disclosure is directed to a method of dynamically controlling decompression for an electrochemical stack.\",\n \"The method comprises detecting a maximum exposure pressure and an exposure time at maximum pressure for the electrochemical stack and controlling the pressure ramp down of the electrochemical stack based on the maximum exposure pressure and the exposure time detected in order to prevent explosive decompression of the electrochemical stack.\",\n \"In another embodiment, controlling decompression of the electrochemical stack is further based on the electrochemical stack materials of construction.\",\n \"In another embodiment, the electrochemical stack includes seals formed of EPDM, Viton, nylon, valox, polycarbonate, silicone, polyethylene, polypropylene, polyurethane, polyethylene terephthalate, and polyethylene naphthalate.\",\n \"In another embodiment, the electrochemical stack gas source is hydrogen.\",\n \"Another embodiment of the present disclosure is directed to a system for dynamically controlling decompression for an electrochemical stack.\",\n \"The system comprising an electrochemical stack and a controller, wherein the controller is configured to detect maximum exposure pressure and exposure time at maximum pressure for the electrochemical stack and control a pressure ramp down of the electrochemical stack based on the maximum exposure pressure and the exposure time detected in order to prevent explosive decompression of the electrochemical stack.\",\n \"In another embodiment, the control of the pressure ramp down is further based on the electrochemical stack materials of construction.\",\n \"In another embodiment, the electrochemical stack is configured to operate at operating pressure ranging from about 0 psi to about 15,000 psi.\",\n \"Another embodiment of the present disclosure is directed to a system for dynamically controlling seal decompression.\",\n \"The system comprising a controller comprising a memory device, a graphical user interface, at least one pressure transmitter configured to monitor the pressure about the seal, and a processor, wherein the processor is configured to detect a maximum exposure pressure and exposure time at maximum pressure about the seal and control a pressure ramp down about the seal based on the maximum exposure pressure and the exposure time detected in order to prevent explosive decompression of the seal.\",\n \"In another embodiment, the control of the pressure ramp down is further based on the seal material of construction.\",\n \"In another embodiment, the environment about the seal contains hydrogen.\",\n \"Another embodiment of the present disclosure is directed to a method of dynamically controlling seal decompression by executing an integrating function to accumulate a total exposure time at time-varying pressure levels for the seal, wherein a target ramp down rate can be calculated based on a pressure-weighted function.\",\n \"It is to be understood that both the foregoing general description and the following detailed description are exemplary and explanatory only and are not restrictive of the disclosure, as claimed.\",\n \"The accompanying drawings, which are incorporated in and constitute a part of this specification, illustrate embodiments of the present disclosure and together with the description, serve to explain the principles of the disclosure.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"1 is a schematic view of part of an electrochemical stack system, according to an exemplary embodiment.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"2 is a schematic view of part of a controller, according to an exemplary embodiment.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"3 is a chart of pressure vs. time showing various decompression scenarios, according to an exemplary embodiment.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"4 is a chart of pressure vs. time showing various decompression scenarios, according to an exemplary embodiment.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"5 is a chart of pressure vs. time showing various decompression scenarios, according to an exemplary embodiment.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"6 is a chart of pressure vs. time showing various decompression scenarios, according to various embodiments.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"7 is a flow chart showing a decompression control method, according to an exemplary embodiment.\",\n \"Reference will now be made in detail to the present exemplary embodiments of the present disclosure, examples of which are illustrated in the accompanying drawings.\",\n \"Wherever possible, the same reference numbers will be used throughout the drawings to refer to the same or like parts.\",\n \"Although described in relation to electrochemical cells and stacks employing hydrogen, it is understood that the methods and systems of the present disclosure can be employed with various types of pressurized sealed systems.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"1 shows a portion of an electrochemical stack system 100, according to an exemplary embodiment.\",\n \"The electrochemical stack system 100 can comprise an electrochemical stack 110 and a controller 120 in communication with electrochemical stack 110.As shown in FIG.\",\n \"1, electrochemical stack 110 can be comprised of multiple electrochemical cells 111 stacked adjacent to one another to form electrochemical stack 110.Controller 120 can be configured to be separate from stack 110 as shown in FIG.\",\n \"1 or according to various other embodiments controller 120 can be configured to be integrated within stack 110.In other embodiments, controller 120 can be configured to communicate and control a plurality of electrochemical stacks.\",\n \"In operation, according to an exemplary embodiment, hydrogen gas can be supplied to electrochemical stack 110 and distributed to each electrochemical cell 111.An electric potential can be applied and the hydrogen within each electrochemical cell 111 can be oxidized causing the hydrogen to split into electrons and protons.\",\n \"The protons are electrochemically transported through a proton exchange membrane (not shown) within each electrochemical cell 111 while the electrons are rerouted around.\",\n \"At the opposite side the proton exchange membrane transported protons and rerouted electrons are reduced to form hydrogen.\",\n \"As more and more hydrogen is formed at the opposite side the hydrogen can be compressed and pressurized within a confined space.\",\n \"Within each electrochemical cell 111 and within electrochemical stack 110, a plurality of high pressure zones and a plurality of seals can define the plurality of pressure zones.\",\n \"The components (e.g., plates, seals, etc.)\",\n \"acting as the boundary to each pressure zone can be exposed to the hydrogen gas at varying pressure.\",\n \"For example, the pressure within electrochemical stack 110 can range from about 0 psi to about 15,000 psi.\",\n \"In operation, at least a portion of the hydrogen gas exerting force due to pressure on the seals can diffuse into the seal material (e.g., polymers and elastomers).\",\n \"The quantity of hydrogen that diffuses into the seal material can be based on the hydrogen pressure being exerted on the seals and the period of exposure.\",\n \"There can be a period of time at which a seal can be saturated for a given pressure and diffusion of hydrogen into the seal material will stop.\",\n \"This saturation time, which can be dependent on the hydrogen pressure, can be referred to as tmax.\",\n \"According to the various embodiments, the materials of construction can be considered in determining the saturation time tmax.\",\n \"In addition, the seal geometry (e.g., thickness) can affect the saturation time tmax.\",\n \"The saturation time tmax can be a combined function of the geometry and diffusivity of the material of construction.\",\n \"Electrochemical stack 110 can operate at different pressures for different durations depending on various factors, for example, application, load requirements, etc.\",\n \"The pressure within electrochemical stack 110 may decrease for various reasons, for example, a change in operating parameters or as part of a shutdown.\",\n \"For an emergency shutdown, the pressure can vary from operating pressure to ambient for safety and servicing reasons.\",\n \"Under normal operating conditions the outlet of electrochemical stack 110 can be exposed to various pressure levels in storage vessels.\",\n \"Ramping down the pressure within electrochemical stack 110 at a rate faster than the hydrogen gas can diffuse out of the seal material can cause gas pockets to form internal to the seal structure.\",\n \"Consequently, as the external hydrogen pressure decreases the volume of the gas pockets increases producing high internal stress, which can cause the seal to deform and be torn apart (i.e., explosive decompression).\",\n \"To reduce the potential for explosive decompression, the rate of decompression (i.e., the pressure ramp down rate) within electrochemical cell 110 can be controlled to limit the formation of gas pockets internal to the seal material and maintain low internal stress.\",\n \"Controlling the pressure ramp down rate can include reducing the pressure of the hydrogen gas within electrochemical stack 110 at a rate slow enough to allow the hydrogen that diffused into the seal material to diffuse back out of the seal as a result of the pressure differential without forming gas pockets and high internal stress within the seal.\",\n \"As briefly discussed above, the pressure ramp down rate can be controlled to a fixed rate of decompression based on a given scenario.\",\n \"For example, the fixed rate of decompression can be calculated based on the worst case scenario, which would be the maximum operating pressure of the electrochemical stack and an exposure time of tmax.\",\n \"Calculating the fixed rate of decompression based on the worst case scenario can ensure that the decompression will be sufficiently slow regardless of the operating pressure or the time of exposure.\",\n \"However, controlling based on the worst case scenario can result in inefficiency due an overly conservative ramp down time when the electrochemical cell is operating at less than maximum operating pressure or maximum exposure time.\",\n \"Alternatively, calculating the fixed rate of decompression based on average operating pressure and exposure time can still create situations where explosive decompression may occur.\",\n \"Therefore, because response time of an electrochemical stack can be an important factor in operation, performance, and efficiency of the stack it can be advantageous to dynamically control the decompression of the electrochemical stack in real time.\",\n \"For example, a ramp down time for an electrochemical stack operating at a pressure of about 15,000 psi to 0 psi might be about 30 minutes controlling based on a fixed ramp down rate at worst case scenario.\",\n \"By dynamically controlling pressure, time can be reduced to less than about 5 minutes in a situation where the exposure time at about 15,000 psi is relatively short.\",\n \"Electrochemical stack system 100, according to the present embodiment can be configured to dynamically control decompression of electrochemical stack 110 by calculating the pressure ramp down rate based on the time-history of the electrochemical stack prior to initiating a decompression transition.\",\n \"Controller 120 can be configured to monitor the time-history parameters and use the parameters to calculate a target pressure ramp down rate in real time upon the initiation of a decompression transition.\",\n \"The parameters monitored can include the maximum pressure, the time spent at that pressure and the material(s) of construction for the seal(s).\",\n \"Controller 120 can be configured to use one or more parameters to calculate a ramp down rate based on the time-dependent sum of exposed pressure multiplied by exposure time, with a weighting factor included.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"2 shows a schematic diagram of controller 120, according to an exemplary embodiment.\",\n \"Controller 120 as shown in FIGS.\",\n \"1 and 2 can be configured to interface with any pressurized device having seals that undergo decompression.\",\n \"As shown in FIG.\",\n \"2, controller 120 can comprise at least one pressure transmitter 130 or other comparable device configured to read the internal pressure of a pressurized device 200.In addition, controller 120 can be in communication with pressurized device 200 and configured to perform the decompression of pressurized device 200 at the target pressure ramp down rate by controlling the inlet and outlet flow for pressurized device 200.The flow can be controlled by the use of valves or other fluid handling components (not shown).\",\n \"Pressure transmitter 130 can be comprised of one or more pressure transmitters configured to monitor the pressure within at least one pressurized zone within pressurized device 200.For example, pressure transmitter 130 can be configured to monitor the overall pressure of stack 110 or can be configured to monitor the pressure within each individual electrochemical cell 111.In addition to pressure transmitter 130, controller 120 can be comprised of a processor 121, memory device 122, and a graphical user interface (GUI) 123.Controller 120 can be configured to monitor and record the parameters at a set interval, for example, every 1 min, 30 seconds, 15 seconds, 5 seconds, 1 second, 0.5 seconds, or 0.1 seconds.\",\n \"In addition, controller 120 can be configured to continuously calculate the target ramp down rate based on the most recent parameters.\",\n \"According to an exemplary embodiment, the target ramp down rate can be designed to balance the potential for explosive decompression and excessive ramp down time.\",\n \"GUI 123 can be configured to allow the user to input parameters, for example, the seal material, operating pressure range, PID loop parameters, gas source, seal model, seal geometry, safety factor, etc.\",\n \"In an alternate embodiment, controller 120 rather than calculating the pressure ramp down rate based on the parameters monitored can utilize a lookup table or database.\",\n \"The lookup table or database can have pre-calculated values for the pressure ramp down rate based on the full range of possible operating pressures, time spent at pressure, and seals materials of construction.\",\n \"EXAMPLE 1 FIG.\",\n \"3 shows a chart of pressure vs. time illustrating various decompression scenarios for electrochemical stack 110.The scenarios can be separated into two different pressure levels, PA and PB.\",\n \"Pressure level PB is shown as a dotted line and pressure level PA is shown as a solid line.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"3 illustrates how the ramp down rate r can vary based on maximum operating pressure and exposure time at maximum operating pressure.\",\n \"For the scenarios shown in FIG.\",\n \"3, the seals materials of construction are assumed to be the same for all the scenarios.\",\n \"As shown in FIG.\",\n \"3, the pressure within electrochemical stack 110 can ramp up at different rates as illustrated by the different slopes of PA and PB.\",\n \"The pressure for both PA and PB ramps up until the pressure levels off.\",\n \"As shown in FIG.\",\n \"3, the pressure for PB is greater than PA.\",\n \"Following the pressure leveling off, three different ramp down scenarios are illustrated with regard to PA.\",\n \"The first ramp down scenario occurs when ramp down begins after a duration of t1 at a ramp down rate of r1, the second ramp down scenario occurs when ramp down begins after a duration of t2 at a ramp down rate of r2, and the third ramp down scenario occurs when ramp down begins after a duration of t3 at a ramp down rate of r3.The ramp down rate is equal to the slope of the ramp down line (ΔP/Δt).\",\n \"As shown in FIG.\",\n \"3, exposure time t3 is greater than exposure time t2 and exposure time t2 is greater than exposure time t1.Accordingly, because for each scenario the maximum pressure is the same, the ramp down rate can vary based on exposure time.\",\n \"Therefore, because t1 is the shortest exposure duration the least amount of hydrogen should have been diffused into the seal material, in which case ramp down rate r1 can be greater than ramp down rate r2 and ramp down rate r2 can be greater than ramp down rate r3 Similarly, as shown in FIG.\",\n \"3, for pressure level PB, exposure time t5 is greater than exposure time t4.Accordingly, ramp down rate r4 can be greater than ramp down rate r5.In addition, because PB is greater than PA, if t5 is equal to t3 then r3 can be greater than or equal to r5.Generally, the rate of decompression can be inversely proportional to the time spent at maximum pressure and inversely proportional to the maximum exposed pressure level.\",\n \"It is contemplated that the proportionality for the exposed pressure level can be non-linear.\",\n \"EXAMPLE 2 FIG.\",\n \"4 shows a chart of pressure vs. time illustrating three decompression scenarios for electrochemical stack 110.FIG.\",\n \"4 is similar to FIG.\",\n \"3, except that FIG.\",\n \"4 only shows pressure level PA and in FIG.\",\n \"4 t2 and t3 exceed the saturation time tmax.\",\n \"Therefore, r2 and r3 are equal assuming the same materials of construction because the saturation time is used as the exposure time for both and the maximum pressure is the same.\",\n \"EXAMPLE 3 In contrast, FIG.\",\n \"5 shows a chart of pressure vs. time illustrating two decompression scenarios where the material of construction for electrochemical stack 110 is different.\",\n \"In both scenarios the exposure time at maximum pressure is equal to t1 and t1 is greater than the saturation time tmax.\",\n \"In addition, the maximum pressure is equal for both scenarios.\",\n \"Therefore, the difference between the two scenarios can be the material of construction of the boundary components.\",\n \"Scenario 1 can be represented by the solid ramp down line which has a slope r1.Scenario 2 can be represented by the dotted ramp down line which has a slope of r2 Based on FIG.\",\n \"5, the material of electrochemical stack 110 for scenario 1 has a greater rate of hydrogen diffusion from the seal than the seal of electrochemical stack 110 for scenario 2.Because of the higher rate of hydrogen diffusion for scenario 1 the ramp down rate r1 can be greater than r2 and as a result response time can be less, as illustrated in FIG.\",\n \"5.EXAMPLE 4 In another embodiment, as shown in FIG.\",\n \"6, the ramp down can be executed in a plurality of steps rather than a steady gradual decline as shown in FIGS.\",\n \"3-5.As shown in FIG.\",\n \"6, the pressure drops down and then substantially stabilizes before dropping down again.\",\n \"The overall rate of decompression for the plurality of step downs can be substantially equal to the overall rate of decompression for the steady ramp down.\",\n \"In another embodiment, the ramp down rate can be non-linear (e.g., exponential, logarithmic, polynomial).\",\n \"For example, the ramp down rate can be slower at higher pressure and as the pressure decreases the ramp down rate can increase exponentially.\",\n \"In various embodiments, additional parameters can be monitored and factored into the calculation of the ramp down rate.\",\n \"For example, the gas source, the partial pressure of hydrogen in the gas source, the temperature, the humidity, and the seal age.\",\n \"In various other embodiments, it is contemplated that the ramp down rate can be recalculated and the ramp down rate can be adjusted upon initiation of the decompression as well as throughout a decompression.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"7 is a flow chart illustrating the various steps of a method of dynamically controlling the decompression for high pressure seals, according to an exemplary embodiment.\",\n \"The method comprises monitoring a set of parameters associated with an operation of a seal.\",\n \"The set of parameters can include the maximum pressure subjected to the seal and the exposure time at the maximum pressure.\",\n \"Once a decompression transition is triggered calculation of the target pressure ramp down rate based on at least one of the maximum pressure and the exposure time can be executed.\",\n \"Then decompression (i.e., decreasing of the pressure) can commence at a decompression rate that is determined based on the target ramp down rate.\",\n \"According to various embodiments, the decompression rate may be equal to the target ramp down rate or the decompression rate may vary from the target ramp down rate by, for example, about +/−1%, 5%, 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, or greater than 50%.\",\n \"According to various embodiments, during the decompression the parameters can be continuously monitored and the target ramp down rate can be updated to provide feedback loop control.\",\n \"In another embodiment, controller 120 can be configured to perform an integrating function.\",\n \"This function can accumulate the total exposure time at time-varying pressure levels.\",\n \"The ramp down rate can be calculated based on a pressure weighted function.\",\n \"For example, the ramp down rate can be the integral of P*d(t).\",\n \"In yet another embodiment, controller 120 ramp down control can be configured to operate above a certain pressure threshold.\",\n \"For example, controller 120 can start calculating the ramp down rate when pressure within the electrochemical cell rises above about 100 psi, 500 psi, 1,000 psi, 5,000 psi, 10,000 psi, or 15,000 psi.\",\n \"According to the various embodiments, controlling the ramp down rate can substantially limit or prevent “explosive decompression” to seals in high pressure devices.\",\n \"One particular embodiment is controlling the ramp down rate for electrochemical stacks, which seals can be susceptible to damage from explosive decompression.\",\n \"The seals for an electrochemical stack can be formed from any elastomeric or polymeric material, including, but not limited to, EPDM, Viton, nylon, valox, polycarbonate, silicone, polyethylene, polypropylene, polyurethane, polyethylene terephthalate, and polyethylene naphthalate.\",\n \"Other embodiments of the present disclosure will be apparent to those skilled in the art from consideration of the specification and practice of the present disclosure herein.\",\n \"It is intended that the specification and examples be considered as exemplary only, with a true scope and spirit of the present disclosure being indicated by the following claims.\"\n ]\n]"},"source":{"kind":"string","value":"Patent_15875458"}}},{"rowIdx":4494878,"cells":{"text":{"kind":"list like","value":[["Removable Pediatric Hip Orthotic","A removable and replaceable hip orthotic that includes a back panel formed from a rigid material that supports a patient's lumbar area; a front panel formed from the rigid material that supports the patient's abdomen area and is hinged to the back panel to allow application and removal of the orthotic to the patient; a leg support that extends from the back support that includes a space that allows a patient's leg to pass through into the leg support; and straps to secure the back panel to the front panel and the leg into the leg support.","The back panel includes a pair of windows with a trochanter pad movably disposed within the windows.","An adjustment mechanism selectively moves the trochanter pads relative to the greater trochanter regions of the hips of the patient to apply pressure to the hip joint to prevent dislocation of the femoral head."],["1.An orthotic comprising: a back panel formed of a rigid material and configured to support a patient's lumbar region; a front panel formed of the rigid material and configured to support the patient's lower abdomen region, wherein the front panel is attached to the back panel via a hinge and the front panel is at least partially rotatable about the hinge, and wherein the front panel, when in a first position, can be secured to the back panel around the patient with at least one strap and when in a second position, can accommodate the removal and application of the orthotic to a patient; and at least one leg support formed of a rigid material and configured to support a patient's leg in a pre-determined position relative to the body of the patient, wherein the leg support extends from a lateral edge of the back panel and further defines an opening that extends from the back panel to a end of the leg support distal from the back panel, said opening sized and configured to receive the patient's leg therein, and wherein the at least one leg support further includes at least one strap spanning the opening for holding the patient's leg within the at least one leg support.","2.The orthotic of claim 1, wherein the orthotic further comprises a layer of padding that extends along an inside surface of the orthotic.","3.The orthotic of claim 2, wherein the padding layer is removable from the orthotic.","4.The orthotic of claim 1, wherein the back panel further comprises an aperture located generally in the patient's diaper area wherein the aperture is sized and configured to allow diapering of the patient.","5.The orthotic of claim 1, wherein each of the straps include locks operable to prevent the straps from coming unsecured.","6.The orthotic of claim 1, wherein the hinge is comprised of a scored line in the rigid material.","7.The orthotic of claim 1, wherein the at least one leg support is fixed in relation to the back panel at a pre-determined angle of abduction a and a pre-determined angle of flexion β.","8.The orthotic of claim 7, wherein abduction angle is 45 degrees and the flexion angle is between 90 and 100 degrees.","9.The orthotic of claim 1, further comprising: at least one window defined in said back panel and arranged in said back panel to be positioned at the greater trochanter region of the hip joint of the patient when the orthotic is worn by the patient; a pad sized to be movably disposed within said at least one window in contact with the patient's hip joint; and an adjustment mechanism for moving said pad relative to the back panel to apply adjustable pressure to the patient's hip joint through the pad.","10.The orthotic of claim 9, wherein the adjustment mechanism includes a strap fastened to the back panel and bearing against the pad disposed within said at least one window.","11.The orthotic of claim 10, wherein the adjustment mechanism includes a tensioning cable extending through said strap and a rotatable dial operable to increase or decrease the length of the cable within the strap to variably apply pressure to the pad.","12.The orthotic of claim 9, further comprising: two windows defined in said back panel, one each positioned at the greater trochanter region of a corresponding hip joint of the patient; and two pads, one each disposed within a corresponding one of the two windows.","13.The orthotic of claim 12, wherein the adjustment mechanism includes: a strap fastened to the back panel and bearing against each pad disposed within said at least one window; and.","a tensioning cable extending through said strap and a rotatable dial operable to increase or decrease the length of the cable within the strap to variably apply pressure to the two pads.","14.A removable and replaceable pediatric hip orthotic comprising: an abdominal support having a front panel configured to rigidly support a patient's abdomen, and a back panel configured to rigidly support a patient's lower back and sides, wherein the front panel and back panel can be secured together with a strap when the front panel is in a first position and wherein the front panel can be moved to a second position to accommodate removal of the orthotic; and at least one leg support, configured to rigidly support a patient's hip joint in a therapeutic position, wherein the leg support is attached to the back panel and includes a slot extending from the back panel to a distal end of the at least one leg support to accommodate removal and application of the orthotic.","15.The orthotic of claim 14, further comprising a padding layer that extends across an inside surface of the orthotic, wherein the padding layer is removable from the orthotic.","16.The orthotic of claim 15, wherein the back panel further comprises an aperture to allow access to a patient's diaper area.","17.The orthotic of claim 16, wherein there are two leg supports.","18.The orthotic of claim 14, wherein the straps further comprise locks that keep the straps secure.","19.The orthotic of claim 14, wherein the front panel is scored to allow movement between the first position and the second position."],[" BACKGROUND Developmental dysplasia or dislocation of the hip (DDH) is an abnormal development of the hip joint usually identified in infants and children.","In all cases of DDH, the acetabulum (the hip socket) is shallow and the ball of the femur is not stable within the hip socket.","However, the severity of DDH can vary from patient to patient.","To improve the condition, the hip joint is usually arranged in a position to encourage proper growth for a period of time.","Frequently a cast or harness is used to maintain this prescribed position for a period of weeks or months.","The different types of restraints used to keep patients in the therapeutic position vary depending, in part, on the severity of the DDH and the age of the child.","One common restraint is the spica cast.","The spica cast is a typical hard-sided cast that is generally applied from the waist area to the knees of the patient in an effort to keep the hip joint immobilized in the preferred therapeutic position.","Because the spica cast is cumbersome to apply while the patient is in the therapeutic position, the spica cast is typically applied while the patient is under general anesthesia.","In certain procedures, pressure is applied to the greater trochanter region of the mold while the plaster cast is drying.","The hardened cast will apply pressure anteriorly over the greater trochanter to prevent posterior dislocation.","Because DDH is often diagnosed and treated in patients that are young and not toilet-trained, special care must be taken when applying the spica cast to allow for diapering of the patient.","However, despite the best efforts of parents and caregivers, the spica cast frequently gets soiled with urine and feces.","Soiled spica casts can create skin conditions for the patient.","A soiled cast that makes contact with the skin can cause rapid skin breakdown leading to discomfort, painful sores, rashes, and other skin conditions.","Because the spica cast is generally worn for 6 to 12 weeks at a time, the child must either be left in a soiled cast which may cause skin irritation or have a new cast applied which may require general anesthetic.","It is desirable therefore, to have a cast that can be removed and cleaned or replaced when soiled but that does not require anesthesia or significant discomfort to the patient during removal and re-application.","It is further desirable to provide a removable cast that can apply anterior pressure to the greater trochanter to prevent posterior dislocation."],[" SUMMARY In one aspect, a removable and replaceable rigid hip orthotic is disclosed comprising a back panel configured to support a patient's lower back area; a front panel configured to support a patient's lower abdominal area that is attached to the back panel via a hinge that allows the front panel to rotate; and a leg support configured to support a patient's leg, thereby placing the hip joint in a therapeutic position.","In one embodiment the leg support includes a gap or space to allow the patients leg to pass through and be received by the leg support allowing the orthotic to be removable and replaceable.","The orthotic is secured to the patient with straps around the lumbar-abdominal region and around the leg supports.","In another aspect, a layer of padding is added to the inside of the orthotic between the patient and the rigid orthotic to provide cushioning.","In one embodiment the padding is removable from the orthotic to allow replacement of the padding.","In certain embodiments, the straps are locked to prevent removal of the orthotic without medical supervision.","In one embodiment, a Boa dial is used to lock the straps in place.","In a further embodiment, the back panel of the removable and replaceable rigid hip orthotic is provided with a pair of windows extending through the rigid panel and the padding adjacent the child.","A corresponding trochanter pad is positioned within each window and arranged to bear against the region of the greater trochanter of each hip joint.","An adjustment mechanism is provided that allows adjustment of the pressure applied by each trochanter pad to the hip joint.","The trochanter pads thus provide anterior pressure to the joint to prevent dislocation of the femoral head.","The above described features and advantages, as well as others, will become more readily apparent to those of ordinary skill in the art by reference to the following detailed description and accompanying drawings.","While it would be desirable to provide an orthotic that includes one or more of these advantageous features, the teachings disclosed herein extend to those embodiments which fall within the scope of the appended claims, regardless of whether they accomplish one or more of the above-mentioned advantages."],["CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION This application is a continuation-in-part and claims priority to co-pending application Ser.","No.","15/262,154, filed on Sep. 12, 2016, the entire disclosure of which is incorporated herein by reference.","FIELD OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to a hip orthotic and, more specifically, to a removable and replaceable pediatric hip orthotic.","BACKGROUND Developmental dysplasia or dislocation of the hip (DDH) is an abnormal development of the hip joint usually identified in infants and children.","In all cases of DDH, the acetabulum (the hip socket) is shallow and the ball of the femur is not stable within the hip socket.","However, the severity of DDH can vary from patient to patient.","To improve the condition, the hip joint is usually arranged in a position to encourage proper growth for a period of time.","Frequently a cast or harness is used to maintain this prescribed position for a period of weeks or months.","The different types of restraints used to keep patients in the therapeutic position vary depending, in part, on the severity of the DDH and the age of the child.","One common restraint is the spica cast.","The spica cast is a typical hard-sided cast that is generally applied from the waist area to the knees of the patient in an effort to keep the hip joint immobilized in the preferred therapeutic position.","Because the spica cast is cumbersome to apply while the patient is in the therapeutic position, the spica cast is typically applied while the patient is under general anesthesia.","In certain procedures, pressure is applied to the greater trochanter region of the mold while the plaster cast is drying.","The hardened cast will apply pressure anteriorly over the greater trochanter to prevent posterior dislocation.","Because DDH is often diagnosed and treated in patients that are young and not toilet-trained, special care must be taken when applying the spica cast to allow for diapering of the patient.","However, despite the best efforts of parents and caregivers, the spica cast frequently gets soiled with urine and feces.","Soiled spica casts can create skin conditions for the patient.","A soiled cast that makes contact with the skin can cause rapid skin breakdown leading to discomfort, painful sores, rashes, and other skin conditions.","Because the spica cast is generally worn for 6 to 12 weeks at a time, the child must either be left in a soiled cast which may cause skin irritation or have a new cast applied which may require general anesthetic.","It is desirable therefore, to have a cast that can be removed and cleaned or replaced when soiled but that does not require anesthesia or significant discomfort to the patient during removal and re-application.","It is further desirable to provide a removable cast that can apply anterior pressure to the greater trochanter to prevent posterior dislocation.","SUMMARY In one aspect, a removable and replaceable rigid hip orthotic is disclosed comprising a back panel configured to support a patient's lower back area; a front panel configured to support a patient's lower abdominal area that is attached to the back panel via a hinge that allows the front panel to rotate; and a leg support configured to support a patient's leg, thereby placing the hip joint in a therapeutic position.","In one embodiment the leg support includes a gap or space to allow the patients leg to pass through and be received by the leg support allowing the orthotic to be removable and replaceable.","The orthotic is secured to the patient with straps around the lumbar-abdominal region and around the leg supports.","In another aspect, a layer of padding is added to the inside of the orthotic between the patient and the rigid orthotic to provide cushioning.","In one embodiment the padding is removable from the orthotic to allow replacement of the padding.","In certain embodiments, the straps are locked to prevent removal of the orthotic without medical supervision.","In one embodiment, a Boa dial is used to lock the straps in place.","In a further embodiment, the back panel of the removable and replaceable rigid hip orthotic is provided with a pair of windows extending through the rigid panel and the padding adjacent the child.","A corresponding trochanter pad is positioned within each window and arranged to bear against the region of the greater trochanter of each hip joint.","An adjustment mechanism is provided that allows adjustment of the pressure applied by each trochanter pad to the hip joint.","The trochanter pads thus provide anterior pressure to the joint to prevent dislocation of the femoral head.","The above described features and advantages, as well as others, will become more readily apparent to those of ordinary skill in the art by reference to the following detailed description and accompanying drawings.","While it would be desirable to provide an orthotic that includes one or more of these advantageous features, the teachings disclosed herein extend to those embodiments which fall within the scope of the appended claims, regardless of whether they accomplish one or more of the above-mentioned advantages.","DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES FIG.","1 is a posterior view of the orthotic.","FIG.","2 is an anterior view of the orthotic shown in FIG.","1.FIG.","3 is a perspective view of the orthotic shown in FIG.","1.FIG.","4 is an anterior view of the orthotic shown in FIG.","1 as applied to a patient.","FIG.","5 is a posterior view of an orthotic according to a further embodiment.","FIG.","6 is an anterior view of the orthotic shown in FIG.","5 FIG.","7 is a perspective view of the orthotic shown in FIG.","5.FIG.","8 is a cross-sectional view of the back panel of the orthotic shown in FIG.","5, taken along line 8-8.DETAILED DESCRIPTION For the purposes of promoting an understanding of the principles of the invention, reference will now be made to the embodiments illustrated in the drawings and described in the following written specification.","It is understood that no limitation to the scope of the invention is thereby intended.","It is further understood that the present invention includes any alterations and modifications to the illustrated embodiments and includes further applications of the principles of the invention as would normally occur to one skilled in the art to which this invention pertains.","One type of hip orthotic 10 is shown in FIG.","1.The orthotic 10 includes a back panel 12 which is molded to fit the lower back/lumbar sacral area of the patient and which contours around the patient's back and laterally to provide stability and structural integrity of the orthotic 10.The back panel 12 is formed from polypropylene or any other suitable material that is heat-formable and waterproof, but is generally rigid in construction so as to support the patient in the therapeutic position.","It further includes an aperture 14 to reduce the amount of skin covered by the orthotic 10 and to allow access to the diaper area of the patient.","It can be understood that the aperture 14 can be of varying size and shape but must remain limited in some respects to ensure structural stability of the orthotic 10.The orthotic 10 also includes a front panel 16 as best shown in FIG.","2.The front panel 16 can be formed from the same rigid polypropylene material as the back panel 12 and can be formed as a part of a unitary construction with the back panel 12.In one embodiment, the front panel 16 is movable with respect to the back panel 12 via a hinge 18 (best shown in FIG.","3).","The hinge 18 can be any type of hinge that allows the front panel 16 to move or rotate with respect to the back panel 12.In one embodiment, the front panel 16 is scored to form the hinge 18 but other types of hinges are contemplated by this disclosure.","As those with skill in the art can appreciate, the hinged front panel 16 allows the orthotic 10 to be applied and removed from the patient more easily.","Additionally, the hinged front panel 16 allows for additional diaper area access if necessary.","The orthotic 10 also includes a left leg support 20 and a right leg support 22 though it can be understood that if only one hip joint is affected by DDH, only one of the leg supports may be necessary.","The leg supports 20, 22 are similarly formed out of a generally rigid material such as polypropylene, and can be formed in a unitary construction with the back panel 12 and front panel 16 as shown in one embodiment.","The leg supports 20, 22 are positioned in such a way as to hold the patient's legs in the prescribed therapeutic position.","The leg supports 20, 22 include openings 21, 23 which allow for the patient's legs to be moved into the orthotic 10.The openings 21, 23 are sized to allow the patient's leg to pass through into the orthotic 10.The leg supports 20, 22, when used to treat DDH, generally hold the patient's legs in a therapeutic position of which two angles are of particular importance, the angle of abduction a and the angle of flexion β.","In most cases of DDH, the prescribed position is 45 degrees abduction a, and between 90 and 100 degrees flexion β as best shown in FIG.","4.It should be understood however, that this orthotic 10 can be used for various leg support angles, not just those associated with DDH.","It can be appreciated that the orthotic 10 can be either be molded to the individual patient or prefabricated in a variety of different sizes to accommodate a multitude of patients.","Patients can be measured or scanned to collect size information for the orthotic 10 and then fitted with the appropriately sized orthotic 10.When the orthotic 10 is applied to the patient, the patient will not generally need to be anesthetized.","The front panel 16 can be opened at the hinge 18 to accommodate placement of the orthotic 10 and the legs of the patient can pass through openings 21, 23 in the leg supports 20, 22.Once the patient is positioned in the orthotic 10, straps 24 can be used to firmly but comfortably hold the orthotic 10 in place.","In one embodiment, straps 24 are used around the lumbar region, on each leg support 20, 22 and to secure the front panel 16 to the back panel 12.The straps 24 can be Velcro type, or use buckle fasteners, snaps, or any other suitable means for firmly holding the orthotic 10 in place.","Such straps may also have locking features, such as a Boa dial to prevent the removal of the orthotic 10 without supervision or assistance.","The orthotic 10 can also include a removable padding layer 26 as best shown in FIG.","3.The padding 26 can be a soft foam or other suitable material that can provide a barrier layer between the orthotic 10 and the patient.","The padding 26 provides an element of comfort for the orthotic 10, but also increases the hygiene of the orthotic 10 as the orthotic 10 can be removed and the padding 26 either replaced or cleaned in the event of fecal/urine contamination.","It can be appreciated that the padding layer 26 can reduce the discomfort of the patient and reduce skin irritations from the orthotic 10.Moreover, it can be appreciated that the orthotic 10 can be worn without the padding 26 while the patient bathes.","In a further embodiment, a rigid orthotic 100 is similar in construction to the orthotic 10, as shown in FIGS.","5-7, but incorporates a feature for providing anterior pressure to the greater trochanter region of the hip joint to prevent dislocation of the femoral head.","The orthotic 100 includes a back panel 112 and a front panel 116 that can be formed of the same material as the panels 12 and 16.The front panel 116 is connected to the back panel 112 by a hinge 118 that allows the front panel to be pivoted outward from the back panel, as shown in FIG.","6 and returned to wrap around the child, as shown in FIG.","7.The rigid orthotic further includes leg supports 120, 122 similar in construction to the leg supports 20, 22, that define openings 121, 123 to receive the legs of the child.","Straps 124 are provided that are similar to the straps 24 that are used to hold the child's legs within the leg supports.","Like the orthotic 10, the orthotic 100 can be provided with padding 126 similar to the padding 26 so that the orthotic can be comfortably worn by the child.","The orthotic 100 incorporates a waist strap 130 that is affixed to the back panel 112 and threaded through strap guides 132 fastened to the lateral sides of the back panel, as best shown in FIG.","5.The front panel 116 includes an anchor 133 with strap guides 134 for receiving the waist strap 130.The waist strap 130 can include a releasable fastener arrangement, such as hook and loop fasteners, at the ends 131 of the strap so that the strap can be adjustably tightened onto itself after threading through the anchor strap guides 134.The orthotic 100 further incorporates the feature for applying pressure to the greater trochanter region of the hip joint to prevent dislocation of the femoral head.","In particular, a pair of trochanter pads 140, 141 are positioned within a corresponding window 114, 115 so that the inner surface 140a, 141a (FIG.","6) will bear against the hip of the child when the orthotic is in position.","The orthotic 100 further provides a mechanism for adjusting the pressure applied by the trochanter pads 140, 141.In particular, the pads 140, 141 are mounted on or in contact with an adjustment strap 142 that at least spans the lateral width of the back panel 112 and preferably extends into the leg supports 120, 122.The adjustment strap 142 incorporates an adjustment mechanism in the form of a tension wire 144 extending along the length of the strap between a pulley 145 at one end and a tightening dial 146 at an opposite end of the strap.","The tightening dial 146 and tensioning wire 144 can be part of a BOA™ closure sold by BOA Technology, Inc.","The BOA closure may be constructed as disclosed in U.S. Pat.","Nos.","7,950,112 and 7,954,204, the entire disclosures of which are incorporated herein by reference.","The dial 146 can be manually rotated to extend or retract the wire within the dial, thereby lengthening or shortening the exposed length of wire 144 within the adjustment strap 142.Shortening the exposed length of wire pushes the trochanter pads 140, 141 towards the hip joint, while lengthening the wire allows the trochanter pads to be pushed back through the windows 114, 115.In other words, the adjustment dial 146 can be rotated to move the trochanter pads 140, 141 in the direction A through the windows 114, 115 as shown in FIG.","8.In one specific embodiment, the trochanter pads 140, 141 and the adjustment strap 142 can be configured to provide two inches (2″) of movement in the direction A, thereby varying the amount of pressure applied to the hip joint.","Pressure sensors may be provided in the pads and/or adjustment strap to provide an indication of the amount of pressure being applied to the child's hip joint.","The trochanter pads 140, 141 can be formed of a slightly compressible material or may include a slightly compressible layer adjacent the body of the child.","The material of the pads may be sufficiently compressible to adapt to the contour of the patient's anatomy at the hip joint to ensure a uniform pressure across the joint.","The pads may also be provided with removable padding, like the padding on the remainder of the orthotic.","The pads may be removably fastened to the adjustment strap, such as by snaps, hook-and-loop fabric or other similar components.","Alternatively, the trochanter pads may be mounted to the back panel by an elastic support that allows the pads to freely move in the direction A (FIG.","8).","For instance, the pads may be connected to the back panel by a flexible diaphragm fastened around the perimeter of the windows 114, 115, or by elastic straps fastened to the panel.","In the illustrated embodiment, a single adjustment strap 142 is used to simultaneously adjust the position of the trochanter pads 140, 141 and consequently the pressure applied by the pads.","Alternatively, a separate adjustment strap may be provided with each separate trochanter pad, permitting separate adjustment of the pressure applied to the associated hip joint.","Each adjustment strap would include its own adjustment dial 146 and associated tension wire 144 and pulley 145.It is further contemplated that the manual adjustment dial 146 can be replaced with an electrical or electronic component that can activate the tension wire 144.For instance, the dial can be driven by a micromotor that is activated by a remote control.","The trochanter pads 140, 141 and/or adjustment strap 142 can be provided with pressure sensors to sense the actual pressure being applied to the greater trochanter region of the child's hip joint.","This pressure data can provide feedback to the actuation of the adjustment dial to provide a pre-determined pressure to the joint.","It is further contemplated that the pressure sensor and electronic adjustment dial can work interactively to automatically adjust the dial to maintain the pre-determined pressure.","It should be understood that this disclosure is, in many respects, only illustrative.","Changes may be made in details, particularly in matters of shape, and size without exceeding the scope of the invention.","The invention's scope is, of course, defined in the language in which the appended claims are expressed."]],"string":"[\n [\n \"Removable Pediatric Hip Orthotic\",\n \"A removable and replaceable hip orthotic that includes a back panel formed from a rigid material that supports a patient's lumbar area; a front panel formed from the rigid material that supports the patient's abdomen area and is hinged to the back panel to allow application and removal of the orthotic to the patient; a leg support that extends from the back support that includes a space that allows a patient's leg to pass through into the leg support; and straps to secure the back panel to the front panel and the leg into the leg support.\",\n \"The back panel includes a pair of windows with a trochanter pad movably disposed within the windows.\",\n \"An adjustment mechanism selectively moves the trochanter pads relative to the greater trochanter regions of the hips of the patient to apply pressure to the hip joint to prevent dislocation of the femoral head.\"\n ],\n [\n \"1.An orthotic comprising: a back panel formed of a rigid material and configured to support a patient's lumbar region; a front panel formed of the rigid material and configured to support the patient's lower abdomen region, wherein the front panel is attached to the back panel via a hinge and the front panel is at least partially rotatable about the hinge, and wherein the front panel, when in a first position, can be secured to the back panel around the patient with at least one strap and when in a second position, can accommodate the removal and application of the orthotic to a patient; and at least one leg support formed of a rigid material and configured to support a patient's leg in a pre-determined position relative to the body of the patient, wherein the leg support extends from a lateral edge of the back panel and further defines an opening that extends from the back panel to a end of the leg support distal from the back panel, said opening sized and configured to receive the patient's leg therein, and wherein the at least one leg support further includes at least one strap spanning the opening for holding the patient's leg within the at least one leg support.\",\n \"2.The orthotic of claim 1, wherein the orthotic further comprises a layer of padding that extends along an inside surface of the orthotic.\",\n \"3.The orthotic of claim 2, wherein the padding layer is removable from the orthotic.\",\n \"4.The orthotic of claim 1, wherein the back panel further comprises an aperture located generally in the patient's diaper area wherein the aperture is sized and configured to allow diapering of the patient.\",\n \"5.The orthotic of claim 1, wherein each of the straps include locks operable to prevent the straps from coming unsecured.\",\n \"6.The orthotic of claim 1, wherein the hinge is comprised of a scored line in the rigid material.\",\n \"7.The orthotic of claim 1, wherein the at least one leg support is fixed in relation to the back panel at a pre-determined angle of abduction a and a pre-determined angle of flexion β.\",\n \"8.The orthotic of claim 7, wherein abduction angle is 45 degrees and the flexion angle is between 90 and 100 degrees.\",\n \"9.The orthotic of claim 1, further comprising: at least one window defined in said back panel and arranged in said back panel to be positioned at the greater trochanter region of the hip joint of the patient when the orthotic is worn by the patient; a pad sized to be movably disposed within said at least one window in contact with the patient's hip joint; and an adjustment mechanism for moving said pad relative to the back panel to apply adjustable pressure to the patient's hip joint through the pad.\",\n \"10.The orthotic of claim 9, wherein the adjustment mechanism includes a strap fastened to the back panel and bearing against the pad disposed within said at least one window.\",\n \"11.The orthotic of claim 10, wherein the adjustment mechanism includes a tensioning cable extending through said strap and a rotatable dial operable to increase or decrease the length of the cable within the strap to variably apply pressure to the pad.\",\n \"12.The orthotic of claim 9, further comprising: two windows defined in said back panel, one each positioned at the greater trochanter region of a corresponding hip joint of the patient; and two pads, one each disposed within a corresponding one of the two windows.\",\n \"13.The orthotic of claim 12, wherein the adjustment mechanism includes: a strap fastened to the back panel and bearing against each pad disposed within said at least one window; and.\",\n \"a tensioning cable extending through said strap and a rotatable dial operable to increase or decrease the length of the cable within the strap to variably apply pressure to the two pads.\",\n \"14.A removable and replaceable pediatric hip orthotic comprising: an abdominal support having a front panel configured to rigidly support a patient's abdomen, and a back panel configured to rigidly support a patient's lower back and sides, wherein the front panel and back panel can be secured together with a strap when the front panel is in a first position and wherein the front panel can be moved to a second position to accommodate removal of the orthotic; and at least one leg support, configured to rigidly support a patient's hip joint in a therapeutic position, wherein the leg support is attached to the back panel and includes a slot extending from the back panel to a distal end of the at least one leg support to accommodate removal and application of the orthotic.\",\n \"15.The orthotic of claim 14, further comprising a padding layer that extends across an inside surface of the orthotic, wherein the padding layer is removable from the orthotic.\",\n \"16.The orthotic of claim 15, wherein the back panel further comprises an aperture to allow access to a patient's diaper area.\",\n \"17.The orthotic of claim 16, wherein there are two leg supports.\",\n \"18.The orthotic of claim 14, wherein the straps further comprise locks that keep the straps secure.\",\n \"19.The orthotic of claim 14, wherein the front panel is scored to allow movement between the first position and the second position.\"\n ],\n [\n \" BACKGROUND Developmental dysplasia or dislocation of the hip (DDH) is an abnormal development of the hip joint usually identified in infants and children.\",\n \"In all cases of DDH, the acetabulum (the hip socket) is shallow and the ball of the femur is not stable within the hip socket.\",\n \"However, the severity of DDH can vary from patient to patient.\",\n \"To improve the condition, the hip joint is usually arranged in a position to encourage proper growth for a period of time.\",\n \"Frequently a cast or harness is used to maintain this prescribed position for a period of weeks or months.\",\n \"The different types of restraints used to keep patients in the therapeutic position vary depending, in part, on the severity of the DDH and the age of the child.\",\n \"One common restraint is the spica cast.\",\n \"The spica cast is a typical hard-sided cast that is generally applied from the waist area to the knees of the patient in an effort to keep the hip joint immobilized in the preferred therapeutic position.\",\n \"Because the spica cast is cumbersome to apply while the patient is in the therapeutic position, the spica cast is typically applied while the patient is under general anesthesia.\",\n \"In certain procedures, pressure is applied to the greater trochanter region of the mold while the plaster cast is drying.\",\n \"The hardened cast will apply pressure anteriorly over the greater trochanter to prevent posterior dislocation.\",\n \"Because DDH is often diagnosed and treated in patients that are young and not toilet-trained, special care must be taken when applying the spica cast to allow for diapering of the patient.\",\n \"However, despite the best efforts of parents and caregivers, the spica cast frequently gets soiled with urine and feces.\",\n \"Soiled spica casts can create skin conditions for the patient.\",\n \"A soiled cast that makes contact with the skin can cause rapid skin breakdown leading to discomfort, painful sores, rashes, and other skin conditions.\",\n \"Because the spica cast is generally worn for 6 to 12 weeks at a time, the child must either be left in a soiled cast which may cause skin irritation or have a new cast applied which may require general anesthetic.\",\n \"It is desirable therefore, to have a cast that can be removed and cleaned or replaced when soiled but that does not require anesthesia or significant discomfort to the patient during removal and re-application.\",\n \"It is further desirable to provide a removable cast that can apply anterior pressure to the greater trochanter to prevent posterior dislocation.\"\n ],\n [\n \" SUMMARY In one aspect, a removable and replaceable rigid hip orthotic is disclosed comprising a back panel configured to support a patient's lower back area; a front panel configured to support a patient's lower abdominal area that is attached to the back panel via a hinge that allows the front panel to rotate; and a leg support configured to support a patient's leg, thereby placing the hip joint in a therapeutic position.\",\n \"In one embodiment the leg support includes a gap or space to allow the patients leg to pass through and be received by the leg support allowing the orthotic to be removable and replaceable.\",\n \"The orthotic is secured to the patient with straps around the lumbar-abdominal region and around the leg supports.\",\n \"In another aspect, a layer of padding is added to the inside of the orthotic between the patient and the rigid orthotic to provide cushioning.\",\n \"In one embodiment the padding is removable from the orthotic to allow replacement of the padding.\",\n \"In certain embodiments, the straps are locked to prevent removal of the orthotic without medical supervision.\",\n \"In one embodiment, a Boa dial is used to lock the straps in place.\",\n \"In a further embodiment, the back panel of the removable and replaceable rigid hip orthotic is provided with a pair of windows extending through the rigid panel and the padding adjacent the child.\",\n \"A corresponding trochanter pad is positioned within each window and arranged to bear against the region of the greater trochanter of each hip joint.\",\n \"An adjustment mechanism is provided that allows adjustment of the pressure applied by each trochanter pad to the hip joint.\",\n \"The trochanter pads thus provide anterior pressure to the joint to prevent dislocation of the femoral head.\",\n \"The above described features and advantages, as well as others, will become more readily apparent to those of ordinary skill in the art by reference to the following detailed description and accompanying drawings.\",\n \"While it would be desirable to provide an orthotic that includes one or more of these advantageous features, the teachings disclosed herein extend to those embodiments which fall within the scope of the appended claims, regardless of whether they accomplish one or more of the above-mentioned advantages.\"\n ],\n [\n \"CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION This application is a continuation-in-part and claims priority to co-pending application Ser.\",\n \"No.\",\n \"15/262,154, filed on Sep. 12, 2016, the entire disclosure of which is incorporated herein by reference.\",\n \"FIELD OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to a hip orthotic and, more specifically, to a removable and replaceable pediatric hip orthotic.\",\n \"BACKGROUND Developmental dysplasia or dislocation of the hip (DDH) is an abnormal development of the hip joint usually identified in infants and children.\",\n \"In all cases of DDH, the acetabulum (the hip socket) is shallow and the ball of the femur is not stable within the hip socket.\",\n \"However, the severity of DDH can vary from patient to patient.\",\n \"To improve the condition, the hip joint is usually arranged in a position to encourage proper growth for a period of time.\",\n \"Frequently a cast or harness is used to maintain this prescribed position for a period of weeks or months.\",\n \"The different types of restraints used to keep patients in the therapeutic position vary depending, in part, on the severity of the DDH and the age of the child.\",\n \"One common restraint is the spica cast.\",\n \"The spica cast is a typical hard-sided cast that is generally applied from the waist area to the knees of the patient in an effort to keep the hip joint immobilized in the preferred therapeutic position.\",\n \"Because the spica cast is cumbersome to apply while the patient is in the therapeutic position, the spica cast is typically applied while the patient is under general anesthesia.\",\n \"In certain procedures, pressure is applied to the greater trochanter region of the mold while the plaster cast is drying.\",\n \"The hardened cast will apply pressure anteriorly over the greater trochanter to prevent posterior dislocation.\",\n \"Because DDH is often diagnosed and treated in patients that are young and not toilet-trained, special care must be taken when applying the spica cast to allow for diapering of the patient.\",\n \"However, despite the best efforts of parents and caregivers, the spica cast frequently gets soiled with urine and feces.\",\n \"Soiled spica casts can create skin conditions for the patient.\",\n \"A soiled cast that makes contact with the skin can cause rapid skin breakdown leading to discomfort, painful sores, rashes, and other skin conditions.\",\n \"Because the spica cast is generally worn for 6 to 12 weeks at a time, the child must either be left in a soiled cast which may cause skin irritation or have a new cast applied which may require general anesthetic.\",\n \"It is desirable therefore, to have a cast that can be removed and cleaned or replaced when soiled but that does not require anesthesia or significant discomfort to the patient during removal and re-application.\",\n \"It is further desirable to provide a removable cast that can apply anterior pressure to the greater trochanter to prevent posterior dislocation.\",\n \"SUMMARY In one aspect, a removable and replaceable rigid hip orthotic is disclosed comprising a back panel configured to support a patient's lower back area; a front panel configured to support a patient's lower abdominal area that is attached to the back panel via a hinge that allows the front panel to rotate; and a leg support configured to support a patient's leg, thereby placing the hip joint in a therapeutic position.\",\n \"In one embodiment the leg support includes a gap or space to allow the patients leg to pass through and be received by the leg support allowing the orthotic to be removable and replaceable.\",\n \"The orthotic is secured to the patient with straps around the lumbar-abdominal region and around the leg supports.\",\n \"In another aspect, a layer of padding is added to the inside of the orthotic between the patient and the rigid orthotic to provide cushioning.\",\n \"In one embodiment the padding is removable from the orthotic to allow replacement of the padding.\",\n \"In certain embodiments, the straps are locked to prevent removal of the orthotic without medical supervision.\",\n \"In one embodiment, a Boa dial is used to lock the straps in place.\",\n \"In a further embodiment, the back panel of the removable and replaceable rigid hip orthotic is provided with a pair of windows extending through the rigid panel and the padding adjacent the child.\",\n \"A corresponding trochanter pad is positioned within each window and arranged to bear against the region of the greater trochanter of each hip joint.\",\n \"An adjustment mechanism is provided that allows adjustment of the pressure applied by each trochanter pad to the hip joint.\",\n \"The trochanter pads thus provide anterior pressure to the joint to prevent dislocation of the femoral head.\",\n \"The above described features and advantages, as well as others, will become more readily apparent to those of ordinary skill in the art by reference to the following detailed description and accompanying drawings.\",\n \"While it would be desirable to provide an orthotic that includes one or more of these advantageous features, the teachings disclosed herein extend to those embodiments which fall within the scope of the appended claims, regardless of whether they accomplish one or more of the above-mentioned advantages.\",\n \"DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES FIG.\",\n \"1 is a posterior view of the orthotic.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"2 is an anterior view of the orthotic shown in FIG.\",\n \"1.FIG.\",\n \"3 is a perspective view of the orthotic shown in FIG.\",\n \"1.FIG.\",\n \"4 is an anterior view of the orthotic shown in FIG.\",\n \"1 as applied to a patient.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"5 is a posterior view of an orthotic according to a further embodiment.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"6 is an anterior view of the orthotic shown in FIG.\",\n \"5 FIG.\",\n \"7 is a perspective view of the orthotic shown in FIG.\",\n \"5.FIG.\",\n \"8 is a cross-sectional view of the back panel of the orthotic shown in FIG.\",\n \"5, taken along line 8-8.DETAILED DESCRIPTION For the purposes of promoting an understanding of the principles of the invention, reference will now be made to the embodiments illustrated in the drawings and described in the following written specification.\",\n \"It is understood that no limitation to the scope of the invention is thereby intended.\",\n \"It is further understood that the present invention includes any alterations and modifications to the illustrated embodiments and includes further applications of the principles of the invention as would normally occur to one skilled in the art to which this invention pertains.\",\n \"One type of hip orthotic 10 is shown in FIG.\",\n \"1.The orthotic 10 includes a back panel 12 which is molded to fit the lower back/lumbar sacral area of the patient and which contours around the patient's back and laterally to provide stability and structural integrity of the orthotic 10.The back panel 12 is formed from polypropylene or any other suitable material that is heat-formable and waterproof, but is generally rigid in construction so as to support the patient in the therapeutic position.\",\n \"It further includes an aperture 14 to reduce the amount of skin covered by the orthotic 10 and to allow access to the diaper area of the patient.\",\n \"It can be understood that the aperture 14 can be of varying size and shape but must remain limited in some respects to ensure structural stability of the orthotic 10.The orthotic 10 also includes a front panel 16 as best shown in FIG.\",\n \"2.The front panel 16 can be formed from the same rigid polypropylene material as the back panel 12 and can be formed as a part of a unitary construction with the back panel 12.In one embodiment, the front panel 16 is movable with respect to the back panel 12 via a hinge 18 (best shown in FIG.\",\n \"3).\",\n \"The hinge 18 can be any type of hinge that allows the front panel 16 to move or rotate with respect to the back panel 12.In one embodiment, the front panel 16 is scored to form the hinge 18 but other types of hinges are contemplated by this disclosure.\",\n \"As those with skill in the art can appreciate, the hinged front panel 16 allows the orthotic 10 to be applied and removed from the patient more easily.\",\n \"Additionally, the hinged front panel 16 allows for additional diaper area access if necessary.\",\n \"The orthotic 10 also includes a left leg support 20 and a right leg support 22 though it can be understood that if only one hip joint is affected by DDH, only one of the leg supports may be necessary.\",\n \"The leg supports 20, 22 are similarly formed out of a generally rigid material such as polypropylene, and can be formed in a unitary construction with the back panel 12 and front panel 16 as shown in one embodiment.\",\n \"The leg supports 20, 22 are positioned in such a way as to hold the patient's legs in the prescribed therapeutic position.\",\n \"The leg supports 20, 22 include openings 21, 23 which allow for the patient's legs to be moved into the orthotic 10.The openings 21, 23 are sized to allow the patient's leg to pass through into the orthotic 10.The leg supports 20, 22, when used to treat DDH, generally hold the patient's legs in a therapeutic position of which two angles are of particular importance, the angle of abduction a and the angle of flexion β.\",\n \"In most cases of DDH, the prescribed position is 45 degrees abduction a, and between 90 and 100 degrees flexion β as best shown in FIG.\",\n \"4.It should be understood however, that this orthotic 10 can be used for various leg support angles, not just those associated with DDH.\",\n \"It can be appreciated that the orthotic 10 can be either be molded to the individual patient or prefabricated in a variety of different sizes to accommodate a multitude of patients.\",\n \"Patients can be measured or scanned to collect size information for the orthotic 10 and then fitted with the appropriately sized orthotic 10.When the orthotic 10 is applied to the patient, the patient will not generally need to be anesthetized.\",\n \"The front panel 16 can be opened at the hinge 18 to accommodate placement of the orthotic 10 and the legs of the patient can pass through openings 21, 23 in the leg supports 20, 22.Once the patient is positioned in the orthotic 10, straps 24 can be used to firmly but comfortably hold the orthotic 10 in place.\",\n \"In one embodiment, straps 24 are used around the lumbar region, on each leg support 20, 22 and to secure the front panel 16 to the back panel 12.The straps 24 can be Velcro type, or use buckle fasteners, snaps, or any other suitable means for firmly holding the orthotic 10 in place.\",\n \"Such straps may also have locking features, such as a Boa dial to prevent the removal of the orthotic 10 without supervision or assistance.\",\n \"The orthotic 10 can also include a removable padding layer 26 as best shown in FIG.\",\n \"3.The padding 26 can be a soft foam or other suitable material that can provide a barrier layer between the orthotic 10 and the patient.\",\n \"The padding 26 provides an element of comfort for the orthotic 10, but also increases the hygiene of the orthotic 10 as the orthotic 10 can be removed and the padding 26 either replaced or cleaned in the event of fecal/urine contamination.\",\n \"It can be appreciated that the padding layer 26 can reduce the discomfort of the patient and reduce skin irritations from the orthotic 10.Moreover, it can be appreciated that the orthotic 10 can be worn without the padding 26 while the patient bathes.\",\n \"In a further embodiment, a rigid orthotic 100 is similar in construction to the orthotic 10, as shown in FIGS.\",\n \"5-7, but incorporates a feature for providing anterior pressure to the greater trochanter region of the hip joint to prevent dislocation of the femoral head.\",\n \"The orthotic 100 includes a back panel 112 and a front panel 116 that can be formed of the same material as the panels 12 and 16.The front panel 116 is connected to the back panel 112 by a hinge 118 that allows the front panel to be pivoted outward from the back panel, as shown in FIG.\",\n \"6 and returned to wrap around the child, as shown in FIG.\",\n \"7.The rigid orthotic further includes leg supports 120, 122 similar in construction to the leg supports 20, 22, that define openings 121, 123 to receive the legs of the child.\",\n \"Straps 124 are provided that are similar to the straps 24 that are used to hold the child's legs within the leg supports.\",\n \"Like the orthotic 10, the orthotic 100 can be provided with padding 126 similar to the padding 26 so that the orthotic can be comfortably worn by the child.\",\n \"The orthotic 100 incorporates a waist strap 130 that is affixed to the back panel 112 and threaded through strap guides 132 fastened to the lateral sides of the back panel, as best shown in FIG.\",\n \"5.The front panel 116 includes an anchor 133 with strap guides 134 for receiving the waist strap 130.The waist strap 130 can include a releasable fastener arrangement, such as hook and loop fasteners, at the ends 131 of the strap so that the strap can be adjustably tightened onto itself after threading through the anchor strap guides 134.The orthotic 100 further incorporates the feature for applying pressure to the greater trochanter region of the hip joint to prevent dislocation of the femoral head.\",\n \"In particular, a pair of trochanter pads 140, 141 are positioned within a corresponding window 114, 115 so that the inner surface 140a, 141a (FIG.\",\n \"6) will bear against the hip of the child when the orthotic is in position.\",\n \"The orthotic 100 further provides a mechanism for adjusting the pressure applied by the trochanter pads 140, 141.In particular, the pads 140, 141 are mounted on or in contact with an adjustment strap 142 that at least spans the lateral width of the back panel 112 and preferably extends into the leg supports 120, 122.The adjustment strap 142 incorporates an adjustment mechanism in the form of a tension wire 144 extending along the length of the strap between a pulley 145 at one end and a tightening dial 146 at an opposite end of the strap.\",\n \"The tightening dial 146 and tensioning wire 144 can be part of a BOA™ closure sold by BOA Technology, Inc.\",\n \"The BOA closure may be constructed as disclosed in U.S. Pat.\",\n \"Nos.\",\n \"7,950,112 and 7,954,204, the entire disclosures of which are incorporated herein by reference.\",\n \"The dial 146 can be manually rotated to extend or retract the wire within the dial, thereby lengthening or shortening the exposed length of wire 144 within the adjustment strap 142.Shortening the exposed length of wire pushes the trochanter pads 140, 141 towards the hip joint, while lengthening the wire allows the trochanter pads to be pushed back through the windows 114, 115.In other words, the adjustment dial 146 can be rotated to move the trochanter pads 140, 141 in the direction A through the windows 114, 115 as shown in FIG.\",\n \"8.In one specific embodiment, the trochanter pads 140, 141 and the adjustment strap 142 can be configured to provide two inches (2″) of movement in the direction A, thereby varying the amount of pressure applied to the hip joint.\",\n \"Pressure sensors may be provided in the pads and/or adjustment strap to provide an indication of the amount of pressure being applied to the child's hip joint.\",\n \"The trochanter pads 140, 141 can be formed of a slightly compressible material or may include a slightly compressible layer adjacent the body of the child.\",\n \"The material of the pads may be sufficiently compressible to adapt to the contour of the patient's anatomy at the hip joint to ensure a uniform pressure across the joint.\",\n \"The pads may also be provided with removable padding, like the padding on the remainder of the orthotic.\",\n \"The pads may be removably fastened to the adjustment strap, such as by snaps, hook-and-loop fabric or other similar components.\",\n \"Alternatively, the trochanter pads may be mounted to the back panel by an elastic support that allows the pads to freely move in the direction A (FIG.\",\n \"8).\",\n \"For instance, the pads may be connected to the back panel by a flexible diaphragm fastened around the perimeter of the windows 114, 115, or by elastic straps fastened to the panel.\",\n \"In the illustrated embodiment, a single adjustment strap 142 is used to simultaneously adjust the position of the trochanter pads 140, 141 and consequently the pressure applied by the pads.\",\n \"Alternatively, a separate adjustment strap may be provided with each separate trochanter pad, permitting separate adjustment of the pressure applied to the associated hip joint.\",\n \"Each adjustment strap would include its own adjustment dial 146 and associated tension wire 144 and pulley 145.It is further contemplated that the manual adjustment dial 146 can be replaced with an electrical or electronic component that can activate the tension wire 144.For instance, the dial can be driven by a micromotor that is activated by a remote control.\",\n \"The trochanter pads 140, 141 and/or adjustment strap 142 can be provided with pressure sensors to sense the actual pressure being applied to the greater trochanter region of the child's hip joint.\",\n \"This pressure data can provide feedback to the actuation of the adjustment dial to provide a pre-determined pressure to the joint.\",\n \"It is further contemplated that the pressure sensor and electronic adjustment dial can work interactively to automatically adjust the dial to maintain the pre-determined pressure.\",\n \"It should be understood that this disclosure is, in many respects, only illustrative.\",\n \"Changes may be made in details, particularly in matters of shape, and size without exceeding the scope of the invention.\",\n \"The invention's scope is, of course, defined in the language in which the appended claims are expressed.\"\n ]\n]"},"source":{"kind":"string","value":"Patent_15875462"}}},{"rowIdx":4494879,"cells":{"text":{"kind":"list like","value":[["METHOD, SYNTHESIS, ACTIVATION PROCEDURE AND CHARACTERIZATION OF AN OXYGEN RICH ACTIVATED POROUS CARBON SORBENT FOR SELECTIVE REMOVAL OF CARBON DIOXIDE WITH ULTRA HIGH CAPACITY","The present disclosure pertains to methods of capturing CO2 from an environment at pressures above 1 bar by associating the environment with a porous material that has a surface area of at least 2,800 m2/g, and a total pore volume of at least 1.35 cm3/g, where a majority of pores of the porous material have diameters of less than 2 nm.","The present disclosure also pertains to methods for the separation of CO2 from natural gas in an environment at partial pressures of either component above 1 bar by associating the environment with a porous material that has a surface area of at least 2,200 m2/g, and a total pore volume of at least 1.00 cm3/g, where a majority of pores of the porous material have diameters of greater than 1 nm and less than 2 nm."],["1.A method of capturing CO2 from an environment at pressures above 1 bar, the method comprising: associating the environment with a porous material, wherein the porous material comprises a surface area of at least 2,800 m2/g, and a total pore volume of at least 1.35 cm3/g, wherein a majority of pores of the porous material have diameters of less than 2 nm as measured from N2 sorption isotherms using the BET (Brunauer-Emmett-Teller) method, and wherein the associating results in CO2 capture from the environment by the porous material.","2.The method of claim 1, wherein more than about 60% of pores of the porous material have diameters of less than 2 nm.","3.The method of claim 1, wherein the porous material has an oxygen content of more than about 7 wt % as measured by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy.","4.The method of claim 1, wherein the porous material has an oxygen content between about 7 wt % and about 18 wt % as measured by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy.","5.The method of claim 1, wherein the environment is a natural gas containing environment, an environment containing a mixture of gases, or combinations thereof.","6.The method of claim 1, wherein the CO2 capture occurs by adsorption of the CO2 to the porous material.","7.The method of claim 1, wherein the CO2 capture occurs selectively over hydrocarbons in the environment.","8.The method of claim 1, wherein the porous material has a molar CO2/CH4 selectivity of at least about 2.5.9.The method of claim 1, wherein the porous material has a CO2 sorption capacity of at least about 100 wt % at 30 bar.","10.The method of claim 1, wherein the porous material comprises a porous carbon material with a carbon content of between 80% and 95% as measured by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy.","11.The method of claim 10, further comprising a step of preparing the porous carbon material prior to the step of associating the porous material with the environment.","12.The method of claim 11, wherein the porous carbon material is prepared by heating an organic polymer precursor or biological material in the presence of an activating agent, wherein the activating agent optionally comprises KOH or steam, and wherein the temperature of activation is between 700° C. and 800° C. 13.The method of claim 12, wherein the organic polymer precursor or biological material comprises oxygen in a functional group.","14.The method of claim 13, wherein the functional group comprises a furyl, and wherein the organic polymer precursor polymerizes to form polyfurfuryl alcohol.","15.The method of claim 13, wherein the functional group comprises an anisyl, and wherein the organic polymer precursor polymerizes to form polyanisyl alcohol.","16.The method of claim 15, wherein the polyanisyl alcohol is prepared by the polymerization of anisyl alcohol with a catalyst, wherein the catalyst optionally comprises a protic acid.","17.A method for the separation of CO2 from natural gas in an environment at partial pressures of either component above 1 bar, the method comprising: associating the environment with a porous material, wherein the porous material comprises a surface area of at least 2,200 m2/g, and a total pore volume of at least 1.00 cm3/g, wherein a majority of pores of the porous material have diameters of greater than 1 nm and less than 2 nm as measured from N2 sorption isotherms using the BET (Brunauer-Emmett-Teller) method, and wherein the associating results in CO2 capture from the environment by the porous material.","18.The method of claim 17, wherein the porous material has an oxygen content of more than about 7 wt % as measured by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy.","19.The method of claim 17, wherein the porous material has an oxygen content between about 7 wt % and about 18 wt % as measured by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy.","20.The method of claim 17, wherein the environment is a natural gas containing environment, an environment containing a mixture of gases, or combinations thereof.","21.The method of claim 17, wherein the CO2 capture occurs by adsorption of the CO2 to the porous material.","22.The method of claim 17, wherein the CO2 capture occurs selectively over hydrocarbons in the environment.","23.The method of claim 17, wherein the porous material has a molar CO2/CH4 selectivity of at least about 2.5.24.The method of claim 17, wherein the porous material has a CO2 sorption capacity of at least about 100 wt % at 30 bar.","25.The method of claim 17, wherein the porous material comprises a porous carbon material with a carbon content of between 80% and 95% as measured by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy.","26.The method of claim 25, further comprising a step of preparing the porous carbon material prior to the step of associating the porous material with the environment.","27.The method of claim 26, wherein the porous carbon material is prepared by heating an organic polymer precursor or biological material in the presence of an activating agent, wherein the activating agent optionally comprises KOH or steam, and wherein the temperature of activation is between 700° C. and 800° C. 28.The method of claim 27, wherein the organic polymer precursor comprises oxygen in a functional group.","29.The method of claim 28, wherein the functional group comprises a furyl, and wherein the organic polymer precursor polymerizes to form polyfurfuryl alcohol.","30.The method of claim 28, wherein the functional group comprises an anisyl, and wherein the organic polymer precursor polymerizes to form polyanisyl alcohol."],[" BACKGROUND Current materials for capturing carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) suffer from numerous limitations, including limited CO 2 sorption capacity and selectivity.","Various embodiments of the present disclosure address these limitations."],[" SUMMARY In some embodiments, the present disclosure pertains to materials for CO 2 adsorption at pressures above 1 bar.","In some embodiments, the materials include a porous material with a surface area of at least 2,800 m 2 /g, and a total pore volume of at least 1.35 cm 3 /g.","In some embodiments, a majority of pores of the porous materials have diameters of less than 2 nm as measured from N 2 sorption isotherms using the BET (Brunauer-Emmett-Teller) method.","In some embodiments, the present disclosure pertains to materials for the separation of CO 2 from natural gas at partial pressures of either component above 1 bar.","In some embodiments, the materials include a porous material with a surface area of at least 2,200 m 2 /g, and a total pore volume of at least 1.00 cm 3 /g.","In some embodiments, a majority of pores of the porous materials have diameters of greater than 1 nm and less than 2 nm as measured from N 2 sorption isotherms using the BET (Brunauer-Emmett-Teller) method.","In some embodiments, the porous materials of the present disclosure include a porous carbon material with a carbon content of between 80% and 95% as measured by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy.","In some embodiments, the porous materials of the present disclosure include a porous carbon material with a surface area of at least 2,800 m 2 /g, a total pore volume of at least 1.35 cm 3 /g, and a carbon content of between 80% and 95% as measured by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy.","In additional embodiments, the present disclosure pertains to materials for the separation of CO 2 from natural gas at partial pressures of either component above 1 bar.","In some embodiments, the materials include a porous carbon material with a surface area of at least 2,000 m 2 /g, a total pore volume of at least 1.00 cm 3 /g, and a carbon content of greater than 90% as measured by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy.","In some embodiments, the porous carbon materials of the present disclosure are prepared by heating an organic polymer precursor or biological material in the presence of potassium hydroxide (KOH).","In some embodiments, the temperature of activation is between 700° C. and 800° C. In some embodiments, the temperature of activation is between 600° C. and 700° C. In some embodiments, the porous carbon materials of the present disclosure are prepared by heating an organic polymer precursor.","In some embodiments, the organic polymer precursor includes oxygen in a functional group.","In some embodiments, the functional group is a furyl.","In some embodiments, the organic polymer precursor is furfuryl alcohol.","In some embodiments, the organic polymer precursor polymerizes to form polyfurfuryl alcohol (PFFA).","In some embodiments, PFFA is prepared by the polymerization of furfuryl alcohol with a catalyst.","In some embodiments, the catalyst is iron(III) chloride.","In some embodiments, the functional group is an anisyl.","In some embodiments, the organic polymer precursor is anisyl alcohol (AA).","In some embodiments, the organic polymer precursor polymerizes to form polyanisyl alcohol (PAA).","In some embodiments, PAA is prepared by the polymerization of AA with a catalyst.","In some embodiments, the catalyst is a protic acid.","In some embodiments, the porous carbon materials of the present disclosure are prepared by heating a biological material.","In some embodiments, the biological material includes, without limitation, sawdust, coconut husk, and combinations thereof.","In some embodiments, the biological material is chosen from at least one of the following: sawdust and coconut husk.","Additional embodiments pertain to methods of making the materials of the present disclosure.","Further embodiments pertain to utilizing the materials of the present disclosure for the capture of CO 2 from various environments."],["CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser.","No.","15/631,341, filed on Jun.","23, 2017, which is a continuation-in-part application of U.S. patent application Ser.","No.","15/200,632, filed on Jul.","1, 2016, which claims priority to U.S.","Provisional Patent Application No.","62/187,744, filed on Jul.","1, 2015.The entirety of each of the aforementioned applications is incorporated herein by reference.","STATEMENT REGARDING FEDERALLY SPONSORED RESEARCH Not applicable.","BACKGROUND Current materials for capturing carbon dioxide (CO2) suffer from numerous limitations, including limited CO2 sorption capacity and selectivity.","Various embodiments of the present disclosure address these limitations.","SUMMARY In some embodiments, the present disclosure pertains to materials for CO2 adsorption at pressures above 1 bar.","In some embodiments, the materials include a porous material with a surface area of at least 2,800 m2/g, and a total pore volume of at least 1.35 cm3/g.","In some embodiments, a majority of pores of the porous materials have diameters of less than 2 nm as measured from N2 sorption isotherms using the BET (Brunauer-Emmett-Teller) method.","In some embodiments, the present disclosure pertains to materials for the separation of CO2 from natural gas at partial pressures of either component above 1 bar.","In some embodiments, the materials include a porous material with a surface area of at least 2,200 m2/g, and a total pore volume of at least 1.00 cm3/g.","In some embodiments, a majority of pores of the porous materials have diameters of greater than 1 nm and less than 2 nm as measured from N2 sorption isotherms using the BET (Brunauer-Emmett-Teller) method.","In some embodiments, the porous materials of the present disclosure include a porous carbon material with a carbon content of between 80% and 95% as measured by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy.","In some embodiments, the porous materials of the present disclosure include a porous carbon material with a surface area of at least 2,800 m2/g, a total pore volume of at least 1.35 cm3/g, and a carbon content of between 80% and 95% as measured by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy.","In additional embodiments, the present disclosure pertains to materials for the separation of CO2 from natural gas at partial pressures of either component above 1 bar.","In some embodiments, the materials include a porous carbon material with a surface area of at least 2,000 m2/g, a total pore volume of at least 1.00 cm3/g, and a carbon content of greater than 90% as measured by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy.","In some embodiments, the porous carbon materials of the present disclosure are prepared by heating an organic polymer precursor or biological material in the presence of potassium hydroxide (KOH).","In some embodiments, the temperature of activation is between 700° C. and 800° C. In some embodiments, the temperature of activation is between 600° C. and 700° C. In some embodiments, the porous carbon materials of the present disclosure are prepared by heating an organic polymer precursor.","In some embodiments, the organic polymer precursor includes oxygen in a functional group.","In some embodiments, the functional group is a furyl.","In some embodiments, the organic polymer precursor is furfuryl alcohol.","In some embodiments, the organic polymer precursor polymerizes to form polyfurfuryl alcohol (PFFA).","In some embodiments, PFFA is prepared by the polymerization of furfuryl alcohol with a catalyst.","In some embodiments, the catalyst is iron(III) chloride.","In some embodiments, the functional group is an anisyl.","In some embodiments, the organic polymer precursor is anisyl alcohol (AA).","In some embodiments, the organic polymer precursor polymerizes to form polyanisyl alcohol (PAA).","In some embodiments, PAA is prepared by the polymerization of AA with a catalyst.","In some embodiments, the catalyst is a protic acid.","In some embodiments, the porous carbon materials of the present disclosure are prepared by heating a biological material.","In some embodiments, the biological material includes, without limitation, sawdust, coconut husk, and combinations thereof.","In some embodiments, the biological material is chosen from at least one of the following: sawdust and coconut husk.","Additional embodiments pertain to methods of making the materials of the present disclosure.","Further embodiments pertain to utilizing the materials of the present disclosure for the capture of CO2 from various environments.","DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES FIGS.","1A-1B provide data relating to high pressure CO2 uptake (at 30 bar and 24° C.) as a function of the surface area (FIG.","1A) and total pore volume (FIG.","1B) for a range of porous carbons (PCs), including N-containing PCs (NPCs) and S-containing PCs (SPCs).","Also shown are data relating to high pressure CO2 uptake at different pressures as a function of surface area (FIG.","1C) and total pore volume (FIG.","1D).","A comparison of the total pore volume as a function of surface area for a range of PCs, NPCs and SPCs is also shown (FIG.","1E).","FIG.","2 provides a plot of CO2 uptake at 30 bar and 24° C. as a function of activation temperature for PC, NPC, and SPC samples.","FIGS.","3A-3B provide estimated surface area (FIG.","3A) and total pore volume (FIG.","3B) as a function of activation temperature for PC, NPC and SPC samples.","FIG.","4 provides comparative data relating to CO2 uptake as a function of CO2 pressure on N-containing polymer polypyrrole (PPy) precursors and PPy precursors activated at different temperatures (PPy-T-2).","Sorption measurements were performed at 24° C. FIG.","5 provides N2 adsorption isotherms for four different NPC samples of PPy-T-2 prepared from polypyrrole and activated at the labelled temperature (T).","Sorption measurements were performed at 24° C. FIGS.","6A-6B provide data relating to the determination of pore structures by N2 physisorption isotherms of PPy-T-2 samples activated at different temperatures by N2 physisorption isotherms.","Shown are the estimated surface area (FIG.","6A) and total pore volume (FIG.","6B) versus activation temperature.","FIGS.","7A-7H show additional related data for PPy-T-2 samples.","FIG.","7A shows the pore size distributions of PPy-T-2 samples prepared at the three activation temperatures shown, as determined by the non-local density functional theory (NLDFT) method.","FIG.","7B shows a scanning electron microscope (SEM) image of a PPy-600-2 sample.","FIG.","7C shows high resolution transmission electron microscope (HRTEM) images of the PPy-600-2 sample.","FIG.","7D summarizes high pressure volumetric CO2 adsorption uptake measurements on PPy-800-2 and PPy-800-4, showing the effect of the KOH:precursor ratio.","Sorption measurements were performed at 24° C. Also shown are typical X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) survey scans for the polypyrrole precursor (FIG.","7E) and PPy-600-2 NPC samples (FIG.","7F).","Also shown are the wt % determined by XPS of elemental carbon (FIG.","7G) and oxygen and nitrogen versus activation temperature (FIG.","7H) for the PPy precursor and PPy-T-2 samples.","FIGS.","8A-8B show high pressure (30 bar) CO2 uptake as a function of N wt % (FIG.","8A) and S wt % (FIG.","8B) in NPC and SPC samples, respectively.","Also shown are high pressure CO2 adsorption uptake for PAn-600-3 compared with PPy-600-2 (FIG.","8C) and SD-M-800-4 compared with PPy-800-4 (FIG.","8D).","FIG.","8E shows the dependence of volumetric CO2 uptake on N content for PPy-T-2 samples in comparison to the PPy precursor measured at different CO2 pressures.","Sorption measurements were performed at 24° C. FIGS.","9A-9B show high pressure (30 bar) CO2 uptake as a function of 0 wt % (FIG.","9A) and Σ(O,N,S) wt % (FIG.","9B) in PC, NPC and SPC samples.","Sorption measurements were performed at 24° C. FIGS.","10A-10B show room temperature volumetric CO2 (FIG.","10A) and methane (CH4) (FIG.","10B) adsorption isotherms for PC, NPC, and SPC samples.","FIG.","10C shows the molar CO2:CH4 uptake ratio as a function of gas pressure for PC, NPC, and SPC samples.","FIGS.","11A-11B show plots of molar CO2:CH4 uptake ratio (@ 30 bar) as a function of the surface area (FIG.","11A) and total pore volume (FIG.","11B) for a range of PC, NPC and SPC samples.","Sorption measurements were performed at 24° C. FIGS.","12A-12D show plots of molar CO2:CH4 uptake ratio (@ 30 bar) as a function of the surface area (FIG.","12A), total pore volume (FIG.","12B), activation temperature (FIG.","12C), and CO2 uptake (FIG.","12D) for PPy-T-2 (T=500, 600, 700 and 800° C.) NPC samples.","Sorption measurements were performed at 24° C. FIG.","13 shows high pressure (30 bar) molar CO2:CH4 uptake ratio as a function of N wt % in NPC samples.","Sorption measurements were performed at 24° C. FIG.","14 shows the high pressure (30 bar) molar CO2:CH4 uptake ratio as a function of C wt % in PC, NPC, and SPC samples.","Sorption measurements were performed at 24° C. FIG.","15 shows volumetric CO2 uptake of different OPCs activated at increasing temperature, activated carbon and carbon precursor.","FIGS.","16A-16D provide an analysis of the porous structure of OPC samples activated at different temperatures.","FIG.","16A shows N2 adsorption and desorption isotherms for a PC (800) sample.","FIG.","16B shows estimated surface area and total pore-volume vs. activation temperature.","FIG.","16C shows the distribution of pore volumes as a function of activation temperature as estimated by NLDFT.","FIG.","16D shows the surface area (blue bars) and total pore volume (purple) for activated charcoal and eight different PC samples known for high CO2 uptakes (>14 mmol g−1 at 30 bar).","FIGS.","17A-17B provide additional data relating to the CO2 uptake of porous carbons.","FIG.","17A shows the volumetric CO2 uptake of various porous carbons prepared from different carbon precursors, including O-rich PC (OPC), N-rich PC (NPC) and S-rich PC (SPC).","Measurements were performed in a PCTPRO instrument at 24° C. FIG.","17B shows the graphical representation of surface areas and maximum CO2 uptake capacities at 30 bar for nine different porous carbon sorbents.","The highest CO2 uptake property (26.6 mmol g−1) is demonstrated by Applicants' newly discovered OPC (750) sample (second bar to the right).","FIGS.","18A-18B provide a demonstration of optimal gas uptake selectivity of OPC samples for CO2 over CH4.FIG.","18A shows volumetric CO2 and CH4 uptake measurements on OPC (750) sorbents up to a pressure range of 30 bar at 0.5 and 24° C. FIG.","18B shows volumetric CO2 and CH4 uptake measurements on commercially available activated charcoal.","The molar uptake ratios (CO2/CH4) at 30 bar for OPC (750) and activated charcoal are 2.74 and 1.4, respectively.","FIG.","19 provides a demonstration of optimal gas uptake selectivity of OPC samples for CO2 over CH4.Volumetric CO2 and CH4 uptake measurements on OPC (750) sorbents up to a pressure range of 30 bar at 0.5° C. and 24° C. are shown.","The mass uptake ratios (CO2/CH4) at 30 bar for OPC (750) are 8.0 and 7.6, respectively.","FIGS.","20A-20B provide a demonstration of the reproducibility of sample preparation and gas uptake properties of OPCs.","FIG.","20A shows volumetric CO2 uptake measurements on four different OPC (750) samples synthesized and activated the same way.","FIG.","20B shows two successive CO2 adsorption and desorption cycles.","FIGS.","21A-21J provide various schemes and data relating to the synthesis and characterization of OPCs.","FIG.","21A provides a synthesis scheme for OPC.","Photographs of carbon precursor (FIG.","21B), as-synthesized OPC (FIG.","21C), and as-synthesized SPC samples (FIG.","21D) are also shown.","OPC samples are pellet like compared to SPC and other PC materials.","Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images of carbon precursor (FIG.","21E), OPC (600) (FIG.","21F) and OPC (800) samples (FIG.","21G) are also shown.","FIG.","21H shows an energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS) elemental scan for OPC (800).","Also shown are high resolution transmission electron microscopy (TEM) images of OPC (600) (FIG.","21I) and OPC (800) samples (FIG.","21J) showing nm sized micro porous structures.","FIGS.","22A-22B show the isosteric heat of absorption of CO2 (FIG.","22A) and CH4 (FIG.","22B) as a function of molar gas uptakes.","FIGS.","23A-23H show the characterization of chemical compositions of carbon precursor and porous carbon samples activated at increasing temperatures.","Shown are X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) survey scans for C-precursor (FIG.","23A) and OPC (800) (FIG.","23B).","Also shown are the wt % of elemental carbon (FIG.","23C) and oxygen (FIG.","23D) vs. activation temperature.","XPS elemental scanning for carbon C1s (FIG.","23E) and oxygen O1s (FIG.","23F) are also shown.","FIG.","23G shows the Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) spectra of C-precursor and activated OPCs.","FIG.","23H shows the Raman spectra and Raman disorder (D) to graphene (G) band intensity ratio vs. activation temperature.","The KOH:Polymer weight ratio is 3 in all cases.","IR spectra are base line corrected and vertically offset for clarity.","FIGS.","24A-24B provide schemes for the synthesis of various porous carbon materials.","FIG.","24A provides a synthetic reaction scheme for the synthesis of furfuryl alcohol-OPC (FFA-OPC) (FeCl3:FA=10, KOH:PFFA=3, and T=500-800° C.).","FIG.","24B provides a synthetic reaction scheme for the synthesis of anisyl alcohol (AA)-OPC (AA-OPC) (KOH:PAA=3, and T=500-800° C.).","FIGS.","25A-25C show photographs of PFFA precursors (FIG.","25A), as-synthesized OPC (FIG.","25B), and as-synthesized SPC samples (FIG.","25C).","FIGS.","26A-26D show SEM images of PFFA (FIG.","26A), precursors and the associated OPCs (FIG.","26B), FFA-OPC750 (FIG.","26C), and AA-OPC750 (FIG.","26D).","FIGS.","27A-27C show representative high-resolution TEM images of FFA-OPC600 (FIG.","27A), FFA-OPC800 (FIG.","27B), and AA-OPC800 (FIG.","27C) samples showing nanometer sized micro porous structures.","FIGS.","28A-28B show N2 adsorption isotherms for FFA-OPCs (FIG.","28A) and AA-OPCs (FIG.","28B) measured at liquid N2 temperature (77K).","FIGS.","29A-29B show estimated apparent surface area (FIG.","29A) and total pore volumes versus activation temperature (FIG.","29B) for FFA-OPC and AA-OPC.","FIG.","30 shows apparent surface area (blue/dark bars) and total pore volumes (purple/light bars) for activated charcoal and PC samples with high CO2 uptake properties at 30 bar (>12 mmol·g−1).","FIGS.","31A-31B show distribution of pore sizes as a function of pore width for five activation temperatures as determined by the nonlocal DFT method for FFA-OPC (FIG.","31A) and AA-OPC (FIG.","31B).","FIGS.","32A-32D show the wt % of elemental carbon (FIGS.","32A and 32C) and oxygen (FIGS.","32B and 32D) as determined by XPS versus activation temperature for FFA-OPC (FIGS.","32A and 32B) and AA-OPC (FIGS.","32C and 32D).","FIGS.","33A-33B show XPS elemental scanning for oxygen O1s (FIG.","33A) and carbon C1s (FIG.","33B) for PFFA precursor and FFA-OPC.","FIG.","34 shows FTIR spectra of PFFA precursor and activated FFA-OPCs.","Spectra are base line corrected and vertically offset for clarity (KOH:PFFA=3 in all cases).","FIGS.","35A-35D show Raman spectra and Raman disorder (D) to graphene (G) band intensity ratio versus activation temperature (KOH:PFFA=3 in all cases).","FIGS.","36A-36B show volumetric CO2 uptakes of FFA-OPC (FIG.","36A) and AA-OPC (FIG.","36B) samples activated at different temperatures.","FIG.","36C shows the volumetric CO2 uptakes of FAA-OPC750, NPC, SPC, and activated charcoal up to a pressure limit of 30 bar.","Measurements were performed in a PCTPRO instrument at 24° C. FIG.","37 shows graphical representation of surface areas and maximum CO2 uptake capacities at 30 bar for activated charcoal and different sorbent samples with high CO2 uptake properties at 30 bar (>12 mmol·g−1).","FIGS.","38A-38B show demonstration of reproducibility of sample preparation and gas uptake properties.","Volumetric CO2 uptake measurements are shown on four different batches of FFA-OPC750 (FIG.","38A) and AA-OPC750 (FIG.","38B) that were synthesized and activated the same way.","FIG.","38C shows successive CO2 adsorption and desorption cycle measurements on an individual FFA-OPC750 sample.","FIGS.","39A-39B show a demonstration of ultrahigh CO2 uptake capability of an FFA-OPC750 sample at low temperature.","FIG.","39A shows volumetric CO2 uptake measurements on an FFA-OPC750 sample at four different temperatures.","At 0.5° C. and 30 bar pressure, sorbent adsorbed an ultrahigh amount of CO2 that maxed to 43 mmol·g−1 (189 wt %).","FIG.","39B shows CO2 uptakes at four different (labelled) pressures as a function of experiment temperatures.","FIGS.","40A-40B show volumetric CO2 and CH4 uptakes measurements on FFA-OPC750 (FIG.","40A) and AA-OPC750 (FIG.","40B) sorbents up to a pressure range of 30 bar at 0.5 and 24° C. FIG.","40C shows volumetric CO2 and CH4 uptake measurements on activated charcoal.","FIGS.","41A-41B show a plot of CH4 uptake at 30 bar as a function of surface area (FIG.","41A) and total pore volume (FIG.","41B) for FFA-OPC and AA-OPC.","FIGS.","42A-42D show isosteric heat of gas adsorption of CO2 (FIGS.","42A-B) and CH4 (FIGS.","42C-D) as a function molar gas uptake for FFA-OPC750 (FIGS.","42A and 42C) and AA-OPC750 (FIGS.","42B and 42D).","FIGS.","43A-43B show SEM images of the polymer precursor (PTh) (FIG.","43A) and a SPC-2 sample (FIG.","43B).","FIG.","44 shows high pressure volumetric CO2 uptake as a function of CO2 pressure on PTh, activated charcoal and activated SPC-700-R samples activated at 700° C. with increasing KOH:PTh weight ratio (r) where r varies from 1 to 5.Experiments were performed at 24° C. FIG.","45 shows high pressure volumetric CO2 uptake as a function of CO2 pressure for two batches of SPC-4 activated at 700° C. Uptake measurements were performed at 24° C. FIG.","46 shows dependence of CO2 uptake at the labelled pressure on the KOH:PTh ratio for activated SPC-r samples activated at 700° C. Experiments were performed at 24° C. FIGS.","47A-47B show dependence of CO2 uptake at the labelled pressure on surface area (FIG.","47A) and total pore volume (FIG.","47B).","SPC samples were synthesized from PTh by activating at 700° C. with different KOH amounts.","Experiments were performed at 24° C. FIGS.","48A-48B show chemical composition of the activated SPC samples by XPS spectroscopy showing the wt % of elemental carbon (FIG.","48A) and oxygen and sulfur (FIG.","48B) versus KOH:PTh ratio.","FIG.","49 shows dependence of CO2 uptake at the activated SPC samples as a function of carbon composition as determined XPS spectroscopy.","FIG.","50 shows N2 adsorption isotherms (measured at 77 K) for five different SPC samples activated at 700° C. with KOH:PTh ratios varied from 1 to 5.FIGS.","51A-51B show estimated surface area (FIG.","51A) and total pore volume (FIG.","51B) versus KOH:PTh ratio for five different SPC samples activated at 700° C. FIG.","52 shows pore size distributions for the samples in FIGS.","51A-51B.","FIG.","53 shows a high resolution transmission microscope (HRTEM) image of a SPC-2 sample.","Scale bar=10 nm.","FIGS.","54A-54B show the total pore volume, volume of macropores (>50 nm), mesopores (>2 nm), micropores (<2 nm), and narrower micropores (<1 nm) as a function of KOH:PTH ratio (FIG.","54A), and percentages of total pore volumes for micropores, narrower micropores and mesopores versus KOH:PTH ratio (FIG.","54B).","FIGS.","55A-55C show percentages of pore volumes for micropores, narrower micropores and mesopores versus CO2 uptake.","FIG.","56 shows high pressure volumetric CH4 uptake as a function of CH4 pressure on activated SPC-700-R samples activated at 700° C. with increasing KOH:PTh ratio (r) where r varies from 1 to 5.Experiments were performed at 24° C. FIG.","57 shows dependence of CH4 uptake at labeled pressure on KOH:PTh ratios for activated SPC samples.","Experiments were performed at 24° C. FIGS.","58A-58D show various data related to SPC samples.","FIG.","58A shows the molar CO2:CH4 uptake ratio as a function of a gas pressure for SPC sorbents activated with different KOH:PTh ratio.","Also shown are plots of molar CO2:CH4 uptake ratios at 30 bar as a function of KOH:PTh ratio (FIG.","58B), surface area (FIG.","58C), and total pore volume (FIG.","58D).","Experiments were performed at 24° C. DETAILED DESCRIPTION It is to be understood that both the foregoing general description and the following detailed description are illustrative and explanatory, and are not restrictive of the subject matter, as claimed.","In this application, the use of the singular includes the plural, the word “a” or “an” means “at least one”, and the use of “or” means “and/or”, unless specifically stated otherwise.","Furthermore, the use of the term “including”, as well as other forms, such as “includes” and “included”, is not limiting.","Also, terms such as “element” or “component” encompass both elements or components comprising one unit and elements or components that comprise more than one unit unless specifically stated otherwise.","The section headings used herein are for organizational purposes and are not to be construed as limiting the subject matter described.","All documents, or portions of documents, cited in this application, including, but not limited to, patents, patent applications, articles, books, and treatises, are hereby expressly incorporated herein by reference in their entirety for any purpose.","In the event that one or more of the incorporated literature and similar materials defines a term in a manner that contradicts the definition of that term in this application, this application controls.","There are generally two classes of materials employed for carbon dioxide (CO2) separation: reactants and adsorbents.","The former includes amine and other reactive species such as ionic liquids and alkali-metal-based oxides.","At present, monoethanolamine (MEA) is the industry standard.","However, regeneration, degradation and corrosion, together with health and environmental issues, still affect its large scale implementation.","Impregnation of CO2 capture materials onto supports has been investigated, but it is only recently that the regeneration temperature has been lowered by their combination with carbon nanomaterials.","Ionic liquids, suitable for high pressure capture, are expensive and toxic, while cheap alkali metal oxides suffer from severe deactivation upon cycling.","Although the aforementioned materials show optimal selectivity between CO2 and methane (CH4), their myriad drawbacks have meant that much effort has been invested into the study of solid porous sorbents, such as porous carbons (PC), metal-organic frameworks (MOFs), microporous zeolites, and porous silica-based sorbents with high surface area.","MOFs outperform zeolites in terms of maximum capacity at high pressure, but are expensive since they require complex multistep synthesis procedures.","In addition, their gas adsorption capacity degrades after several cycles of usage.","Carbonaceous materials, such as activated carbon and charcoal, are cheaper and less sensitive to moisture than zeolites and MOFs, but their adsorption capacity generally increases with loss of selectivity at high pressure.","Chemically activated porous carbon adsorbents have large surface areas and pore volumes associated with micro- and meso-porous structure.","As a result, such materials show significantly improved CO2 capturing capacity as compared to traditional carbonaceous materials.","It has been suggested that the presence of nitrogen or sulfur dopants is responsible for improved CO2 uptake in porous carbon materials (e.g., Nat Commun., 2014, 5, 3961 and U.S. Pat.","Pub.","No.","2015/0111024).","These studies were undertaken at 30 bar (1 bar=100,000, Pa=750.06 mmHg) using compounds previously reported to show improved results over activated carbon at 1 bar (e.g., Adv.","Funct.","Mater., 2011, 21, 2781-2787; and Microporous Mesoporous Mater., 2012, 158, 318-323).","The improved high pressure results were proposed to be due to the S or N centers acting as a Lewis base to facilitate the ambient polymerization of the CO2.However, previous investigations of the role of N-doping in CO2 capture by PCs up to 1 bar pressure shows no correlation (e.g., ACS Appl.","Mater.","Interfaces, 2013, 5, 6360-6368).","The conventional goal in synthesizing a porous carbon material with optimal CO2 adsorption is to focus on increased surface area and pore volume (e.g., U.S. Pat.","Pub.","No.","2016/0136613).","The same approach is presumed to also work for the separation of CO2 from natural gas.","However, the present disclosure demonstrates that increasing the surface area and pore volume of a carbon material do not guarantee the best adsorbent.","Instead, a combination of factors is involved in defining the ideal porous carbon absorbent material.","In some embodiments, the present disclosure pertains to novel materials for CO2 capture.","In additional embodiments, the present disclosure pertains to methods of making the materials of the present disclosure.","In further embodiments, the present disclosure pertains to methods of utilizing the materials of the present disclosure for the capture of CO2 from various environments.","As set forth in more detail herein, the present disclosure can have various embodiments.","Materials for CO2 Capture In some embodiments, the present disclosure pertains to materials for CO2 adsorption at pressures above 1 bar.","In some embodiments, the materials include a porous material with a surface area of at least 2,800 m2/g, and a total pore volume of at least 1.35 cm3/g.","In some embodiments, a majority of pores of the porous material have diameters of less than 2 nm as measured from N2 sorption isotherms using the BET (Brunauer-Emmett-Teller) method.","In some embodiments, more than about 50% of pores of the porous material have diameters of less than 2 nm.","In some embodiments, more than about 60% of pores of the porous material have diameters of less than 2 nm.","In some embodiments, more than about 70% of pores of the porous material have diameters of less than 2 nm.","In some embodiments, more than about 80% of pores of the porous material have diameters of less than 2 nm.","In some embodiments, between about 50% to about 90% of pores of the porous material have diameters of less than 2 nm.","In some embodiments, the present disclosure pertains to materials for the separation of CO2 from natural gas at partial pressures of either component above 1 bar.","In some embodiments, the materials include a porous material with a surface area of at least 2,200 m2/g, and a total pore volume of at least 1.00 cm3/g.","In some embodiments, a majority of pores of the porous material have diameters of greater than 1 nm and less than 2 nm as measured from N2 sorption isotherms using the BET (Brunauer-Emmett-Teller) method.","In some embodiments, more than about 50% of pores of the porous material have diameters of greater than 1 nm and less than 2 nm.","In some embodiments, more than about 60% of pores of the porous material have diameters of greater than 1 nm and less than 2 nm.","In some embodiments, more than about 70% of pores of the porous material have diameters of greater than 1 nm and less than 2 nm.","In some embodiments, more than about 80% of pores of the porous material have diameters of greater than 1 nm and less than 2 nm.","In some embodiments, between about 50% to about 90% of pores of the porous material have diameters of greater than 1 nm and less than 2 nm.","In some embodiments, the porous materials of the present disclosure include a porous carbon material.","In some embodiments, the porous carbon material has a carbon content of between 80% and 95% as measured by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy.","In some embodiments, the porous materials include a porous carbon material with a surface area of at least 2,800 m2/g, a total pore volume of at least 1.35 cm3/g, and a carbon content of between 80% and 95% as measured by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy.","In some embodiments, the materials include a porous carbon material with a surface area of at least 2,000 m2/g, a total pore volume of at least 1.00 cm3/g, and a carbon content of greater than 90% as measured by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy.","The porous carbon materials of the present disclosure may be prepared in various manners.","For instance, in some embodiments, the porous carbon material is prepared by heating an organic polymer precursor or biological material in the presence of potassium hydroxide (KOH).","In some embodiments, the temperature of activation is between 700° C. and 800° C. In some embodiments, the temperature of activation is between 600° C. and 700° C. The materials of the present disclosure can have various chemical components.","For instance, in some embodiments, the materials of the present disclosure are rich in oxygen.","As such, in some embodiments, the materials of the present disclosure are referred to as oxygen rich activated porous carbons (OPCs).","In some embodiments, the materials of the present disclosure have an oxygen content of more than about 10 wt %.","In some embodiments, the materials of the present disclosure have an oxygen content between about 10 wt % and about 25 wt %.","In some embodiments, the materials of the present disclosure may lack other heteroatoms, such as nitrogen or sulfur.","For instance, in some embodiments, the total heteroatom content of the materials of the present disclosure may range from about 0 wt % to about 1 wt %.","In some embodiments, the total heteroatom content of the materials of the present disclosure may be less than about 1 wt %.","The materials of the present disclosure can have various advantageous properties.","For instance, in some embodiments, the materials of the present disclosure have high surface areas.","In some embodiments, the materials of the present disclosure have surface areas of more than about 1,000 m2/g.","In some embodiments, the materials of the present disclosure have surface areas that range from about 1,000 m2/g to about 5000 m2/g (e.g., Table 5).","In some embodiments, the materials of the present disclosure have surface areas of about 3005 m2/g (e.g., in OPC samples chemically activated at 800° C.) (e.g., FIG.","16D).","In some embodiments, the materials of the present disclosure have high CO2 adsorption capacities.","In some embodiments, the materials of the present disclosure have a CO2 adsorption capacity of more than about 100 wt %.","In some embodiments, the materials of the present disclosure have CO2 adsorption capacities between about 117 wt % and about 189 wt %.","In some embodiments, the materials of the present disclosure have a CO2 adsorption capacity of up to 117 wt % (26.6 mmol/g) at a pressure of 30 bar, a number that is higher than any reported uptake values for activated porous carbon (PC) adsorbents (e.g., FIGS.","17A-17B and Table 5).","In some embodiments, the materials of the present disclosure capture CO2 from a natural gas containing environment that is rich in CH4 at a maximum molar uptake ratio of 2.75 (7.5 by mass ratio) at a pressure of 30 bar (e.g., FIGS.","18A-18B and FIG.","19).","In some embodiments, the materials of the present disclosure (e.g., OPCs that are activated at 750° C., referred to herein as OPC (750)) outperform most of the existing porous carbons for high pressure uptake of CO2 (e.g., 26.6 mmol/g; 117 wt % at 30 bar) and demonstrate optimal selectivity for CO2 capture over CH4 uptake (e.g., VCO2NCH4 ratio ˜2.7 (molar) and ˜7.5 (by wt) at 30 bar) at room temperature.","Additionally, OPC (750) demonstrates ultrahigh CO2 uptake (43 mmol g−1; 189 wt %) at 0.5° C., a value that was never reported previously (e.g., FIG.","18A).","In some embodiments, the materials of the present disclosure exhibit remarkable thermal stability and reproducible gas uptake properties for many cycles (e.g., FIGS.","20A-20B).","Unlike other fine powder type activated porous carbon materials, the materials of the present disclosure can be clumpy and pelletized in some embodiments.","Such properties can in turn make the materials of the present disclosure better candidates for preparing solid pellet-like adsorbents (e.g., FIG.","21C).","Formation of Materials The materials of the present disclosure can be prepared in various manners.","Additional embodiments of the present disclosure pertain to methods of making the materials of the present disclosure.","In some embodiments, a carbon precursor is first synthesized.","Next, the carbon precursor is activated to form porous carbon materials.","Various methods may be utilized to optimize sample preparation to synthesize activated porous carbon materials with very high CO2 uptake.","In some embodiments, a carbon precursor is activated by chemical activation.","In some embodiments, the chemical activation includes heating the carbon precursor in a mixture.","In some embodiments, the carbon precursor is heated in a mixture that contains a base, such as KOH.","In some embodiments, the heating temperature ranges from about 500° C. to about 800° C. (FIG.","15).","In some embodiments, the activation temperature is about 750° C. In some embodiments, the carbon precursor is synthesized by polymerizing a carbon source.","In some embodiments, the polymerization occurs by exposing the carbon source to an oxidant, such as iron (III) chloride (FeCl3) in the presence of acetonitrile (CH3CN).","In some embodiments, the materials of the present disclosure are prepared from affordable and readily available carbon sources.","In some embodiments, the carbon sources include oxygen-containing carbons.","In some embodiments, the oxygen containing carbon sources are rich in alcohol.","In some embodiments, the carbon sources lack heteroatoms such as nitrogen, sulfur, and combinations thereof.","As such, in some embodiments, the formed materials of the present disclosure also lack such heteroatoms.","In some embodiments, the materials of the present disclosure are prepared by heating a biological material.","In some embodiments, the biological material includes, without limitation, sawdust, coconut husk, and combinations thereof.","In some embodiments, the biological material is chosen from at least one of the following: sawdust and coconut husk.","In some embodiments, the carbon source that is utilized to make the materials of the present disclosure is furfuryl alcohol (FFA) (e.g., purchasable from Sigma Aldrich at a price of $354 for 25 kg with purity >98%) (e.g., Table 4).","In some embodiments where the carbon source is FFA, the formed carbon precursor is polyfurfuryl alcohol (PFFA).","In some embodiments, the materials of the present disclosure are prepared by heating an organic polymer precursor or biological material.","In some embodiments, the organic polymer precursor or biological material includes oxygen in a functional group.","In some embodiments, the functional group is a furyl.","In some embodiments, the organic polymer precursor is FFA.","In some embodiments, the organic polymer precursor polymerizes to form polyfurfuryl alcohol (PFFA).","In some embodiments, PFFA is prepared by the polymerization of furfuryl alcohol with a catalyst.","In some embodiments, the catalyst is FeCl3.In some embodiments, the functional group is an anisyl.","In some embodiments, the organic polymer precursor polymerizes to form polyanisyl alcohol (PAA).","In some embodiments, PAA is prepared by the polymerization of anisyl alcohol with a catalyst.","In some embodiments, the catalyst is a protic acid.","A more specific method of making the materials of the present disclosure is illustrated in FIG.","21A.","In this illustration, the FFA is polymerized by using FeCl3 as the oxidant.","In a typical synthesis, a solution of FeCl3 is prepared by solubilizing FeCl3 in CH3CN.","FFA is then mixed with CH3CN and slowly added to the FeCl3 solution.","The mixture is then magnetically stirred for 24 hours at room temperature.","The polymerized product, brown colored PFFA, is then separated by filtration over a sintered glass funnel, washed thoroughly with abundant distilled water, and then with acetone.","This is followed by drying at 40° C. for 12 hours.","The yield of the final product was ˜98%.","Next, the porous carbon was chemically activated by heating a PFFA-KOH mixture (KOH/PFFA at a weight ratio of 3) in inert atmosphere.","The mixture was then placed inside a quartz tube/tube furnace setup and heated for 1 hour at a fixed temperature in the 500-800° C. range, under a flow of Ar.","The activated OPC sample was then thoroughly washed several times with diluted HCl and distilled water and dried on a hot plate at 70° C. for 12 hours.","In some embodiments, the KOH/PFFA ratio can be varied.","In some embodiments, the activation temperatures and the PFFA-KOH mixing procedure can be varied.","Use of Materials for Gas Capture The materials of the present disclosure can be utilized to capture and selectively remove various gases (e.g., CO2, CH4, and combinations thereof) from various environments.","Additional embodiments of the present disclosure pertain to methods of utilizing the materials of the present disclosure for the separation of a mixture of gases by preferential adsorption and selective desorption.","Further embodiments of the present disclosure pertain to methods of utilizing the materials of the present disclosure for the capture of CO2 from various environments.","In some embodiments, the environments include an atmosphere or an environment that contains a mixture of gases.","In some embodiments, the methods of the present disclosure pertain to processes for separating CO2 from natural gas by exposing the natural gas to the materials of the present disclosure.","In some embodiments, the methods of the present disclosure utilize the materials of the present disclosure in a process in which selectivity and separation of two gases (such as CH4 and CO2) is accomplished by a combination of an adsorption process that favors one of the components (e.g., selectivity of CO2 over CH4).","Thereafter, the desorption of the two components from the carbon materials can be significantly different by control over various parameters, such as temperature, pressure, and combinations thereof.","In some embodiments, such control allows for the specific desorption of one of the components prior to the other (e.g., CH4 over CO2).","In some embodiments, the overall process allows for the selective separation of at least two gaseous components.","In some embodiments, the materials of the present disclosure differentiate between CH4 and CO2 adsorption as well as desorption.","In some embodiments, the selectivity of adsorption is further enhanced since the pressure/temperature dependencies of the desorption of CH4 and the desorption of CO2 are distinct from each other such that they may be used to improve separation.","Thus, in some embodiments, a mixture of adsorbed CH4 and CO2 will desorb under different conditions: the CH4 first and the CO2 second.","In some embodiments, this difference means that the overall adsorption/desorption selectivity of CH4 and CO2 is higher than prior materials.","In some embodiments, the materials of the present disclosure can be used for the selective capture of CO2 from various environments.","In some embodiments, the materials of the present disclosure can be utilized for the selective capture of CO2 over hydrocarbons in the environment (e.g., CH4).","In some embodiments, the adsorption of CO2/CH4 mixtures and measurement of the desorption selectivity can be varied.","Applications and Advantages The methods and materials of the present disclosure can provide numerous advantages.","For instance, in some embodiments, the methods and materials of the present disclosure can be utilized for the selective removal of CO2 from natural gas (e.g., methane) that contains various amounts of CO2 (e.g., 10-20 mol % of CO2).","Such an application is an important goal in the field of oil and natural gas, since contaminant CO2 decreases its power efficiency.","For an ideal gas adsorbing material, the major requirements are as follows: it should be cheap, simple to synthesize, demonstrate reproducible and high gas uptake property, and complete desorption of CO2 at low pressure.","In various embodiments, the materials of the present disclosure possess all of these properties.","In some embodiments, the methods and materials of the present disclosure can be utilized for the separation of CO2 from natural gas at a source where low to medium levels of CO2 are present.","In some embodiments, the methods and materials of the present disclosure can be used as a secondary recovery method for treating CH4/CO2 mixtures in which CO2 is the major component.","In some embodiments, such mixtures include high-pressure samples that are the result of an initial CH4/CO2 separation using traditional methods.","The materials of the present disclosure can also provide numerous advantages.","In particular, among the most efficient solid sorbents for capturing CO2 from natural gas or atmosphere, MOFs and KOH aided chemically activated PC materials with large surface areas and micro pores have been investigated for decades.","PC composites demonstrate remarkable thermal stability and repeatability for selective gas uptake measurements.","However, to date, most of the researchers have synthesized porous carbons from carbon rich precursors that contain heteroatoms, such as nitrogen or sulfur.","For sulfur rich precursors, the most common feedstock for synthesizing PCs are polythiophene or poly(2-thiophenemethanol), whereas, pyrrole of acrylonitrile are being utilized for the production of nitrogen containing PCs.","Unfortunately, the high cost of both chemicals hinders the industrial scale use of PCs produced from these materials.","Based upon an analysis of the best PC materials in terms of selectivity and CO2 uptake, Applicants have noted that the common link is not the presence of strong Lewis base species such as N or S, but the presence of oxygen.","Thus, Applicants envision that oxygen is an important component for selectivity and high adsorption of gases (e.g., CO2 and/or CH4) in the materials of the present disclosure.","Additional Embodiments Reference will now be made to more specific embodiments of the present disclosure and experimental results that provide support for such embodiments.","However, Applicants note that the disclosure below is for illustrative purposes only and is not intended to limit the scope of the claimed subject matter in any way.","Example 1.Preparation of Porous Carbon Materials This Example provides processes for the preparation of various porous carbon materials.","Example 1.1.Synthesis of Activated Porous Carbon (PC) from Coconut Shell Pieces of dry coconut shell were placed inside a quartz tube/tube furnace setup and carbonized for 1 hour at 450° C., under a flow of Ar (flow rate 500 sccm).","The carbonized product (500 mg) was thoroughly mixed with potassium hydroxide (KOH) powder (1.0 g).","The mixture was then placed inside a quartz tube/tube furnace setup, dried for 20 minutes and then heated for 1 hour at a fixed temperature of 600° C. under continuous flow of Argon (flow rate of about 600 sccm), washed with distilled water (ca.","4 L) and then with acetone (ca.","1 L) and dried at 80° C. for 12 hours.","Example 1.2.Synthesis of Nitrogen-Containing Porous Carbon (NPC) from Polypyrrole The polymerized carbon precursor polypyrrole was synthesized using FeCl3 as a catalyst following a modification of Applicants' previous methods.","In a typical synthesis, a solution of FeCl3 (50 g) in CH3CN (200 mL) was prepared.","Next, a solution of pyrrole (5.0 g) in CH3CN (50 mL) was slowly added to the previous solution.","The mixture was stirred for 24 hours.","The polymerized product was then separated by filtration, washed thoroughly with distilled water (ca.","4 L) and then with acetone (ca.","1 L) and dried at 80° C. for 12 hours.","The yield of the final product was ˜98%.","The polypyrrole was chemically activated by heating with an excess (2 or 4 fold by weight) of KOH in inert atmosphere.","In a typical activation process, polypyrrole (500 mg) was thoroughly mixed with KOH (1.0 g) that had been crushed to a fine powder in a mortar.","The mixture was then placed inside a quartz tube within a tube furnace, dried for 20 minutes and then heated for 1 hour at a fixed temperature in the 500-800° C. range, under a flow of Ar (flow rate 600 sccm).","The activated samples were then thoroughly washed with diluted HCl (1.4 M, 100 mL) and several times with distilled water until the filtrate attained neutral pH 7.Finally, the activated PC was dried on a hot plate at 70° C. for 12 hours.","Example 1.3.Synthesis of Polyfurfuryl Alcohol (PFFA) In a typical synthesis, a solution was prepared by dissolving FeCl3 (50 g) in CH3CN (200 mL).","To this a solution of furfuryl alcohol (5 g, Sigma Aldrich, 98%) mixed with CH3CN (50 mL) was slowly added.","The mixture was stirred for 24 hours under continuous argon purging.","The polymerized product, brown colored polyfurfuryl alcohol (PFFA) was separated by filtration, washed thoroughly with DI water (ca.","4 L) and acetone (500 mL), before being dried at 40° C. for 12 hours under vacuum (Yield=98%).","Example 1.4.Conversion of PFFA to Oxygenated Porous Carbon (OPC) In a typical activation process, PFFA (500 mg) was thoroughly mixed with KOH powder (1.5 g, crushed previously) in a mortar for 10 minutes.","The mixture was then placed inside a quartz tube/tube furnace, dried for 20 minutes and then heated for 1 hour at 500, 600, 700 or 750° C., under a flow of Ar (99.9%, flow rate 600 sccm).","The activated samples were then washed with HCl (100 mL, 1.4 M) and DI water until the filtrate attained pH=7.The product was dried at 70° C. for 12 hours under vacuum.","The yield of activated PC materials depended on the activation temperature: OPC500=55%, OPC600=40%, OPC700=30%, and OPC750=25-27%.","Example 2.Characterization of the Porous Carbon Materials This example provides various data relating to the characterization of the porous carbon materials in Example 1.The volumetric uptake measurements (sorption and desorption) of CO2 and CH4 by the porous carbons were performed in an automated Sievert instrument (Setaram PCTPRO).","Various PC samples were first crushed into powders and packed in a stainless steel autoclave sample cell.","Initial sample pre-treatment was carried out at 130° C. for 1.5 hours under high vacuum.","The free volume inside the sample cell was determined by a series of calibration procedures done under helium.","Gas uptake experiments were carried out with high purity research grade CO2 (99.99%) and CH4 (99.9%) at 24° C. FIG.","1A shows a plot of the uptake of CO2 at 30 bar as a function of the apparent Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) surface area (SBET) for all the PC adsorbent measured.","As expected, an increase in surface area correlates with an increase in CO2 uptake.","However, any value above 2,800 m2g−1 does not appear to improve adsorption.","Thus, continued attempts to create even higher surface area materials may not result in any further improvements in CO2 uptake.","It is envisioned that increased total pore volume (Vp) will facilitate increased CO2 adsorption.","However, as shown in FIG.","1B, it appears that for pore volumes over 1.35 cm3g−1, there is not a resulting greater uptake.","The aforementioned trends were for the highest pressures.","However, the homologous series PPy-T-2 (T=500, 600, 700, and 800° C.) along with the precursor (PPy) allows for a comparison across a range of pressures.","FIGS.","1C and 1D show the relationship between CO2 uptake and BET surface area (FIG.","1C) and total pore volume (FIG.","1D) for different pressures in the range of 5-30 bar.","As expected, these plots clearly show a significant effect of pressure on the CO2 uptake (i.e., higher pressures result in higher uptake).","Moreover, the point at which increased surface area (or total pore volume) does not increase CO2 uptake decreases with decreased pressure.","Thus, whereas at 30 bar CO2 pressure increasing the surface area above 2,800 m2g−1 does not improve adsorption, at 5 bar this value decreases to 1300 m2g−1 (FIG.","1C).","This suggests a greater diminution of returns in attempting to create high surface area adsorbents if lower pressures are to be used in the system.","The effect is similar for total pore volume, where at 5 bar it appears that any pore volume over 0.5 cm3g−1 does not result in greater uptake.","Furthermore, a linear trend has been observed between surface area and pore volume for the majority of the samples studied (FIG.","1E).","However, many of the samples show a divergence from the trend.","The aforementioned results demonstrate a higher pore volume than expected.","Furthermore, Applicants note that the aforementioned porous carbons have some of the highest CO2 uptake performances.","FIG.","2 shows the relationship between the activation temperature and the CO2 uptake for the porous carbon samples listed in Table 1.The general trend is increasing uptake with increased activation temperature with a possible maximum between 700 and 800° C. TABLE 1 Summary of PC, NPC, and SPC samples studied with their elemental analysis, physical properties and CO2 uptake.","CO2 uptake Surface area Total pore at 30 bar C O N S SBET volume and 24° C. Samplea (wt %) b (wt %) b (wt %) b (wt %) b (m2g−1) (cm3g−1)c (mmol · g−1) Activated 94.10 5.90 0.00 0.00 845 0.43 8.45 charcoal BPLd 91.3 8.7 0.00 0.00 951 0.49 8.66 SD-600-4 82.24 15.80 0.00 0.00 2290 1.10 20.52 SD-800-4 89.96 8.03 0.00 0.00 2850 1.35 22.90 CN-600-2 88.13 11.87 0.00 0.00 1250 0.64 13.50 PPy-500-2 72.47 17.19 10.33 0.00 1255 0.53 12.60 PPy-600-2 74.78 19.72 5.49 0.00 2013 1.03 18.98 PPy-700-2 90.01 9.87 0.14 0.00 2956 1.45 22.98 PPy-800-2 91.39 8.60 0.00 0.00 3230 1.51 21.01 PPy-800-4 90.78 9.11 0.10 0.00 3450 2.57 22.10 PAn-600-3 84.50 6.75 8.75 0.00 1410 1.38 14.50 SD-M-800-4 85.39 8.15 6.46 0.00 2990 2.69 23.80 PTh-600-2 64.91 25.88 0.00 9.21 2256 1.02 18.81 PTh-700-2 82.47 13.01 0.00 4.51 1980 0.99 20.32 PTh-800-2 88.18 7.24 0.00 4.58 2890 1.43 22.87 aPrecursor-temperature-KOH:precursor ratio.","b Determined by XPS.","cDetermined at P/Po ~0.99.dPurchased from Calgon Carbon Corp.","Given the relationships between surface area and pore volume with CO2 uptake, it is not surprising that their relationship with activation temperature is also similar (FIGS.","3A-3B).","The analysis of a series of samples prepared from N-containing polymer polypyrrole (PPy) at different activation temperatures (i.e., PPy-T-2), but otherwise under identical conditions, allows for a convenient direct comparison of the effects of temperature.","The CO2 uptake plot for each sample as a function of CO2 pressures is shown in FIG.","4, whereas FIG.","5 shows their corresponding N2 adsorption isotherms at 77 K. It may be noticed that the shape of these isotherms is dependent on the activation temperature.","The isotherm for PPy-800-2 is much steeper than that of PPy-500-2 between relative pressures of 0.4 and 1.0, indicating the variation in mesoporosity and adsorption capacity.","For the homologous series of NPC materials, the estimated surface area (SBET) and the total pore volume (Vp) gradually increase with activation temperature (FIGS.","6A-6B), describing the incremental trend for mildly to strongly activated samples.","Between 500 and 700° C., the surface area and total pore volume increases systematically, whereas for temperatures above 700° C. no significant increment is noticed.","Besides the surface area and pore volume, another important characteristic that can be obtained from the N2 adsorption isotherms is the pore size distribution (PSD) of the porous solid.","FIGS.","7A-7H depict the PSDs for three different PPy-based PCs prepared under mild (T=500° C.) to strong (T=800° C.) activation conditions.","The distribution plot for T=500° C. indicates that the activated PC mainly consists of micropores in the 1-2 nm range, whereas the plot for PPy-700-2 clearly shows signature of some larger pores in the 2-3.5 nm range.","The most strongly activated PC and PPy-800-2 even shows a significant number of mesopores in the 3-6 nm range, in agreement with the steeper adsorption registered for relative pressures of more than 0.4.A comparison of the variation in pore size and distribution (FIG.","7A) with the CO2 uptake for the same samples (FIG.","4 and Table 1) was also made.","From 500° C. to 700° C., there is a dramatic increase in the high pressure uptake, which can be associated with the generation of pores in the range of 2-3 nm.","However, as may be seen from FIG.","4, there is a slight (but significant) decrease upon further activation to 800° C., even though there is an increase in the presence of larger pores.","This suggests that larger pores are not necessarily ideal for a high CO2 adsorption.","The pore size distribution for the other top adsorbents studied shows a similar bi-modal pore structure centered on 1 nm and 1.5-2 nm.","The structural and textural morphology of the activated PPy-T-2 samples were characterized by scanning electron microscopy (SEM).","FIG.","7B shows that the activated NPC contains multiple layers projected vertically upward and surfaces that are full of micron sized holes.","In order to image the microporous structure of the activated sample, high resolution transmission electron microscopy (HRTEM) was utilized.","FIG.","7C displays an image demonstrating randomly distributed micropores with dimensions in the range of 0.5-1 nm for a PPy-600-2 sample.","These and the images of the other samples are in agreement with the BET measurements.","Given the hazardous nature of working with KOH, the amount used in the activation process is of importance with regard to any scalability issues.","Applicants have recently shown that KOH provides greater activation than borates.","However, based upon the present data set for PPy-800-n (n=2, 4), it is clear that increasing the KOH:precursor ratio from 2 to 4 does not result in a change in the CO2 uptake profile (FIG.","7D), despite a dramatic (70%) increase in the pore volume (Table 1).","Applicants note that PPy-800-4 has one of the highest surface areas (3450 m2g−1) measured for any PC sorbent.","However, PPy-800-4 is less efficient than PPy-800-4 between 10-20 bar.","The CO2 uptake for NPC and SPC samples as a function of their N or S content is shown in FIGS.","8A-8B.","For both NPC (FIG.","8A) and SPC (FIG.","8B) samples, the CO2 uptake is at a maximum with the heteroatom content of less than 5 wt %.","The chemical composition of polypyrrole precursor and activated PPy derived NPC samples were determined by XPS (Table 1).","The identity and wt % of the elements present on the sample surface were determined by XPS survey scans (e.g., FIGS.","7E and 7F).","These spectra revealed that the precursor polypyrrole and activated NPCs are primarily composed of C, O, and N. It should be noted that the O content of NPCs has been observed, but discounted as significant, except as a potential source as both Lewis acid and base moieties.","Applicants note that H content is not provided by XPS data, and so percentage values measured by other techniques will vary.","As a result of chemical activation and the activation temperature, the wt % of all elements changes (Table 1).","The general trend is that the wt % of C increases, whereas that of O and N decreases gradually with increasing activation temperature.","The compositional dependence on the activation temperature is demonstrated for the PPy-T-2 samples (FIG.","7G).","The first point to note is that the N content decreases consistently with activation temperature (FIG.","7H).","However, there is a distinct step in the O composition between 600 and 700° C. (FIG.","7H), which is mirrored in the C wt % composition (FIG.","7G).","However, it is important to note that while at the highest activation temperatures the N content becomes negligible, the O content remains significant.","An equally interesting variation was observed for SPC samples (Table 1).","The C content stays essentially constant between the PTh precursor and the product activated at 600° C., despite the S composition decreasing.","The reason for this anomaly is the oxidation of the PC material as measured by the increased O content.","As with the N content in the NPC samples, the S composition in the SPC samples decreases to a low value at the highest activation temperatures.","Based upon these results, it would appear that the presence of neither N nor S correlates in a positive manner with the CO2 uptake, although in the present case a higher heteroatom content is associated to lower surface area and pore volume, hence the corresponding lower CO2 uptake.","Nonetheless, the limited effect of the presence of heteroatoms on CO2 uptake is in line with previous results, and Applicants' proposal that the presence of N or S is not responsible for any stabilization of poly-CO2 that has been proposed to be responsible for high CO2 adsorption at 30 bar.","Furthermore, the source of the heteroatom also appears to affect the physical parameters and hence the CO2 uptake.","For example, the use of polyacrylonitrile (I, PAn) instead of polypyrrole (II, PPy) makes a significant difference suggesting the chemical speciation of the N content is important (FIG.","8C).","In addition, the use of a poly-N containing heterocycle, melamine, as the N source results in an improvement in the performance (FIG.","8D).","However, it is unclear whether this is a cause or effect.","If the amount of CO2 adsorbed is divided by the total pore volume one gets a similar value for both for PPy-800-4 and SD-M-800-4.Thus, the CO2 uptake is determined by the total pore volume, but the pore volume is clearly a function of the precursor, rather than the process conditions.","As was noted with the pressure dependence of the CO2 uptake on the surface area and total pore volume, the uptake appears to be less affected by the N content at lower pressures.","Thus, as shown in FIG.","8E, the greatest CO2 uptake at 30 bar for NPC requires N<2 wt %.","However, if measured at 5 bar the uptake is almost independent of N content at values <10 wt %.","This again suggests that the need to create specialty adsorbents diminishes with decreased operating pressure.","Both NPC and SPC samples contain significant O, as do the PC samples produced from non-heteroatom containing precursors.","Given that some of the PC samples perform in a comparable manner to those of NPC or SPC, N and S composition cannot be the sole key to high adsorption.","While the presence of more than 5 wt % of either N or S appears to significantly lower the uptake of CO2, although this could be related to the lower surface area of the heteroatom-rich samples, the O content is far more effective for the high CO2 adsorption observed with 3-16 wt % O (FIG.","9A).","In support of this observation, there are also some significant findings on the CO2 capture capacity of activated PCs obtained from the carbonization of asphalt with KOH.","The reduction with H2 of asphalt-derived N-doped PCs causes a significant increase of capture capacity up to 26 mmol·g−1.The XPS elemental analysis of the sample before and after H2 treatment shows that the sample with higher CO2 capacity undergoes a significant increase of O content while the N content and type is only slightly changed.","This finding supports Applicants' hypothesis that O plays a major role in establishing the CO2 capture capacity of PCs.","However, what appears to be more important is the combined presence of a heteroatom (i.e., Σ(O,N,S), FIG.","9B).","This can be alternatively stated that the C content should be between 80-95 wt %.","Based upon the forgoing, it is possible to identify the parameters that define a PC material for maximum CO2 uptake: have a surface area ≥2,800 m2g−1, a pore volume ≥1.35 cm3g−1, and a C content between 80-95 wt %.","To achieve these performance parameters it is necessary to activate above 700° C. and to ensure full mixing of the KOH with the precursor.","It is significant that the first two of these suggest that developing higher and higher surface area materials is unproductive, and that understanding the third may lead to the design of new PC materials.","Furthermore, these values offer additional variance when the uptake of CO2 is required at lower pressures.","Applicants have also investigated the CO2/CH4 selectivity by measuring CO2 and CH4 uptake isotherms up to a high pressure limit of 10, 20 and 30 bar at 24° C. A summary of the data is shown in Table 2.TABLE 2 Summary of PC, NPC, and SPC samples studied with their molar gas uptakes and selectivity for CO2 over CH4 at different uptake pressures.","CO2 uptake (mmol · g−1) at CH4 uptake (mmol · g−1) at Molar (CO2:CH4) uptake ratio Samplea 10 bar 20 bar 30 bar 10 bar 20 bar 30 bar 10 bar 20 bar 30 bar Activated 6.27 7.51 8.45 4.28 5.44 6.03 1.46 1.38 1.41 charcoal BPL 6.30 7.87 8.66 3.24 4.96 6.18 1.94 1.59 1.40 SD-600-4 12.06 16.77 20.52 5.23 7.54 8.52 2.31 2.22 2.41 SD-800-4 13.61 18.78 22.90 6.65 9.45 10.92 2.05 1.99 2.10 CN-600-2 10.91 12.65 13.50 5.94 7.24 7.96 1.83 1.74 1.70 PPy-500-2 9.51 11.27 12.60 4.11 5.06 5.98 2.31 2.23 2.11 PPy-600-2 11.37 16.45 18.98 5.39 6.33 7.41 2.11 2.60 2.56 PPy-700-2 12.50 18.12 22.98 5.75 7.92 9.41 2.17 2.29 2.44 PPy-800-2 11.94 17.21 21.01 5.78 8.23 9.82 2.07 2.09 2.14 PPy-800-4 11.18 16.51 22.11 5.10 7.33 8.83 2.19 2.25 2.50 PAn-600-3 8.19 10.84 14.50 4.04 5.26 6.03 2.03 2.06 2.40 SD-M-800-4 12.09 18.70 23.76 5.58 8.12 9.41 2.17 2.30 2.52 PTh-600-2 11.17 15.42 18.81 4.77 6.12 7.37 2.34 2.52 2.55 PTh-700-2 11.51 16.67 20.32 4.62 6.87 8.01 2.49 2.43 2.54 PTh-800-2 13.10 18.80 22.87 5.81 8.55 10.14 2.25 2.20 2.26 aPrecursor-temperature-KOH:precursor ratio.","FIG.","10A shows the CO2 uptake plots along with the corresponding CH4 uptake results in FIG.","10B.","Additionally, the molar uptake selectivity (CO2/CH4) is defined by the molar ratio of adsorbed CO2 and CH4 at a certain pressure, i.e., at 30 bar.","The dependence of molar uptake selectivity for a sorbent as a function of corresponding gas pressure is depicted in FIG.","10C.","It is significant that for any particular sample, the selectivity varies with gas pressure.","Of the samples investigated, PPy-600-2 demonstrated highest selectivity of 2.56 at 30 bar.","FIG.","11A shows a plot of molar CO2:CH4 uptake ratio as a function of the surface area (SBET) for all the PC adsorbents measured.","For low surface area samples, there is an increase in selectivity with increased surface area.","However, as with uptake, further increase in surface area above 2000 m2g−1 does not appear to improve selectivity.","In a similar manner, increased total pore volume (Vp) does facilitate increased selectivity, but only to a pore volume of 1.00 cm3g−1.No improvement in performance is shown above the aforementioned value (FIG.","11B).","The series PPy-T-2 (T=500-800° C.) allows for the direct comparison of homologous materials.","In this case, it appears that the values of 2,000 m2g−1 and 1.00 cm3g−1 for the surface area and total pore volume (FIGS.","12A-12D) represent maxima rather than thresholds.","It is possible that for any homologous series similar maxima are observed.","However, the thresholds observed in FIGS.","11A-11B are useful indicators.","From Table 2, it can be seen that an activation temperature of 600° C. is a minimum for good selectivity.","However, from FIG.","12C, it may be seen that for the series PPy-T-2 (T=500-800° C.), this value is actually an optimum.","Such results may vary with a particular class of material.","However, a lower activation temperature is required to create a material with good selectivity as compared to optimum CO2 uptake (FIG.","12D), suggesting that the best attainable sorbent material will have to combine a wise trade off of selectivity and CO2 capture capacity.","As may be seen from a comparison of PPy-800-2 and PPy-800-4 (Table 2), increased KOH concentration during the activation step results in greater selectivity.","The molar CO2:CH4 uptake ratio for NPC samples as a function of their N content is shown in FIG.","13.The selectivity for measurements at 30 bar decreases with N content above 5 wt %.","In the case of SPC, there appears to be no effect on selectivity with S content (Tables 1 and 2).","These results seem to suggest that the presence of neither N nor S correlates in a direct manner with the CO2/CH4 selectivity.","This is in line with Applicants' previous proposal.","However, in this Example, a higher heteroatom content implies a lower surface area (and total pore volume) of the sorbent materials.","Hence, a definite lack of impact of N or S doping on the selectivity performance of PCs cannot be considered a priori.","Significantly, as may be seen from the data in Table 2, at lower pressures (10 bar), there is almost no dependence between selectivity and heteroatom content.","As was observed with the uptake efficiency for CO2, the selectivity appears to be more a function of the total heteroatom composition (i.e., Σ(O,N,S) wt %, as presented in FIG.","14 in terms of C wt % (=100−Σ(O,N,S) wt %)).","However, based upon the analysis of all the PC, NPC, and SPC materials studied, the 0 wt % seems to be the major contributor.","The CO2/CH4 selectivity is at a potential maximum as long as C content is below 90 wt % (i.e., for Σ(O,N,S)>10 wt %).","At lower pressure (10 bar), the carbon content is possibly even higher (C<94 wt %).","A study of a wide range of PC, NPC, and SPC materials under high pressure CO2 and CH4 adsorption offers some useful insight into the parameters that may collectively control both the CO2 uptake efficiency and the CO2/CH4 selectivity.","A summary of the proposed key requirements for a PC material with either good CO2 uptake or good CO2/CH4 selectivity is given in Table 3 based on the results presented herein.","TABLE 3 Summary of proposed parameters required for optimum CO2 uptake and CO2/CH4 selectivity for PC, NPC, and SPC.","Parameter Uptake @ 30 bar Selectivity @ 30 bar Surface area (m2g−1) >2800 >2000 Total pore volume (cm3g−1) >1.35 >1.0 Temperature of activation (° C.) 700-800 600 Carbon content (%) 80-95 <90 As far as CO2 uptake is concerned, any porous carbon material with a surface area of more than 2,800 m2g−1 at 30 bar is unlikely to be improved (when prepared from the KOH activation of non-nanostructured precursors).","A similar threshold appears to be true for the total pore volume of the material (1.35 cm3g−1).","This suggests that seeking synthetic routes to ever higher surface area and/or high pore volume PC-based adsorbents is counterproductive.","However, it should be understood that if uptake at lower pressures is desired, these threshold values decrease even further.","This result is highly important in considering the choice of adsorbent to be used in a large scale unit.","The adsorbent intended for use in a low pressure system needs a lower surface area and pore volume to perform than a potentially more expensive to manufacture material.","It also impacts the formation of pelletized materials for adsorbent bed applications, since the formation of the pellet through inclusion of a binder inevitably lowers the surface area and pore volume.","Applicants' results suggest that for lower pressure applications, this is not important since the uptake is less dependent on extremely high surface areas and/or pore volumes.","Given the prior interest in N- and S-doped PC materials, the results show that CO2 uptake is inversely related to S and N content in SPC and NPC, respectively.","However, due to the preparation process used in this Example (KOH activation), there is an intrinsic dependence between heteroatom content and surface area (total pore volume) in all sorbents.","In particular, higher surface areas imply lower N or S contents.","Consequently, the use of KOH activated PCs in industrial scale units must take into account that a higher heteroatom content cannot offset the corresponding drop of CO2 capture performance due to a decrease of surface area of the materials.","In practical terms, it is the Σ(O,N,S) wt % or C wt % (=100−Σ(O,N,S) wt %) that is the defining factor for CO2 uptake.","This is true irrespective of the source of the heteroatom.","However, O appears to be the main factor, since a C content of between 80 and 95 wt % offers the potential for high CO2 uptake.","However, at these levels, if the make-up is N or S, the uptake is likely reduced.","It should also be observed based upon the source of the heteroatom that if heteroatoms are to be incorporated and “active”, they are preferentially included using heterocycle precursors, such as melamine in the case of N, rather than other heteroatom-rich structures.","It may be assumed that the parameters that makes a good CO2 adsorbent may be the same as those that make a selective material.","However, Applicants' results indicate that the two are only broadly related.","The levels of surface area and pore volume can be even lower for good CO2/CH4 selectivity, as compared to CO2 uptake (Table 3).","In summary, Applicants demonstrate in this Example that a synthetic goal for PC-based material, for both high CO2 adsorption and high CO2/CH4 selectivity, would comprise a C content of less than 90%.","Given that neither N nor S seem to have a significant effect rather than the O that is present, it is clear that a design CxO1-x where x<0.9 would possibly make an ideal CO2 adsorbent material with the best CO2/CH4 selectivity.","Furthermore, the goal should be a precursor where oxygen is incorporated into a cyclic moiety.","Additional experimental results and information are provided in FIGS.","15-23H and Tables 4-6.For instance, the chemical composition of OPC (750) has been thoroughly characterized via XPS, FTIR and Raman spectroscopy (FIGS.","23A-23H and Table 6), while textural properties were determined by high resolution scanning electron microscopy (FIGS.","21E-H), transmission electron microscopy (FIGS.","21I-J) and a BET Surface area analyzer (FIGS.","16A-16D).","Moreover, measured values for gas uptakes have been confirmed via volumetric, gravimetric, multiple sample and cycles experiments.","To the best of Applicants' knowledge, oxygen-rich carbon materials prepared from furfuryl alcohol has never been investigated for high pressure uptake of CO2 and CH4.In fact, there have been no reports of its use as a precursor for oxygen-rich porous carbon materials.","In addition, a higher value for the isosteric heat of adsorption of CO2 (23 kJ·mol−1) versus 13 kJ·mol−1 for CH4 allows Applicants to scheme a temperature dependent strategy for removing CO2 from natural gas via selective adsorption and desorption of CH4 and CO2 in steps (FIGS.","22A-22B).","TABLE 4 Survey of different c-feedstock used for the synthesis of various PCs with high CO2 uptake properties.","SKU pack Maximum CO2 size uptake at 30 bar PC Source material for (Sigma (mmol g−1) sample C-precursor CAS no.","Aldrich) Price (wt %) SPC (1) 2-Thiophenemethanol 636-72-6 181315-100 G $155 for 100 g 18.4 (81) SPC (2) Thiophene 110-02-1 T31801-500 G $47 for 500 g — NPC (1) Pyrrole 109-97-7 W338605-1 KG $315 for 1 kg — NPC (2) Polyacrylonitrile 25014-41-9 181315-100 G $190 for 100 g 16.8 (74) OPC (1) Furfuryl alcohol 98-00-0 W249106- $60 for 1 kg 26.6 (117) 25 KG ($354 for 25 kg) OPC (2) Furan 110-00-9 185922-500 ML $54 for 500 mL — TABLE 5 Survey of gas adsorption properties of various PCs with high CO2 uptake capacity.","Uptake Uptake Uptake Ratio of of CO2 of CO2 of CH4 adsorbed Surface at 30 bar at 10 bar at 30 bar CO2/CH4 area (mmol · (mmol · (mmol · at 30 bar SBET g−1) g−1) g−1) (molar) Sample (m2g−1) (wt %) (wt %) (wt %) (mass) C-Precursor 48 3.3 (14.5) 1.6 (7.0) — — OPC (500) 1143 17.1 (75.2) 8.6 (37.8) 6.7 (10.7) 2.5 (7.0) OPC (600) 2116 20.0 (88.1) 12.5 (55.0) 8.3 (13.3) 2.3 (6.3) OPC (700) 2610 20.8 (91.5) 12.7 (55.9) 9.1 (14.6) 2.3 (6.2) OPC (750) 2856 26.6 (117.0) 15.1 (66.4) 9.6 (15.5) 2.75 (7.5) OPC (750) 2856 42.9 (188.9) 18.5 (81.5) 14.6 (23.4) 2.93 (8.0) at 0.5° C. OPC (800) 3005 23.0 (101.2) 12.9 (56.7) 9.01 (14.4) 2.5 (7.0) SPC a 2500 18.4 (81.0) 10.0 (44.0) 7.1 (11.3) 2.6 (7.1) r-NPC a 1450 16.8 (74.0) 7.1 (31.2) 1.6 (12.2) 2.2 (6.1) Act.","charcoal 845 8.4 (36.9) 6.3 (27.7) 6.0 (9.6) 1.4 (3.8) TABLE 6 Elemental composition of various types porous carbon materials as determined by XPS excluding the contribution from elemental H. Surface Total C O area pore (wt %) (wt %) SBET volume Sample XPS XPS KOH:precursor (m2g−1) VP (cm3g−1) C-Precursor 69.91 30.09 — 48 0.02 OPC (500) 77.49 22.51 3:1 1143 0.78 OPC (600) 82.04 17.74 3:1 2216 1.19 OPC (700) 85.07 14.93 3:1 2610 1.46 OPC (750) 88.21 11.79 3:1 2856 1.77 OPC (800) 89.28 10.72 3:1 3005 1.92 Act.","charcoal 94.10 5.90 3:1 845 0.43 Example 3.Optimizing Carbon Dioxide Uptake and Carbon Dioxide-Methane Selectivity of Oxygen-Doped Porous Carbon Prepared from Oxygen Containing Polymer Precursors In this Example, Applicants report a reproducible synthesis of oxygen containing PC (OPC) by KOH activation at 500-800° C. of two oxygen containing precursor polymers: polyfurfuryl alcohol (PFFA) and polyanisyl alcohol (PAA), yielding FFA-OPC and AA-OPC, respectively.","Both OPCs exhibit remarkable thermal stability and reproducible gas uptake properties for multiple cycles.","Unlike other fine powder type activated PC materials, as-synthesized OPC sorbents are large pellet-like, making them a better candidate for preparing binder free solid pellet-like sorbent.","The surface area and pore volumes of the OPC are independent of the precursor identity, but controlled by the activation temperature.","Similarly, the uptake of CO2 is determined by the physical properties of the OPC: activation at 750° C. results in uptake that equals or out-performs existing PCs for high pressure uptake (30 bar) at 24.0° C. (FFA-OPC750: 117 wt %; AA-OPC750: 115 wt %).","In contrast, while the uptake of CH4 for both OPCs is greatest for samples activation at 750° C., FFA-OPC750 shows significantly greater uptake compared to AA-OPC750, 15.5 wt % versus 13.7 wt %, respectively.","As a consequence, AA-OPC750 demonstrates optimal selectivity for CO2 capture over CH4 uptake (AA-OPC750: Vmass(CO2/CH4)=8.37 at 30 bar) as compared to other reported PCs.","A higher value for the isosteric heat of adsorption of CO2 (33 kJ mol−1) versus CH4 (14 kJ mol−1) suggests a new temperature dependent strategy for removing CO2 from natural gas via selective adsorption and desorption cycles.","The differences in performance for CH4 uptake between FA-OPC and AA-OPC, prepared under identical conditions, suggests that the structure of the precursor (heterocyclic versus exocyclic oxygen) is an additional variable in the design of new OPC materials.","In this Example, Applicants envision that an ideal PC would have a surface area of more than 2,800 m2g−1, a pore volume of more than 1.35 cm3g−1, and an oxygen content of between 5-20%.","In this regard, Applicants have concentrated research efforts in developing routes to such materials that allow for low cost and reproducible synthesis.","Furfuryl alcohol (FA) has previously been formed into a highly cross-linked precursor via acid catalysis that can be converted to a PC.","However, the process results in only a modest surface area and adsorption not sufficient to reach the performance parameters listed above.","In this Example, Applicants report that, through FeCl3 catalyzed polymerization and activation of polyfurfuryl alcohol (PFFA), an oxygenated PC (OPC) sorbent may be prepared which demonstrated higher room temperature CO2 uptake as compared to other PC materials.","Applicants have shown that process conditions (temperature and KOH:precursor ratio) control the formation of micro (<2 nm) versus meso (>2 nm) porosity that is responsible for the highest CO2 uptake.","Although there appeared to be no significant difference in the performance as a function of the precursor, in creating nitrogen-doped PCs (NPCs) it was noted that incorporation of nitrogen into 6 versus a 5-membered cyclic precursor made a significant difference in the performance.","Thus, there is interest as to whether using identical process conditions the precursor makes any significant effect.","Applicants have therefore investigated a new OPC precursor polyanisyl alcohol (PAA) to compare with PFFA.","Moreover, if OPC is to be scaled, the cost of the catalyst used for PFFA, and similar polymeric precursors, is an issue to be addressed.","Anisyl alcohol (4-methoxybenzyl alcohol), which is used as fragrance and flavourant and thus produced on a large scale, represents a low cost OPC precursor, while the formation of the polymer feedstock for OPC, polyanisyl alcohol (PAA), is synthesized by treating anisyl alcohol with concentrate H2SO4 in a single step.","Example 3.1.Materials and Methods FeCl3, furfuryl alcohol (Sigma Aldrich, 98% purity), anisyl alcohol (Sigma Aldrich, 98% purity), CH3CN, powdered KOH, distilled water, acetone, HCl, Ar (99.9% pure), CO2 (99.99% pure, Matheson TRIGAS) and CH4 (99.9% pure) were used as supplied.","The SPC and NPC samples used as comparison were synthesized from 2-thiophenemethanol and polyacrylonitrile (Sigma Aldrich), respectively, following protocols previously described.","The chemical composition of the polymer and porous carbon materials were determined by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and Raman spectroscopy.","The XPS measurements were carried out in a PHI Quantera scanning XPS microprobe.","The wt % of chemical elements was determined by XPS survey scans with pass energy of 140 eV.","For detailed elemental analysis high-resolution multi-cycle elemental scans with pass energy 26 eV was performed.","Each spectrum was then deconvoluted by appropriate basis functions.","Before spectral fitting, each spectrum was corrected for reference binding energy for C1s to 284.8 eV.","FTIR spectral measurements were performed in a Nicolet FTIR Infrared Microscope equipped with a liquid N2 cooled detector.","Raman spectra of solid samples were measured in a Renishaw Raman microscope equipped with a 514 nm excitation laser.","Scanning electron microscopic images were obtained by a FEI Quanta 400 ESEM FEG high-resolution field emission scanning electron microscope.","The high-resolution TEM images of activated OPCs were obtained by a JEOL 2100 field emission gun transmission electron microscope.","The textural properties: surface areas, distributions of pore volumes and total pore volume of carbonaceous materials were obtained by analyzing N2 sorption isotherms (measured at 77 K), measured in a Quantachrome Autossorb-3b BET Surface Analyzer.","The surface area (SBET) was calculated by the multipoint BET (Brunauer-Emmett-Teller) method.","Before measurements, samples were dried at 140° C. for 12 hours under high vacuum system equipped with a liquid N2 cold trap.","The apparent BET surface area (SBET) of the activated PC samples was calculated from the N2 adsorption isotherm in the partial pressure (P/P0) range of 0.05-0.30 and the total pore volume (VP) was estimated from the amount of N2 adsorbed at P/P0=0.99.The distributions of pore volumes were determined by analyzing the data via non-local density functional theory.","Selected results are given in Table 7.Example 3.2.Synthesis of Polyfurfuryl Alcohol (PFFA) In a typical synthesis, a solution was prepared by dissolving FeCl3 (50 g) in CH3CN (200 mL).","To this, a solution of furfuryl alcohol (5 g, Sigma Aldrich, 98%) mixed with CH3CN 50 (mL) was slowly added.","The mixture was stirred for 24 hours under continuous argon purging.","The polymerized product, brown colored polyfurfuryl alcohol (PFFA) was separated by filtration, washed thoroughly with DI water (ca.","4 L) and acetone (500 mL), before being dried at 40° C. for 12 hours under vacuum (Yield=98%).","Example 3.3.Synthesis of Polyanisyl Alcohol (PAA) In a typical synthesis, concentrated H2SO4 (˜6 mL) was slowly added dropwise to a glass beaker containing anisyl alcohol (10 g) in three steps.","In each step, H2SO4 (2 mL) was added in drops to the glass beaker, stirred with a glass stirrer and a purple colored solid polymer of polyanisyl alcohol was formed.","The synthesized polymer was separated from the mixture.","To avoid over heating of reactants, the glass beaker was kept surrounded by a water/ice mixture.","The reaction process continued until all the anisyl alcohol was converted into solid polymer.","The synthesized polymer was washed with DI water (4×50 mL) to remove excess acid and then with acetone (200 mL).","The solid polymer was then crushed into powder, transferred to a glass beaker and quickly washed with acetone (100 mL) and dried at room temperature for 12 hours under vacuum.","The final product was a dark brown colored semi-soft mixture of PAA and trace amount of acetone, which helps mixing of polymer with KOH before chemical activation.","Example 3.4.Conversion of Polymer Precursors to Oxygenated Porous Carbon (OPC) In a typical activation process, either PFFA or PAA (500 mg) was thoroughly mixed with KOH powder (1.5 g, crushed previously) in a mortar for 10 minutes.","The mixture was then placed inside a quartz tube/tube furnace, dried for 20 minutes and then heated for 1 hour (for AA-OPC 30 minutes) at 500, 600, 700, 800 or 750° C., under a flow of Ar (99.9%, flow rate 600 sccm).","The activated samples were then washed with HCl (100 mL, 1.4 M) and DI water until the filtrate attained pH=7.The product was dried at 70° C. for 12 hours under vacuum.","The yield of activated PC materials depended on the activation temperature (e.g., FFA-OPC500=55%, FFA-OPC600=40%, FFA-OPC700=30%, FFA-OPC750=25-27%, and FFA-OPC800=15%).","Example 3.5.CO2 and CH4 Uptake Measurements The volumetric uptake measurements (pressure dependent excess isotherms) of CO2 and CH4 were performed in an automated Sievert instrument (Setaram PCTPRO).","Various OPC samples were first crushed into powders and packed in a stainless steel autoclave sample cell.","Initial sample pre-treatment was carried out at 130° C. for 1.5 hours under high vacuum.","The free volume inside the sample cell was determined by a series of calibration procedures done under helium.","Gas uptake experiments were carried out with high purity research grade CO2 (99.99% purity, Matheson TRIGAS) and CH4 (99.9% purity).","The gravimetric uptake measurements were performed in a Rubotherm magnetic suspension balance instrument (Rubotherm, Germany).","A summary of selected results is given in Table 7.TABLE 7 CO2 and CH4 uptake properties (@ 24° C.) in comparison with commercial PC samples of OPC samples prepared from polyfurfuryl alcohol (FFA-OPC) and polyanisyl alcohol (AA-OPC).","Surface area Total pore Uptake CO2 Uptake CO2 Uptake CH4 Molar ratio Mass ratio SBET volume VP @ 10 bar @30 bar @30 bar CO2/CH4 CO2/CH4 Sample a (m2g−1) e (cm3g−1) f (mmol · g−1) (wt %) (mmol · g−1) (wt %) (mmol · g−1) (wt %) @30 bar @30 bar FFA-OPC500 1143 0.78 8.6 37.8 17.1 75.2 6.7 10.7 2.5 7.0 FFA-OPC600 2116 1.19 12.5 55.0 20.0 88.1 8.3 13.3 2.4 6.6 FFA-OPC700 2610 1.46 12.7 55.9 20.8 91.5 9.1 14.6 2.3 6.3 FFA-OPC750 b 2856 1.77 15.1 66.4 26.6 117.0 9.6 15.5 2.8 7.6 (18.5) (81.5) (42.9) (188.9) (14.6) (23.4) (2.9) (8.0) FFA-OPC800 3005 1.92 12.9 56.7 23.0 101.2 9.0 14.4 2.5 7.0 AA-OPC500 853 0.49 6.7 29.7 9.5 41.6 3.8 6.1 2.7 7.3 AA-OPC600 1980 1.13 11.6 50.9 17.6 77.3 6.8 10.9 2.6 7.1 AA-OPC700 2700 1.54 11.9 52.6 22.4 98.5 7.9 12.7 2.8 7.8 AA-OPC750 b 3310 1.87 13.9 61.0 26.0 114.5 8.5 13.7 3.0 8.4 (17.6) (77.5) (39.3) (172.9) (10.5) (16.8) (3.7) (10.3) AA-OPC800 3040 2.27 9.6 42.2 21.8 96.0 8.3 13.2 2.6 7.2 Act.","Charcoal c 845 0.47 6.3 27.6 8.5 37.2 6.0 9.7 1.4 3.9 BPL d 951 0.53 6.30 27.7 8.7 38.1 6.18 9.9 1.4 3.8 a OPC activation temperature.","b Values in parenthesis performed at 0.5° C. c Purchased from Mallinckrodt chemical works.","d Purchased from Calgon carbon corp. e Apparent BET surface area estimated in P/P0 range of 0.05-0.30.f Total pore volume measured at P/P0 ~0.99 Example 3.6.Results and Discussion The experimental procedures for the synthesis of the best PC sample using KOH activation with the highest CO2 uptake property rely on the optimization of two major parameters: the KOH:PFFA ratio and the temperature of activation (Ta).","Earlier reports suggest that the overall porosity and the surface area of a chemically activated PC material increase with KOH concentration, and initial results suggested that KOH:PFFA=3 is best for developing nano-sized micropores (1-2 nm range).","Thus, Applicants' procedures were carried out by keeping KOH:PFFA ratio fixed to 3 and by activating premixed KOH-PFFA mixtures at a single temperature in the range of 500-800° C. A schematic outlining the synthetic protocol for OPC from FA is presented in FIG.","24A.","In the first step, a solid powder-like polymer of FA was prepared from liquid FA by the reaction in the presence of a FeCl3 catalyst in CH3CN.","The synthesis of polyanisyl alcohol (PAA) is more facile and involves treating anisyl alcohol with concentrate H2SO4 in a single step (FIG.","24B).","The PFFA and PAA were then chemically activated by mixing with pre-ground KOH followed by pyrolysis at a stable temperature in the 500-800° C. range.","A significant advantage of the use of the PFFA prepared in this manner, as compared to previous methods, is that it only releases a small amount of volatile product during activation, unlike other PC precursors.","FIGS.","25A-25B show representative images of the PFFA and the resulting FFA-OPC750.Both the as prepared OPC has a large pellet-like morphology.","In comparison, an image of sulfur containing porous carbon (SPC) sample prepared under identical activation conditions is shown in FIG.","25C.","This important structural rigidity makes OPC sorbents more appropriate for practical applications as opposed to other powder like sorbents.","The structural and textural morphology of the as-synthesized polymer and resulting activated OPC samples were determined by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) as represented by FIGS.","26A-26D.","The PFFA and PAA precursors have a relatively dense morphology, but after activation with KOH, the resulting OPCs exhibit a texture full of micron size holes, multiple corners and edges that are absent in the precursors.","The related energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS) determined elemental composition confirms the OPCs are primarily composed of carbon and oxygen (Table 8).","TABLE 8 Elemental composition of OPC as determined by XPS and EDS.","XPS EDS Sample C (wt %) O (wt %) C (wt %) O (wt %) PFFA-precursor 69.91 30.09 68.64 31.36 FFA-OPC500 77.49 22.51 78.64 18.85 FFA-OPC600 82.04 17.74 87.09 12.91 FFA-OPC700 85.07 14.93 89.92 10.08 FFA-OPC750 88.21 11.79 90.12 8.08 FFA-OPC800 89.28 10.72 90.58 9.42 PAA-precursorb 74.90 21.41 AA-OPC500 76.66 23.34 AA-OPC600 83.36 13.64 AA-OPC700 89.37 10.63 AA-OPC750 91.01 8.99 AA-OPC800 91.27 8.73 aContributions from elemental H were excluded.","bPAA-precursor contained 3.7% S residue from the acid catalyst.","In order to image the microporous structure of activated OPCs, high-resolution transmission electron microscopy (HRTEM) was utilized.","FIGS.","27A-27C display a set of images demonstrating randomly distributed micropores with dimension in the range of 1-2 nm for FFA-OPC600 and slightly larger but evenly distributed micropores for FFA-OPC800 and AA-OPC800 samples.","These nano-sized micropores play key roles in the ultra high CO2 uptake at higher pressure.","Further characterization to determine important structural parameters such as surface area, pore size distribution and the total pore volumes of C-precursor and different OPC specimens activated at a fixed temperature in the range of 500-800° C. with a fixed KOH/PFFA ratio of 3 was carried out by measurement of the N2 adsorption isotherms (at 77 K) using a BET (Brunauer-Emmett-Teller) surface area analyzer.","FIGS.","28A-28B show such set of isotherms for the OPCs activated at labelled temperature.","Difference in the shape of these isotherms was noticed depending on the activation temperature.","The isotherm for FFA-OPC800 was much steeper than that of FFA-OPC500 up to a relative pressure of 0.4 (FIG.","28A), indicating the variation in microporosity and adsorption capacity.","The isotherm for AA-OPC800 was shallower than that of the other samples, suggesting meso pore generation.","The estimated surface area (SBET) and the total pore volume (Vp) gradually increased with activation temperature (FIGS.","29A-29B) describing the incremental trend for mildly to strongly activated samples.","Activation between 650° C. and 800° C. the surface area for FFA-OPCs varied smoothly than that for pore volumes (FIG.","29A).","In contrast, the surface area for AA-OPCs reaches an apparent maximum at 750° C. (FIG.","29B).","Irrespective of these differences, both parameters increase with increasing activation temperature, with activation above 750° C. giving materials with surface area and pore volume above the threshold (i.e., >2,800 m2g−1 and >1.35 cm3g−1, respectively) to enable maximum CO2 uptake.","FIG.","30 provides a comparison with other reported carbon based activated sorbents such as activated charcoal, SPC, NPC and asphalt derived PC specifically, explored for high pressure CO2 uptakes.","The values for AA-OPC750 are amongst of the highest reported surface area and pore volume values for carbon based PC samples reported to date.","FIGS.","31A-31B depict the distributions of pore sizes as a function of pore width for activation temperatures (500° C.≤Ta≤800° C.) to strong (Ta=800° C.) activation conditions.","These plots show that samples activated at temperatures between 500 and 700° C. mainly consisted of micropores in the range of 1-2 nm.","In contrast, the distribution plot for FFA-OPC800 indicates that chemical activation at temperature of about 800° C. created some additional mesopores in the 2.0-3.5 nm range, confirming the findings from HRTEM images discussed earlier (FIG.","27B).","Pores larger than 4 nm were practically absent in all samples, except for AA-OPC800 where the mesopore (>2 nm) contribution is dominant (FIG.","31B).","As noted above, the best CO2 uptake of a PC is observed with a carbon content of 80-95 wt %.","The chemical composition of polymer precursors and the subsequent OPCs was determined by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS).","The identity and wt % of the elements present on the sample surface were determined by XPS survey scans for core level electrons (Table 8).","The XPS data further confirms that OPC samples primarily contained C and O (the H contents are not shown in XPS).","As expected, the C and O content varied from the polymers to the OPCs during chemical activation, and for the OPC samples the general trend was that the wt % of C increased and O decreased gradually with increasing activation temperature (FIGS.","32A-32D).","Based upon the analysis, samples activated between 600° C. and 800° C. fall within the range required for maximum CO2 uptake.","A set of high resolution XPS elemental scan data for C1s and O1s of PFFA and FFA-OPC samples (FIGS.","33A-33B), de-convoluted by appropriate basis peaks helped Applicants identify the possible functional groups present in the precursor and numerous activated samples.","For PFFA, the C1s band could be resolved into four main peaks and labelled according to probable functional groups as in polythiophene.","Thus, these peaks were assigned to the following functional groups: sp2 hybridized C═C (284.7 eV), C—C (286.1 eV), C—O—C (287.1 eV) and C═O (288.9 eV).","An additional shoulder near 291.3 eV is attributed to π-π* shake-up peak.","In contrast to PFFA, the activated sample exhibited much narrower C═C peak (FWHM: 1.3 eV versus 2.2 eV for PFFA).","The resolved basis peaks under O1s spectra were attributable to two main functional groups: the C—O—C group at 533.2 eV (O within the furan ring) and the carbonyl group (C═O) at 531.8 eV.","Without being bound by theory, Applicants believe that KOH induced oxidation during chemical activation at higher temperature resulted in formation of more carbonyl groups, though the absence of well resolved band for O1s made it difficult to extract the absolute proportion of these two functionalities.","The nature of carbon and oxygen functional groups present in the as-synthesized PFFA and activated FFA-OPCs were further explored via FTIR spectroscopy.","The IR spectrum for PFFA (FIG.","34) exhibited well defined but broad peaks originated from various IR active vibrational stretches identified as: C—O—C asymmetric stretching vibration (1020 cm−1), C—C stretching (1358 cm−1), and C═C symmetric and asymmetric stretching vibrations in the furan ring (1510 and 1585 cm−1, respectively).","The frequency shift and broadness of these bands may be attributed to the aggregated phase of the synthesized polymer.","In contrast to PFFA, the activated samples exhibited multiple stretching vibrations with gradually decreasing intensity.","The intensity of all these peaks decreased systematically with increasing activation temperature as evidenced by the spectra of FFA-OPC500 and FFA-OPC800.For FFA-OPC500, in addition to C═C stretching frequencies another shoulder peak was identified near 1710 cm−1, which could be assigned to C═O stretching vibrations.","Moreover, the C—O—C and O—H functional groups that were present in the C-precursor and mildly activated samples (Ta=500° C.) slowly removed due to chemical activation at higher temperature.","The aromatic sp2 hybridized C═C and amorphous sp3 hybridized C—C bonds present in PFFA and activated FFA-OPCs were further characterized by Raman spectroscopy.","FIGS.","35A-35C represent a set of three normalized spectra depicting spectral changes for two major bands; the sharp graphene (G) band (1590 cm−1) and the broad disorder (D) band located (1360 cm−1), attributing to the aromatic sp2 and amorphous sp3 hybridized carbons, respectively.","A more direct dependence for the (D/G) intensity ratio on activation temperature is shown in FIG.","35D, bottom panel.","The D/G value varied from 0.56 for PFFA, to 0.75 for FFA-OPC500 and 0.83 for FFA-OPC800, signifying the gradual removal of sp2 and addition of sp3 carbons as a result of chemical activation under mild to strong activation conditions.","Example 3.7.CO2 Uptake Among the various types of solid porous materials that efficiently capture CO2, MOFs (metal organic frameworks), zeolites, cross-linked polyethylenimine, and a variety of powder like activated PCs play significant roles over other sorbents and widely utilized for industrial application due to their high surface area, thermal stability, low cost of synthesis, and high gas adsorption capacity with remarkable reproducibility.","However, within the category of activated PC materials with high CO2 uptake capacity, to date, most of the sorbents were investigated for CO2 uptake performance up to a pressure limit of only 1 bar due to the limitation of available instruments.","However, in industrial applications, higher pressures are needed.","For example, removal of CO2 from natural gas at the wellhead needs to be optimized between 15-30 bar.","Applicants have previously shown that the best PC materials show a maximum CO2 uptake of 20-25 mmol·g−1 at 30 bar and 24° C. In this context, Applicants have carried out careful volumetric CO2 uptake experiments on the OPC sorbents as a function of gas pressure up to a limit of 30 bar and compared the results to previously reported PC samples measured under the same conditions.","In order to identify the OPC sorbent with the highest CO2 uptake capacity, Applicants measured pressure dependent CO2 uptake for a set of OPC samples prepared with a fixed KOH:polymer=3 and activated at a fixed temperature in the 500-800° C. range (FIGS.","36A-36C).","Clear difference between the shapes of uptake isotherms indicates that uptake varies with activation temperature (Ta).","In particular, higher values of Ta correlated with higher uptake values for a specific adsorption pressure.","The C-precursors adsorbed negligible amount of CO2 and the most mildly activated OPC.","AA-OPC500 showed an uptake similar to activated charcoal.","The general trend was: OPC that was activated at higher temperature contained more micropores and with larger surface area performed better.","Strikingly, both FFA-OPC750 and AA-OPC750 captured more CO2 than their OPC800 homologs; while in the case of FFA-OPC800 it has a higher surface area and pore volume (Table 7).","A similar observation was reported for low pressure (up to 1 bar) gas uptake of CO2 by polypyrrole derived PCs.","Applicants believe that the reason for the higher uptake performance of OPC750 was that OPC800 contained more mesopores larger than 2 nm.","In this context, it is important to note that up to a pressure bar of 5 bar all OPC samples capture similar amount of CO2 (except the OPC500 samples).","FIG.","36C displays a set of equilibrium volumetric CO2 uptakes at room temperature as a function of adsorbate pressure for various PC specimens such as activated charcoal, NPC, SPC, FFA-OPC750, and AA-OPC750.Applicants noticed that among the all activated OPCs, though all of them captured more CO2 than previous reported SPC or NPC samples, both FFA-OPC750 and AA-OPC750, demonstrated the highest CO2 capture capability.","Thus, Applicants subsequently carried out repeated uptake experiments on different batches of both OPC750.The CO2 uptake result for FFA-OPC750 was further verified by another gravimetric uptake experiment carried out in a Rubotherm magnetic suspension balance instrument (FIG.","36C, open circles).","These uptake plots further established that at a pressure of 30 bar, FFA-OPC750 exhibited an ultrahigh CO2 capture capacity of 26.6 mmol·g−1 (117 wt %), outperforming other doped PCs by a large margin.","Moreover, OPC750 adsorbed slightly, but repeatedly, more CO2 than the recently reported activated PCs made from asphalt Versatrol-HT (26.6 versus 26 mmol·g−1).","It should be noted that the latter material required multiple activation steps, pretreatment, N-addition and reduction by H2 to be capable of adsorbing such quantity of CO2, which is in contrast with the far simpler process described herein.","In contrast, OPC750 is prepared from a simple precursor in a single activation step without N-addition or H2 reduction.","To the best of Applicants' knowledge, among the category of high CO2 uptake PC materials, FFA-OPC750 exhibits remarkable CO2 capture properties comparable to expensive MOFs with similar apparent surface area.","For example, IRMOF-1 with a surface area of 2833 m2g−1 captures about 21 mmol·g−1 of CO2 at 30 bar.","IRMOF-6 with a surface area of 2516 m2g−1 captures about 19 mmol·g−1 at 30 bar.","The overall volumetric CO2 uptake results at 30 and 10 bar, for various sorbents are compared in Table 7, while the maximum amounts of gas uptakes at 30 bar for different PC samples with corresponding surface area is represented by FIG.","37.For large scale gas uptake applications, such as removing CO2 from natural gas, it is essential for a solid sorbent to exhibit both reproducible gas uptake capability and batch to batch reproducibility.","This important requirement was examined via two experiments as shown in FIGS.","18A-18B, which displays a set of pressure dependent CO2 uptake plots for different OPC750 batches synthesized and activated same way.","Almost identical gas adsorption characteristics, up to an upper pressure limit of 30 bar, confirmed the applicability of both OPC materials as cheap but very effective sorbent for industrial application.","The other necessity for practical usage was further established by multiple cycles of gas adsorption-desorption measurements (2 cycles of adsorption and 2 cycles of desorption) that showed negligible or no hysteresis (FIG.","38C).","Applicants' multiple cycle measurements and prolonged exposure to CO2 on the same OPC sample satisfied two major requirements for practical application: no degradation in quality and no drop in gas uptake capacity.","For most of the solid sorbents, the gas uptake capacity increases with decreasing capture temperature.","At 0.5° C. and a pressure of 30 bar, FFA-OPC750 demonstrated an ultrahigh CO2 uptake capacity that maxed to 189 wt % (43 mmol·g−1) that is 60% higher than room temperature uptake (FIG.","39A).","For any solid porous sorbents with high surface area, the trend of gas uptake is: the higher the gas pressure, the higher the CO2 uptake and the uptake is both pressure and temperature dependent.","This result is further established by a set of plots describing the gas uptake capacity at four different uptake pressures as a function of experiment temperature (FIG.","39B).","At a pressure of 5 bar, the CO2 uptake varied from 5.2 to 12.6 mmol·g−1 (increased by 142%) for a temperature change of 60 to 0.5° C.; whereas, at 30 bar, the change was significantly high, uptake varied from 12.6 to 42.9 mmol·g−1 (increased by 240%).","This important result signifies the possibility of selective CO2 removal by exploiting the pressure-temperature dependent adsorption and desorption from a CO2 rich gas mixture.","Example 3.8.CO2/CH4 Selectivity The selective removal of CO2 from natural gas, which essentially contains CH4 and higher hydrocarbons along with other gases (CO2, H2S, and N2), is one of the important industrial research goals, because these contaminant gases decrease power efficiency of the natural gas.","The capture of CO2 from natural gas primarily relies on purification strategies that allow the gas mixture to pass through a column packed with solid porous materials that captures CO2 from the CH4-rich environment with minimal CH4 uptake.","Applicants have previously shown that, unlike total CO2 adsorption, the best CH4:CO2 adsorption ratio requires a PC with a surface area of more than 2000 m2g−1, a total pore volume of more than 1.0 cm3g−1, and a carbon content of less than 90 wt %.","Based upon the forgoing, both OPC750 materials meet these requirements.","The absolute CO2:CH4 selectivity test was carried out by measuring volumetric CO2 and CH4 uptake isotherms up to a high pressure limit of 30 bar at 0.5 and 24.0° C. Applicants' study focused on the selectivity of FFA-OPC750 and AA-OPC750.Two sets of volumetric CO2 and CH4 adsorption uptake measurements performed on each OPC750 sorbent, at 0.5 and 24.0° C. (FIGS.","40A-40B, respectively).","A similar set of room temperature uptake result for activated charcoal are presented in FIG.","40C.","Here, the molar uptake selectivity (ηCO2/ηCH4) is defined by the molar ratio of adsorbed CO2 and CH4 at a certain pressure (i.e., at 30 bar).","Although the surface are and pore volumes and the CO2 uptake of the two different OPC samples appear to be essentially independent of the choice of precursor (see FIGS.","29A-29B and Table 7), the same is not true of CH4 uptake.","As may be seen from Table 7, the CH4 uptake for FFA-OPC is greater than that for AA-OPC for any given activation temperature.","Given the relationship observed in FIGS.","29A-29B, this trend is also true for surface area and pore volume (FIGS.","41A-41B).","Thus, even with similar physical parameters (surface area and pore volume) OPC prepared from PFFA shows greater CH4 uptake than materials prepared from PAA.","Although the differences are about 10%, this results in a comparable difference in CO2/CH4 selectivity, with AA-OPC samples providing better selectivity than FFA-OPC samples across the range of activation temperatures (Table 7).","Another important parameter that can be determined from FIGS.","42A-42D is the corresponding isosteric heat of adsorption of CO2 and CH4 for OPC750 using the thermodynamic equations described elsewhere.","In thermodynamic point of view, isosteric heat of adsorption of a gas determines the temperature change in a sorbent as a result of adsorption of adsorbate molecules to the sorbent surface and thus, it is one of the key thermodynamic parameters that can be utilized to separate this gas from a mixture of gases.","The higher the difference between isosteric heats of adsorption for two gases the better will be the separation.","For instance, as shown by FIGS.","42A-42D, there is a higher value for the isosteric heat of adsorption of CO2 as compared CH4 (Table 9), which allows Applicants to propose a temperature dependent strategy for removing CO2 from natural gas via selective adsorption and desorption of CH4 and CO2.The results also suggest that understanding the factors controlling the difference between the values will offer a guide to the design of future adsorbents.","TABLE 9 Isosteric heat of adsorption for CO2 and CH4.Sample CO2 (kJ mol−1) CH4 (kJ mol−1) FFA-OPC750 23 13 AA-OPC750 33 14 Applicants have previously reported that with regard to CO2 uptake, the relative distribution of pores within defined ranges defined performance.","The micro- and meso-porosity analysis of these samples was determined by the t-plot method and revealed pore volume dependencies on KOH amounts (Table 10).","The absolute volumes and percentage of total pore volume for OPC750 samples as a function of the CO2/CH4 selectivity suggest that Applicants' previous proposal is correct.","The greater the relative percentage of pores less than 2 nm, the greater the CO2 uptake is in line with previous suggestions.","However, the comparison of FFA-OPC750 and AA-OPC750 provides further insight into Applicants' previous proposal that it was pores in the range of 1-2 nm that are most important in defining CO2/CH4 selectivity.","In order to recognize the PC sorbent with the highest CO2/CH4 selectivity, Applicants surveyed molar selectivity (at 30 bar) of recently explored PC sorbents such as SPC, NPC and activated charcoal and AA-OPC750.The absolute molar (CO2/CH4) uptake selectivity of OPC750 (3.05) is greater than values for SPC (2.6), reduced-NPC (2.2) and activated charcoal (1.4) and slightly higher than the recently reported asphalt Versatrol-HT derived PC (3.0).","These results clearly established that among the category of activated PC materials for selective CO2 capture from natural gas, AA-OPC750 is one of the best absorbents reported so far and much lower cost relative to SPC and NPC prepared from analogous polymers.","TABLE 10 Summary of meso (>2 nm), micro (<2 nm), and narrower micropore (<1 nm) volume (V) for OPC750 samples.","Micropore volumes determined by the t-plot method.","Within parentheses, % of the total pore volume is shown.","VMICRO VNARROW Vi VMESO VMACRO (0-2 nm) (0-1 nm) (1-2 nm) (2-50 nm) (>50 nm) Samplea (cm3g−1) (cm3g−1) (m2g−1) (cm3g−1) (m2g−1) FFA-OPC750 1.10 0.23 (13%) 0.87 (49%) 0.57 (32%) 0.10 (6%) AA-OPC750 1.24 0.12 (6%) 1.12 (60%) 0.58 (31%) 0.05 (3%) Based upon prior work, it is known that the best CO2 uptake and CO2/CH4 differentiation is obtained with a defined set of parameters involving surface area, pore volume, and carbon content.","The latter has been related to the relative percentage of pores less than 2 nm.","These results suggested that the way to prepare an ideal PC adsorbent is to use a pre-formed O-containing precursor, and the formation of both PFFA and PAA meets these needs.","Thus, the use of a designed precursor allows for the reproducible formation of an OPC material with the required physical attributes.","Furthermore, unlike NPC and SPC materials, the OPC reported herein lends to pellet formation as required for scalable processes.","In this Example, the structural features of the precursor appear to be irrelevant to the OPC that is formed when considering CO2 adsorption.","However, this is not true for CH4 adsorption and hence CO2/CH4 selectivity.","Based upon the results herein, and without being bound by theory, Applicants suggest that the identity of the precursor and the subsequent control over the pore structure is important for CH4 adsorption and hence CO2/CH4 selectivity.","In conclusion, Applicants propose in this Example that, while CO2 uptake is optimized by maximization of pores of less than 2 nm, the CO2/CH4 selectivity requires optimization of pores in the 1-2 nm range.","Example 4.The Effect of KOH Concentration in Chemical Activation of Porous Carbon Sorbents for Carbon Dioxide Uptake and Carbon Dioxide-Methane Selectivity: The Relative Formation of Micro (<2 nm) Versus Meso (>2 nm) Porosity In this Example, Applicants demonstrate that PC sorbents are synthesized from polymer precursors mixed with a chemical activation reagent and pyrolyzed (>500° C.).","KOH is known to be the best activator for a wide range of precursors, as it creates PCs with a large surface area (1200-4000 m2g−1).","In order to determine the optimum KOH:polymer ratio for both CO2 adsorption and CO2/CH4 selectivity, Applicants prepared a set of five S-containing porous carbon (SPC) samples from polythiophene (PTh) with increasing KOH:PTh ratio (1 to 5), and investigated CO2 and CH4 uptake measurements on carbonaceous SPC samples up to a pressure limit of 30 bar.","The SPCs have been characterized by XPS, SEM, TEM and BET surface area analysis.","Although the apparent surface area and total pore volume increased with increasing KOH concentration, the maximum CO2 uptake (5-30 bar) was demonstrated for samples with KOH:PTh=3.This equates to SPC samples with a surface area and total pore volume of ˜2700 m2g−1 and 1.5 cm3g−1, respectively.","Greater values for either parameter do not enhance the CO2 uptake, showing that it is not total porosity that is important.","SPC samples formed with KOH:PTh=3 show both a maximum C composition (85%), and a maximum fraction of micro (<2 nm) porosity with a concomitant decrease in meso-pores (>2 nm).","KOH:PTh=3 is also the synthetic conditions to maximize CH4 uptake (5-30 bar).","However, the optimum CO2/CH4 selectivity occurred with KOH:PTh=2.This correlates with different surface area (2,200 m2g−1) and total pore volume (1.2 cm3g−1) that required for optimum CO2 uptake.","These results suggest that process conditions that lead to high relative micro porosity need to be considered rather than total surface area or pore volume.","These results also suggest that, besides surface area and total pore volume of a particular sample, the relative composition of meso and micro porosity is the defining structural feature for optimizing CO2 uptake.","Example 4.1.Materials and Methods FeCl3, 2-thiophenemethanol (purchased from Sigma Aldrich, 98% purity), CH3CN, powdered KOH, distilled water, acetone, HCl, Ar (99.9% pure), CO2 (99.99% pure, Matheson TRIGAS) and CH4 (99.9% pure) were used as supplied.","Polymer precursors and SPC materials were characterized by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), high resolution transmission electron microscopy (HRTEM) and BET surface area analysis.","The XPS measurements were carried out in a PHI Quantera scanning XPS microprobe.","The wt % of chemical elements was determined by XPS survey scans with pass energy of 140 eV.","For detailed elemental analysis, high-resolution multi-cycle elemental scans with pass energy 26 eV was performed.","Each spectrum was then deconvoluted by appropriate basis functions.","Before spectral fitting, each spectrum was corrected for reference binding energy for C1s to 284.8 eV.","FTIR spectral measurements were performed in a Nicolet FTIR Infrared Microscope equipped with a liquid N2 cooled detector.","Scanning electron microscopic images were obtained by a FEI Quanta 400 ESEM FEG high-resolution field emission scanning electron microscope.","The high-resolution TEM images of activated SPCs were obtained by a JEOL 2100 field emission gun transmission electron microscope.","The textural properties (i.e., surface areas, distributions of pore volumes and total pore volume) of carbonaceous materials were obtained by analyzing N2 sorption isotherms (measured at 77 K), measured in a Quantachrome Autosorb-3b BET Surface Analyzer.","Before measurements, samples were dried at 130° C. for 6 hours under high vacuum system equipped with a liquid N2 cold trap.","The apparent BET surface area (SBET) was calculated from N2 adsorption isotherms in the partial pressure (P/P0) range of 0.05-0.30 by the multipoint BET (Brunauer-Emmett-Teller) method.","The total pore volume was estimated from the amount of adsorbed N2 at P/P0=0.99.The distributions of pore volumes were determined by analyzing the data via non-local density functional theory.","Pore volumes and surface area of micropores were determined by analyzing N2 isotherms by t-plot method.","Results are given in Table 11.TABLE 11 Summary of PC and SPC samples studied with their elemental analysis, physical properties, and CO2 uptakes.","Surface area Total pore CO2 uptake CO2 uptake C O S SBET volume VP at 30 bar at 30 bar Samplea (wt %)b (wt %)b (wt %)b (m2g−1) (cm3g−1) (mmol · g−1) (mg · g−1) Act.","94.10 5.90 0.00 845 0.47 8.45 372 charcoalc BPLd 91.30 8.70 0.00 951 0.53 8.66 381 SPC-1 76.96 14.30 8.74 1680 0.98 14.68 646 SPC-2 78.89 13.73 7.37 2180 1.22 19.18 844 SPC-3 85.53 13.70 0.77 2675 1.51 22.64 996 SPC-4 84.63 15.37 0.00 2860 1.66 21.82 960 SPC-5 84.38 15.62 0.00 2980 1.76 21.29 937 PTh 61.45 5.39 29.49 40 0.02 2.40 106 aPC-KOH:precursor ratio.","All SPC samples were activated at 700° C. bDetermined by XPS.","cPurchased from Mallinckrodt chemical works.","dPurchased from Calgon carbon corp. Total pore volumes are measured at P/P0 ~0.99.z Example 4.2.Synthesis of S-Containing Polymer Precursor (PTh) The polymer precursor was prepared by a modification of previously reported protocols.","A solution of 2-thiophenemethanol (5 g, Sigma Aldrich, 98% purity) mixed with CH3CN (20 mL) was slowly added to a solution of FeCl3 (25 g) in CH3CN (200 mL).","The mixture was stirred for 2 hours under continuous Ar purging.","The brown polythiophene (PTh) was separated by filtration, washed with DI water (4 L) and acetone (1 L), and dried at 60° C. for 12 hours under vacuum (Yield=98%).","Example 4.3.Conversion of PTh to S-Containing Porous Carbon (SPC) In a typical activation process, PTh (500 mg) was thoroughly mixed with KOH powder (crushed previously, with KOH:PTh weight ratio varying from 1 to 5) in a mortar for 10 minutes.","The mixture was then placed inside a quartz tube/tube furnace, dried for 10 minutes and then heated for 1 hour at a stable temperature of 700° C., under a flow of Ar (99.9%, flow rate 600 sccm).","The activated samples were then washed with DI water, HCl (100 mL, 1.4 M) to remove excess inorganic salt residue and DI water until the filtrate attained pH=7.The product was dried at 80° C. for 12 hours under vacuum.","Example 4.4.CO2 and CH4 Uptake Measurements The volumetric uptake measurements (pressure dependent excess isotherms) of CO2 and CH4 were performed in an automated Sievert instrument (Setaram PCTPRO).","Various OPC samples were first crushed into powders and packed in a stainless steel autoclave sample cell.","Initial sample pre-treatment was carried out at 130° C. for 1.5 hours under high vacuum.","The free volume inside the sample cell was determined by a series of calibration procedures done under helium.","Gas uptake experiments were carried out with high purity research grade CO2 (99.99% purity, Matheson TRIGAS) and CH4 (99.9% purity).","A summary of selected results is given in Table 11.Example 4.5.Results and Discussion The polymer precursor Applicants selected for the synthesis of activated sulfur containing porous carbon (SPC) sorbents is poly[2-thiophenemethanol] (PTh) synthesized by reacting with FeCl3 following the protocol reported elsewhere.","This polymer was further activated by a strong oxidant, KOH, at a fixed temperature under inert atmosphere.","In general, the optimization procedure for synthesis of a PC sorbent with high surface area, from a polymer precursor activated by KOH, depends on two major parameters: finding the right KOH to PTh weight ratio; and the identification of the correct temperature of activation that gave satisfactory porosity and yield.","Earlier reports suggest that the porosity of a SPC sorbent increased with activation temperature.","However, a final yield of the activated product decreased significantly with activation temperature above 700° C. Additionally, previous reports suggest that the overall porosity and the surface area of a chemically activated PC material increase with KOH concentration.","Therefore, Applicants synthesized a set of SPC samples activated at a fixed activation temperature with gradually increasing KOH:PTh ratio r, where r varies from 1 to 5.These samples are labelled by SPC-r (Table 11).","The structural and textural morphology of synthesized PTh and activated SPC samples were characterized by scanning electron microscopy (SEM).","The precursor demonstrated more rigid rock like blunt texture (FIG.","43A), while the SEM image of a SPC-2 sample (FIG.","43B) exhibits a texture full of micron size holes, multiple corners and edges that are absent in the precursor.","The energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS) confirmed that the SPCs are primarily composed of carbon, oxygen and sulfur.","Example 4.6.CO2 Uptake The volumetric CO2 excess uptake (mmol of adsorbed CO2 per g of sample) measurements for the SPC sorbent specimens activated at 700° C. with different KOH:PTh weight ratio are shown in FIG.","44 as a function of adsorbate pressure for the labelled SPC specimens, PTh and commercial charcoal powders (Mallinckrodt Chemical Works).","In this set of isotherms, the C-precursor PTh adsorbed the least amount of CO2 and the SPC-1 specimen demonstrated twice as much CO2 adsorption as activated charcoal at 30 bar.","The difference in the shape of uptake isotherms confirms that gas uptake strongly depends on the KOH:PTh weight ratio (r).","In particular, higher values of r correlate with higher uptake amounts for a specific adsorbate pressure (>12 bar up to r=3).","Moreover, the SPC-4 and SPC-5 samples captured less CO2 than SPC-3.The reproducibility of both the synthesis and the measurements is shown by a comparison of the volumetric CO2 excess uptake of two batches of SPC-4 (FIG.","45).","Additional information for the dependence of gas uptake amounts at a specific pressure on the KOH:PTh weight ratio is presented by FIG.","46.The CO2 capturing capacity increased from r=1 to 3 and then decreased again at higher r values.","Previous low pressure studies (1 bar) results for KOH activation of petroleum coke show that KOH ratio of 3 and 4 show similar results.","Decreased uptake for SPC-4 and SPC-5 would have been expected to be a consequence of decreased surface area and/or pore volume.","However, as seen from FIGS.","47A-47B, such expectation is not true.","Instead, above a surface area value of 2675 m2g−1 and total pore volume of 1.51 cm3g−1, the gas uptake began to drop.","This indicates that there are other factors besides surface area and pore volume that influence the CO2 uptake capacity of a specific SPC sample.","The chemical composition of the SPCs activated with different amounts of KOH was determined by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) and compared with PTh and commercial activated carbons.","Applicants note that XPS only provides surface (and near surface) chemical composition that may differ from bulk chemical composition.","However, surface composition is what matters in a surface adsorption process.","It should also be noted that the H content is not provided by XPS data.","Therefore, percentage values measured by other techniques will vary.","The wt % of elements present as determined by XPS survey scans is presented in Table 11.The PTh and consequently the SPC-r samples were primarily composed of C, O, and S and chemical activation by increasing amount KOH gradually changed wt % of all three elements.","FIGS.","48A-48B depict these changes.","Applicants have previously determined that for a wide range of PCs, the maximum CO2 uptake occurs when the C composition (as determined by XPS) is in the range 80-95 wt %.","In this Example, this range may be further specified as being more than 85%.","However, the most important observation is that the trend observed in FIGS.","48A-48B is essentially the same as in FIG.","46.In particular, as indicated in FIG.","49, the CO2 uptake increases with percentage of carbon content rather than the expected relationship with surface area or pore volume.","By consideration of the change in S content with increasing KOH:PTh ratio, it is clear that the loss of the majority of S correlates with the formation of PC samples with the highest CO2 uptake (e.g., comparison between FIGS.","46 and 48B).","However, replacement of S with O (at high KOH:PTh ratios) decreases the CO2 uptake.","Clearly, there is some significant physical change that occurs in these two regimes.","In order to determine if there are distinct structural features that are associated with the C % and hence CO2 uptake, Applicants have determined the pore structure changes that occur with KOH:PTh ratio.","The surface area, total pore volume and pore size distribution of SPC samples activated with different KOH:PTh ratios were determined by measuring low temperature (77 K) N2 adsorption isotherms in a BET (Brunauer-Emmett-Teller) surface area analyzer.","FIG.","50 shows such set of isotherms for five SPC-r samples activated at 700° C. Here, KOH:PTh ratio dependent differences in the shape of these isotherms was noticed.","The isotherms for SPC-3 to SPC-5 are much steeper than SPC-1 or SPC-2 in the relative pressure range 0.05-0.3, defining rapid increase of surface area and adsorption capacity with higher amount of KOH.","The estimated surface area (SBET) and the total pore volume (Vp) gradually increased with activation temperature (FIGS.","51A and 51B, respectively), describing the incremental trend for mildly to strongly activation conditions.","As expected, the surface area increases with increased KOH:PTh ratio, although there is a change in the relationship above KOH:PTh=3.A similar trend is observed for the total pore volume (FIG.","51B), and the two show a near linear relationship.","These demonstrate the strong influence of KOH on the porous properties of activated samples.","One key piece of information that can be obtained from the BET surface area analysis is the pore size distributions as a function of pore sizes of a specific porous solid.","FIG.","52 plots pore size distribution as a function of pore size for a set of five SPCs activated with mild (KOH:PTh=1) to strong (KOH:PTh=5) activation conditions.","These plots show that SPC-1 sample primarily contains pores narrower than ˜2 nm.","As the KOH amount increases, wider pores began to form as evidenced by the PSD plot for SPC-2.Samples activated with minimal amount of KOH (i.e., SPC-1) contained pores in the range of 1-3 nm.","In contrast, the distribution plots for SPC-4 and SPC-5 indicate that chemical activation with large amounts of KOH created some additional mesopores in the 3-4.5 nm range.","The SPC-5 sample even contained pores larger than 4 nm.","Confirmation of the pore sizes is obtained from high resolution transmission electron microscopy (HRTEM).","For example, FIG.","53 displays an image of SPC-2, demonstrating randomly distributed micropores with dimension in the range of 1-2 nm.","It is clear from FIG.","51B that total pore volumes (sum of pore volumes of narrower micro (<1 nm), micro, meso and macro-sized pores) systematically increase with KOH:PTh ratio.","In addition, volume change behaves differently for different sizes of pores.","The micro- and meso-porosity analysis of these samples was determined by the t-plot method and revealed pore volume dependencies on KOH amounts (Table 12).","FIGS.","54A-54B depict absolute volumes and percentage of total pore volume for a set of five SPC samples as a function of the KOH:PTh ratio.","In contrast to total pore volumes (FIG.","51B), the relative pore composition of micropores (defined as <2 nm) shows a marked increase with increased KOH:PTh ratio until SPC-3, above which the fraction of the total pore volume associated with these size regimes decreases (FIG.","54A).","The mesopore composition shows the obverse trend.","Interestingly, the micropore volumes show the strongest dependence on KOH.","TABLE 12 Summary of meso (>2 nm), micro (<2 nm), and narrower micropore (<1 nm) volume (V) for PC and SPC samples studied .",".",".","VMICRO VNARROW Vi VMESO VMACRO (0-2 nm) (0-1 nm) (1-2 nm) (2-50 nm) (>50 nm) Samplea (cm3g−1) (cm3g−1) (m2g−1) (cm3g−1) (m2g−1) Act.","Charcoalb 0.32 0.11 (23%) 0.21 (45%) 0.11 (24%) 0.04 (8%) BPLc 0.38 0.13 (25%) 0.25 (47%) 0.12 (23%) 0.03 (5%) SPC-1 0.71 0.19(19%) 0.52 (54%) 0.18 (18%) 0.09 (9%) SPC-2 0.76 0.16 (13%) 0.60 (49%) 0.35 (29%) 0.11 (9%) SPC-3 1.01 0.18 (12%) 0.83 (55%) 0.38 (25%) 0.12 (8%) SPC-4 0.87 0.16 (10%) 0.71 (43%) 0.64 (38%) 0.15 (9%) SPC-5 0.88 0.10 (6%) 0.78 (44%) 0.72 (41%) 0.16 (9%) aPC-KOH:precursor ratio.","All SPC samples were activated at 700° C. bPurchased from Mallinckrodt chemical works.","cPurchased from Calgon carbon corp. Micropore volumes are determined by t-plot method.","Micropores include pores between 0.4 to 2 nm.","Within parentheses, % of total pore volumes is shown.","The relationship between relative composition of the various pore sizes and the CO2 uptake is shown in FIGS.","55A-55C.","This clearly shows that, in order to maximize CO2 uptake, activation conditions (in this case KOH:PTh ratio) should be chosen to maximize the relative narrower micro and micro pores (especially those between 1-2 nm) rather than requiring solely on ever increasing surface area or pore volume.","A comparison of FIG.","54B with FIG.","48A suggests that narrower micropore formation is associated with the increased C content.","However, mesopore formation appears to be controlled by increased O content.","Previous work with carbide-derived carbons (CDCs) and PCs (at 1 bar) suggests that it is the pore volume less than 1 nm that is important.","In contrast, it has also been suggested that mesopores (>2 nm) are the most important.","There has also been a proposal that the important sizes depend on the pressure used.","Applicants' results clearly show that, at higher pressures (>10 bar) it is a larger set (1-2 nm) that is controlling CO2 uptake.","Example 4.7.CO2/CH4 Selectivity The selective removal of CO2 from natural gas, which essentially contains CH4 and other gases such as CO2, H2S, and N2, is one of the important industrial research goals, because these contaminant gases decrease power efficiency of the natural gas.","Thus, Applicants have been directed to explore selective CO2 capture capacity of different carbon-based porous sorbents at different gas pressure and temperature.","For an ideal sorbent for selective removal of CO2 from natural gas, the sorbent should demonstrate significantly lower CH4 uptake than CO2.In order to compare high pressure CH4 uptake capacities of five SPC samples with their CO2 uptakes, Applicants measured room temperature volumetric CH4 uptake of same set of samples under similar condition.","FIG.","56 represents a set of such uptake isotherms.","In contrast to CO2 uptake isotherms, Applicants see two distinct sets of isotherms.","One set comprises SPC-1 and SPC-2 and the other for SPC-3, 4, and 5.This feature is further demonstrated by a set of plots showing dependence of CH4 uptake on the KOH:PTh weight ratio of the corresponding sorbent at a specific capture pressure (FIG.","57).","For example, at 30 bar, there was negligible difference in CH4 uptakes of all three samples SPC-3 to 5 (˜9 mmol·g−1), suggesting that the amount of KOH had much weaker effect on the CH4 uptake property relative to than CO2 uptake, though surface area and porosity had changed significantly.","The molar uptake selectivity (molar CO2:CH4 uptake ratio) for the SPC samples as a function of gas pressure is shown in FIG.","58A.","The selectivity traces for SPC-1 to SPC-3 varied smoothly between 10 to 30 bar.","The dependence of high pressure selectivity at 30 bar on the KOH:PTh ratios, surface area and total pore volume of the corresponding SPCs are presented in FIGS.","58B-58D, respectively.","Surprisingly, the SPC-2 sample (with surface area=2180 m2g−1 and total pore volume=1.22 cm3g−1) demonstrated highest molar selectivity (2.68) at 30 bar, though SPC-3 exhibited the highest CO2 uptake.","The shift from KOH:PTh ratio of 3 to 2 for optimum selectivity as opposed to uptake for both CO2 and CH4 is due to the relative shape of the uptake as a function of reagent ratios (e.g., comparison of FIGS.","46 and 57).","While the CO2 uptake increased uniformly with KOH:PTh ratio from 1 to 3, that for CH4 is a step function.","This suggests that, in determining optimum selectivity, it is important to understand the variations between CO2 and CH4 adsorption rather than the maximum for both.","Applicants' prior work has demonstrated that the best CO2 uptake and CO2/CH4 differentiation is obtained with a defined set of parameters involving surface area, pore volume, and carbon content which are in turn a function of the polymer precursor and the process activation temperature.","In this Example, Applicants extend this work and demonstrate that there is an optimum KOH:PTh ratio for activation of the SPC.","The ratio for optimum CO2 (and CH4 uptake) is 3, which equates to SPC samples with a surface area and total pore volume of 2700 m2g−1 and 1.5 cm3g−1, respectively.","In contrast, the ratio is 2 for the best CO2/CH4 differentiation, which produces a surface area of 2,200 m2g−1 and total pore volume of 1.2 cm3g−1.Moreover, in this Example, Applicants demonstrate that the optimum CO2 uptake is not for a material with the highest pore volume or surface area, but for the material with SBET>2000 m2g−1 and the highest percentage of a maximum fraction of narrower micro (<1 nm) and micro (<2 nm) porosity as compared to meso-pores (>2 nm).","Increasing in the latter type of pores does increase both the surface area and pore volume, but not the CO2 uptake.","Without further elaboration, it is believed that one skilled in the art can, using the description herein, utilize the present disclosure to its fullest extent.","The embodiments described herein are to be construed as illustrative and not as constraining the remainder of the disclosure in any way whatsoever.","While the embodiments have been shown and described, many variations and modifications thereof can be made by one skilled in the art without departing from the spirit and teachings of the invention.","Accordingly, the scope of protection is not limited by the description set out above, but is only limited by the claims, including all equivalents of the subject matter of the claims.","The disclosures of all patents, patent applications and publications cited herein are hereby incorporated herein by reference, to the extent that they provide procedural or other details consistent with and supplementary to those set forth herein."]],"string":"[\n [\n \"METHOD, SYNTHESIS, ACTIVATION PROCEDURE AND CHARACTERIZATION OF AN OXYGEN RICH ACTIVATED POROUS CARBON SORBENT FOR SELECTIVE REMOVAL OF CARBON DIOXIDE WITH ULTRA HIGH CAPACITY\",\n \"The present disclosure pertains to methods of capturing CO2 from an environment at pressures above 1 bar by associating the environment with a porous material that has a surface area of at least 2,800 m2/g, and a total pore volume of at least 1.35 cm3/g, where a majority of pores of the porous material have diameters of less than 2 nm.\",\n \"The present disclosure also pertains to methods for the separation of CO2 from natural gas in an environment at partial pressures of either component above 1 bar by associating the environment with a porous material that has a surface area of at least 2,200 m2/g, and a total pore volume of at least 1.00 cm3/g, where a majority of pores of the porous material have diameters of greater than 1 nm and less than 2 nm.\"\n ],\n [\n \"1.A method of capturing CO2 from an environment at pressures above 1 bar, the method comprising: associating the environment with a porous material, wherein the porous material comprises a surface area of at least 2,800 m2/g, and a total pore volume of at least 1.35 cm3/g, wherein a majority of pores of the porous material have diameters of less than 2 nm as measured from N2 sorption isotherms using the BET (Brunauer-Emmett-Teller) method, and wherein the associating results in CO2 capture from the environment by the porous material.\",\n \"2.The method of claim 1, wherein more than about 60% of pores of the porous material have diameters of less than 2 nm.\",\n \"3.The method of claim 1, wherein the porous material has an oxygen content of more than about 7 wt % as measured by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy.\",\n \"4.The method of claim 1, wherein the porous material has an oxygen content between about 7 wt % and about 18 wt % as measured by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy.\",\n \"5.The method of claim 1, wherein the environment is a natural gas containing environment, an environment containing a mixture of gases, or combinations thereof.\",\n \"6.The method of claim 1, wherein the CO2 capture occurs by adsorption of the CO2 to the porous material.\",\n \"7.The method of claim 1, wherein the CO2 capture occurs selectively over hydrocarbons in the environment.\",\n \"8.The method of claim 1, wherein the porous material has a molar CO2/CH4 selectivity of at least about 2.5.9.The method of claim 1, wherein the porous material has a CO2 sorption capacity of at least about 100 wt % at 30 bar.\",\n \"10.The method of claim 1, wherein the porous material comprises a porous carbon material with a carbon content of between 80% and 95% as measured by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy.\",\n \"11.The method of claim 10, further comprising a step of preparing the porous carbon material prior to the step of associating the porous material with the environment.\",\n \"12.The method of claim 11, wherein the porous carbon material is prepared by heating an organic polymer precursor or biological material in the presence of an activating agent, wherein the activating agent optionally comprises KOH or steam, and wherein the temperature of activation is between 700° C. and 800° C. 13.The method of claim 12, wherein the organic polymer precursor or biological material comprises oxygen in a functional group.\",\n \"14.The method of claim 13, wherein the functional group comprises a furyl, and wherein the organic polymer precursor polymerizes to form polyfurfuryl alcohol.\",\n \"15.The method of claim 13, wherein the functional group comprises an anisyl, and wherein the organic polymer precursor polymerizes to form polyanisyl alcohol.\",\n \"16.The method of claim 15, wherein the polyanisyl alcohol is prepared by the polymerization of anisyl alcohol with a catalyst, wherein the catalyst optionally comprises a protic acid.\",\n \"17.A method for the separation of CO2 from natural gas in an environment at partial pressures of either component above 1 bar, the method comprising: associating the environment with a porous material, wherein the porous material comprises a surface area of at least 2,200 m2/g, and a total pore volume of at least 1.00 cm3/g, wherein a majority of pores of the porous material have diameters of greater than 1 nm and less than 2 nm as measured from N2 sorption isotherms using the BET (Brunauer-Emmett-Teller) method, and wherein the associating results in CO2 capture from the environment by the porous material.\",\n \"18.The method of claim 17, wherein the porous material has an oxygen content of more than about 7 wt % as measured by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy.\",\n \"19.The method of claim 17, wherein the porous material has an oxygen content between about 7 wt % and about 18 wt % as measured by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy.\",\n \"20.The method of claim 17, wherein the environment is a natural gas containing environment, an environment containing a mixture of gases, or combinations thereof.\",\n \"21.The method of claim 17, wherein the CO2 capture occurs by adsorption of the CO2 to the porous material.\",\n \"22.The method of claim 17, wherein the CO2 capture occurs selectively over hydrocarbons in the environment.\",\n \"23.The method of claim 17, wherein the porous material has a molar CO2/CH4 selectivity of at least about 2.5.24.The method of claim 17, wherein the porous material has a CO2 sorption capacity of at least about 100 wt % at 30 bar.\",\n \"25.The method of claim 17, wherein the porous material comprises a porous carbon material with a carbon content of between 80% and 95% as measured by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy.\",\n \"26.The method of claim 25, further comprising a step of preparing the porous carbon material prior to the step of associating the porous material with the environment.\",\n \"27.The method of claim 26, wherein the porous carbon material is prepared by heating an organic polymer precursor or biological material in the presence of an activating agent, wherein the activating agent optionally comprises KOH or steam, and wherein the temperature of activation is between 700° C. and 800° C. 28.The method of claim 27, wherein the organic polymer precursor comprises oxygen in a functional group.\",\n \"29.The method of claim 28, wherein the functional group comprises a furyl, and wherein the organic polymer precursor polymerizes to form polyfurfuryl alcohol.\",\n \"30.The method of claim 28, wherein the functional group comprises an anisyl, and wherein the organic polymer precursor polymerizes to form polyanisyl alcohol.\"\n ],\n [\n \" BACKGROUND Current materials for capturing carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) suffer from numerous limitations, including limited CO 2 sorption capacity and selectivity.\",\n \"Various embodiments of the present disclosure address these limitations.\"\n ],\n [\n \" SUMMARY In some embodiments, the present disclosure pertains to materials for CO 2 adsorption at pressures above 1 bar.\",\n \"In some embodiments, the materials include a porous material with a surface area of at least 2,800 m 2 /g, and a total pore volume of at least 1.35 cm 3 /g.\",\n \"In some embodiments, a majority of pores of the porous materials have diameters of less than 2 nm as measured from N 2 sorption isotherms using the BET (Brunauer-Emmett-Teller) method.\",\n \"In some embodiments, the present disclosure pertains to materials for the separation of CO 2 from natural gas at partial pressures of either component above 1 bar.\",\n \"In some embodiments, the materials include a porous material with a surface area of at least 2,200 m 2 /g, and a total pore volume of at least 1.00 cm 3 /g.\",\n \"In some embodiments, a majority of pores of the porous materials have diameters of greater than 1 nm and less than 2 nm as measured from N 2 sorption isotherms using the BET (Brunauer-Emmett-Teller) method.\",\n \"In some embodiments, the porous materials of the present disclosure include a porous carbon material with a carbon content of between 80% and 95% as measured by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy.\",\n \"In some embodiments, the porous materials of the present disclosure include a porous carbon material with a surface area of at least 2,800 m 2 /g, a total pore volume of at least 1.35 cm 3 /g, and a carbon content of between 80% and 95% as measured by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy.\",\n \"In additional embodiments, the present disclosure pertains to materials for the separation of CO 2 from natural gas at partial pressures of either component above 1 bar.\",\n \"In some embodiments, the materials include a porous carbon material with a surface area of at least 2,000 m 2 /g, a total pore volume of at least 1.00 cm 3 /g, and a carbon content of greater than 90% as measured by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy.\",\n \"In some embodiments, the porous carbon materials of the present disclosure are prepared by heating an organic polymer precursor or biological material in the presence of potassium hydroxide (KOH).\",\n \"In some embodiments, the temperature of activation is between 700° C. and 800° C. In some embodiments, the temperature of activation is between 600° C. and 700° C. In some embodiments, the porous carbon materials of the present disclosure are prepared by heating an organic polymer precursor.\",\n \"In some embodiments, the organic polymer precursor includes oxygen in a functional group.\",\n \"In some embodiments, the functional group is a furyl.\",\n \"In some embodiments, the organic polymer precursor is furfuryl alcohol.\",\n \"In some embodiments, the organic polymer precursor polymerizes to form polyfurfuryl alcohol (PFFA).\",\n \"In some embodiments, PFFA is prepared by the polymerization of furfuryl alcohol with a catalyst.\",\n \"In some embodiments, the catalyst is iron(III) chloride.\",\n \"In some embodiments, the functional group is an anisyl.\",\n \"In some embodiments, the organic polymer precursor is anisyl alcohol (AA).\",\n \"In some embodiments, the organic polymer precursor polymerizes to form polyanisyl alcohol (PAA).\",\n \"In some embodiments, PAA is prepared by the polymerization of AA with a catalyst.\",\n \"In some embodiments, the catalyst is a protic acid.\",\n \"In some embodiments, the porous carbon materials of the present disclosure are prepared by heating a biological material.\",\n \"In some embodiments, the biological material includes, without limitation, sawdust, coconut husk, and combinations thereof.\",\n \"In some embodiments, the biological material is chosen from at least one of the following: sawdust and coconut husk.\",\n \"Additional embodiments pertain to methods of making the materials of the present disclosure.\",\n \"Further embodiments pertain to utilizing the materials of the present disclosure for the capture of CO 2 from various environments.\"\n ],\n [\n \"CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser.\",\n \"No.\",\n \"15/631,341, filed on Jun.\",\n \"23, 2017, which is a continuation-in-part application of U.S. patent application Ser.\",\n \"No.\",\n \"15/200,632, filed on Jul.\",\n \"1, 2016, which claims priority to U.S.\",\n \"Provisional Patent Application No.\",\n \"62/187,744, filed on Jul.\",\n \"1, 2015.The entirety of each of the aforementioned applications is incorporated herein by reference.\",\n \"STATEMENT REGARDING FEDERALLY SPONSORED RESEARCH Not applicable.\",\n \"BACKGROUND Current materials for capturing carbon dioxide (CO2) suffer from numerous limitations, including limited CO2 sorption capacity and selectivity.\",\n \"Various embodiments of the present disclosure address these limitations.\",\n \"SUMMARY In some embodiments, the present disclosure pertains to materials for CO2 adsorption at pressures above 1 bar.\",\n \"In some embodiments, the materials include a porous material with a surface area of at least 2,800 m2/g, and a total pore volume of at least 1.35 cm3/g.\",\n \"In some embodiments, a majority of pores of the porous materials have diameters of less than 2 nm as measured from N2 sorption isotherms using the BET (Brunauer-Emmett-Teller) method.\",\n \"In some embodiments, the present disclosure pertains to materials for the separation of CO2 from natural gas at partial pressures of either component above 1 bar.\",\n \"In some embodiments, the materials include a porous material with a surface area of at least 2,200 m2/g, and a total pore volume of at least 1.00 cm3/g.\",\n \"In some embodiments, a majority of pores of the porous materials have diameters of greater than 1 nm and less than 2 nm as measured from N2 sorption isotherms using the BET (Brunauer-Emmett-Teller) method.\",\n \"In some embodiments, the porous materials of the present disclosure include a porous carbon material with a carbon content of between 80% and 95% as measured by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy.\",\n \"In some embodiments, the porous materials of the present disclosure include a porous carbon material with a surface area of at least 2,800 m2/g, a total pore volume of at least 1.35 cm3/g, and a carbon content of between 80% and 95% as measured by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy.\",\n \"In additional embodiments, the present disclosure pertains to materials for the separation of CO2 from natural gas at partial pressures of either component above 1 bar.\",\n \"In some embodiments, the materials include a porous carbon material with a surface area of at least 2,000 m2/g, a total pore volume of at least 1.00 cm3/g, and a carbon content of greater than 90% as measured by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy.\",\n \"In some embodiments, the porous carbon materials of the present disclosure are prepared by heating an organic polymer precursor or biological material in the presence of potassium hydroxide (KOH).\",\n \"In some embodiments, the temperature of activation is between 700° C. and 800° C. In some embodiments, the temperature of activation is between 600° C. and 700° C. In some embodiments, the porous carbon materials of the present disclosure are prepared by heating an organic polymer precursor.\",\n \"In some embodiments, the organic polymer precursor includes oxygen in a functional group.\",\n \"In some embodiments, the functional group is a furyl.\",\n \"In some embodiments, the organic polymer precursor is furfuryl alcohol.\",\n \"In some embodiments, the organic polymer precursor polymerizes to form polyfurfuryl alcohol (PFFA).\",\n \"In some embodiments, PFFA is prepared by the polymerization of furfuryl alcohol with a catalyst.\",\n \"In some embodiments, the catalyst is iron(III) chloride.\",\n \"In some embodiments, the functional group is an anisyl.\",\n \"In some embodiments, the organic polymer precursor is anisyl alcohol (AA).\",\n \"In some embodiments, the organic polymer precursor polymerizes to form polyanisyl alcohol (PAA).\",\n \"In some embodiments, PAA is prepared by the polymerization of AA with a catalyst.\",\n \"In some embodiments, the catalyst is a protic acid.\",\n \"In some embodiments, the porous carbon materials of the present disclosure are prepared by heating a biological material.\",\n \"In some embodiments, the biological material includes, without limitation, sawdust, coconut husk, and combinations thereof.\",\n \"In some embodiments, the biological material is chosen from at least one of the following: sawdust and coconut husk.\",\n \"Additional embodiments pertain to methods of making the materials of the present disclosure.\",\n \"Further embodiments pertain to utilizing the materials of the present disclosure for the capture of CO2 from various environments.\",\n \"DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES FIGS.\",\n \"1A-1B provide data relating to high pressure CO2 uptake (at 30 bar and 24° C.) as a function of the surface area (FIG.\",\n \"1A) and total pore volume (FIG.\",\n \"1B) for a range of porous carbons (PCs), including N-containing PCs (NPCs) and S-containing PCs (SPCs).\",\n \"Also shown are data relating to high pressure CO2 uptake at different pressures as a function of surface area (FIG.\",\n \"1C) and total pore volume (FIG.\",\n \"1D).\",\n \"A comparison of the total pore volume as a function of surface area for a range of PCs, NPCs and SPCs is also shown (FIG.\",\n \"1E).\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"2 provides a plot of CO2 uptake at 30 bar and 24° C. as a function of activation temperature for PC, NPC, and SPC samples.\",\n \"FIGS.\",\n \"3A-3B provide estimated surface area (FIG.\",\n \"3A) and total pore volume (FIG.\",\n \"3B) as a function of activation temperature for PC, NPC and SPC samples.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"4 provides comparative data relating to CO2 uptake as a function of CO2 pressure on N-containing polymer polypyrrole (PPy) precursors and PPy precursors activated at different temperatures (PPy-T-2).\",\n \"Sorption measurements were performed at 24° C. FIG.\",\n \"5 provides N2 adsorption isotherms for four different NPC samples of PPy-T-2 prepared from polypyrrole and activated at the labelled temperature (T).\",\n \"Sorption measurements were performed at 24° C. FIGS.\",\n \"6A-6B provide data relating to the determination of pore structures by N2 physisorption isotherms of PPy-T-2 samples activated at different temperatures by N2 physisorption isotherms.\",\n \"Shown are the estimated surface area (FIG.\",\n \"6A) and total pore volume (FIG.\",\n \"6B) versus activation temperature.\",\n \"FIGS.\",\n \"7A-7H show additional related data for PPy-T-2 samples.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"7A shows the pore size distributions of PPy-T-2 samples prepared at the three activation temperatures shown, as determined by the non-local density functional theory (NLDFT) method.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"7B shows a scanning electron microscope (SEM) image of a PPy-600-2 sample.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"7C shows high resolution transmission electron microscope (HRTEM) images of the PPy-600-2 sample.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"7D summarizes high pressure volumetric CO2 adsorption uptake measurements on PPy-800-2 and PPy-800-4, showing the effect of the KOH:precursor ratio.\",\n \"Sorption measurements were performed at 24° C. Also shown are typical X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) survey scans for the polypyrrole precursor (FIG.\",\n \"7E) and PPy-600-2 NPC samples (FIG.\",\n \"7F).\",\n \"Also shown are the wt % determined by XPS of elemental carbon (FIG.\",\n \"7G) and oxygen and nitrogen versus activation temperature (FIG.\",\n \"7H) for the PPy precursor and PPy-T-2 samples.\",\n \"FIGS.\",\n \"8A-8B show high pressure (30 bar) CO2 uptake as a function of N wt % (FIG.\",\n \"8A) and S wt % (FIG.\",\n \"8B) in NPC and SPC samples, respectively.\",\n \"Also shown are high pressure CO2 adsorption uptake for PAn-600-3 compared with PPy-600-2 (FIG.\",\n \"8C) and SD-M-800-4 compared with PPy-800-4 (FIG.\",\n \"8D).\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"8E shows the dependence of volumetric CO2 uptake on N content for PPy-T-2 samples in comparison to the PPy precursor measured at different CO2 pressures.\",\n \"Sorption measurements were performed at 24° C. FIGS.\",\n \"9A-9B show high pressure (30 bar) CO2 uptake as a function of 0 wt % (FIG.\",\n \"9A) and Σ(O,N,S) wt % (FIG.\",\n \"9B) in PC, NPC and SPC samples.\",\n \"Sorption measurements were performed at 24° C. FIGS.\",\n \"10A-10B show room temperature volumetric CO2 (FIG.\",\n \"10A) and methane (CH4) (FIG.\",\n \"10B) adsorption isotherms for PC, NPC, and SPC samples.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"10C shows the molar CO2:CH4 uptake ratio as a function of gas pressure for PC, NPC, and SPC samples.\",\n \"FIGS.\",\n \"11A-11B show plots of molar CO2:CH4 uptake ratio (@ 30 bar) as a function of the surface area (FIG.\",\n \"11A) and total pore volume (FIG.\",\n \"11B) for a range of PC, NPC and SPC samples.\",\n \"Sorption measurements were performed at 24° C. FIGS.\",\n \"12A-12D show plots of molar CO2:CH4 uptake ratio (@ 30 bar) as a function of the surface area (FIG.\",\n \"12A), total pore volume (FIG.\",\n \"12B), activation temperature (FIG.\",\n \"12C), and CO2 uptake (FIG.\",\n \"12D) for PPy-T-2 (T=500, 600, 700 and 800° C.) NPC samples.\",\n \"Sorption measurements were performed at 24° C. FIG.\",\n \"13 shows high pressure (30 bar) molar CO2:CH4 uptake ratio as a function of N wt % in NPC samples.\",\n \"Sorption measurements were performed at 24° C. FIG.\",\n \"14 shows the high pressure (30 bar) molar CO2:CH4 uptake ratio as a function of C wt % in PC, NPC, and SPC samples.\",\n \"Sorption measurements were performed at 24° C. FIG.\",\n \"15 shows volumetric CO2 uptake of different OPCs activated at increasing temperature, activated carbon and carbon precursor.\",\n \"FIGS.\",\n \"16A-16D provide an analysis of the porous structure of OPC samples activated at different temperatures.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"16A shows N2 adsorption and desorption isotherms for a PC (800) sample.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"16B shows estimated surface area and total pore-volume vs. activation temperature.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"16C shows the distribution of pore volumes as a function of activation temperature as estimated by NLDFT.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"16D shows the surface area (blue bars) and total pore volume (purple) for activated charcoal and eight different PC samples known for high CO2 uptakes (>14 mmol g−1 at 30 bar).\",\n \"FIGS.\",\n \"17A-17B provide additional data relating to the CO2 uptake of porous carbons.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"17A shows the volumetric CO2 uptake of various porous carbons prepared from different carbon precursors, including O-rich PC (OPC), N-rich PC (NPC) and S-rich PC (SPC).\",\n \"Measurements were performed in a PCTPRO instrument at 24° C. FIG.\",\n \"17B shows the graphical representation of surface areas and maximum CO2 uptake capacities at 30 bar for nine different porous carbon sorbents.\",\n \"The highest CO2 uptake property (26.6 mmol g−1) is demonstrated by Applicants' newly discovered OPC (750) sample (second bar to the right).\",\n \"FIGS.\",\n \"18A-18B provide a demonstration of optimal gas uptake selectivity of OPC samples for CO2 over CH4.FIG.\",\n \"18A shows volumetric CO2 and CH4 uptake measurements on OPC (750) sorbents up to a pressure range of 30 bar at 0.5 and 24° C. FIG.\",\n \"18B shows volumetric CO2 and CH4 uptake measurements on commercially available activated charcoal.\",\n \"The molar uptake ratios (CO2/CH4) at 30 bar for OPC (750) and activated charcoal are 2.74 and 1.4, respectively.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"19 provides a demonstration of optimal gas uptake selectivity of OPC samples for CO2 over CH4.Volumetric CO2 and CH4 uptake measurements on OPC (750) sorbents up to a pressure range of 30 bar at 0.5° C. and 24° C. are shown.\",\n \"The mass uptake ratios (CO2/CH4) at 30 bar for OPC (750) are 8.0 and 7.6, respectively.\",\n \"FIGS.\",\n \"20A-20B provide a demonstration of the reproducibility of sample preparation and gas uptake properties of OPCs.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"20A shows volumetric CO2 uptake measurements on four different OPC (750) samples synthesized and activated the same way.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"20B shows two successive CO2 adsorption and desorption cycles.\",\n \"FIGS.\",\n \"21A-21J provide various schemes and data relating to the synthesis and characterization of OPCs.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"21A provides a synthesis scheme for OPC.\",\n \"Photographs of carbon precursor (FIG.\",\n \"21B), as-synthesized OPC (FIG.\",\n \"21C), and as-synthesized SPC samples (FIG.\",\n \"21D) are also shown.\",\n \"OPC samples are pellet like compared to SPC and other PC materials.\",\n \"Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images of carbon precursor (FIG.\",\n \"21E), OPC (600) (FIG.\",\n \"21F) and OPC (800) samples (FIG.\",\n \"21G) are also shown.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"21H shows an energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS) elemental scan for OPC (800).\",\n \"Also shown are high resolution transmission electron microscopy (TEM) images of OPC (600) (FIG.\",\n \"21I) and OPC (800) samples (FIG.\",\n \"21J) showing nm sized micro porous structures.\",\n \"FIGS.\",\n \"22A-22B show the isosteric heat of absorption of CO2 (FIG.\",\n \"22A) and CH4 (FIG.\",\n \"22B) as a function of molar gas uptakes.\",\n \"FIGS.\",\n \"23A-23H show the characterization of chemical compositions of carbon precursor and porous carbon samples activated at increasing temperatures.\",\n \"Shown are X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) survey scans for C-precursor (FIG.\",\n \"23A) and OPC (800) (FIG.\",\n \"23B).\",\n \"Also shown are the wt % of elemental carbon (FIG.\",\n \"23C) and oxygen (FIG.\",\n \"23D) vs. activation temperature.\",\n \"XPS elemental scanning for carbon C1s (FIG.\",\n \"23E) and oxygen O1s (FIG.\",\n \"23F) are also shown.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"23G shows the Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) spectra of C-precursor and activated OPCs.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"23H shows the Raman spectra and Raman disorder (D) to graphene (G) band intensity ratio vs. activation temperature.\",\n \"The KOH:Polymer weight ratio is 3 in all cases.\",\n \"IR spectra are base line corrected and vertically offset for clarity.\",\n \"FIGS.\",\n \"24A-24B provide schemes for the synthesis of various porous carbon materials.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"24A provides a synthetic reaction scheme for the synthesis of furfuryl alcohol-OPC (FFA-OPC) (FeCl3:FA=10, KOH:PFFA=3, and T=500-800° C.).\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"24B provides a synthetic reaction scheme for the synthesis of anisyl alcohol (AA)-OPC (AA-OPC) (KOH:PAA=3, and T=500-800° C.).\",\n \"FIGS.\",\n \"25A-25C show photographs of PFFA precursors (FIG.\",\n \"25A), as-synthesized OPC (FIG.\",\n \"25B), and as-synthesized SPC samples (FIG.\",\n \"25C).\",\n \"FIGS.\",\n \"26A-26D show SEM images of PFFA (FIG.\",\n \"26A), precursors and the associated OPCs (FIG.\",\n \"26B), FFA-OPC750 (FIG.\",\n \"26C), and AA-OPC750 (FIG.\",\n \"26D).\",\n \"FIGS.\",\n \"27A-27C show representative high-resolution TEM images of FFA-OPC600 (FIG.\",\n \"27A), FFA-OPC800 (FIG.\",\n \"27B), and AA-OPC800 (FIG.\",\n \"27C) samples showing nanometer sized micro porous structures.\",\n \"FIGS.\",\n \"28A-28B show N2 adsorption isotherms for FFA-OPCs (FIG.\",\n \"28A) and AA-OPCs (FIG.\",\n \"28B) measured at liquid N2 temperature (77K).\",\n \"FIGS.\",\n \"29A-29B show estimated apparent surface area (FIG.\",\n \"29A) and total pore volumes versus activation temperature (FIG.\",\n \"29B) for FFA-OPC and AA-OPC.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"30 shows apparent surface area (blue/dark bars) and total pore volumes (purple/light bars) for activated charcoal and PC samples with high CO2 uptake properties at 30 bar (>12 mmol·g−1).\",\n \"FIGS.\",\n \"31A-31B show distribution of pore sizes as a function of pore width for five activation temperatures as determined by the nonlocal DFT method for FFA-OPC (FIG.\",\n \"31A) and AA-OPC (FIG.\",\n \"31B).\",\n \"FIGS.\",\n \"32A-32D show the wt % of elemental carbon (FIGS.\",\n \"32A and 32C) and oxygen (FIGS.\",\n \"32B and 32D) as determined by XPS versus activation temperature for FFA-OPC (FIGS.\",\n \"32A and 32B) and AA-OPC (FIGS.\",\n \"32C and 32D).\",\n \"FIGS.\",\n \"33A-33B show XPS elemental scanning for oxygen O1s (FIG.\",\n \"33A) and carbon C1s (FIG.\",\n \"33B) for PFFA precursor and FFA-OPC.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"34 shows FTIR spectra of PFFA precursor and activated FFA-OPCs.\",\n \"Spectra are base line corrected and vertically offset for clarity (KOH:PFFA=3 in all cases).\",\n \"FIGS.\",\n \"35A-35D show Raman spectra and Raman disorder (D) to graphene (G) band intensity ratio versus activation temperature (KOH:PFFA=3 in all cases).\",\n \"FIGS.\",\n \"36A-36B show volumetric CO2 uptakes of FFA-OPC (FIG.\",\n \"36A) and AA-OPC (FIG.\",\n \"36B) samples activated at different temperatures.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"36C shows the volumetric CO2 uptakes of FAA-OPC750, NPC, SPC, and activated charcoal up to a pressure limit of 30 bar.\",\n \"Measurements were performed in a PCTPRO instrument at 24° C. FIG.\",\n \"37 shows graphical representation of surface areas and maximum CO2 uptake capacities at 30 bar for activated charcoal and different sorbent samples with high CO2 uptake properties at 30 bar (>12 mmol·g−1).\",\n \"FIGS.\",\n \"38A-38B show demonstration of reproducibility of sample preparation and gas uptake properties.\",\n \"Volumetric CO2 uptake measurements are shown on four different batches of FFA-OPC750 (FIG.\",\n \"38A) and AA-OPC750 (FIG.\",\n \"38B) that were synthesized and activated the same way.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"38C shows successive CO2 adsorption and desorption cycle measurements on an individual FFA-OPC750 sample.\",\n \"FIGS.\",\n \"39A-39B show a demonstration of ultrahigh CO2 uptake capability of an FFA-OPC750 sample at low temperature.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"39A shows volumetric CO2 uptake measurements on an FFA-OPC750 sample at four different temperatures.\",\n \"At 0.5° C. and 30 bar pressure, sorbent adsorbed an ultrahigh amount of CO2 that maxed to 43 mmol·g−1 (189 wt %).\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"39B shows CO2 uptakes at four different (labelled) pressures as a function of experiment temperatures.\",\n \"FIGS.\",\n \"40A-40B show volumetric CO2 and CH4 uptakes measurements on FFA-OPC750 (FIG.\",\n \"40A) and AA-OPC750 (FIG.\",\n \"40B) sorbents up to a pressure range of 30 bar at 0.5 and 24° C. FIG.\",\n \"40C shows volumetric CO2 and CH4 uptake measurements on activated charcoal.\",\n \"FIGS.\",\n \"41A-41B show a plot of CH4 uptake at 30 bar as a function of surface area (FIG.\",\n \"41A) and total pore volume (FIG.\",\n \"41B) for FFA-OPC and AA-OPC.\",\n \"FIGS.\",\n \"42A-42D show isosteric heat of gas adsorption of CO2 (FIGS.\",\n \"42A-B) and CH4 (FIGS.\",\n \"42C-D) as a function molar gas uptake for FFA-OPC750 (FIGS.\",\n \"42A and 42C) and AA-OPC750 (FIGS.\",\n \"42B and 42D).\",\n \"FIGS.\",\n \"43A-43B show SEM images of the polymer precursor (PTh) (FIG.\",\n \"43A) and a SPC-2 sample (FIG.\",\n \"43B).\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"44 shows high pressure volumetric CO2 uptake as a function of CO2 pressure on PTh, activated charcoal and activated SPC-700-R samples activated at 700° C. with increasing KOH:PTh weight ratio (r) where r varies from 1 to 5.Experiments were performed at 24° C. FIG.\",\n \"45 shows high pressure volumetric CO2 uptake as a function of CO2 pressure for two batches of SPC-4 activated at 700° C. Uptake measurements were performed at 24° C. FIG.\",\n \"46 shows dependence of CO2 uptake at the labelled pressure on the KOH:PTh ratio for activated SPC-r samples activated at 700° C. Experiments were performed at 24° C. FIGS.\",\n \"47A-47B show dependence of CO2 uptake at the labelled pressure on surface area (FIG.\",\n \"47A) and total pore volume (FIG.\",\n \"47B).\",\n \"SPC samples were synthesized from PTh by activating at 700° C. with different KOH amounts.\",\n \"Experiments were performed at 24° C. FIGS.\",\n \"48A-48B show chemical composition of the activated SPC samples by XPS spectroscopy showing the wt % of elemental carbon (FIG.\",\n \"48A) and oxygen and sulfur (FIG.\",\n \"48B) versus KOH:PTh ratio.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"49 shows dependence of CO2 uptake at the activated SPC samples as a function of carbon composition as determined XPS spectroscopy.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"50 shows N2 adsorption isotherms (measured at 77 K) for five different SPC samples activated at 700° C. with KOH:PTh ratios varied from 1 to 5.FIGS.\",\n \"51A-51B show estimated surface area (FIG.\",\n \"51A) and total pore volume (FIG.\",\n \"51B) versus KOH:PTh ratio for five different SPC samples activated at 700° C. FIG.\",\n \"52 shows pore size distributions for the samples in FIGS.\",\n \"51A-51B.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"53 shows a high resolution transmission microscope (HRTEM) image of a SPC-2 sample.\",\n \"Scale bar=10 nm.\",\n \"FIGS.\",\n \"54A-54B show the total pore volume, volume of macropores (>50 nm), mesopores (>2 nm), micropores (<2 nm), and narrower micropores (<1 nm) as a function of KOH:PTH ratio (FIG.\",\n \"54A), and percentages of total pore volumes for micropores, narrower micropores and mesopores versus KOH:PTH ratio (FIG.\",\n \"54B).\",\n \"FIGS.\",\n \"55A-55C show percentages of pore volumes for micropores, narrower micropores and mesopores versus CO2 uptake.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"56 shows high pressure volumetric CH4 uptake as a function of CH4 pressure on activated SPC-700-R samples activated at 700° C. with increasing KOH:PTh ratio (r) where r varies from 1 to 5.Experiments were performed at 24° C. FIG.\",\n \"57 shows dependence of CH4 uptake at labeled pressure on KOH:PTh ratios for activated SPC samples.\",\n \"Experiments were performed at 24° C. FIGS.\",\n \"58A-58D show various data related to SPC samples.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"58A shows the molar CO2:CH4 uptake ratio as a function of a gas pressure for SPC sorbents activated with different KOH:PTh ratio.\",\n \"Also shown are plots of molar CO2:CH4 uptake ratios at 30 bar as a function of KOH:PTh ratio (FIG.\",\n \"58B), surface area (FIG.\",\n \"58C), and total pore volume (FIG.\",\n \"58D).\",\n \"Experiments were performed at 24° C. DETAILED DESCRIPTION It is to be understood that both the foregoing general description and the following detailed description are illustrative and explanatory, and are not restrictive of the subject matter, as claimed.\",\n \"In this application, the use of the singular includes the plural, the word “a” or “an” means “at least one”, and the use of “or” means “and/or”, unless specifically stated otherwise.\",\n \"Furthermore, the use of the term “including”, as well as other forms, such as “includes” and “included”, is not limiting.\",\n \"Also, terms such as “element” or “component” encompass both elements or components comprising one unit and elements or components that comprise more than one unit unless specifically stated otherwise.\",\n \"The section headings used herein are for organizational purposes and are not to be construed as limiting the subject matter described.\",\n \"All documents, or portions of documents, cited in this application, including, but not limited to, patents, patent applications, articles, books, and treatises, are hereby expressly incorporated herein by reference in their entirety for any purpose.\",\n \"In the event that one or more of the incorporated literature and similar materials defines a term in a manner that contradicts the definition of that term in this application, this application controls.\",\n \"There are generally two classes of materials employed for carbon dioxide (CO2) separation: reactants and adsorbents.\",\n \"The former includes amine and other reactive species such as ionic liquids and alkali-metal-based oxides.\",\n \"At present, monoethanolamine (MEA) is the industry standard.\",\n \"However, regeneration, degradation and corrosion, together with health and environmental issues, still affect its large scale implementation.\",\n \"Impregnation of CO2 capture materials onto supports has been investigated, but it is only recently that the regeneration temperature has been lowered by their combination with carbon nanomaterials.\",\n \"Ionic liquids, suitable for high pressure capture, are expensive and toxic, while cheap alkali metal oxides suffer from severe deactivation upon cycling.\",\n \"Although the aforementioned materials show optimal selectivity between CO2 and methane (CH4), their myriad drawbacks have meant that much effort has been invested into the study of solid porous sorbents, such as porous carbons (PC), metal-organic frameworks (MOFs), microporous zeolites, and porous silica-based sorbents with high surface area.\",\n \"MOFs outperform zeolites in terms of maximum capacity at high pressure, but are expensive since they require complex multistep synthesis procedures.\",\n \"In addition, their gas adsorption capacity degrades after several cycles of usage.\",\n \"Carbonaceous materials, such as activated carbon and charcoal, are cheaper and less sensitive to moisture than zeolites and MOFs, but their adsorption capacity generally increases with loss of selectivity at high pressure.\",\n \"Chemically activated porous carbon adsorbents have large surface areas and pore volumes associated with micro- and meso-porous structure.\",\n \"As a result, such materials show significantly improved CO2 capturing capacity as compared to traditional carbonaceous materials.\",\n \"It has been suggested that the presence of nitrogen or sulfur dopants is responsible for improved CO2 uptake in porous carbon materials (e.g., Nat Commun., 2014, 5, 3961 and U.S. Pat.\",\n \"Pub.\",\n \"No.\",\n \"2015/0111024).\",\n \"These studies were undertaken at 30 bar (1 bar=100,000, Pa=750.06 mmHg) using compounds previously reported to show improved results over activated carbon at 1 bar (e.g., Adv.\",\n \"Funct.\",\n \"Mater., 2011, 21, 2781-2787; and Microporous Mesoporous Mater., 2012, 158, 318-323).\",\n \"The improved high pressure results were proposed to be due to the S or N centers acting as a Lewis base to facilitate the ambient polymerization of the CO2.However, previous investigations of the role of N-doping in CO2 capture by PCs up to 1 bar pressure shows no correlation (e.g., ACS Appl.\",\n \"Mater.\",\n \"Interfaces, 2013, 5, 6360-6368).\",\n \"The conventional goal in synthesizing a porous carbon material with optimal CO2 adsorption is to focus on increased surface area and pore volume (e.g., U.S. Pat.\",\n \"Pub.\",\n \"No.\",\n \"2016/0136613).\",\n \"The same approach is presumed to also work for the separation of CO2 from natural gas.\",\n \"However, the present disclosure demonstrates that increasing the surface area and pore volume of a carbon material do not guarantee the best adsorbent.\",\n \"Instead, a combination of factors is involved in defining the ideal porous carbon absorbent material.\",\n \"In some embodiments, the present disclosure pertains to novel materials for CO2 capture.\",\n \"In additional embodiments, the present disclosure pertains to methods of making the materials of the present disclosure.\",\n \"In further embodiments, the present disclosure pertains to methods of utilizing the materials of the present disclosure for the capture of CO2 from various environments.\",\n \"As set forth in more detail herein, the present disclosure can have various embodiments.\",\n \"Materials for CO2 Capture In some embodiments, the present disclosure pertains to materials for CO2 adsorption at pressures above 1 bar.\",\n \"In some embodiments, the materials include a porous material with a surface area of at least 2,800 m2/g, and a total pore volume of at least 1.35 cm3/g.\",\n \"In some embodiments, a majority of pores of the porous material have diameters of less than 2 nm as measured from N2 sorption isotherms using the BET (Brunauer-Emmett-Teller) method.\",\n \"In some embodiments, more than about 50% of pores of the porous material have diameters of less than 2 nm.\",\n \"In some embodiments, more than about 60% of pores of the porous material have diameters of less than 2 nm.\",\n \"In some embodiments, more than about 70% of pores of the porous material have diameters of less than 2 nm.\",\n \"In some embodiments, more than about 80% of pores of the porous material have diameters of less than 2 nm.\",\n \"In some embodiments, between about 50% to about 90% of pores of the porous material have diameters of less than 2 nm.\",\n \"In some embodiments, the present disclosure pertains to materials for the separation of CO2 from natural gas at partial pressures of either component above 1 bar.\",\n \"In some embodiments, the materials include a porous material with a surface area of at least 2,200 m2/g, and a total pore volume of at least 1.00 cm3/g.\",\n \"In some embodiments, a majority of pores of the porous material have diameters of greater than 1 nm and less than 2 nm as measured from N2 sorption isotherms using the BET (Brunauer-Emmett-Teller) method.\",\n \"In some embodiments, more than about 50% of pores of the porous material have diameters of greater than 1 nm and less than 2 nm.\",\n \"In some embodiments, more than about 60% of pores of the porous material have diameters of greater than 1 nm and less than 2 nm.\",\n \"In some embodiments, more than about 70% of pores of the porous material have diameters of greater than 1 nm and less than 2 nm.\",\n \"In some embodiments, more than about 80% of pores of the porous material have diameters of greater than 1 nm and less than 2 nm.\",\n \"In some embodiments, between about 50% to about 90% of pores of the porous material have diameters of greater than 1 nm and less than 2 nm.\",\n \"In some embodiments, the porous materials of the present disclosure include a porous carbon material.\",\n \"In some embodiments, the porous carbon material has a carbon content of between 80% and 95% as measured by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy.\",\n \"In some embodiments, the porous materials include a porous carbon material with a surface area of at least 2,800 m2/g, a total pore volume of at least 1.35 cm3/g, and a carbon content of between 80% and 95% as measured by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy.\",\n \"In some embodiments, the materials include a porous carbon material with a surface area of at least 2,000 m2/g, a total pore volume of at least 1.00 cm3/g, and a carbon content of greater than 90% as measured by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy.\",\n \"The porous carbon materials of the present disclosure may be prepared in various manners.\",\n \"For instance, in some embodiments, the porous carbon material is prepared by heating an organic polymer precursor or biological material in the presence of potassium hydroxide (KOH).\",\n \"In some embodiments, the temperature of activation is between 700° C. and 800° C. In some embodiments, the temperature of activation is between 600° C. and 700° C. The materials of the present disclosure can have various chemical components.\",\n \"For instance, in some embodiments, the materials of the present disclosure are rich in oxygen.\",\n \"As such, in some embodiments, the materials of the present disclosure are referred to as oxygen rich activated porous carbons (OPCs).\",\n \"In some embodiments, the materials of the present disclosure have an oxygen content of more than about 10 wt %.\",\n \"In some embodiments, the materials of the present disclosure have an oxygen content between about 10 wt % and about 25 wt %.\",\n \"In some embodiments, the materials of the present disclosure may lack other heteroatoms, such as nitrogen or sulfur.\",\n \"For instance, in some embodiments, the total heteroatom content of the materials of the present disclosure may range from about 0 wt % to about 1 wt %.\",\n \"In some embodiments, the total heteroatom content of the materials of the present disclosure may be less than about 1 wt %.\",\n \"The materials of the present disclosure can have various advantageous properties.\",\n \"For instance, in some embodiments, the materials of the present disclosure have high surface areas.\",\n \"In some embodiments, the materials of the present disclosure have surface areas of more than about 1,000 m2/g.\",\n \"In some embodiments, the materials of the present disclosure have surface areas that range from about 1,000 m2/g to about 5000 m2/g (e.g., Table 5).\",\n \"In some embodiments, the materials of the present disclosure have surface areas of about 3005 m2/g (e.g., in OPC samples chemically activated at 800° C.) (e.g., FIG.\",\n \"16D).\",\n \"In some embodiments, the materials of the present disclosure have high CO2 adsorption capacities.\",\n \"In some embodiments, the materials of the present disclosure have a CO2 adsorption capacity of more than about 100 wt %.\",\n \"In some embodiments, the materials of the present disclosure have CO2 adsorption capacities between about 117 wt % and about 189 wt %.\",\n \"In some embodiments, the materials of the present disclosure have a CO2 adsorption capacity of up to 117 wt % (26.6 mmol/g) at a pressure of 30 bar, a number that is higher than any reported uptake values for activated porous carbon (PC) adsorbents (e.g., FIGS.\",\n \"17A-17B and Table 5).\",\n \"In some embodiments, the materials of the present disclosure capture CO2 from a natural gas containing environment that is rich in CH4 at a maximum molar uptake ratio of 2.75 (7.5 by mass ratio) at a pressure of 30 bar (e.g., FIGS.\",\n \"18A-18B and FIG.\",\n \"19).\",\n \"In some embodiments, the materials of the present disclosure (e.g., OPCs that are activated at 750° C., referred to herein as OPC (750)) outperform most of the existing porous carbons for high pressure uptake of CO2 (e.g., 26.6 mmol/g; 117 wt % at 30 bar) and demonstrate optimal selectivity for CO2 capture over CH4 uptake (e.g., VCO2NCH4 ratio ˜2.7 (molar) and ˜7.5 (by wt) at 30 bar) at room temperature.\",\n \"Additionally, OPC (750) demonstrates ultrahigh CO2 uptake (43 mmol g−1; 189 wt %) at 0.5° C., a value that was never reported previously (e.g., FIG.\",\n \"18A).\",\n \"In some embodiments, the materials of the present disclosure exhibit remarkable thermal stability and reproducible gas uptake properties for many cycles (e.g., FIGS.\",\n \"20A-20B).\",\n \"Unlike other fine powder type activated porous carbon materials, the materials of the present disclosure can be clumpy and pelletized in some embodiments.\",\n \"Such properties can in turn make the materials of the present disclosure better candidates for preparing solid pellet-like adsorbents (e.g., FIG.\",\n \"21C).\",\n \"Formation of Materials The materials of the present disclosure can be prepared in various manners.\",\n \"Additional embodiments of the present disclosure pertain to methods of making the materials of the present disclosure.\",\n \"In some embodiments, a carbon precursor is first synthesized.\",\n \"Next, the carbon precursor is activated to form porous carbon materials.\",\n \"Various methods may be utilized to optimize sample preparation to synthesize activated porous carbon materials with very high CO2 uptake.\",\n \"In some embodiments, a carbon precursor is activated by chemical activation.\",\n \"In some embodiments, the chemical activation includes heating the carbon precursor in a mixture.\",\n \"In some embodiments, the carbon precursor is heated in a mixture that contains a base, such as KOH.\",\n \"In some embodiments, the heating temperature ranges from about 500° C. to about 800° C. (FIG.\",\n \"15).\",\n \"In some embodiments, the activation temperature is about 750° C. In some embodiments, the carbon precursor is synthesized by polymerizing a carbon source.\",\n \"In some embodiments, the polymerization occurs by exposing the carbon source to an oxidant, such as iron (III) chloride (FeCl3) in the presence of acetonitrile (CH3CN).\",\n \"In some embodiments, the materials of the present disclosure are prepared from affordable and readily available carbon sources.\",\n \"In some embodiments, the carbon sources include oxygen-containing carbons.\",\n \"In some embodiments, the oxygen containing carbon sources are rich in alcohol.\",\n \"In some embodiments, the carbon sources lack heteroatoms such as nitrogen, sulfur, and combinations thereof.\",\n \"As such, in some embodiments, the formed materials of the present disclosure also lack such heteroatoms.\",\n \"In some embodiments, the materials of the present disclosure are prepared by heating a biological material.\",\n \"In some embodiments, the biological material includes, without limitation, sawdust, coconut husk, and combinations thereof.\",\n \"In some embodiments, the biological material is chosen from at least one of the following: sawdust and coconut husk.\",\n \"In some embodiments, the carbon source that is utilized to make the materials of the present disclosure is furfuryl alcohol (FFA) (e.g., purchasable from Sigma Aldrich at a price of $354 for 25 kg with purity >98%) (e.g., Table 4).\",\n \"In some embodiments where the carbon source is FFA, the formed carbon precursor is polyfurfuryl alcohol (PFFA).\",\n \"In some embodiments, the materials of the present disclosure are prepared by heating an organic polymer precursor or biological material.\",\n \"In some embodiments, the organic polymer precursor or biological material includes oxygen in a functional group.\",\n \"In some embodiments, the functional group is a furyl.\",\n \"In some embodiments, the organic polymer precursor is FFA.\",\n \"In some embodiments, the organic polymer precursor polymerizes to form polyfurfuryl alcohol (PFFA).\",\n \"In some embodiments, PFFA is prepared by the polymerization of furfuryl alcohol with a catalyst.\",\n \"In some embodiments, the catalyst is FeCl3.In some embodiments, the functional group is an anisyl.\",\n \"In some embodiments, the organic polymer precursor polymerizes to form polyanisyl alcohol (PAA).\",\n \"In some embodiments, PAA is prepared by the polymerization of anisyl alcohol with a catalyst.\",\n \"In some embodiments, the catalyst is a protic acid.\",\n \"A more specific method of making the materials of the present disclosure is illustrated in FIG.\",\n \"21A.\",\n \"In this illustration, the FFA is polymerized by using FeCl3 as the oxidant.\",\n \"In a typical synthesis, a solution of FeCl3 is prepared by solubilizing FeCl3 in CH3CN.\",\n \"FFA is then mixed with CH3CN and slowly added to the FeCl3 solution.\",\n \"The mixture is then magnetically stirred for 24 hours at room temperature.\",\n \"The polymerized product, brown colored PFFA, is then separated by filtration over a sintered glass funnel, washed thoroughly with abundant distilled water, and then with acetone.\",\n \"This is followed by drying at 40° C. for 12 hours.\",\n \"The yield of the final product was ˜98%.\",\n \"Next, the porous carbon was chemically activated by heating a PFFA-KOH mixture (KOH/PFFA at a weight ratio of 3) in inert atmosphere.\",\n \"The mixture was then placed inside a quartz tube/tube furnace setup and heated for 1 hour at a fixed temperature in the 500-800° C. range, under a flow of Ar.\",\n \"The activated OPC sample was then thoroughly washed several times with diluted HCl and distilled water and dried on a hot plate at 70° C. for 12 hours.\",\n \"In some embodiments, the KOH/PFFA ratio can be varied.\",\n \"In some embodiments, the activation temperatures and the PFFA-KOH mixing procedure can be varied.\",\n \"Use of Materials for Gas Capture The materials of the present disclosure can be utilized to capture and selectively remove various gases (e.g., CO2, CH4, and combinations thereof) from various environments.\",\n \"Additional embodiments of the present disclosure pertain to methods of utilizing the materials of the present disclosure for the separation of a mixture of gases by preferential adsorption and selective desorption.\",\n \"Further embodiments of the present disclosure pertain to methods of utilizing the materials of the present disclosure for the capture of CO2 from various environments.\",\n \"In some embodiments, the environments include an atmosphere or an environment that contains a mixture of gases.\",\n \"In some embodiments, the methods of the present disclosure pertain to processes for separating CO2 from natural gas by exposing the natural gas to the materials of the present disclosure.\",\n \"In some embodiments, the methods of the present disclosure utilize the materials of the present disclosure in a process in which selectivity and separation of two gases (such as CH4 and CO2) is accomplished by a combination of an adsorption process that favors one of the components (e.g., selectivity of CO2 over CH4).\",\n \"Thereafter, the desorption of the two components from the carbon materials can be significantly different by control over various parameters, such as temperature, pressure, and combinations thereof.\",\n \"In some embodiments, such control allows for the specific desorption of one of the components prior to the other (e.g., CH4 over CO2).\",\n \"In some embodiments, the overall process allows for the selective separation of at least two gaseous components.\",\n \"In some embodiments, the materials of the present disclosure differentiate between CH4 and CO2 adsorption as well as desorption.\",\n \"In some embodiments, the selectivity of adsorption is further enhanced since the pressure/temperature dependencies of the desorption of CH4 and the desorption of CO2 are distinct from each other such that they may be used to improve separation.\",\n \"Thus, in some embodiments, a mixture of adsorbed CH4 and CO2 will desorb under different conditions: the CH4 first and the CO2 second.\",\n \"In some embodiments, this difference means that the overall adsorption/desorption selectivity of CH4 and CO2 is higher than prior materials.\",\n \"In some embodiments, the materials of the present disclosure can be used for the selective capture of CO2 from various environments.\",\n \"In some embodiments, the materials of the present disclosure can be utilized for the selective capture of CO2 over hydrocarbons in the environment (e.g., CH4).\",\n \"In some embodiments, the adsorption of CO2/CH4 mixtures and measurement of the desorption selectivity can be varied.\",\n \"Applications and Advantages The methods and materials of the present disclosure can provide numerous advantages.\",\n \"For instance, in some embodiments, the methods and materials of the present disclosure can be utilized for the selective removal of CO2 from natural gas (e.g., methane) that contains various amounts of CO2 (e.g., 10-20 mol % of CO2).\",\n \"Such an application is an important goal in the field of oil and natural gas, since contaminant CO2 decreases its power efficiency.\",\n \"For an ideal gas adsorbing material, the major requirements are as follows: it should be cheap, simple to synthesize, demonstrate reproducible and high gas uptake property, and complete desorption of CO2 at low pressure.\",\n \"In various embodiments, the materials of the present disclosure possess all of these properties.\",\n \"In some embodiments, the methods and materials of the present disclosure can be utilized for the separation of CO2 from natural gas at a source where low to medium levels of CO2 are present.\",\n \"In some embodiments, the methods and materials of the present disclosure can be used as a secondary recovery method for treating CH4/CO2 mixtures in which CO2 is the major component.\",\n \"In some embodiments, such mixtures include high-pressure samples that are the result of an initial CH4/CO2 separation using traditional methods.\",\n \"The materials of the present disclosure can also provide numerous advantages.\",\n \"In particular, among the most efficient solid sorbents for capturing CO2 from natural gas or atmosphere, MOFs and KOH aided chemically activated PC materials with large surface areas and micro pores have been investigated for decades.\",\n \"PC composites demonstrate remarkable thermal stability and repeatability for selective gas uptake measurements.\",\n \"However, to date, most of the researchers have synthesized porous carbons from carbon rich precursors that contain heteroatoms, such as nitrogen or sulfur.\",\n \"For sulfur rich precursors, the most common feedstock for synthesizing PCs are polythiophene or poly(2-thiophenemethanol), whereas, pyrrole of acrylonitrile are being utilized for the production of nitrogen containing PCs.\",\n \"Unfortunately, the high cost of both chemicals hinders the industrial scale use of PCs produced from these materials.\",\n \"Based upon an analysis of the best PC materials in terms of selectivity and CO2 uptake, Applicants have noted that the common link is not the presence of strong Lewis base species such as N or S, but the presence of oxygen.\",\n \"Thus, Applicants envision that oxygen is an important component for selectivity and high adsorption of gases (e.g., CO2 and/or CH4) in the materials of the present disclosure.\",\n \"Additional Embodiments Reference will now be made to more specific embodiments of the present disclosure and experimental results that provide support for such embodiments.\",\n \"However, Applicants note that the disclosure below is for illustrative purposes only and is not intended to limit the scope of the claimed subject matter in any way.\",\n \"Example 1.Preparation of Porous Carbon Materials This Example provides processes for the preparation of various porous carbon materials.\",\n \"Example 1.1.Synthesis of Activated Porous Carbon (PC) from Coconut Shell Pieces of dry coconut shell were placed inside a quartz tube/tube furnace setup and carbonized for 1 hour at 450° C., under a flow of Ar (flow rate 500 sccm).\",\n \"The carbonized product (500 mg) was thoroughly mixed with potassium hydroxide (KOH) powder (1.0 g).\",\n \"The mixture was then placed inside a quartz tube/tube furnace setup, dried for 20 minutes and then heated for 1 hour at a fixed temperature of 600° C. under continuous flow of Argon (flow rate of about 600 sccm), washed with distilled water (ca.\",\n \"4 L) and then with acetone (ca.\",\n \"1 L) and dried at 80° C. for 12 hours.\",\n \"Example 1.2.Synthesis of Nitrogen-Containing Porous Carbon (NPC) from Polypyrrole The polymerized carbon precursor polypyrrole was synthesized using FeCl3 as a catalyst following a modification of Applicants' previous methods.\",\n \"In a typical synthesis, a solution of FeCl3 (50 g) in CH3CN (200 mL) was prepared.\",\n \"Next, a solution of pyrrole (5.0 g) in CH3CN (50 mL) was slowly added to the previous solution.\",\n \"The mixture was stirred for 24 hours.\",\n \"The polymerized product was then separated by filtration, washed thoroughly with distilled water (ca.\",\n \"4 L) and then with acetone (ca.\",\n \"1 L) and dried at 80° C. for 12 hours.\",\n \"The yield of the final product was ˜98%.\",\n \"The polypyrrole was chemically activated by heating with an excess (2 or 4 fold by weight) of KOH in inert atmosphere.\",\n \"In a typical activation process, polypyrrole (500 mg) was thoroughly mixed with KOH (1.0 g) that had been crushed to a fine powder in a mortar.\",\n \"The mixture was then placed inside a quartz tube within a tube furnace, dried for 20 minutes and then heated for 1 hour at a fixed temperature in the 500-800° C. range, under a flow of Ar (flow rate 600 sccm).\",\n \"The activated samples were then thoroughly washed with diluted HCl (1.4 M, 100 mL) and several times with distilled water until the filtrate attained neutral pH 7.Finally, the activated PC was dried on a hot plate at 70° C. for 12 hours.\",\n \"Example 1.3.Synthesis of Polyfurfuryl Alcohol (PFFA) In a typical synthesis, a solution was prepared by dissolving FeCl3 (50 g) in CH3CN (200 mL).\",\n \"To this a solution of furfuryl alcohol (5 g, Sigma Aldrich, 98%) mixed with CH3CN (50 mL) was slowly added.\",\n \"The mixture was stirred for 24 hours under continuous argon purging.\",\n \"The polymerized product, brown colored polyfurfuryl alcohol (PFFA) was separated by filtration, washed thoroughly with DI water (ca.\",\n \"4 L) and acetone (500 mL), before being dried at 40° C. for 12 hours under vacuum (Yield=98%).\",\n \"Example 1.4.Conversion of PFFA to Oxygenated Porous Carbon (OPC) In a typical activation process, PFFA (500 mg) was thoroughly mixed with KOH powder (1.5 g, crushed previously) in a mortar for 10 minutes.\",\n \"The mixture was then placed inside a quartz tube/tube furnace, dried for 20 minutes and then heated for 1 hour at 500, 600, 700 or 750° C., under a flow of Ar (99.9%, flow rate 600 sccm).\",\n \"The activated samples were then washed with HCl (100 mL, 1.4 M) and DI water until the filtrate attained pH=7.The product was dried at 70° C. for 12 hours under vacuum.\",\n \"The yield of activated PC materials depended on the activation temperature: OPC500=55%, OPC600=40%, OPC700=30%, and OPC750=25-27%.\",\n \"Example 2.Characterization of the Porous Carbon Materials This example provides various data relating to the characterization of the porous carbon materials in Example 1.The volumetric uptake measurements (sorption and desorption) of CO2 and CH4 by the porous carbons were performed in an automated Sievert instrument (Setaram PCTPRO).\",\n \"Various PC samples were first crushed into powders and packed in a stainless steel autoclave sample cell.\",\n \"Initial sample pre-treatment was carried out at 130° C. for 1.5 hours under high vacuum.\",\n \"The free volume inside the sample cell was determined by a series of calibration procedures done under helium.\",\n \"Gas uptake experiments were carried out with high purity research grade CO2 (99.99%) and CH4 (99.9%) at 24° C. FIG.\",\n \"1A shows a plot of the uptake of CO2 at 30 bar as a function of the apparent Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) surface area (SBET) for all the PC adsorbent measured.\",\n \"As expected, an increase in surface area correlates with an increase in CO2 uptake.\",\n \"However, any value above 2,800 m2g−1 does not appear to improve adsorption.\",\n \"Thus, continued attempts to create even higher surface area materials may not result in any further improvements in CO2 uptake.\",\n \"It is envisioned that increased total pore volume (Vp) will facilitate increased CO2 adsorption.\",\n \"However, as shown in FIG.\",\n \"1B, it appears that for pore volumes over 1.35 cm3g−1, there is not a resulting greater uptake.\",\n \"The aforementioned trends were for the highest pressures.\",\n \"However, the homologous series PPy-T-2 (T=500, 600, 700, and 800° C.) along with the precursor (PPy) allows for a comparison across a range of pressures.\",\n \"FIGS.\",\n \"1C and 1D show the relationship between CO2 uptake and BET surface area (FIG.\",\n \"1C) and total pore volume (FIG.\",\n \"1D) for different pressures in the range of 5-30 bar.\",\n \"As expected, these plots clearly show a significant effect of pressure on the CO2 uptake (i.e., higher pressures result in higher uptake).\",\n \"Moreover, the point at which increased surface area (or total pore volume) does not increase CO2 uptake decreases with decreased pressure.\",\n \"Thus, whereas at 30 bar CO2 pressure increasing the surface area above 2,800 m2g−1 does not improve adsorption, at 5 bar this value decreases to 1300 m2g−1 (FIG.\",\n \"1C).\",\n \"This suggests a greater diminution of returns in attempting to create high surface area adsorbents if lower pressures are to be used in the system.\",\n \"The effect is similar for total pore volume, where at 5 bar it appears that any pore volume over 0.5 cm3g−1 does not result in greater uptake.\",\n \"Furthermore, a linear trend has been observed between surface area and pore volume for the majority of the samples studied (FIG.\",\n \"1E).\",\n \"However, many of the samples show a divergence from the trend.\",\n \"The aforementioned results demonstrate a higher pore volume than expected.\",\n \"Furthermore, Applicants note that the aforementioned porous carbons have some of the highest CO2 uptake performances.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"2 shows the relationship between the activation temperature and the CO2 uptake for the porous carbon samples listed in Table 1.The general trend is increasing uptake with increased activation temperature with a possible maximum between 700 and 800° C. TABLE 1 Summary of PC, NPC, and SPC samples studied with their elemental analysis, physical properties and CO2 uptake.\",\n \"CO2 uptake Surface area Total pore at 30 bar C O N S SBET volume and 24° C. Samplea (wt %) b (wt %) b (wt %) b (wt %) b (m2g−1) (cm3g−1)c (mmol · g−1) Activated 94.10 5.90 0.00 0.00 845 0.43 8.45 charcoal BPLd 91.3 8.7 0.00 0.00 951 0.49 8.66 SD-600-4 82.24 15.80 0.00 0.00 2290 1.10 20.52 SD-800-4 89.96 8.03 0.00 0.00 2850 1.35 22.90 CN-600-2 88.13 11.87 0.00 0.00 1250 0.64 13.50 PPy-500-2 72.47 17.19 10.33 0.00 1255 0.53 12.60 PPy-600-2 74.78 19.72 5.49 0.00 2013 1.03 18.98 PPy-700-2 90.01 9.87 0.14 0.00 2956 1.45 22.98 PPy-800-2 91.39 8.60 0.00 0.00 3230 1.51 21.01 PPy-800-4 90.78 9.11 0.10 0.00 3450 2.57 22.10 PAn-600-3 84.50 6.75 8.75 0.00 1410 1.38 14.50 SD-M-800-4 85.39 8.15 6.46 0.00 2990 2.69 23.80 PTh-600-2 64.91 25.88 0.00 9.21 2256 1.02 18.81 PTh-700-2 82.47 13.01 0.00 4.51 1980 0.99 20.32 PTh-800-2 88.18 7.24 0.00 4.58 2890 1.43 22.87 aPrecursor-temperature-KOH:precursor ratio.\",\n \"b Determined by XPS.\",\n \"cDetermined at P/Po ~0.99.dPurchased from Calgon Carbon Corp.\",\n \"Given the relationships between surface area and pore volume with CO2 uptake, it is not surprising that their relationship with activation temperature is also similar (FIGS.\",\n \"3A-3B).\",\n \"The analysis of a series of samples prepared from N-containing polymer polypyrrole (PPy) at different activation temperatures (i.e., PPy-T-2), but otherwise under identical conditions, allows for a convenient direct comparison of the effects of temperature.\",\n \"The CO2 uptake plot for each sample as a function of CO2 pressures is shown in FIG.\",\n \"4, whereas FIG.\",\n \"5 shows their corresponding N2 adsorption isotherms at 77 K. It may be noticed that the shape of these isotherms is dependent on the activation temperature.\",\n \"The isotherm for PPy-800-2 is much steeper than that of PPy-500-2 between relative pressures of 0.4 and 1.0, indicating the variation in mesoporosity and adsorption capacity.\",\n \"For the homologous series of NPC materials, the estimated surface area (SBET) and the total pore volume (Vp) gradually increase with activation temperature (FIGS.\",\n \"6A-6B), describing the incremental trend for mildly to strongly activated samples.\",\n \"Between 500 and 700° C., the surface area and total pore volume increases systematically, whereas for temperatures above 700° C. no significant increment is noticed.\",\n \"Besides the surface area and pore volume, another important characteristic that can be obtained from the N2 adsorption isotherms is the pore size distribution (PSD) of the porous solid.\",\n \"FIGS.\",\n \"7A-7H depict the PSDs for three different PPy-based PCs prepared under mild (T=500° C.) to strong (T=800° C.) activation conditions.\",\n \"The distribution plot for T=500° C. indicates that the activated PC mainly consists of micropores in the 1-2 nm range, whereas the plot for PPy-700-2 clearly shows signature of some larger pores in the 2-3.5 nm range.\",\n \"The most strongly activated PC and PPy-800-2 even shows a significant number of mesopores in the 3-6 nm range, in agreement with the steeper adsorption registered for relative pressures of more than 0.4.A comparison of the variation in pore size and distribution (FIG.\",\n \"7A) with the CO2 uptake for the same samples (FIG.\",\n \"4 and Table 1) was also made.\",\n \"From 500° C. to 700° C., there is a dramatic increase in the high pressure uptake, which can be associated with the generation of pores in the range of 2-3 nm.\",\n \"However, as may be seen from FIG.\",\n \"4, there is a slight (but significant) decrease upon further activation to 800° C., even though there is an increase in the presence of larger pores.\",\n \"This suggests that larger pores are not necessarily ideal for a high CO2 adsorption.\",\n \"The pore size distribution for the other top adsorbents studied shows a similar bi-modal pore structure centered on 1 nm and 1.5-2 nm.\",\n \"The structural and textural morphology of the activated PPy-T-2 samples were characterized by scanning electron microscopy (SEM).\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"7B shows that the activated NPC contains multiple layers projected vertically upward and surfaces that are full of micron sized holes.\",\n \"In order to image the microporous structure of the activated sample, high resolution transmission electron microscopy (HRTEM) was utilized.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"7C displays an image demonstrating randomly distributed micropores with dimensions in the range of 0.5-1 nm for a PPy-600-2 sample.\",\n \"These and the images of the other samples are in agreement with the BET measurements.\",\n \"Given the hazardous nature of working with KOH, the amount used in the activation process is of importance with regard to any scalability issues.\",\n \"Applicants have recently shown that KOH provides greater activation than borates.\",\n \"However, based upon the present data set for PPy-800-n (n=2, 4), it is clear that increasing the KOH:precursor ratio from 2 to 4 does not result in a change in the CO2 uptake profile (FIG.\",\n \"7D), despite a dramatic (70%) increase in the pore volume (Table 1).\",\n \"Applicants note that PPy-800-4 has one of the highest surface areas (3450 m2g−1) measured for any PC sorbent.\",\n \"However, PPy-800-4 is less efficient than PPy-800-4 between 10-20 bar.\",\n \"The CO2 uptake for NPC and SPC samples as a function of their N or S content is shown in FIGS.\",\n \"8A-8B.\",\n \"For both NPC (FIG.\",\n \"8A) and SPC (FIG.\",\n \"8B) samples, the CO2 uptake is at a maximum with the heteroatom content of less than 5 wt %.\",\n \"The chemical composition of polypyrrole precursor and activated PPy derived NPC samples were determined by XPS (Table 1).\",\n \"The identity and wt % of the elements present on the sample surface were determined by XPS survey scans (e.g., FIGS.\",\n \"7E and 7F).\",\n \"These spectra revealed that the precursor polypyrrole and activated NPCs are primarily composed of C, O, and N. It should be noted that the O content of NPCs has been observed, but discounted as significant, except as a potential source as both Lewis acid and base moieties.\",\n \"Applicants note that H content is not provided by XPS data, and so percentage values measured by other techniques will vary.\",\n \"As a result of chemical activation and the activation temperature, the wt % of all elements changes (Table 1).\",\n \"The general trend is that the wt % of C increases, whereas that of O and N decreases gradually with increasing activation temperature.\",\n \"The compositional dependence on the activation temperature is demonstrated for the PPy-T-2 samples (FIG.\",\n \"7G).\",\n \"The first point to note is that the N content decreases consistently with activation temperature (FIG.\",\n \"7H).\",\n \"However, there is a distinct step in the O composition between 600 and 700° C. (FIG.\",\n \"7H), which is mirrored in the C wt % composition (FIG.\",\n \"7G).\",\n \"However, it is important to note that while at the highest activation temperatures the N content becomes negligible, the O content remains significant.\",\n \"An equally interesting variation was observed for SPC samples (Table 1).\",\n \"The C content stays essentially constant between the PTh precursor and the product activated at 600° C., despite the S composition decreasing.\",\n \"The reason for this anomaly is the oxidation of the PC material as measured by the increased O content.\",\n \"As with the N content in the NPC samples, the S composition in the SPC samples decreases to a low value at the highest activation temperatures.\",\n \"Based upon these results, it would appear that the presence of neither N nor S correlates in a positive manner with the CO2 uptake, although in the present case a higher heteroatom content is associated to lower surface area and pore volume, hence the corresponding lower CO2 uptake.\",\n \"Nonetheless, the limited effect of the presence of heteroatoms on CO2 uptake is in line with previous results, and Applicants' proposal that the presence of N or S is not responsible for any stabilization of poly-CO2 that has been proposed to be responsible for high CO2 adsorption at 30 bar.\",\n \"Furthermore, the source of the heteroatom also appears to affect the physical parameters and hence the CO2 uptake.\",\n \"For example, the use of polyacrylonitrile (I, PAn) instead of polypyrrole (II, PPy) makes a significant difference suggesting the chemical speciation of the N content is important (FIG.\",\n \"8C).\",\n \"In addition, the use of a poly-N containing heterocycle, melamine, as the N source results in an improvement in the performance (FIG.\",\n \"8D).\",\n \"However, it is unclear whether this is a cause or effect.\",\n \"If the amount of CO2 adsorbed is divided by the total pore volume one gets a similar value for both for PPy-800-4 and SD-M-800-4.Thus, the CO2 uptake is determined by the total pore volume, but the pore volume is clearly a function of the precursor, rather than the process conditions.\",\n \"As was noted with the pressure dependence of the CO2 uptake on the surface area and total pore volume, the uptake appears to be less affected by the N content at lower pressures.\",\n \"Thus, as shown in FIG.\",\n \"8E, the greatest CO2 uptake at 30 bar for NPC requires N<2 wt %.\",\n \"However, if measured at 5 bar the uptake is almost independent of N content at values <10 wt %.\",\n \"This again suggests that the need to create specialty adsorbents diminishes with decreased operating pressure.\",\n \"Both NPC and SPC samples contain significant O, as do the PC samples produced from non-heteroatom containing precursors.\",\n \"Given that some of the PC samples perform in a comparable manner to those of NPC or SPC, N and S composition cannot be the sole key to high adsorption.\",\n \"While the presence of more than 5 wt % of either N or S appears to significantly lower the uptake of CO2, although this could be related to the lower surface area of the heteroatom-rich samples, the O content is far more effective for the high CO2 adsorption observed with 3-16 wt % O (FIG.\",\n \"9A).\",\n \"In support of this observation, there are also some significant findings on the CO2 capture capacity of activated PCs obtained from the carbonization of asphalt with KOH.\",\n \"The reduction with H2 of asphalt-derived N-doped PCs causes a significant increase of capture capacity up to 26 mmol·g−1.The XPS elemental analysis of the sample before and after H2 treatment shows that the sample with higher CO2 capacity undergoes a significant increase of O content while the N content and type is only slightly changed.\",\n \"This finding supports Applicants' hypothesis that O plays a major role in establishing the CO2 capture capacity of PCs.\",\n \"However, what appears to be more important is the combined presence of a heteroatom (i.e., Σ(O,N,S), FIG.\",\n \"9B).\",\n \"This can be alternatively stated that the C content should be between 80-95 wt %.\",\n \"Based upon the forgoing, it is possible to identify the parameters that define a PC material for maximum CO2 uptake: have a surface area ≥2,800 m2g−1, a pore volume ≥1.35 cm3g−1, and a C content between 80-95 wt %.\",\n \"To achieve these performance parameters it is necessary to activate above 700° C. and to ensure full mixing of the KOH with the precursor.\",\n \"It is significant that the first two of these suggest that developing higher and higher surface area materials is unproductive, and that understanding the third may lead to the design of new PC materials.\",\n \"Furthermore, these values offer additional variance when the uptake of CO2 is required at lower pressures.\",\n \"Applicants have also investigated the CO2/CH4 selectivity by measuring CO2 and CH4 uptake isotherms up to a high pressure limit of 10, 20 and 30 bar at 24° C. A summary of the data is shown in Table 2.TABLE 2 Summary of PC, NPC, and SPC samples studied with their molar gas uptakes and selectivity for CO2 over CH4 at different uptake pressures.\",\n \"CO2 uptake (mmol · g−1) at CH4 uptake (mmol · g−1) at Molar (CO2:CH4) uptake ratio Samplea 10 bar 20 bar 30 bar 10 bar 20 bar 30 bar 10 bar 20 bar 30 bar Activated 6.27 7.51 8.45 4.28 5.44 6.03 1.46 1.38 1.41 charcoal BPL 6.30 7.87 8.66 3.24 4.96 6.18 1.94 1.59 1.40 SD-600-4 12.06 16.77 20.52 5.23 7.54 8.52 2.31 2.22 2.41 SD-800-4 13.61 18.78 22.90 6.65 9.45 10.92 2.05 1.99 2.10 CN-600-2 10.91 12.65 13.50 5.94 7.24 7.96 1.83 1.74 1.70 PPy-500-2 9.51 11.27 12.60 4.11 5.06 5.98 2.31 2.23 2.11 PPy-600-2 11.37 16.45 18.98 5.39 6.33 7.41 2.11 2.60 2.56 PPy-700-2 12.50 18.12 22.98 5.75 7.92 9.41 2.17 2.29 2.44 PPy-800-2 11.94 17.21 21.01 5.78 8.23 9.82 2.07 2.09 2.14 PPy-800-4 11.18 16.51 22.11 5.10 7.33 8.83 2.19 2.25 2.50 PAn-600-3 8.19 10.84 14.50 4.04 5.26 6.03 2.03 2.06 2.40 SD-M-800-4 12.09 18.70 23.76 5.58 8.12 9.41 2.17 2.30 2.52 PTh-600-2 11.17 15.42 18.81 4.77 6.12 7.37 2.34 2.52 2.55 PTh-700-2 11.51 16.67 20.32 4.62 6.87 8.01 2.49 2.43 2.54 PTh-800-2 13.10 18.80 22.87 5.81 8.55 10.14 2.25 2.20 2.26 aPrecursor-temperature-KOH:precursor ratio.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"10A shows the CO2 uptake plots along with the corresponding CH4 uptake results in FIG.\",\n \"10B.\",\n \"Additionally, the molar uptake selectivity (CO2/CH4) is defined by the molar ratio of adsorbed CO2 and CH4 at a certain pressure, i.e., at 30 bar.\",\n \"The dependence of molar uptake selectivity for a sorbent as a function of corresponding gas pressure is depicted in FIG.\",\n \"10C.\",\n \"It is significant that for any particular sample, the selectivity varies with gas pressure.\",\n \"Of the samples investigated, PPy-600-2 demonstrated highest selectivity of 2.56 at 30 bar.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"11A shows a plot of molar CO2:CH4 uptake ratio as a function of the surface area (SBET) for all the PC adsorbents measured.\",\n \"For low surface area samples, there is an increase in selectivity with increased surface area.\",\n \"However, as with uptake, further increase in surface area above 2000 m2g−1 does not appear to improve selectivity.\",\n \"In a similar manner, increased total pore volume (Vp) does facilitate increased selectivity, but only to a pore volume of 1.00 cm3g−1.No improvement in performance is shown above the aforementioned value (FIG.\",\n \"11B).\",\n \"The series PPy-T-2 (T=500-800° C.) allows for the direct comparison of homologous materials.\",\n \"In this case, it appears that the values of 2,000 m2g−1 and 1.00 cm3g−1 for the surface area and total pore volume (FIGS.\",\n \"12A-12D) represent maxima rather than thresholds.\",\n \"It is possible that for any homologous series similar maxima are observed.\",\n \"However, the thresholds observed in FIGS.\",\n \"11A-11B are useful indicators.\",\n \"From Table 2, it can be seen that an activation temperature of 600° C. is a minimum for good selectivity.\",\n \"However, from FIG.\",\n \"12C, it may be seen that for the series PPy-T-2 (T=500-800° C.), this value is actually an optimum.\",\n \"Such results may vary with a particular class of material.\",\n \"However, a lower activation temperature is required to create a material with good selectivity as compared to optimum CO2 uptake (FIG.\",\n \"12D), suggesting that the best attainable sorbent material will have to combine a wise trade off of selectivity and CO2 capture capacity.\",\n \"As may be seen from a comparison of PPy-800-2 and PPy-800-4 (Table 2), increased KOH concentration during the activation step results in greater selectivity.\",\n \"The molar CO2:CH4 uptake ratio for NPC samples as a function of their N content is shown in FIG.\",\n \"13.The selectivity for measurements at 30 bar decreases with N content above 5 wt %.\",\n \"In the case of SPC, there appears to be no effect on selectivity with S content (Tables 1 and 2).\",\n \"These results seem to suggest that the presence of neither N nor S correlates in a direct manner with the CO2/CH4 selectivity.\",\n \"This is in line with Applicants' previous proposal.\",\n \"However, in this Example, a higher heteroatom content implies a lower surface area (and total pore volume) of the sorbent materials.\",\n \"Hence, a definite lack of impact of N or S doping on the selectivity performance of PCs cannot be considered a priori.\",\n \"Significantly, as may be seen from the data in Table 2, at lower pressures (10 bar), there is almost no dependence between selectivity and heteroatom content.\",\n \"As was observed with the uptake efficiency for CO2, the selectivity appears to be more a function of the total heteroatom composition (i.e., Σ(O,N,S) wt %, as presented in FIG.\",\n \"14 in terms of C wt % (=100−Σ(O,N,S) wt %)).\",\n \"However, based upon the analysis of all the PC, NPC, and SPC materials studied, the 0 wt % seems to be the major contributor.\",\n \"The CO2/CH4 selectivity is at a potential maximum as long as C content is below 90 wt % (i.e., for Σ(O,N,S)>10 wt %).\",\n \"At lower pressure (10 bar), the carbon content is possibly even higher (C<94 wt %).\",\n \"A study of a wide range of PC, NPC, and SPC materials under high pressure CO2 and CH4 adsorption offers some useful insight into the parameters that may collectively control both the CO2 uptake efficiency and the CO2/CH4 selectivity.\",\n \"A summary of the proposed key requirements for a PC material with either good CO2 uptake or good CO2/CH4 selectivity is given in Table 3 based on the results presented herein.\",\n \"TABLE 3 Summary of proposed parameters required for optimum CO2 uptake and CO2/CH4 selectivity for PC, NPC, and SPC.\",\n \"Parameter Uptake @ 30 bar Selectivity @ 30 bar Surface area (m2g−1) >2800 >2000 Total pore volume (cm3g−1) >1.35 >1.0 Temperature of activation (° C.) 700-800 600 Carbon content (%) 80-95 <90 As far as CO2 uptake is concerned, any porous carbon material with a surface area of more than 2,800 m2g−1 at 30 bar is unlikely to be improved (when prepared from the KOH activation of non-nanostructured precursors).\",\n \"A similar threshold appears to be true for the total pore volume of the material (1.35 cm3g−1).\",\n \"This suggests that seeking synthetic routes to ever higher surface area and/or high pore volume PC-based adsorbents is counterproductive.\",\n \"However, it should be understood that if uptake at lower pressures is desired, these threshold values decrease even further.\",\n \"This result is highly important in considering the choice of adsorbent to be used in a large scale unit.\",\n \"The adsorbent intended for use in a low pressure system needs a lower surface area and pore volume to perform than a potentially more expensive to manufacture material.\",\n \"It also impacts the formation of pelletized materials for adsorbent bed applications, since the formation of the pellet through inclusion of a binder inevitably lowers the surface area and pore volume.\",\n \"Applicants' results suggest that for lower pressure applications, this is not important since the uptake is less dependent on extremely high surface areas and/or pore volumes.\",\n \"Given the prior interest in N- and S-doped PC materials, the results show that CO2 uptake is inversely related to S and N content in SPC and NPC, respectively.\",\n \"However, due to the preparation process used in this Example (KOH activation), there is an intrinsic dependence between heteroatom content and surface area (total pore volume) in all sorbents.\",\n \"In particular, higher surface areas imply lower N or S contents.\",\n \"Consequently, the use of KOH activated PCs in industrial scale units must take into account that a higher heteroatom content cannot offset the corresponding drop of CO2 capture performance due to a decrease of surface area of the materials.\",\n \"In practical terms, it is the Σ(O,N,S) wt % or C wt % (=100−Σ(O,N,S) wt %) that is the defining factor for CO2 uptake.\",\n \"This is true irrespective of the source of the heteroatom.\",\n \"However, O appears to be the main factor, since a C content of between 80 and 95 wt % offers the potential for high CO2 uptake.\",\n \"However, at these levels, if the make-up is N or S, the uptake is likely reduced.\",\n \"It should also be observed based upon the source of the heteroatom that if heteroatoms are to be incorporated and “active”, they are preferentially included using heterocycle precursors, such as melamine in the case of N, rather than other heteroatom-rich structures.\",\n \"It may be assumed that the parameters that makes a good CO2 adsorbent may be the same as those that make a selective material.\",\n \"However, Applicants' results indicate that the two are only broadly related.\",\n \"The levels of surface area and pore volume can be even lower for good CO2/CH4 selectivity, as compared to CO2 uptake (Table 3).\",\n \"In summary, Applicants demonstrate in this Example that a synthetic goal for PC-based material, for both high CO2 adsorption and high CO2/CH4 selectivity, would comprise a C content of less than 90%.\",\n \"Given that neither N nor S seem to have a significant effect rather than the O that is present, it is clear that a design CxO1-x where x<0.9 would possibly make an ideal CO2 adsorbent material with the best CO2/CH4 selectivity.\",\n \"Furthermore, the goal should be a precursor where oxygen is incorporated into a cyclic moiety.\",\n \"Additional experimental results and information are provided in FIGS.\",\n \"15-23H and Tables 4-6.For instance, the chemical composition of OPC (750) has been thoroughly characterized via XPS, FTIR and Raman spectroscopy (FIGS.\",\n \"23A-23H and Table 6), while textural properties were determined by high resolution scanning electron microscopy (FIGS.\",\n \"21E-H), transmission electron microscopy (FIGS.\",\n \"21I-J) and a BET Surface area analyzer (FIGS.\",\n \"16A-16D).\",\n \"Moreover, measured values for gas uptakes have been confirmed via volumetric, gravimetric, multiple sample and cycles experiments.\",\n \"To the best of Applicants' knowledge, oxygen-rich carbon materials prepared from furfuryl alcohol has never been investigated for high pressure uptake of CO2 and CH4.In fact, there have been no reports of its use as a precursor for oxygen-rich porous carbon materials.\",\n \"In addition, a higher value for the isosteric heat of adsorption of CO2 (23 kJ·mol−1) versus 13 kJ·mol−1 for CH4 allows Applicants to scheme a temperature dependent strategy for removing CO2 from natural gas via selective adsorption and desorption of CH4 and CO2 in steps (FIGS.\",\n \"22A-22B).\",\n \"TABLE 4 Survey of different c-feedstock used for the synthesis of various PCs with high CO2 uptake properties.\",\n \"SKU pack Maximum CO2 size uptake at 30 bar PC Source material for (Sigma (mmol g−1) sample C-precursor CAS no.\",\n \"Aldrich) Price (wt %) SPC (1) 2-Thiophenemethanol 636-72-6 181315-100 G $155 for 100 g 18.4 (81) SPC (2) Thiophene 110-02-1 T31801-500 G $47 for 500 g — NPC (1) Pyrrole 109-97-7 W338605-1 KG $315 for 1 kg — NPC (2) Polyacrylonitrile 25014-41-9 181315-100 G $190 for 100 g 16.8 (74) OPC (1) Furfuryl alcohol 98-00-0 W249106- $60 for 1 kg 26.6 (117) 25 KG ($354 for 25 kg) OPC (2) Furan 110-00-9 185922-500 ML $54 for 500 mL — TABLE 5 Survey of gas adsorption properties of various PCs with high CO2 uptake capacity.\",\n \"Uptake Uptake Uptake Ratio of of CO2 of CO2 of CH4 adsorbed Surface at 30 bar at 10 bar at 30 bar CO2/CH4 area (mmol · (mmol · (mmol · at 30 bar SBET g−1) g−1) g−1) (molar) Sample (m2g−1) (wt %) (wt %) (wt %) (mass) C-Precursor 48 3.3 (14.5) 1.6 (7.0) — — OPC (500) 1143 17.1 (75.2) 8.6 (37.8) 6.7 (10.7) 2.5 (7.0) OPC (600) 2116 20.0 (88.1) 12.5 (55.0) 8.3 (13.3) 2.3 (6.3) OPC (700) 2610 20.8 (91.5) 12.7 (55.9) 9.1 (14.6) 2.3 (6.2) OPC (750) 2856 26.6 (117.0) 15.1 (66.4) 9.6 (15.5) 2.75 (7.5) OPC (750) 2856 42.9 (188.9) 18.5 (81.5) 14.6 (23.4) 2.93 (8.0) at 0.5° C. OPC (800) 3005 23.0 (101.2) 12.9 (56.7) 9.01 (14.4) 2.5 (7.0) SPC a 2500 18.4 (81.0) 10.0 (44.0) 7.1 (11.3) 2.6 (7.1) r-NPC a 1450 16.8 (74.0) 7.1 (31.2) 1.6 (12.2) 2.2 (6.1) Act.\",\n \"charcoal 845 8.4 (36.9) 6.3 (27.7) 6.0 (9.6) 1.4 (3.8) TABLE 6 Elemental composition of various types porous carbon materials as determined by XPS excluding the contribution from elemental H. Surface Total C O area pore (wt %) (wt %) SBET volume Sample XPS XPS KOH:precursor (m2g−1) VP (cm3g−1) C-Precursor 69.91 30.09 — 48 0.02 OPC (500) 77.49 22.51 3:1 1143 0.78 OPC (600) 82.04 17.74 3:1 2216 1.19 OPC (700) 85.07 14.93 3:1 2610 1.46 OPC (750) 88.21 11.79 3:1 2856 1.77 OPC (800) 89.28 10.72 3:1 3005 1.92 Act.\",\n \"charcoal 94.10 5.90 3:1 845 0.43 Example 3.Optimizing Carbon Dioxide Uptake and Carbon Dioxide-Methane Selectivity of Oxygen-Doped Porous Carbon Prepared from Oxygen Containing Polymer Precursors In this Example, Applicants report a reproducible synthesis of oxygen containing PC (OPC) by KOH activation at 500-800° C. of two oxygen containing precursor polymers: polyfurfuryl alcohol (PFFA) and polyanisyl alcohol (PAA), yielding FFA-OPC and AA-OPC, respectively.\",\n \"Both OPCs exhibit remarkable thermal stability and reproducible gas uptake properties for multiple cycles.\",\n \"Unlike other fine powder type activated PC materials, as-synthesized OPC sorbents are large pellet-like, making them a better candidate for preparing binder free solid pellet-like sorbent.\",\n \"The surface area and pore volumes of the OPC are independent of the precursor identity, but controlled by the activation temperature.\",\n \"Similarly, the uptake of CO2 is determined by the physical properties of the OPC: activation at 750° C. results in uptake that equals or out-performs existing PCs for high pressure uptake (30 bar) at 24.0° C. (FFA-OPC750: 117 wt %; AA-OPC750: 115 wt %).\",\n \"In contrast, while the uptake of CH4 for both OPCs is greatest for samples activation at 750° C., FFA-OPC750 shows significantly greater uptake compared to AA-OPC750, 15.5 wt % versus 13.7 wt %, respectively.\",\n \"As a consequence, AA-OPC750 demonstrates optimal selectivity for CO2 capture over CH4 uptake (AA-OPC750: Vmass(CO2/CH4)=8.37 at 30 bar) as compared to other reported PCs.\",\n \"A higher value for the isosteric heat of adsorption of CO2 (33 kJ mol−1) versus CH4 (14 kJ mol−1) suggests a new temperature dependent strategy for removing CO2 from natural gas via selective adsorption and desorption cycles.\",\n \"The differences in performance for CH4 uptake between FA-OPC and AA-OPC, prepared under identical conditions, suggests that the structure of the precursor (heterocyclic versus exocyclic oxygen) is an additional variable in the design of new OPC materials.\",\n \"In this Example, Applicants envision that an ideal PC would have a surface area of more than 2,800 m2g−1, a pore volume of more than 1.35 cm3g−1, and an oxygen content of between 5-20%.\",\n \"In this regard, Applicants have concentrated research efforts in developing routes to such materials that allow for low cost and reproducible synthesis.\",\n \"Furfuryl alcohol (FA) has previously been formed into a highly cross-linked precursor via acid catalysis that can be converted to a PC.\",\n \"However, the process results in only a modest surface area and adsorption not sufficient to reach the performance parameters listed above.\",\n \"In this Example, Applicants report that, through FeCl3 catalyzed polymerization and activation of polyfurfuryl alcohol (PFFA), an oxygenated PC (OPC) sorbent may be prepared which demonstrated higher room temperature CO2 uptake as compared to other PC materials.\",\n \"Applicants have shown that process conditions (temperature and KOH:precursor ratio) control the formation of micro (<2 nm) versus meso (>2 nm) porosity that is responsible for the highest CO2 uptake.\",\n \"Although there appeared to be no significant difference in the performance as a function of the precursor, in creating nitrogen-doped PCs (NPCs) it was noted that incorporation of nitrogen into 6 versus a 5-membered cyclic precursor made a significant difference in the performance.\",\n \"Thus, there is interest as to whether using identical process conditions the precursor makes any significant effect.\",\n \"Applicants have therefore investigated a new OPC precursor polyanisyl alcohol (PAA) to compare with PFFA.\",\n \"Moreover, if OPC is to be scaled, the cost of the catalyst used for PFFA, and similar polymeric precursors, is an issue to be addressed.\",\n \"Anisyl alcohol (4-methoxybenzyl alcohol), which is used as fragrance and flavourant and thus produced on a large scale, represents a low cost OPC precursor, while the formation of the polymer feedstock for OPC, polyanisyl alcohol (PAA), is synthesized by treating anisyl alcohol with concentrate H2SO4 in a single step.\",\n \"Example 3.1.Materials and Methods FeCl3, furfuryl alcohol (Sigma Aldrich, 98% purity), anisyl alcohol (Sigma Aldrich, 98% purity), CH3CN, powdered KOH, distilled water, acetone, HCl, Ar (99.9% pure), CO2 (99.99% pure, Matheson TRIGAS) and CH4 (99.9% pure) were used as supplied.\",\n \"The SPC and NPC samples used as comparison were synthesized from 2-thiophenemethanol and polyacrylonitrile (Sigma Aldrich), respectively, following protocols previously described.\",\n \"The chemical composition of the polymer and porous carbon materials were determined by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and Raman spectroscopy.\",\n \"The XPS measurements were carried out in a PHI Quantera scanning XPS microprobe.\",\n \"The wt % of chemical elements was determined by XPS survey scans with pass energy of 140 eV.\",\n \"For detailed elemental analysis high-resolution multi-cycle elemental scans with pass energy 26 eV was performed.\",\n \"Each spectrum was then deconvoluted by appropriate basis functions.\",\n \"Before spectral fitting, each spectrum was corrected for reference binding energy for C1s to 284.8 eV.\",\n \"FTIR spectral measurements were performed in a Nicolet FTIR Infrared Microscope equipped with a liquid N2 cooled detector.\",\n \"Raman spectra of solid samples were measured in a Renishaw Raman microscope equipped with a 514 nm excitation laser.\",\n \"Scanning electron microscopic images were obtained by a FEI Quanta 400 ESEM FEG high-resolution field emission scanning electron microscope.\",\n \"The high-resolution TEM images of activated OPCs were obtained by a JEOL 2100 field emission gun transmission electron microscope.\",\n \"The textural properties: surface areas, distributions of pore volumes and total pore volume of carbonaceous materials were obtained by analyzing N2 sorption isotherms (measured at 77 K), measured in a Quantachrome Autossorb-3b BET Surface Analyzer.\",\n \"The surface area (SBET) was calculated by the multipoint BET (Brunauer-Emmett-Teller) method.\",\n \"Before measurements, samples were dried at 140° C. for 12 hours under high vacuum system equipped with a liquid N2 cold trap.\",\n \"The apparent BET surface area (SBET) of the activated PC samples was calculated from the N2 adsorption isotherm in the partial pressure (P/P0) range of 0.05-0.30 and the total pore volume (VP) was estimated from the amount of N2 adsorbed at P/P0=0.99.The distributions of pore volumes were determined by analyzing the data via non-local density functional theory.\",\n \"Selected results are given in Table 7.Example 3.2.Synthesis of Polyfurfuryl Alcohol (PFFA) In a typical synthesis, a solution was prepared by dissolving FeCl3 (50 g) in CH3CN (200 mL).\",\n \"To this, a solution of furfuryl alcohol (5 g, Sigma Aldrich, 98%) mixed with CH3CN 50 (mL) was slowly added.\",\n \"The mixture was stirred for 24 hours under continuous argon purging.\",\n \"The polymerized product, brown colored polyfurfuryl alcohol (PFFA) was separated by filtration, washed thoroughly with DI water (ca.\",\n \"4 L) and acetone (500 mL), before being dried at 40° C. for 12 hours under vacuum (Yield=98%).\",\n \"Example 3.3.Synthesis of Polyanisyl Alcohol (PAA) In a typical synthesis, concentrated H2SO4 (˜6 mL) was slowly added dropwise to a glass beaker containing anisyl alcohol (10 g) in three steps.\",\n \"In each step, H2SO4 (2 mL) was added in drops to the glass beaker, stirred with a glass stirrer and a purple colored solid polymer of polyanisyl alcohol was formed.\",\n \"The synthesized polymer was separated from the mixture.\",\n \"To avoid over heating of reactants, the glass beaker was kept surrounded by a water/ice mixture.\",\n \"The reaction process continued until all the anisyl alcohol was converted into solid polymer.\",\n \"The synthesized polymer was washed with DI water (4×50 mL) to remove excess acid and then with acetone (200 mL).\",\n \"The solid polymer was then crushed into powder, transferred to a glass beaker and quickly washed with acetone (100 mL) and dried at room temperature for 12 hours under vacuum.\",\n \"The final product was a dark brown colored semi-soft mixture of PAA and trace amount of acetone, which helps mixing of polymer with KOH before chemical activation.\",\n \"Example 3.4.Conversion of Polymer Precursors to Oxygenated Porous Carbon (OPC) In a typical activation process, either PFFA or PAA (500 mg) was thoroughly mixed with KOH powder (1.5 g, crushed previously) in a mortar for 10 minutes.\",\n \"The mixture was then placed inside a quartz tube/tube furnace, dried for 20 minutes and then heated for 1 hour (for AA-OPC 30 minutes) at 500, 600, 700, 800 or 750° C., under a flow of Ar (99.9%, flow rate 600 sccm).\",\n \"The activated samples were then washed with HCl (100 mL, 1.4 M) and DI water until the filtrate attained pH=7.The product was dried at 70° C. for 12 hours under vacuum.\",\n \"The yield of activated PC materials depended on the activation temperature (e.g., FFA-OPC500=55%, FFA-OPC600=40%, FFA-OPC700=30%, FFA-OPC750=25-27%, and FFA-OPC800=15%).\",\n \"Example 3.5.CO2 and CH4 Uptake Measurements The volumetric uptake measurements (pressure dependent excess isotherms) of CO2 and CH4 were performed in an automated Sievert instrument (Setaram PCTPRO).\",\n \"Various OPC samples were first crushed into powders and packed in a stainless steel autoclave sample cell.\",\n \"Initial sample pre-treatment was carried out at 130° C. for 1.5 hours under high vacuum.\",\n \"The free volume inside the sample cell was determined by a series of calibration procedures done under helium.\",\n \"Gas uptake experiments were carried out with high purity research grade CO2 (99.99% purity, Matheson TRIGAS) and CH4 (99.9% purity).\",\n \"The gravimetric uptake measurements were performed in a Rubotherm magnetic suspension balance instrument (Rubotherm, Germany).\",\n \"A summary of selected results is given in Table 7.TABLE 7 CO2 and CH4 uptake properties (@ 24° C.) in comparison with commercial PC samples of OPC samples prepared from polyfurfuryl alcohol (FFA-OPC) and polyanisyl alcohol (AA-OPC).\",\n \"Surface area Total pore Uptake CO2 Uptake CO2 Uptake CH4 Molar ratio Mass ratio SBET volume VP @ 10 bar @30 bar @30 bar CO2/CH4 CO2/CH4 Sample a (m2g−1) e (cm3g−1) f (mmol · g−1) (wt %) (mmol · g−1) (wt %) (mmol · g−1) (wt %) @30 bar @30 bar FFA-OPC500 1143 0.78 8.6 37.8 17.1 75.2 6.7 10.7 2.5 7.0 FFA-OPC600 2116 1.19 12.5 55.0 20.0 88.1 8.3 13.3 2.4 6.6 FFA-OPC700 2610 1.46 12.7 55.9 20.8 91.5 9.1 14.6 2.3 6.3 FFA-OPC750 b 2856 1.77 15.1 66.4 26.6 117.0 9.6 15.5 2.8 7.6 (18.5) (81.5) (42.9) (188.9) (14.6) (23.4) (2.9) (8.0) FFA-OPC800 3005 1.92 12.9 56.7 23.0 101.2 9.0 14.4 2.5 7.0 AA-OPC500 853 0.49 6.7 29.7 9.5 41.6 3.8 6.1 2.7 7.3 AA-OPC600 1980 1.13 11.6 50.9 17.6 77.3 6.8 10.9 2.6 7.1 AA-OPC700 2700 1.54 11.9 52.6 22.4 98.5 7.9 12.7 2.8 7.8 AA-OPC750 b 3310 1.87 13.9 61.0 26.0 114.5 8.5 13.7 3.0 8.4 (17.6) (77.5) (39.3) (172.9) (10.5) (16.8) (3.7) (10.3) AA-OPC800 3040 2.27 9.6 42.2 21.8 96.0 8.3 13.2 2.6 7.2 Act.\",\n \"Charcoal c 845 0.47 6.3 27.6 8.5 37.2 6.0 9.7 1.4 3.9 BPL d 951 0.53 6.30 27.7 8.7 38.1 6.18 9.9 1.4 3.8 a OPC activation temperature.\",\n \"b Values in parenthesis performed at 0.5° C. c Purchased from Mallinckrodt chemical works.\",\n \"d Purchased from Calgon carbon corp. e Apparent BET surface area estimated in P/P0 range of 0.05-0.30.f Total pore volume measured at P/P0 ~0.99 Example 3.6.Results and Discussion The experimental procedures for the synthesis of the best PC sample using KOH activation with the highest CO2 uptake property rely on the optimization of two major parameters: the KOH:PFFA ratio and the temperature of activation (Ta).\",\n \"Earlier reports suggest that the overall porosity and the surface area of a chemically activated PC material increase with KOH concentration, and initial results suggested that KOH:PFFA=3 is best for developing nano-sized micropores (1-2 nm range).\",\n \"Thus, Applicants' procedures were carried out by keeping KOH:PFFA ratio fixed to 3 and by activating premixed KOH-PFFA mixtures at a single temperature in the range of 500-800° C. A schematic outlining the synthetic protocol for OPC from FA is presented in FIG.\",\n \"24A.\",\n \"In the first step, a solid powder-like polymer of FA was prepared from liquid FA by the reaction in the presence of a FeCl3 catalyst in CH3CN.\",\n \"The synthesis of polyanisyl alcohol (PAA) is more facile and involves treating anisyl alcohol with concentrate H2SO4 in a single step (FIG.\",\n \"24B).\",\n \"The PFFA and PAA were then chemically activated by mixing with pre-ground KOH followed by pyrolysis at a stable temperature in the 500-800° C. range.\",\n \"A significant advantage of the use of the PFFA prepared in this manner, as compared to previous methods, is that it only releases a small amount of volatile product during activation, unlike other PC precursors.\",\n \"FIGS.\",\n \"25A-25B show representative images of the PFFA and the resulting FFA-OPC750.Both the as prepared OPC has a large pellet-like morphology.\",\n \"In comparison, an image of sulfur containing porous carbon (SPC) sample prepared under identical activation conditions is shown in FIG.\",\n \"25C.\",\n \"This important structural rigidity makes OPC sorbents more appropriate for practical applications as opposed to other powder like sorbents.\",\n \"The structural and textural morphology of the as-synthesized polymer and resulting activated OPC samples were determined by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) as represented by FIGS.\",\n \"26A-26D.\",\n \"The PFFA and PAA precursors have a relatively dense morphology, but after activation with KOH, the resulting OPCs exhibit a texture full of micron size holes, multiple corners and edges that are absent in the precursors.\",\n \"The related energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS) determined elemental composition confirms the OPCs are primarily composed of carbon and oxygen (Table 8).\",\n \"TABLE 8 Elemental composition of OPC as determined by XPS and EDS.\",\n \"XPS EDS Sample C (wt %) O (wt %) C (wt %) O (wt %) PFFA-precursor 69.91 30.09 68.64 31.36 FFA-OPC500 77.49 22.51 78.64 18.85 FFA-OPC600 82.04 17.74 87.09 12.91 FFA-OPC700 85.07 14.93 89.92 10.08 FFA-OPC750 88.21 11.79 90.12 8.08 FFA-OPC800 89.28 10.72 90.58 9.42 PAA-precursorb 74.90 21.41 AA-OPC500 76.66 23.34 AA-OPC600 83.36 13.64 AA-OPC700 89.37 10.63 AA-OPC750 91.01 8.99 AA-OPC800 91.27 8.73 aContributions from elemental H were excluded.\",\n \"bPAA-precursor contained 3.7% S residue from the acid catalyst.\",\n \"In order to image the microporous structure of activated OPCs, high-resolution transmission electron microscopy (HRTEM) was utilized.\",\n \"FIGS.\",\n \"27A-27C display a set of images demonstrating randomly distributed micropores with dimension in the range of 1-2 nm for FFA-OPC600 and slightly larger but evenly distributed micropores for FFA-OPC800 and AA-OPC800 samples.\",\n \"These nano-sized micropores play key roles in the ultra high CO2 uptake at higher pressure.\",\n \"Further characterization to determine important structural parameters such as surface area, pore size distribution and the total pore volumes of C-precursor and different OPC specimens activated at a fixed temperature in the range of 500-800° C. with a fixed KOH/PFFA ratio of 3 was carried out by measurement of the N2 adsorption isotherms (at 77 K) using a BET (Brunauer-Emmett-Teller) surface area analyzer.\",\n \"FIGS.\",\n \"28A-28B show such set of isotherms for the OPCs activated at labelled temperature.\",\n \"Difference in the shape of these isotherms was noticed depending on the activation temperature.\",\n \"The isotherm for FFA-OPC800 was much steeper than that of FFA-OPC500 up to a relative pressure of 0.4 (FIG.\",\n \"28A), indicating the variation in microporosity and adsorption capacity.\",\n \"The isotherm for AA-OPC800 was shallower than that of the other samples, suggesting meso pore generation.\",\n \"The estimated surface area (SBET) and the total pore volume (Vp) gradually increased with activation temperature (FIGS.\",\n \"29A-29B) describing the incremental trend for mildly to strongly activated samples.\",\n \"Activation between 650° C. and 800° C. the surface area for FFA-OPCs varied smoothly than that for pore volumes (FIG.\",\n \"29A).\",\n \"In contrast, the surface area for AA-OPCs reaches an apparent maximum at 750° C. (FIG.\",\n \"29B).\",\n \"Irrespective of these differences, both parameters increase with increasing activation temperature, with activation above 750° C. giving materials with surface area and pore volume above the threshold (i.e., >2,800 m2g−1 and >1.35 cm3g−1, respectively) to enable maximum CO2 uptake.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"30 provides a comparison with other reported carbon based activated sorbents such as activated charcoal, SPC, NPC and asphalt derived PC specifically, explored for high pressure CO2 uptakes.\",\n \"The values for AA-OPC750 are amongst of the highest reported surface area and pore volume values for carbon based PC samples reported to date.\",\n \"FIGS.\",\n \"31A-31B depict the distributions of pore sizes as a function of pore width for activation temperatures (500° C.≤Ta≤800° C.) to strong (Ta=800° C.) activation conditions.\",\n \"These plots show that samples activated at temperatures between 500 and 700° C. mainly consisted of micropores in the range of 1-2 nm.\",\n \"In contrast, the distribution plot for FFA-OPC800 indicates that chemical activation at temperature of about 800° C. created some additional mesopores in the 2.0-3.5 nm range, confirming the findings from HRTEM images discussed earlier (FIG.\",\n \"27B).\",\n \"Pores larger than 4 nm were practically absent in all samples, except for AA-OPC800 where the mesopore (>2 nm) contribution is dominant (FIG.\",\n \"31B).\",\n \"As noted above, the best CO2 uptake of a PC is observed with a carbon content of 80-95 wt %.\",\n \"The chemical composition of polymer precursors and the subsequent OPCs was determined by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS).\",\n \"The identity and wt % of the elements present on the sample surface were determined by XPS survey scans for core level electrons (Table 8).\",\n \"The XPS data further confirms that OPC samples primarily contained C and O (the H contents are not shown in XPS).\",\n \"As expected, the C and O content varied from the polymers to the OPCs during chemical activation, and for the OPC samples the general trend was that the wt % of C increased and O decreased gradually with increasing activation temperature (FIGS.\",\n \"32A-32D).\",\n \"Based upon the analysis, samples activated between 600° C. and 800° C. fall within the range required for maximum CO2 uptake.\",\n \"A set of high resolution XPS elemental scan data for C1s and O1s of PFFA and FFA-OPC samples (FIGS.\",\n \"33A-33B), de-convoluted by appropriate basis peaks helped Applicants identify the possible functional groups present in the precursor and numerous activated samples.\",\n \"For PFFA, the C1s band could be resolved into four main peaks and labelled according to probable functional groups as in polythiophene.\",\n \"Thus, these peaks were assigned to the following functional groups: sp2 hybridized C═C (284.7 eV), C—C (286.1 eV), C—O—C (287.1 eV) and C═O (288.9 eV).\",\n \"An additional shoulder near 291.3 eV is attributed to π-π* shake-up peak.\",\n \"In contrast to PFFA, the activated sample exhibited much narrower C═C peak (FWHM: 1.3 eV versus 2.2 eV for PFFA).\",\n \"The resolved basis peaks under O1s spectra were attributable to two main functional groups: the C—O—C group at 533.2 eV (O within the furan ring) and the carbonyl group (C═O) at 531.8 eV.\",\n \"Without being bound by theory, Applicants believe that KOH induced oxidation during chemical activation at higher temperature resulted in formation of more carbonyl groups, though the absence of well resolved band for O1s made it difficult to extract the absolute proportion of these two functionalities.\",\n \"The nature of carbon and oxygen functional groups present in the as-synthesized PFFA and activated FFA-OPCs were further explored via FTIR spectroscopy.\",\n \"The IR spectrum for PFFA (FIG.\",\n \"34) exhibited well defined but broad peaks originated from various IR active vibrational stretches identified as: C—O—C asymmetric stretching vibration (1020 cm−1), C—C stretching (1358 cm−1), and C═C symmetric and asymmetric stretching vibrations in the furan ring (1510 and 1585 cm−1, respectively).\",\n \"The frequency shift and broadness of these bands may be attributed to the aggregated phase of the synthesized polymer.\",\n \"In contrast to PFFA, the activated samples exhibited multiple stretching vibrations with gradually decreasing intensity.\",\n \"The intensity of all these peaks decreased systematically with increasing activation temperature as evidenced by the spectra of FFA-OPC500 and FFA-OPC800.For FFA-OPC500, in addition to C═C stretching frequencies another shoulder peak was identified near 1710 cm−1, which could be assigned to C═O stretching vibrations.\",\n \"Moreover, the C—O—C and O—H functional groups that were present in the C-precursor and mildly activated samples (Ta=500° C.) slowly removed due to chemical activation at higher temperature.\",\n \"The aromatic sp2 hybridized C═C and amorphous sp3 hybridized C—C bonds present in PFFA and activated FFA-OPCs were further characterized by Raman spectroscopy.\",\n \"FIGS.\",\n \"35A-35C represent a set of three normalized spectra depicting spectral changes for two major bands; the sharp graphene (G) band (1590 cm−1) and the broad disorder (D) band located (1360 cm−1), attributing to the aromatic sp2 and amorphous sp3 hybridized carbons, respectively.\",\n \"A more direct dependence for the (D/G) intensity ratio on activation temperature is shown in FIG.\",\n \"35D, bottom panel.\",\n \"The D/G value varied from 0.56 for PFFA, to 0.75 for FFA-OPC500 and 0.83 for FFA-OPC800, signifying the gradual removal of sp2 and addition of sp3 carbons as a result of chemical activation under mild to strong activation conditions.\",\n \"Example 3.7.CO2 Uptake Among the various types of solid porous materials that efficiently capture CO2, MOFs (metal organic frameworks), zeolites, cross-linked polyethylenimine, and a variety of powder like activated PCs play significant roles over other sorbents and widely utilized for industrial application due to their high surface area, thermal stability, low cost of synthesis, and high gas adsorption capacity with remarkable reproducibility.\",\n \"However, within the category of activated PC materials with high CO2 uptake capacity, to date, most of the sorbents were investigated for CO2 uptake performance up to a pressure limit of only 1 bar due to the limitation of available instruments.\",\n \"However, in industrial applications, higher pressures are needed.\",\n \"For example, removal of CO2 from natural gas at the wellhead needs to be optimized between 15-30 bar.\",\n \"Applicants have previously shown that the best PC materials show a maximum CO2 uptake of 20-25 mmol·g−1 at 30 bar and 24° C. In this context, Applicants have carried out careful volumetric CO2 uptake experiments on the OPC sorbents as a function of gas pressure up to a limit of 30 bar and compared the results to previously reported PC samples measured under the same conditions.\",\n \"In order to identify the OPC sorbent with the highest CO2 uptake capacity, Applicants measured pressure dependent CO2 uptake for a set of OPC samples prepared with a fixed KOH:polymer=3 and activated at a fixed temperature in the 500-800° C. range (FIGS.\",\n \"36A-36C).\",\n \"Clear difference between the shapes of uptake isotherms indicates that uptake varies with activation temperature (Ta).\",\n \"In particular, higher values of Ta correlated with higher uptake values for a specific adsorption pressure.\",\n \"The C-precursors adsorbed negligible amount of CO2 and the most mildly activated OPC.\",\n \"AA-OPC500 showed an uptake similar to activated charcoal.\",\n \"The general trend was: OPC that was activated at higher temperature contained more micropores and with larger surface area performed better.\",\n \"Strikingly, both FFA-OPC750 and AA-OPC750 captured more CO2 than their OPC800 homologs; while in the case of FFA-OPC800 it has a higher surface area and pore volume (Table 7).\",\n \"A similar observation was reported for low pressure (up to 1 bar) gas uptake of CO2 by polypyrrole derived PCs.\",\n \"Applicants believe that the reason for the higher uptake performance of OPC750 was that OPC800 contained more mesopores larger than 2 nm.\",\n \"In this context, it is important to note that up to a pressure bar of 5 bar all OPC samples capture similar amount of CO2 (except the OPC500 samples).\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"36C displays a set of equilibrium volumetric CO2 uptakes at room temperature as a function of adsorbate pressure for various PC specimens such as activated charcoal, NPC, SPC, FFA-OPC750, and AA-OPC750.Applicants noticed that among the all activated OPCs, though all of them captured more CO2 than previous reported SPC or NPC samples, both FFA-OPC750 and AA-OPC750, demonstrated the highest CO2 capture capability.\",\n \"Thus, Applicants subsequently carried out repeated uptake experiments on different batches of both OPC750.The CO2 uptake result for FFA-OPC750 was further verified by another gravimetric uptake experiment carried out in a Rubotherm magnetic suspension balance instrument (FIG.\",\n \"36C, open circles).\",\n \"These uptake plots further established that at a pressure of 30 bar, FFA-OPC750 exhibited an ultrahigh CO2 capture capacity of 26.6 mmol·g−1 (117 wt %), outperforming other doped PCs by a large margin.\",\n \"Moreover, OPC750 adsorbed slightly, but repeatedly, more CO2 than the recently reported activated PCs made from asphalt Versatrol-HT (26.6 versus 26 mmol·g−1).\",\n \"It should be noted that the latter material required multiple activation steps, pretreatment, N-addition and reduction by H2 to be capable of adsorbing such quantity of CO2, which is in contrast with the far simpler process described herein.\",\n \"In contrast, OPC750 is prepared from a simple precursor in a single activation step without N-addition or H2 reduction.\",\n \"To the best of Applicants' knowledge, among the category of high CO2 uptake PC materials, FFA-OPC750 exhibits remarkable CO2 capture properties comparable to expensive MOFs with similar apparent surface area.\",\n \"For example, IRMOF-1 with a surface area of 2833 m2g−1 captures about 21 mmol·g−1 of CO2 at 30 bar.\",\n \"IRMOF-6 with a surface area of 2516 m2g−1 captures about 19 mmol·g−1 at 30 bar.\",\n \"The overall volumetric CO2 uptake results at 30 and 10 bar, for various sorbents are compared in Table 7, while the maximum amounts of gas uptakes at 30 bar for different PC samples with corresponding surface area is represented by FIG.\",\n \"37.For large scale gas uptake applications, such as removing CO2 from natural gas, it is essential for a solid sorbent to exhibit both reproducible gas uptake capability and batch to batch reproducibility.\",\n \"This important requirement was examined via two experiments as shown in FIGS.\",\n \"18A-18B, which displays a set of pressure dependent CO2 uptake plots for different OPC750 batches synthesized and activated same way.\",\n \"Almost identical gas adsorption characteristics, up to an upper pressure limit of 30 bar, confirmed the applicability of both OPC materials as cheap but very effective sorbent for industrial application.\",\n \"The other necessity for practical usage was further established by multiple cycles of gas adsorption-desorption measurements (2 cycles of adsorption and 2 cycles of desorption) that showed negligible or no hysteresis (FIG.\",\n \"38C).\",\n \"Applicants' multiple cycle measurements and prolonged exposure to CO2 on the same OPC sample satisfied two major requirements for practical application: no degradation in quality and no drop in gas uptake capacity.\",\n \"For most of the solid sorbents, the gas uptake capacity increases with decreasing capture temperature.\",\n \"At 0.5° C. and a pressure of 30 bar, FFA-OPC750 demonstrated an ultrahigh CO2 uptake capacity that maxed to 189 wt % (43 mmol·g−1) that is 60% higher than room temperature uptake (FIG.\",\n \"39A).\",\n \"For any solid porous sorbents with high surface area, the trend of gas uptake is: the higher the gas pressure, the higher the CO2 uptake and the uptake is both pressure and temperature dependent.\",\n \"This result is further established by a set of plots describing the gas uptake capacity at four different uptake pressures as a function of experiment temperature (FIG.\",\n \"39B).\",\n \"At a pressure of 5 bar, the CO2 uptake varied from 5.2 to 12.6 mmol·g−1 (increased by 142%) for a temperature change of 60 to 0.5° C.; whereas, at 30 bar, the change was significantly high, uptake varied from 12.6 to 42.9 mmol·g−1 (increased by 240%).\",\n \"This important result signifies the possibility of selective CO2 removal by exploiting the pressure-temperature dependent adsorption and desorption from a CO2 rich gas mixture.\",\n \"Example 3.8.CO2/CH4 Selectivity The selective removal of CO2 from natural gas, which essentially contains CH4 and higher hydrocarbons along with other gases (CO2, H2S, and N2), is one of the important industrial research goals, because these contaminant gases decrease power efficiency of the natural gas.\",\n \"The capture of CO2 from natural gas primarily relies on purification strategies that allow the gas mixture to pass through a column packed with solid porous materials that captures CO2 from the CH4-rich environment with minimal CH4 uptake.\",\n \"Applicants have previously shown that, unlike total CO2 adsorption, the best CH4:CO2 adsorption ratio requires a PC with a surface area of more than 2000 m2g−1, a total pore volume of more than 1.0 cm3g−1, and a carbon content of less than 90 wt %.\",\n \"Based upon the forgoing, both OPC750 materials meet these requirements.\",\n \"The absolute CO2:CH4 selectivity test was carried out by measuring volumetric CO2 and CH4 uptake isotherms up to a high pressure limit of 30 bar at 0.5 and 24.0° C. Applicants' study focused on the selectivity of FFA-OPC750 and AA-OPC750.Two sets of volumetric CO2 and CH4 adsorption uptake measurements performed on each OPC750 sorbent, at 0.5 and 24.0° C. (FIGS.\",\n \"40A-40B, respectively).\",\n \"A similar set of room temperature uptake result for activated charcoal are presented in FIG.\",\n \"40C.\",\n \"Here, the molar uptake selectivity (ηCO2/ηCH4) is defined by the molar ratio of adsorbed CO2 and CH4 at a certain pressure (i.e., at 30 bar).\",\n \"Although the surface are and pore volumes and the CO2 uptake of the two different OPC samples appear to be essentially independent of the choice of precursor (see FIGS.\",\n \"29A-29B and Table 7), the same is not true of CH4 uptake.\",\n \"As may be seen from Table 7, the CH4 uptake for FFA-OPC is greater than that for AA-OPC for any given activation temperature.\",\n \"Given the relationship observed in FIGS.\",\n \"29A-29B, this trend is also true for surface area and pore volume (FIGS.\",\n \"41A-41B).\",\n \"Thus, even with similar physical parameters (surface area and pore volume) OPC prepared from PFFA shows greater CH4 uptake than materials prepared from PAA.\",\n \"Although the differences are about 10%, this results in a comparable difference in CO2/CH4 selectivity, with AA-OPC samples providing better selectivity than FFA-OPC samples across the range of activation temperatures (Table 7).\",\n \"Another important parameter that can be determined from FIGS.\",\n \"42A-42D is the corresponding isosteric heat of adsorption of CO2 and CH4 for OPC750 using the thermodynamic equations described elsewhere.\",\n \"In thermodynamic point of view, isosteric heat of adsorption of a gas determines the temperature change in a sorbent as a result of adsorption of adsorbate molecules to the sorbent surface and thus, it is one of the key thermodynamic parameters that can be utilized to separate this gas from a mixture of gases.\",\n \"The higher the difference between isosteric heats of adsorption for two gases the better will be the separation.\",\n \"For instance, as shown by FIGS.\",\n \"42A-42D, there is a higher value for the isosteric heat of adsorption of CO2 as compared CH4 (Table 9), which allows Applicants to propose a temperature dependent strategy for removing CO2 from natural gas via selective adsorption and desorption of CH4 and CO2.The results also suggest that understanding the factors controlling the difference between the values will offer a guide to the design of future adsorbents.\",\n \"TABLE 9 Isosteric heat of adsorption for CO2 and CH4.Sample CO2 (kJ mol−1) CH4 (kJ mol−1) FFA-OPC750 23 13 AA-OPC750 33 14 Applicants have previously reported that with regard to CO2 uptake, the relative distribution of pores within defined ranges defined performance.\",\n \"The micro- and meso-porosity analysis of these samples was determined by the t-plot method and revealed pore volume dependencies on KOH amounts (Table 10).\",\n \"The absolute volumes and percentage of total pore volume for OPC750 samples as a function of the CO2/CH4 selectivity suggest that Applicants' previous proposal is correct.\",\n \"The greater the relative percentage of pores less than 2 nm, the greater the CO2 uptake is in line with previous suggestions.\",\n \"However, the comparison of FFA-OPC750 and AA-OPC750 provides further insight into Applicants' previous proposal that it was pores in the range of 1-2 nm that are most important in defining CO2/CH4 selectivity.\",\n \"In order to recognize the PC sorbent with the highest CO2/CH4 selectivity, Applicants surveyed molar selectivity (at 30 bar) of recently explored PC sorbents such as SPC, NPC and activated charcoal and AA-OPC750.The absolute molar (CO2/CH4) uptake selectivity of OPC750 (3.05) is greater than values for SPC (2.6), reduced-NPC (2.2) and activated charcoal (1.4) and slightly higher than the recently reported asphalt Versatrol-HT derived PC (3.0).\",\n \"These results clearly established that among the category of activated PC materials for selective CO2 capture from natural gas, AA-OPC750 is one of the best absorbents reported so far and much lower cost relative to SPC and NPC prepared from analogous polymers.\",\n \"TABLE 10 Summary of meso (>2 nm), micro (<2 nm), and narrower micropore (<1 nm) volume (V) for OPC750 samples.\",\n \"Micropore volumes determined by the t-plot method.\",\n \"Within parentheses, % of the total pore volume is shown.\",\n \"VMICRO VNARROW Vi VMESO VMACRO (0-2 nm) (0-1 nm) (1-2 nm) (2-50 nm) (>50 nm) Samplea (cm3g−1) (cm3g−1) (m2g−1) (cm3g−1) (m2g−1) FFA-OPC750 1.10 0.23 (13%) 0.87 (49%) 0.57 (32%) 0.10 (6%) AA-OPC750 1.24 0.12 (6%) 1.12 (60%) 0.58 (31%) 0.05 (3%) Based upon prior work, it is known that the best CO2 uptake and CO2/CH4 differentiation is obtained with a defined set of parameters involving surface area, pore volume, and carbon content.\",\n \"The latter has been related to the relative percentage of pores less than 2 nm.\",\n \"These results suggested that the way to prepare an ideal PC adsorbent is to use a pre-formed O-containing precursor, and the formation of both PFFA and PAA meets these needs.\",\n \"Thus, the use of a designed precursor allows for the reproducible formation of an OPC material with the required physical attributes.\",\n \"Furthermore, unlike NPC and SPC materials, the OPC reported herein lends to pellet formation as required for scalable processes.\",\n \"In this Example, the structural features of the precursor appear to be irrelevant to the OPC that is formed when considering CO2 adsorption.\",\n \"However, this is not true for CH4 adsorption and hence CO2/CH4 selectivity.\",\n \"Based upon the results herein, and without being bound by theory, Applicants suggest that the identity of the precursor and the subsequent control over the pore structure is important for CH4 adsorption and hence CO2/CH4 selectivity.\",\n \"In conclusion, Applicants propose in this Example that, while CO2 uptake is optimized by maximization of pores of less than 2 nm, the CO2/CH4 selectivity requires optimization of pores in the 1-2 nm range.\",\n \"Example 4.The Effect of KOH Concentration in Chemical Activation of Porous Carbon Sorbents for Carbon Dioxide Uptake and Carbon Dioxide-Methane Selectivity: The Relative Formation of Micro (<2 nm) Versus Meso (>2 nm) Porosity In this Example, Applicants demonstrate that PC sorbents are synthesized from polymer precursors mixed with a chemical activation reagent and pyrolyzed (>500° C.).\",\n \"KOH is known to be the best activator for a wide range of precursors, as it creates PCs with a large surface area (1200-4000 m2g−1).\",\n \"In order to determine the optimum KOH:polymer ratio for both CO2 adsorption and CO2/CH4 selectivity, Applicants prepared a set of five S-containing porous carbon (SPC) samples from polythiophene (PTh) with increasing KOH:PTh ratio (1 to 5), and investigated CO2 and CH4 uptake measurements on carbonaceous SPC samples up to a pressure limit of 30 bar.\",\n \"The SPCs have been characterized by XPS, SEM, TEM and BET surface area analysis.\",\n \"Although the apparent surface area and total pore volume increased with increasing KOH concentration, the maximum CO2 uptake (5-30 bar) was demonstrated for samples with KOH:PTh=3.This equates to SPC samples with a surface area and total pore volume of ˜2700 m2g−1 and 1.5 cm3g−1, respectively.\",\n \"Greater values for either parameter do not enhance the CO2 uptake, showing that it is not total porosity that is important.\",\n \"SPC samples formed with KOH:PTh=3 show both a maximum C composition (85%), and a maximum fraction of micro (<2 nm) porosity with a concomitant decrease in meso-pores (>2 nm).\",\n \"KOH:PTh=3 is also the synthetic conditions to maximize CH4 uptake (5-30 bar).\",\n \"However, the optimum CO2/CH4 selectivity occurred with KOH:PTh=2.This correlates with different surface area (2,200 m2g−1) and total pore volume (1.2 cm3g−1) that required for optimum CO2 uptake.\",\n \"These results suggest that process conditions that lead to high relative micro porosity need to be considered rather than total surface area or pore volume.\",\n \"These results also suggest that, besides surface area and total pore volume of a particular sample, the relative composition of meso and micro porosity is the defining structural feature for optimizing CO2 uptake.\",\n \"Example 4.1.Materials and Methods FeCl3, 2-thiophenemethanol (purchased from Sigma Aldrich, 98% purity), CH3CN, powdered KOH, distilled water, acetone, HCl, Ar (99.9% pure), CO2 (99.99% pure, Matheson TRIGAS) and CH4 (99.9% pure) were used as supplied.\",\n \"Polymer precursors and SPC materials were characterized by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), high resolution transmission electron microscopy (HRTEM) and BET surface area analysis.\",\n \"The XPS measurements were carried out in a PHI Quantera scanning XPS microprobe.\",\n \"The wt % of chemical elements was determined by XPS survey scans with pass energy of 140 eV.\",\n \"For detailed elemental analysis, high-resolution multi-cycle elemental scans with pass energy 26 eV was performed.\",\n \"Each spectrum was then deconvoluted by appropriate basis functions.\",\n \"Before spectral fitting, each spectrum was corrected for reference binding energy for C1s to 284.8 eV.\",\n \"FTIR spectral measurements were performed in a Nicolet FTIR Infrared Microscope equipped with a liquid N2 cooled detector.\",\n \"Scanning electron microscopic images were obtained by a FEI Quanta 400 ESEM FEG high-resolution field emission scanning electron microscope.\",\n \"The high-resolution TEM images of activated SPCs were obtained by a JEOL 2100 field emission gun transmission electron microscope.\",\n \"The textural properties (i.e., surface areas, distributions of pore volumes and total pore volume) of carbonaceous materials were obtained by analyzing N2 sorption isotherms (measured at 77 K), measured in a Quantachrome Autosorb-3b BET Surface Analyzer.\",\n \"Before measurements, samples were dried at 130° C. for 6 hours under high vacuum system equipped with a liquid N2 cold trap.\",\n \"The apparent BET surface area (SBET) was calculated from N2 adsorption isotherms in the partial pressure (P/P0) range of 0.05-0.30 by the multipoint BET (Brunauer-Emmett-Teller) method.\",\n \"The total pore volume was estimated from the amount of adsorbed N2 at P/P0=0.99.The distributions of pore volumes were determined by analyzing the data via non-local density functional theory.\",\n \"Pore volumes and surface area of micropores were determined by analyzing N2 isotherms by t-plot method.\",\n \"Results are given in Table 11.TABLE 11 Summary of PC and SPC samples studied with their elemental analysis, physical properties, and CO2 uptakes.\",\n \"Surface area Total pore CO2 uptake CO2 uptake C O S SBET volume VP at 30 bar at 30 bar Samplea (wt %)b (wt %)b (wt %)b (m2g−1) (cm3g−1) (mmol · g−1) (mg · g−1) Act.\",\n \"94.10 5.90 0.00 845 0.47 8.45 372 charcoalc BPLd 91.30 8.70 0.00 951 0.53 8.66 381 SPC-1 76.96 14.30 8.74 1680 0.98 14.68 646 SPC-2 78.89 13.73 7.37 2180 1.22 19.18 844 SPC-3 85.53 13.70 0.77 2675 1.51 22.64 996 SPC-4 84.63 15.37 0.00 2860 1.66 21.82 960 SPC-5 84.38 15.62 0.00 2980 1.76 21.29 937 PTh 61.45 5.39 29.49 40 0.02 2.40 106 aPC-KOH:precursor ratio.\",\n \"All SPC samples were activated at 700° C. bDetermined by XPS.\",\n \"cPurchased from Mallinckrodt chemical works.\",\n \"dPurchased from Calgon carbon corp. Total pore volumes are measured at P/P0 ~0.99.z Example 4.2.Synthesis of S-Containing Polymer Precursor (PTh) The polymer precursor was prepared by a modification of previously reported protocols.\",\n \"A solution of 2-thiophenemethanol (5 g, Sigma Aldrich, 98% purity) mixed with CH3CN (20 mL) was slowly added to a solution of FeCl3 (25 g) in CH3CN (200 mL).\",\n \"The mixture was stirred for 2 hours under continuous Ar purging.\",\n \"The brown polythiophene (PTh) was separated by filtration, washed with DI water (4 L) and acetone (1 L), and dried at 60° C. for 12 hours under vacuum (Yield=98%).\",\n \"Example 4.3.Conversion of PTh to S-Containing Porous Carbon (SPC) In a typical activation process, PTh (500 mg) was thoroughly mixed with KOH powder (crushed previously, with KOH:PTh weight ratio varying from 1 to 5) in a mortar for 10 minutes.\",\n \"The mixture was then placed inside a quartz tube/tube furnace, dried for 10 minutes and then heated for 1 hour at a stable temperature of 700° C., under a flow of Ar (99.9%, flow rate 600 sccm).\",\n \"The activated samples were then washed with DI water, HCl (100 mL, 1.4 M) to remove excess inorganic salt residue and DI water until the filtrate attained pH=7.The product was dried at 80° C. for 12 hours under vacuum.\",\n \"Example 4.4.CO2 and CH4 Uptake Measurements The volumetric uptake measurements (pressure dependent excess isotherms) of CO2 and CH4 were performed in an automated Sievert instrument (Setaram PCTPRO).\",\n \"Various OPC samples were first crushed into powders and packed in a stainless steel autoclave sample cell.\",\n \"Initial sample pre-treatment was carried out at 130° C. for 1.5 hours under high vacuum.\",\n \"The free volume inside the sample cell was determined by a series of calibration procedures done under helium.\",\n \"Gas uptake experiments were carried out with high purity research grade CO2 (99.99% purity, Matheson TRIGAS) and CH4 (99.9% purity).\",\n \"A summary of selected results is given in Table 11.Example 4.5.Results and Discussion The polymer precursor Applicants selected for the synthesis of activated sulfur containing porous carbon (SPC) sorbents is poly[2-thiophenemethanol] (PTh) synthesized by reacting with FeCl3 following the protocol reported elsewhere.\",\n \"This polymer was further activated by a strong oxidant, KOH, at a fixed temperature under inert atmosphere.\",\n \"In general, the optimization procedure for synthesis of a PC sorbent with high surface area, from a polymer precursor activated by KOH, depends on two major parameters: finding the right KOH to PTh weight ratio; and the identification of the correct temperature of activation that gave satisfactory porosity and yield.\",\n \"Earlier reports suggest that the porosity of a SPC sorbent increased with activation temperature.\",\n \"However, a final yield of the activated product decreased significantly with activation temperature above 700° C. Additionally, previous reports suggest that the overall porosity and the surface area of a chemically activated PC material increase with KOH concentration.\",\n \"Therefore, Applicants synthesized a set of SPC samples activated at a fixed activation temperature with gradually increasing KOH:PTh ratio r, where r varies from 1 to 5.These samples are labelled by SPC-r (Table 11).\",\n \"The structural and textural morphology of synthesized PTh and activated SPC samples were characterized by scanning electron microscopy (SEM).\",\n \"The precursor demonstrated more rigid rock like blunt texture (FIG.\",\n \"43A), while the SEM image of a SPC-2 sample (FIG.\",\n \"43B) exhibits a texture full of micron size holes, multiple corners and edges that are absent in the precursor.\",\n \"The energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS) confirmed that the SPCs are primarily composed of carbon, oxygen and sulfur.\",\n \"Example 4.6.CO2 Uptake The volumetric CO2 excess uptake (mmol of adsorbed CO2 per g of sample) measurements for the SPC sorbent specimens activated at 700° C. with different KOH:PTh weight ratio are shown in FIG.\",\n \"44 as a function of adsorbate pressure for the labelled SPC specimens, PTh and commercial charcoal powders (Mallinckrodt Chemical Works).\",\n \"In this set of isotherms, the C-precursor PTh adsorbed the least amount of CO2 and the SPC-1 specimen demonstrated twice as much CO2 adsorption as activated charcoal at 30 bar.\",\n \"The difference in the shape of uptake isotherms confirms that gas uptake strongly depends on the KOH:PTh weight ratio (r).\",\n \"In particular, higher values of r correlate with higher uptake amounts for a specific adsorbate pressure (>12 bar up to r=3).\",\n \"Moreover, the SPC-4 and SPC-5 samples captured less CO2 than SPC-3.The reproducibility of both the synthesis and the measurements is shown by a comparison of the volumetric CO2 excess uptake of two batches of SPC-4 (FIG.\",\n \"45).\",\n \"Additional information for the dependence of gas uptake amounts at a specific pressure on the KOH:PTh weight ratio is presented by FIG.\",\n \"46.The CO2 capturing capacity increased from r=1 to 3 and then decreased again at higher r values.\",\n \"Previous low pressure studies (1 bar) results for KOH activation of petroleum coke show that KOH ratio of 3 and 4 show similar results.\",\n \"Decreased uptake for SPC-4 and SPC-5 would have been expected to be a consequence of decreased surface area and/or pore volume.\",\n \"However, as seen from FIGS.\",\n \"47A-47B, such expectation is not true.\",\n \"Instead, above a surface area value of 2675 m2g−1 and total pore volume of 1.51 cm3g−1, the gas uptake began to drop.\",\n \"This indicates that there are other factors besides surface area and pore volume that influence the CO2 uptake capacity of a specific SPC sample.\",\n \"The chemical composition of the SPCs activated with different amounts of KOH was determined by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) and compared with PTh and commercial activated carbons.\",\n \"Applicants note that XPS only provides surface (and near surface) chemical composition that may differ from bulk chemical composition.\",\n \"However, surface composition is what matters in a surface adsorption process.\",\n \"It should also be noted that the H content is not provided by XPS data.\",\n \"Therefore, percentage values measured by other techniques will vary.\",\n \"The wt % of elements present as determined by XPS survey scans is presented in Table 11.The PTh and consequently the SPC-r samples were primarily composed of C, O, and S and chemical activation by increasing amount KOH gradually changed wt % of all three elements.\",\n \"FIGS.\",\n \"48A-48B depict these changes.\",\n \"Applicants have previously determined that for a wide range of PCs, the maximum CO2 uptake occurs when the C composition (as determined by XPS) is in the range 80-95 wt %.\",\n \"In this Example, this range may be further specified as being more than 85%.\",\n \"However, the most important observation is that the trend observed in FIGS.\",\n \"48A-48B is essentially the same as in FIG.\",\n \"46.In particular, as indicated in FIG.\",\n \"49, the CO2 uptake increases with percentage of carbon content rather than the expected relationship with surface area or pore volume.\",\n \"By consideration of the change in S content with increasing KOH:PTh ratio, it is clear that the loss of the majority of S correlates with the formation of PC samples with the highest CO2 uptake (e.g., comparison between FIGS.\",\n \"46 and 48B).\",\n \"However, replacement of S with O (at high KOH:PTh ratios) decreases the CO2 uptake.\",\n \"Clearly, there is some significant physical change that occurs in these two regimes.\",\n \"In order to determine if there are distinct structural features that are associated with the C % and hence CO2 uptake, Applicants have determined the pore structure changes that occur with KOH:PTh ratio.\",\n \"The surface area, total pore volume and pore size distribution of SPC samples activated with different KOH:PTh ratios were determined by measuring low temperature (77 K) N2 adsorption isotherms in a BET (Brunauer-Emmett-Teller) surface area analyzer.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"50 shows such set of isotherms for five SPC-r samples activated at 700° C. Here, KOH:PTh ratio dependent differences in the shape of these isotherms was noticed.\",\n \"The isotherms for SPC-3 to SPC-5 are much steeper than SPC-1 or SPC-2 in the relative pressure range 0.05-0.3, defining rapid increase of surface area and adsorption capacity with higher amount of KOH.\",\n \"The estimated surface area (SBET) and the total pore volume (Vp) gradually increased with activation temperature (FIGS.\",\n \"51A and 51B, respectively), describing the incremental trend for mildly to strongly activation conditions.\",\n \"As expected, the surface area increases with increased KOH:PTh ratio, although there is a change in the relationship above KOH:PTh=3.A similar trend is observed for the total pore volume (FIG.\",\n \"51B), and the two show a near linear relationship.\",\n \"These demonstrate the strong influence of KOH on the porous properties of activated samples.\",\n \"One key piece of information that can be obtained from the BET surface area analysis is the pore size distributions as a function of pore sizes of a specific porous solid.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"52 plots pore size distribution as a function of pore size for a set of five SPCs activated with mild (KOH:PTh=1) to strong (KOH:PTh=5) activation conditions.\",\n \"These plots show that SPC-1 sample primarily contains pores narrower than ˜2 nm.\",\n \"As the KOH amount increases, wider pores began to form as evidenced by the PSD plot for SPC-2.Samples activated with minimal amount of KOH (i.e., SPC-1) contained pores in the range of 1-3 nm.\",\n \"In contrast, the distribution plots for SPC-4 and SPC-5 indicate that chemical activation with large amounts of KOH created some additional mesopores in the 3-4.5 nm range.\",\n \"The SPC-5 sample even contained pores larger than 4 nm.\",\n \"Confirmation of the pore sizes is obtained from high resolution transmission electron microscopy (HRTEM).\",\n \"For example, FIG.\",\n \"53 displays an image of SPC-2, demonstrating randomly distributed micropores with dimension in the range of 1-2 nm.\",\n \"It is clear from FIG.\",\n \"51B that total pore volumes (sum of pore volumes of narrower micro (<1 nm), micro, meso and macro-sized pores) systematically increase with KOH:PTh ratio.\",\n \"In addition, volume change behaves differently for different sizes of pores.\",\n \"The micro- and meso-porosity analysis of these samples was determined by the t-plot method and revealed pore volume dependencies on KOH amounts (Table 12).\",\n \"FIGS.\",\n \"54A-54B depict absolute volumes and percentage of total pore volume for a set of five SPC samples as a function of the KOH:PTh ratio.\",\n \"In contrast to total pore volumes (FIG.\",\n \"51B), the relative pore composition of micropores (defined as <2 nm) shows a marked increase with increased KOH:PTh ratio until SPC-3, above which the fraction of the total pore volume associated with these size regimes decreases (FIG.\",\n \"54A).\",\n \"The mesopore composition shows the obverse trend.\",\n \"Interestingly, the micropore volumes show the strongest dependence on KOH.\",\n \"TABLE 12 Summary of meso (>2 nm), micro (<2 nm), and narrower micropore (<1 nm) volume (V) for PC and SPC samples studied .\",\n \".\",\n \".\",\n \"VMICRO VNARROW Vi VMESO VMACRO (0-2 nm) (0-1 nm) (1-2 nm) (2-50 nm) (>50 nm) Samplea (cm3g−1) (cm3g−1) (m2g−1) (cm3g−1) (m2g−1) Act.\",\n \"Charcoalb 0.32 0.11 (23%) 0.21 (45%) 0.11 (24%) 0.04 (8%) BPLc 0.38 0.13 (25%) 0.25 (47%) 0.12 (23%) 0.03 (5%) SPC-1 0.71 0.19(19%) 0.52 (54%) 0.18 (18%) 0.09 (9%) SPC-2 0.76 0.16 (13%) 0.60 (49%) 0.35 (29%) 0.11 (9%) SPC-3 1.01 0.18 (12%) 0.83 (55%) 0.38 (25%) 0.12 (8%) SPC-4 0.87 0.16 (10%) 0.71 (43%) 0.64 (38%) 0.15 (9%) SPC-5 0.88 0.10 (6%) 0.78 (44%) 0.72 (41%) 0.16 (9%) aPC-KOH:precursor ratio.\",\n \"All SPC samples were activated at 700° C. bPurchased from Mallinckrodt chemical works.\",\n \"cPurchased from Calgon carbon corp. Micropore volumes are determined by t-plot method.\",\n \"Micropores include pores between 0.4 to 2 nm.\",\n \"Within parentheses, % of total pore volumes is shown.\",\n \"The relationship between relative composition of the various pore sizes and the CO2 uptake is shown in FIGS.\",\n \"55A-55C.\",\n \"This clearly shows that, in order to maximize CO2 uptake, activation conditions (in this case KOH:PTh ratio) should be chosen to maximize the relative narrower micro and micro pores (especially those between 1-2 nm) rather than requiring solely on ever increasing surface area or pore volume.\",\n \"A comparison of FIG.\",\n \"54B with FIG.\",\n \"48A suggests that narrower micropore formation is associated with the increased C content.\",\n \"However, mesopore formation appears to be controlled by increased O content.\",\n \"Previous work with carbide-derived carbons (CDCs) and PCs (at 1 bar) suggests that it is the pore volume less than 1 nm that is important.\",\n \"In contrast, it has also been suggested that mesopores (>2 nm) are the most important.\",\n \"There has also been a proposal that the important sizes depend on the pressure used.\",\n \"Applicants' results clearly show that, at higher pressures (>10 bar) it is a larger set (1-2 nm) that is controlling CO2 uptake.\",\n \"Example 4.7.CO2/CH4 Selectivity The selective removal of CO2 from natural gas, which essentially contains CH4 and other gases such as CO2, H2S, and N2, is one of the important industrial research goals, because these contaminant gases decrease power efficiency of the natural gas.\",\n \"Thus, Applicants have been directed to explore selective CO2 capture capacity of different carbon-based porous sorbents at different gas pressure and temperature.\",\n \"For an ideal sorbent for selective removal of CO2 from natural gas, the sorbent should demonstrate significantly lower CH4 uptake than CO2.In order to compare high pressure CH4 uptake capacities of five SPC samples with their CO2 uptakes, Applicants measured room temperature volumetric CH4 uptake of same set of samples under similar condition.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"56 represents a set of such uptake isotherms.\",\n \"In contrast to CO2 uptake isotherms, Applicants see two distinct sets of isotherms.\",\n \"One set comprises SPC-1 and SPC-2 and the other for SPC-3, 4, and 5.This feature is further demonstrated by a set of plots showing dependence of CH4 uptake on the KOH:PTh weight ratio of the corresponding sorbent at a specific capture pressure (FIG.\",\n \"57).\",\n \"For example, at 30 bar, there was negligible difference in CH4 uptakes of all three samples SPC-3 to 5 (˜9 mmol·g−1), suggesting that the amount of KOH had much weaker effect on the CH4 uptake property relative to than CO2 uptake, though surface area and porosity had changed significantly.\",\n \"The molar uptake selectivity (molar CO2:CH4 uptake ratio) for the SPC samples as a function of gas pressure is shown in FIG.\",\n \"58A.\",\n \"The selectivity traces for SPC-1 to SPC-3 varied smoothly between 10 to 30 bar.\",\n \"The dependence of high pressure selectivity at 30 bar on the KOH:PTh ratios, surface area and total pore volume of the corresponding SPCs are presented in FIGS.\",\n \"58B-58D, respectively.\",\n \"Surprisingly, the SPC-2 sample (with surface area=2180 m2g−1 and total pore volume=1.22 cm3g−1) demonstrated highest molar selectivity (2.68) at 30 bar, though SPC-3 exhibited the highest CO2 uptake.\",\n \"The shift from KOH:PTh ratio of 3 to 2 for optimum selectivity as opposed to uptake for both CO2 and CH4 is due to the relative shape of the uptake as a function of reagent ratios (e.g., comparison of FIGS.\",\n \"46 and 57).\",\n \"While the CO2 uptake increased uniformly with KOH:PTh ratio from 1 to 3, that for CH4 is a step function.\",\n \"This suggests that, in determining optimum selectivity, it is important to understand the variations between CO2 and CH4 adsorption rather than the maximum for both.\",\n \"Applicants' prior work has demonstrated that the best CO2 uptake and CO2/CH4 differentiation is obtained with a defined set of parameters involving surface area, pore volume, and carbon content which are in turn a function of the polymer precursor and the process activation temperature.\",\n \"In this Example, Applicants extend this work and demonstrate that there is an optimum KOH:PTh ratio for activation of the SPC.\",\n \"The ratio for optimum CO2 (and CH4 uptake) is 3, which equates to SPC samples with a surface area and total pore volume of 2700 m2g−1 and 1.5 cm3g−1, respectively.\",\n \"In contrast, the ratio is 2 for the best CO2/CH4 differentiation, which produces a surface area of 2,200 m2g−1 and total pore volume of 1.2 cm3g−1.Moreover, in this Example, Applicants demonstrate that the optimum CO2 uptake is not for a material with the highest pore volume or surface area, but for the material with SBET>2000 m2g−1 and the highest percentage of a maximum fraction of narrower micro (<1 nm) and micro (<2 nm) porosity as compared to meso-pores (>2 nm).\",\n \"Increasing in the latter type of pores does increase both the surface area and pore volume, but not the CO2 uptake.\",\n \"Without further elaboration, it is believed that one skilled in the art can, using the description herein, utilize the present disclosure to its fullest extent.\",\n \"The embodiments described herein are to be construed as illustrative and not as constraining the remainder of the disclosure in any way whatsoever.\",\n \"While the embodiments have been shown and described, many variations and modifications thereof can be made by one skilled in the art without departing from the spirit and teachings of the invention.\",\n \"Accordingly, the scope of protection is not limited by the description set out above, but is only limited by the claims, including all equivalents of the subject matter of the claims.\",\n \"The disclosures of all patents, patent applications and publications cited herein are hereby incorporated herein by reference, to the extent that they provide procedural or other details consistent with and supplementary to those set forth herein.\"\n ]\n]"},"source":{"kind":"string","value":"Patent_15875471"}}},{"rowIdx":4494880,"cells":{"text":{"kind":"list like","value":[["BYTE ALIGNMENT IN DATA STORAGE DEVICES","To provide enhanced operation of data storage devices and systems, various systems, methods, and firmware are provided herein.","In a first example, a data storage device is presented.","The data storage device includes a network interface configured to receive a data stream for storage on a storage medium, the data stream comprising meta data that precedes payload data.","The data storage device includes a processing system configured to process at least the meta data when writing the data stream from the network interface to a memory to identify a data gap for the data stream to establish a byte alignment of at least the payload data in the memory.","The processing system is also configured to insert the data gap in the memory and store the data stream in the memory."],["1.A data storage device, comprising: a network interface configured to receive a data stream; and a processing system configured to: buffer an initial portion of the data stream in memory; before a subsequent portion of the data stream is buffered, identify a gap to insert in the data stream after the initial portion of the data stream to establish a byte alignment; buffer the subsequent portion of the data stream in the memory separated by the gap identified to establish the byte alignment; and after having buffered the subsequent portion of the data stream, write the initial portion and the subsequent portion of data stream from the memory to storage while maintaining the byte alignment.","2.The data storage device of claim 1 wherein the processing system is further configured to, after having written the initial portion and the subsequent portion of data stream, re-write the initial portion to establish the byte alignment with respect to the initial portion of the data stream.","3.The data storage device of claim 1 wherein the initial portion of the data stream comprises meta data and payload data.","4.The data storage device of claim 3 wherein the subsequent portion of the data stream comprises additional payload data.","5.The data storage device of claim 4 wherein the data stream comprises a network file system (NFS) stream.","6.The data storage device of claim 1 wherein the processing system comprises a Transmission Control Protocol Offload Engine (TOE) module.","7.The data storage device of claim 6 wherein the network interface comprises an Ethernet interface.","8.The data storage device of claim 1 wherein the byte alignment is based on a sub-division of the storage to which the data stream is written.","9.The data storage device of claim 8 wherein the sub-division of the storage comprises one of a sector size, a block size, and a page size.","10.A method of operating data storage device comprising: receiving a data stream via a network interface in the data storage device; buffering an initial portion of the data stream in a memory of the data storage device; before a subsequent portion of the data stream is buffered, identifying a gap to insert in the data stream after the initial portion of the data stream to establish a byte alignment; buffering the subsequent portion of the data stream in the memory separated by the gap identified to establish the byte alignment; and after having buffered the subsequent portion of the data stream, writing the initial portion and the subsequent portion of data stream from the memory to a storage medium in the data storage device while maintaining the byte alignment.","11.The method of claim 10 further comprising: after having written the initial portion and the subsequent portion of data stream, re-writing the initial portion to establish the byte alignment with respect to the initial portion of the data stream.","12.The method of claim 10 wherein the initial portion of the data stream comprises meta data and payload data.","13.The method of claim 12 wherein the subsequent portion of the data stream comprises additional payload data.","14.The method of claim 13 wherein the data stream comprises a network file system (NFS) stream.","15.The method of claim 14 wherein the network interface comprises an Ethernet interface.","16.The method of claim 10 further comprising basing the byte alignment on a sub-division of the storage to which the data stream is written.","17.The method of claim 17 wherein the sub-division of the storage comprises one of a sector size, a block size, and a page size.","18.A data storage system comprising: a data storage enclosure for housing a plurality of data storage devices; and the plurality of data storage devices; wherein at least one of the data storage devices comprises: a network interface configured to receive a data stream; and a processing system configured to: buffer an initial portion of the data stream in memory; before a subsequent portion of the data stream is buffered, identify a gap to insert in the data stream after the initial portion of the data stream to establish a byte alignment; buffer the subsequent portion of the data stream in the memory separated by the gap identified to establish the byte alignment; and after having buffered the subsequent portion of the data stream, write the initial portion and the subsequent portion of data stream from the memory to storage while maintaining the byte alignment.","19.The data storage system of claim 19 wherein the data stream comprises a network file system (NFS) stream, wherein the network interface comprises an Ethernet interface, wherein the memory comprises dynamic random-access memory (DRAM).","20.The data storage system of claim 18 wherein the processing system comprises a Transmission Control Protocol Offload Engine (TOE) module."],[" TECHNICAL BACKGROUND Computer and network systems such as personal computers, workstations, server systems, and cloud storage systems, typically include data storage systems for storing and retrieving data.","These data storage systems can include data storage devices, such as hard disk drives, solid state storage devices, tape storage devices, and other mass storage devices.","These data storage systems can receive data for storage over various interfaces, such as serial and parallel data interfaces, network interfaces, and other data interfaces.","In some examples of network interfaces, a file transfer protocol is used which employs more than one simultaneous data connection for transferring meta data and user data.","However, in other examples, a data stream is transferred which includes both meta data and user data in one connection using a sequential bit stream."],[" BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS Many aspects of the disclosure can be better understood with reference to the following drawings.","The components in the drawings are not necessarily to scale, emphasis instead being placed upon clearly illustrating the principles of the present disclosure.","Moreover, in the drawings, like reference numerals designate corresponding parts throughout the several views.","While several embodiments are described in connection with these drawings, the disclosure is not limited to the embodiments disclosed herein.","On the contrary, the intent is to cover all alternatives, modifications, and equivalents.","FIG.","1 is a system diagram illustrating a data system.","FIG.","2 is a flow diagram illustrating a method of operation of a data storage system.","FIG.","3 is a block diagram illustrating a data storage device.","FIG.","4 is a flow diagram illustrating a method of operation of a data storage device.","FIG.","5 is a flow diagram illustrating a method of operation of a data storage device.","detailed-description description=\"Detailed Description\" end=\"lead\"?"],["RELATED APPLICATIONS This application is a continuation of, and claims priority to, U.S. application Ser.","No.","14/258,718, entitled “Metadata Based Data Alignment in Data Storage System,” and filed on Apr.","22, 2014, which is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety.","TECHNICAL FIELD Aspects of the disclosure are related to the field of digital data storage systems.","TECHNICAL BACKGROUND Computer and network systems such as personal computers, workstations, server systems, and cloud storage systems, typically include data storage systems for storing and retrieving data.","These data storage systems can include data storage devices, such as hard disk drives, solid state storage devices, tape storage devices, and other mass storage devices.","These data storage systems can receive data for storage over various interfaces, such as serial and parallel data interfaces, network interfaces, and other data interfaces.","In some examples of network interfaces, a file transfer protocol is used which employs more than one simultaneous data connection for transferring meta data and user data.","However, in other examples, a data stream is transferred which includes both meta data and user data in one connection using a sequential bit stream.","Overview To provide enhanced operation of data storage devices and systems, various methods, and firmware are provided herein.","In a first example, a data storage device is presented.","The data storage device includes a network interface configured to receive a data stream for storage on a storage medium, the data stream comprising meta data that precedes payload data.","The data storage device includes a processing system configured to process at least the meta data when writing the data stream from the network interface to a memory to identify a data gap for the data stream to establish a byte alignment of at least the payload data in the memory.","The processing system is also configured to insert the data gap in the memory and store the data stream in the memory.","In another example, a method of operating a data storage device is presented.","The method includes receiving a data stream over a network interface for storage on a storage medium, the data stream comprising meta data that precedes payload data.","When writing the data stream from the network interface to a memory prior to storage on the storage medium, the method includes processing at least the meta data to identify a data gap for the data stream to establish a byte alignment of the payload data in the memory.","The method also includes inserting the data gap in the memory and storing the data stream in the memory.","In another example, a data storage system is presented.","The data storage system includes a data storage enclosure that includes a plurality of data storage devices configured to receive data streams over a network and store the data streams on storage media of the plurality of data storage devices.","One or more of the data storage devices are configured to receive at least one of the data streams over a network interface for storage on a storage medium, where the at least one of the data streams comprising meta data that precedes payload data, process at least the meta data when writing the at least one of the data streams from the network interface to a memory to identify a data gap for the at least one of the data streams to establish a byte alignment of the payload data in the memory, and insert the data gap in the memory and store the at least one of the data streams in the memory.","BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS Many aspects of the disclosure can be better understood with reference to the following drawings.","The components in the drawings are not necessarily to scale, emphasis instead being placed upon clearly illustrating the principles of the present disclosure.","Moreover, in the drawings, like reference numerals designate corresponding parts throughout the several views.","While several embodiments are described in connection with these drawings, the disclosure is not limited to the embodiments disclosed herein.","On the contrary, the intent is to cover all alternatives, modifications, and equivalents.","FIG.","1 is a system diagram illustrating a data system.","FIG.","2 is a flow diagram illustrating a method of operation of a data storage system.","FIG.","3 is a block diagram illustrating a data storage device.","FIG.","4 is a flow diagram illustrating a method of operation of a data storage device.","FIG.","5 is a flow diagram illustrating a method of operation of a data storage device.","DETAILED DESCRIPTION Data storage systems can receive data for storage over various interfaces, such as serial and parallel data interfaces, network interfaces, and other data interfaces.","In some examples of network interfaces, a file transfer protocol (FTP) is used which employs more than one simultaneous data connection for transferring meta data and user data.","In other examples, a data stream is transferred which includes both meta data and user data in one connection using a sequential bit stream.","When multiple simultaneous data connections are employed, data alignment by a data storage system can be achieved by separately storing data received over each connection, ensuring alignment of user data during storage.","However, when a single connection is employed, such as in examples of data streams that include both header or meta data and user data in a payload portion, alignment of the data during storage can be troublesome.","As a first example, FIG.","1 is presented.","FIG.","1 is a system diagram illustrating data system 100.System 100 includes data storage system 101 which further includes data storage devices 110, 120, and 130.Data storage device 110 communicates over network link 150.Data storage devices 120 and 130 can communicate over further network links, not shown in FIG.","1 for clarity.","Data storage device 110 includes network interface 111, processing system 112, memory 113, and storage medium 114.Data storage devices 120 and 130 include similar elements.","The elements of data storage device 110 are communicatively coupled and allow for exchange of data.","In operation, data can be received by network interface 111 over network link 150 for storage in storage medium 114 of data storage device 110.Data received by network interface 111 is stored in memory 113 before storage in storage medium 114.To further illustrate the operation of system 100, FIG.","2 is presented.","FIG.","2 is a flow diagram illustrating a method of operation of data storage system 101.The elements of FIG.","2 are referenced below parenthetically.","In FIG.","2, data storage device 110 receives (201) a data stream over network interface 111 for storage on storage medium 114, the data stream comprising meta data that precedes payload data.","In this example, data stream 140 is received over network link 150 by network interface 111.Data stream 140 includes meta data portion 141 and payload data portion 142.Meta data 141 can include headers, addresses, attributes, or other information for data stream 140.Payload data 142 can include user data, payload information, content, or other data for storage by data storage device 110.In this example, meta data 141 and payload data 142 are received sequentially in data stream 140.When writing the data stream from network interface 111 to memory 113 prior to storage on storage medium 114, processing system 112 processes (202) at least meta data 141 to identify a data gap for data stream 140 to enforce a byte alignment of at least payload data 142 in memory 113.As data stream 140 is received, network interface 111 transfers data stream 140 for storage in memory 113.As shown in memory contents 115 in FIG.","1, meta data 141 and payload data 142 are stored in memory 113 as received in data stream 140.However, since meta data 141 takes up a certain amount of space in memory 113 before payload data 142, then payload data 142 will not be in any particular byte alignment in memory 113.This non-byte alignment of payload data 142 can lead to performance slowdowns when transferring payload data 142 to storage medium 114.In many examples, storage medium 114 has a preferred byte alignment for data stored thereon.","For example, a byte alignment can be preferred due to a storage scheme for writing bits to storage medium 113.In other examples, the byte alignment can be preferred due to an error checking and correction scheme used when writing bits to storage medium 113.Processing system 112 inserts (203) the data gap in memory 113 and stores data stream 140 in memory 113.When data is written to storage medium 113 in a non-aligned manner, then a re-alignment process typically occurs for all of payload data 142 after storage in memory 113, which can lead to performance slowdowns and wasted processing time.","In non-aligned examples, once all of data stream 140 is written to memory 113, then a read-write process must occur for at least all of payload data 142 to align payload data 142 prior to transfer to storage medium 114.Advantageously, in this example, the alignment is determined during writing of data stream 140, and a large portion of payload data 142 is aligned during writing of data stream 140 into memory 113.In further examples, a portion of the data in memory 113 remains un-aligned, such as a portion of payload data 142 written prior to identifying the data gap.","This portion can be re-aligned by a small amount of read-writes to align in memory 113.In some examples, meta data 141 is not re-aligned, and only payload 142 is re-aligned.","Returning back to the elements of FIG.","1, data storage system 101 comprises a plurality of data storage devices, namely data storage device 110, 120, and 130.Further data storage devices can be included.","Data storage system 101 can include an enclosure, such as a rack mount system, case, shelving, and the like, for structurally supporting data storage systems.","Furthermore, data storage system 101 can include network links, network switches or hubs, cabling, power systems, and other equipment to interconnect ones of the data storage devices to at least network link 150.Data storage system 101 can also include cooling systems, fans, battery backup systems, and other equipment to provide a suitable operating environment for data storage devices.","Data storage devices 110, 120, and 130 each include equipment and circuitry to receive data over a network interface for storage on a storage medium.","In this example, data storage device 110 is representative of data storage devices 120 and 130, although variations are possible.","Data storage device 110 includes network interface 111, processing system 112, memory 113, and storage medium 114.Network interface 111 includes network transceiver equipment, such as physical layer interfacing equipment, amplifiers, filters, network interface card equipment, and other networking interface elements to communicate over network link 150.Processing system 112 includes one or more microprocessors, or discrete circuitry devices to identify data gaps for aligning data and for writing data to memory 113.In some examples, processing system 112 comprises a Transmission Control Protocol Offload Engine (TOE) module, which receives data from network interface 111 and transfers this data for buffering in memory 113.When processing system 112 comprises a TOE, further processing elements can be included in processing system 112, such as Linux-based processing element which assists TOE circuitry.","Memory 113 comprises non-transitory, volatile or non-volatile, solid state memory, such as dynamic random access memory (DRAM), static RAM, phase change memory, flash memory, and the like.","Storage medium 114 comprises one or more non-volatile non-transitory storage media.","Example of storage medium 114 include rotating magnetic storage media, magnetic tape media, phase change memory media, flash memory media, or other media.","In some examples of data storage device 111, network interface 111, processing system 112, and memory 113 are included in a system-on-a-chip (SOC) device, which control the operations of storage medium 114.Data storage device 111 can include an enclosure around storage medium 114 to protect storage medium 114 from environmental effects, such as a hard drive enclosure, while network interface 111, processing system 112, memory 113, and other elements, reside on a printed circuit board attached to the enclosure.","Network link 150 uses metal, glass, optical, air, space, or some other material as the transport media.","Network link 150 can use various communication protocols, such as Ethernet, Internet Protocol (IP), Time Division Multiplex (TDM), asynchronous transfer mode (ATM), synchronous optical networking (SONET), hybrid fiber-coax (HFC), Universal Serial Bus (USB), serial attached SCSI (SAS), Fibre Channel, communication signaling, wireless communications, or some other communication format, including combinations, improvements, or variations thereof.","Network link 150 can be a direct link or can include intermediate networks, systems, or devices, and can include a logical network link transported over multiple physical links.","Network link 150 can include many different signals sharing the same associated link, as represented by the associated lines in FIG.","1, comprising resource blocks, access channels, paging channels, notification channels, forward links, reverse links, user communications, communication sessions, overhead communications, carrier frequencies, other channels, timeslots, spreading codes, transportation ports, logical transportation links, network sockets, packets, or communication directions.","As another example of a data storage device, FIG.","3 is presented.","FIG.","3 is a block diagram illustrating data storage device 300.Data storage device 300 can be an example of data storage device 110 of FIG.","1, although variations are possible.","In FIG.","3, data stream 350 is received over network link 340 for storage on storage media 330 by data storage device 300.Network link 340 can be a wired or wireless Ethernet link and include Internet protocol (IP) traffic, or include elements described for network link 150 of FIG.","1.Data storage device 300 includes system-on-a-chip (SOC) 310, dynamic random access memory (DRAM) 320, and rotating magnetic storage media 330.Data storage device 300 can include enclosure 301 which can enclose or structurally support ones of the elements of data storage device 300.Data storage device 300 can optionally include additional devices, features, or functionality not discussed here for purposes of brevity.","SOC 310 includes media access control (MAC) element 311, Transmission Control Protocol Offload Engine (TOE) module 312, memory controller 314, main processor 315, and media interface 317 integrated onto a single semiconductor die, or one or more semiconductor dies packaged into a single chip package.","In further examples, multiple chip packages can be employed.","In operation, the elements of SOC 310 are communicatively coupled, such as by intra-chip interconnect.","It should be understood that discrete links can be employed, such as individual communication, power, and control links or other circuitry.","SOC 310 can be distributed or consolidated among equipment or circuitry that together forms the elements of SOC 310.MAC 311 includes medium access control circuitry and logic, such as link layer elements for handling network traffic over link 340.In some examples, MAC 311 includes elements of a physical layer interface (PHY), while some elements of a PHY can be included externally to SOC 310.Further examples of MAC 311 include logic, transmission gates, buffers, network interface card equipment, transceivers, and other communication circuitry.","MAC 311 interfaces with at least TOE 312 for handling of data packets received over network link 340.TOE 312 includes circuitry and logic for offloading processing of packet header information for network traffic received by MAC 311.This packet header information can include TCP, IP, or NFS packet headers, among others.","TOE includes processing circuitry to buffer or store these packets in DRAM 320 by way of memory controller 314.In the examples herein, TOE 312 can identify data alignment issues for data stored in DRAM.","TOE 312 can identify byte mis-alignments due to meta data or header data of data streams during storage of the data storage in DRAM 320.TOE 312 can identify one or more gaps for a data stream to byte align the storage of the data stream in DRAM 320.Further processing elements can be included in TOE 312 or accompany TOE 312, such as Linux-based processing elements which assists TOE circuitry.","TOE 312 can comprise one or more microprocessors, microcontrollers, application specific integrated circuit (ASIC) processors, or FPGA elements and other circuitry that retrieves and executes at least gap insertion software 313 to operate as described herein.","TOE 312 can be implemented within a single processing device but can also be distributed across multiple processing devices or sub-systems that cooperate in executing program instructions.","Examples of TOE 312 include general purpose central processing units, application specific processors, and logic devices, as well as any other type of processing device, combinations, or variations thereof.","TOE 312 can include a storage system that includes software 313, the storage system is omitted from FIG.","3 for clarity, but can be included in SOC 310 or TOE 312.The storage system can include any non-transitory computer readable storage media readable by TOE 312 and capable of storing software 313, such as a computer readable storage device.","The computer readable storage media that stores software 313 can include volatile and nonvolatile, removable and non-removable media implemented in any method or technology for storage of information, such as computer readable instructions, data structures, program modules, or other data.","In addition to storage media, in some implementations the computer readable storage media can also include communication media over which software 313 can be communicated.","The computer readable storage media that stores software 313 can be implemented as a single storage device but can also be implemented across multiple storage devices or sub-systems co-located or distributed relative to each other.","The computer readable storage media that stores software 313 can comprise additional elements, such as a controller, capable of communicating with TOE 312.Examples of storage media include random access memory, read only memory, flash memory, or any other medium which can be used to store the desired information and that can be accessed by an instruction execution system, as well as any combination or variation thereof, or any other type of storage media.","Software 313 can be implemented in program instructions and among other functions can, when executed by storage device 301 in general or TOE 312 in particular, direct storage device 301 or TOE 312 to write data associated with data streams into DRAM 320, identify byte alignment issues during the storage of data streams in DRAM 320, and identify data gaps to align data streams during storage in DRAM 320, among other operations.","Software 313 can include additional processes, programs, or components, such as operating system software, database software, or application software.","Software 313 can also comprise some other form of machine-readable processing instructions executable by TOE 312.In general, software 313 can, when loaded into TOE 312 and executed, transform TOE 312 overall from a general-purpose computing system into a special-purpose computing system customized to operate as described herein.","Encoding software 313 on a computer readable storage media can transform the physical structure of the computer readable storage media.","The specific transformation of the physical structure can depend on various factors in different implementations of this description.","Examples of such factors can include, but are not limited to the technology used to implement the storage media of the computer readable storage media and whether the computer readable storage media are characterized as primary or secondary storage.","For example, if the computer-storage media are implemented as semiconductor-based memory, software 313 can transform the physical state of the semiconductor memory when the program is encoded therein.","For example, software 313 can transform the state of transistors, capacitors, or other discrete circuit elements constituting the semiconductor memory.","A similar transformation can occur with respect to magnetic or optical media.","Other transformations of physical media are possible without departing from the scope of the present description, with the foregoing examples provided only to facilitate this discussion.","Memory controller 314 includes circuitry and communication interfaces for communicating with DRAM 320.Memory control 314 communicates over memory link 314 to write data into DRAM 320 and read data stored in DRAM 320.Memory link 314 can include serial or parallel data interfaces, such as synchronous DRAM (SDRAM) or double date rate SDRAM (DDR) memory interfaces.","Main processor 315 can comprise one or more microprocessors, microcontrollers, application specific integrated circuit (ASIC) processors, or FPGA elements and other circuitry that retrieves and executes at least gap insertion software 316 to operate as described herein.","Main processor 315 can be implemented within a single processing device but can also be distributed across multiple processing devices or sub-systems that cooperate in executing program instructions.","Examples of main processor 315 include general purpose central processing units, application specific processors, and logic devices, as well as any other type of processing device, combinations, or variations thereof.","Main processor 315 can include a storage system that includes software 316, the storage system is omitted from FIG.","3 for clarity, but can be included in SOC 310 or main processor 315.The storage system can include any non-transitory computer readable storage media readable by main processor 315 and capable of storing software 316, such as a computer readable storage device.","The computer readable storage media that stores software 316 can include volatile and nonvolatile, removable and non-removable media implemented in any method or technology for storage of information, such as computer readable instructions, data structures, program modules, or other data.","In addition to storage media, in some implementations the computer readable storage media can also include communication media over which software 316 can be communicated.","The computer readable storage media that stores software 316 can be implemented as a single storage device but can also be implemented across multiple storage devices or sub-systems co-located or distributed relative to each other.","The computer readable storage media that stores software 316 can comprise additional elements, such as a controller, capable of communicating with main processor 315.Examples of storage media include random access memory, read only memory, flash memory, or any other medium which can be used to store the desired information and that can be accessed by an instruction execution system, as well as any combination or variation thereof, or any other type of storage media.","Software 316 can be implemented in program instructions and among other functions can, when executed by storage device 301 in general or main processor 315 in particular, direct storage device 301 or main processor 315 to read data stored in DRAM 320, transfer the data for storage in storage media 330, read and write data on storage media 330, and transfer data stored on storage media 330 for delivery over network link 340, among other operations.","Software 316 can include additional processes, programs, or components, such as operating system software, database software, or application software.","Software 316 can also comprise some other form of machine-readable processing instructions executable by main processor 315.In general, software 316 can, when loaded into main processor 315 and executed, transform main processor 315 overall from a general-purpose computing system into a special-purpose computing system customized to operate as described herein.","Encoding software 316 on a computer readable storage media can transform the physical structure of the computer readable storage media.","The specific transformation of the physical structure can depend on various factors in different implementations of this description.","Examples of such factors can include, but are not limited to the technology used to implement the storage media of the computer readable storage media and whether the computer readable storage media are characterized as primary or secondary storage.","For example, if the computer-storage media are implemented as semiconductor-based memory, software 316 can transform the physical state of the semiconductor memory when the program is encoded therein.","For example, software 316 can transform the state of transistors, capacitors, or other discrete circuit elements constituting the semiconductor memory.","A similar transformation can occur with respect to magnetic or optical media.","Other transformations of physical media are possible without departing from the scope of the present description, with the foregoing examples provided only to facilitate this discussion.","Media interface 317 includes circuitry, devices, and equipment for transferring write data to storage media 330 and reading data from storage media 330.In examples of rotating magnetic media, such as hard disk drives, media interface 317 can comprise signal processing circuitry, read channel circuitry, servo control systems, channel seek/track systems, write circuitry, step-up voltage converters, buffers, line amplifiers, and other circuitry and equipment.","DRAM 320 comprises volatile solid state memory.","DRAM can instead include any non-transitory solid state memory, including phase change, flash memory, magnetic random access memory, and the like.","DRAM 320 interfaces with SOC 310 using a signaling interface, such as employed by SDRAM, DDR, or other memory interface technologies.","Storage media 330 comprises magnetic storage media.","Storage media 330 also can include servo/armatures, motors, spindles, platters, and read/write heads.","The elements shown in FIG.","3 for magnetic storage media portion 330 are merely representative of a rotating magnetic media system and associated mechanisms, other elements are omitted for clarity.","FIG.","4 is a flow diagram illustrating a method of operation of data storage device 300.The operations of FIG.","4 are referenced below parenthetically.","Although TOE 312 is discussed in FIG.","4 as performing the processing below, it should be understood that main processor 315 can instead handle some of the processing discussed.","Moreover, further processing elements can be included in TOE 312 or accompany TOE 312, such as Linux-based processing elements which assist TOE circuitry in the processing discussed below.","In FIG.","4, storage device 300 receives (401) data stream 350 over network interface 340 for storage on a storage medium, data stream 350 including metadata that precedes payload data.","Data stream 350 is received over network link 340 by MAC 311 in storage device 300.MAC 311 passes data stream 350 to TOE 312 for packet processing and buffering of data stream 350 in DRAM 320.Operation 401 can be illustrated by step “1” in FIG.","3.Data stream 350 can include one or more headers 351, meta data 352, and payload data 353.In some examples, data stream 350 comprises a network file system (NFS) packet or packets, although any network file handling system can be employed.","Header information 351 can include IP, Ethernet, or NFS headers and associated information.","Meta data 352 can include file information, information describing the data included in payload 353, data attributes, storage addresses, or other information associated with payload data 353.Payload data 353 includes user data or other data to be written to storage media 330 by storage device 300.Storage device 300 buffers (402) data stream 350 in memory as received over network interface 340.In this example, TOE 312 processes one or more headers 351 to determine properties of data stream 350, such as identifying a packet type, packet size, packet format, destination and source addresses, and the like.","TOE 312 buffers headers 351, meta data 352, and payload data 353 in DRAM 320.Input data is received into DRAM 320 over memory interface 341.Memory controller 314 handles this input data received from TOE 312 to physically interface with DRAM 320.This buffering process can be seen in FIG.","3 as indicated by step “2,” and includes the portion of buffered data 360 until first gap 370.In some examples, only a portion of the header and meta data is buffered.","Storage device 300 identifies (403) data gap 370 mid-stream for data stream 350 to align a remaining portion of data stream 350 in the memory.","As seen in FIG.","3, small dashed lines above “buffered data 360” indicate byte alignments for one example byte alignment.","Headers 351 and meta data 352 do not align with a byte alignment during storage in DRAM 320, and once payload data 353 is written into DRAM 320, this payload data is also not aligned with the byte alignment.","However, during the writing process of data stream 350 into DRAM 320, TOE 312 identifies this misalignment between the stored data in DRAM 320 and the desired byte alignment.","This misalignment can be identified by identifying a size of the stored header and meta data and determining how many bits out of alignment the payload data is during storage.","In this example, first data gap 370 is identified.","This data gap process can be seen in FIG.","3 as indicated by step “3.” The desired alignment can be based upon different factors.","The byte alignment is selected in part based on storage media 330.The desired alignment can be based upon a physical subdivision of storage blocks of the storage media, or upon error checking or correction bits employed on the storage media.","This is in contrast to a storage block subdivision of DRAM 320 or an error checking scheme of DRAM 320.In examples of rotating magnetic storage, a physical disk can be subdivided into storage blocks, and the storage block size can be used to establish the byte alignment.","The storage block size can be a sector size in some examples.","In example of flash media, a block size can be different than magnetic media, and a different byte alignment can be established.","For example, the byte alignment for flash media can be a page size.","The byte alignment eases transfer of data from DRAM 320 to storage media 330 by avoiding an additional step of realigning all of the data stored in DRAM 320 before transfer to storage media 330.In the examples discussed herein, the data alignment is done mid-stream while writing data stream 350 into DRAM 320.In some examples, an error checking or error checking and correction (ECC) scheme is employed for storage media 330.This error checking scheme can include one or more bytes for a piece of stored user data that indicate error checking bits or error correction bits, such as parity bits, ECC bits, and the like.","The number of user data bits that correspond to a particular bit or bits of the error checking bits can vary based on a desired scheme, or based on the physical media itself.","In examples of rotating magnetic storage, a physical disk can be subdivided into storage blocks, and each storage block can have a corresponding number of ECC bits.","Various ratios of user data bits to ECC bits can be employed.","The data alignment of data stored in DRAM 320 can be selected based on the error checking scheme, so that a piece of user data and the associated error checking bits fit into a block size of the physical media of storage media 330.Once data gap 370 has been identified, storage device 300 inserts (404) data gap 370 in the memory.","In this example, TOE 312 inserts data gap 370 in DRAM 320 by leaving a portion of the memory unwritten to during the current write process for data stream 350.In some examples, blank or placeholder data can be inserted as data gap 370 and the writing of data stream 350 can be paused during the writing of data gap 370.Once data gap 370 has been inserted, then writing of data stream 350 can continue, and storage device 300 stores (405) the remaining portion of data stream 350 in the memory.","In this example TOE 312 inserts data gap 370 and then continues buffering payload data 353 of data stream 350 in DRAM 320.After all of the payload data of data stream 350 has been written into DRAM 320, then the portion of data stream 350 written after data gap 370 is aligned according to the desired byte alignment in DRAM 320.To handle the initially written data in DRAM 320 that was not aligned in DRAM 320, further realignment can proceed.","FIG.","5 is a flow diagram illustrating a method of operation of data storage device 300 which includes re-alignment process.","In FIG.","5, storage device 300 identifies (501) a realignment gap for unaligned data of the data stream already stored in the memory.","For example, in buffered data 360, a first portion of payload data 353 remains unaligned, in contrast to a second portion of payload data 353.The amount of mis-alignment of the first portion of payload data 353 is determined, based in part on a difference in storage end position for headers 351 and meta data 352 and first gap 370.In FIG.","3, the realignment gap is indicated by second data gap 371, and step “4.” Storage device 300 performs (502) a realignment process for unaligned data based on the realignment data gap.","A read-write process can be performed by TOE 312 to read the unaligned portion of payload data 353 from DRAM 320 and insert second gap 371 in DRAM 320.Once the first portion of payload data 353 is re-written back into DRAM 320, then this first portion of payload data 353 will be aligned along with the second portion of payload data 353.This re-aligned data can be seen in “re-aligned data 361” in FIG.","3, and the realignment process can include step “4” in FIG.","3.In some examples, a portion of payload data 353 will remain unaligned due to too little data remaining to fit in an aligned manner into an alignment position in DRAM 320.In further examples, a selected portion of headers 351 or meta data 352 can also be aligned in DRAM 320 using the re-alignment process in step “4” of FIG.","3.Storage device 300 transfers (503) the aligned data stream from the memory to storage media 330.In this example, once the desired portions of data stream 350 are aligned in DRAM 320, then storage device 300 can transfer this aligned data from DRAM 320 for storage in storage media 330.This operation can be seen as step “5” in FIG.","3.In some examples, main processor 315 handles the transfer of data in DRAM 320 to storage media 330, with storage media 330 physically interfaced by media interface 317.Once stored on storage media 330, data can be retrieved at a later time by storage device 300 and transferred over network link 340.The included descriptions and figures depict specific embodiments to teach those skilled in the art how to make and use the best mode.","For the purpose of teaching inventive principles, some conventional aspects have been simplified or omitted.","Those skilled in the art will appreciate variations from these embodiments that fall within the scope of the invention.","Those skilled in the art will also appreciate that the features described above can be combined in various ways to form multiple embodiments.","As a result, the invention is not limited to the specific embodiments described above, but only by the claims and their equivalents."]],"string":"[\n [\n \"BYTE ALIGNMENT IN DATA STORAGE DEVICES\",\n \"To provide enhanced operation of data storage devices and systems, various systems, methods, and firmware are provided herein.\",\n \"In a first example, a data storage device is presented.\",\n \"The data storage device includes a network interface configured to receive a data stream for storage on a storage medium, the data stream comprising meta data that precedes payload data.\",\n \"The data storage device includes a processing system configured to process at least the meta data when writing the data stream from the network interface to a memory to identify a data gap for the data stream to establish a byte alignment of at least the payload data in the memory.\",\n \"The processing system is also configured to insert the data gap in the memory and store the data stream in the memory.\"\n ],\n [\n \"1.A data storage device, comprising: a network interface configured to receive a data stream; and a processing system configured to: buffer an initial portion of the data stream in memory; before a subsequent portion of the data stream is buffered, identify a gap to insert in the data stream after the initial portion of the data stream to establish a byte alignment; buffer the subsequent portion of the data stream in the memory separated by the gap identified to establish the byte alignment; and after having buffered the subsequent portion of the data stream, write the initial portion and the subsequent portion of data stream from the memory to storage while maintaining the byte alignment.\",\n \"2.The data storage device of claim 1 wherein the processing system is further configured to, after having written the initial portion and the subsequent portion of data stream, re-write the initial portion to establish the byte alignment with respect to the initial portion of the data stream.\",\n \"3.The data storage device of claim 1 wherein the initial portion of the data stream comprises meta data and payload data.\",\n \"4.The data storage device of claim 3 wherein the subsequent portion of the data stream comprises additional payload data.\",\n \"5.The data storage device of claim 4 wherein the data stream comprises a network file system (NFS) stream.\",\n \"6.The data storage device of claim 1 wherein the processing system comprises a Transmission Control Protocol Offload Engine (TOE) module.\",\n \"7.The data storage device of claim 6 wherein the network interface comprises an Ethernet interface.\",\n \"8.The data storage device of claim 1 wherein the byte alignment is based on a sub-division of the storage to which the data stream is written.\",\n \"9.The data storage device of claim 8 wherein the sub-division of the storage comprises one of a sector size, a block size, and a page size.\",\n \"10.A method of operating data storage device comprising: receiving a data stream via a network interface in the data storage device; buffering an initial portion of the data stream in a memory of the data storage device; before a subsequent portion of the data stream is buffered, identifying a gap to insert in the data stream after the initial portion of the data stream to establish a byte alignment; buffering the subsequent portion of the data stream in the memory separated by the gap identified to establish the byte alignment; and after having buffered the subsequent portion of the data stream, writing the initial portion and the subsequent portion of data stream from the memory to a storage medium in the data storage device while maintaining the byte alignment.\",\n \"11.The method of claim 10 further comprising: after having written the initial portion and the subsequent portion of data stream, re-writing the initial portion to establish the byte alignment with respect to the initial portion of the data stream.\",\n \"12.The method of claim 10 wherein the initial portion of the data stream comprises meta data and payload data.\",\n \"13.The method of claim 12 wherein the subsequent portion of the data stream comprises additional payload data.\",\n \"14.The method of claim 13 wherein the data stream comprises a network file system (NFS) stream.\",\n \"15.The method of claim 14 wherein the network interface comprises an Ethernet interface.\",\n \"16.The method of claim 10 further comprising basing the byte alignment on a sub-division of the storage to which the data stream is written.\",\n \"17.The method of claim 17 wherein the sub-division of the storage comprises one of a sector size, a block size, and a page size.\",\n \"18.A data storage system comprising: a data storage enclosure for housing a plurality of data storage devices; and the plurality of data storage devices; wherein at least one of the data storage devices comprises: a network interface configured to receive a data stream; and a processing system configured to: buffer an initial portion of the data stream in memory; before a subsequent portion of the data stream is buffered, identify a gap to insert in the data stream after the initial portion of the data stream to establish a byte alignment; buffer the subsequent portion of the data stream in the memory separated by the gap identified to establish the byte alignment; and after having buffered the subsequent portion of the data stream, write the initial portion and the subsequent portion of data stream from the memory to storage while maintaining the byte alignment.\",\n \"19.The data storage system of claim 19 wherein the data stream comprises a network file system (NFS) stream, wherein the network interface comprises an Ethernet interface, wherein the memory comprises dynamic random-access memory (DRAM).\",\n \"20.The data storage system of claim 18 wherein the processing system comprises a Transmission Control Protocol Offload Engine (TOE) module.\"\n ],\n [\n \" TECHNICAL BACKGROUND Computer and network systems such as personal computers, workstations, server systems, and cloud storage systems, typically include data storage systems for storing and retrieving data.\",\n \"These data storage systems can include data storage devices, such as hard disk drives, solid state storage devices, tape storage devices, and other mass storage devices.\",\n \"These data storage systems can receive data for storage over various interfaces, such as serial and parallel data interfaces, network interfaces, and other data interfaces.\",\n \"In some examples of network interfaces, a file transfer protocol is used which employs more than one simultaneous data connection for transferring meta data and user data.\",\n \"However, in other examples, a data stream is transferred which includes both meta data and user data in one connection using a sequential bit stream.\"\n ],\n [\n \" BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS Many aspects of the disclosure can be better understood with reference to the following drawings.\",\n \"The components in the drawings are not necessarily to scale, emphasis instead being placed upon clearly illustrating the principles of the present disclosure.\",\n \"Moreover, in the drawings, like reference numerals designate corresponding parts throughout the several views.\",\n \"While several embodiments are described in connection with these drawings, the disclosure is not limited to the embodiments disclosed herein.\",\n \"On the contrary, the intent is to cover all alternatives, modifications, and equivalents.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"1 is a system diagram illustrating a data system.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"2 is a flow diagram illustrating a method of operation of a data storage system.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"3 is a block diagram illustrating a data storage device.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"4 is a flow diagram illustrating a method of operation of a data storage device.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"5 is a flow diagram illustrating a method of operation of a data storage device.\",\n \"detailed-description description=\\\"Detailed Description\\\" end=\\\"lead\\\"?\"\n ],\n [\n \"RELATED APPLICATIONS This application is a continuation of, and claims priority to, U.S. application Ser.\",\n \"No.\",\n \"14/258,718, entitled “Metadata Based Data Alignment in Data Storage System,” and filed on Apr.\",\n \"22, 2014, which is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety.\",\n \"TECHNICAL FIELD Aspects of the disclosure are related to the field of digital data storage systems.\",\n \"TECHNICAL BACKGROUND Computer and network systems such as personal computers, workstations, server systems, and cloud storage systems, typically include data storage systems for storing and retrieving data.\",\n \"These data storage systems can include data storage devices, such as hard disk drives, solid state storage devices, tape storage devices, and other mass storage devices.\",\n \"These data storage systems can receive data for storage over various interfaces, such as serial and parallel data interfaces, network interfaces, and other data interfaces.\",\n \"In some examples of network interfaces, a file transfer protocol is used which employs more than one simultaneous data connection for transferring meta data and user data.\",\n \"However, in other examples, a data stream is transferred which includes both meta data and user data in one connection using a sequential bit stream.\",\n \"Overview To provide enhanced operation of data storage devices and systems, various methods, and firmware are provided herein.\",\n \"In a first example, a data storage device is presented.\",\n \"The data storage device includes a network interface configured to receive a data stream for storage on a storage medium, the data stream comprising meta data that precedes payload data.\",\n \"The data storage device includes a processing system configured to process at least the meta data when writing the data stream from the network interface to a memory to identify a data gap for the data stream to establish a byte alignment of at least the payload data in the memory.\",\n \"The processing system is also configured to insert the data gap in the memory and store the data stream in the memory.\",\n \"In another example, a method of operating a data storage device is presented.\",\n \"The method includes receiving a data stream over a network interface for storage on a storage medium, the data stream comprising meta data that precedes payload data.\",\n \"When writing the data stream from the network interface to a memory prior to storage on the storage medium, the method includes processing at least the meta data to identify a data gap for the data stream to establish a byte alignment of the payload data in the memory.\",\n \"The method also includes inserting the data gap in the memory and storing the data stream in the memory.\",\n \"In another example, a data storage system is presented.\",\n \"The data storage system includes a data storage enclosure that includes a plurality of data storage devices configured to receive data streams over a network and store the data streams on storage media of the plurality of data storage devices.\",\n \"One or more of the data storage devices are configured to receive at least one of the data streams over a network interface for storage on a storage medium, where the at least one of the data streams comprising meta data that precedes payload data, process at least the meta data when writing the at least one of the data streams from the network interface to a memory to identify a data gap for the at least one of the data streams to establish a byte alignment of the payload data in the memory, and insert the data gap in the memory and store the at least one of the data streams in the memory.\",\n \"BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS Many aspects of the disclosure can be better understood with reference to the following drawings.\",\n \"The components in the drawings are not necessarily to scale, emphasis instead being placed upon clearly illustrating the principles of the present disclosure.\",\n \"Moreover, in the drawings, like reference numerals designate corresponding parts throughout the several views.\",\n \"While several embodiments are described in connection with these drawings, the disclosure is not limited to the embodiments disclosed herein.\",\n \"On the contrary, the intent is to cover all alternatives, modifications, and equivalents.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"1 is a system diagram illustrating a data system.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"2 is a flow diagram illustrating a method of operation of a data storage system.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"3 is a block diagram illustrating a data storage device.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"4 is a flow diagram illustrating a method of operation of a data storage device.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"5 is a flow diagram illustrating a method of operation of a data storage device.\",\n \"DETAILED DESCRIPTION Data storage systems can receive data for storage over various interfaces, such as serial and parallel data interfaces, network interfaces, and other data interfaces.\",\n \"In some examples of network interfaces, a file transfer protocol (FTP) is used which employs more than one simultaneous data connection for transferring meta data and user data.\",\n \"In other examples, a data stream is transferred which includes both meta data and user data in one connection using a sequential bit stream.\",\n \"When multiple simultaneous data connections are employed, data alignment by a data storage system can be achieved by separately storing data received over each connection, ensuring alignment of user data during storage.\",\n \"However, when a single connection is employed, such as in examples of data streams that include both header or meta data and user data in a payload portion, alignment of the data during storage can be troublesome.\",\n \"As a first example, FIG.\",\n \"1 is presented.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"1 is a system diagram illustrating data system 100.System 100 includes data storage system 101 which further includes data storage devices 110, 120, and 130.Data storage device 110 communicates over network link 150.Data storage devices 120 and 130 can communicate over further network links, not shown in FIG.\",\n \"1 for clarity.\",\n \"Data storage device 110 includes network interface 111, processing system 112, memory 113, and storage medium 114.Data storage devices 120 and 130 include similar elements.\",\n \"The elements of data storage device 110 are communicatively coupled and allow for exchange of data.\",\n \"In operation, data can be received by network interface 111 over network link 150 for storage in storage medium 114 of data storage device 110.Data received by network interface 111 is stored in memory 113 before storage in storage medium 114.To further illustrate the operation of system 100, FIG.\",\n \"2 is presented.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"2 is a flow diagram illustrating a method of operation of data storage system 101.The elements of FIG.\",\n \"2 are referenced below parenthetically.\",\n \"In FIG.\",\n \"2, data storage device 110 receives (201) a data stream over network interface 111 for storage on storage medium 114, the data stream comprising meta data that precedes payload data.\",\n \"In this example, data stream 140 is received over network link 150 by network interface 111.Data stream 140 includes meta data portion 141 and payload data portion 142.Meta data 141 can include headers, addresses, attributes, or other information for data stream 140.Payload data 142 can include user data, payload information, content, or other data for storage by data storage device 110.In this example, meta data 141 and payload data 142 are received sequentially in data stream 140.When writing the data stream from network interface 111 to memory 113 prior to storage on storage medium 114, processing system 112 processes (202) at least meta data 141 to identify a data gap for data stream 140 to enforce a byte alignment of at least payload data 142 in memory 113.As data stream 140 is received, network interface 111 transfers data stream 140 for storage in memory 113.As shown in memory contents 115 in FIG.\",\n \"1, meta data 141 and payload data 142 are stored in memory 113 as received in data stream 140.However, since meta data 141 takes up a certain amount of space in memory 113 before payload data 142, then payload data 142 will not be in any particular byte alignment in memory 113.This non-byte alignment of payload data 142 can lead to performance slowdowns when transferring payload data 142 to storage medium 114.In many examples, storage medium 114 has a preferred byte alignment for data stored thereon.\",\n \"For example, a byte alignment can be preferred due to a storage scheme for writing bits to storage medium 113.In other examples, the byte alignment can be preferred due to an error checking and correction scheme used when writing bits to storage medium 113.Processing system 112 inserts (203) the data gap in memory 113 and stores data stream 140 in memory 113.When data is written to storage medium 113 in a non-aligned manner, then a re-alignment process typically occurs for all of payload data 142 after storage in memory 113, which can lead to performance slowdowns and wasted processing time.\",\n \"In non-aligned examples, once all of data stream 140 is written to memory 113, then a read-write process must occur for at least all of payload data 142 to align payload data 142 prior to transfer to storage medium 114.Advantageously, in this example, the alignment is determined during writing of data stream 140, and a large portion of payload data 142 is aligned during writing of data stream 140 into memory 113.In further examples, a portion of the data in memory 113 remains un-aligned, such as a portion of payload data 142 written prior to identifying the data gap.\",\n \"This portion can be re-aligned by a small amount of read-writes to align in memory 113.In some examples, meta data 141 is not re-aligned, and only payload 142 is re-aligned.\",\n \"Returning back to the elements of FIG.\",\n \"1, data storage system 101 comprises a plurality of data storage devices, namely data storage device 110, 120, and 130.Further data storage devices can be included.\",\n \"Data storage system 101 can include an enclosure, such as a rack mount system, case, shelving, and the like, for structurally supporting data storage systems.\",\n \"Furthermore, data storage system 101 can include network links, network switches or hubs, cabling, power systems, and other equipment to interconnect ones of the data storage devices to at least network link 150.Data storage system 101 can also include cooling systems, fans, battery backup systems, and other equipment to provide a suitable operating environment for data storage devices.\",\n \"Data storage devices 110, 120, and 130 each include equipment and circuitry to receive data over a network interface for storage on a storage medium.\",\n \"In this example, data storage device 110 is representative of data storage devices 120 and 130, although variations are possible.\",\n \"Data storage device 110 includes network interface 111, processing system 112, memory 113, and storage medium 114.Network interface 111 includes network transceiver equipment, such as physical layer interfacing equipment, amplifiers, filters, network interface card equipment, and other networking interface elements to communicate over network link 150.Processing system 112 includes one or more microprocessors, or discrete circuitry devices to identify data gaps for aligning data and for writing data to memory 113.In some examples, processing system 112 comprises a Transmission Control Protocol Offload Engine (TOE) module, which receives data from network interface 111 and transfers this data for buffering in memory 113.When processing system 112 comprises a TOE, further processing elements can be included in processing system 112, such as Linux-based processing element which assists TOE circuitry.\",\n \"Memory 113 comprises non-transitory, volatile or non-volatile, solid state memory, such as dynamic random access memory (DRAM), static RAM, phase change memory, flash memory, and the like.\",\n \"Storage medium 114 comprises one or more non-volatile non-transitory storage media.\",\n \"Example of storage medium 114 include rotating magnetic storage media, magnetic tape media, phase change memory media, flash memory media, or other media.\",\n \"In some examples of data storage device 111, network interface 111, processing system 112, and memory 113 are included in a system-on-a-chip (SOC) device, which control the operations of storage medium 114.Data storage device 111 can include an enclosure around storage medium 114 to protect storage medium 114 from environmental effects, such as a hard drive enclosure, while network interface 111, processing system 112, memory 113, and other elements, reside on a printed circuit board attached to the enclosure.\",\n \"Network link 150 uses metal, glass, optical, air, space, or some other material as the transport media.\",\n \"Network link 150 can use various communication protocols, such as Ethernet, Internet Protocol (IP), Time Division Multiplex (TDM), asynchronous transfer mode (ATM), synchronous optical networking (SONET), hybrid fiber-coax (HFC), Universal Serial Bus (USB), serial attached SCSI (SAS), Fibre Channel, communication signaling, wireless communications, or some other communication format, including combinations, improvements, or variations thereof.\",\n \"Network link 150 can be a direct link or can include intermediate networks, systems, or devices, and can include a logical network link transported over multiple physical links.\",\n \"Network link 150 can include many different signals sharing the same associated link, as represented by the associated lines in FIG.\",\n \"1, comprising resource blocks, access channels, paging channels, notification channels, forward links, reverse links, user communications, communication sessions, overhead communications, carrier frequencies, other channels, timeslots, spreading codes, transportation ports, logical transportation links, network sockets, packets, or communication directions.\",\n \"As another example of a data storage device, FIG.\",\n \"3 is presented.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"3 is a block diagram illustrating data storage device 300.Data storage device 300 can be an example of data storage device 110 of FIG.\",\n \"1, although variations are possible.\",\n \"In FIG.\",\n \"3, data stream 350 is received over network link 340 for storage on storage media 330 by data storage device 300.Network link 340 can be a wired or wireless Ethernet link and include Internet protocol (IP) traffic, or include elements described for network link 150 of FIG.\",\n \"1.Data storage device 300 includes system-on-a-chip (SOC) 310, dynamic random access memory (DRAM) 320, and rotating magnetic storage media 330.Data storage device 300 can include enclosure 301 which can enclose or structurally support ones of the elements of data storage device 300.Data storage device 300 can optionally include additional devices, features, or functionality not discussed here for purposes of brevity.\",\n \"SOC 310 includes media access control (MAC) element 311, Transmission Control Protocol Offload Engine (TOE) module 312, memory controller 314, main processor 315, and media interface 317 integrated onto a single semiconductor die, or one or more semiconductor dies packaged into a single chip package.\",\n \"In further examples, multiple chip packages can be employed.\",\n \"In operation, the elements of SOC 310 are communicatively coupled, such as by intra-chip interconnect.\",\n \"It should be understood that discrete links can be employed, such as individual communication, power, and control links or other circuitry.\",\n \"SOC 310 can be distributed or consolidated among equipment or circuitry that together forms the elements of SOC 310.MAC 311 includes medium access control circuitry and logic, such as link layer elements for handling network traffic over link 340.In some examples, MAC 311 includes elements of a physical layer interface (PHY), while some elements of a PHY can be included externally to SOC 310.Further examples of MAC 311 include logic, transmission gates, buffers, network interface card equipment, transceivers, and other communication circuitry.\",\n \"MAC 311 interfaces with at least TOE 312 for handling of data packets received over network link 340.TOE 312 includes circuitry and logic for offloading processing of packet header information for network traffic received by MAC 311.This packet header information can include TCP, IP, or NFS packet headers, among others.\",\n \"TOE includes processing circuitry to buffer or store these packets in DRAM 320 by way of memory controller 314.In the examples herein, TOE 312 can identify data alignment issues for data stored in DRAM.\",\n \"TOE 312 can identify byte mis-alignments due to meta data or header data of data streams during storage of the data storage in DRAM 320.TOE 312 can identify one or more gaps for a data stream to byte align the storage of the data stream in DRAM 320.Further processing elements can be included in TOE 312 or accompany TOE 312, such as Linux-based processing elements which assists TOE circuitry.\",\n \"TOE 312 can comprise one or more microprocessors, microcontrollers, application specific integrated circuit (ASIC) processors, or FPGA elements and other circuitry that retrieves and executes at least gap insertion software 313 to operate as described herein.\",\n \"TOE 312 can be implemented within a single processing device but can also be distributed across multiple processing devices or sub-systems that cooperate in executing program instructions.\",\n \"Examples of TOE 312 include general purpose central processing units, application specific processors, and logic devices, as well as any other type of processing device, combinations, or variations thereof.\",\n \"TOE 312 can include a storage system that includes software 313, the storage system is omitted from FIG.\",\n \"3 for clarity, but can be included in SOC 310 or TOE 312.The storage system can include any non-transitory computer readable storage media readable by TOE 312 and capable of storing software 313, such as a computer readable storage device.\",\n \"The computer readable storage media that stores software 313 can include volatile and nonvolatile, removable and non-removable media implemented in any method or technology for storage of information, such as computer readable instructions, data structures, program modules, or other data.\",\n \"In addition to storage media, in some implementations the computer readable storage media can also include communication media over which software 313 can be communicated.\",\n \"The computer readable storage media that stores software 313 can be implemented as a single storage device but can also be implemented across multiple storage devices or sub-systems co-located or distributed relative to each other.\",\n \"The computer readable storage media that stores software 313 can comprise additional elements, such as a controller, capable of communicating with TOE 312.Examples of storage media include random access memory, read only memory, flash memory, or any other medium which can be used to store the desired information and that can be accessed by an instruction execution system, as well as any combination or variation thereof, or any other type of storage media.\",\n \"Software 313 can be implemented in program instructions and among other functions can, when executed by storage device 301 in general or TOE 312 in particular, direct storage device 301 or TOE 312 to write data associated with data streams into DRAM 320, identify byte alignment issues during the storage of data streams in DRAM 320, and identify data gaps to align data streams during storage in DRAM 320, among other operations.\",\n \"Software 313 can include additional processes, programs, or components, such as operating system software, database software, or application software.\",\n \"Software 313 can also comprise some other form of machine-readable processing instructions executable by TOE 312.In general, software 313 can, when loaded into TOE 312 and executed, transform TOE 312 overall from a general-purpose computing system into a special-purpose computing system customized to operate as described herein.\",\n \"Encoding software 313 on a computer readable storage media can transform the physical structure of the computer readable storage media.\",\n \"The specific transformation of the physical structure can depend on various factors in different implementations of this description.\",\n \"Examples of such factors can include, but are not limited to the technology used to implement the storage media of the computer readable storage media and whether the computer readable storage media are characterized as primary or secondary storage.\",\n \"For example, if the computer-storage media are implemented as semiconductor-based memory, software 313 can transform the physical state of the semiconductor memory when the program is encoded therein.\",\n \"For example, software 313 can transform the state of transistors, capacitors, or other discrete circuit elements constituting the semiconductor memory.\",\n \"A similar transformation can occur with respect to magnetic or optical media.\",\n \"Other transformations of physical media are possible without departing from the scope of the present description, with the foregoing examples provided only to facilitate this discussion.\",\n \"Memory controller 314 includes circuitry and communication interfaces for communicating with DRAM 320.Memory control 314 communicates over memory link 314 to write data into DRAM 320 and read data stored in DRAM 320.Memory link 314 can include serial or parallel data interfaces, such as synchronous DRAM (SDRAM) or double date rate SDRAM (DDR) memory interfaces.\",\n \"Main processor 315 can comprise one or more microprocessors, microcontrollers, application specific integrated circuit (ASIC) processors, or FPGA elements and other circuitry that retrieves and executes at least gap insertion software 316 to operate as described herein.\",\n \"Main processor 315 can be implemented within a single processing device but can also be distributed across multiple processing devices or sub-systems that cooperate in executing program instructions.\",\n \"Examples of main processor 315 include general purpose central processing units, application specific processors, and logic devices, as well as any other type of processing device, combinations, or variations thereof.\",\n \"Main processor 315 can include a storage system that includes software 316, the storage system is omitted from FIG.\",\n \"3 for clarity, but can be included in SOC 310 or main processor 315.The storage system can include any non-transitory computer readable storage media readable by main processor 315 and capable of storing software 316, such as a computer readable storage device.\",\n \"The computer readable storage media that stores software 316 can include volatile and nonvolatile, removable and non-removable media implemented in any method or technology for storage of information, such as computer readable instructions, data structures, program modules, or other data.\",\n \"In addition to storage media, in some implementations the computer readable storage media can also include communication media over which software 316 can be communicated.\",\n \"The computer readable storage media that stores software 316 can be implemented as a single storage device but can also be implemented across multiple storage devices or sub-systems co-located or distributed relative to each other.\",\n \"The computer readable storage media that stores software 316 can comprise additional elements, such as a controller, capable of communicating with main processor 315.Examples of storage media include random access memory, read only memory, flash memory, or any other medium which can be used to store the desired information and that can be accessed by an instruction execution system, as well as any combination or variation thereof, or any other type of storage media.\",\n \"Software 316 can be implemented in program instructions and among other functions can, when executed by storage device 301 in general or main processor 315 in particular, direct storage device 301 or main processor 315 to read data stored in DRAM 320, transfer the data for storage in storage media 330, read and write data on storage media 330, and transfer data stored on storage media 330 for delivery over network link 340, among other operations.\",\n \"Software 316 can include additional processes, programs, or components, such as operating system software, database software, or application software.\",\n \"Software 316 can also comprise some other form of machine-readable processing instructions executable by main processor 315.In general, software 316 can, when loaded into main processor 315 and executed, transform main processor 315 overall from a general-purpose computing system into a special-purpose computing system customized to operate as described herein.\",\n \"Encoding software 316 on a computer readable storage media can transform the physical structure of the computer readable storage media.\",\n \"The specific transformation of the physical structure can depend on various factors in different implementations of this description.\",\n \"Examples of such factors can include, but are not limited to the technology used to implement the storage media of the computer readable storage media and whether the computer readable storage media are characterized as primary or secondary storage.\",\n \"For example, if the computer-storage media are implemented as semiconductor-based memory, software 316 can transform the physical state of the semiconductor memory when the program is encoded therein.\",\n \"For example, software 316 can transform the state of transistors, capacitors, or other discrete circuit elements constituting the semiconductor memory.\",\n \"A similar transformation can occur with respect to magnetic or optical media.\",\n \"Other transformations of physical media are possible without departing from the scope of the present description, with the foregoing examples provided only to facilitate this discussion.\",\n \"Media interface 317 includes circuitry, devices, and equipment for transferring write data to storage media 330 and reading data from storage media 330.In examples of rotating magnetic media, such as hard disk drives, media interface 317 can comprise signal processing circuitry, read channel circuitry, servo control systems, channel seek/track systems, write circuitry, step-up voltage converters, buffers, line amplifiers, and other circuitry and equipment.\",\n \"DRAM 320 comprises volatile solid state memory.\",\n \"DRAM can instead include any non-transitory solid state memory, including phase change, flash memory, magnetic random access memory, and the like.\",\n \"DRAM 320 interfaces with SOC 310 using a signaling interface, such as employed by SDRAM, DDR, or other memory interface technologies.\",\n \"Storage media 330 comprises magnetic storage media.\",\n \"Storage media 330 also can include servo/armatures, motors, spindles, platters, and read/write heads.\",\n \"The elements shown in FIG.\",\n \"3 for magnetic storage media portion 330 are merely representative of a rotating magnetic media system and associated mechanisms, other elements are omitted for clarity.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"4 is a flow diagram illustrating a method of operation of data storage device 300.The operations of FIG.\",\n \"4 are referenced below parenthetically.\",\n \"Although TOE 312 is discussed in FIG.\",\n \"4 as performing the processing below, it should be understood that main processor 315 can instead handle some of the processing discussed.\",\n \"Moreover, further processing elements can be included in TOE 312 or accompany TOE 312, such as Linux-based processing elements which assist TOE circuitry in the processing discussed below.\",\n \"In FIG.\",\n \"4, storage device 300 receives (401) data stream 350 over network interface 340 for storage on a storage medium, data stream 350 including metadata that precedes payload data.\",\n \"Data stream 350 is received over network link 340 by MAC 311 in storage device 300.MAC 311 passes data stream 350 to TOE 312 for packet processing and buffering of data stream 350 in DRAM 320.Operation 401 can be illustrated by step “1” in FIG.\",\n \"3.Data stream 350 can include one or more headers 351, meta data 352, and payload data 353.In some examples, data stream 350 comprises a network file system (NFS) packet or packets, although any network file handling system can be employed.\",\n \"Header information 351 can include IP, Ethernet, or NFS headers and associated information.\",\n \"Meta data 352 can include file information, information describing the data included in payload 353, data attributes, storage addresses, or other information associated with payload data 353.Payload data 353 includes user data or other data to be written to storage media 330 by storage device 300.Storage device 300 buffers (402) data stream 350 in memory as received over network interface 340.In this example, TOE 312 processes one or more headers 351 to determine properties of data stream 350, such as identifying a packet type, packet size, packet format, destination and source addresses, and the like.\",\n \"TOE 312 buffers headers 351, meta data 352, and payload data 353 in DRAM 320.Input data is received into DRAM 320 over memory interface 341.Memory controller 314 handles this input data received from TOE 312 to physically interface with DRAM 320.This buffering process can be seen in FIG.\",\n \"3 as indicated by step “2,” and includes the portion of buffered data 360 until first gap 370.In some examples, only a portion of the header and meta data is buffered.\",\n \"Storage device 300 identifies (403) data gap 370 mid-stream for data stream 350 to align a remaining portion of data stream 350 in the memory.\",\n \"As seen in FIG.\",\n \"3, small dashed lines above “buffered data 360” indicate byte alignments for one example byte alignment.\",\n \"Headers 351 and meta data 352 do not align with a byte alignment during storage in DRAM 320, and once payload data 353 is written into DRAM 320, this payload data is also not aligned with the byte alignment.\",\n \"However, during the writing process of data stream 350 into DRAM 320, TOE 312 identifies this misalignment between the stored data in DRAM 320 and the desired byte alignment.\",\n \"This misalignment can be identified by identifying a size of the stored header and meta data and determining how many bits out of alignment the payload data is during storage.\",\n \"In this example, first data gap 370 is identified.\",\n \"This data gap process can be seen in FIG.\",\n \"3 as indicated by step “3.” The desired alignment can be based upon different factors.\",\n \"The byte alignment is selected in part based on storage media 330.The desired alignment can be based upon a physical subdivision of storage blocks of the storage media, or upon error checking or correction bits employed on the storage media.\",\n \"This is in contrast to a storage block subdivision of DRAM 320 or an error checking scheme of DRAM 320.In examples of rotating magnetic storage, a physical disk can be subdivided into storage blocks, and the storage block size can be used to establish the byte alignment.\",\n \"The storage block size can be a sector size in some examples.\",\n \"In example of flash media, a block size can be different than magnetic media, and a different byte alignment can be established.\",\n \"For example, the byte alignment for flash media can be a page size.\",\n \"The byte alignment eases transfer of data from DRAM 320 to storage media 330 by avoiding an additional step of realigning all of the data stored in DRAM 320 before transfer to storage media 330.In the examples discussed herein, the data alignment is done mid-stream while writing data stream 350 into DRAM 320.In some examples, an error checking or error checking and correction (ECC) scheme is employed for storage media 330.This error checking scheme can include one or more bytes for a piece of stored user data that indicate error checking bits or error correction bits, such as parity bits, ECC bits, and the like.\",\n \"The number of user data bits that correspond to a particular bit or bits of the error checking bits can vary based on a desired scheme, or based on the physical media itself.\",\n \"In examples of rotating magnetic storage, a physical disk can be subdivided into storage blocks, and each storage block can have a corresponding number of ECC bits.\",\n \"Various ratios of user data bits to ECC bits can be employed.\",\n \"The data alignment of data stored in DRAM 320 can be selected based on the error checking scheme, so that a piece of user data and the associated error checking bits fit into a block size of the physical media of storage media 330.Once data gap 370 has been identified, storage device 300 inserts (404) data gap 370 in the memory.\",\n \"In this example, TOE 312 inserts data gap 370 in DRAM 320 by leaving a portion of the memory unwritten to during the current write process for data stream 350.In some examples, blank or placeholder data can be inserted as data gap 370 and the writing of data stream 350 can be paused during the writing of data gap 370.Once data gap 370 has been inserted, then writing of data stream 350 can continue, and storage device 300 stores (405) the remaining portion of data stream 350 in the memory.\",\n \"In this example TOE 312 inserts data gap 370 and then continues buffering payload data 353 of data stream 350 in DRAM 320.After all of the payload data of data stream 350 has been written into DRAM 320, then the portion of data stream 350 written after data gap 370 is aligned according to the desired byte alignment in DRAM 320.To handle the initially written data in DRAM 320 that was not aligned in DRAM 320, further realignment can proceed.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"5 is a flow diagram illustrating a method of operation of data storage device 300 which includes re-alignment process.\",\n \"In FIG.\",\n \"5, storage device 300 identifies (501) a realignment gap for unaligned data of the data stream already stored in the memory.\",\n \"For example, in buffered data 360, a first portion of payload data 353 remains unaligned, in contrast to a second portion of payload data 353.The amount of mis-alignment of the first portion of payload data 353 is determined, based in part on a difference in storage end position for headers 351 and meta data 352 and first gap 370.In FIG.\",\n \"3, the realignment gap is indicated by second data gap 371, and step “4.” Storage device 300 performs (502) a realignment process for unaligned data based on the realignment data gap.\",\n \"A read-write process can be performed by TOE 312 to read the unaligned portion of payload data 353 from DRAM 320 and insert second gap 371 in DRAM 320.Once the first portion of payload data 353 is re-written back into DRAM 320, then this first portion of payload data 353 will be aligned along with the second portion of payload data 353.This re-aligned data can be seen in “re-aligned data 361” in FIG.\",\n \"3, and the realignment process can include step “4” in FIG.\",\n \"3.In some examples, a portion of payload data 353 will remain unaligned due to too little data remaining to fit in an aligned manner into an alignment position in DRAM 320.In further examples, a selected portion of headers 351 or meta data 352 can also be aligned in DRAM 320 using the re-alignment process in step “4” of FIG.\",\n \"3.Storage device 300 transfers (503) the aligned data stream from the memory to storage media 330.In this example, once the desired portions of data stream 350 are aligned in DRAM 320, then storage device 300 can transfer this aligned data from DRAM 320 for storage in storage media 330.This operation can be seen as step “5” in FIG.\",\n \"3.In some examples, main processor 315 handles the transfer of data in DRAM 320 to storage media 330, with storage media 330 physically interfaced by media interface 317.Once stored on storage media 330, data can be retrieved at a later time by storage device 300 and transferred over network link 340.The included descriptions and figures depict specific embodiments to teach those skilled in the art how to make and use the best mode.\",\n \"For the purpose of teaching inventive principles, some conventional aspects have been simplified or omitted.\",\n \"Those skilled in the art will appreciate variations from these embodiments that fall within the scope of the invention.\",\n \"Those skilled in the art will also appreciate that the features described above can be combined in various ways to form multiple embodiments.\",\n \"As a result, the invention is not limited to the specific embodiments described above, but only by the claims and their equivalents.\"\n ]\n]"},"source":{"kind":"string","value":"Patent_15875474"}}},{"rowIdx":4494881,"cells":{"text":{"kind":"list like","value":[["PARENTERAL DOSAGE FORM OF NOREPINEPHRINE","The present invention relates to a ready-to-administer parenteral dosage form of norepinephrine which comprises an aqueous solution of norepinephrine, having an anti-oxidant which is not a sulfite anti-oxidant, wherein the dosage form is stable at room temperature for prolonged period of time."],["1.An aqueous solution comprising I. norepinephrine or its pharmaceutically acceptable salt II.","an antioxidant which is not a sulphite antioxidant wherein the aqueous solution is ready-to-infuse and is filled in a container in a volume in a range from 50 ml to 500 ml, the container is a pre-filled syringe or an infusion bag, the container is made up of plastic or polymeric material, the ready-to-infuse aqueous solution is stable at room temperature, and wherein a value of total impurities in the aqueous solution is not more than 2.0% by weight after storage at room temperature for at least 12 months.","2.The aqueous solution as claimed in claim 1, wherein the norepinephrine or its pharmaceutically acceptable salt is norepinephrine bitartarate.","3.The aqueous solution as claimed in claim 1, wherein a pH of the aqueous solution is in the range of about 3.0 to about 4.5.4.The aqueous solution as claimed in claim 1, wherein the container is further packaged in a secondary packaging, wherein either the container or the secondary packaging is designed to protect the solution from light.","5.The aqueous solution as claimed in claim 1, wherein the plastic or polymeric material is selected from the group consisting of polyolefin polymers, polyethylene, polypropylene, cyclo olefin polymers, cyclo olefin copolymers, polypropylene based polyolefin polymers, polycarbonates, modified polyolefin-polyethylene polymers, and styrene-polyolefin based polymers and block co-polymers thereof.","6.The aqueous solution as claimed in claim 5, wherein the secondary packaging comprises an aluminum pouch and an oxygen scavenger.","7.The aqueous solution as claimed in claim 1, wherein the container is an infusion bag and wherein norepinephrine is present in the aqueous solution in an amount ranging from about 0.004 mg/ml to about 0.15 mg/ml.","8.The aqueous solution as claimed in claim 1, wherein the aqueous solution when stored at room temperature for twelve months has less than 4% of S-isomer content."],[" BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Norepinephrine is a sympathomimetic amine which functions as a peripheral vasoconstrictor (alpha-adrenergic action) and as an inotropic stimulator of the heart and dilator of coronary arteries (beta-adrenergic action).","It is also known as l-arterenol, levarterenol or l-norepinephrine or noradrenaline.","Norepinephrine Bitartrate, a catecholamine is chemically (−)-α-(aminomethyl)-3,4-dihydroxybenzyl alcohol tartrate (1:1) (salt) monohydrate and has the following structural formula: Norepinephrine (NE) is administered by intravenous infusion for blood pressure control in certain acute hypotensive states (e.g., pheochromocytomectomy, sympathectomy, poliomyelitis, spinal anesthesia, myocardial infarction, septicemia, blood transfusion, and drug reactions) and as an adjunct in the treatment of cardiac arrest and profound hypotension.","The commercial available injectable products of nor-epinephrine solutions for example, nor-epinephrine pre-concentrate solution marketed in the United States under the brand name LEVOPHED® and the solution of nor-epinephrine marketed by Cardinal Health Ltd., UK, use sodium bisulfite or sodium metabisulfite as antioxidants.","A clear warning with respect to allergic reactions is included in the labels of these products, which entails cautious use of these products by the patients.","The use of sulphites or sulphur is reported to cause allergic-type reactions such as anaphylactic symptoms and life-threatening or less severe asthmatic episodes in certain susceptible persons.","Indeed, the symptoms of an allergic reaction to sulfites may exacerbate the condition being treated.","This exacerbation is especially critical given that nor-epinephrine is often used in emergency situations where further compromising a patient with an allergic reaction is disadvantageous.","Nor-epinephrine is known to be susceptible to oxidation and degradation in presence of oxygen, particularly when present in aqueous solutions.","The degradation is undesirable as it results in loss of titer of the active ingredient, formation of compounds which have undesirable physiological effects, and the appearance of a dark colour, which makes the solution offensive and unmarketable.","Moreover, nor-epinephrine is known to exist in two different stereoisomeric forms: R (−) isomer and S (+) isomer, the R(−) isomer is reported to have better affinity at various receptors and thus, more potent than the S(+) isomer.","The S-isomer has minimal to almost negligible activity.","The present inventors have discovered a parenteral dosage form wherein the aqueous solution of nor-epinephrine is free of sulphite antioxidant and is ready to administer.","The ready-to-administer aqueous solution in the containers is not only stable at room temperature for prolonged periods of time, but also shows minimal conversion to less active S-isomer during the shelf life of the product.","Further, the parenteral dosage form avoids the reconstitution or dilution step prior to intravenous infusion, thus eliminating the risk of any potential calculation or dilution error as well as risk of microbiological contamination during handling."],[" SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The present invention provides a ready-to-administer parenteral dosage form comprising an aqueous solution comprising a. therapeutically effective amount of norepinephrine or its pharmaceutically acceptable salt b. an anti-oxidant which is not a sulphite antioxidant, wherein the solution is stable at room temperature.","detailed-description description=\"Detailed Description\" end=\"lead\"?"],["This application is a continuation of U.S. application Ser.","No.","14/837,749, filed Aug. 27, 2015, which claims benefit to India Patent Application No.","2759/MUM/2014, filed on Aug. 28, 2014, in the Government of India Patent Office, the disclosure of each of which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.","FIELD OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to a ready-to-administer parenteral dosage form of norepinephrine comprising an aqueous solution of norepinephrine and an anti-oxidant which is not a sulfite anti-oxidant, and wherein the dosage form is stable at room temperature.","BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Norepinephrine is a sympathomimetic amine which functions as a peripheral vasoconstrictor (alpha-adrenergic action) and as an inotropic stimulator of the heart and dilator of coronary arteries (beta-adrenergic action).","It is also known as l-arterenol, levarterenol or l-norepinephrine or noradrenaline.","Norepinephrine Bitartrate, a catecholamine is chemically (−)-α-(aminomethyl)-3,4-dihydroxybenzyl alcohol tartrate (1:1) (salt) monohydrate and has the following structural formula: Norepinephrine (NE) is administered by intravenous infusion for blood pressure control in certain acute hypotensive states (e.g., pheochromocytomectomy, sympathectomy, poliomyelitis, spinal anesthesia, myocardial infarction, septicemia, blood transfusion, and drug reactions) and as an adjunct in the treatment of cardiac arrest and profound hypotension.","The commercial available injectable products of nor-epinephrine solutions for example, nor-epinephrine pre-concentrate solution marketed in the United States under the brand name LEVOPHED® and the solution of nor-epinephrine marketed by Cardinal Health Ltd., UK, use sodium bisulfite or sodium metabisulfite as antioxidants.","A clear warning with respect to allergic reactions is included in the labels of these products, which entails cautious use of these products by the patients.","The use of sulphites or sulphur is reported to cause allergic-type reactions such as anaphylactic symptoms and life-threatening or less severe asthmatic episodes in certain susceptible persons.","Indeed, the symptoms of an allergic reaction to sulfites may exacerbate the condition being treated.","This exacerbation is especially critical given that nor-epinephrine is often used in emergency situations where further compromising a patient with an allergic reaction is disadvantageous.","Nor-epinephrine is known to be susceptible to oxidation and degradation in presence of oxygen, particularly when present in aqueous solutions.","The degradation is undesirable as it results in loss of titer of the active ingredient, formation of compounds which have undesirable physiological effects, and the appearance of a dark colour, which makes the solution offensive and unmarketable.","Moreover, nor-epinephrine is known to exist in two different stereoisomeric forms: R (−) isomer and S (+) isomer, the R(−) isomer is reported to have better affinity at various receptors and thus, more potent than the S(+) isomer.","The S-isomer has minimal to almost negligible activity.","The present inventors have discovered a parenteral dosage form wherein the aqueous solution of nor-epinephrine is free of sulphite antioxidant and is ready to administer.","The ready-to-administer aqueous solution in the containers is not only stable at room temperature for prolonged periods of time, but also shows minimal conversion to less active S-isomer during the shelf life of the product.","Further, the parenteral dosage form avoids the reconstitution or dilution step prior to intravenous infusion, thus eliminating the risk of any potential calculation or dilution error as well as risk of microbiological contamination during handling.","SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The present invention provides a ready-to-administer parenteral dosage form comprising an aqueous solution comprising a. therapeutically effective amount of norepinephrine or its pharmaceutically acceptable salt b. an anti-oxidant which is not a sulphite antioxidant, wherein the solution is stable at room temperature.","DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION The term norepinephrine, as used herein includes norepinephrine and/or its pharmaceutically acceptable salts such as norepinephrine bitartrate or norepinephrine hydrochloride or other salts.","It is also known by other names such as l-arterenol, levarterenolol, l-norepinephrine or noradrenaline.","The term “ready-to-administer” as used herein means that the drug solution is sterile and suitable for direct intravenous infusion or injection and no intermediate steps of dilution or reconstitution are required before parenteral administration of the drug solution to the patient.","The aqueous drug solution can be directly administered parenterally from the container of the dosage form.","The term “ready-to-administer” is synonymous with “ready-to-infuse” or ready-to-inject” and is not to be read as the term “ready-to-use” aqueous solution.","The term ‘ready-to-use’ in the art includes aqueous preconcentrates which require a single step of dilution with an aqueous diluent fluid such as water for injection or saline before administration.","The term “ready-to-administer” is also distinguished from lyophilized products that require two steps, a first step of reconstitution to form a preconcentrate and then a second step where the preconcentrate is subjected to dilution with an aqueous infusion fluid.","The ready-to-administer parenteral dosage form according to the present invention avoids the inconvenience of reconstituting or diluting a concentrated parenteral formulation into infusion diluents prior to infusion, as well as eliminates the risk of any potential calculation or dilution error as well as risk of microbiological contamination during handling.","The volume of the aqueous drug solution according to the present invention is large i.e.","when the end use container used in ‘ready-to-administer’ parenteral dosage form is a prefilled syringe, then the volume of the aqueous solution may be about 50 ml to 100 ml.","When the end use container is infusion bag, the volume of the aqueous solution may be about 100 ml to 500 ml.","The term ‘sulfite anti-oxidant’ as used herein means any anti-oxidant capable of providing sulfite, bisulfite, or metabisulfite anions in water.","For instance, sodium sulphite, sodium bisulfite, sodium metabisulphite, sodium pyrosulphite and the like.","The term ‘stable at room temperature’ as used herein means that the dosage form is physically as well as chemically stable as demonstrated by compliance to acceptable specification when the dosage form is stored at room temperature (about 25° C.) for twelve months, preferably eighteen months, more preferably 24 months or longer.","Suitably, the solution of nor-epinephrine remains physically stable, with no precipitation or crystallization or color change upon storage and the value of percentage transmittance of the solution remaining greater than 90%, preferably greater than 95% for the shelf life period of 18-24 months when stored at room temperature.","Suitably, the solution of nor-epinephrine remains chemically stable when stored at room temperature (about 25° C.) and at refrigerated conditions (2-8° C.), wherein various parameters such as the drug content (assay of nor-epinephrine) and content of related substances, i.e.","known and unknown impurities remains within specified limits such as those specified according to ICH guidelines, upon storage for prolonged period of time such as for at least 12 months, preferably for 18 months, more preferably 24 months or longer.","Suitably, the value of assay of nor-epinephrine remains within the specified limit of 90-110% by weight of the label claim; the highest unknown impurity remains within the specified limit of not more than 0.2%; the known Impurities B, C, D and E remains within the specified limit of not more than 0.29% and the Impurity A remains within the specified limit of not more than 1.0%.","The total impurities remain below 2.0%, preferably below 1.0%.","The ready-to-administer parenteral dosage form of the present invention comprises an aqueous solution comprising therapeutically effective amount of norepinephrine or its pharmaceutically acceptable salt and an anti-oxidant which is not a sulfite anti-oxidant.","Suitably, in one preferred embodiment, the pharmaceutically acceptable salt of nor-epinephrine is nor-epinephrine bitartrate.","Suitably, nor-epinephrine or its pharmaceutically acceptable salt may be present in the ready-to-administer parenteral dosage form in an amount ranging from about 0.001 mg/ml to 0.4 mg/ml, preferably from about 0.002 mg/ml to 0.2 mg/ml.","In one embodiment, norepinephrine is present in the aqueous solution in an amount ranging from about 0.001 mg/ml to about 0.2 mg/ml.","In one embodiment, nor-epinephrine or its pharmaceutically acceptable salt is nor-epinephrine bitartrate and it is present in the aqueous solution in an amount ranging from about 0.002 mg/ml to about 0.4 mg/ml.","Suitably, the ready-to-administer parenteral dosage form of the present invention comprises an anti-oxidant which is not a sulphite anti-oxidant.","Such anti-oxidants, may be selected form, but not limited to butylated hydroxyl anisol, ascorbic acid, propyl gallate, vitamin E, alpha-tocopherol, butylated hydroxyl toluene and the like.","The parenteral dosage form of the present invention is devoid of sulphur containing and/or sulfite anti-oxidants such as sodium sulfite, sodium bisulfite, sodium metabisulfite or mixtures thereof.","In a preferred embodiment, the anti-oxidant is butylated hydroxyanisole.","Suitably, butylated hydroxyanisole is present in an amount ranging from about 0.001 mg/ml to about 0.01 mg/ml, preferably from about 0.001 mg/ml to about 0.005 mg/ml.","Suitably, the aqueous solution of the present invention may further comprise other parentally acceptable excipients, including but not limited to, osmotic/tonicity adjusting agents, chelating agents, pH adjusting agents, buffers.","Suitably, the aqueous solution according to the present invention have a pH in the range of about 3.0 to about 4.5, preferably from about 3.5 to about 4.2.The parenteral dosage form shows best stability at this pH range.","The pH of the solution may be adjusted in the desired range by use of a pH adjusting agents and or a buffering agent known in the pharmaceutical art or it may be auto-adjusted in the desired range by the ingredients present in the solution of the present invention.","The pH adjusting and/or buffering agent that may be used include, but are not limited to sodium hydroxide, hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, citric acid, acetic acid, tartaric acid, tromethamine, potassium hydroxide and the like and mixtures thereof.","The aqueous solution in the parenteral dosage form of the present invention has an osmolality in the range of about 250-375 mOsm/kg, preferably 270-330 mOsm/kg.","The osmolality of the aqueous solution in the dosage form of the present invention is adjusted by addition of an osmotic agent or tonicity adjusting agent.","The tonicity adjusting agent that may be used according to the present invention may be selected from, but are not limited to, sodium chloride, potassium chloride, calcium chloride, mannitol, glycerol, sorbitol, propylene glycol, dextrose, sucrose, and the like and mixtures thereof.","According to one preferred embodiment, the osmotic agent is sodium chloride and it may be used in an amount ranging from about 0.3% w/v to about 1.0% w/v.","The aqueous solution of nor-epinephrine may further comprise a chelating agent.","The chelating agent that may be used is selected form, but is not limited to, disodium edetate dihydrate, disodium edetate, edetic acid, ethylenediamine tertaacetic acid, diethylenetriamine pentaacetic acid.","A preferred chelating agent is ethylenediamine tertaacetic acid or disodium edetate dehydrate.","In a preferred embodiment, the aqueous solution of nor-epinephrine according to the present invention has a dissolved oxygen level of less than 4 ppm, preferably less than 2 ppm, more preferably less than 1 ppm.","This is achieved by purging the aqueous solution with an inert gas such as nitrogen or argon or helium.","The ready-to-administer parenteral dosage form of the present invention comprises a suitable container which contains the aqueous solution of norepinephrine.","The container may be optionally further packaged in a secondary packaging.","In one embodiment, either of the container or the secondary packaging is designed to protect the solution of nor-epinephrine from light.","The secondary packaging may comprise a suitable pouch, such as an aluminium pouch and/or a carton packaging, which may further contain an oxygen scavenger.","Preferably, the container is designed for ready-to-infuse or ready-to-inject the aqueous solution of norepinephrine to the patient.","The container is made up of a suitable material such as plastic or any other polymeric material.","The container may include one or more layers of such materials.","Suitably, such materials may include but are not limited to, polyolefin polymers, polyethylene, polypropylene; cyclo olefin polymers, cyclo olefin copolymers, polypropylene based polyolefin polymers; polycarbonates; modified polyolefin-polyethylene polymers or styrene-polyolefin based polymers and block co-polymers thereof.","Suitably, the container does not have material that contains borate or boron.","Preferably, according to one embodiment, the container has non-glass components.","Suitably, the material of construction is such that these containers are transparent which makes it possible to carry out visual inspection of the drug solution prior to and during administration of the drug solution.","Any change in colour or any particulate matter can be detected easily by visual inspection, which ensures safety.","In a preferred particular embodiment of the present invention, the container is a pre-filled syringe.","The pre-filled syringe is made up of a material having at least one non-glass component.","The barrel of the pre-filled syringe is preferably made up of appropriate plastic or polymeric material.","In a preferred aspect, the syringe comprises a barrel made up of cyclic olefin polymer, cyclic olefin copolymer, polypropylene, polycarbonate and the like.","The syringe may further comprise an elastomeric tip cap, made up of material such as chloro-butyl formulation.","The syringe may comprise a plunger stopper made up of rubber material such as bromo-butyl rubber.","The syringe may be further packed in a secondary packaging to protect from light.","The secondary packaging comprises a suitable pouch, such as an aluminium pouch and a carton packaging.","The pouch may further contain an oxygen scavenger.","In this embodiment, norepinephrine or its pharmaceutically acceptable salt may be present in the aqueous solution in an amount ranging from about 0.025 mg/ml to about 0.4 mg/ml, preferably from about 0.05 mg/ml to about 0.2 mg/ml.","In one particularly preferred embodiment, norepinephrine or its pharmaceutically acceptable salt is nor-epinephrine bitartrate and it is present in the aqueous solution in an amount of 0.2 mg/ml which is approximately equivalent to 0.1 mg/ml of norepinephrine base.","In this embodiment, the volume of the aqueous solution in pre-filled syringe may vary from about 50 ml to about 100 ml.","According to preferred embodiment, the ready-to-administer parenteral dosage form provides large volume pre-filled syringes, which can accommodate a volume of at least 50 ml, preferably about 50 ml to 100 ml.","In another preferred embodiment of the present invention, the container is an infusion bag.","In this embodiment, norepinephrine or its pharmaceutically acceptable salt is present in the aqueous solution in an amount ranging from about 0.001 mg/ml to about 0.2 mg/ml, preferably from about 0.004 mg/ml to about 0.15 mg/ml, more preferably from about 0.01 mg/ml to about 0.1 mg/ml.","In one preferred embodiment, norepinephrine is present in the aqueous solution in an amount of 0.016 mg/ml.","In one preferred embodiment, norepinephrine is present in the aqueous solution in an amount of 0.032 mg/ml.","The volume of aqueous solution in each bag may vary from about 100 ml to about 500 ml.","According to preferred embodiments of the present invention, the ready-to-administer parenteral dosage form provides large volume infusion bags, which can accommodate a volume of at least 100 ml, preferably from about 100 ml to 500 ml.","The aqueous solution comprises the nor-epinephrine at a concentration which allows direct infusion of the aqueous solution in the desired dose to the patient without the need of further dilution.","The containers have volume and dimensions such that it allows use of drug solutions that can be directly infused to the patients without any step of reconstitution or dilution.","Preferably, the concentration and volume is such that for patient with an average body surface area, only one unit of the dosage form is sufficient to deliver the prescribed dose of the drug.","The containers are also easy to handle and transport.","According to another preferred particular embodiment of the present invention, the aqueous solution of norepinephrine is ready-to-infuse and container is designed for ready-to-infuse administration.","In one preferred embodiment, the container is a flexible infusion container such an infusion bag or a flexible pouch or a soft bag.","Particularly, the flexible infusion container is not impermeable in nature and possesses some permeation characteristics and the aqueous solution of nor-epinephrine remains in contact with these materials of the container throughout the shelf life of the dosage form.","The container may be single or multiple layered and made up of a suitable material such as plastic or any other polymeric material.","Such materials may be selected from, but not limited to, polyolefin polymers-polyethylene, polypropylene; cyclo olefin polymers, cyclo olefin copolymers, polypropylene based polyolefin polymers; modified polyolefin-polyethylene polymers or styrene-polyolefin based polymers and block co-polymers thereof.","These plastic materials of the container may further have one or more outer layers which may be made up of polyamide, modified polyolefin, polypropylene, styrene-polyolefin based polymers and block co-polymers thereof and the like.","In one specific embodiment, the flexible infusion containers are made up of an outer layer of polyamide 11, a middle tie of modified polyolefin and an inner layer of linear low density polyethylene.","This type of containers have a water vapour transmission rate of 2 g (m2·day) when measured at (40° C./90% relative humidity); oxygen transmission rate of 900 ml/(m2·24 hour·atm) when measured at (23° C./0% relative humidity) and carbon dioxide transmission rate of 600 ml/(m2·24 hour·atm) when measured at 23° C./0% relative humidity.","Such containers are available commercially and are manufactured by Hosokawa as Polyelite AE-1.In one preferred embodiment the flexible infusion containers may be made up of a material comprising a polymer of cyclic olefin such as cycloolefin homopolymer or cycloolefin copolymer or mixture thereof.","Specifically, in a particular embodiment, the container comprises an inner layer made up of a cycloolefin polymer, a middle layer made up of linear low density polyethylene polymer and an outer layer made up of low density polyethylene polymer.","Such containers are available commercially and are manufactured by Hosokawa as Polyelite EHC film bag.","In another embodiment, the flexible infusion containers may be made up of an outer layer of polypropylene polymer with styrene-ethylene-butylene (SEB) block copolymer and a middle and inner layer made up of polypropylene based polyolefin polymer with styrene-ethylene butylene block copolymer.","Such containers are available commercially and are manufactured by Technoflex These type of containers have a water vapour transmission rate of 0.62 g (m2·day) when measured at 23° C./60% relative humidity; oxygen permeability of 1110 ml/(m2·24 hour·atm) when measured at 23° C./40% relative humidity and carbon dioxide transmission rate of 5149 ml/(m2·24 hour·atm).","Alternatively, the flexible container used is made up of multilayer polyolefin film (M312 and M312A) with a multilayered polyolefin tubing (M916 and M916A).","Such containers are available under the brand names of Sippex.","In one embodiment, the flexible infusion containers may include a Minitulipe® infusion port which is an infusion connector having three assembled parts including a central stopper made up of chlorobutyl rubber (latex free); an upper breakable part and a bottom part, both made up of polycarbonate.","In one embodiment, the flexible infusion container contains a delivery port end for insertion of an infusion set cannula/needle.","In one embodiment, the flexible infusion container/bag and the delivery port connecting to the infusion needle form a system whereby during administration of the solution to the patient the vacuum created by outgress of solution is accommodated by the elasticity or flexibility of the infusion bag instead of ingress of external non-sterile air.","The dosage form can advantageously maintain the sterility of the solution until it reaches the patient.","In one embodiment, the flexible infusion container includes a thermally resealable portion that is fusible in response to thermal energy, and a container body having a sealed empty chamber in fluid communication with the resealable portion for receiving therein the aqueous solution of the present invention.","The method of filling the container includes penetrating the resealable portion with an injection member and introducing the aqueous solution of the present invention into the chamber, withdrawing the injection member while engaging the base of the body to substantially prevent axial movement of the body, and applying thermal energy to the resealable portion to thermally fuse the penetrated region thereof.","Such systems are elaborated in Unites States patent number U.S. Pat.","No.","7,992,597, which is incorporated herein by reference.","In another embodiment, the flexible infusion container may include a chamber for receiving aqueous solution of the present invention and a thermoplastic portion in fluid communication with the chamber.","The thermoplastic portion defines a penetrable region that is penetrable by a filling member and is heat resealable to hermetically seal an aperture therein by applying laser radiation at a predetermined wavelength and power and in a predetermined time period.","Such systems are elaborated in Unites States patent number U.S. Pat.","No.","7,490,639, which is incorporated herein by reference.","In yet another embodiment, the flexible infusion container include a sealed chamber; a first penetrable septum in fluid communication with the chamber that is formed of an elastic material and is penetrable by a first injection member to fill the first chamber with the aqueous solution of the present invention therethrough; and a second penetrable septum movable between first and second positions.","In the first position, at least a portion of the second septum is spaced away from the first septum to allow the injection member to penetrate the first septum and aseptically or sterile fill the chamber with the aqueous solution of the present invention therethrough.","In the second position, the portion of the second septum overlies and seals a resulting injection aperture in the first septum after withdrawal of the first injection member therefrom, and is penetrable by a second injection member to penetrate the first and second septums and withdraw the filled aqueous solution of the present invention from the chamber and through the second injection member.","Such systems are elaborated in Unites States patent application number US20130333796, which is incorporated herein by reference.","In one embodiment, the ready-to-administer dosage form of the present invention further comprises secondary packaging that surrounds the flexible infusion container.","In one embodiment, the secondary packaging is designed to protect the solution from light.","The secondary packaging may comprise a second container such as a pouch or overwrap or carton.","In preferred embodiments, the secondary packaging pouch or overwrap or carton is made up of a suitable light protective material such as aluminum.","It may further comprise an oxygen scavenger.","In one preferred embodiment, the space between the flexible infusion container and secondary packaging is occupied with an inert gas.","The inert gas may be used to flush out or replace the air from the space between the flexible infusion container and the light protective secondary packaging.","The inert gas that may be used include, but is not limited to nitrogen, argon and helium.","In one specific embodiment, secondary packaging comprises an aluminium pouch containing an oxygen scavenger.","In another embodiment, the space between the flexible infusion container and secondary packaging is occupied with an inert gas such as nitrogen.","In one specific embodiment, there is provided a ready-to-administer parenteral dosage form comprising an aqueous solution comprising therapeutically effective amount of norepinephrine or its pharmaceutically acceptable salt, an antioxidant which is not a sulphite antioxidant selected from butylated hydroxyl anisol, ascorbic acid, propyl gallate, vitamin E or alpha-tocopherol, optionally a chelating agent, a tonicity adjusting agent and a pH adjusting agent to adjust the pH of solution in the range of 3.0 to 4.5 and wherein the aqueous solution is stable at room temperature.","In another specific embodiment, there is provided a ready-to-administer parenteral dosage form comprising an aqueous solution comprising therapeutically effective amount of norepinephrine or its pharmaceutically acceptable salt, butylated hydroxyl anisol as an antioxidant, optionally a chelating agent, a tonicity adjusting agent and a pH adjusting agent to adjust the pH of solution in the range of 3.0 to 4.5 and wherein the aqueous solution is stable at room temperature.","In one specific embodiment, there is provided a ready-to-administer parenteral dosage form comprising an aqueous solution comprising therapeutically effective amount of norepinephrine or its pharmaceutically acceptable salt in an amount ranging from about 0.001 mg/ml to about 0.4 mg/ml, an antioxidant which is not a sulphite antioxidant, optionally a chelating agent, a tonicity adjusting agent and a pH adjusting agent to adjust the pH of solution in a range of 3.0 to 4.5, wherein the aqueous solution is filled in a container, which container is optionally further packaged in a secondary packaging, wherein either the container or the secondary packaging is designed to protect the solution from light and wherein the aqueous solution is stable at room temperature.","In one specific embodiment, there is provided a ready-to-administer parenteral dosage form comprising an aqueous solution comprising therapeutically effective amount of norepinephrine or its pharmaceutically acceptable salt in an amount ranging from about 0.001 mg/ml to about 0.4 mg/ml, an antioxidant which is not a sulphite antioxidant, optionally a chelating agent, a tonicity adjusting agent and a pH adjusting agent to adjust the pH of solution in a range of 3.0 to 4.5, wherein the aqueous solution is filled in a container, which container is optionally further packaged in a secondary packaging, wherein either the container or the secondary packaging is designed to protect the solution from light, further wherein the container is made up of a material selected from the group comprising polyolefin polymers, polyethylene, polypropylene; cyclo olefin polymers, cyclo olefin copolymers; polypropylene based polyolefin polymers; polycarbonates; modified polyolefin-polyethylene polymers; styrene-polyolefin based polymers and block co-polymers thereof and wherein the aqueous solution is stable at room temperature.","In one preferred embodiment, there is provided a ready-to-administer parenteral dosage form comprising an aqueous solution comprising therapeutically effective amount of norepinephrine bitartrate in an amount ranging from about 0.002 mg/ml to about 0.4 mg/ml, butylated hydroxyanisole as an antioxidant, a chelating agent, a tonicity adjusting agent and a pH adjusting agent to adjust the pH of solution in a range of 3.0 to 4.5, wherein the aqueous solution is filled in a container, which container is optionally further packaged in a secondary packaging, wherein either the container or the secondary packaging is designed to protect the solution from light and wherein the aqueous solution is stable at room temperature.","In another preferred embodiment, there is provided a ready-to-administer parenteral dosage form comprising an aqueous solution comprising therapeutically effective amount of norepinephrine bitartrate in an amount ranging from about 0.002 mg/ml to about 0.4 mg/ml, butylated hydroxyanisole as an antioxidant, a chelating agent, a tonicity adjusting agent and a pH adjusting agent to adjust the pH of solution in a range of 3.0 to 4.5, wherein the aqueous solution is filled in a container, which container is optionally further packaged in a secondary packaging, wherein either the container or the secondary packaging is designed to protect the solution from light, further wherein the container is made up of a material selected from the group comprising polyolefin polymers, polyethylene, polypropylene; cyclo olefin polymers, cyclo olefin copolymers; polypropylene based polyolefin polymers; polycarbonates; modified polyolefin-polyethylene polymers; styrene-polyolefin based polymers and block co-polymers thereof, and wherein the aqueous solution is stable at room temperature.","In one particularly preferred embodiment, there is provided a ready-to-administer parenteral dosage form comprising an aqueous solution comprising therapeutically effective amount of norepinephrine bitartrate in an amount ranging from about 0.002 mg/ml to about 0.4 mg/ml, butylated hydroxyanisole as an antioxidant, a chelating agent selected from disodium edetate, disodium edetate dihydrate, edetic acid, ethylenediamine tertaacetic acid or diethylenetriamine pentaacetic acid, a tonicity adjusting agent selected from sodium chloride, potassium chloride, calcium chloride, mannitol, glycerol, sorbitol, propylene glycol, dextrose, sucrose and a pH adjusting agent to adjust the pH of solution in a range of 3.0 to 4.5, wherein the aqueous solution is filled in a container, which container is optionally further packaged in a secondary packaging, wherein either the container or the secondary packaging is designed to protect the solution from light and wherein the aqueous solution is stable at room temperature.","In one particularly preferred embodiment, there is provided a ready-to-administer parenteral dosage form comprising an aqueous solution comprising therapeutically effective amount of norepinephrine bitartrate in an amount ranging from about 0.002 mg/ml to about 0.4 mg/ml, butylated hydroxyanisole as an antioxidant, a chelating agent selected from disodium edetate, disodium edetate dihydrate, edetic acid, ethylenediamine tertaacetic acid or diethylenetriamine pentaacetic acid, a tonicity adjusting agent selected from sodium chloride, potassium chloride, calcium chloride, mannitol, glycerol, sorbitol, propylene glycol, dextrose, sucrose and a pH adjusting agent to adjust the pH of solution in a range of 3.0 to 4.5, wherein the aqueous solution is filled in a container, which container is optionally further packaged in a secondary packaging, wherein either the container or the secondary packaging is designed to protect the solution from light further wherein the container is made up of a material selected from the group comprising polyolefin polymers, polyethylene, polypropylene; cyclo olefin polymers, cyclo olefin copolymers; polypropylene based polyolefin polymers; polycarbonates; modified polyolefin-polyethylene polymers; styrene-polyolefin based polymers and block co-polymers thereof, and wherein the aqueous solution is stable at room temperature.","In one particularly preferred embodiment, there is provided a ready-to-administer parenteral dosage form comprising an aqueous solution comprising therapeutically effective amount of norepinephrine bitartrate in an amount ranging from about 0.01 mg/ml to about 0.2 mg/ml, butylated hydroxyanisole as an antioxidant, a chelating agent selected from disodium edetate dihydrate, disodium edetate, edetic acid, ethylenediamine tertaacetic acid or diethylenetriamine pentaacetic acid, a tonicity adjusting agent selected from sodium chloride, potassium chloride, calcium chloride, mannitol, glycerol, sorbitol, propylene glycol, dextrose, sucrose and a pH adjusting agent to adjust the pH of solution in a range of 3.0 to 4.5, wherein the aqueous solution is filled in a container, which container is optionally further packaged in a secondary packaging, wherein either the container or the secondary packaging is designed to protect the solution from light further wherein the container is made up of a material selected from the group comprising polyolefin polymers, polyethylene, polypropylene; cyclo olefin polymers, cyclo olefin copolymers; polypropylene based polyolefin polymers; polycarbonates; modified polyolefin-polyethylene polymers; styrene-polyolefin based polymers and block co-polymers thereof, further wherein the secondary packaging comprises a light resistant pouch such as an aluminium pouch and an oxygen scavanger and wherein the aqueous solution is stable at room temperature.","The present inventors have surprisingly found that the ready-to-administer parenteral dosage form of the present invention is stable at room temperature for prolonged period of time inspite of having large volume aqueous solution in large volume infusion containers.","The aqueous solution of norepinephrine is stable at room temperature for extended periods of time in the liquid state, without having to undergo a step of freeze-drying or reconstitution or dilution.","That is it represents a substantial advancement over the art, and a major convenience to potential patients.","The ready-to-administer parenteral dosage form of the present invention is physically and chemically stable at room temperature (about 20-25° C.) as well as at lower temperatures such as 2-8° C. for prolonged period of time, and meets all acceptable stability criteria's upon storage for prolonged periods such as for at least 18 months, preferably 2 year or more.","The solution remains physically stable, with no precipitation or crystallization or color change upon storage.","The percentage transmittance values, which are indicators of clarity and physical stability of a solution, surprisingly remains greater than 90%, preferably greater than 95%, more preferably greater than 97% for the shelf life period of 18-24 months.","The ready-to-administer parenteral dosage form of the present invention comprising the aqueous solution of nor-epinephrine also remains chemically stable when subjected to long term stability testing at room temperature (25° C./60% relative humidity) and at refrigerated conditions (2-8° C.).","Various parameters such as the drug content (assay of nor-epinephrine) and content of related substances, i.e.","known and unknown impurities remains within specified limits such as those specified according to ICH guidelines, upon storage for prolonged period of time such as for at least 12 months, preferably for 18 months, more preferably 2 year or more.","Suitably, the value of assay of nor-epinephrine remains within the specified limit of 90-110% of the label claim.","Further, the total impurities remains below 2.0%, preferably less than 1.0% more preferably less than 0.5% by weight and highest unknown impurity remains below 0.2%.","Furthermore, the known related substances, i.e.","Impurities B, C, D and E remains within the specified limit of not more than 0.29% and Impurity A remains within the specified limit of not more than 1.0%.","In one preferred embodiment, the present invention thus provides a ready-to-administer parenteral dosage form comprising an aqueous solution comprising therapeutically effective amount of norepinephrine or its pharmaceutically acceptable salt, an anti-oxidant which is not a sulphite antioxidant, wherein the parenteral dosage form is stable at room temperature and wherein the value of total impurities in the aqueous solution is not more than 2.0% by weight upon storage at room temperature or lower for at least 12 months.","Surprisingly, the inventors of the present invention found that the ready-to-administer parenteral dosage form of the present invention provided a very minimal conversion of the nor-epinephrine R-isomer, which is the active form, into the S-isomer.","This is particularly of great significance because S-isomer has almost negligible activity.","The S-isomer levels remains very low, preferably less than 5%, more preferably less than 4% upon storage at room temperature or lower temperatures for at least 12 months or 18 months or more.","The conversion of R-isomer to S-isomer was significantly lower compared to the marketed product Levophed® upon storage under similar conditions.","Upon storage of Innovator's US marketed product “Levophed® under similar conditions and analysing at the end of shelf life (18 months), the S-isomer level was about 6.7%.","Upon storage of Innovator's European marketed product “Levophed® under similar conditions, the S-isomer level was about 15.9% after storage for 18 months.","In contrast, the present invention provides a ready-to-administer parenteral dosage form comprising an aqueous solution comprising therapeutically effective amount of norepinephrine or its pharmaceutically acceptable salt and an anti-oxidant which is not a sulphite antioxidant and wherein the solution when stored at room temperature or lower for 12 months has less than 4% of S-isomer content, preferably less than 4% of S-isomer content.","According to one preferred embodiment of the present invention wherein the dosage form is a pre-filled syringe, and wherein the aqueous solution has a pH in the range of about 3.0 to 4.5, the S-isomer content was about 1.7% upon storage at room temperature or lower for 12 months.","According to another preferred embodiment of the present invention wherein the dosage form is in a flexible infusion bag, the S-isomer level was about 4.5% upon storage at room temperature or lower for 18 months.","In one preferred embodiment, the present invention thus provides a ready-to-administer parenteral dosage form comprising an aqueous solution comprising therapeutically effective amount of norepinephrine or its pharmaceutically acceptable salt, an anti-oxidant which is not a sulphite antioxidant, wherein the solution when stored at room temperature for twelve months has less than 4% of S-isomer content.","The ready-to-administer parenteral dosage form of norepinephrine of the present invention, show improved stability, in particular stability against auto-oxidation and thermal stability, and consequently enhanced storage shelf-life of at least 18 months, preferably 2 year or more, even when stored at room temperature.","A prior known solution of nor-epinephrine marketed by Cardinal Health Ltd., UK, which is stabilized by sodium metabisulphite, is stable when stored at 2-8° C. for six months.","The shelf life of the product is only six months when stored at 2-8° C. Present inventors prepared similar dosage form and stability testing at room temperature confirmed that norepinephrine was unstable in the prior known sodium metabisulphite containing dosage form when stored at room temperature.","While the shelf life of marketed Cardinal's product is 6 months, when stored at 2-8° C., the parenteral dosage form according to one embodiment of the present invention was surprisingly found to be stable even at room temperature (25° C./60% RH) (besides being stable at 2-8° C.) for prolonged period of time of at least 12 months, preferably 18 months, more preferably 2 year or more.","The ready-to-administer parenteral dosage form of the present invention not only have better stability profile compared to marketed Cardinal's product, but also compared to marketed Levophed® product, which is a concentrated product having 1 mg/ml nor-epinephrine.","As per Levophed® product label, the product upon dilution is stable only upto 24 hours at room temperature.","Suitably, the ready-to-administer dosage form of the present invention is sterile.","The term “sterile” or ‘sterilized’ as used in the context of the invention, means that the solution has been brought to a state of sterility and has not been subsequently exposed to microbiological contamination, i.e.","the sterility of the solution present in the container has not been compromised.","The solution complies with the sterility requirements of the standard Pharmacopoeias like United States Pharmacopoeias (USP).","Sterilization may be achieved by suitable techniques such as filtration sterilization, radiation sterilization and the like.","In one preferred embodiment, the parenteral dosage form of the present invention is subjected to sterilization by membrane filtration of the aqueous solution.","The ready-to-administer parenteral dosage form of the present invention can be prepared by a process involving following exemplary steps—Purging water for injection with Nitrogen gas to bring dissolved oxygen level below 2 PPM, preferably below 1 PPM.","Preferably, the purging should be carried out during the whole process to maintain dissolved oxygen level of less than 1 PPM.","Dissolving the chelating agent such as disodium edetate dihydrate in water for injection followed by addition and dissolution of anti-oxidant such as butylated hydroxyanisole.","Dissolution may be carried out by warming the solution to an elevated temperature, if required along with stirring.","Cooling the solution to room temperature.","Adding and dissolving an osmotic agent such as for example, sodium chloride to the above solution.","Adding the drug, norepinephrine bitartarate, to the above solution and obtaining final solution by making up the volume to desired level using water for injection.","Checking and if required adjusting the pH of the solution in the range of pH 3.0 to 4.5 using a pH adjusting agent and/or buffering agent such as by using buffers or use of an acid/base.","Aseptically filtering the solution using a membrane filter, followed by aseptically filling the solution into a container such as for example a syringe or an infusion bag, followed by stoppering or sealing of the container.","Optionally, packaging this primary container further with a secondary packaging.","This may be achieved by overwrapping the primary container by a light protective secondary packaging such as an aluminum pouch and sealing the pouch.","An oxygen scavenger may be placed in the space between the primary container and the light protective secondary packaging.","Further, the space between the infusion bag and the aluminum pouch may be replaced with an inert gas such as nitrogen gas.","Hereinafter, the invention will be more specifically described by way of Examples.","The examples are not intended to limit the scope of the invention and are merely used as illustrations.","Example 1 TABLE 1 Ready-to-administer parenteral dosage form composition Ingredients Amount in milligrams Norepinephrine bitartarate equivalent 5 to norepinephrine base .",".",".","Butylated hydroxyanisole 0.15 Disodium edetate dihydrate 5 Sodium chloride 450 Sodium hydroxide/hydrochloride acid q.s.","to pH 3.0 to 4.5 Water for injection q.s.","to 50 ml The water for injection was purged with nitrogen until dissolved oxygen level below 1.0 ppm is achieved.","Aqueous solution of disodium edetate, sodium chloride was prepared separately.","Butylated hydroxyanisole was dissolved in warm water.","Subsequently, norepinephrine bitartarate was then added and pH was adjusted in the range of 3.0 to 4.5 using acid/base and volume was made.","The oxygen level was monitored to be below 1.0 ppm by nitrogen purging.","The solution so obtained was filtered aseptically through a 0.2 micron membrane filter and aseptically filled into non glass container which is a cyclo olefin copolymers syringe with fill volume of 50 ml.","The filled syringe was aseptically stoppered with a bromo-butyl plunger.","The filled syringes were overwrapped in aluminum pouch, for light protection.","The space between the filled syringe and the aluminum pouch was replaced with nitrogen gas.","An oxygen scavenger was placed in the space between the syringe and the aluminum pouch.","The observed values for various parameters after storage for 18 month at controlled room temperature of 25±2° C. and 60%±5% relative humidity, are given below in Table 2: TABLE 2 Observations of various parameters Parameters Initial 12 month Assay of nor-epinephrine 105.11 105.4 S-isomer 0.18 4.49 Impurity A ND ND Impurity B 0.005 0.024 Impurity C ND ND Impurity D 0.06 0.06 Impurity E ND ND Highest unknown Impurity 0.06 0.11 Total Impurities 0.12 0.39 pH 3.7 3.73 % Transmittance 99.96 99.8 at 650 nm ND—Not detected It was found that upon storage for 18 months at room temperature, the solutions remained clear and colourless, without any signs of precipitation or crystallization or colour change upon storage.","This is evident by the percentage transmittance values which were more than 95% at all time points until 18 months.","The observed percentage transmittance value after storage for 18 months was found to be more than 95%.","It was further observed that the value of assay of nor-epinephrine was well within the specified limit of 90-110% of the label claim.","Further, the solution had less than 0.5% of total impurities and less than 0.2% of highest unknown impurity upon storage at room temperature for 18 months.","The S-isomer content was less than 5%.","The Impurities A-E were either not detected or were present in negligible amounts, well within the specified limits.","Example 2 TABLE 3 Aqueous solution of Norepinephrine in infusion bag Ingredients Amount in milligrams per ml Norepinephrine bitartarate equivalent to 0.016 norepinephrine base .",".",".","Butylated Hydroxyanisole 0.003 Disodium Edetate Dihydrate 0.1 Sodium chloride 8.5 Sodium hydroxide/hydrochloride acid q.s.","to pH 3.0 to 4.5 Water for Injection q.s.","to 1 mL The water for injection was purged with nitrogen until dissolved oxygen level below 1.0 ppm is achieved.","Aqueous solution of disodium edetate, sodium chloride was prepared separately.","Butylated hydroxyanisole was dissolved in warm water.","Subsequently, norepinephrine bitartarate was then added and pH was adjusted in the range of 3.0 to 4.5 using acid/base and volume was made.","The oxygen level was monitored to be below 1.0 ppm by nitrogen purging.","The solution so obtained was filtered aseptically through a 0.2 micron membrane filter and aseptically filled into a suitable infusion container made up of polyethylene polymer in volumes of 100 ml each.","The filled infusion bags were overwrapped in aluminum pouch, for light protection.","The space between the infusion bag and the aluminum pouch was replaced with nitrogen gas.","An oxygen scavenger was placed in the space between the infusion bag and the aluminum pouch.","The ready-to-administer dosage form of nor-epinephrine was subjected to accelerated stability conditions, such as at controlled room temperature, i.e.","25° C./40% relative humidity and at 2-8° C. The drug content and related substances, i.e.","known and unknown impurities were analyzed.","The details are given below in Table 4: TABLE 4 Results of the stability testing Stored at 25 ± 2° C. and 60% ± 5% relative humidity for 12 Parameters Initial month Assay 101 100 S-isomer 0.31 1.7 Impurity A ND ND Highest unknown Impurity 0.04 0.14 Total impurities 0.1 0.27 pH 4.2 4.2 % Transmittance 99.9 99.8 at 650 nm ND—Not detected It was observed that the value of assay of nor-epinephrine was well within the specified limit of 90-110% of the label claim.","Further, the solution showed a very small increase in the impurities such as known and unknown.","The highest unknown impurity was very low i.e 0.2%.","The aqueous solution did not show any signs of precipitation or crystallization or discoloration.","The s-isomer content, which is an inactive isomer, was unexpectedly found to be very low, much lower than 2%."]],"string":"[\n [\n \"PARENTERAL DOSAGE FORM OF NOREPINEPHRINE\",\n \"The present invention relates to a ready-to-administer parenteral dosage form of norepinephrine which comprises an aqueous solution of norepinephrine, having an anti-oxidant which is not a sulfite anti-oxidant, wherein the dosage form is stable at room temperature for prolonged period of time.\"\n ],\n [\n \"1.An aqueous solution comprising I. norepinephrine or its pharmaceutically acceptable salt II.\",\n \"an antioxidant which is not a sulphite antioxidant wherein the aqueous solution is ready-to-infuse and is filled in a container in a volume in a range from 50 ml to 500 ml, the container is a pre-filled syringe or an infusion bag, the container is made up of plastic or polymeric material, the ready-to-infuse aqueous solution is stable at room temperature, and wherein a value of total impurities in the aqueous solution is not more than 2.0% by weight after storage at room temperature for at least 12 months.\",\n \"2.The aqueous solution as claimed in claim 1, wherein the norepinephrine or its pharmaceutically acceptable salt is norepinephrine bitartarate.\",\n \"3.The aqueous solution as claimed in claim 1, wherein a pH of the aqueous solution is in the range of about 3.0 to about 4.5.4.The aqueous solution as claimed in claim 1, wherein the container is further packaged in a secondary packaging, wherein either the container or the secondary packaging is designed to protect the solution from light.\",\n \"5.The aqueous solution as claimed in claim 1, wherein the plastic or polymeric material is selected from the group consisting of polyolefin polymers, polyethylene, polypropylene, cyclo olefin polymers, cyclo olefin copolymers, polypropylene based polyolefin polymers, polycarbonates, modified polyolefin-polyethylene polymers, and styrene-polyolefin based polymers and block co-polymers thereof.\",\n \"6.The aqueous solution as claimed in claim 5, wherein the secondary packaging comprises an aluminum pouch and an oxygen scavenger.\",\n \"7.The aqueous solution as claimed in claim 1, wherein the container is an infusion bag and wherein norepinephrine is present in the aqueous solution in an amount ranging from about 0.004 mg/ml to about 0.15 mg/ml.\",\n \"8.The aqueous solution as claimed in claim 1, wherein the aqueous solution when stored at room temperature for twelve months has less than 4% of S-isomer content.\"\n ],\n [\n \" BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Norepinephrine is a sympathomimetic amine which functions as a peripheral vasoconstrictor (alpha-adrenergic action) and as an inotropic stimulator of the heart and dilator of coronary arteries (beta-adrenergic action).\",\n \"It is also known as l-arterenol, levarterenol or l-norepinephrine or noradrenaline.\",\n \"Norepinephrine Bitartrate, a catecholamine is chemically (−)-α-(aminomethyl)-3,4-dihydroxybenzyl alcohol tartrate (1:1) (salt) monohydrate and has the following structural formula: Norepinephrine (NE) is administered by intravenous infusion for blood pressure control in certain acute hypotensive states (e.g., pheochromocytomectomy, sympathectomy, poliomyelitis, spinal anesthesia, myocardial infarction, septicemia, blood transfusion, and drug reactions) and as an adjunct in the treatment of cardiac arrest and profound hypotension.\",\n \"The commercial available injectable products of nor-epinephrine solutions for example, nor-epinephrine pre-concentrate solution marketed in the United States under the brand name LEVOPHED® and the solution of nor-epinephrine marketed by Cardinal Health Ltd., UK, use sodium bisulfite or sodium metabisulfite as antioxidants.\",\n \"A clear warning with respect to allergic reactions is included in the labels of these products, which entails cautious use of these products by the patients.\",\n \"The use of sulphites or sulphur is reported to cause allergic-type reactions such as anaphylactic symptoms and life-threatening or less severe asthmatic episodes in certain susceptible persons.\",\n \"Indeed, the symptoms of an allergic reaction to sulfites may exacerbate the condition being treated.\",\n \"This exacerbation is especially critical given that nor-epinephrine is often used in emergency situations where further compromising a patient with an allergic reaction is disadvantageous.\",\n \"Nor-epinephrine is known to be susceptible to oxidation and degradation in presence of oxygen, particularly when present in aqueous solutions.\",\n \"The degradation is undesirable as it results in loss of titer of the active ingredient, formation of compounds which have undesirable physiological effects, and the appearance of a dark colour, which makes the solution offensive and unmarketable.\",\n \"Moreover, nor-epinephrine is known to exist in two different stereoisomeric forms: R (−) isomer and S (+) isomer, the R(−) isomer is reported to have better affinity at various receptors and thus, more potent than the S(+) isomer.\",\n \"The S-isomer has minimal to almost negligible activity.\",\n \"The present inventors have discovered a parenteral dosage form wherein the aqueous solution of nor-epinephrine is free of sulphite antioxidant and is ready to administer.\",\n \"The ready-to-administer aqueous solution in the containers is not only stable at room temperature for prolonged periods of time, but also shows minimal conversion to less active S-isomer during the shelf life of the product.\",\n \"Further, the parenteral dosage form avoids the reconstitution or dilution step prior to intravenous infusion, thus eliminating the risk of any potential calculation or dilution error as well as risk of microbiological contamination during handling.\"\n ],\n [\n \" SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The present invention provides a ready-to-administer parenteral dosage form comprising an aqueous solution comprising a. therapeutically effective amount of norepinephrine or its pharmaceutically acceptable salt b. an anti-oxidant which is not a sulphite antioxidant, wherein the solution is stable at room temperature.\",\n \"detailed-description description=\\\"Detailed Description\\\" end=\\\"lead\\\"?\"\n ],\n [\n \"This application is a continuation of U.S. application Ser.\",\n \"No.\",\n \"14/837,749, filed Aug. 27, 2015, which claims benefit to India Patent Application No.\",\n \"2759/MUM/2014, filed on Aug. 28, 2014, in the Government of India Patent Office, the disclosure of each of which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.\",\n \"FIELD OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to a ready-to-administer parenteral dosage form of norepinephrine comprising an aqueous solution of norepinephrine and an anti-oxidant which is not a sulfite anti-oxidant, and wherein the dosage form is stable at room temperature.\",\n \"BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Norepinephrine is a sympathomimetic amine which functions as a peripheral vasoconstrictor (alpha-adrenergic action) and as an inotropic stimulator of the heart and dilator of coronary arteries (beta-adrenergic action).\",\n \"It is also known as l-arterenol, levarterenol or l-norepinephrine or noradrenaline.\",\n \"Norepinephrine Bitartrate, a catecholamine is chemically (−)-α-(aminomethyl)-3,4-dihydroxybenzyl alcohol tartrate (1:1) (salt) monohydrate and has the following structural formula: Norepinephrine (NE) is administered by intravenous infusion for blood pressure control in certain acute hypotensive states (e.g., pheochromocytomectomy, sympathectomy, poliomyelitis, spinal anesthesia, myocardial infarction, septicemia, blood transfusion, and drug reactions) and as an adjunct in the treatment of cardiac arrest and profound hypotension.\",\n \"The commercial available injectable products of nor-epinephrine solutions for example, nor-epinephrine pre-concentrate solution marketed in the United States under the brand name LEVOPHED® and the solution of nor-epinephrine marketed by Cardinal Health Ltd., UK, use sodium bisulfite or sodium metabisulfite as antioxidants.\",\n \"A clear warning with respect to allergic reactions is included in the labels of these products, which entails cautious use of these products by the patients.\",\n \"The use of sulphites or sulphur is reported to cause allergic-type reactions such as anaphylactic symptoms and life-threatening or less severe asthmatic episodes in certain susceptible persons.\",\n \"Indeed, the symptoms of an allergic reaction to sulfites may exacerbate the condition being treated.\",\n \"This exacerbation is especially critical given that nor-epinephrine is often used in emergency situations where further compromising a patient with an allergic reaction is disadvantageous.\",\n \"Nor-epinephrine is known to be susceptible to oxidation and degradation in presence of oxygen, particularly when present in aqueous solutions.\",\n \"The degradation is undesirable as it results in loss of titer of the active ingredient, formation of compounds which have undesirable physiological effects, and the appearance of a dark colour, which makes the solution offensive and unmarketable.\",\n \"Moreover, nor-epinephrine is known to exist in two different stereoisomeric forms: R (−) isomer and S (+) isomer, the R(−) isomer is reported to have better affinity at various receptors and thus, more potent than the S(+) isomer.\",\n \"The S-isomer has minimal to almost negligible activity.\",\n \"The present inventors have discovered a parenteral dosage form wherein the aqueous solution of nor-epinephrine is free of sulphite antioxidant and is ready to administer.\",\n \"The ready-to-administer aqueous solution in the containers is not only stable at room temperature for prolonged periods of time, but also shows minimal conversion to less active S-isomer during the shelf life of the product.\",\n \"Further, the parenteral dosage form avoids the reconstitution or dilution step prior to intravenous infusion, thus eliminating the risk of any potential calculation or dilution error as well as risk of microbiological contamination during handling.\",\n \"SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The present invention provides a ready-to-administer parenteral dosage form comprising an aqueous solution comprising a. therapeutically effective amount of norepinephrine or its pharmaceutically acceptable salt b. an anti-oxidant which is not a sulphite antioxidant, wherein the solution is stable at room temperature.\",\n \"DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION The term norepinephrine, as used herein includes norepinephrine and/or its pharmaceutically acceptable salts such as norepinephrine bitartrate or norepinephrine hydrochloride or other salts.\",\n \"It is also known by other names such as l-arterenol, levarterenolol, l-norepinephrine or noradrenaline.\",\n \"The term “ready-to-administer” as used herein means that the drug solution is sterile and suitable for direct intravenous infusion or injection and no intermediate steps of dilution or reconstitution are required before parenteral administration of the drug solution to the patient.\",\n \"The aqueous drug solution can be directly administered parenterally from the container of the dosage form.\",\n \"The term “ready-to-administer” is synonymous with “ready-to-infuse” or ready-to-inject” and is not to be read as the term “ready-to-use” aqueous solution.\",\n \"The term ‘ready-to-use’ in the art includes aqueous preconcentrates which require a single step of dilution with an aqueous diluent fluid such as water for injection or saline before administration.\",\n \"The term “ready-to-administer” is also distinguished from lyophilized products that require two steps, a first step of reconstitution to form a preconcentrate and then a second step where the preconcentrate is subjected to dilution with an aqueous infusion fluid.\",\n \"The ready-to-administer parenteral dosage form according to the present invention avoids the inconvenience of reconstituting or diluting a concentrated parenteral formulation into infusion diluents prior to infusion, as well as eliminates the risk of any potential calculation or dilution error as well as risk of microbiological contamination during handling.\",\n \"The volume of the aqueous drug solution according to the present invention is large i.e.\",\n \"when the end use container used in ‘ready-to-administer’ parenteral dosage form is a prefilled syringe, then the volume of the aqueous solution may be about 50 ml to 100 ml.\",\n \"When the end use container is infusion bag, the volume of the aqueous solution may be about 100 ml to 500 ml.\",\n \"The term ‘sulfite anti-oxidant’ as used herein means any anti-oxidant capable of providing sulfite, bisulfite, or metabisulfite anions in water.\",\n \"For instance, sodium sulphite, sodium bisulfite, sodium metabisulphite, sodium pyrosulphite and the like.\",\n \"The term ‘stable at room temperature’ as used herein means that the dosage form is physically as well as chemically stable as demonstrated by compliance to acceptable specification when the dosage form is stored at room temperature (about 25° C.) for twelve months, preferably eighteen months, more preferably 24 months or longer.\",\n \"Suitably, the solution of nor-epinephrine remains physically stable, with no precipitation or crystallization or color change upon storage and the value of percentage transmittance of the solution remaining greater than 90%, preferably greater than 95% for the shelf life period of 18-24 months when stored at room temperature.\",\n \"Suitably, the solution of nor-epinephrine remains chemically stable when stored at room temperature (about 25° C.) and at refrigerated conditions (2-8° C.), wherein various parameters such as the drug content (assay of nor-epinephrine) and content of related substances, i.e.\",\n \"known and unknown impurities remains within specified limits such as those specified according to ICH guidelines, upon storage for prolonged period of time such as for at least 12 months, preferably for 18 months, more preferably 24 months or longer.\",\n \"Suitably, the value of assay of nor-epinephrine remains within the specified limit of 90-110% by weight of the label claim; the highest unknown impurity remains within the specified limit of not more than 0.2%; the known Impurities B, C, D and E remains within the specified limit of not more than 0.29% and the Impurity A remains within the specified limit of not more than 1.0%.\",\n \"The total impurities remain below 2.0%, preferably below 1.0%.\",\n \"The ready-to-administer parenteral dosage form of the present invention comprises an aqueous solution comprising therapeutically effective amount of norepinephrine or its pharmaceutically acceptable salt and an anti-oxidant which is not a sulfite anti-oxidant.\",\n \"Suitably, in one preferred embodiment, the pharmaceutically acceptable salt of nor-epinephrine is nor-epinephrine bitartrate.\",\n \"Suitably, nor-epinephrine or its pharmaceutically acceptable salt may be present in the ready-to-administer parenteral dosage form in an amount ranging from about 0.001 mg/ml to 0.4 mg/ml, preferably from about 0.002 mg/ml to 0.2 mg/ml.\",\n \"In one embodiment, norepinephrine is present in the aqueous solution in an amount ranging from about 0.001 mg/ml to about 0.2 mg/ml.\",\n \"In one embodiment, nor-epinephrine or its pharmaceutically acceptable salt is nor-epinephrine bitartrate and it is present in the aqueous solution in an amount ranging from about 0.002 mg/ml to about 0.4 mg/ml.\",\n \"Suitably, the ready-to-administer parenteral dosage form of the present invention comprises an anti-oxidant which is not a sulphite anti-oxidant.\",\n \"Such anti-oxidants, may be selected form, but not limited to butylated hydroxyl anisol, ascorbic acid, propyl gallate, vitamin E, alpha-tocopherol, butylated hydroxyl toluene and the like.\",\n \"The parenteral dosage form of the present invention is devoid of sulphur containing and/or sulfite anti-oxidants such as sodium sulfite, sodium bisulfite, sodium metabisulfite or mixtures thereof.\",\n \"In a preferred embodiment, the anti-oxidant is butylated hydroxyanisole.\",\n \"Suitably, butylated hydroxyanisole is present in an amount ranging from about 0.001 mg/ml to about 0.01 mg/ml, preferably from about 0.001 mg/ml to about 0.005 mg/ml.\",\n \"Suitably, the aqueous solution of the present invention may further comprise other parentally acceptable excipients, including but not limited to, osmotic/tonicity adjusting agents, chelating agents, pH adjusting agents, buffers.\",\n \"Suitably, the aqueous solution according to the present invention have a pH in the range of about 3.0 to about 4.5, preferably from about 3.5 to about 4.2.The parenteral dosage form shows best stability at this pH range.\",\n \"The pH of the solution may be adjusted in the desired range by use of a pH adjusting agents and or a buffering agent known in the pharmaceutical art or it may be auto-adjusted in the desired range by the ingredients present in the solution of the present invention.\",\n \"The pH adjusting and/or buffering agent that may be used include, but are not limited to sodium hydroxide, hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, citric acid, acetic acid, tartaric acid, tromethamine, potassium hydroxide and the like and mixtures thereof.\",\n \"The aqueous solution in the parenteral dosage form of the present invention has an osmolality in the range of about 250-375 mOsm/kg, preferably 270-330 mOsm/kg.\",\n \"The osmolality of the aqueous solution in the dosage form of the present invention is adjusted by addition of an osmotic agent or tonicity adjusting agent.\",\n \"The tonicity adjusting agent that may be used according to the present invention may be selected from, but are not limited to, sodium chloride, potassium chloride, calcium chloride, mannitol, glycerol, sorbitol, propylene glycol, dextrose, sucrose, and the like and mixtures thereof.\",\n \"According to one preferred embodiment, the osmotic agent is sodium chloride and it may be used in an amount ranging from about 0.3% w/v to about 1.0% w/v.\",\n \"The aqueous solution of nor-epinephrine may further comprise a chelating agent.\",\n \"The chelating agent that may be used is selected form, but is not limited to, disodium edetate dihydrate, disodium edetate, edetic acid, ethylenediamine tertaacetic acid, diethylenetriamine pentaacetic acid.\",\n \"A preferred chelating agent is ethylenediamine tertaacetic acid or disodium edetate dehydrate.\",\n \"In a preferred embodiment, the aqueous solution of nor-epinephrine according to the present invention has a dissolved oxygen level of less than 4 ppm, preferably less than 2 ppm, more preferably less than 1 ppm.\",\n \"This is achieved by purging the aqueous solution with an inert gas such as nitrogen or argon or helium.\",\n \"The ready-to-administer parenteral dosage form of the present invention comprises a suitable container which contains the aqueous solution of norepinephrine.\",\n \"The container may be optionally further packaged in a secondary packaging.\",\n \"In one embodiment, either of the container or the secondary packaging is designed to protect the solution of nor-epinephrine from light.\",\n \"The secondary packaging may comprise a suitable pouch, such as an aluminium pouch and/or a carton packaging, which may further contain an oxygen scavenger.\",\n \"Preferably, the container is designed for ready-to-infuse or ready-to-inject the aqueous solution of norepinephrine to the patient.\",\n \"The container is made up of a suitable material such as plastic or any other polymeric material.\",\n \"The container may include one or more layers of such materials.\",\n \"Suitably, such materials may include but are not limited to, polyolefin polymers, polyethylene, polypropylene; cyclo olefin polymers, cyclo olefin copolymers, polypropylene based polyolefin polymers; polycarbonates; modified polyolefin-polyethylene polymers or styrene-polyolefin based polymers and block co-polymers thereof.\",\n \"Suitably, the container does not have material that contains borate or boron.\",\n \"Preferably, according to one embodiment, the container has non-glass components.\",\n \"Suitably, the material of construction is such that these containers are transparent which makes it possible to carry out visual inspection of the drug solution prior to and during administration of the drug solution.\",\n \"Any change in colour or any particulate matter can be detected easily by visual inspection, which ensures safety.\",\n \"In a preferred particular embodiment of the present invention, the container is a pre-filled syringe.\",\n \"The pre-filled syringe is made up of a material having at least one non-glass component.\",\n \"The barrel of the pre-filled syringe is preferably made up of appropriate plastic or polymeric material.\",\n \"In a preferred aspect, the syringe comprises a barrel made up of cyclic olefin polymer, cyclic olefin copolymer, polypropylene, polycarbonate and the like.\",\n \"The syringe may further comprise an elastomeric tip cap, made up of material such as chloro-butyl formulation.\",\n \"The syringe may comprise a plunger stopper made up of rubber material such as bromo-butyl rubber.\",\n \"The syringe may be further packed in a secondary packaging to protect from light.\",\n \"The secondary packaging comprises a suitable pouch, such as an aluminium pouch and a carton packaging.\",\n \"The pouch may further contain an oxygen scavenger.\",\n \"In this embodiment, norepinephrine or its pharmaceutically acceptable salt may be present in the aqueous solution in an amount ranging from about 0.025 mg/ml to about 0.4 mg/ml, preferably from about 0.05 mg/ml to about 0.2 mg/ml.\",\n \"In one particularly preferred embodiment, norepinephrine or its pharmaceutically acceptable salt is nor-epinephrine bitartrate and it is present in the aqueous solution in an amount of 0.2 mg/ml which is approximately equivalent to 0.1 mg/ml of norepinephrine base.\",\n \"In this embodiment, the volume of the aqueous solution in pre-filled syringe may vary from about 50 ml to about 100 ml.\",\n \"According to preferred embodiment, the ready-to-administer parenteral dosage form provides large volume pre-filled syringes, which can accommodate a volume of at least 50 ml, preferably about 50 ml to 100 ml.\",\n \"In another preferred embodiment of the present invention, the container is an infusion bag.\",\n \"In this embodiment, norepinephrine or its pharmaceutically acceptable salt is present in the aqueous solution in an amount ranging from about 0.001 mg/ml to about 0.2 mg/ml, preferably from about 0.004 mg/ml to about 0.15 mg/ml, more preferably from about 0.01 mg/ml to about 0.1 mg/ml.\",\n \"In one preferred embodiment, norepinephrine is present in the aqueous solution in an amount of 0.016 mg/ml.\",\n \"In one preferred embodiment, norepinephrine is present in the aqueous solution in an amount of 0.032 mg/ml.\",\n \"The volume of aqueous solution in each bag may vary from about 100 ml to about 500 ml.\",\n \"According to preferred embodiments of the present invention, the ready-to-administer parenteral dosage form provides large volume infusion bags, which can accommodate a volume of at least 100 ml, preferably from about 100 ml to 500 ml.\",\n \"The aqueous solution comprises the nor-epinephrine at a concentration which allows direct infusion of the aqueous solution in the desired dose to the patient without the need of further dilution.\",\n \"The containers have volume and dimensions such that it allows use of drug solutions that can be directly infused to the patients without any step of reconstitution or dilution.\",\n \"Preferably, the concentration and volume is such that for patient with an average body surface area, only one unit of the dosage form is sufficient to deliver the prescribed dose of the drug.\",\n \"The containers are also easy to handle and transport.\",\n \"According to another preferred particular embodiment of the present invention, the aqueous solution of norepinephrine is ready-to-infuse and container is designed for ready-to-infuse administration.\",\n \"In one preferred embodiment, the container is a flexible infusion container such an infusion bag or a flexible pouch or a soft bag.\",\n \"Particularly, the flexible infusion container is not impermeable in nature and possesses some permeation characteristics and the aqueous solution of nor-epinephrine remains in contact with these materials of the container throughout the shelf life of the dosage form.\",\n \"The container may be single or multiple layered and made up of a suitable material such as plastic or any other polymeric material.\",\n \"Such materials may be selected from, but not limited to, polyolefin polymers-polyethylene, polypropylene; cyclo olefin polymers, cyclo olefin copolymers, polypropylene based polyolefin polymers; modified polyolefin-polyethylene polymers or styrene-polyolefin based polymers and block co-polymers thereof.\",\n \"These plastic materials of the container may further have one or more outer layers which may be made up of polyamide, modified polyolefin, polypropylene, styrene-polyolefin based polymers and block co-polymers thereof and the like.\",\n \"In one specific embodiment, the flexible infusion containers are made up of an outer layer of polyamide 11, a middle tie of modified polyolefin and an inner layer of linear low density polyethylene.\",\n \"This type of containers have a water vapour transmission rate of 2 g (m2·day) when measured at (40° C./90% relative humidity); oxygen transmission rate of 900 ml/(m2·24 hour·atm) when measured at (23° C./0% relative humidity) and carbon dioxide transmission rate of 600 ml/(m2·24 hour·atm) when measured at 23° C./0% relative humidity.\",\n \"Such containers are available commercially and are manufactured by Hosokawa as Polyelite AE-1.In one preferred embodiment the flexible infusion containers may be made up of a material comprising a polymer of cyclic olefin such as cycloolefin homopolymer or cycloolefin copolymer or mixture thereof.\",\n \"Specifically, in a particular embodiment, the container comprises an inner layer made up of a cycloolefin polymer, a middle layer made up of linear low density polyethylene polymer and an outer layer made up of low density polyethylene polymer.\",\n \"Such containers are available commercially and are manufactured by Hosokawa as Polyelite EHC film bag.\",\n \"In another embodiment, the flexible infusion containers may be made up of an outer layer of polypropylene polymer with styrene-ethylene-butylene (SEB) block copolymer and a middle and inner layer made up of polypropylene based polyolefin polymer with styrene-ethylene butylene block copolymer.\",\n \"Such containers are available commercially and are manufactured by Technoflex These type of containers have a water vapour transmission rate of 0.62 g (m2·day) when measured at 23° C./60% relative humidity; oxygen permeability of 1110 ml/(m2·24 hour·atm) when measured at 23° C./40% relative humidity and carbon dioxide transmission rate of 5149 ml/(m2·24 hour·atm).\",\n \"Alternatively, the flexible container used is made up of multilayer polyolefin film (M312 and M312A) with a multilayered polyolefin tubing (M916 and M916A).\",\n \"Such containers are available under the brand names of Sippex.\",\n \"In one embodiment, the flexible infusion containers may include a Minitulipe® infusion port which is an infusion connector having three assembled parts including a central stopper made up of chlorobutyl rubber (latex free); an upper breakable part and a bottom part, both made up of polycarbonate.\",\n \"In one embodiment, the flexible infusion container contains a delivery port end for insertion of an infusion set cannula/needle.\",\n \"In one embodiment, the flexible infusion container/bag and the delivery port connecting to the infusion needle form a system whereby during administration of the solution to the patient the vacuum created by outgress of solution is accommodated by the elasticity or flexibility of the infusion bag instead of ingress of external non-sterile air.\",\n \"The dosage form can advantageously maintain the sterility of the solution until it reaches the patient.\",\n \"In one embodiment, the flexible infusion container includes a thermally resealable portion that is fusible in response to thermal energy, and a container body having a sealed empty chamber in fluid communication with the resealable portion for receiving therein the aqueous solution of the present invention.\",\n \"The method of filling the container includes penetrating the resealable portion with an injection member and introducing the aqueous solution of the present invention into the chamber, withdrawing the injection member while engaging the base of the body to substantially prevent axial movement of the body, and applying thermal energy to the resealable portion to thermally fuse the penetrated region thereof.\",\n \"Such systems are elaborated in Unites States patent number U.S. Pat.\",\n \"No.\",\n \"7,992,597, which is incorporated herein by reference.\",\n \"In another embodiment, the flexible infusion container may include a chamber for receiving aqueous solution of the present invention and a thermoplastic portion in fluid communication with the chamber.\",\n \"The thermoplastic portion defines a penetrable region that is penetrable by a filling member and is heat resealable to hermetically seal an aperture therein by applying laser radiation at a predetermined wavelength and power and in a predetermined time period.\",\n \"Such systems are elaborated in Unites States patent number U.S. Pat.\",\n \"No.\",\n \"7,490,639, which is incorporated herein by reference.\",\n \"In yet another embodiment, the flexible infusion container include a sealed chamber; a first penetrable septum in fluid communication with the chamber that is formed of an elastic material and is penetrable by a first injection member to fill the first chamber with the aqueous solution of the present invention therethrough; and a second penetrable septum movable between first and second positions.\",\n \"In the first position, at least a portion of the second septum is spaced away from the first septum to allow the injection member to penetrate the first septum and aseptically or sterile fill the chamber with the aqueous solution of the present invention therethrough.\",\n \"In the second position, the portion of the second septum overlies and seals a resulting injection aperture in the first septum after withdrawal of the first injection member therefrom, and is penetrable by a second injection member to penetrate the first and second septums and withdraw the filled aqueous solution of the present invention from the chamber and through the second injection member.\",\n \"Such systems are elaborated in Unites States patent application number US20130333796, which is incorporated herein by reference.\",\n \"In one embodiment, the ready-to-administer dosage form of the present invention further comprises secondary packaging that surrounds the flexible infusion container.\",\n \"In one embodiment, the secondary packaging is designed to protect the solution from light.\",\n \"The secondary packaging may comprise a second container such as a pouch or overwrap or carton.\",\n \"In preferred embodiments, the secondary packaging pouch or overwrap or carton is made up of a suitable light protective material such as aluminum.\",\n \"It may further comprise an oxygen scavenger.\",\n \"In one preferred embodiment, the space between the flexible infusion container and secondary packaging is occupied with an inert gas.\",\n \"The inert gas may be used to flush out or replace the air from the space between the flexible infusion container and the light protective secondary packaging.\",\n \"The inert gas that may be used include, but is not limited to nitrogen, argon and helium.\",\n \"In one specific embodiment, secondary packaging comprises an aluminium pouch containing an oxygen scavenger.\",\n \"In another embodiment, the space between the flexible infusion container and secondary packaging is occupied with an inert gas such as nitrogen.\",\n \"In one specific embodiment, there is provided a ready-to-administer parenteral dosage form comprising an aqueous solution comprising therapeutically effective amount of norepinephrine or its pharmaceutically acceptable salt, an antioxidant which is not a sulphite antioxidant selected from butylated hydroxyl anisol, ascorbic acid, propyl gallate, vitamin E or alpha-tocopherol, optionally a chelating agent, a tonicity adjusting agent and a pH adjusting agent to adjust the pH of solution in the range of 3.0 to 4.5 and wherein the aqueous solution is stable at room temperature.\",\n \"In another specific embodiment, there is provided a ready-to-administer parenteral dosage form comprising an aqueous solution comprising therapeutically effective amount of norepinephrine or its pharmaceutically acceptable salt, butylated hydroxyl anisol as an antioxidant, optionally a chelating agent, a tonicity adjusting agent and a pH adjusting agent to adjust the pH of solution in the range of 3.0 to 4.5 and wherein the aqueous solution is stable at room temperature.\",\n \"In one specific embodiment, there is provided a ready-to-administer parenteral dosage form comprising an aqueous solution comprising therapeutically effective amount of norepinephrine or its pharmaceutically acceptable salt in an amount ranging from about 0.001 mg/ml to about 0.4 mg/ml, an antioxidant which is not a sulphite antioxidant, optionally a chelating agent, a tonicity adjusting agent and a pH adjusting agent to adjust the pH of solution in a range of 3.0 to 4.5, wherein the aqueous solution is filled in a container, which container is optionally further packaged in a secondary packaging, wherein either the container or the secondary packaging is designed to protect the solution from light and wherein the aqueous solution is stable at room temperature.\",\n \"In one specific embodiment, there is provided a ready-to-administer parenteral dosage form comprising an aqueous solution comprising therapeutically effective amount of norepinephrine or its pharmaceutically acceptable salt in an amount ranging from about 0.001 mg/ml to about 0.4 mg/ml, an antioxidant which is not a sulphite antioxidant, optionally a chelating agent, a tonicity adjusting agent and a pH adjusting agent to adjust the pH of solution in a range of 3.0 to 4.5, wherein the aqueous solution is filled in a container, which container is optionally further packaged in a secondary packaging, wherein either the container or the secondary packaging is designed to protect the solution from light, further wherein the container is made up of a material selected from the group comprising polyolefin polymers, polyethylene, polypropylene; cyclo olefin polymers, cyclo olefin copolymers; polypropylene based polyolefin polymers; polycarbonates; modified polyolefin-polyethylene polymers; styrene-polyolefin based polymers and block co-polymers thereof and wherein the aqueous solution is stable at room temperature.\",\n \"In one preferred embodiment, there is provided a ready-to-administer parenteral dosage form comprising an aqueous solution comprising therapeutically effective amount of norepinephrine bitartrate in an amount ranging from about 0.002 mg/ml to about 0.4 mg/ml, butylated hydroxyanisole as an antioxidant, a chelating agent, a tonicity adjusting agent and a pH adjusting agent to adjust the pH of solution in a range of 3.0 to 4.5, wherein the aqueous solution is filled in a container, which container is optionally further packaged in a secondary packaging, wherein either the container or the secondary packaging is designed to protect the solution from light and wherein the aqueous solution is stable at room temperature.\",\n \"In another preferred embodiment, there is provided a ready-to-administer parenteral dosage form comprising an aqueous solution comprising therapeutically effective amount of norepinephrine bitartrate in an amount ranging from about 0.002 mg/ml to about 0.4 mg/ml, butylated hydroxyanisole as an antioxidant, a chelating agent, a tonicity adjusting agent and a pH adjusting agent to adjust the pH of solution in a range of 3.0 to 4.5, wherein the aqueous solution is filled in a container, which container is optionally further packaged in a secondary packaging, wherein either the container or the secondary packaging is designed to protect the solution from light, further wherein the container is made up of a material selected from the group comprising polyolefin polymers, polyethylene, polypropylene; cyclo olefin polymers, cyclo olefin copolymers; polypropylene based polyolefin polymers; polycarbonates; modified polyolefin-polyethylene polymers; styrene-polyolefin based polymers and block co-polymers thereof, and wherein the aqueous solution is stable at room temperature.\",\n \"In one particularly preferred embodiment, there is provided a ready-to-administer parenteral dosage form comprising an aqueous solution comprising therapeutically effective amount of norepinephrine bitartrate in an amount ranging from about 0.002 mg/ml to about 0.4 mg/ml, butylated hydroxyanisole as an antioxidant, a chelating agent selected from disodium edetate, disodium edetate dihydrate, edetic acid, ethylenediamine tertaacetic acid or diethylenetriamine pentaacetic acid, a tonicity adjusting agent selected from sodium chloride, potassium chloride, calcium chloride, mannitol, glycerol, sorbitol, propylene glycol, dextrose, sucrose and a pH adjusting agent to adjust the pH of solution in a range of 3.0 to 4.5, wherein the aqueous solution is filled in a container, which container is optionally further packaged in a secondary packaging, wherein either the container or the secondary packaging is designed to protect the solution from light and wherein the aqueous solution is stable at room temperature.\",\n \"In one particularly preferred embodiment, there is provided a ready-to-administer parenteral dosage form comprising an aqueous solution comprising therapeutically effective amount of norepinephrine bitartrate in an amount ranging from about 0.002 mg/ml to about 0.4 mg/ml, butylated hydroxyanisole as an antioxidant, a chelating agent selected from disodium edetate, disodium edetate dihydrate, edetic acid, ethylenediamine tertaacetic acid or diethylenetriamine pentaacetic acid, a tonicity adjusting agent selected from sodium chloride, potassium chloride, calcium chloride, mannitol, glycerol, sorbitol, propylene glycol, dextrose, sucrose and a pH adjusting agent to adjust the pH of solution in a range of 3.0 to 4.5, wherein the aqueous solution is filled in a container, which container is optionally further packaged in a secondary packaging, wherein either the container or the secondary packaging is designed to protect the solution from light further wherein the container is made up of a material selected from the group comprising polyolefin polymers, polyethylene, polypropylene; cyclo olefin polymers, cyclo olefin copolymers; polypropylene based polyolefin polymers; polycarbonates; modified polyolefin-polyethylene polymers; styrene-polyolefin based polymers and block co-polymers thereof, and wherein the aqueous solution is stable at room temperature.\",\n \"In one particularly preferred embodiment, there is provided a ready-to-administer parenteral dosage form comprising an aqueous solution comprising therapeutically effective amount of norepinephrine bitartrate in an amount ranging from about 0.01 mg/ml to about 0.2 mg/ml, butylated hydroxyanisole as an antioxidant, a chelating agent selected from disodium edetate dihydrate, disodium edetate, edetic acid, ethylenediamine tertaacetic acid or diethylenetriamine pentaacetic acid, a tonicity adjusting agent selected from sodium chloride, potassium chloride, calcium chloride, mannitol, glycerol, sorbitol, propylene glycol, dextrose, sucrose and a pH adjusting agent to adjust the pH of solution in a range of 3.0 to 4.5, wherein the aqueous solution is filled in a container, which container is optionally further packaged in a secondary packaging, wherein either the container or the secondary packaging is designed to protect the solution from light further wherein the container is made up of a material selected from the group comprising polyolefin polymers, polyethylene, polypropylene; cyclo olefin polymers, cyclo olefin copolymers; polypropylene based polyolefin polymers; polycarbonates; modified polyolefin-polyethylene polymers; styrene-polyolefin based polymers and block co-polymers thereof, further wherein the secondary packaging comprises a light resistant pouch such as an aluminium pouch and an oxygen scavanger and wherein the aqueous solution is stable at room temperature.\",\n \"The present inventors have surprisingly found that the ready-to-administer parenteral dosage form of the present invention is stable at room temperature for prolonged period of time inspite of having large volume aqueous solution in large volume infusion containers.\",\n \"The aqueous solution of norepinephrine is stable at room temperature for extended periods of time in the liquid state, without having to undergo a step of freeze-drying or reconstitution or dilution.\",\n \"That is it represents a substantial advancement over the art, and a major convenience to potential patients.\",\n \"The ready-to-administer parenteral dosage form of the present invention is physically and chemically stable at room temperature (about 20-25° C.) as well as at lower temperatures such as 2-8° C. for prolonged period of time, and meets all acceptable stability criteria's upon storage for prolonged periods such as for at least 18 months, preferably 2 year or more.\",\n \"The solution remains physically stable, with no precipitation or crystallization or color change upon storage.\",\n \"The percentage transmittance values, which are indicators of clarity and physical stability of a solution, surprisingly remains greater than 90%, preferably greater than 95%, more preferably greater than 97% for the shelf life period of 18-24 months.\",\n \"The ready-to-administer parenteral dosage form of the present invention comprising the aqueous solution of nor-epinephrine also remains chemically stable when subjected to long term stability testing at room temperature (25° C./60% relative humidity) and at refrigerated conditions (2-8° C.).\",\n \"Various parameters such as the drug content (assay of nor-epinephrine) and content of related substances, i.e.\",\n \"known and unknown impurities remains within specified limits such as those specified according to ICH guidelines, upon storage for prolonged period of time such as for at least 12 months, preferably for 18 months, more preferably 2 year or more.\",\n \"Suitably, the value of assay of nor-epinephrine remains within the specified limit of 90-110% of the label claim.\",\n \"Further, the total impurities remains below 2.0%, preferably less than 1.0% more preferably less than 0.5% by weight and highest unknown impurity remains below 0.2%.\",\n \"Furthermore, the known related substances, i.e.\",\n \"Impurities B, C, D and E remains within the specified limit of not more than 0.29% and Impurity A remains within the specified limit of not more than 1.0%.\",\n \"In one preferred embodiment, the present invention thus provides a ready-to-administer parenteral dosage form comprising an aqueous solution comprising therapeutically effective amount of norepinephrine or its pharmaceutically acceptable salt, an anti-oxidant which is not a sulphite antioxidant, wherein the parenteral dosage form is stable at room temperature and wherein the value of total impurities in the aqueous solution is not more than 2.0% by weight upon storage at room temperature or lower for at least 12 months.\",\n \"Surprisingly, the inventors of the present invention found that the ready-to-administer parenteral dosage form of the present invention provided a very minimal conversion of the nor-epinephrine R-isomer, which is the active form, into the S-isomer.\",\n \"This is particularly of great significance because S-isomer has almost negligible activity.\",\n \"The S-isomer levels remains very low, preferably less than 5%, more preferably less than 4% upon storage at room temperature or lower temperatures for at least 12 months or 18 months or more.\",\n \"The conversion of R-isomer to S-isomer was significantly lower compared to the marketed product Levophed® upon storage under similar conditions.\",\n \"Upon storage of Innovator's US marketed product “Levophed® under similar conditions and analysing at the end of shelf life (18 months), the S-isomer level was about 6.7%.\",\n \"Upon storage of Innovator's European marketed product “Levophed® under similar conditions, the S-isomer level was about 15.9% after storage for 18 months.\",\n \"In contrast, the present invention provides a ready-to-administer parenteral dosage form comprising an aqueous solution comprising therapeutically effective amount of norepinephrine or its pharmaceutically acceptable salt and an anti-oxidant which is not a sulphite antioxidant and wherein the solution when stored at room temperature or lower for 12 months has less than 4% of S-isomer content, preferably less than 4% of S-isomer content.\",\n \"According to one preferred embodiment of the present invention wherein the dosage form is a pre-filled syringe, and wherein the aqueous solution has a pH in the range of about 3.0 to 4.5, the S-isomer content was about 1.7% upon storage at room temperature or lower for 12 months.\",\n \"According to another preferred embodiment of the present invention wherein the dosage form is in a flexible infusion bag, the S-isomer level was about 4.5% upon storage at room temperature or lower for 18 months.\",\n \"In one preferred embodiment, the present invention thus provides a ready-to-administer parenteral dosage form comprising an aqueous solution comprising therapeutically effective amount of norepinephrine or its pharmaceutically acceptable salt, an anti-oxidant which is not a sulphite antioxidant, wherein the solution when stored at room temperature for twelve months has less than 4% of S-isomer content.\",\n \"The ready-to-administer parenteral dosage form of norepinephrine of the present invention, show improved stability, in particular stability against auto-oxidation and thermal stability, and consequently enhanced storage shelf-life of at least 18 months, preferably 2 year or more, even when stored at room temperature.\",\n \"A prior known solution of nor-epinephrine marketed by Cardinal Health Ltd., UK, which is stabilized by sodium metabisulphite, is stable when stored at 2-8° C. for six months.\",\n \"The shelf life of the product is only six months when stored at 2-8° C. Present inventors prepared similar dosage form and stability testing at room temperature confirmed that norepinephrine was unstable in the prior known sodium metabisulphite containing dosage form when stored at room temperature.\",\n \"While the shelf life of marketed Cardinal's product is 6 months, when stored at 2-8° C., the parenteral dosage form according to one embodiment of the present invention was surprisingly found to be stable even at room temperature (25° C./60% RH) (besides being stable at 2-8° C.) for prolonged period of time of at least 12 months, preferably 18 months, more preferably 2 year or more.\",\n \"The ready-to-administer parenteral dosage form of the present invention not only have better stability profile compared to marketed Cardinal's product, but also compared to marketed Levophed® product, which is a concentrated product having 1 mg/ml nor-epinephrine.\",\n \"As per Levophed® product label, the product upon dilution is stable only upto 24 hours at room temperature.\",\n \"Suitably, the ready-to-administer dosage form of the present invention is sterile.\",\n \"The term “sterile” or ‘sterilized’ as used in the context of the invention, means that the solution has been brought to a state of sterility and has not been subsequently exposed to microbiological contamination, i.e.\",\n \"the sterility of the solution present in the container has not been compromised.\",\n \"The solution complies with the sterility requirements of the standard Pharmacopoeias like United States Pharmacopoeias (USP).\",\n \"Sterilization may be achieved by suitable techniques such as filtration sterilization, radiation sterilization and the like.\",\n \"In one preferred embodiment, the parenteral dosage form of the present invention is subjected to sterilization by membrane filtration of the aqueous solution.\",\n \"The ready-to-administer parenteral dosage form of the present invention can be prepared by a process involving following exemplary steps—Purging water for injection with Nitrogen gas to bring dissolved oxygen level below 2 PPM, preferably below 1 PPM.\",\n \"Preferably, the purging should be carried out during the whole process to maintain dissolved oxygen level of less than 1 PPM.\",\n \"Dissolving the chelating agent such as disodium edetate dihydrate in water for injection followed by addition and dissolution of anti-oxidant such as butylated hydroxyanisole.\",\n \"Dissolution may be carried out by warming the solution to an elevated temperature, if required along with stirring.\",\n \"Cooling the solution to room temperature.\",\n \"Adding and dissolving an osmotic agent such as for example, sodium chloride to the above solution.\",\n \"Adding the drug, norepinephrine bitartarate, to the above solution and obtaining final solution by making up the volume to desired level using water for injection.\",\n \"Checking and if required adjusting the pH of the solution in the range of pH 3.0 to 4.5 using a pH adjusting agent and/or buffering agent such as by using buffers or use of an acid/base.\",\n \"Aseptically filtering the solution using a membrane filter, followed by aseptically filling the solution into a container such as for example a syringe or an infusion bag, followed by stoppering or sealing of the container.\",\n \"Optionally, packaging this primary container further with a secondary packaging.\",\n \"This may be achieved by overwrapping the primary container by a light protective secondary packaging such as an aluminum pouch and sealing the pouch.\",\n \"An oxygen scavenger may be placed in the space between the primary container and the light protective secondary packaging.\",\n \"Further, the space between the infusion bag and the aluminum pouch may be replaced with an inert gas such as nitrogen gas.\",\n \"Hereinafter, the invention will be more specifically described by way of Examples.\",\n \"The examples are not intended to limit the scope of the invention and are merely used as illustrations.\",\n \"Example 1 TABLE 1 Ready-to-administer parenteral dosage form composition Ingredients Amount in milligrams Norepinephrine bitartarate equivalent 5 to norepinephrine base .\",\n \".\",\n \".\",\n \"Butylated hydroxyanisole 0.15 Disodium edetate dihydrate 5 Sodium chloride 450 Sodium hydroxide/hydrochloride acid q.s.\",\n \"to pH 3.0 to 4.5 Water for injection q.s.\",\n \"to 50 ml The water for injection was purged with nitrogen until dissolved oxygen level below 1.0 ppm is achieved.\",\n \"Aqueous solution of disodium edetate, sodium chloride was prepared separately.\",\n \"Butylated hydroxyanisole was dissolved in warm water.\",\n \"Subsequently, norepinephrine bitartarate was then added and pH was adjusted in the range of 3.0 to 4.5 using acid/base and volume was made.\",\n \"The oxygen level was monitored to be below 1.0 ppm by nitrogen purging.\",\n \"The solution so obtained was filtered aseptically through a 0.2 micron membrane filter and aseptically filled into non glass container which is a cyclo olefin copolymers syringe with fill volume of 50 ml.\",\n \"The filled syringe was aseptically stoppered with a bromo-butyl plunger.\",\n \"The filled syringes were overwrapped in aluminum pouch, for light protection.\",\n \"The space between the filled syringe and the aluminum pouch was replaced with nitrogen gas.\",\n \"An oxygen scavenger was placed in the space between the syringe and the aluminum pouch.\",\n \"The observed values for various parameters after storage for 18 month at controlled room temperature of 25±2° C. and 60%±5% relative humidity, are given below in Table 2: TABLE 2 Observations of various parameters Parameters Initial 12 month Assay of nor-epinephrine 105.11 105.4 S-isomer 0.18 4.49 Impurity A ND ND Impurity B 0.005 0.024 Impurity C ND ND Impurity D 0.06 0.06 Impurity E ND ND Highest unknown Impurity 0.06 0.11 Total Impurities 0.12 0.39 pH 3.7 3.73 % Transmittance 99.96 99.8 at 650 nm ND—Not detected It was found that upon storage for 18 months at room temperature, the solutions remained clear and colourless, without any signs of precipitation or crystallization or colour change upon storage.\",\n \"This is evident by the percentage transmittance values which were more than 95% at all time points until 18 months.\",\n \"The observed percentage transmittance value after storage for 18 months was found to be more than 95%.\",\n \"It was further observed that the value of assay of nor-epinephrine was well within the specified limit of 90-110% of the label claim.\",\n \"Further, the solution had less than 0.5% of total impurities and less than 0.2% of highest unknown impurity upon storage at room temperature for 18 months.\",\n \"The S-isomer content was less than 5%.\",\n \"The Impurities A-E were either not detected or were present in negligible amounts, well within the specified limits.\",\n \"Example 2 TABLE 3 Aqueous solution of Norepinephrine in infusion bag Ingredients Amount in milligrams per ml Norepinephrine bitartarate equivalent to 0.016 norepinephrine base .\",\n \".\",\n \".\",\n \"Butylated Hydroxyanisole 0.003 Disodium Edetate Dihydrate 0.1 Sodium chloride 8.5 Sodium hydroxide/hydrochloride acid q.s.\",\n \"to pH 3.0 to 4.5 Water for Injection q.s.\",\n \"to 1 mL The water for injection was purged with nitrogen until dissolved oxygen level below 1.0 ppm is achieved.\",\n \"Aqueous solution of disodium edetate, sodium chloride was prepared separately.\",\n \"Butylated hydroxyanisole was dissolved in warm water.\",\n \"Subsequently, norepinephrine bitartarate was then added and pH was adjusted in the range of 3.0 to 4.5 using acid/base and volume was made.\",\n \"The oxygen level was monitored to be below 1.0 ppm by nitrogen purging.\",\n \"The solution so obtained was filtered aseptically through a 0.2 micron membrane filter and aseptically filled into a suitable infusion container made up of polyethylene polymer in volumes of 100 ml each.\",\n \"The filled infusion bags were overwrapped in aluminum pouch, for light protection.\",\n \"The space between the infusion bag and the aluminum pouch was replaced with nitrogen gas.\",\n \"An oxygen scavenger was placed in the space between the infusion bag and the aluminum pouch.\",\n \"The ready-to-administer dosage form of nor-epinephrine was subjected to accelerated stability conditions, such as at controlled room temperature, i.e.\",\n \"25° C./40% relative humidity and at 2-8° C. The drug content and related substances, i.e.\",\n \"known and unknown impurities were analyzed.\",\n \"The details are given below in Table 4: TABLE 4 Results of the stability testing Stored at 25 ± 2° C. and 60% ± 5% relative humidity for 12 Parameters Initial month Assay 101 100 S-isomer 0.31 1.7 Impurity A ND ND Highest unknown Impurity 0.04 0.14 Total impurities 0.1 0.27 pH 4.2 4.2 % Transmittance 99.9 99.8 at 650 nm ND—Not detected It was observed that the value of assay of nor-epinephrine was well within the specified limit of 90-110% of the label claim.\",\n \"Further, the solution showed a very small increase in the impurities such as known and unknown.\",\n \"The highest unknown impurity was very low i.e 0.2%.\",\n \"The aqueous solution did not show any signs of precipitation or crystallization or discoloration.\",\n \"The s-isomer content, which is an inactive isomer, was unexpectedly found to be very low, much lower than 2%.\"\n ]\n]"},"source":{"kind":"string","value":"Patent_15875475"}}},{"rowIdx":4494882,"cells":{"text":{"kind":"list like","value":[["Interactive Gaming Systems With Artificial Intelligence","A system for interactive gaming among a plurality of players includes a host computer system and a plurality of player terminals communicably coupled to the host computer system or gaming platform via a network.","The plurality of player terminals may be located at a plurality of licensed gaming locations.","The plurality of player terminals may be configured to engage the plurality of players in a common interactive game operated by the host computer system.","The plurality of player terminals can include means for dispensing player winnings from the player terminal."],["1.A player terminal comprising: a memory; a processor; a communication component to connect the player terminal to a host computer system; a display to depict action from an interactive game; an interface to receive monetary value and upon receiving the monetary value use the processor to generate a credit total for a player playing on the player terminal, a player interaction area that includes a betting interface to receive a bet having a betting value that is then deducted from the credit total; and an artificial intelligence component configured to automatically monitor the player terminal and player actions to determine whether the player is cheating and upon detection of cheating suspend game play.","2.The player terminal of claim 1, further comprising: a recording database where recordings or snapshots of the interactive game are stored; and wherein the artificial intelligence component accesses the recording database to access current and historical gameplay to identify abnormal game play or abnormal player interactions.","3.The player terminal of claim 1, wherein the artificial intelligence component includes an ingestion layer to collect snapshots of the interactive game.","4.The player terminal of claim 1, further comprising a real-time monitoring component to determines a location of the player terminal using indoor positioning systems.","5.The player terminal of claim 4, wherein the real-time monitoring component includes an electronic collusion measure, under control of the processor, that is configured to detect gambling rule violations by, at least in part, using the location of the player terminal and evaluating one or more rules in view of the location to determine whether the player terminal can participate in the interactive game.","6.The player terminal of claim 1, wherein the interactive game includes a card game, a video game, or an arcade games and upon conclusion of the interactive game, a bonus round with a different game is initiated.","7.The player terminal of claim 1, further comprising a skill level determination module to evaluate a skill level of the player and set a variable payback based on the skill level of the player.","8.The player terminal of claim 1, wherein the artificial intelligence component uses supervised learning to identify abnormal game play, abnormal betting, or abnormal player interactions.","9.The player terminal of claim 1, wherein the artificial intelligence component uses classifiers, statistical learning, neural networks, deep learning, or support vector machines to identify the cheating.","10.The player terminal of claim 1, wherein the artificial intelligence component ingests multiple signals relating to gaming actions, game being played, location of the player terminal, historical patterns of game play, or betting to identify the cheating.","11.A method comprising: collecting information about a player from public or private data sources; creating, from the information collected about the player from the public or private data sources, a player profile that indicates a cheating risk level; setting a level of evaluation for the player based on the cheating risk level; ingesting, using an artificial intelligence system, game play information representing player interactions at a player terminal; and automatically evaluating, using the artificial intelligence system, the game play information to determine whether the player colluded or cheated.","12.The method of claim 11, further comprising: accessing, from a database, previously recorded games associated with the player; and feeding these games to the artificial intelligence system for ingestion.","13.The method of claim 11, further comprising accessing video recordings of the player on a casino property and feeding the video recordings to the artificial intelligence system for ingestion.","14.The method of claim 11, wherein the game play information ingested by the artificial intelligence system occurs in real-time.","15.The method of claim 11, further comprising: tracking the player, using multiple systems, from a time the player enters a location; wherein the multiple systems include surveillance cameras, key card entry systems, loyalty card systems, license plate readers, facial recognition systems, movement tracking systems, or financial transaction systems; and feeding the information about the player, recorded by the multiple systems, to the artificial intelligence system for ingestion.","16.The method of claim 11, further comprising determining a location the player terminal.","17.The method of claim 11, further comprising delaying a crediting of winnings to the player until the artificial intelligence system has completed automatically analyzing the game play information.","18.A system comprising: means for receiving monetary value from a player; means for generating, upon receiving the monetary value from the player, a credit total for the player; means for determining a skill level of the player for a game to be played on a player terminal; means for receiving a bet having a betting value that is deducted from the credit total associated with the player; means for setting, based at least in part on the skill level of the player, a payout for completion of one or more objectives completed during the game; means for depicting action from the game; means for allowing the player to interact with game; means for evaluating interactions from the player during the game to identify cheating or collusion using an artificial intelligence system; and means for translating, upon successful completion of evaluation of the interactions, the credit total into a monetary value for the player.","19.The system of claim 18, wherein the game includes a card game, a video game, an arcade game, a game of skill, a game of chance, or a hybrid game of skill and chance.","20.The system of claim 18, further comprising: means for tracking the player from a time the player enters a location; and means for feeding information about the player, recorded by the means for tracking the player, to the artificial intelligence system for ingestion.","21.The system of claim 18, further comprising: means for reviewing a player profile to determine whether a prior skill level has been assigned; means for offering, in response to determining that a prior skill level has not been assigned, an evaluation game that is not based on wagering; means for evaluating interactions from the player during the evaluation game to identify the skill level; and means for recording the skill level within the player profile.","22.The system of claim 18, further comprising: means for receiving an indication of the one or more objectives to be completed during the game; and means for adjusting a set of gameplay parameters based on the one or more objectives.","23.The system of claim 18, further comprising a means for classifying the interactions as occurring from human play or from bot play.","24.A non-transitory computer-readable medium having instructions stored thereon that when executed by one or more processor cause a machine to: generate, upon receiving monetary value from a player, a credit total for the player that allows the player to place bets during a game; determine a skill level of the player for the game; receive a bet having a betting value that is deducted from the credit total associated with the player; setting, based at least in part on the skill level of the player, a payout for completion of one or more objectives completed during the game; depicting action from the game; receive interactions from the player allowing the player to interact with game; transmit the interactions to an artificial intelligence system to identify cheating or collusion; and translate, upon receiving an indication of successful completion from the artificial intelligence system, the credit total into a monetary value for the player.","25.The non-transitory computer-readable medium of claim 24, wherein the game includes a card game, a video game, or an arcade game.","26.The non-transitory computer-readable medium of claim 24, wherein the game includes a game of skill, a game of chance, or a hybrid game of skill and chance.","27.The non-transitory computer-readable medium of claim 24, wherein the instructions when executed by the one or more processors cause the machine to determine the skill level of the player by further causing the machine to: review a player profile to determine whether a prior skill level has been assigned; offer, in response to determining that a prior skill level has not been assigned, an evaluation game that is not based on wagering; evaluate interactions from the player during the evaluation game to identify the skill level; and record the skill level within the player profile.","28.The non-transitory computer-readable medium of claim 24, wherein the instructions when executed by the one or more processors cause the machine to: receive an indication of the one or more objectives to be completed during the game; and adjust a set of gameplay parameters based on the one or more objectives.","29.The non-transitory computer-readable medium of claim 24, wherein evaluating the interactions from the player during the game includes using a support vector machine to classify the interactions as occurring from human play or from bot play.","30.A system comprising: a processor; a memory having instructions stored thereon that when executed by the processor cause a machine to: collect information about a player from public or private data sources; create, from the information collected about the player from the public or private data sources, a player profile that indicates a cheating risk level while the player plays a game; set a level of evaluation for the player based on the cheating risk level; ingest, using an artificial intelligence system, game play information, wherein the game play information includes data representing player interactions at a player terminal; and evaluate, using the artificial intelligence system, the game play information to determine whether the player colluded or cheated during the game.","31.The system of claim 30, further comprising: a database having stored thereon video recordings of the player on a property; a communication component to access the database and retrieve a video recording of the player on the property; and wherein the video recording is ingested by the artificial intelligence system and used to determine whether the player colluded or cheated.","32.The system of claim 30, further comprising one or more tracking system to track the player at a location.","33.The system of claim 32, wherein the one or more tracking systems include surveillance cameras, key card entry systems, loyalty card systems, license plate readers, facial recognition systems, movement tracking systems, or financial transaction systems.","34.The system of claim 33, wherein the information about the player from the one or more tracking systems is fed to the artificial intelligence system for ingestion."],[" BACKGROUND The popularity of gambling has increased at extraordinary rates.","Many casinos are opening or reopening poker rooms and Internet poker sites are popping up regularly.","Casinos are also looking for new games and ways to attract players.","New players are coming to the casinos daily.","There are, however, several impediments to new players joining the ranks of poker players and other gamblers.","First, with respect to Internet poker and other online gambling, the legality has not been tested, despite its ever-increasing popularity.","Many people simply do not want to risk the possibility of running afoul of the law.","Second, many people are simply not comfortable interacting with off-shore enterprises, which is where Internet poker and other gambling sites are located to avoid the reach of U.S. laws.","In order to play at these sites, players must deposit money, which is not immediately accessible by the player.","Many people do not trust off-shore sites to hold their money.","Third, creating an account at an Internet poker or other gambling site requires a potential player to divulge personal information that many people simply do not wish to share.","No one knows the limits of how the information will be used.","Further, some people prefer anonymity, which is simply not possible with known Internet poker and other gambling sites.","Hence, for at least these reasons, many people are not becoming poker players through Internet poker opportunities who otherwise would.","Casino poker tables can provide impediments to new players.","For example, the process of getting on a list to play, getting into a table game, and interacting with the many characters you will find in a poker room often intimidates new players to the point of disinterest.","For at least the foregoing reasons, improved systems and methods are needed for providing interactive gaming opportunities to players."],[" SUMMARY Various embodiments of the present technology provide for systems and methods for interactive gaming among a plurality of players.","In accordance with some embodiments, an interactive gaming system can include a host computer system and a plurality of player terminals communicably coupled to the host computer system via a network.","The plurality of player terminals can be located at a plurality of licensed gaming locations and/or remotely from licensed gaming locations.","The plurality of player terminals can be configured to engage the plurality of players in a common interactive game operated by the host computer system.","The plurality of player terminals can include various means or mechanisms for dispensing player winnings from the player terminal.","In some embodiments, the interactive game may be a game of skill, a game of chance, or a hybrid game of skill and chance.","The host computer system may be located at a location different from any of the plurality of player terminals.","Each player terminal may include means for receiving player deposits.","The means for receiving player deposits may include a bill accepter.","When the interactive game is poker, one or more of the plurality of player terminals may include means for receiving a user input to view hole cards dealt to the user in the course of the interactive game.","The hole cards otherwise may not be viewable at the terminal.","The host computer system may include means for monitoring actions taken by one or more of the plurality of players to thereby detect collusion among the players.","The host computer system may include means for tracking one or more jackpots payable by an operator of one of the plurality of licensed gaming locations.","The at least one of the one or more jackpots may include a high hand jackpot for making a specific hand.","The at least one of the plurality of player terminals may include means for displaying at least one of the one or more jackpots payable by an operator of the host computer system.","The host computer system may include means for tracking one or more jackpots payable by an operator of the host computer system.","At least one of the one or more jackpots may include a bad beat jackpot for having a hand with a value at or above a specific value beaten by a hand with a value at or above a different specific value.","At least one of the plurality of player terminals may include means for displaying at least one of the one or more jackpots payable by an operator of the host computer system.","The host computer system may include means for tracking a player's play to thereby reward the player for player loyalty.","The player terminals at a given location may be arranged to thereby inhibit collusion among players using the player terminals at the given location while engaged in a common game.","In other embodiments, a system for interactive gaming among a plurality of players includes a host computer system and a plurality of player terminals communicably coupled to the host computer system via a network.","The plurality of player terminals are located at a plurality of licensed gaming locations.","The plurality of player terminals are configured to anonymously engage the plurality of players in a common interactive game operated by the host computer system.","In still other embodiments, a method of operating an interactive game among a plurality of players includes initiating a game session at a host computer system.","The method also includes joining the plurality of players to the game session via a network.","The players are operating player terminals located at a plurality of licensed gaming locations.","At least one of the plurality of players is joined to the game without creating a user account relating to the interactive game.","The method also includes initiating the game and, from the host computer system, sending signals relating to the state of the game to the player terminals.","The method further includes, at a host computer system, iteratively receiving signals from the player terminals.","The signals indicate player actions in the game.","The method further includes, at the conclusion of the game, awarding value to a winning player.","In some embodiments, the method includes dispensing player winnings to one of the players from the player's player terminal.","The interactive game may be poker.","The host computer system may be located at a location different from any of the plurality of player terminals.","The method may include receiving a deposit from a player at one of the player terminals.","Receiving a deposit from a player at one of the player terminals may include receiving a deposit from a player via a bill accepter.","The method may further include, at a player terminal, receiving a user input to view hole cards dealt to the user in the course of the interactive game.","The hole cards otherwise may not be viewable at the terminal.","The method also may include monitoring actions taken by one or more of the plurality of players to thereby detect collusion among the players.","The method also may include tracking one or more jackpots payable by an operator of one of the plurality of licensed gaming locations.","At least one of the one or more jackpots may be a high hand jackpot for making a specific hand.","The method may include, at a player terminal, displaying at least one of the one or more jackpots payable by an operator of the host computer system.","The method may include tracking one or more jackpots payable by an operator of the host computer system.","At least one of the one or more jackpots may be a bad beat jackpot for having a hand with a value at or above a specific value beaten by a hand with a value at or above a different specific value.","The method also may include, at a player terminal, displaying at least one of the one or more jackpots payable by an operator of the host computer system.","The method may include tracking a player's play to thereby reward the player for player loyalty.","The method may include arranging terminals at a given location to thereby inhibit collusion among players using the player terminals at the given location while engaged in a common game.","The method may include inhibiting collusion among players using the player terminals at the given location while engaged in a common game by prohibiting a player from joining a specific game session at a terminal proximate a player terminal of another player engaged in the specific game session."],["CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser.","No.","15/632,101, filed Jun.","23, 2017, now allowed; which is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser.","No.","15/436,498, filed Feb. 17, 2017, and issued as U.S. Pat.","No.","9,697,682 on Jul.","4, 2017; which is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser.","No.","15/192,821, filed Jun.","24, 2016, and issued as U.S. Pat.","No.","9,589,417 on Mar.","7, 2017; which is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser.","No.","14/880,001, filed on Oct. 9, 2015, and issued as U.S. Pat.","No.","9,396,611 on Jul.","19, 2016; which is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser.","No.","11/183,247, filed Jul.","14, 2005, and issued as U.S. Pat.","No.","9,159,195 on Oct. 13, 2015; each of which is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety for all purposes.","TECHNICAL FIELD Various embodiments of the technology relate generally to gaming systems.","More specifically, some embodiments of the technology relate to systems and methods for providing interactive gaming among a plurality of players.","BACKGROUND The popularity of gambling has increased at extraordinary rates.","Many casinos are opening or reopening poker rooms and Internet poker sites are popping up regularly.","Casinos are also looking for new games and ways to attract players.","New players are coming to the casinos daily.","There are, however, several impediments to new players joining the ranks of poker players and other gamblers.","First, with respect to Internet poker and other online gambling, the legality has not been tested, despite its ever-increasing popularity.","Many people simply do not want to risk the possibility of running afoul of the law.","Second, many people are simply not comfortable interacting with off-shore enterprises, which is where Internet poker and other gambling sites are located to avoid the reach of U.S. laws.","In order to play at these sites, players must deposit money, which is not immediately accessible by the player.","Many people do not trust off-shore sites to hold their money.","Third, creating an account at an Internet poker or other gambling site requires a potential player to divulge personal information that many people simply do not wish to share.","No one knows the limits of how the information will be used.","Further, some people prefer anonymity, which is simply not possible with known Internet poker and other gambling sites.","Hence, for at least these reasons, many people are not becoming poker players through Internet poker opportunities who otherwise would.","Casino poker tables can provide impediments to new players.","For example, the process of getting on a list to play, getting into a table game, and interacting with the many characters you will find in a poker room often intimidates new players to the point of disinterest.","For at least the foregoing reasons, improved systems and methods are needed for providing interactive gaming opportunities to players.","SUMMARY Various embodiments of the present technology provide for systems and methods for interactive gaming among a plurality of players.","In accordance with some embodiments, an interactive gaming system can include a host computer system and a plurality of player terminals communicably coupled to the host computer system via a network.","The plurality of player terminals can be located at a plurality of licensed gaming locations and/or remotely from licensed gaming locations.","The plurality of player terminals can be configured to engage the plurality of players in a common interactive game operated by the host computer system.","The plurality of player terminals can include various means or mechanisms for dispensing player winnings from the player terminal.","In some embodiments, the interactive game may be a game of skill, a game of chance, or a hybrid game of skill and chance.","The host computer system may be located at a location different from any of the plurality of player terminals.","Each player terminal may include means for receiving player deposits.","The means for receiving player deposits may include a bill accepter.","When the interactive game is poker, one or more of the plurality of player terminals may include means for receiving a user input to view hole cards dealt to the user in the course of the interactive game.","The hole cards otherwise may not be viewable at the terminal.","The host computer system may include means for monitoring actions taken by one or more of the plurality of players to thereby detect collusion among the players.","The host computer system may include means for tracking one or more jackpots payable by an operator of one of the plurality of licensed gaming locations.","The at least one of the one or more jackpots may include a high hand jackpot for making a specific hand.","The at least one of the plurality of player terminals may include means for displaying at least one of the one or more jackpots payable by an operator of the host computer system.","The host computer system may include means for tracking one or more jackpots payable by an operator of the host computer system.","At least one of the one or more jackpots may include a bad beat jackpot for having a hand with a value at or above a specific value beaten by a hand with a value at or above a different specific value.","At least one of the plurality of player terminals may include means for displaying at least one of the one or more jackpots payable by an operator of the host computer system.","The host computer system may include means for tracking a player's play to thereby reward the player for player loyalty.","The player terminals at a given location may be arranged to thereby inhibit collusion among players using the player terminals at the given location while engaged in a common game.","In other embodiments, a system for interactive gaming among a plurality of players includes a host computer system and a plurality of player terminals communicably coupled to the host computer system via a network.","The plurality of player terminals are located at a plurality of licensed gaming locations.","The plurality of player terminals are configured to anonymously engage the plurality of players in a common interactive game operated by the host computer system.","In still other embodiments, a method of operating an interactive game among a plurality of players includes initiating a game session at a host computer system.","The method also includes joining the plurality of players to the game session via a network.","The players are operating player terminals located at a plurality of licensed gaming locations.","At least one of the plurality of players is joined to the game without creating a user account relating to the interactive game.","The method also includes initiating the game and, from the host computer system, sending signals relating to the state of the game to the player terminals.","The method further includes, at a host computer system, iteratively receiving signals from the player terminals.","The signals indicate player actions in the game.","The method further includes, at the conclusion of the game, awarding value to a winning player.","In some embodiments, the method includes dispensing player winnings to one of the players from the player's player terminal.","The interactive game may be poker.","The host computer system may be located at a location different from any of the plurality of player terminals.","The method may include receiving a deposit from a player at one of the player terminals.","Receiving a deposit from a player at one of the player terminals may include receiving a deposit from a player via a bill accepter.","The method may further include, at a player terminal, receiving a user input to view hole cards dealt to the user in the course of the interactive game.","The hole cards otherwise may not be viewable at the terminal.","The method also may include monitoring actions taken by one or more of the plurality of players to thereby detect collusion among the players.","The method also may include tracking one or more jackpots payable by an operator of one of the plurality of licensed gaming locations.","At least one of the one or more jackpots may be a high hand jackpot for making a specific hand.","The method may include, at a player terminal, displaying at least one of the one or more jackpots payable by an operator of the host computer system.","The method may include tracking one or more jackpots payable by an operator of the host computer system.","At least one of the one or more jackpots may be a bad beat jackpot for having a hand with a value at or above a specific value beaten by a hand with a value at or above a different specific value.","The method also may include, at a player terminal, displaying at least one of the one or more jackpots payable by an operator of the host computer system.","The method may include tracking a player's play to thereby reward the player for player loyalty.","The method may include arranging terminals at a given location to thereby inhibit collusion among players using the player terminals at the given location while engaged in a common game.","The method may include inhibiting collusion among players using the player terminals at the given location while engaged in a common game by prohibiting a player from joining a specific game session at a terminal proximate a player terminal of another player engaged in the specific game session.","BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS A further understanding of the nature and advantages of the present technology may be realized by reference to the remaining portions of the specification and the drawings wherein like reference numerals are used throughout the several drawings to refer to similar components.","Further, various components of the same type may be distinguished by following the reference label with a dash and a second label that distinguishes among the similar components.","If only the first reference label is used in the specification, the description is applicable to any one of the similar components having the same first reference label irrespective of the second reference label.","Embodiments of the present technology will be described and explained through the use of the accompanying drawings as follows.","FIG.","1 illustrates an exemplary interactive gaming system according to some embodiments of the present technology.","FIG.","2 illustrates graphically one example of how funds flow in an interactive gaming system, such as the system of FIG.","1, according to various embodiments of the present technology.","FIG.","3 illustrates an exemplary processing environment for an interactive gaming system according to one or more embodiments of the present technology.","FIG.","4 illustrates an example of various components that may be used within a player terminal in accordance with some embodiments of the present technology.","FIG.","5 illustrates an example of a set of operations for enforcing a collusion avoidance policy on a player terminal in accordance with various embodiments of the present technology.","FIG.","6 illustrates an example of a set of operations for detecting automated play on a player terminal in accordance with one or more embodiments of the present technology.","FIG.","7 illustrates an example of a set of operations for setting and updating a gaming session payout on a player terminal in accordance with some embodiments of the present technology.","FIG.","8 illustrates an example of a set of operations for determining if network connection is sufficient for allowing a gaming session according to various embodiments of the present technology.","FIG.","9 illustrates an example of a player terminal according to one or more embodiments of the present technology.","FIG.","10 illustrates an example of a player terminal according to some embodiments of the present technology.","FIG.","11 illustrates an example of a set of operations for selecting game play within a gaming session according to various embodiments of the present technology.","FIG.","12 illustrates an example of a set of operations for operating an interactive game according to one or more embodiments of the present technology.","FIG.","13 illustrates an example of a computing platform that may be used in accordance with some embodiments of the present technology.","The drawings have not necessarily been drawn to scale.","Similarly, some components and/or operations may be separated into different blocks or combined into a single block for the purposes of discussion of some of the embodiments of the present technology.","Moreover, while the technology is amenable to various modifications and alternative forms, specific embodiments have been shown by way of example in the drawings and are described in detail below.","The intention, however, is not to limit the technology to the particular embodiments described.","On the contrary, the technology is intended to cover all modifications, equivalents, and alternatives falling within the scope of the technology as defined by the appended claims.","DETAILED DESCRIPTION Various embodiments of the present technology provide networked, interactive gaming.","According to some embodiments of the technology, players may engage in interactive games that require at least one player decision after the game has begun.","Interactive games can include games of skill, games of chance and/or hybrid games that mix games of chance and games of skill.","Examples of interactive games include, but are not limited to, poker, blackjack, video and arcade games, virtual reality games, eSports, live dealer, pinball, games of chance with bonus rounds that include games of skill, and others.","The interactive games can include head-to-head games where one player or team of players compete directly against another player or team of players.","In some embodiments, the interactive game may be a single player game where the player is trying to meet various objectives (e.g., score a desired number of points, reach a certain level, complete a screen within a limited time frame, beat a computerized player, and the like).","With respect to poker, for example, a player must decide whether to bet, raise, call, or fold after having seen his cards and the action of other players.","With respect to blackjack, a player must decide whether to hit, stand, split, double down, or surrender after having seen his cards and the dealer's up card.","With respect to video games, player interactions are needed throughout the game to make decisions to navigate obstacles, fire weapons, and the like depending on the particular video game.","Other games can have similar actions during the progress of the game.","These types of player decisions are in direct contrast with slot machines in which players merely decide to initiate a game, after which no player decision is made until the conclusion of the game.","In other words, no intermediate decisions are made in non-interactive games.","“Networked” gaming allows players to participate from different locations, although in some embodiments, players may play from a common location via a local network.","The game, however, is typically administered by a processor separate from a player's terminal.","By allowing participation from a large number of locations simultaneously, the quality and variety of the gaming opportunity is enhanced through increased demand.","“Interactive games,” unlike, for example, slots, require at least one player decision after the game has begun.","Some embodiments of the technology also provide players the opportunity to participate in networked gaming anonymously.","Unlike, for example, Internet poker, in which a player must disclose at least some personal information to create a player account, embodiments of the present technology allow players to enter a game without disclosing any personal information.","While some embodiments provide loyalty programs to encourage longer sessions, return customers, and the like, players are not required to participate in loyalty programs.","Players may simply deposit funds into a player terminal and enter a game.","Hence, no disclosure of personal information is required to participate in games according to some embodiments of the present technology.","Further, according to various embodiments, player terminals can be located at licensed gaming locations.","Licensed gaming locations can include any state or, in the future, federal land whereby a player can play on a personal computing device through a network with a licensed operator.","Licensing may be governed by the Nevada Gaming Control, tribal council, and/or a regulatory agency setup within a state.","In the future, the federal government may permit federal licenses for certain operators.","For example, if Caesars Entertainment is licensed in Nevada and someone is playing on their system/networked servers that would be permitted and considered a licensed jurisdiction.","Some states, jurisdictions or specific areas (e.g., schools, churches, etc.)","may still have bans on gambling in those locations.","As such, some embodiments of the present technology may use various location deriving techniques (e.g., geolocation, GPS signals, IP addresses, geofencing, indoor positioning, and others) to determine if the player terminals that are mobile are in a banned location or in a location where gambling would be permitted.","This also contrasts with traditional Internet poker and the like, wherein player terminals (e.g., personal computers, table tops, laptops, tablets, smartphones, and the like) may be located anywhere.","Hence, according to some embodiments of the technology, a player may engage in these games without fear of running afoul of gambling laws.","While locations may include casinos, restaurants, bars, race tracks, hotels (including individual hotel rooms), and the like, players are secure in the fact that the location is authorized to provide the gaming opportunity.","Further still, in some embodiments, efforts are made to protect players from unsavory activities that have prevented the emergence of such gaming opportunities heretofore.","For example, collusion and other forms of cheating are addressed through player terminal placement, privacy features, electronic monitoring, and/or the like.","Hence, players are provided an enhanced gaming opportunity, even with respect to “live” games in which cheating is often hard to detect, since a casino does not see every player's hole cards, players are able to “mark” cards since the cards are physically handled, and colluding players can use sophisticated forms of signaling that go unnoticed by the dealer, floor personnel, or the “eye in the sky.” In some embodiments, payouts may be withheld for a period of time (e.g., 24 or 48 hours) to allow for a review of the game play by various hardware and/or software systems that can be used to detect colluding players or other types of cheating.","In some embodiments, the player terminals will need to display various information about the gaming session the player is about to enter.","This information can include various rules, limitations and payouts.","Since some player terminals may be able to support different games, variable payback, varying skill levels, and multiple profit models (e.g., rake, fixed fee, etc.","), the player terminal can display this type of information clearly to the user.","Players also may compete for enhanced prizes over and above the current “pot.” For example, in poker, players may be given bonus jackpots for hitting a certain, usually rare, hand (e.g., a Royal Flush).","Also, players may receive a “consolation prize” in the form of a “bad beat” jackpot (e.g., having an aces full house beaten by four of a kind or better).","These jackpots may be progressive and could grow to be much more valuable than the contested pot.","In blackjack, players can receive bonuses for hitting, for example, an ace and jack of spades blackjack.","In some embodiments, bonus rounds may be added with different interactive games (e.g., a game of skill or a game of chance).","The bonus round games may be selected by the player before or after the main gaming session.","In other embodiments, the bonus round may be randomly selected by the player terminal, the host computing system, or a gaming platform.","Still yet, the bonus round may only be presented to players that win the main gaming session or the bonus round may be randomly presented.","These and other features and enhancements will be described more fully in the ensuing detailed description.","In the following description, for the purposes of explanation, numerous specific details are set forth in order to provide a thorough understanding of embodiments of the present technology.","It will be apparent, however, to one skilled in the art that embodiments of the present technology may be practiced without some of these specific details.","While, for convenience, embodiments of the present technology are described with reference to interactive gaming on various devices, embodiments of the present technology are equally applicable to various other cloud-based gaming technologies.","The techniques introduced here can be embodied as special-purpose hardware (e.g., circuitry), as programmable circuitry appropriately programmed with software and/or firmware, or as a combination of special-purpose and programmable circuitry.","Hence, embodiments may include a machine-readable medium having stored thereon instructions which may be used to program a computer (or other electronic devices) to perform a process.","The machine-readable medium may include, but is not limited to, floppy diskettes, optical discs, compact disc read-only memories (CD-ROMs), magneto-optical discs, ROMs, random access memories (RAMs), erasable programmable read-only memories (EPROMs), electrically erasable programmable read-only memories (EEPROMs), magnetic or optical cards, flash memory, or other type of media/machine-readable medium suitable for storing electronic instructions.","The phrases “in some embodiments,” “according to some embodiments,” “in the embodiments shown,” “in other embodiments,” and the like generally mean the particular feature, structure, or characteristic following the phrase is included in at least one implementation of the present technology, and may be included in more than one implementation.","In addition, such phrases do not necessarily refer to the same embodiments or different embodiments.","Attention is directed to FIG.","1, which illustrates an exemplary gaming network 100 according to embodiments of the technology.","The gaming network 100 includes a host computer system 102 and a communications network 104 through which a plurality of gaming locations 106 communicate with the host computer system 102.It should be appreciated that the gaming network 100 is merely exemplary of a number of possible gaming network configurations according to embodiments of the present technology.","Further, although the ensuing description will relate to a poker gaming network, this is not a requirement.","Embodiments of the present technology may relate to many other types and varieties of games.","This exemplary host computer system 102 includes an internal network 108, a web server 110, a game server 112, a game storage arrangement 114, a player storage arrangement 116, and an administrator computing device 118.In this specific embodiment, the various components of the host computer system 102 are co-located; in other embodiments, the components may be distributed geographically.","As those skilled in the art will appreciate, other exemplary host computer systems according to embodiments of the technology may include different components than those illustrated and described herein.","Each gaming location 106 may include a local server 120 and one or more player terminals 122.In some embodiments, the local server 120 may simply facilitate communication between the player terminals 122 and the host computer system 102.In other embodiments, the local server 120 administers the games, tracks players for loyalty purposes, manages player deposits, and/or the like.","In some embodiments, there may be more than 1 server at these locations handling different aspects of the gaming system.","For example, there may be servers dedicated to accounting and money management, servers dedicated for detecting collusion and/or other types of cheating (e.g., automated play), servers managing the loyalty/rewards systems, and the like.","The various servers, networks, computing devices, and storage arrangements may be any of a variety of well-known devices.","For example, in some embodiments, the communications network 104 is the Internet, the servers 110, 112, 120 are standard products offered, for example, by Dell Corp., the storage arrangements 114, 116 are typical optical, magnetic, solid state, or similar mass storage devices, and the administrator computing device 118 is a typical desktop computer.","The player terminals 122 will be described in greater detail below.","According to embodiments of the technology, the gaming locations 106 are licensed gaming locations, such as casinos, race tracks, licensed networks that comply with state or federal regulations, or the like.","In some embodiments, the gaming locations 106 are gas stations, hotels, stores, airports, or other locations at which gaming is legal.","The gaming locations 106 specifically exclude locations where gaming is not legal.","In accordance with various embodiments, gaming locations need not be attended.","As such, players may be able to enter and exit games, deposit and receive money, interact with the player's terminal, and the like, without the assistance of an attendant at the gaming location.","The player terminals 122 at the gaming locations 106 may be in wired or wireless communication with the local server 120.In accordance with various embodiments, player terminals 122 can include customized electronic devices built for interactive game play.","In some embodiments, the player terminals 122 can include personal computing devices running customized software (e.g., a gaming application running on a mobile device such as a mobile phone or tablet).","It should be appreciated that the terminals may be wirelessly connected directly to the host computer system 102 via the communications network 104.Other examples are possible.","In some embodiments, hotel guests at casino/hotels may “check out” player terminals 122 and engage in gaming from their hotel rooms.","In other embodiments, player terminals 122 are in every room in a hotel and players may engage in gaming using the terminals without ever leaving their rooms.","As will be described in greater detail below, in some embodiments, players can anonymously engage in games via the gaming network 100.That is, a player may insert cash into a terminal or otherwise deposit monetary value (e.g., via a credit card, PayPal®, digital currency transfer, etc.","), select a game, and begin playing without creating a user account.","This is a significant difference between embodiments of the present technology and previously-known gaming networks, such as Internet poker in which players must create user accounts.","As will be described in greater detail hereinafter, players may engage in interactive games from any location.","For example, players at terminal 122-21 and 122-25 from gaming location 106-2 may be involved in the same poker game as players using terminals 122-53 and 122-56 from the gaming location 106-5.The host computer system 102 administers the game and distributes information about the action of the game to appropriate player terminals.","Cards are dealt to players in the game, although players are only able to view their own cards and any community cards.","Betting proceeds from one player to the next, and the host computer system 102 informs each player of the action prior to his turn.","Of course, all players in a particular game may be playing from the same location.","The players may be playing next to one another at a common bank of machines or they may be distributed throughout the gaming location (e.g., some in their hotel rooms, some on one floor of a casino, and the remainder on another floor of the casino).","Still yet, some players may be remotely located and playing via a network connection with players in a fixed gaming location.","Other player may be playing from their homes, parks, restaurants, bars, and other locations.","Many examples are possible.","It is important to note, however, that gaming locations and the gaming network operator may take special steps to ensure players are not the victim of collusion or other forms of cheating.","For example, if two players playing from the same location are within eyesight of each other's terminals, then they may be able to see each other's hole cards or signal each other their holding.","This form of collusion provides these players with a significant advantage over other players in the game.","Similarly, an individual player may be the innocent victim of another player who can see his hole cards or other position within a game without his knowledge.","Hence, the gaming location may employ any of a number of measures to prevent such cheating.","In some embodiments, when a player enters a game from a specific terminal at a gaming location, other terminals within proximity (e.g., three rows of machines, 100 feet, the same floor of the casino, etc.)","of the player's terminal may be locked out of the game the player entered.","Of course, nothing would prevent two players seated at terminals next to one another from playing in different games.","Similarly, wireless terminals may have features that allow them to know when they are in proximity of one another and perform similar lockouts.","For example, these features can include, in some embodiments, one or more of proximity sensors (e.g., integrated into the device, attached via a dongle, externally located around the casino or other location, etc.","), IP address monitoring and tracing, reporting of GPS locations, beacon-based technology, video-based tracking, and the like.","As another example, player terminals may be distributed and fixed within a gaming location.","Various mapping technology can be used to create location maps that can be used as part of the proximity detection.","In some embodiments, gaming software may be downloaded onto a mobile, electronic device.","The software may require that various components of the device are active.","For example, the software may require that the GPS system is active, Bluetooth is active, cellular antennas are active, a dongle is present or the like.","When the software determines that the device components are not active, the software may automatically activate the components (e.g., GPS, Bluetooth, etc.)","or request that they be activated before allowing game play.","As another option, some embodiments may only allow game play for non-monetary value.","Similarly, if a dongle is required software may confirm its presence and only allow game play or connection to a host server when the dongle is present and has been successfully validated.","The dongle may have components which help validate user identities, help location scanning systems, generate beacons, respond to beacons, provide visual cues for external tracking systems, and the like.","Some embodiments of the software may disable cellular and data communications to prevent a play from being interrupted or colluding with other players.","With respect to an individual player who has another player looking over his shoulder to see his hole cards, player terminals may have a “hole card reveal” button or the like that allows players to quickly view their hole cards, whereas the cards are otherwise “face down” on the terminal display.","While not a guarantee that other players cannot see his cards, a player using such a feature is better able to protect his hand.","Shielding on the terminal and/or smaller displays or other features may be used to enhance a player's ability to protect his hand.","Despite all efforts to minimize cheating through visual means, players may nevertheless collude by communicating with one another via phone calls, texting, or the like.","Such collusion may be dealt with in any of a variety of ways by various embodiments of the present technology.","For example, player terminals or the gaming location in general may employ electronic countermeasures that disrupt cell phone signals.","As one example, when the player terminals are personal computing devices (e.g., a smartphone or a tablet), the application running the gaming software may completely deactivate one or more features of the smartphone or tablet such as cellular service, texting, Internet, etc.","Still yet, some embodiments of the gaming software may identify the mobile number associated with the mobile device.","As such, any incoming call when a game is in session may use the caller ID to block (or securely withhold) calls or text messages from other players in the common gaming session.","In some embodiments, the gaming network operator may employ collusion detection software that monitors player action.","Since the host computer system 102 knows all players' cards or activity within the gaming session, unusual action by a player may trigger a flag, after which the player's action is given higher scrutiny.","Players suspected of colluding or other cheating activity may be immediately barred from a game and their deposits held pending resolution.","In some embodiments, the system may automatically initiate a resolution workflow which can include additional automated reviews, manual reviews, third-party reviews, and the like.","Upon completion of the resolution workflow, a decision can be made to give the winnings to the player, notify the player that their winnings will be forfeited and kept by the casino or given to another player.","In some cases, the winnings may need to be turned over to a third party.","Some embodiments may use artificial intelligence techniques to identify cheating or collusion.","For example, some embodiments may use various types of supervised or unsupervised learning to identify abnormal player behavior, colluding players, or other types of cheating.","More specifically, various classifiers, statistical learning based systems, neural networks, deep learning tools, support vector machines, and the like may be used.","Some embodiments may receive multiple signals and other types of information about a player terminal, gaming actions, game being played, location, historical patterns, and the like.","Some embodiments may use one system to monitor in real-time for suspicious activity that is indicative of cheating (e.g., chip dumping, collusion, automated game play, etc.)","and a second system that can analyze recorded game play as part of a workflow.","The second system may analyze the recorded game play and signals from the gaming session in question, all gaming sessions of that player, and/or a gaming session within a specified time period (e.g., within one day, one week, one month, etc.).","Sometimes cheating is done ahead of game play (e.g., tampering with player terminal).","As such, some embodiments, can also pull and analyze different video feeds and other available information.","This additional data may be analyzed automatically or in response to one or more triggers (e.g., large wins or loses, profile ranking, etc.)","Some embodiments of the present technology can utilize multiple systems to track individuals from the time they enter the location to the time the individuals leave and this information can be used by the collusion detection modules and artificial intelligence systems as additional data.","For example, video (e.g., from surveillance cameras or CCTVs) from the time a player parks a car may be used in some embodiments.","Room key cards, loyalty numbers or cards, financial transaction systems, and other access or transaction systems often create the access or transaction logs may be used as additional data points for the monitoring and collusion systems.","Various other systems may be integrated into the real-time monitoring system.","These systems can include, but are not limited to, license plate readers, facial recognition systems, movement tracking systems, and the like.","Some embodiments may also use big data analytics systems or other analytic systems to analyze game play on the player that can predict whether the player is playing in an abnormal manner, showing different characteristics, or suspicious patterns to normal game play.","Logging a person's behavior and how they play can be done via software or hardware.","Some software-based systems may include the use of hypervisor-based components, API-based components, form grabbing based components, java script based components, memory injection based components, kernel base components, and the like.","Some hardware components for logging and tracking individuals and/or game play may include sensors, sniffers, USB connected, chip connected, port connected, electromagnetic emissions, optical surveillance or the like.","The captured information can be reviewed after game play or can be done with a system in real time and report information back.","Rules can be set with the software which can flag and report play that appears suspicious where a human can review either post game or in some instances in real time.","Some embodiments of the big data analytics systems may ingest data to look into backgrounds of individuals via databases, social media, influencer analysis, social scoring, real time third party content or chats, harvested information to looking into relationships regarding potential players playing together in the same game.","For example, some embodiments may also check if someone is a criminal, has known ties to people who know criminals.","To this end, some embodiments may search various via databases and other public information (e.g., social media accounts, news stories, etc.)","and develop a reputational profile for the player.","This reputational profile may be used in some embodiments as a security function which would enable human interaction from analyst or security personnel to take at a player.","For example, if an esports team were to be caught cheating and this cheating event was documented in social media or a corresponding article, the monitoring system could diagnose a person via KYC on the player or even review of a video of game play and build a data base based on gestures, biometrics, knowledge engineering/AI etc.","which would flag human interaction needed to look into a particular situation or game play.","Some embodiments may also monitor the environment for signal jamming technologies or battery operated EMP generators or similar tools used to cheat.","The collusion detection and real-time monitoring systems used in some embodiments may monitor for a variety of cheating activities.","For example, some may use signal traffic and/or other information to find flaws or vulnerabilities in systems to either credit accounts with money or manipulates games to win.","Some embodiments of the present technology may try to identify the injections of code, scripts, algorithms or other electronic measures that may be introduced by cheating player.","For online play, some embodiments may monitor for the use of bots that are controlled by more than one user in a game or viruses, targeted malware or infection vectors.","Some embodiments can track IP addresses or mobile phones to identify distances between players to see if collusion occurs base off of game play.","Technology tracking all computers or phones and proximity via GPS, triangulation or IP addresses may also be used.","Analytic solutions can be used in some embodiments to identify fake profiles and tie them to the real user based on movement, stats, game play and use of ephemeral communication as well as Virtual Private Networks for online/mobile play.","Some embodiments can track player game play from an IP address or GPS location and compare prior game play from a similar location to see if more than one person is colluding in a multi person game like poker.","For example, if a player's location is showing up as IP address 66.87.64.54 which has a GPS location of 34° 4′ 25.0320″ N and 118° 24′ 1.2672″ W and another player is playing from a similar IP address in close proximity, the system should be able to monitor if these players have prior game play in the same game.","Additionally, the logging of player characteristics may be used to identify if a person's style or manner of play is who they say they are.","Alternatively, if a player's manner or style of play is another person, the technology will be able to monitor and report who the person potentially might be based on a set of rules.","In some cases, friends may innocently enough like to play together or want to play against each other and are not colluding.","The systems mentioned above would be able to log play to sense unusual behavior and flag this information or if none occurs not do anything.","Having generally described a gaming network 100 according to embodiments of the technology, attention is directed to FIG.","2, which provides greater detail relating to the flow of funds in such a network.","According to this example, players 202 engage in gaming using player terminals 204.The players 202 may insert value (e.g., cash, points, credits, etc.)","into the terminals 204 to thereby engage in the games offered by the terminals.","When a player 202-1 is ready to cash out of a game, the terminal 204-1 is configured to dispense value back to the player 202-1.Excess value travels from the player terminals 204 to a local depository 206 and/or vice versa.","In some cases, the value moves electronically, for example, if the value is measured in points or credits.","In other cases, for example, if the value is in the form of paper currency and/or coin, value is physically moved from the local depository 206 to the player terminals 204 (“terminal fills”) and vice versa.","Occasionally, player cash outs are handled from the local depository 206 directly to the player.","In one such example, a player 202-5 is due a higher cash out than the terminal 204-5 can provide.","The player 202-5 may have experienced an exceptional winning session, the gaming location may require the player 202-5 to complete tax forms for IRS reporting, the player 202-5 may have won a specialty jackpot that is paid from the local depository 206, the player terminal 204-5 may be configured to only print “tickets” which players 202 redeem for cash at a cashier's cage, credit a player's loyalty card or bank card, and/or the like.","Many other such examples exist.","In some examples, value is paid from a local depository 206 to a central depository 208 and vice versa.","As in the immediately-previous discussion, the central depository 208 may occasionally pay value directly to a player 202-1.In a specific embodiment, the local depository 206 is a licensed gaming location and the central depository 208 is the operator of the gaming network 100.The operator enlists the gaming location to house terminals in return for a portion of the revenue generated by the network.","The compensation to the gaming location may be in proportion to the revenues generated at the gaming location.","For example, if the gaming network operator provides interactive poker, each contested pot may be “raked” a certain percentage (e.g., 3% to a maximum of $4).","Hence, the winning player's pot may be light a $4 rake.","The gaming locations from which the players are engaged in the game may keep $2 of the $4, while the remainder is remitted to the operator.","Because players may engage in the same poker game from different locations, occasional revenue balancing may be required to compensate gaming locations at which players have winnings in excess of deposits.","Likewise, locations at which players lose more over a period of time provide the excess to the operator for distribution to the locations with the higher wins.","In some embodiments, large payouts may be made by the manufacturer, the casino, or some other third party.","For example, mega jackpots/progressives that are pooled can get paid by the manufactures in many instances.","Individual gaming locations and/or the operator of the gaming network may offer promotions to increase player interest.","For example, as will be described in greater detail hereinafter, gaming locations may offer “high hand” jackpots.","Such jackpots are paid to players for making particular high hands such as four aces, a royal flush, or the like.","The jackpot may be reset to a starting value (e.g., $100 for four aces) and increase in proportion to revenues at the gaming locations until the high hand is again hit.","Different gaming locations may have different high hand jackpot amounts.","In fact, the high hand may be game specific, i.e., there may be one high hand jackpot for four aces in all Texas Hold'em games and a different four aces high hand jackpot for 7-card Stud games.","Jackpots also may be specific to various game limits.","High hand jackpots may be paid to players directly from the local depository 206.The gaming network operator also may offer specialty jackpots, such as “bad beat” jackpots, in which players who have a high value hand beaten may share (e.g., four-of-a-kind beaten by a higher hand).","As with the high hand jackpots, bad beat jackpots may reset to a nominal value after being hit and increase as a function of revenue.","The revenue base for a bad beat jackpot offered by the gaming network operator may be substantially larger than the revenue base for locally-offered high hand jackpots, in which case, the bad beat jackpot may grow at a faster rate.","As with the high hand jackpots, bad beat jackpots may be game and limit specific.","Of course, the preceding discussion should not be understood to limit bad beat jackpots to being offered by the gaming network operator or high hand jackpots to being offered by the local gaming location.","Further, other types and varieties of jackpots may be offered at any level of the network.","Attention is directed to FIG.","3, which illustrates an exemplary functional diagram 300 of the host computer system 102.The functional diagram 300 depicts several program modules as well as basic computer functions.","For example, the I/O module 302 handles input to and output from a processing environment and/or the communications network 104.The graphics module 304 provides control over the graphics displayed on player terminals and/or administrative computers.","The terminal control module 306 provides the capability of the host computer system 102 to interact with and/or control a player terminal 122.The game storage arrangement 308 houses software or other computer-executable code that controls the games offered.","A number of processing environments are also included in some embodiments.","For example, a game processor 310 controls one or more interactive games using the computer executable code from the game storage arrangement 308.A tournament processor 312 performs a similar function for player tournaments.","A loyalty tracker 314 keeps up with the play of registered players to thereby reward players for the amount of time they spend playing.","An accounting processor 316 controls the flow of money and/or other forms of value within the network.","A collusion detection processor 318 monitors such things as unusual action taken by a specific player, frequent occurrences of the same players playing together in the same games, and the like.","A software test environment 320 allows new games and/or processes to be tested in an environment that does not affect ongoing operations.","A waiting list queue 322 allows players to wait in line for a specific game or table.","An evaluation module 324 allows for the monitoring of the communication latency between the plurality of player terminals and the host computer system.","Skill level determination module 326 can determine the skill level of a player.","In some embodiments, the skill level identified by skill level determination module 326 may be based on specific skill sets and abilities.","In other embodiments, the skill level identified may be with respect to (or relative to) other players.","Skill level determination module 326 may have define specific games or tests to measure an individual's skill set.","The specific games or tests may start out simple and progressively get harder to more accurately measure a player's skill.","For racing games, for example, the speed may start slow and then increase, the number of obstacles may be few and then increase, the track dynamics and trajectories (e.g., curves) may start simple and grow to be more complex, the difficultly level may increase, and the like.","Some embodiments may also record player behavior, response times, and other game play characteristics.","Using this information various statistics, analytics, and rankings may be used to characterize a skill level.","Some embodiments of the present technology may only allow betting above a specific threshold (e.g., above $5, $10, $20, etc.)","when an estimate of the player's skill level is known either via an evaluation mode or from live game play.","In other embodiments, in an attempt to measure a player's skill level, the game may offer an initial bonus game or other free play which is really being used to measure a player's skill.","For example, a player may desire to bet $100 on a game of skill.","Suppose the game is a video game (e.g., a racing game).","The system may set an initial payback for meeting different objectives (e.g., $110 for completing the first level, $140 for completing the second level, $200 for completing the third level).","The initial bonus game may be used as a way to evaluate the player's skill level.","In response to the evaluation, the game may offer increased or decreasing paybacks, as set by variable payout module 328, depending on the skill level identified by skill level determination module 326 or other factor (e.g., location, current sporting events, etc.).","In some embodiments, each casino or owner may be able to set customized policies on how variable payout may occur.","These policies can be stored in policies/rules database 330 illustrated in FIG.","3 and accessed by variable payout module 328.For example, a casino may increase payouts for particular games on a player's birthday or anniversary or a new player in casino.","Similarly, various records such as player profiles, player skill levels, recorded games, and the like may be stored in records database 332.Those skilled in the art will appreciate that this is but one of many possible exemplary functional diagrams for a gaming network according to embodiments of the technology.","FIG.","4 illustrates an example of various components that may be used within a player terminal in accordance with some embodiments of the present technology.","As shown in FIG.","4, player terminals 122 may include memory 402 (e.g., volatile memory and/or nonvolatile memory), processor(s) 404, power supply 406 (e.g., battery), for executing processing instructions, and operating system 408.Additional components may include data storage component 410 (e.g., hard drive, flash memory, memory card, etc.","), one or more network interfaces (e.g., Bluetooth® Interface 412; and Network Communication Interface 414, which enables the player terminal to communicate by transmitting and receiving wireless signals using licensed, semi-licensed or unlicensed spectrums over a telecommunications network), audio interface 416, microphone 418, display 420, keypad or keyboard 422, SIM card 424, other input and/or output interfaces 426, and gaming module 428.The various components of a mobile device may be interconnected via a bus.","Memory 402 can be any device, mechanism, or populated data structure used for storing information.","In accordance with some embodiments of the present technology, memory 402 can encompass any type of, but is not limited to, volatile memory, nonvolatile memory and dynamic memory.","For example, memory 402 can be random access memory, memory storage devices, optical memory devices, media magnetic media, floppy disks, magnetic tapes, hard drives, SDRAM, RDRAM, DDR RAM, erasable programmable read-only memories (EPROMs), electrically erasable programmable read-only memories (EEPROMs), compact disks, DVDs, and/or the like.","In accordance with some embodiments, memory 402 may include one or more disk drives, flash drives, one or more databases, one or more tables, one or more files, local cache memories, processor cache memories, relational databases, flat databases, and/or the like.","In addition, those of ordinary skill in the art will appreciate many additional devices and techniques for storing information which can be used as memory 402.Memory 402 may be used to store instructions for running one or more applications or modules on processor(s) 404.For example, memory 402 could be used in one or more embodiments to house all or some of the instructions needed to execute the functionality of the various system components and/or modules.","Processor(s) 404 are the main processors of player terminal 122 which may include application processors, baseband processors, various coprocessors, and other dedicated processors for operating player terminal 122.For example, an application processor can provide the processing power to support software applications, memory management, graphics processing, and multimedia.","An application processor may be communicably coupled with memory 402 and configured to run the operating system 408, the user interface, and the applications stored on memory 402 or data storage component 410.A baseband processor may be configured to perform signal processing and implement/manage real-time radio transmission operations of a player terminal (e.g., a mobile device).","These processors, along with the other components, may be powered by power supply 406.The volatile and nonvolatile memories found in various embodiments may include storage media for storing information such as processor-readable instructions, data structures, program modules, or other data.","Some examples of information that may be stored include basic input/output systems (BIOS), operating systems, and applications.","Operating system 408 can also provide common services for software applications running on processor(s) 404.According to the embodiments shown in FIG.","4, gaming module 428 can include identification module 430, policy enforcement module 432, payout adjustment module 434, skill level adjustment module 436, accounting module 438, and state recordation module 440.Each of these modules can be embodied as special-purpose hardware (e.g., one or more ASICS, PLDs, FPGAs, or the like), or as programmable circuitry (e.g., one or more microprocessors, microcontrollers, or the like) appropriately programmed with software and/or firmware, or as a combination of special purpose hardware and programmable circuitry.","Other embodiments of the present technology may include some, all, or none of these modules and components along with other modules, applications, and/or components.","Still yet, some embodiments may incorporate two or more of these modules and components into a single module and/or associate a portion of the functionality of one or more of these modules with a different module.","For example, in one embodiment, identification module 430 and policy enforcement module 432 can be combined into a single module for identifying and enforcing various policies on a player terminal.","Identification module 430 can be used to gather information about the player terminal, current and/or past gaming sessions, player information, specific hardware and software configurations of the player terminal, GPS coordinates, associated telephone numbers, IP addresses, e-mail addresses, user identifiers, international mobile station equipment identity (IMEI), mobile equipment identifiers (MEID), integrated circuit card identifiers (ICCID), part identifiers, software identifiers, current gaming session identifiers, identification of any nearby player terminals, and the like.","This information can be used in a variety of ways, including by policy enforcement module 432 which can set customized collusion avoidance policies that can, in some embodiments, be dynamically set (e.g., based on location, current gaming session, etc.).","Payout adjustment module 434 can be used to dynamically adjust the payout of a gaming session.","For example, there may be minimum payout requirements (e.g., between 85% and 98%) that are required to be met over a period of time (e.g., daily, weekly, monthly, yearly, life of the machine or game).","As such, the payout module can ensure those minimum requirements are met.","Payout adjustment module 434 may also be able to adjust the payout based on the profit model being used for a particular gaming session.","For example, some games may take a fee or percentage off the top, a rake (e.g., 1% to 15%, fifty cents, one dollar, etc.)","of the money at play.","As another example, the games may use a pooled liquidity model for jackpots where the money is derived from multiple sources (e.g., multiple casinos).","As such, the percentage may be different depending on the game play location or other factor.","Still yet, payout adjustment module 434 may be connected to a casino or other rewards system and grant higher payouts based on various reward models (e.g., number of visits, average bet, total money bet, holiday/birthday month, gift, etc.).","Some embodiments allow for games that are designed to be a computer competing against a player.","After a game is played, some embodiments rank the player based on level of ability/performance.","The system may vary the payout based on the skill level in future games or offer different playing levels for different payouts.","For example, when the player performs above a specific level the system may lower the payout in future games for that player and/or require harder gameplay to receive the same payout.","To illustrate the idea, suppose a game has ten different levels of difficulty.","Initially, the player terminal or game may return a payback of $30 on a $20 bet for beating the level.","The player's wins and losses can be tracked.","Now suppose the player consistently wins on the first level of difficulty.","The system can increase the game play to a higher difficulty level and/or reduce the payout (e.g., $25 on a $20 bet) in future games being played by that player.","In other embodiments, the system will not rank player skill at all and the baseline would be zero for skill.","As a result, some players may be really good and some players may be bad and the game would always play the same (e.g., be at a constant skill level).","Some embodiments facilitate one human player against another human player.","Some embodiments can track statistics on each player and develop a player profile that includes a skill level that would be learned over time.","Using the player profile, some embodiments could pair players based on level of ability.","Players may also have the option of signing up for higher or lower skill.","Once the skill is learned or chosen, some embodiments of the system (depending on how it is set up) will return a percentage (e.g., 80%-98%) amount based on regulations, casino policy, etc.","If a player is ranked at a particular level and the system then finds the player is playing below that level, some embodiments of the system may re-categorize the player to a lower level.","For example, the levels may be based on a percentile ranges (e.g., 0-20 beginner, 20-40 between beginner and medium, 40-60 between medium and expert, 70-90 expert, 90-100 professional).","Some locations (e.g., states) may not allow certain games to be legally played.","In some embodiments, a matching engine may not only match players based on skill, but may refuse to pair players when one is located in a location where the game play, betting amounts, or other characteristic would be illegal.","Some embodiments provide multiple types of payables for a win, partial win, meeting of certain objectives.","As a result, if people are not matched at equal level than they could fall into a payable that pays everyone the same whereas if a matching occurs at equal levels than a higher payable would be achieved based on performance.","This configuration option may be used in some embodiments of a computer against a human player and bonus games of skill.","The variable payback may be based on factors other than skill.","For example, in some embodiments, gaming location regulations might allow for a higher payback percentage.","As a result, a player playing the same game on a mobile device may receive one payback a first location and a second payback at a second location.","Similarly, the paybacks may vary based on location within the casino.","For example, games played on a mobile device pool side or in a hotel room may have a lower payout than the same game played on the casino floor.","As another example, various promotions may be the basis for different payouts.","For example, on a player's birthday the payout may be higher.","Similarly, on busy weekends (e.g., during big sporting events) the payout may be lowered.","In some embodiments, the payables on games are fixed but the element of skill in the games can obviously sway the payback percentage.","Some embodiments use more than one payable based on factors (e.g., skill level, amount bet, continuous betting, levels reached, consecutive days played, amounts bet within time periods such as hours, days, weeks, months, years, etc.).","For example, for some games, the payback may be adjusted higher as the number of continuous games increases or the amount bet within specified time periods are met.","The following two tables illustrate examples: Number of Games/Bets Continuously Played Payout Less than five 80% Five to ten 85% Ten to twenty 90% More than twenty 95% Amount Bet Within an Hour Payout Less than $100 80% $101 to $500 85% $501 to $1000 90% More than $1000 95% Skill level adjustment module 436 can be used to adjust playing parameters within the game.","Playing parameters refer to the conditions present within the game during the game play.","Examples of playing parameters can include, but are not limited to, number of lives, amount of time to complete an objective or level, game speed, amount of ammo, firing rates, items caught, items chosen, number of automated opponents, difficulty of terrain, available weapons, less predictability, automated opponent strengths, and the like.","As an example, suppose a player is playing Pac-Man.","Skill level adjustment module can adjust the speed of the game play, number of ghosts, number of lives, speed of the player versus speed of the ghosts, invincibility time, and the like.","The higher the skill level set by skill level adjustment module 436, the higher the payout.","Accounting module 438 can be used to interface with various existing backend accounting systems and other reporting and record keeping systems (e.g., IRS reporting systems).","In some embodiments, accounting module 438 may be used to implement procedures that are designed to detect and prevent transactions that may be associated with money laundering, fraud and other criminal activities and to ensure compliance with all federal laws related to money laundering.","State recordation module 440 can be used to capture the state of the gaming session.","This can include a variety of game states including, but not limited to, wager, payout levels, skill level settings, and others.","The state of the gaming session can be repeatedly captured so that in the event of a communication failure, terminal fault, or other issue that would prevent the gaming session from being completed a record of the current state can be reconstructed.","For example, in some embodiments, the state may be captured at least every second.","In other embodiments, the state may be captured more or less quickly depending on game dynamics, user interactions, betting activity, risk assessment, etc.","For example, if as described above, the system identifies that the player has a higher risk profile (e.g., associated with known criminals, has a criminal record, detects suspicious activity, or the like), the amount of information captured may be increased (e.g., from snapshots to full recording of gameplay to information from additional systems such as external cameras, logging hardware or software).","The state captured by state recordation module 440 may also be used (possibly with state information from other player terminals of the same gaming session) by a collusion avoidance module to determine if any collusion is occurring.","In some embodiments, the state information captured by state recordation module 440 can be used to generate various gaming analytics.","In some embodiments, the host computer (or gaming platform) may capture the snapshots of the state information directly.","As part of the snapshots, some embodiments may also record the current state of the user's profile and other available information (e.g., news articles, data from social media, criminal records, pictures, casino surveillance video, and the like).","State recordation module 440 may store the state information in database for regulatory compliance, analytics, or other purpose.","For example, in some embodiments, all the game play within a period of time (e.g., a five-year period, a two-year period, a year, a month, a week, a day, etc.)","could be recorded and stored in the database.","In other embodiments, a limited number of gaming sessions could be recorded (e.g., last one hundred, last thirty, etc.).","Still yet, some embodiments of state recordation module 440 may only record (or record for longer period of time) games that have betting above a set threshold (e.g., $500, $1000, etc.).","The state information recorded by state recordation module may be a direct copy of the game play or only information sufficient to reproduce the game play.","For example, in some embodiments, the state information may include various gaming parameters (e.g., ammo amounts, number of lives, level, etc.","), gaming session identifier, date and time the interactive gaming session is opened or terminated, the date and time the interactive gaming session is logged in to or is logged out of by various player terminals, the physical location, by state or foreign jurisdiction, of the authorized player while logged in to the interactive gaming account, and/or other types of information.","In some embodiments, the player terminals can provide for social media, chatting and other communication channels.","For example, some embodiments, may have interfaces that allow for third party access through another gateway like Facebook® or other social media.","Various embodiments, may cause the game play to be recorded and possibly the environment and/or player.","Using one or more of these recording, customized videos can be automatically created.","In some cases, the video or recorded game play may be uploaded to the social media account in response to certain conditions being met (e.g., winning, cool tricks, etc.).","Some terminals may present the video to the player at the end of the game and ask if they would like a copy.","These recordings may be added to player profiles created by the casino or other system owner.","Not only can the recording be analyzed for cheating or collusion, but the recordings create a big data set that can be used to generate analytics to help understand and profile games and players.","For example, video recordings or pictures of the player may be used to identify gender, jewelry, clothing brands, and other characteristics.","This can be used to create customized promotions for that individual.","In some embodiments, location managers may use this information to select games that attract player with preferred profiles or desirable social analytics.","Some embodiments of the player terminals may allow for picture in picture or multiple screens.","For example, players may be able to play an interactive game via one screen or video channel and in the second screen or video channel being displayed in the picture in picture (PIP) thereby allowing players to play more than one at a time.","The additional screens or video channel, for example, could be used to watch sports, fantasy sports betting, ordering drinks or food, and the like.","In some embodiments, additional screens may be present to present various promotions such as ticket sells for shows, restaurant deals, future room bookings, room upgrades, and the like.","Some embodiments of the player terminals may also include external video outputs that allow for display of the game by others.","For example, in various tournament play (e.g., eSports), the external video outputs may allow others to watch the game play.","In various embodiments, the player terminals may support virtual reality interfaces, hologram generation systems, and other visualizations system for the gaming.","The player terminals, in some embodiments, can include various sensors to detect gestures that can be interpreted as controls for betting, controlling gaming action, ordering drinks, etc.","FIG.","5 illustrates an example of a set of operations 500 for enforcing a collusion avoidance policy on a player terminal in accordance with various embodiments of the present technology.","Various embodiments of the present technology allow for heterogeneous player terminals that can be at either fixed locations or mobile (i.e., able to move to different locations).","Since the player terminals may have different capabilities and may even be owned and operated by a player (e.g., a tablet), each player terminal may need different and/or dynamically changing collusion avoidance policies.","For example, a player terminal that is mobile may be able to be positioned nearby (e.g., within 25 feet) of a second player terminal that is stationary.","As such, the collusion avoidance policies may need to be dynamically updated so that those player terminals may not participate in the same gaming session.","As another example, collusion avoidance policy may depend on device type, location, and other factors.","For example, a casino may allow games to be played on mobile devices within certain locations.","In some instances, for example in various eSports events and other team based gaming session, the collusion avoidance policies may allow multiple players to collude.","As such, this type of dynamic policy adjustment can allow, in some embodiments, the collusion detection and enforcement to be appropriately set or even completely disengaged.","As illustrated in FIG.","5, for example, collection operation 510 determines the player terminal information.","Player terminal information can include information regarding specific hardware and software configurations of the player terminal.","In some embodiments, the player terminal information can include player information collected via the player terminal.","In accordance with various embodiments, and depending on the type of player terminal, collecting the player terminal information can be done in a variety of ways.","For example, the player terminal information could be automatically collected by accessing various sensors, components, operating systems, and/or software associated with the player terminal.","In some embodiments, the player terminal location maybe monitored over long periods of time and predictive analytics or learning algorithms can be used to generate a likely current location for the player based on historical information.","In some embodiments, the player terminal information could include GPS coordinates, telephone numbers, IP addresses, e-mail addresses, user identifiers, international mobile station equipment identity (IMEI), mobile equipment identifiers (MEID), integrated circuit card identifiers (ICCID), part identifiers, software identifiers, current gaming session identifiers, identification of any nearby player terminals, and the like.","As another example, management software or gaming software loaded on the player terminal may send out or monitor for beacon signals (e.g., using Bluetooth® or other short-range communication protocols) that can be received or transmitted by monitoring stations located at various physical locations (e.g., at a casino, airport, etc.).","The player terminal information can be reported, during reporting operation 520, to a collusion detection module.","The collusion detection module may be part of the player terminal or separate from the player terminal.","Reporting operation 520 may stream the information to the collusion detection module or send the information in batches.","As the player terminal information changes, the changes can be detected and then sent to the collusion detection module.","This may be particularly helpful in reducing traffic between the player terminal and a separate collusion module.","The collusion detection module can then process the player terminal information along with other information such as, for example, collusion rules to develop a collusion avoidance policy.","Once the player terminal information is received during receiving operation 530, the player terminal can enforce the collusion avoidance policy on the player terminal during enforcement operation 540.FIG.","6 illustrates an example of a set of operations 600 for detecting automated play on a player terminal in accordance with one or more embodiments of the present technology.","As illustrated in FIG.","6, monitoring operation 610 can monitor player action within a gaming session.","Using the player action, determination operation 620 determines action variability.","For example, the variability in responding to various game play situations, the player's logic in responding to various game play situations, the player's strategy, the player's response time for responding to various game play situations, the player's betting patterns, and/or other information derivable from monitoring player actions.","In some embodiments, determination operation 620 may also monitor various biometrics of the player or record the player with a camera.","Using the action variability, determination operation 630 can determine if a player terminal is using automated play during the gaming session.","This may be a score, a percentile, confidence level, a range, or other indicator that automated play is likely occurring.","If determination operation 630 determines that automated play is occurring (or likely occurring), then determination operation 630 branches to enforcement operation 640.During enforcement operation 640, the collusion avoidance policy can be enforced and may include a variety of actions including, but not limited to holding the game, terminating gaming sessions, holding payouts subject to further review, initiating review of other available data (e.g., from video surveillance systems), creating entries in a user tracking system and the like.","The collusion avoidance policy may have variable enforcement depending on the confidence or likelihood of the automated play, the betting amount, the identity of the player, the number of auto play triggers for the identified player, and the like.","Such features may be manually engaged or disengaged by the operators or be associated with a set of rules that can allow the system to automatically engage or disengage the feature in some embodiments.","If determination operation 630 determines that automated play is not occurring (or not likely occurring), then determination operation 630 branches to allowance operation 650, which allows the game play to continue and returns to monitoring operation 610 where the player action within a gaming session is monitored.","If determination operation 630 flags the play as potentially automated, then determination operation 630 branches to review operation 660 which can allow the game to continue with a heightened level of review or elevate the review to other systems or gaming administrators for review.","During this time, the game may be allowed to continue to collect additional evidence with monitoring operation 610 or a collusion avoidance policy may be enforced with enforcement operation 640.The collusion avoidance policy may request that an additional game be played where the gaming action is varied (e.g., speed, difficulty level, etc.)","to determine if automated playing is occurring.","FIG.","7 illustrates an example of a set of operations 700 for setting and updating a gaming session payout on a player terminal in accordance with some embodiments of the present technology.","As illustrated in FIG.","7, receiving operation 710 receives information regarding a baseline skill distribution for one or more interactive games (e.g., Pac-Man, Tetris, etc.).","This baseline may be collected offline or via terminals over a period of time.","Using the baseline skill distribution, payout operation 720 sets the initial game payout based on the baseline skill distribution.","As players play the interactive games, additional live game play statistics can be received from one or more terminals during playing operation 730.The skill distribution can be updated based on the additional live game play statistics during update operation 740.Using the updated skill distribution, determination operation 750 can determine if a game payout modification is needed.","If determination operation 750 determines that a game payout modification is not needed, then determination operation 750 can branch to initiation operation 760 to initiate a gaming session with a set payout.","If determination operation 750 determines that a game payout modification is needed, the determination operation 750 can branch to setting operation 770 where a fixed payout for a gaming session is updated and set.","Once the payout is set, then the gaming session can be initiated from initiation operation 760.FIG.","8 illustrates an example of a set of operations 800 for determining if network connection is sufficient for allowing a gaming session according to various embodiments of the present technology.","As illustrated in FIG.","8, receiving operation 810 can receive a request for a player terminal to enter a gaming session.","Connection operation 820 can determine the connection information between the player terminal and the host server.","The connection information may include information such as, but not limited to, upload speeds, download speeds, connection type (e.g., fiber/cat-5, Wi-Fi, cellular, miracast etc.","), and other connection information.","Using the connection information, determination operation 830 can determine whether the gaming criteria is met.","For example, the gaming criteria can include minimum upload speeds, minimum download speeds, and the like.","If determination operation 830 determines the gaming criteria has been met, then determination operation 830 can branch to initiation operation 840 where the gaming session can be initiated.","If determination operation 830 determines the gaming criteria has not been met, then determination operation 830 can branch to denial operation 850 where a gaming session is not initiated and then suggestion operation 860 can be used to suggest an alternative game based on the connection information.","FIG.","9 illustrates an exemplary player terminal 900 according to embodiments of the technology.","Only the most relevant aspects of the user interface portion of the player terminal 900 are illustrated and described herein.","It should be apparent that the user interface may be part of a hand-held player terminal, a free-standing player terminal (e.g., a tabletop gaming console, a dedicated gaming enclosure with electronics supporting the game, etc.","), a computing device configured as a player terminal (e.g., a laptop, mobile phone, tablet, e-reader, etc.","), a “set-top” gaming console, and/or the like.","Further, it is not necessary for all elements of the player terminal illustrated and described herein to be included in the player terminal.","The terminal includes a jackpot payout information area 902, a game display area 904, a player interaction area 906, and a cash and credit interaction area 908.The jackpot payout information area 902 includes information about the status of jackpot accumulations.","The amounts associated with the various jackpots may increase with time and may be game specific.","For example, if the player terminal provides the possibility to engage in different types of games and limits, then the jackpot amounts displayed in the jackpot information area may change with different player game selections.","The game display area 904 provides a visual depiction of the game in which the player is involved.","For example, the game display area 904 may show a poker table 910 and players 912 sitting around the table.","As players are dealt cards, the cards may appear in front of each player.","As players bet, chips may be displayed in front of the players.","At the end of each betting round, the chips from the round may be scooped into the middle of the table to symbolize the pot for which the players are competing.","As the action proceeds around the table, the next player to act may be highlighted and that player's terminal may beep, or otherwise alert the player that it is his turn to act.","Community cards may appear on the table for all players to see.","At the conclusion of the hand, the pot may be pushed to the winning player as the hole cards of all players still in the hand are revealed.","Each player's present bankroll may be graphically or numerically displayed so that all players know how much each player has available to wager.","The game display area 904 may be where players look to view their hole cards.","A player's hole cards may be continuously displayed.","In some embodiments, however, steps are taken to help ensure a player's hole cards remain hidden from other players potentially playing at nearby terminals to thereby prevent cheating.","In some embodiments, a button is included (e.g., the enter button 932) that causes the hole cards to be revealed.","If the button is not depressed, then the hole cards are simply shown as face down.","This way, players can quickly glance at their cards thereby reducing the risk that someone else can view their hole cards.","In other embodiments, hole cards may be displayed on a separate display screen.","In either case, shielding, glass coatings, polarization screens, and/or the like may be employed to prevent others from viewing a player's hole cards.","The player interaction area 906 includes player buttons, input devices, and the like through which players interact with the game.","It should be appreciated that the player interaction area 906 may comprise touch screen buttons on the game display area 904.Hence, it should be understood that this embodiment is merely exemplary of a number of possible embodiments as will be appreciated by those skilled in the art.","The player interaction area 906 in this embodiment includes discard buttons 920 for draw games (e.g., 5-card draw, 2-7 triple draw lowball, etc.).","Players use these buttons to identify cards to be discarded in a drawing round.","The player interaction area 906 also includes a bet button 922, a raise button 924, a fold button 926, a call button 927, and a check button 928.These buttons are used to take the appropriate action according to each button's name.","In some embodiments, additional input buttons and devices are included.","For example, a track ball 930 may be included for indicating how much a player wants to bet in unstructured games.","It also may be used to select from several choices displayed on the display screen 904.It may be used in combination with the enter button 932 to confirm a selection.","A cash out button 934 allows a player to leave a game with the value the player has presently accumulated.","Those skilled in the art will appreciate many other possibilities in light of this disclosure.","For example, depending on the type of game play contemplated, the player interaction area could include other types of input devices to accept inputs.","These input devices can include, but are not limited to voice recognition, actuators, joysticks, 3D-image tracking systems to monitor player motions, and the like.","The cash and credit interaction area 908 provides a loyalty card accepter 940, a bill or ticket accepter/dispenser 942, and a coin dispenser 944.These items work in ways similar to analogous devices on, for example, video poker machines, except that the player terminal sends signals to the host computer system in response to player actions taken with respect to cashing in and out.","Those skilled in the art will appreciate that the foregoing description is merely exemplary of a number of possible player terminal embodiments.","For example, other embodiments may include all touch screen controls, may only accept bills and dispense tickets, may not include jackpot values, and the like.","Most embodiments, however, minimally include a display area through which the action is depicted and which may include player input buttons that change depending on the state of the game.","It should also be appreciated that the display region may show display screens that allow players to select games and limits, enter personal information, if desired, and advertise promotions and the like when the terminal is not in use.","Many other possibilities exist and are apparent to those skilled in the art in light of this disclosure.","FIG.","10 illustrates an example of a player terminal 1000 according to some embodiments of the present technology.","As illustrated in player terminal 1000, there may be a player interaction area 1010 where the interactive game is presented.","The performance area 1020 can show various challenge levels, typical success rates, payouts, and other information.","Game selection area 1030 may be used to select the one or more games being played, the skill level, bets, and objectives for winning.","In accordance with various embodiments, the payout amount can vary over time.","For example, payouts can occur based on pay tables and hitting certain marks in a game or based off winning.","Also, some games may pay less money and give an experience over time whereby the player is paid a little bit of money so he loses slower.","Players may still be able to win a lot of money based on pay table or algorithms.","Payouts may also be set by local regulations.","As such, to ensure that the system is complying with local laws, the payouts may vary.","FIG.","11 illustrates an example of a set of operations 1100 for selecting game play within a gaming session according to various embodiments of the present technology.","While some terminals may be fixed and generally available for play, other player terminals may be personal computing devices of the player.","As such, receiving operation 1110 can receive a notification that a player terminal has joined the network.","Using update operation 1120, the player terminal can be updated with the available games or a list of the available games.","The player can be presented with an opportunity to select a plurality of games for play.","For example, during selection operation 1130, an indication can be received indicating the main game and the bonus round game that the player would like to combine.","Some embodiments set various rules for how the games may be paired.","For example, one rule may require that at least one of the games is an interactive game.","As another example, the rules may seek to limit or minimize the average estimated play time.","As such, only those games with average game play below a particular threshold may be presented as pairing options once the first game has been selected.","Determination operation 1140 can determine if the pairing rules have been satisfied.","If determination operation determines that the pair rules have not been satisfied, then determination operation 1140 branches to selection operation 1130 where different selections can be made.","If determination operation determines that the pair rules have been satisfied, then determination operation 1140 branches to initiation operation 1150 where the gaming session is initiated.","FIG.","12 illustrates an example of a set of operations 1200 for operating an interactive game according to one or more embodiments of the present technology.","The method may be implemented in gaming network 100 of FIG.","1 or other appropriate system.","Those skilled in the art will appreciate that other exemplary embodiments may include more, fewer, or different steps than those illustrated and described here.","Further, other exemplary embodiments may traverse the steps in different orders than shown herein.","The set of operations 1200 begins at block 1202 at which a host computer system, such as the host computer system 102, initiates a game session.","A game session, could be, for example, a poker game among several players.","The game session could consist of one or more hands of poker in which players compete against one another for the pot.","The game session could be a series of blackjack hands in which one or more players compete against the house as is known in the art.","The game session also could be a series of hands of other games such as gin rummy, bridge, and the like.","As another example, the game session could be any type of interactive game such as a game of skill, game of chance, or a hybrid game that includes a game of skill and a game of chance as regular game play or in a bonus.","In some embodiments, initiating a game session comprises making a selection available on one or more player terminals.","The selection allows players at the player terminals to enter the game session.","Any number of game sessions could be available at any given time for players to enter.","The games may comprise a variety of games (e.g., Texas Hold'em, 7-Card Stud, Omaha, Draw poker, 2-7 lowball, Blackjack, Bridge, pinball, Grand Theft Auto, Tetris, Minecraft, Hearthstone, Super Mario, Super Mario Kart, Pac-Man, Guitar Hero, Galaga, League of Legends, Frogger, StarCraft, Donkey Kong, words with friends, Sonic the Hedgehog, Counter-Strike, Metroid, Ms. Pac-Man, Space Invaders, Punch-Out, Rainbow Six Seige, Fallout, Final Fantasy, Call of Duty, Street Fighter, Dota, Journey, Dark Souls, role playing games, decision based games, etc.)","and a variety of limits ($0.25/$0.50, $11$2, $11$2 Blind No Limit, $10/$20, $500/$1000, etc.).","In some embodiments, the players may be able to select the game played in the gaming session and a game of skill to be played in the bonus round.","In some embodiments, the game session may be a tournament, which may be a single-table tournament or a multi-table tournament.","At block 1204, players are joined to the game session.","This may comprise receiving a signal from a player terminal that the player desires to enter the game and has deposited sufficient funds to enter the game.","The player is assigned to a seat (or is allowed to select a seat) at a virtual table, which may be displayed as shown in FIG.","9.The player's bankroll (i.e., the player's stake in the game) may be depicted at the virtual table.","In some embodiments, players may be provided with an option to change their perspective of the virtual table.","For example, a player may desire to “sit” at the bottom of the table in the seat identified as 912-5 in FIG.","9.If the player is seated in a different seat, the player may elect to “rotate” the perspective of the table so that the player is depicted in the desired position.","This does not change the player's position at the table with respect to the other players; it merely changes the player's perspective for display purposes.","This option may be useful in reducing cheating, since the player may relocate his position at the table to a position that obstructs the view of a potential cheater located near the player's terminal.","Of course, a player my elect to take a different seat at the table in some embodiments.","In some embodiments, players are randomly assigned to a game session.","While a player may identify the game and what limit the player wants to play, the table to which the player is assigned is not up to the player.","This minimizes the chance that a group of colluding players are able to sit at the same table.","Of course, a player can always request a table change or leave the game entirely.","In some embodiments, players enter a waiting list for certain games and limits.","If, for example, all the seats at a desired table are taken, a player may request to be placed on a waiting list for that game.","Players may enter waiting lists for specific games and/or limits.","When a seat opens in a game session that corresponds to the list in which a player is waiting at the top of the list, the player is given the opportunity to enter the game session.","As described previously, collusion or other forms of cheating may be addressed by prohibiting players from engaging in the same game session from locations proximate one another.","For example, if a casino has a plurality of player terminals distributed throughout the casino, then players may be prevented from joining the same game session from neighboring terminals.","After a player joins a game session from a specific terminal, nearby terminals are “locked out” of that game session.","The same process may be followed at all locations.","If players are playing from wireless terminals, the wireless terminals may have proximity detection features that perform a similar function of locking out nearby terminals.","Many other possibilities exist.","In some embodiments, all or certain players may be permitted to communicate and collude during an interactive gamine session (e.g., in eSports or other team-based gaming).","As such, some embodiments allow for the collusion detection to be suspended during certain permitted game types or as selected by an operator.","Once a sufficient number of players are joined to a game session, a game, or hand, is initiated at block 1206.If, for example, the game is Texas Hold'em Poker, two cards are dealt to each player in the hand.","At block 1208, the game proceeds as is known in the art, with the host computer system sending signals to each player terminal indicating the state of the game.","The player terminals provide a visual representation of the game state, and a player whose turn it is to act is provided with a set of options.","Hence, play continues at block 1210 with the host computer system receiving signals indicating a player's action.","The actions of blocks 1208 and 1210 continue with players interactively checking, betting, raising, calling, or folding and the host computer system updating the state of the game by sending signals to the player terminals.","If the game limits are fixed, players merely need to indicate their selection for the action to proceed.","If, however, the game is “no limit,” “pot limit,” or another non-structured betting limit, then players also indicate the size of each bet.","At block 1212, a winner is determined and the value of the pot is awarded to the winning player.","A new game may then be initiated at block 1206.Since players are able to enter and leave game sessions at any time, new players may be joined at block 1204 to replace any players that leave the game session.","While the foregoing description focuses on poker being played in the game session, those skilled in the art will appreciate that other forms of poker and other interactive games may be played according to other embodiments of the present technology.","Exemplary Computer System Overview Aspects and implementations of the interactive gaming system of the disclosure have been described in the general context of various steps and operations.","A variety of these steps and operations may be performed by hardware components or may be embodied in computer-executable instructions, which may be used to cause a general-purpose or special-purpose processor (e.g., in a computer, server, cloud-based gaming platform or other computing device) programmed with the instructions to perform the steps or operations.","For example, the steps or operations may be performed by a combination of hardware, software, and/or firmware.","FIG.","13 is a block diagram illustrating an example machine representing the computer systemization of the host computer system.","The gaming controller 1300 may be in communication with entities including one or more users 1325 client/terminal devices 1320 (e.g., devices 122), user input devices 1305, peripheral devices 1310, optional co-processor device(s) (e.g., cryptographic processor devices) 1315, and networks 1330 (e.g., 104 in FIG.","1).","Users may engage with the gaming controller 1300 via terminal devices 1320 over networks 1330.In some embodiments, all or a portion of the communications between terminal devices 1320 and gaming controller 1300 can be encrypted.","The law requires cryptography for some things.","Computers may employ central processing units (CPUs) or processors to process information.","Processors may include programmable general-purpose or special-purpose microprocessors, programmable controllers, application-specific integrated circuits (ASICs), programmable logic devices (PLDs), embedded components, a combination of such devices and the like.","Processors execute program components in response to user and/or system-generated requests.","One or more of these components may be implemented in software, hardware or both hardware and software.","Processors pass instructions (e.g., operational and data instructions) to enable various operations.","The gaming controller 1300 may include clock 1365, CPU 1370, memory such as read only memory (ROM) 1385 and random access memory (RAM) 1380 and co-processor 1375 among others.","These controller components may be connected to a system bus 1360, and through the system bus 1360 to an interface bus 1335.Further, user input devices 1305, peripheral devices 1310, co-processor devices 1315, and the like, may be connected through the interface bus 1335 to the system bus 1360.The interface bus 1335 may be connected to a number of interface adapters such as processor interface 1340, input output interfaces (I/O) 1345, network interfaces 1350, storage interfaces 1355, and the like.","Processor interface 1340 may facilitate communication between co-processor devices 1315 and co-processor 1375.In one implementation, processor interface 1340 may expedite encryption and decryption of requests or data.","Input output interfaces (I/O) 1345 facilitate communication between user input devices 1305, peripheral devices 1310, co-processor devices 1315, and/or the like and components of gaming controller 1300 using protocols such as those for handling audio, data, video interface, wireless transceivers, or the like (e.g., Bluetooth®, IEEE 1394a-b, serial, universal serial bus (USB), Digital Visual Interface (DVI), 802.11a/b/g/n/x, cellular, etc.).","Network interfaces 1350 may be in communication with the network 1330.Through the network 1330, gaming controller 1300 may be accessible to remote terminal devices 1320 (e.g., player terminals 122 illustrated in FIG.","1).","Network interfaces 1350 may use various wired and wireless connection protocols such as, direct connect, Ethernet, wireless connection such as IEEE 802.11a-x, miracast and the like.","Some components of the interactive gaming system may include various protocols or comply with various standards or certifications set forth by different associations or regulatory agencies.","For example, some embodiments may use the slot accounting system (SAS) protocol or comply with the game to system (G2S) standard.","Examples of network 1330 include the Internet, Local Area Network (LAN), Metropolitan Area Network (MAN), a Wide Area Network (WAN), wireless network (e.g., using Wireless Application Protocol WAP), a secured custom connection, and the like.","The network interfaces 1350 can include a firewall which can, in some aspects, govern and/or manage permission to access/proxy data in a computer network, and track varying levels of trust between different machines and/or applications.","The firewall can be any number of modules having any combination of hardware and/or software components able to enforce a predetermined set of access rights between a particular set of machines and applications, machines and machines, and/or applications and applications, for example, to regulate the flow of traffic and resource sharing between these varying entities.","The firewall may additionally manage and/or have access to an access control list which details permissions including, for example, the access and operation rights of an object by an individual, a machine, and/or an application, and the circumstances under which the permission rights stand.","Other network security functions performed or included in the functions of the firewall, can be, for example, but are not limited to, intrusion-prevention, intrusion detection, next-generation firewall, personal firewall, etc., without deviating from the novel art of this disclosure.","Storage interfaces 1355 may be in communication with a number of storage devices such as, storage devices 1390, removable disc devices, and the like.","The storage interfaces 1355 may use various connection protocols such as Serial Advanced Technology Attachment (SATA), IEEE 1394, Ethernet, Fiber, Universal Serial Bus (USB), and the like.","User input devices 1305 and peripheral devices 1310 may be connected to I/O interface 1345 and potentially other interfaces, buses and/or components.","User input devices 1305 may include card readers, finger print readers, joysticks, keyboards, microphones, mouse, remote controls, retina readers, touch screens, sensors, and/or the like.","Peripheral devices 1310 may include antenna, audio devices (e.g., microphone, speakers, etc.","), cameras, external processors, communication devices, radio frequency identifiers (RFIDs), scanners, printers, storage devices, transceivers, and/or the like.","Co-processor devices 1315 may be connected to the controller 1300 through interface bus 1335, and may include microcontrollers, processors, interfaces or other devices.","Computer executable instructions and data may be stored in memory (e.g., registers, cache memory, random access memory, flash, etc.)","which is accessible by processors.","These stored instruction codes (e.g., programs) may engage the processor components, motherboard and/or other system components to perform desired operations.","The controller 1300 may employ various forms of memory including on-chip CPU memory (e.g., registers), RAM 1380, ROM 1385, and storage devices 1390.Storage devices 1390 may employ any number of tangible, non-transitory storage devices or systems such as fixed or removable magnetic disk drive, an optical drive, solid state memory devices and other processor-readable storage media.","Computer-executable instructions stored in the memory may include an interactive gaming platform having one or more program modules such as routines, programs, objects, components, data structures, and so on that perform particular tasks or implement particular abstract data types.","For example, the memory may contain operating system (OS) component 1395, modules and other components, database tables, and the like.","These modules/components may be stored and accessed from the storage devices, including from external storage devices accessible through an interface bus 1335.The database components can store programs executed by the processor to process the stored data.","The database components may be implemented in the form of a database that is relational, scalable and secure.","Examples of such database include DB2, MySQL, Oracle, Sybase, and the like.","Alternatively, the database may be implemented using various standard data-structures, such as an array, hash, list, stack, structured text file (e.g., XML), table, and/or the like.","Such data-structures may be stored in memory and/or in structured files.","The gaming controller 1300 may be implemented in distributed computing environments, where tasks or modules are performed by remote processing devices, which are linked through a communications network, such as a Local Area Network (“LAN”), Wide Area Network (“WAN”), the Internet, and the like.","In a distributed computing environment, program modules or subroutines may be located in both local and remote memory storage devices.","Distributed computing may be employed to load balance and/or aggregate resources for processing.","Alternatively, aspects of the gaming controller 1300 may be distributed electronically over the Internet or over other networks (including wireless networks).","Those skilled in the relevant art(s) will recognize that portions of the interactive gaming system may reside on a server computer, while corresponding portions reside on a client computer.","Data structures and transmission of data particular to aspects of the gaming controller 1300 are also encompassed within the scope of the disclosure.","CONCLUSION Unless the context clearly requires otherwise, throughout the description and the claims, the words “comprise,” “comprising,” and the like are to be construed in an inclusive sense, as opposed to an exclusive or exhaustive sense; that is to say, in the sense of “including, but not limited to.” As used herein, the terms “connected,” “coupled,” or any variant thereof means any connection or coupling, either direct or indirect, between two or more elements; the coupling or connection between the elements can be physical, logical, or a combination thereof.","Additionally, the words “herein,” “above,” “below,” and words of similar import, when used in this application, refer to this application as a whole and not to any particular portions of this application.","Where the context permits, words in the above Detailed Description using the singular or plural number may also include the plural or singular number respectively.","The word “or,” in reference to a list of two or more items, covers all of the following interpretations of the word: any of the items in the list, all of the items in the list, and any combination of the items in the list.","The above Detailed Description of examples of the technology is not intended to be exhaustive or to limit the technology to the precise form disclosed above.","While specific examples for the technology are described above for illustrative purposes, various equivalent modifications are possible within the scope of the technology, as those skilled in the relevant art will recognize.","For example, while processes or blocks are presented in a given order, alternative implementations may perform routines having steps, or employ systems having blocks, in a different order, and some processes or blocks may be deleted, moved, added, subdivided, combined, and/or modified to provide alternative or subcombinations.","Each of these processes or blocks may be implemented in a variety of different ways.","Also, while processes or blocks are at times shown as being performed in series, these processes or blocks may instead be performed or implemented in parallel, or may be performed at different times.","Further, any specific numbers noted herein are only examples: alternative implementations may employ differing values or ranges.","Having described several embodiments, it will be recognized by those of skill in the art that various modifications, alternative constructions, and equivalents may be used without departing from the spirit of the technology.","Additionally, a number of well-known processes and elements have not been described in order to avoid unnecessarily obscuring the present technology.","Accordingly, the above description should not be taken as limiting the scope of the technology, which is defined in the following claims.","The teachings of the technology provided herein can be applied to other systems, not necessarily the system described above.","The elements and acts of the various examples described above can be combined to provide further implementations of the technology.","Some alternative implementations of the technology may include not only additional elements to those implementations noted above, but also may include fewer elements.","These and other changes can be made to the technology in light of the above Detailed Description.","While the above description describes certain examples of the technology, and describes the best mode contemplated, no matter how detailed the above appears in text, the technology can be practiced in many ways.","Details of the system may vary considerably in its specific implementation, while still being encompassed by the technology disclosed herein.","As noted above, particular terminology used when describing certain features or aspects of the technology should not be taken to imply that the terminology is being redefined herein to be restricted to any specific characteristics, features, or aspects of the technology with which that terminology is associated.","In general, the terms used in the following claims should not be construed to limit the technology to the specific examples disclosed in the specification, unless the above Detailed Description section explicitly defines such terms.","Accordingly, the actual scope of the technology encompasses not only the disclosed examples, but also all equivalent ways of practicing or implementing the technology under the claims.","To reduce the number of claims, certain aspects of the technology are presented below in certain claim forms, but the applicant contemplates the various aspects of the technology in any number of claim forms.","For example, while only one aspect of the technology is recited as a computer-readable medium claim, other aspects may likewise be embodied as a computer-readable medium claim, or in other forms, such as being embodied in a means-plus-function claim.","Any claims intended to be treated under 35 U.S.C.","§ 112(f) will begin with the words “means for”, but use of the term “for” in any other context is not intended to invoke treatment under 35 U.S.C.","§ 112(f).","Accordingly, the applicant reserves the right to pursue additional claims after filing this application to pursue such additional claim forms, in either this application or in a continuing application."]],"string":"[\n [\n \"Interactive Gaming Systems With Artificial Intelligence\",\n \"A system for interactive gaming among a plurality of players includes a host computer system and a plurality of player terminals communicably coupled to the host computer system or gaming platform via a network.\",\n \"The plurality of player terminals may be located at a plurality of licensed gaming locations.\",\n \"The plurality of player terminals may be configured to engage the plurality of players in a common interactive game operated by the host computer system.\",\n \"The plurality of player terminals can include means for dispensing player winnings from the player terminal.\"\n ],\n [\n \"1.A player terminal comprising: a memory; a processor; a communication component to connect the player terminal to a host computer system; a display to depict action from an interactive game; an interface to receive monetary value and upon receiving the monetary value use the processor to generate a credit total for a player playing on the player terminal, a player interaction area that includes a betting interface to receive a bet having a betting value that is then deducted from the credit total; and an artificial intelligence component configured to automatically monitor the player terminal and player actions to determine whether the player is cheating and upon detection of cheating suspend game play.\",\n \"2.The player terminal of claim 1, further comprising: a recording database where recordings or snapshots of the interactive game are stored; and wherein the artificial intelligence component accesses the recording database to access current and historical gameplay to identify abnormal game play or abnormal player interactions.\",\n \"3.The player terminal of claim 1, wherein the artificial intelligence component includes an ingestion layer to collect snapshots of the interactive game.\",\n \"4.The player terminal of claim 1, further comprising a real-time monitoring component to determines a location of the player terminal using indoor positioning systems.\",\n \"5.The player terminal of claim 4, wherein the real-time monitoring component includes an electronic collusion measure, under control of the processor, that is configured to detect gambling rule violations by, at least in part, using the location of the player terminal and evaluating one or more rules in view of the location to determine whether the player terminal can participate in the interactive game.\",\n \"6.The player terminal of claim 1, wherein the interactive game includes a card game, a video game, or an arcade games and upon conclusion of the interactive game, a bonus round with a different game is initiated.\",\n \"7.The player terminal of claim 1, further comprising a skill level determination module to evaluate a skill level of the player and set a variable payback based on the skill level of the player.\",\n \"8.The player terminal of claim 1, wherein the artificial intelligence component uses supervised learning to identify abnormal game play, abnormal betting, or abnormal player interactions.\",\n \"9.The player terminal of claim 1, wherein the artificial intelligence component uses classifiers, statistical learning, neural networks, deep learning, or support vector machines to identify the cheating.\",\n \"10.The player terminal of claim 1, wherein the artificial intelligence component ingests multiple signals relating to gaming actions, game being played, location of the player terminal, historical patterns of game play, or betting to identify the cheating.\",\n \"11.A method comprising: collecting information about a player from public or private data sources; creating, from the information collected about the player from the public or private data sources, a player profile that indicates a cheating risk level; setting a level of evaluation for the player based on the cheating risk level; ingesting, using an artificial intelligence system, game play information representing player interactions at a player terminal; and automatically evaluating, using the artificial intelligence system, the game play information to determine whether the player colluded or cheated.\",\n \"12.The method of claim 11, further comprising: accessing, from a database, previously recorded games associated with the player; and feeding these games to the artificial intelligence system for ingestion.\",\n \"13.The method of claim 11, further comprising accessing video recordings of the player on a casino property and feeding the video recordings to the artificial intelligence system for ingestion.\",\n \"14.The method of claim 11, wherein the game play information ingested by the artificial intelligence system occurs in real-time.\",\n \"15.The method of claim 11, further comprising: tracking the player, using multiple systems, from a time the player enters a location; wherein the multiple systems include surveillance cameras, key card entry systems, loyalty card systems, license plate readers, facial recognition systems, movement tracking systems, or financial transaction systems; and feeding the information about the player, recorded by the multiple systems, to the artificial intelligence system for ingestion.\",\n \"16.The method of claim 11, further comprising determining a location the player terminal.\",\n \"17.The method of claim 11, further comprising delaying a crediting of winnings to the player until the artificial intelligence system has completed automatically analyzing the game play information.\",\n \"18.A system comprising: means for receiving monetary value from a player; means for generating, upon receiving the monetary value from the player, a credit total for the player; means for determining a skill level of the player for a game to be played on a player terminal; means for receiving a bet having a betting value that is deducted from the credit total associated with the player; means for setting, based at least in part on the skill level of the player, a payout for completion of one or more objectives completed during the game; means for depicting action from the game; means for allowing the player to interact with game; means for evaluating interactions from the player during the game to identify cheating or collusion using an artificial intelligence system; and means for translating, upon successful completion of evaluation of the interactions, the credit total into a monetary value for the player.\",\n \"19.The system of claim 18, wherein the game includes a card game, a video game, an arcade game, a game of skill, a game of chance, or a hybrid game of skill and chance.\",\n \"20.The system of claim 18, further comprising: means for tracking the player from a time the player enters a location; and means for feeding information about the player, recorded by the means for tracking the player, to the artificial intelligence system for ingestion.\",\n \"21.The system of claim 18, further comprising: means for reviewing a player profile to determine whether a prior skill level has been assigned; means for offering, in response to determining that a prior skill level has not been assigned, an evaluation game that is not based on wagering; means for evaluating interactions from the player during the evaluation game to identify the skill level; and means for recording the skill level within the player profile.\",\n \"22.The system of claim 18, further comprising: means for receiving an indication of the one or more objectives to be completed during the game; and means for adjusting a set of gameplay parameters based on the one or more objectives.\",\n \"23.The system of claim 18, further comprising a means for classifying the interactions as occurring from human play or from bot play.\",\n \"24.A non-transitory computer-readable medium having instructions stored thereon that when executed by one or more processor cause a machine to: generate, upon receiving monetary value from a player, a credit total for the player that allows the player to place bets during a game; determine a skill level of the player for the game; receive a bet having a betting value that is deducted from the credit total associated with the player; setting, based at least in part on the skill level of the player, a payout for completion of one or more objectives completed during the game; depicting action from the game; receive interactions from the player allowing the player to interact with game; transmit the interactions to an artificial intelligence system to identify cheating or collusion; and translate, upon receiving an indication of successful completion from the artificial intelligence system, the credit total into a monetary value for the player.\",\n \"25.The non-transitory computer-readable medium of claim 24, wherein the game includes a card game, a video game, or an arcade game.\",\n \"26.The non-transitory computer-readable medium of claim 24, wherein the game includes a game of skill, a game of chance, or a hybrid game of skill and chance.\",\n \"27.The non-transitory computer-readable medium of claim 24, wherein the instructions when executed by the one or more processors cause the machine to determine the skill level of the player by further causing the machine to: review a player profile to determine whether a prior skill level has been assigned; offer, in response to determining that a prior skill level has not been assigned, an evaluation game that is not based on wagering; evaluate interactions from the player during the evaluation game to identify the skill level; and record the skill level within the player profile.\",\n \"28.The non-transitory computer-readable medium of claim 24, wherein the instructions when executed by the one or more processors cause the machine to: receive an indication of the one or more objectives to be completed during the game; and adjust a set of gameplay parameters based on the one or more objectives.\",\n \"29.The non-transitory computer-readable medium of claim 24, wherein evaluating the interactions from the player during the game includes using a support vector machine to classify the interactions as occurring from human play or from bot play.\",\n \"30.A system comprising: a processor; a memory having instructions stored thereon that when executed by the processor cause a machine to: collect information about a player from public or private data sources; create, from the information collected about the player from the public or private data sources, a player profile that indicates a cheating risk level while the player plays a game; set a level of evaluation for the player based on the cheating risk level; ingest, using an artificial intelligence system, game play information, wherein the game play information includes data representing player interactions at a player terminal; and evaluate, using the artificial intelligence system, the game play information to determine whether the player colluded or cheated during the game.\",\n \"31.The system of claim 30, further comprising: a database having stored thereon video recordings of the player on a property; a communication component to access the database and retrieve a video recording of the player on the property; and wherein the video recording is ingested by the artificial intelligence system and used to determine whether the player colluded or cheated.\",\n \"32.The system of claim 30, further comprising one or more tracking system to track the player at a location.\",\n \"33.The system of claim 32, wherein the one or more tracking systems include surveillance cameras, key card entry systems, loyalty card systems, license plate readers, facial recognition systems, movement tracking systems, or financial transaction systems.\",\n \"34.The system of claim 33, wherein the information about the player from the one or more tracking systems is fed to the artificial intelligence system for ingestion.\"\n ],\n [\n \" BACKGROUND The popularity of gambling has increased at extraordinary rates.\",\n \"Many casinos are opening or reopening poker rooms and Internet poker sites are popping up regularly.\",\n \"Casinos are also looking for new games and ways to attract players.\",\n \"New players are coming to the casinos daily.\",\n \"There are, however, several impediments to new players joining the ranks of poker players and other gamblers.\",\n \"First, with respect to Internet poker and other online gambling, the legality has not been tested, despite its ever-increasing popularity.\",\n \"Many people simply do not want to risk the possibility of running afoul of the law.\",\n \"Second, many people are simply not comfortable interacting with off-shore enterprises, which is where Internet poker and other gambling sites are located to avoid the reach of U.S. laws.\",\n \"In order to play at these sites, players must deposit money, which is not immediately accessible by the player.\",\n \"Many people do not trust off-shore sites to hold their money.\",\n \"Third, creating an account at an Internet poker or other gambling site requires a potential player to divulge personal information that many people simply do not wish to share.\",\n \"No one knows the limits of how the information will be used.\",\n \"Further, some people prefer anonymity, which is simply not possible with known Internet poker and other gambling sites.\",\n \"Hence, for at least these reasons, many people are not becoming poker players through Internet poker opportunities who otherwise would.\",\n \"Casino poker tables can provide impediments to new players.\",\n \"For example, the process of getting on a list to play, getting into a table game, and interacting with the many characters you will find in a poker room often intimidates new players to the point of disinterest.\",\n \"For at least the foregoing reasons, improved systems and methods are needed for providing interactive gaming opportunities to players.\"\n ],\n [\n \" SUMMARY Various embodiments of the present technology provide for systems and methods for interactive gaming among a plurality of players.\",\n \"In accordance with some embodiments, an interactive gaming system can include a host computer system and a plurality of player terminals communicably coupled to the host computer system via a network.\",\n \"The plurality of player terminals can be located at a plurality of licensed gaming locations and/or remotely from licensed gaming locations.\",\n \"The plurality of player terminals can be configured to engage the plurality of players in a common interactive game operated by the host computer system.\",\n \"The plurality of player terminals can include various means or mechanisms for dispensing player winnings from the player terminal.\",\n \"In some embodiments, the interactive game may be a game of skill, a game of chance, or a hybrid game of skill and chance.\",\n \"The host computer system may be located at a location different from any of the plurality of player terminals.\",\n \"Each player terminal may include means for receiving player deposits.\",\n \"The means for receiving player deposits may include a bill accepter.\",\n \"When the interactive game is poker, one or more of the plurality of player terminals may include means for receiving a user input to view hole cards dealt to the user in the course of the interactive game.\",\n \"The hole cards otherwise may not be viewable at the terminal.\",\n \"The host computer system may include means for monitoring actions taken by one or more of the plurality of players to thereby detect collusion among the players.\",\n \"The host computer system may include means for tracking one or more jackpots payable by an operator of one of the plurality of licensed gaming locations.\",\n \"The at least one of the one or more jackpots may include a high hand jackpot for making a specific hand.\",\n \"The at least one of the plurality of player terminals may include means for displaying at least one of the one or more jackpots payable by an operator of the host computer system.\",\n \"The host computer system may include means for tracking one or more jackpots payable by an operator of the host computer system.\",\n \"At least one of the one or more jackpots may include a bad beat jackpot for having a hand with a value at or above a specific value beaten by a hand with a value at or above a different specific value.\",\n \"At least one of the plurality of player terminals may include means for displaying at least one of the one or more jackpots payable by an operator of the host computer system.\",\n \"The host computer system may include means for tracking a player's play to thereby reward the player for player loyalty.\",\n \"The player terminals at a given location may be arranged to thereby inhibit collusion among players using the player terminals at the given location while engaged in a common game.\",\n \"In other embodiments, a system for interactive gaming among a plurality of players includes a host computer system and a plurality of player terminals communicably coupled to the host computer system via a network.\",\n \"The plurality of player terminals are located at a plurality of licensed gaming locations.\",\n \"The plurality of player terminals are configured to anonymously engage the plurality of players in a common interactive game operated by the host computer system.\",\n \"In still other embodiments, a method of operating an interactive game among a plurality of players includes initiating a game session at a host computer system.\",\n \"The method also includes joining the plurality of players to the game session via a network.\",\n \"The players are operating player terminals located at a plurality of licensed gaming locations.\",\n \"At least one of the plurality of players is joined to the game without creating a user account relating to the interactive game.\",\n \"The method also includes initiating the game and, from the host computer system, sending signals relating to the state of the game to the player terminals.\",\n \"The method further includes, at a host computer system, iteratively receiving signals from the player terminals.\",\n \"The signals indicate player actions in the game.\",\n \"The method further includes, at the conclusion of the game, awarding value to a winning player.\",\n \"In some embodiments, the method includes dispensing player winnings to one of the players from the player's player terminal.\",\n \"The interactive game may be poker.\",\n \"The host computer system may be located at a location different from any of the plurality of player terminals.\",\n \"The method may include receiving a deposit from a player at one of the player terminals.\",\n \"Receiving a deposit from a player at one of the player terminals may include receiving a deposit from a player via a bill accepter.\",\n \"The method may further include, at a player terminal, receiving a user input to view hole cards dealt to the user in the course of the interactive game.\",\n \"The hole cards otherwise may not be viewable at the terminal.\",\n \"The method also may include monitoring actions taken by one or more of the plurality of players to thereby detect collusion among the players.\",\n \"The method also may include tracking one or more jackpots payable by an operator of one of the plurality of licensed gaming locations.\",\n \"At least one of the one or more jackpots may be a high hand jackpot for making a specific hand.\",\n \"The method may include, at a player terminal, displaying at least one of the one or more jackpots payable by an operator of the host computer system.\",\n \"The method may include tracking one or more jackpots payable by an operator of the host computer system.\",\n \"At least one of the one or more jackpots may be a bad beat jackpot for having a hand with a value at or above a specific value beaten by a hand with a value at or above a different specific value.\",\n \"The method also may include, at a player terminal, displaying at least one of the one or more jackpots payable by an operator of the host computer system.\",\n \"The method may include tracking a player's play to thereby reward the player for player loyalty.\",\n \"The method may include arranging terminals at a given location to thereby inhibit collusion among players using the player terminals at the given location while engaged in a common game.\",\n \"The method may include inhibiting collusion among players using the player terminals at the given location while engaged in a common game by prohibiting a player from joining a specific game session at a terminal proximate a player terminal of another player engaged in the specific game session.\"\n ],\n [\n \"CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser.\",\n \"No.\",\n \"15/632,101, filed Jun.\",\n \"23, 2017, now allowed; which is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser.\",\n \"No.\",\n \"15/436,498, filed Feb. 17, 2017, and issued as U.S. Pat.\",\n \"No.\",\n \"9,697,682 on Jul.\",\n \"4, 2017; which is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser.\",\n \"No.\",\n \"15/192,821, filed Jun.\",\n \"24, 2016, and issued as U.S. Pat.\",\n \"No.\",\n \"9,589,417 on Mar.\",\n \"7, 2017; which is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser.\",\n \"No.\",\n \"14/880,001, filed on Oct. 9, 2015, and issued as U.S. Pat.\",\n \"No.\",\n \"9,396,611 on Jul.\",\n \"19, 2016; which is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser.\",\n \"No.\",\n \"11/183,247, filed Jul.\",\n \"14, 2005, and issued as U.S. Pat.\",\n \"No.\",\n \"9,159,195 on Oct. 13, 2015; each of which is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety for all purposes.\",\n \"TECHNICAL FIELD Various embodiments of the technology relate generally to gaming systems.\",\n \"More specifically, some embodiments of the technology relate to systems and methods for providing interactive gaming among a plurality of players.\",\n \"BACKGROUND The popularity of gambling has increased at extraordinary rates.\",\n \"Many casinos are opening or reopening poker rooms and Internet poker sites are popping up regularly.\",\n \"Casinos are also looking for new games and ways to attract players.\",\n \"New players are coming to the casinos daily.\",\n \"There are, however, several impediments to new players joining the ranks of poker players and other gamblers.\",\n \"First, with respect to Internet poker and other online gambling, the legality has not been tested, despite its ever-increasing popularity.\",\n \"Many people simply do not want to risk the possibility of running afoul of the law.\",\n \"Second, many people are simply not comfortable interacting with off-shore enterprises, which is where Internet poker and other gambling sites are located to avoid the reach of U.S. laws.\",\n \"In order to play at these sites, players must deposit money, which is not immediately accessible by the player.\",\n \"Many people do not trust off-shore sites to hold their money.\",\n \"Third, creating an account at an Internet poker or other gambling site requires a potential player to divulge personal information that many people simply do not wish to share.\",\n \"No one knows the limits of how the information will be used.\",\n \"Further, some people prefer anonymity, which is simply not possible with known Internet poker and other gambling sites.\",\n \"Hence, for at least these reasons, many people are not becoming poker players through Internet poker opportunities who otherwise would.\",\n \"Casino poker tables can provide impediments to new players.\",\n \"For example, the process of getting on a list to play, getting into a table game, and interacting with the many characters you will find in a poker room often intimidates new players to the point of disinterest.\",\n \"For at least the foregoing reasons, improved systems and methods are needed for providing interactive gaming opportunities to players.\",\n \"SUMMARY Various embodiments of the present technology provide for systems and methods for interactive gaming among a plurality of players.\",\n \"In accordance with some embodiments, an interactive gaming system can include a host computer system and a plurality of player terminals communicably coupled to the host computer system via a network.\",\n \"The plurality of player terminals can be located at a plurality of licensed gaming locations and/or remotely from licensed gaming locations.\",\n \"The plurality of player terminals can be configured to engage the plurality of players in a common interactive game operated by the host computer system.\",\n \"The plurality of player terminals can include various means or mechanisms for dispensing player winnings from the player terminal.\",\n \"In some embodiments, the interactive game may be a game of skill, a game of chance, or a hybrid game of skill and chance.\",\n \"The host computer system may be located at a location different from any of the plurality of player terminals.\",\n \"Each player terminal may include means for receiving player deposits.\",\n \"The means for receiving player deposits may include a bill accepter.\",\n \"When the interactive game is poker, one or more of the plurality of player terminals may include means for receiving a user input to view hole cards dealt to the user in the course of the interactive game.\",\n \"The hole cards otherwise may not be viewable at the terminal.\",\n \"The host computer system may include means for monitoring actions taken by one or more of the plurality of players to thereby detect collusion among the players.\",\n \"The host computer system may include means for tracking one or more jackpots payable by an operator of one of the plurality of licensed gaming locations.\",\n \"The at least one of the one or more jackpots may include a high hand jackpot for making a specific hand.\",\n \"The at least one of the plurality of player terminals may include means for displaying at least one of the one or more jackpots payable by an operator of the host computer system.\",\n \"The host computer system may include means for tracking one or more jackpots payable by an operator of the host computer system.\",\n \"At least one of the one or more jackpots may include a bad beat jackpot for having a hand with a value at or above a specific value beaten by a hand with a value at or above a different specific value.\",\n \"At least one of the plurality of player terminals may include means for displaying at least one of the one or more jackpots payable by an operator of the host computer system.\",\n \"The host computer system may include means for tracking a player's play to thereby reward the player for player loyalty.\",\n \"The player terminals at a given location may be arranged to thereby inhibit collusion among players using the player terminals at the given location while engaged in a common game.\",\n \"In other embodiments, a system for interactive gaming among a plurality of players includes a host computer system and a plurality of player terminals communicably coupled to the host computer system via a network.\",\n \"The plurality of player terminals are located at a plurality of licensed gaming locations.\",\n \"The plurality of player terminals are configured to anonymously engage the plurality of players in a common interactive game operated by the host computer system.\",\n \"In still other embodiments, a method of operating an interactive game among a plurality of players includes initiating a game session at a host computer system.\",\n \"The method also includes joining the plurality of players to the game session via a network.\",\n \"The players are operating player terminals located at a plurality of licensed gaming locations.\",\n \"At least one of the plurality of players is joined to the game without creating a user account relating to the interactive game.\",\n \"The method also includes initiating the game and, from the host computer system, sending signals relating to the state of the game to the player terminals.\",\n \"The method further includes, at a host computer system, iteratively receiving signals from the player terminals.\",\n \"The signals indicate player actions in the game.\",\n \"The method further includes, at the conclusion of the game, awarding value to a winning player.\",\n \"In some embodiments, the method includes dispensing player winnings to one of the players from the player's player terminal.\",\n \"The interactive game may be poker.\",\n \"The host computer system may be located at a location different from any of the plurality of player terminals.\",\n \"The method may include receiving a deposit from a player at one of the player terminals.\",\n \"Receiving a deposit from a player at one of the player terminals may include receiving a deposit from a player via a bill accepter.\",\n \"The method may further include, at a player terminal, receiving a user input to view hole cards dealt to the user in the course of the interactive game.\",\n \"The hole cards otherwise may not be viewable at the terminal.\",\n \"The method also may include monitoring actions taken by one or more of the plurality of players to thereby detect collusion among the players.\",\n \"The method also may include tracking one or more jackpots payable by an operator of one of the plurality of licensed gaming locations.\",\n \"At least one of the one or more jackpots may be a high hand jackpot for making a specific hand.\",\n \"The method may include, at a player terminal, displaying at least one of the one or more jackpots payable by an operator of the host computer system.\",\n \"The method may include tracking one or more jackpots payable by an operator of the host computer system.\",\n \"At least one of the one or more jackpots may be a bad beat jackpot for having a hand with a value at or above a specific value beaten by a hand with a value at or above a different specific value.\",\n \"The method also may include, at a player terminal, displaying at least one of the one or more jackpots payable by an operator of the host computer system.\",\n \"The method may include tracking a player's play to thereby reward the player for player loyalty.\",\n \"The method may include arranging terminals at a given location to thereby inhibit collusion among players using the player terminals at the given location while engaged in a common game.\",\n \"The method may include inhibiting collusion among players using the player terminals at the given location while engaged in a common game by prohibiting a player from joining a specific game session at a terminal proximate a player terminal of another player engaged in the specific game session.\",\n \"BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS A further understanding of the nature and advantages of the present technology may be realized by reference to the remaining portions of the specification and the drawings wherein like reference numerals are used throughout the several drawings to refer to similar components.\",\n \"Further, various components of the same type may be distinguished by following the reference label with a dash and a second label that distinguishes among the similar components.\",\n \"If only the first reference label is used in the specification, the description is applicable to any one of the similar components having the same first reference label irrespective of the second reference label.\",\n \"Embodiments of the present technology will be described and explained through the use of the accompanying drawings as follows.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"1 illustrates an exemplary interactive gaming system according to some embodiments of the present technology.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"2 illustrates graphically one example of how funds flow in an interactive gaming system, such as the system of FIG.\",\n \"1, according to various embodiments of the present technology.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"3 illustrates an exemplary processing environment for an interactive gaming system according to one or more embodiments of the present technology.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"4 illustrates an example of various components that may be used within a player terminal in accordance with some embodiments of the present technology.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"5 illustrates an example of a set of operations for enforcing a collusion avoidance policy on a player terminal in accordance with various embodiments of the present technology.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"6 illustrates an example of a set of operations for detecting automated play on a player terminal in accordance with one or more embodiments of the present technology.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"7 illustrates an example of a set of operations for setting and updating a gaming session payout on a player terminal in accordance with some embodiments of the present technology.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"8 illustrates an example of a set of operations for determining if network connection is sufficient for allowing a gaming session according to various embodiments of the present technology.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"9 illustrates an example of a player terminal according to one or more embodiments of the present technology.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"10 illustrates an example of a player terminal according to some embodiments of the present technology.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"11 illustrates an example of a set of operations for selecting game play within a gaming session according to various embodiments of the present technology.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"12 illustrates an example of a set of operations for operating an interactive game according to one or more embodiments of the present technology.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"13 illustrates an example of a computing platform that may be used in accordance with some embodiments of the present technology.\",\n \"The drawings have not necessarily been drawn to scale.\",\n \"Similarly, some components and/or operations may be separated into different blocks or combined into a single block for the purposes of discussion of some of the embodiments of the present technology.\",\n \"Moreover, while the technology is amenable to various modifications and alternative forms, specific embodiments have been shown by way of example in the drawings and are described in detail below.\",\n \"The intention, however, is not to limit the technology to the particular embodiments described.\",\n \"On the contrary, the technology is intended to cover all modifications, equivalents, and alternatives falling within the scope of the technology as defined by the appended claims.\",\n \"DETAILED DESCRIPTION Various embodiments of the present technology provide networked, interactive gaming.\",\n \"According to some embodiments of the technology, players may engage in interactive games that require at least one player decision after the game has begun.\",\n \"Interactive games can include games of skill, games of chance and/or hybrid games that mix games of chance and games of skill.\",\n \"Examples of interactive games include, but are not limited to, poker, blackjack, video and arcade games, virtual reality games, eSports, live dealer, pinball, games of chance with bonus rounds that include games of skill, and others.\",\n \"The interactive games can include head-to-head games where one player or team of players compete directly against another player or team of players.\",\n \"In some embodiments, the interactive game may be a single player game where the player is trying to meet various objectives (e.g., score a desired number of points, reach a certain level, complete a screen within a limited time frame, beat a computerized player, and the like).\",\n \"With respect to poker, for example, a player must decide whether to bet, raise, call, or fold after having seen his cards and the action of other players.\",\n \"With respect to blackjack, a player must decide whether to hit, stand, split, double down, or surrender after having seen his cards and the dealer's up card.\",\n \"With respect to video games, player interactions are needed throughout the game to make decisions to navigate obstacles, fire weapons, and the like depending on the particular video game.\",\n \"Other games can have similar actions during the progress of the game.\",\n \"These types of player decisions are in direct contrast with slot machines in which players merely decide to initiate a game, after which no player decision is made until the conclusion of the game.\",\n \"In other words, no intermediate decisions are made in non-interactive games.\",\n \"“Networked” gaming allows players to participate from different locations, although in some embodiments, players may play from a common location via a local network.\",\n \"The game, however, is typically administered by a processor separate from a player's terminal.\",\n \"By allowing participation from a large number of locations simultaneously, the quality and variety of the gaming opportunity is enhanced through increased demand.\",\n \"“Interactive games,” unlike, for example, slots, require at least one player decision after the game has begun.\",\n \"Some embodiments of the technology also provide players the opportunity to participate in networked gaming anonymously.\",\n \"Unlike, for example, Internet poker, in which a player must disclose at least some personal information to create a player account, embodiments of the present technology allow players to enter a game without disclosing any personal information.\",\n \"While some embodiments provide loyalty programs to encourage longer sessions, return customers, and the like, players are not required to participate in loyalty programs.\",\n \"Players may simply deposit funds into a player terminal and enter a game.\",\n \"Hence, no disclosure of personal information is required to participate in games according to some embodiments of the present technology.\",\n \"Further, according to various embodiments, player terminals can be located at licensed gaming locations.\",\n \"Licensed gaming locations can include any state or, in the future, federal land whereby a player can play on a personal computing device through a network with a licensed operator.\",\n \"Licensing may be governed by the Nevada Gaming Control, tribal council, and/or a regulatory agency setup within a state.\",\n \"In the future, the federal government may permit federal licenses for certain operators.\",\n \"For example, if Caesars Entertainment is licensed in Nevada and someone is playing on their system/networked servers that would be permitted and considered a licensed jurisdiction.\",\n \"Some states, jurisdictions or specific areas (e.g., schools, churches, etc.)\",\n \"may still have bans on gambling in those locations.\",\n \"As such, some embodiments of the present technology may use various location deriving techniques (e.g., geolocation, GPS signals, IP addresses, geofencing, indoor positioning, and others) to determine if the player terminals that are mobile are in a banned location or in a location where gambling would be permitted.\",\n \"This also contrasts with traditional Internet poker and the like, wherein player terminals (e.g., personal computers, table tops, laptops, tablets, smartphones, and the like) may be located anywhere.\",\n \"Hence, according to some embodiments of the technology, a player may engage in these games without fear of running afoul of gambling laws.\",\n \"While locations may include casinos, restaurants, bars, race tracks, hotels (including individual hotel rooms), and the like, players are secure in the fact that the location is authorized to provide the gaming opportunity.\",\n \"Further still, in some embodiments, efforts are made to protect players from unsavory activities that have prevented the emergence of such gaming opportunities heretofore.\",\n \"For example, collusion and other forms of cheating are addressed through player terminal placement, privacy features, electronic monitoring, and/or the like.\",\n \"Hence, players are provided an enhanced gaming opportunity, even with respect to “live” games in which cheating is often hard to detect, since a casino does not see every player's hole cards, players are able to “mark” cards since the cards are physically handled, and colluding players can use sophisticated forms of signaling that go unnoticed by the dealer, floor personnel, or the “eye in the sky.” In some embodiments, payouts may be withheld for a period of time (e.g., 24 or 48 hours) to allow for a review of the game play by various hardware and/or software systems that can be used to detect colluding players or other types of cheating.\",\n \"In some embodiments, the player terminals will need to display various information about the gaming session the player is about to enter.\",\n \"This information can include various rules, limitations and payouts.\",\n \"Since some player terminals may be able to support different games, variable payback, varying skill levels, and multiple profit models (e.g., rake, fixed fee, etc.\",\n \"), the player terminal can display this type of information clearly to the user.\",\n \"Players also may compete for enhanced prizes over and above the current “pot.” For example, in poker, players may be given bonus jackpots for hitting a certain, usually rare, hand (e.g., a Royal Flush).\",\n \"Also, players may receive a “consolation prize” in the form of a “bad beat” jackpot (e.g., having an aces full house beaten by four of a kind or better).\",\n \"These jackpots may be progressive and could grow to be much more valuable than the contested pot.\",\n \"In blackjack, players can receive bonuses for hitting, for example, an ace and jack of spades blackjack.\",\n \"In some embodiments, bonus rounds may be added with different interactive games (e.g., a game of skill or a game of chance).\",\n \"The bonus round games may be selected by the player before or after the main gaming session.\",\n \"In other embodiments, the bonus round may be randomly selected by the player terminal, the host computing system, or a gaming platform.\",\n \"Still yet, the bonus round may only be presented to players that win the main gaming session or the bonus round may be randomly presented.\",\n \"These and other features and enhancements will be described more fully in the ensuing detailed description.\",\n \"In the following description, for the purposes of explanation, numerous specific details are set forth in order to provide a thorough understanding of embodiments of the present technology.\",\n \"It will be apparent, however, to one skilled in the art that embodiments of the present technology may be practiced without some of these specific details.\",\n \"While, for convenience, embodiments of the present technology are described with reference to interactive gaming on various devices, embodiments of the present technology are equally applicable to various other cloud-based gaming technologies.\",\n \"The techniques introduced here can be embodied as special-purpose hardware (e.g., circuitry), as programmable circuitry appropriately programmed with software and/or firmware, or as a combination of special-purpose and programmable circuitry.\",\n \"Hence, embodiments may include a machine-readable medium having stored thereon instructions which may be used to program a computer (or other electronic devices) to perform a process.\",\n \"The machine-readable medium may include, but is not limited to, floppy diskettes, optical discs, compact disc read-only memories (CD-ROMs), magneto-optical discs, ROMs, random access memories (RAMs), erasable programmable read-only memories (EPROMs), electrically erasable programmable read-only memories (EEPROMs), magnetic or optical cards, flash memory, or other type of media/machine-readable medium suitable for storing electronic instructions.\",\n \"The phrases “in some embodiments,” “according to some embodiments,” “in the embodiments shown,” “in other embodiments,” and the like generally mean the particular feature, structure, or characteristic following the phrase is included in at least one implementation of the present technology, and may be included in more than one implementation.\",\n \"In addition, such phrases do not necessarily refer to the same embodiments or different embodiments.\",\n \"Attention is directed to FIG.\",\n \"1, which illustrates an exemplary gaming network 100 according to embodiments of the technology.\",\n \"The gaming network 100 includes a host computer system 102 and a communications network 104 through which a plurality of gaming locations 106 communicate with the host computer system 102.It should be appreciated that the gaming network 100 is merely exemplary of a number of possible gaming network configurations according to embodiments of the present technology.\",\n \"Further, although the ensuing description will relate to a poker gaming network, this is not a requirement.\",\n \"Embodiments of the present technology may relate to many other types and varieties of games.\",\n \"This exemplary host computer system 102 includes an internal network 108, a web server 110, a game server 112, a game storage arrangement 114, a player storage arrangement 116, and an administrator computing device 118.In this specific embodiment, the various components of the host computer system 102 are co-located; in other embodiments, the components may be distributed geographically.\",\n \"As those skilled in the art will appreciate, other exemplary host computer systems according to embodiments of the technology may include different components than those illustrated and described herein.\",\n \"Each gaming location 106 may include a local server 120 and one or more player terminals 122.In some embodiments, the local server 120 may simply facilitate communication between the player terminals 122 and the host computer system 102.In other embodiments, the local server 120 administers the games, tracks players for loyalty purposes, manages player deposits, and/or the like.\",\n \"In some embodiments, there may be more than 1 server at these locations handling different aspects of the gaming system.\",\n \"For example, there may be servers dedicated to accounting and money management, servers dedicated for detecting collusion and/or other types of cheating (e.g., automated play), servers managing the loyalty/rewards systems, and the like.\",\n \"The various servers, networks, computing devices, and storage arrangements may be any of a variety of well-known devices.\",\n \"For example, in some embodiments, the communications network 104 is the Internet, the servers 110, 112, 120 are standard products offered, for example, by Dell Corp., the storage arrangements 114, 116 are typical optical, magnetic, solid state, or similar mass storage devices, and the administrator computing device 118 is a typical desktop computer.\",\n \"The player terminals 122 will be described in greater detail below.\",\n \"According to embodiments of the technology, the gaming locations 106 are licensed gaming locations, such as casinos, race tracks, licensed networks that comply with state or federal regulations, or the like.\",\n \"In some embodiments, the gaming locations 106 are gas stations, hotels, stores, airports, or other locations at which gaming is legal.\",\n \"The gaming locations 106 specifically exclude locations where gaming is not legal.\",\n \"In accordance with various embodiments, gaming locations need not be attended.\",\n \"As such, players may be able to enter and exit games, deposit and receive money, interact with the player's terminal, and the like, without the assistance of an attendant at the gaming location.\",\n \"The player terminals 122 at the gaming locations 106 may be in wired or wireless communication with the local server 120.In accordance with various embodiments, player terminals 122 can include customized electronic devices built for interactive game play.\",\n \"In some embodiments, the player terminals 122 can include personal computing devices running customized software (e.g., a gaming application running on a mobile device such as a mobile phone or tablet).\",\n \"It should be appreciated that the terminals may be wirelessly connected directly to the host computer system 102 via the communications network 104.Other examples are possible.\",\n \"In some embodiments, hotel guests at casino/hotels may “check out” player terminals 122 and engage in gaming from their hotel rooms.\",\n \"In other embodiments, player terminals 122 are in every room in a hotel and players may engage in gaming using the terminals without ever leaving their rooms.\",\n \"As will be described in greater detail below, in some embodiments, players can anonymously engage in games via the gaming network 100.That is, a player may insert cash into a terminal or otherwise deposit monetary value (e.g., via a credit card, PayPal®, digital currency transfer, etc.\",\n \"), select a game, and begin playing without creating a user account.\",\n \"This is a significant difference between embodiments of the present technology and previously-known gaming networks, such as Internet poker in which players must create user accounts.\",\n \"As will be described in greater detail hereinafter, players may engage in interactive games from any location.\",\n \"For example, players at terminal 122-21 and 122-25 from gaming location 106-2 may be involved in the same poker game as players using terminals 122-53 and 122-56 from the gaming location 106-5.The host computer system 102 administers the game and distributes information about the action of the game to appropriate player terminals.\",\n \"Cards are dealt to players in the game, although players are only able to view their own cards and any community cards.\",\n \"Betting proceeds from one player to the next, and the host computer system 102 informs each player of the action prior to his turn.\",\n \"Of course, all players in a particular game may be playing from the same location.\",\n \"The players may be playing next to one another at a common bank of machines or they may be distributed throughout the gaming location (e.g., some in their hotel rooms, some on one floor of a casino, and the remainder on another floor of the casino).\",\n \"Still yet, some players may be remotely located and playing via a network connection with players in a fixed gaming location.\",\n \"Other player may be playing from their homes, parks, restaurants, bars, and other locations.\",\n \"Many examples are possible.\",\n \"It is important to note, however, that gaming locations and the gaming network operator may take special steps to ensure players are not the victim of collusion or other forms of cheating.\",\n \"For example, if two players playing from the same location are within eyesight of each other's terminals, then they may be able to see each other's hole cards or signal each other their holding.\",\n \"This form of collusion provides these players with a significant advantage over other players in the game.\",\n \"Similarly, an individual player may be the innocent victim of another player who can see his hole cards or other position within a game without his knowledge.\",\n \"Hence, the gaming location may employ any of a number of measures to prevent such cheating.\",\n \"In some embodiments, when a player enters a game from a specific terminal at a gaming location, other terminals within proximity (e.g., three rows of machines, 100 feet, the same floor of the casino, etc.)\",\n \"of the player's terminal may be locked out of the game the player entered.\",\n \"Of course, nothing would prevent two players seated at terminals next to one another from playing in different games.\",\n \"Similarly, wireless terminals may have features that allow them to know when they are in proximity of one another and perform similar lockouts.\",\n \"For example, these features can include, in some embodiments, one or more of proximity sensors (e.g., integrated into the device, attached via a dongle, externally located around the casino or other location, etc.\",\n \"), IP address monitoring and tracing, reporting of GPS locations, beacon-based technology, video-based tracking, and the like.\",\n \"As another example, player terminals may be distributed and fixed within a gaming location.\",\n \"Various mapping technology can be used to create location maps that can be used as part of the proximity detection.\",\n \"In some embodiments, gaming software may be downloaded onto a mobile, electronic device.\",\n \"The software may require that various components of the device are active.\",\n \"For example, the software may require that the GPS system is active, Bluetooth is active, cellular antennas are active, a dongle is present or the like.\",\n \"When the software determines that the device components are not active, the software may automatically activate the components (e.g., GPS, Bluetooth, etc.)\",\n \"or request that they be activated before allowing game play.\",\n \"As another option, some embodiments may only allow game play for non-monetary value.\",\n \"Similarly, if a dongle is required software may confirm its presence and only allow game play or connection to a host server when the dongle is present and has been successfully validated.\",\n \"The dongle may have components which help validate user identities, help location scanning systems, generate beacons, respond to beacons, provide visual cues for external tracking systems, and the like.\",\n \"Some embodiments of the software may disable cellular and data communications to prevent a play from being interrupted or colluding with other players.\",\n \"With respect to an individual player who has another player looking over his shoulder to see his hole cards, player terminals may have a “hole card reveal” button or the like that allows players to quickly view their hole cards, whereas the cards are otherwise “face down” on the terminal display.\",\n \"While not a guarantee that other players cannot see his cards, a player using such a feature is better able to protect his hand.\",\n \"Shielding on the terminal and/or smaller displays or other features may be used to enhance a player's ability to protect his hand.\",\n \"Despite all efforts to minimize cheating through visual means, players may nevertheless collude by communicating with one another via phone calls, texting, or the like.\",\n \"Such collusion may be dealt with in any of a variety of ways by various embodiments of the present technology.\",\n \"For example, player terminals or the gaming location in general may employ electronic countermeasures that disrupt cell phone signals.\",\n \"As one example, when the player terminals are personal computing devices (e.g., a smartphone or a tablet), the application running the gaming software may completely deactivate one or more features of the smartphone or tablet such as cellular service, texting, Internet, etc.\",\n \"Still yet, some embodiments of the gaming software may identify the mobile number associated with the mobile device.\",\n \"As such, any incoming call when a game is in session may use the caller ID to block (or securely withhold) calls or text messages from other players in the common gaming session.\",\n \"In some embodiments, the gaming network operator may employ collusion detection software that monitors player action.\",\n \"Since the host computer system 102 knows all players' cards or activity within the gaming session, unusual action by a player may trigger a flag, after which the player's action is given higher scrutiny.\",\n \"Players suspected of colluding or other cheating activity may be immediately barred from a game and their deposits held pending resolution.\",\n \"In some embodiments, the system may automatically initiate a resolution workflow which can include additional automated reviews, manual reviews, third-party reviews, and the like.\",\n \"Upon completion of the resolution workflow, a decision can be made to give the winnings to the player, notify the player that their winnings will be forfeited and kept by the casino or given to another player.\",\n \"In some cases, the winnings may need to be turned over to a third party.\",\n \"Some embodiments may use artificial intelligence techniques to identify cheating or collusion.\",\n \"For example, some embodiments may use various types of supervised or unsupervised learning to identify abnormal player behavior, colluding players, or other types of cheating.\",\n \"More specifically, various classifiers, statistical learning based systems, neural networks, deep learning tools, support vector machines, and the like may be used.\",\n \"Some embodiments may receive multiple signals and other types of information about a player terminal, gaming actions, game being played, location, historical patterns, and the like.\",\n \"Some embodiments may use one system to monitor in real-time for suspicious activity that is indicative of cheating (e.g., chip dumping, collusion, automated game play, etc.)\",\n \"and a second system that can analyze recorded game play as part of a workflow.\",\n \"The second system may analyze the recorded game play and signals from the gaming session in question, all gaming sessions of that player, and/or a gaming session within a specified time period (e.g., within one day, one week, one month, etc.).\",\n \"Sometimes cheating is done ahead of game play (e.g., tampering with player terminal).\",\n \"As such, some embodiments, can also pull and analyze different video feeds and other available information.\",\n \"This additional data may be analyzed automatically or in response to one or more triggers (e.g., large wins or loses, profile ranking, etc.)\",\n \"Some embodiments of the present technology can utilize multiple systems to track individuals from the time they enter the location to the time the individuals leave and this information can be used by the collusion detection modules and artificial intelligence systems as additional data.\",\n \"For example, video (e.g., from surveillance cameras or CCTVs) from the time a player parks a car may be used in some embodiments.\",\n \"Room key cards, loyalty numbers or cards, financial transaction systems, and other access or transaction systems often create the access or transaction logs may be used as additional data points for the monitoring and collusion systems.\",\n \"Various other systems may be integrated into the real-time monitoring system.\",\n \"These systems can include, but are not limited to, license plate readers, facial recognition systems, movement tracking systems, and the like.\",\n \"Some embodiments may also use big data analytics systems or other analytic systems to analyze game play on the player that can predict whether the player is playing in an abnormal manner, showing different characteristics, or suspicious patterns to normal game play.\",\n \"Logging a person's behavior and how they play can be done via software or hardware.\",\n \"Some software-based systems may include the use of hypervisor-based components, API-based components, form grabbing based components, java script based components, memory injection based components, kernel base components, and the like.\",\n \"Some hardware components for logging and tracking individuals and/or game play may include sensors, sniffers, USB connected, chip connected, port connected, electromagnetic emissions, optical surveillance or the like.\",\n \"The captured information can be reviewed after game play or can be done with a system in real time and report information back.\",\n \"Rules can be set with the software which can flag and report play that appears suspicious where a human can review either post game or in some instances in real time.\",\n \"Some embodiments of the big data analytics systems may ingest data to look into backgrounds of individuals via databases, social media, influencer analysis, social scoring, real time third party content or chats, harvested information to looking into relationships regarding potential players playing together in the same game.\",\n \"For example, some embodiments may also check if someone is a criminal, has known ties to people who know criminals.\",\n \"To this end, some embodiments may search various via databases and other public information (e.g., social media accounts, news stories, etc.)\",\n \"and develop a reputational profile for the player.\",\n \"This reputational profile may be used in some embodiments as a security function which would enable human interaction from analyst or security personnel to take at a player.\",\n \"For example, if an esports team were to be caught cheating and this cheating event was documented in social media or a corresponding article, the monitoring system could diagnose a person via KYC on the player or even review of a video of game play and build a data base based on gestures, biometrics, knowledge engineering/AI etc.\",\n \"which would flag human interaction needed to look into a particular situation or game play.\",\n \"Some embodiments may also monitor the environment for signal jamming technologies or battery operated EMP generators or similar tools used to cheat.\",\n \"The collusion detection and real-time monitoring systems used in some embodiments may monitor for a variety of cheating activities.\",\n \"For example, some may use signal traffic and/or other information to find flaws or vulnerabilities in systems to either credit accounts with money or manipulates games to win.\",\n \"Some embodiments of the present technology may try to identify the injections of code, scripts, algorithms or other electronic measures that may be introduced by cheating player.\",\n \"For online play, some embodiments may monitor for the use of bots that are controlled by more than one user in a game or viruses, targeted malware or infection vectors.\",\n \"Some embodiments can track IP addresses or mobile phones to identify distances between players to see if collusion occurs base off of game play.\",\n \"Technology tracking all computers or phones and proximity via GPS, triangulation or IP addresses may also be used.\",\n \"Analytic solutions can be used in some embodiments to identify fake profiles and tie them to the real user based on movement, stats, game play and use of ephemeral communication as well as Virtual Private Networks for online/mobile play.\",\n \"Some embodiments can track player game play from an IP address or GPS location and compare prior game play from a similar location to see if more than one person is colluding in a multi person game like poker.\",\n \"For example, if a player's location is showing up as IP address 66.87.64.54 which has a GPS location of 34° 4′ 25.0320″ N and 118° 24′ 1.2672″ W and another player is playing from a similar IP address in close proximity, the system should be able to monitor if these players have prior game play in the same game.\",\n \"Additionally, the logging of player characteristics may be used to identify if a person's style or manner of play is who they say they are.\",\n \"Alternatively, if a player's manner or style of play is another person, the technology will be able to monitor and report who the person potentially might be based on a set of rules.\",\n \"In some cases, friends may innocently enough like to play together or want to play against each other and are not colluding.\",\n \"The systems mentioned above would be able to log play to sense unusual behavior and flag this information or if none occurs not do anything.\",\n \"Having generally described a gaming network 100 according to embodiments of the technology, attention is directed to FIG.\",\n \"2, which provides greater detail relating to the flow of funds in such a network.\",\n \"According to this example, players 202 engage in gaming using player terminals 204.The players 202 may insert value (e.g., cash, points, credits, etc.)\",\n \"into the terminals 204 to thereby engage in the games offered by the terminals.\",\n \"When a player 202-1 is ready to cash out of a game, the terminal 204-1 is configured to dispense value back to the player 202-1.Excess value travels from the player terminals 204 to a local depository 206 and/or vice versa.\",\n \"In some cases, the value moves electronically, for example, if the value is measured in points or credits.\",\n \"In other cases, for example, if the value is in the form of paper currency and/or coin, value is physically moved from the local depository 206 to the player terminals 204 (“terminal fills”) and vice versa.\",\n \"Occasionally, player cash outs are handled from the local depository 206 directly to the player.\",\n \"In one such example, a player 202-5 is due a higher cash out than the terminal 204-5 can provide.\",\n \"The player 202-5 may have experienced an exceptional winning session, the gaming location may require the player 202-5 to complete tax forms for IRS reporting, the player 202-5 may have won a specialty jackpot that is paid from the local depository 206, the player terminal 204-5 may be configured to only print “tickets” which players 202 redeem for cash at a cashier's cage, credit a player's loyalty card or bank card, and/or the like.\",\n \"Many other such examples exist.\",\n \"In some examples, value is paid from a local depository 206 to a central depository 208 and vice versa.\",\n \"As in the immediately-previous discussion, the central depository 208 may occasionally pay value directly to a player 202-1.In a specific embodiment, the local depository 206 is a licensed gaming location and the central depository 208 is the operator of the gaming network 100.The operator enlists the gaming location to house terminals in return for a portion of the revenue generated by the network.\",\n \"The compensation to the gaming location may be in proportion to the revenues generated at the gaming location.\",\n \"For example, if the gaming network operator provides interactive poker, each contested pot may be “raked” a certain percentage (e.g., 3% to a maximum of $4).\",\n \"Hence, the winning player's pot may be light a $4 rake.\",\n \"The gaming locations from which the players are engaged in the game may keep $2 of the $4, while the remainder is remitted to the operator.\",\n \"Because players may engage in the same poker game from different locations, occasional revenue balancing may be required to compensate gaming locations at which players have winnings in excess of deposits.\",\n \"Likewise, locations at which players lose more over a period of time provide the excess to the operator for distribution to the locations with the higher wins.\",\n \"In some embodiments, large payouts may be made by the manufacturer, the casino, or some other third party.\",\n \"For example, mega jackpots/progressives that are pooled can get paid by the manufactures in many instances.\",\n \"Individual gaming locations and/or the operator of the gaming network may offer promotions to increase player interest.\",\n \"For example, as will be described in greater detail hereinafter, gaming locations may offer “high hand” jackpots.\",\n \"Such jackpots are paid to players for making particular high hands such as four aces, a royal flush, or the like.\",\n \"The jackpot may be reset to a starting value (e.g., $100 for four aces) and increase in proportion to revenues at the gaming locations until the high hand is again hit.\",\n \"Different gaming locations may have different high hand jackpot amounts.\",\n \"In fact, the high hand may be game specific, i.e., there may be one high hand jackpot for four aces in all Texas Hold'em games and a different four aces high hand jackpot for 7-card Stud games.\",\n \"Jackpots also may be specific to various game limits.\",\n \"High hand jackpots may be paid to players directly from the local depository 206.The gaming network operator also may offer specialty jackpots, such as “bad beat” jackpots, in which players who have a high value hand beaten may share (e.g., four-of-a-kind beaten by a higher hand).\",\n \"As with the high hand jackpots, bad beat jackpots may reset to a nominal value after being hit and increase as a function of revenue.\",\n \"The revenue base for a bad beat jackpot offered by the gaming network operator may be substantially larger than the revenue base for locally-offered high hand jackpots, in which case, the bad beat jackpot may grow at a faster rate.\",\n \"As with the high hand jackpots, bad beat jackpots may be game and limit specific.\",\n \"Of course, the preceding discussion should not be understood to limit bad beat jackpots to being offered by the gaming network operator or high hand jackpots to being offered by the local gaming location.\",\n \"Further, other types and varieties of jackpots may be offered at any level of the network.\",\n \"Attention is directed to FIG.\",\n \"3, which illustrates an exemplary functional diagram 300 of the host computer system 102.The functional diagram 300 depicts several program modules as well as basic computer functions.\",\n \"For example, the I/O module 302 handles input to and output from a processing environment and/or the communications network 104.The graphics module 304 provides control over the graphics displayed on player terminals and/or administrative computers.\",\n \"The terminal control module 306 provides the capability of the host computer system 102 to interact with and/or control a player terminal 122.The game storage arrangement 308 houses software or other computer-executable code that controls the games offered.\",\n \"A number of processing environments are also included in some embodiments.\",\n \"For example, a game processor 310 controls one or more interactive games using the computer executable code from the game storage arrangement 308.A tournament processor 312 performs a similar function for player tournaments.\",\n \"A loyalty tracker 314 keeps up with the play of registered players to thereby reward players for the amount of time they spend playing.\",\n \"An accounting processor 316 controls the flow of money and/or other forms of value within the network.\",\n \"A collusion detection processor 318 monitors such things as unusual action taken by a specific player, frequent occurrences of the same players playing together in the same games, and the like.\",\n \"A software test environment 320 allows new games and/or processes to be tested in an environment that does not affect ongoing operations.\",\n \"A waiting list queue 322 allows players to wait in line for a specific game or table.\",\n \"An evaluation module 324 allows for the monitoring of the communication latency between the plurality of player terminals and the host computer system.\",\n \"Skill level determination module 326 can determine the skill level of a player.\",\n \"In some embodiments, the skill level identified by skill level determination module 326 may be based on specific skill sets and abilities.\",\n \"In other embodiments, the skill level identified may be with respect to (or relative to) other players.\",\n \"Skill level determination module 326 may have define specific games or tests to measure an individual's skill set.\",\n \"The specific games or tests may start out simple and progressively get harder to more accurately measure a player's skill.\",\n \"For racing games, for example, the speed may start slow and then increase, the number of obstacles may be few and then increase, the track dynamics and trajectories (e.g., curves) may start simple and grow to be more complex, the difficultly level may increase, and the like.\",\n \"Some embodiments may also record player behavior, response times, and other game play characteristics.\",\n \"Using this information various statistics, analytics, and rankings may be used to characterize a skill level.\",\n \"Some embodiments of the present technology may only allow betting above a specific threshold (e.g., above $5, $10, $20, etc.)\",\n \"when an estimate of the player's skill level is known either via an evaluation mode or from live game play.\",\n \"In other embodiments, in an attempt to measure a player's skill level, the game may offer an initial bonus game or other free play which is really being used to measure a player's skill.\",\n \"For example, a player may desire to bet $100 on a game of skill.\",\n \"Suppose the game is a video game (e.g., a racing game).\",\n \"The system may set an initial payback for meeting different objectives (e.g., $110 for completing the first level, $140 for completing the second level, $200 for completing the third level).\",\n \"The initial bonus game may be used as a way to evaluate the player's skill level.\",\n \"In response to the evaluation, the game may offer increased or decreasing paybacks, as set by variable payout module 328, depending on the skill level identified by skill level determination module 326 or other factor (e.g., location, current sporting events, etc.).\",\n \"In some embodiments, each casino or owner may be able to set customized policies on how variable payout may occur.\",\n \"These policies can be stored in policies/rules database 330 illustrated in FIG.\",\n \"3 and accessed by variable payout module 328.For example, a casino may increase payouts for particular games on a player's birthday or anniversary or a new player in casino.\",\n \"Similarly, various records such as player profiles, player skill levels, recorded games, and the like may be stored in records database 332.Those skilled in the art will appreciate that this is but one of many possible exemplary functional diagrams for a gaming network according to embodiments of the technology.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"4 illustrates an example of various components that may be used within a player terminal in accordance with some embodiments of the present technology.\",\n \"As shown in FIG.\",\n \"4, player terminals 122 may include memory 402 (e.g., volatile memory and/or nonvolatile memory), processor(s) 404, power supply 406 (e.g., battery), for executing processing instructions, and operating system 408.Additional components may include data storage component 410 (e.g., hard drive, flash memory, memory card, etc.\",\n \"), one or more network interfaces (e.g., Bluetooth® Interface 412; and Network Communication Interface 414, which enables the player terminal to communicate by transmitting and receiving wireless signals using licensed, semi-licensed or unlicensed spectrums over a telecommunications network), audio interface 416, microphone 418, display 420, keypad or keyboard 422, SIM card 424, other input and/or output interfaces 426, and gaming module 428.The various components of a mobile device may be interconnected via a bus.\",\n \"Memory 402 can be any device, mechanism, or populated data structure used for storing information.\",\n \"In accordance with some embodiments of the present technology, memory 402 can encompass any type of, but is not limited to, volatile memory, nonvolatile memory and dynamic memory.\",\n \"For example, memory 402 can be random access memory, memory storage devices, optical memory devices, media magnetic media, floppy disks, magnetic tapes, hard drives, SDRAM, RDRAM, DDR RAM, erasable programmable read-only memories (EPROMs), electrically erasable programmable read-only memories (EEPROMs), compact disks, DVDs, and/or the like.\",\n \"In accordance with some embodiments, memory 402 may include one or more disk drives, flash drives, one or more databases, one or more tables, one or more files, local cache memories, processor cache memories, relational databases, flat databases, and/or the like.\",\n \"In addition, those of ordinary skill in the art will appreciate many additional devices and techniques for storing information which can be used as memory 402.Memory 402 may be used to store instructions for running one or more applications or modules on processor(s) 404.For example, memory 402 could be used in one or more embodiments to house all or some of the instructions needed to execute the functionality of the various system components and/or modules.\",\n \"Processor(s) 404 are the main processors of player terminal 122 which may include application processors, baseband processors, various coprocessors, and other dedicated processors for operating player terminal 122.For example, an application processor can provide the processing power to support software applications, memory management, graphics processing, and multimedia.\",\n \"An application processor may be communicably coupled with memory 402 and configured to run the operating system 408, the user interface, and the applications stored on memory 402 or data storage component 410.A baseband processor may be configured to perform signal processing and implement/manage real-time radio transmission operations of a player terminal (e.g., a mobile device).\",\n \"These processors, along with the other components, may be powered by power supply 406.The volatile and nonvolatile memories found in various embodiments may include storage media for storing information such as processor-readable instructions, data structures, program modules, or other data.\",\n \"Some examples of information that may be stored include basic input/output systems (BIOS), operating systems, and applications.\",\n \"Operating system 408 can also provide common services for software applications running on processor(s) 404.According to the embodiments shown in FIG.\",\n \"4, gaming module 428 can include identification module 430, policy enforcement module 432, payout adjustment module 434, skill level adjustment module 436, accounting module 438, and state recordation module 440.Each of these modules can be embodied as special-purpose hardware (e.g., one or more ASICS, PLDs, FPGAs, or the like), or as programmable circuitry (e.g., one or more microprocessors, microcontrollers, or the like) appropriately programmed with software and/or firmware, or as a combination of special purpose hardware and programmable circuitry.\",\n \"Other embodiments of the present technology may include some, all, or none of these modules and components along with other modules, applications, and/or components.\",\n \"Still yet, some embodiments may incorporate two or more of these modules and components into a single module and/or associate a portion of the functionality of one or more of these modules with a different module.\",\n \"For example, in one embodiment, identification module 430 and policy enforcement module 432 can be combined into a single module for identifying and enforcing various policies on a player terminal.\",\n \"Identification module 430 can be used to gather information about the player terminal, current and/or past gaming sessions, player information, specific hardware and software configurations of the player terminal, GPS coordinates, associated telephone numbers, IP addresses, e-mail addresses, user identifiers, international mobile station equipment identity (IMEI), mobile equipment identifiers (MEID), integrated circuit card identifiers (ICCID), part identifiers, software identifiers, current gaming session identifiers, identification of any nearby player terminals, and the like.\",\n \"This information can be used in a variety of ways, including by policy enforcement module 432 which can set customized collusion avoidance policies that can, in some embodiments, be dynamically set (e.g., based on location, current gaming session, etc.).\",\n \"Payout adjustment module 434 can be used to dynamically adjust the payout of a gaming session.\",\n \"For example, there may be minimum payout requirements (e.g., between 85% and 98%) that are required to be met over a period of time (e.g., daily, weekly, monthly, yearly, life of the machine or game).\",\n \"As such, the payout module can ensure those minimum requirements are met.\",\n \"Payout adjustment module 434 may also be able to adjust the payout based on the profit model being used for a particular gaming session.\",\n \"For example, some games may take a fee or percentage off the top, a rake (e.g., 1% to 15%, fifty cents, one dollar, etc.)\",\n \"of the money at play.\",\n \"As another example, the games may use a pooled liquidity model for jackpots where the money is derived from multiple sources (e.g., multiple casinos).\",\n \"As such, the percentage may be different depending on the game play location or other factor.\",\n \"Still yet, payout adjustment module 434 may be connected to a casino or other rewards system and grant higher payouts based on various reward models (e.g., number of visits, average bet, total money bet, holiday/birthday month, gift, etc.).\",\n \"Some embodiments allow for games that are designed to be a computer competing against a player.\",\n \"After a game is played, some embodiments rank the player based on level of ability/performance.\",\n \"The system may vary the payout based on the skill level in future games or offer different playing levels for different payouts.\",\n \"For example, when the player performs above a specific level the system may lower the payout in future games for that player and/or require harder gameplay to receive the same payout.\",\n \"To illustrate the idea, suppose a game has ten different levels of difficulty.\",\n \"Initially, the player terminal or game may return a payback of $30 on a $20 bet for beating the level.\",\n \"The player's wins and losses can be tracked.\",\n \"Now suppose the player consistently wins on the first level of difficulty.\",\n \"The system can increase the game play to a higher difficulty level and/or reduce the payout (e.g., $25 on a $20 bet) in future games being played by that player.\",\n \"In other embodiments, the system will not rank player skill at all and the baseline would be zero for skill.\",\n \"As a result, some players may be really good and some players may be bad and the game would always play the same (e.g., be at a constant skill level).\",\n \"Some embodiments facilitate one human player against another human player.\",\n \"Some embodiments can track statistics on each player and develop a player profile that includes a skill level that would be learned over time.\",\n \"Using the player profile, some embodiments could pair players based on level of ability.\",\n \"Players may also have the option of signing up for higher or lower skill.\",\n \"Once the skill is learned or chosen, some embodiments of the system (depending on how it is set up) will return a percentage (e.g., 80%-98%) amount based on regulations, casino policy, etc.\",\n \"If a player is ranked at a particular level and the system then finds the player is playing below that level, some embodiments of the system may re-categorize the player to a lower level.\",\n \"For example, the levels may be based on a percentile ranges (e.g., 0-20 beginner, 20-40 between beginner and medium, 40-60 between medium and expert, 70-90 expert, 90-100 professional).\",\n \"Some locations (e.g., states) may not allow certain games to be legally played.\",\n \"In some embodiments, a matching engine may not only match players based on skill, but may refuse to pair players when one is located in a location where the game play, betting amounts, or other characteristic would be illegal.\",\n \"Some embodiments provide multiple types of payables for a win, partial win, meeting of certain objectives.\",\n \"As a result, if people are not matched at equal level than they could fall into a payable that pays everyone the same whereas if a matching occurs at equal levels than a higher payable would be achieved based on performance.\",\n \"This configuration option may be used in some embodiments of a computer against a human player and bonus games of skill.\",\n \"The variable payback may be based on factors other than skill.\",\n \"For example, in some embodiments, gaming location regulations might allow for a higher payback percentage.\",\n \"As a result, a player playing the same game on a mobile device may receive one payback a first location and a second payback at a second location.\",\n \"Similarly, the paybacks may vary based on location within the casino.\",\n \"For example, games played on a mobile device pool side or in a hotel room may have a lower payout than the same game played on the casino floor.\",\n \"As another example, various promotions may be the basis for different payouts.\",\n \"For example, on a player's birthday the payout may be higher.\",\n \"Similarly, on busy weekends (e.g., during big sporting events) the payout may be lowered.\",\n \"In some embodiments, the payables on games are fixed but the element of skill in the games can obviously sway the payback percentage.\",\n \"Some embodiments use more than one payable based on factors (e.g., skill level, amount bet, continuous betting, levels reached, consecutive days played, amounts bet within time periods such as hours, days, weeks, months, years, etc.).\",\n \"For example, for some games, the payback may be adjusted higher as the number of continuous games increases or the amount bet within specified time periods are met.\",\n \"The following two tables illustrate examples: Number of Games/Bets Continuously Played Payout Less than five 80% Five to ten 85% Ten to twenty 90% More than twenty 95% Amount Bet Within an Hour Payout Less than $100 80% $101 to $500 85% $501 to $1000 90% More than $1000 95% Skill level adjustment module 436 can be used to adjust playing parameters within the game.\",\n \"Playing parameters refer to the conditions present within the game during the game play.\",\n \"Examples of playing parameters can include, but are not limited to, number of lives, amount of time to complete an objective or level, game speed, amount of ammo, firing rates, items caught, items chosen, number of automated opponents, difficulty of terrain, available weapons, less predictability, automated opponent strengths, and the like.\",\n \"As an example, suppose a player is playing Pac-Man.\",\n \"Skill level adjustment module can adjust the speed of the game play, number of ghosts, number of lives, speed of the player versus speed of the ghosts, invincibility time, and the like.\",\n \"The higher the skill level set by skill level adjustment module 436, the higher the payout.\",\n \"Accounting module 438 can be used to interface with various existing backend accounting systems and other reporting and record keeping systems (e.g., IRS reporting systems).\",\n \"In some embodiments, accounting module 438 may be used to implement procedures that are designed to detect and prevent transactions that may be associated with money laundering, fraud and other criminal activities and to ensure compliance with all federal laws related to money laundering.\",\n \"State recordation module 440 can be used to capture the state of the gaming session.\",\n \"This can include a variety of game states including, but not limited to, wager, payout levels, skill level settings, and others.\",\n \"The state of the gaming session can be repeatedly captured so that in the event of a communication failure, terminal fault, or other issue that would prevent the gaming session from being completed a record of the current state can be reconstructed.\",\n \"For example, in some embodiments, the state may be captured at least every second.\",\n \"In other embodiments, the state may be captured more or less quickly depending on game dynamics, user interactions, betting activity, risk assessment, etc.\",\n \"For example, if as described above, the system identifies that the player has a higher risk profile (e.g., associated with known criminals, has a criminal record, detects suspicious activity, or the like), the amount of information captured may be increased (e.g., from snapshots to full recording of gameplay to information from additional systems such as external cameras, logging hardware or software).\",\n \"The state captured by state recordation module 440 may also be used (possibly with state information from other player terminals of the same gaming session) by a collusion avoidance module to determine if any collusion is occurring.\",\n \"In some embodiments, the state information captured by state recordation module 440 can be used to generate various gaming analytics.\",\n \"In some embodiments, the host computer (or gaming platform) may capture the snapshots of the state information directly.\",\n \"As part of the snapshots, some embodiments may also record the current state of the user's profile and other available information (e.g., news articles, data from social media, criminal records, pictures, casino surveillance video, and the like).\",\n \"State recordation module 440 may store the state information in database for regulatory compliance, analytics, or other purpose.\",\n \"For example, in some embodiments, all the game play within a period of time (e.g., a five-year period, a two-year period, a year, a month, a week, a day, etc.)\",\n \"could be recorded and stored in the database.\",\n \"In other embodiments, a limited number of gaming sessions could be recorded (e.g., last one hundred, last thirty, etc.).\",\n \"Still yet, some embodiments of state recordation module 440 may only record (or record for longer period of time) games that have betting above a set threshold (e.g., $500, $1000, etc.).\",\n \"The state information recorded by state recordation module may be a direct copy of the game play or only information sufficient to reproduce the game play.\",\n \"For example, in some embodiments, the state information may include various gaming parameters (e.g., ammo amounts, number of lives, level, etc.\",\n \"), gaming session identifier, date and time the interactive gaming session is opened or terminated, the date and time the interactive gaming session is logged in to or is logged out of by various player terminals, the physical location, by state or foreign jurisdiction, of the authorized player while logged in to the interactive gaming account, and/or other types of information.\",\n \"In some embodiments, the player terminals can provide for social media, chatting and other communication channels.\",\n \"For example, some embodiments, may have interfaces that allow for third party access through another gateway like Facebook® or other social media.\",\n \"Various embodiments, may cause the game play to be recorded and possibly the environment and/or player.\",\n \"Using one or more of these recording, customized videos can be automatically created.\",\n \"In some cases, the video or recorded game play may be uploaded to the social media account in response to certain conditions being met (e.g., winning, cool tricks, etc.).\",\n \"Some terminals may present the video to the player at the end of the game and ask if they would like a copy.\",\n \"These recordings may be added to player profiles created by the casino or other system owner.\",\n \"Not only can the recording be analyzed for cheating or collusion, but the recordings create a big data set that can be used to generate analytics to help understand and profile games and players.\",\n \"For example, video recordings or pictures of the player may be used to identify gender, jewelry, clothing brands, and other characteristics.\",\n \"This can be used to create customized promotions for that individual.\",\n \"In some embodiments, location managers may use this information to select games that attract player with preferred profiles or desirable social analytics.\",\n \"Some embodiments of the player terminals may allow for picture in picture or multiple screens.\",\n \"For example, players may be able to play an interactive game via one screen or video channel and in the second screen or video channel being displayed in the picture in picture (PIP) thereby allowing players to play more than one at a time.\",\n \"The additional screens or video channel, for example, could be used to watch sports, fantasy sports betting, ordering drinks or food, and the like.\",\n \"In some embodiments, additional screens may be present to present various promotions such as ticket sells for shows, restaurant deals, future room bookings, room upgrades, and the like.\",\n \"Some embodiments of the player terminals may also include external video outputs that allow for display of the game by others.\",\n \"For example, in various tournament play (e.g., eSports), the external video outputs may allow others to watch the game play.\",\n \"In various embodiments, the player terminals may support virtual reality interfaces, hologram generation systems, and other visualizations system for the gaming.\",\n \"The player terminals, in some embodiments, can include various sensors to detect gestures that can be interpreted as controls for betting, controlling gaming action, ordering drinks, etc.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"5 illustrates an example of a set of operations 500 for enforcing a collusion avoidance policy on a player terminal in accordance with various embodiments of the present technology.\",\n \"Various embodiments of the present technology allow for heterogeneous player terminals that can be at either fixed locations or mobile (i.e., able to move to different locations).\",\n \"Since the player terminals may have different capabilities and may even be owned and operated by a player (e.g., a tablet), each player terminal may need different and/or dynamically changing collusion avoidance policies.\",\n \"For example, a player terminal that is mobile may be able to be positioned nearby (e.g., within 25 feet) of a second player terminal that is stationary.\",\n \"As such, the collusion avoidance policies may need to be dynamically updated so that those player terminals may not participate in the same gaming session.\",\n \"As another example, collusion avoidance policy may depend on device type, location, and other factors.\",\n \"For example, a casino may allow games to be played on mobile devices within certain locations.\",\n \"In some instances, for example in various eSports events and other team based gaming session, the collusion avoidance policies may allow multiple players to collude.\",\n \"As such, this type of dynamic policy adjustment can allow, in some embodiments, the collusion detection and enforcement to be appropriately set or even completely disengaged.\",\n \"As illustrated in FIG.\",\n \"5, for example, collection operation 510 determines the player terminal information.\",\n \"Player terminal information can include information regarding specific hardware and software configurations of the player terminal.\",\n \"In some embodiments, the player terminal information can include player information collected via the player terminal.\",\n \"In accordance with various embodiments, and depending on the type of player terminal, collecting the player terminal information can be done in a variety of ways.\",\n \"For example, the player terminal information could be automatically collected by accessing various sensors, components, operating systems, and/or software associated with the player terminal.\",\n \"In some embodiments, the player terminal location maybe monitored over long periods of time and predictive analytics or learning algorithms can be used to generate a likely current location for the player based on historical information.\",\n \"In some embodiments, the player terminal information could include GPS coordinates, telephone numbers, IP addresses, e-mail addresses, user identifiers, international mobile station equipment identity (IMEI), mobile equipment identifiers (MEID), integrated circuit card identifiers (ICCID), part identifiers, software identifiers, current gaming session identifiers, identification of any nearby player terminals, and the like.\",\n \"As another example, management software or gaming software loaded on the player terminal may send out or monitor for beacon signals (e.g., using Bluetooth® or other short-range communication protocols) that can be received or transmitted by monitoring stations located at various physical locations (e.g., at a casino, airport, etc.).\",\n \"The player terminal information can be reported, during reporting operation 520, to a collusion detection module.\",\n \"The collusion detection module may be part of the player terminal or separate from the player terminal.\",\n \"Reporting operation 520 may stream the information to the collusion detection module or send the information in batches.\",\n \"As the player terminal information changes, the changes can be detected and then sent to the collusion detection module.\",\n \"This may be particularly helpful in reducing traffic between the player terminal and a separate collusion module.\",\n \"The collusion detection module can then process the player terminal information along with other information such as, for example, collusion rules to develop a collusion avoidance policy.\",\n \"Once the player terminal information is received during receiving operation 530, the player terminal can enforce the collusion avoidance policy on the player terminal during enforcement operation 540.FIG.\",\n \"6 illustrates an example of a set of operations 600 for detecting automated play on a player terminal in accordance with one or more embodiments of the present technology.\",\n \"As illustrated in FIG.\",\n \"6, monitoring operation 610 can monitor player action within a gaming session.\",\n \"Using the player action, determination operation 620 determines action variability.\",\n \"For example, the variability in responding to various game play situations, the player's logic in responding to various game play situations, the player's strategy, the player's response time for responding to various game play situations, the player's betting patterns, and/or other information derivable from monitoring player actions.\",\n \"In some embodiments, determination operation 620 may also monitor various biometrics of the player or record the player with a camera.\",\n \"Using the action variability, determination operation 630 can determine if a player terminal is using automated play during the gaming session.\",\n \"This may be a score, a percentile, confidence level, a range, or other indicator that automated play is likely occurring.\",\n \"If determination operation 630 determines that automated play is occurring (or likely occurring), then determination operation 630 branches to enforcement operation 640.During enforcement operation 640, the collusion avoidance policy can be enforced and may include a variety of actions including, but not limited to holding the game, terminating gaming sessions, holding payouts subject to further review, initiating review of other available data (e.g., from video surveillance systems), creating entries in a user tracking system and the like.\",\n \"The collusion avoidance policy may have variable enforcement depending on the confidence or likelihood of the automated play, the betting amount, the identity of the player, the number of auto play triggers for the identified player, and the like.\",\n \"Such features may be manually engaged or disengaged by the operators or be associated with a set of rules that can allow the system to automatically engage or disengage the feature in some embodiments.\",\n \"If determination operation 630 determines that automated play is not occurring (or not likely occurring), then determination operation 630 branches to allowance operation 650, which allows the game play to continue and returns to monitoring operation 610 where the player action within a gaming session is monitored.\",\n \"If determination operation 630 flags the play as potentially automated, then determination operation 630 branches to review operation 660 which can allow the game to continue with a heightened level of review or elevate the review to other systems or gaming administrators for review.\",\n \"During this time, the game may be allowed to continue to collect additional evidence with monitoring operation 610 or a collusion avoidance policy may be enforced with enforcement operation 640.The collusion avoidance policy may request that an additional game be played where the gaming action is varied (e.g., speed, difficulty level, etc.)\",\n \"to determine if automated playing is occurring.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"7 illustrates an example of a set of operations 700 for setting and updating a gaming session payout on a player terminal in accordance with some embodiments of the present technology.\",\n \"As illustrated in FIG.\",\n \"7, receiving operation 710 receives information regarding a baseline skill distribution for one or more interactive games (e.g., Pac-Man, Tetris, etc.).\",\n \"This baseline may be collected offline or via terminals over a period of time.\",\n \"Using the baseline skill distribution, payout operation 720 sets the initial game payout based on the baseline skill distribution.\",\n \"As players play the interactive games, additional live game play statistics can be received from one or more terminals during playing operation 730.The skill distribution can be updated based on the additional live game play statistics during update operation 740.Using the updated skill distribution, determination operation 750 can determine if a game payout modification is needed.\",\n \"If determination operation 750 determines that a game payout modification is not needed, then determination operation 750 can branch to initiation operation 760 to initiate a gaming session with a set payout.\",\n \"If determination operation 750 determines that a game payout modification is needed, the determination operation 750 can branch to setting operation 770 where a fixed payout for a gaming session is updated and set.\",\n \"Once the payout is set, then the gaming session can be initiated from initiation operation 760.FIG.\",\n \"8 illustrates an example of a set of operations 800 for determining if network connection is sufficient for allowing a gaming session according to various embodiments of the present technology.\",\n \"As illustrated in FIG.\",\n \"8, receiving operation 810 can receive a request for a player terminal to enter a gaming session.\",\n \"Connection operation 820 can determine the connection information between the player terminal and the host server.\",\n \"The connection information may include information such as, but not limited to, upload speeds, download speeds, connection type (e.g., fiber/cat-5, Wi-Fi, cellular, miracast etc.\",\n \"), and other connection information.\",\n \"Using the connection information, determination operation 830 can determine whether the gaming criteria is met.\",\n \"For example, the gaming criteria can include minimum upload speeds, minimum download speeds, and the like.\",\n \"If determination operation 830 determines the gaming criteria has been met, then determination operation 830 can branch to initiation operation 840 where the gaming session can be initiated.\",\n \"If determination operation 830 determines the gaming criteria has not been met, then determination operation 830 can branch to denial operation 850 where a gaming session is not initiated and then suggestion operation 860 can be used to suggest an alternative game based on the connection information.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"9 illustrates an exemplary player terminal 900 according to embodiments of the technology.\",\n \"Only the most relevant aspects of the user interface portion of the player terminal 900 are illustrated and described herein.\",\n \"It should be apparent that the user interface may be part of a hand-held player terminal, a free-standing player terminal (e.g., a tabletop gaming console, a dedicated gaming enclosure with electronics supporting the game, etc.\",\n \"), a computing device configured as a player terminal (e.g., a laptop, mobile phone, tablet, e-reader, etc.\",\n \"), a “set-top” gaming console, and/or the like.\",\n \"Further, it is not necessary for all elements of the player terminal illustrated and described herein to be included in the player terminal.\",\n \"The terminal includes a jackpot payout information area 902, a game display area 904, a player interaction area 906, and a cash and credit interaction area 908.The jackpot payout information area 902 includes information about the status of jackpot accumulations.\",\n \"The amounts associated with the various jackpots may increase with time and may be game specific.\",\n \"For example, if the player terminal provides the possibility to engage in different types of games and limits, then the jackpot amounts displayed in the jackpot information area may change with different player game selections.\",\n \"The game display area 904 provides a visual depiction of the game in which the player is involved.\",\n \"For example, the game display area 904 may show a poker table 910 and players 912 sitting around the table.\",\n \"As players are dealt cards, the cards may appear in front of each player.\",\n \"As players bet, chips may be displayed in front of the players.\",\n \"At the end of each betting round, the chips from the round may be scooped into the middle of the table to symbolize the pot for which the players are competing.\",\n \"As the action proceeds around the table, the next player to act may be highlighted and that player's terminal may beep, or otherwise alert the player that it is his turn to act.\",\n \"Community cards may appear on the table for all players to see.\",\n \"At the conclusion of the hand, the pot may be pushed to the winning player as the hole cards of all players still in the hand are revealed.\",\n \"Each player's present bankroll may be graphically or numerically displayed so that all players know how much each player has available to wager.\",\n \"The game display area 904 may be where players look to view their hole cards.\",\n \"A player's hole cards may be continuously displayed.\",\n \"In some embodiments, however, steps are taken to help ensure a player's hole cards remain hidden from other players potentially playing at nearby terminals to thereby prevent cheating.\",\n \"In some embodiments, a button is included (e.g., the enter button 932) that causes the hole cards to be revealed.\",\n \"If the button is not depressed, then the hole cards are simply shown as face down.\",\n \"This way, players can quickly glance at their cards thereby reducing the risk that someone else can view their hole cards.\",\n \"In other embodiments, hole cards may be displayed on a separate display screen.\",\n \"In either case, shielding, glass coatings, polarization screens, and/or the like may be employed to prevent others from viewing a player's hole cards.\",\n \"The player interaction area 906 includes player buttons, input devices, and the like through which players interact with the game.\",\n \"It should be appreciated that the player interaction area 906 may comprise touch screen buttons on the game display area 904.Hence, it should be understood that this embodiment is merely exemplary of a number of possible embodiments as will be appreciated by those skilled in the art.\",\n \"The player interaction area 906 in this embodiment includes discard buttons 920 for draw games (e.g., 5-card draw, 2-7 triple draw lowball, etc.).\",\n \"Players use these buttons to identify cards to be discarded in a drawing round.\",\n \"The player interaction area 906 also includes a bet button 922, a raise button 924, a fold button 926, a call button 927, and a check button 928.These buttons are used to take the appropriate action according to each button's name.\",\n \"In some embodiments, additional input buttons and devices are included.\",\n \"For example, a track ball 930 may be included for indicating how much a player wants to bet in unstructured games.\",\n \"It also may be used to select from several choices displayed on the display screen 904.It may be used in combination with the enter button 932 to confirm a selection.\",\n \"A cash out button 934 allows a player to leave a game with the value the player has presently accumulated.\",\n \"Those skilled in the art will appreciate many other possibilities in light of this disclosure.\",\n \"For example, depending on the type of game play contemplated, the player interaction area could include other types of input devices to accept inputs.\",\n \"These input devices can include, but are not limited to voice recognition, actuators, joysticks, 3D-image tracking systems to monitor player motions, and the like.\",\n \"The cash and credit interaction area 908 provides a loyalty card accepter 940, a bill or ticket accepter/dispenser 942, and a coin dispenser 944.These items work in ways similar to analogous devices on, for example, video poker machines, except that the player terminal sends signals to the host computer system in response to player actions taken with respect to cashing in and out.\",\n \"Those skilled in the art will appreciate that the foregoing description is merely exemplary of a number of possible player terminal embodiments.\",\n \"For example, other embodiments may include all touch screen controls, may only accept bills and dispense tickets, may not include jackpot values, and the like.\",\n \"Most embodiments, however, minimally include a display area through which the action is depicted and which may include player input buttons that change depending on the state of the game.\",\n \"It should also be appreciated that the display region may show display screens that allow players to select games and limits, enter personal information, if desired, and advertise promotions and the like when the terminal is not in use.\",\n \"Many other possibilities exist and are apparent to those skilled in the art in light of this disclosure.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"10 illustrates an example of a player terminal 1000 according to some embodiments of the present technology.\",\n \"As illustrated in player terminal 1000, there may be a player interaction area 1010 where the interactive game is presented.\",\n \"The performance area 1020 can show various challenge levels, typical success rates, payouts, and other information.\",\n \"Game selection area 1030 may be used to select the one or more games being played, the skill level, bets, and objectives for winning.\",\n \"In accordance with various embodiments, the payout amount can vary over time.\",\n \"For example, payouts can occur based on pay tables and hitting certain marks in a game or based off winning.\",\n \"Also, some games may pay less money and give an experience over time whereby the player is paid a little bit of money so he loses slower.\",\n \"Players may still be able to win a lot of money based on pay table or algorithms.\",\n \"Payouts may also be set by local regulations.\",\n \"As such, to ensure that the system is complying with local laws, the payouts may vary.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"11 illustrates an example of a set of operations 1100 for selecting game play within a gaming session according to various embodiments of the present technology.\",\n \"While some terminals may be fixed and generally available for play, other player terminals may be personal computing devices of the player.\",\n \"As such, receiving operation 1110 can receive a notification that a player terminal has joined the network.\",\n \"Using update operation 1120, the player terminal can be updated with the available games or a list of the available games.\",\n \"The player can be presented with an opportunity to select a plurality of games for play.\",\n \"For example, during selection operation 1130, an indication can be received indicating the main game and the bonus round game that the player would like to combine.\",\n \"Some embodiments set various rules for how the games may be paired.\",\n \"For example, one rule may require that at least one of the games is an interactive game.\",\n \"As another example, the rules may seek to limit or minimize the average estimated play time.\",\n \"As such, only those games with average game play below a particular threshold may be presented as pairing options once the first game has been selected.\",\n \"Determination operation 1140 can determine if the pairing rules have been satisfied.\",\n \"If determination operation determines that the pair rules have not been satisfied, then determination operation 1140 branches to selection operation 1130 where different selections can be made.\",\n \"If determination operation determines that the pair rules have been satisfied, then determination operation 1140 branches to initiation operation 1150 where the gaming session is initiated.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"12 illustrates an example of a set of operations 1200 for operating an interactive game according to one or more embodiments of the present technology.\",\n \"The method may be implemented in gaming network 100 of FIG.\",\n \"1 or other appropriate system.\",\n \"Those skilled in the art will appreciate that other exemplary embodiments may include more, fewer, or different steps than those illustrated and described here.\",\n \"Further, other exemplary embodiments may traverse the steps in different orders than shown herein.\",\n \"The set of operations 1200 begins at block 1202 at which a host computer system, such as the host computer system 102, initiates a game session.\",\n \"A game session, could be, for example, a poker game among several players.\",\n \"The game session could consist of one or more hands of poker in which players compete against one another for the pot.\",\n \"The game session could be a series of blackjack hands in which one or more players compete against the house as is known in the art.\",\n \"The game session also could be a series of hands of other games such as gin rummy, bridge, and the like.\",\n \"As another example, the game session could be any type of interactive game such as a game of skill, game of chance, or a hybrid game that includes a game of skill and a game of chance as regular game play or in a bonus.\",\n \"In some embodiments, initiating a game session comprises making a selection available on one or more player terminals.\",\n \"The selection allows players at the player terminals to enter the game session.\",\n \"Any number of game sessions could be available at any given time for players to enter.\",\n \"The games may comprise a variety of games (e.g., Texas Hold'em, 7-Card Stud, Omaha, Draw poker, 2-7 lowball, Blackjack, Bridge, pinball, Grand Theft Auto, Tetris, Minecraft, Hearthstone, Super Mario, Super Mario Kart, Pac-Man, Guitar Hero, Galaga, League of Legends, Frogger, StarCraft, Donkey Kong, words with friends, Sonic the Hedgehog, Counter-Strike, Metroid, Ms. Pac-Man, Space Invaders, Punch-Out, Rainbow Six Seige, Fallout, Final Fantasy, Call of Duty, Street Fighter, Dota, Journey, Dark Souls, role playing games, decision based games, etc.)\",\n \"and a variety of limits ($0.25/$0.50, $11$2, $11$2 Blind No Limit, $10/$20, $500/$1000, etc.).\",\n \"In some embodiments, the players may be able to select the game played in the gaming session and a game of skill to be played in the bonus round.\",\n \"In some embodiments, the game session may be a tournament, which may be a single-table tournament or a multi-table tournament.\",\n \"At block 1204, players are joined to the game session.\",\n \"This may comprise receiving a signal from a player terminal that the player desires to enter the game and has deposited sufficient funds to enter the game.\",\n \"The player is assigned to a seat (or is allowed to select a seat) at a virtual table, which may be displayed as shown in FIG.\",\n \"9.The player's bankroll (i.e., the player's stake in the game) may be depicted at the virtual table.\",\n \"In some embodiments, players may be provided with an option to change their perspective of the virtual table.\",\n \"For example, a player may desire to “sit” at the bottom of the table in the seat identified as 912-5 in FIG.\",\n \"9.If the player is seated in a different seat, the player may elect to “rotate” the perspective of the table so that the player is depicted in the desired position.\",\n \"This does not change the player's position at the table with respect to the other players; it merely changes the player's perspective for display purposes.\",\n \"This option may be useful in reducing cheating, since the player may relocate his position at the table to a position that obstructs the view of a potential cheater located near the player's terminal.\",\n \"Of course, a player my elect to take a different seat at the table in some embodiments.\",\n \"In some embodiments, players are randomly assigned to a game session.\",\n \"While a player may identify the game and what limit the player wants to play, the table to which the player is assigned is not up to the player.\",\n \"This minimizes the chance that a group of colluding players are able to sit at the same table.\",\n \"Of course, a player can always request a table change or leave the game entirely.\",\n \"In some embodiments, players enter a waiting list for certain games and limits.\",\n \"If, for example, all the seats at a desired table are taken, a player may request to be placed on a waiting list for that game.\",\n \"Players may enter waiting lists for specific games and/or limits.\",\n \"When a seat opens in a game session that corresponds to the list in which a player is waiting at the top of the list, the player is given the opportunity to enter the game session.\",\n \"As described previously, collusion or other forms of cheating may be addressed by prohibiting players from engaging in the same game session from locations proximate one another.\",\n \"For example, if a casino has a plurality of player terminals distributed throughout the casino, then players may be prevented from joining the same game session from neighboring terminals.\",\n \"After a player joins a game session from a specific terminal, nearby terminals are “locked out” of that game session.\",\n \"The same process may be followed at all locations.\",\n \"If players are playing from wireless terminals, the wireless terminals may have proximity detection features that perform a similar function of locking out nearby terminals.\",\n \"Many other possibilities exist.\",\n \"In some embodiments, all or certain players may be permitted to communicate and collude during an interactive gamine session (e.g., in eSports or other team-based gaming).\",\n \"As such, some embodiments allow for the collusion detection to be suspended during certain permitted game types or as selected by an operator.\",\n \"Once a sufficient number of players are joined to a game session, a game, or hand, is initiated at block 1206.If, for example, the game is Texas Hold'em Poker, two cards are dealt to each player in the hand.\",\n \"At block 1208, the game proceeds as is known in the art, with the host computer system sending signals to each player terminal indicating the state of the game.\",\n \"The player terminals provide a visual representation of the game state, and a player whose turn it is to act is provided with a set of options.\",\n \"Hence, play continues at block 1210 with the host computer system receiving signals indicating a player's action.\",\n \"The actions of blocks 1208 and 1210 continue with players interactively checking, betting, raising, calling, or folding and the host computer system updating the state of the game by sending signals to the player terminals.\",\n \"If the game limits are fixed, players merely need to indicate their selection for the action to proceed.\",\n \"If, however, the game is “no limit,” “pot limit,” or another non-structured betting limit, then players also indicate the size of each bet.\",\n \"At block 1212, a winner is determined and the value of the pot is awarded to the winning player.\",\n \"A new game may then be initiated at block 1206.Since players are able to enter and leave game sessions at any time, new players may be joined at block 1204 to replace any players that leave the game session.\",\n \"While the foregoing description focuses on poker being played in the game session, those skilled in the art will appreciate that other forms of poker and other interactive games may be played according to other embodiments of the present technology.\",\n \"Exemplary Computer System Overview Aspects and implementations of the interactive gaming system of the disclosure have been described in the general context of various steps and operations.\",\n \"A variety of these steps and operations may be performed by hardware components or may be embodied in computer-executable instructions, which may be used to cause a general-purpose or special-purpose processor (e.g., in a computer, server, cloud-based gaming platform or other computing device) programmed with the instructions to perform the steps or operations.\",\n \"For example, the steps or operations may be performed by a combination of hardware, software, and/or firmware.\",\n \"FIG.\",\n \"13 is a block diagram illustrating an example machine representing the computer systemization of the host computer system.\",\n \"The gaming controller 1300 may be in communication with entities including one or more users 1325 client/terminal devices 1320 (e.g., devices 122), user input devices 1305, peripheral devices 1310, optional co-processor device(s) (e.g., cryptographic processor devices) 1315, and networks 1330 (e.g., 104 in FIG.\",\n \"1).\",\n \"Users may engage with the gaming controller 1300 via terminal devices 1320 over networks 1330.In some embodiments, all or a portion of the communications between terminal devices 1320 and gaming controller 1300 can be encrypted.\",\n \"The law requires cryptography for some things.\",\n \"Computers may employ central processing units (CPUs) or processors to process information.\",\n \"Processors may include programmable general-purpose or special-purpose microprocessors, programmable controllers, application-specific integrated circuits (ASICs), programmable logic devices (PLDs), embedded components, a combination of such devices and the like.\",\n \"Processors execute program components in response to user and/or system-generated requests.\",\n \"One or more of these components may be implemented in software, hardware or both hardware and software.\",\n \"Processors pass instructions (e.g., operational and data instructions) to enable various operations.\",\n \"The gaming controller 1300 may include clock 1365, CPU 1370, memory such as read only memory (ROM) 1385 and random access memory (RAM) 1380 and co-processor 1375 among others.\",\n \"These controller components may be connected to a system bus 1360, and through the system bus 1360 to an interface bus 1335.Further, user input devices 1305, peripheral devices 1310, co-processor devices 1315, and the like, may be connected through the interface bus 1335 to the system bus 1360.The interface bus 1335 may be connected to a number of interface adapters such as processor interface 1340, input output interfaces (I/O) 1345, network interfaces 1350, storage interfaces 1355, and the like.\",\n \"Processor interface 1340 may facilitate communication between co-processor devices 1315 and co-processor 1375.In one implementation, processor interface 1340 may expedite encryption and decryption of requests or data.\",\n \"Input output interfaces (I/O) 1345 facilitate communication between user input devices 1305, peripheral devices 1310, co-processor devices 1315, and/or the like and components of gaming controller 1300 using protocols such as those for handling audio, data, video interface, wireless transceivers, or the like (e.g., Bluetooth®, IEEE 1394a-b, serial, universal serial bus (USB), Digital Visual Interface (DVI), 802.11a/b/g/n/x, cellular, etc.).\",\n \"Network interfaces 1350 may be in communication with the network 1330.Through the network 1330, gaming controller 1300 may be accessible to remote terminal devices 1320 (e.g., player terminals 122 illustrated in FIG.\",\n \"1).\",\n \"Network interfaces 1350 may use various wired and wireless connection protocols such as, direct connect, Ethernet, wireless connection such as IEEE 802.11a-x, miracast and the like.\",\n \"Some components of the interactive gaming system may include various protocols or comply with various standards or certifications set forth by different associations or regulatory agencies.\",\n \"For example, some embodiments may use the slot accounting system (SAS) protocol or comply with the game to system (G2S) standard.\",\n \"Examples of network 1330 include the Internet, Local Area Network (LAN), Metropolitan Area Network (MAN), a Wide Area Network (WAN), wireless network (e.g., using Wireless Application Protocol WAP), a secured custom connection, and the like.\",\n \"The network interfaces 1350 can include a firewall which can, in some aspects, govern and/or manage permission to access/proxy data in a computer network, and track varying levels of trust between different machines and/or applications.\",\n \"The firewall can be any number of modules having any combination of hardware and/or software components able to enforce a predetermined set of access rights between a particular set of machines and applications, machines and machines, and/or applications and applications, for example, to regulate the flow of traffic and resource sharing between these varying entities.\",\n \"The firewall may additionally manage and/or have access to an access control list which details permissions including, for example, the access and operation rights of an object by an individual, a machine, and/or an application, and the circumstances under which the permission rights stand.\",\n \"Other network security functions performed or included in the functions of the firewall, can be, for example, but are not limited to, intrusion-prevention, intrusion detection, next-generation firewall, personal firewall, etc., without deviating from the novel art of this disclosure.\",\n \"Storage interfaces 1355 may be in communication with a number of storage devices such as, storage devices 1390, removable disc devices, and the like.\",\n \"The storage interfaces 1355 may use various connection protocols such as Serial Advanced Technology Attachment (SATA), IEEE 1394, Ethernet, Fiber, Universal Serial Bus (USB), and the like.\",\n \"User input devices 1305 and peripheral devices 1310 may be connected to I/O interface 1345 and potentially other interfaces, buses and/or components.\",\n \"User input devices 1305 may include card readers, finger print readers, joysticks, keyboards, microphones, mouse, remote controls, retina readers, touch screens, sensors, and/or the like.\",\n \"Peripheral devices 1310 may include antenna, audio devices (e.g., microphone, speakers, etc.\",\n \"), cameras, external processors, communication devices, radio frequency identifiers (RFIDs), scanners, printers, storage devices, transceivers, and/or the like.\",\n \"Co-processor devices 1315 may be connected to the controller 1300 through interface bus 1335, and may include microcontrollers, processors, interfaces or other devices.\",\n \"Computer executable instructions and data may be stored in memory (e.g., registers, cache memory, random access memory, flash, etc.)\",\n \"which is accessible by processors.\",\n \"These stored instruction codes (e.g., programs) may engage the processor components, motherboard and/or other system components to perform desired operations.\",\n \"The controller 1300 may employ various forms of memory including on-chip CPU memory (e.g., registers), RAM 1380, ROM 1385, and storage devices 1390.Storage devices 1390 may employ any number of tangible, non-transitory storage devices or systems such as fixed or removable magnetic disk drive, an optical drive, solid state memory devices and other processor-readable storage media.\",\n \"Computer-executable instructions stored in the memory may include an interactive gaming platform having one or more program modules such as routines, programs, objects, components, data structures, and so on that perform particular tasks or implement particular abstract data types.\",\n \"For example, the memory may contain operating system (OS) component 1395, modules and other components, database tables, and the like.\",\n \"These modules/components may be stored and accessed from the storage devices, including from external storage devices accessible through an interface bus 1335.The database components can store programs executed by the processor to process the stored data.\",\n \"The database components may be implemented in the form of a database that is relational, scalable and secure.\",\n \"Examples of such database include DB2, MySQL, Oracle, Sybase, and the like.\",\n \"Alternatively, the database may be implemented using various standard data-structures, such as an array, hash, list, stack, structured text file (e.g., XML), table, and/or the like.\",\n \"Such data-structures may be stored in memory and/or in structured files.\",\n \"The gaming controller 1300 may be implemented in distributed computing environments, where tasks or modules are performed by remote processing devices, which are linked through a communications network, such as a Local Area Network (“LAN”), Wide Area Network (“WAN”), the Internet, and the like.\",\n \"In a distributed computing environment, program modules or subroutines may be located in both local and remote memory storage devices.\",\n \"Distributed computing may be employed to load balance and/or aggregate resources for processing.\",\n \"Alternatively, aspects of the gaming controller 1300 may be distributed electronically over the Internet or over other networks (including wireless networks).\",\n \"Those skilled in the relevant art(s) will recognize that portions of the interactive gaming system may reside on a server computer, while corresponding portions reside on a client computer.\",\n \"Data structures and transmission of data particular to aspects of the gaming controller 1300 are also encompassed within the scope of the disclosure.\",\n \"CONCLUSION Unless the context clearly requires otherwise, throughout the description and the claims, the words “comprise,” “comprising,” and the like are to be construed in an inclusive sense, as opposed to an exclusive or exhaustive sense; that is to say, in the sense of “including, but not limited to.” As used herein, the terms “connected,” “coupled,” or any variant thereof means any connection or coupling, either direct or indirect, between two or more elements; the coupling or connection between the elements can be physical, logical, or a combination thereof.\",\n \"Additionally, the words “herein,” “above,” “below,” and words of similar import, when used in this application, refer to this application as a whole and not to any particular portions of this application.\",\n \"Where the context permits, words in the above Detailed Description using the singular or plural number may also include the plural or singular number respectively.\",\n \"The word “or,” in reference to a list of two or more items, covers all of the following interpretations of the word: any of the items in the list, all of the items in the list, and any combination of the items in the list.\",\n \"The above Detailed Description of examples of the technology is not intended to be exhaustive or to limit the technology to the precise form disclosed above.\",\n \"While specific examples for the technology are described above for illustrative purposes, various equivalent modifications are possible within the scope of the technology, as those skilled in the relevant art will recognize.\",\n \"For example, while processes or blocks are presented in a given order, alternative implementations may perform routines having steps, or employ systems having blocks, in a different order, and some processes or blocks may be deleted, moved, added, subdivided, combined, and/or modified to provide alternative or subcombinations.\",\n \"Each of these processes or blocks may be implemented in a variety of different ways.\",\n \"Also, while processes or blocks are at times shown as being performed in series, these processes or blocks may instead be performed or implemented in parallel, or may be performed at different times.\",\n \"Further, any specific numbers noted herein are only examples: alternative implementations may employ differing values or ranges.\",\n \"Having described several embodiments, it will be recognized by those of skill in the art that various modifications, alternative constructions, and equivalents may be used without departing from the spirit of the technology.\",\n \"Additionally, a number of well-known processes and elements have not been described in order to avoid unnecessarily obscuring the present technology.\",\n \"Accordingly, the above description should not be taken as limiting the scope of the technology, which is defined in the following claims.\",\n \"The teachings of the technology provided herein can be applied to other systems, not necessarily the system described above.\",\n \"The elements and acts of the various examples described above can be combined to provide further implementations of the technology.\",\n \"Some alternative implementations of the technology may include not only additional elements to those implementations noted above, but also may include fewer elements.\",\n \"These and other changes can be made to the technology in light of the above Detailed Description.\",\n \"While the above description describes certain examples of the technology, and describes the best mode contemplated, no matter how detailed the above appears in text, the technology can be practiced in many ways.\",\n \"Details of the system may vary considerably in its specific implementation, while still being encompassed by the technology disclosed herein.\",\n \"As noted above, particular terminology used when describing certain features or aspects of the technology should not be taken to imply that the terminology is being redefined herein to be restricted to any specific characteristics, features, or aspects of the technology with which that terminology is associated.\",\n \"In general, the terms used in the following claims should not be construed to limit the technology to the specific examples disclosed in the specification, unless the above Detailed Description section explicitly defines such terms.\",\n \"Accordingly, the actual scope of the technology encompasses not only the disclosed examples, but also all equivalent ways of practicing or implementing the technology under the claims.\",\n \"To reduce the number of claims, certain aspects of the technology are presented below in certain claim forms, but the applicant contemplates the various aspects of the technology in any number of claim forms.\",\n \"For example, while only one aspect of the technology is recited as a computer-readable medium claim, other aspects may likewise be embodied as a computer-readable medium claim, or in other forms, such as being embodied in a means-plus-function claim.\",\n \"Any claims intended to be treated under 35 U.S.C.\",\n \"§ 112(f) will begin with the words “means for”, but use of the term “for” in any other context is not intended to invoke treatment under 35 U.S.C.\",\n \"§ 112(f).\",\n \"Accordingly, the applicant reserves the right to pursue additional claims after filing this application to pursue such additional claim forms, in either this application or in a continuing application.\"\n ]\n]"},"source":{"kind":"string","value":"Patent_15875476"}}},{"rowIdx":4494883,"cells":{"text":{"kind":"list like","value":[["HETEROCYCLIC COMPOUNDS FOR THE TREATMENT OF NEUROLOGICAL AND PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS","Lactam compounds of Formula I and their use for the treatment of neurological and psychiatric disorders including schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, anxiety disorder and insomnia is disclosed."],["1.A compound having the formula: or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof.","2.A compound having the formula: 3.A pharmaceutical composition comprising the compound of claim 1, and one or more pharmaceutically acceptable carriers or excipients.","4.A pharmaceutical composition comprising the compound of claim 2, and one or more pharmaceutically acceptable carriers or excipients.","5.A method of treating schizophrenia comprising administering the compound of claim 1 to a patient in need thereof.","6.A method of treating bipolar disorder comprising administering the compound of claim 1 to a patient in need thereof.","7.A method of treating depression comprising administering the compound of claim 1 to a patient in need thereof.","8.A method of treating mania comprising administering the compound of claim 1 to a patient in need thereof.","9.A method of treating anxiety comprising administering the compound of claim 1 to a patient in need thereof.","10.A method of treating schizophrenia comprising administering a compound having the formula: to a patient in need thereof.","11.A method of treating bipolar disorder comprising administering a compound having the formula: to a patient in need thereof.","12.A method of treating depression comprising administering the compound of claim 2 to a patient in need thereof.","13.A method of treating mania comprising administering the compound of claim 2 to a patient in need thereof.","14.A method of treating anxiety comprising administering the compound of claim 2 to a patient in need thereof.","15.A method of treating schizophrenia comprising administering the pharmaceutical composition of claim 3 to a patient in need thereof.","16.A method of treating bipolar disorder comprising administering the pharmaceutical composition of claim 3 to a patient in need thereof.","17.A method of treating depression comprising administering the pharmaceutical composition of claim 3 to a patient in need thereof.","18.A method of treating mania comprising administering the pharmaceutical composition of claim 3 to a patient in need thereof.","19.A method of treating anxiety comprising administering the pharmaceutical composition of claim 3 to a patient in need thereof.","20.A method of treating schizophrenia comprising administering the pharmaceutical composition of claim 4 to a patient in need thereof.","21.A method of treating bipolar disorder comprising administering the pharmaceutical composition of claim 4 to a patient in need thereof.","22.A method of treating depression comprising administering the pharmaceutical composition of claim 4 to a patient in need thereof.","23.A method of treating mania comprising administering the pharmaceutical composition of claim 4 to a patient in need thereof.","24.A method of treating anxiety comprising administering the pharmaceutical composition of claim 4 to a patient in need thereof."],["